Once the hub of the farm family, this house now plays an unheard second fiddle to the new house on the property.

***Replaced photo 3/12/13***

 

My first attempt at HST palette with my QHY9M.

Image taken with an Orion ED102T CF & QHY9M mono CCD. Baader Ha,OIII,SII 36mm filters

Taken over 2 nights 3/9/13 & 3/10/13

 

Ha- 3x1200sec mapped to Green

OIII-7x1200sec mapped to Blue

SII-5x1200sec mapped to Red

 

Guided with Orion SSAG,PhD & 50mm Orion Mini-Guider

Acquired with Nebulosity 2. Dark frames subtracted and DDP applied to each channel

Post-Processed in Photoshop CS6

 

I am happy with my CCD Narrowband result, but I may add more subs and try LRGB on this target, perhaps a wider FOV with the AT65EDQ on it's way

 

The Jellyfish Nebula (IC 443) is located in the constellation of Gemini. It is a supernova remnant that astronomers believe occured 3,000-30,000 years ago and it is @ 5,000 light-years away.

  

www.astrochuck.blogspot.com

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 25-Oct-19.

 

HISTORY UPDATE - Permanently retired.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration D-AUAG, this aircraft was delivered to Air France as F-GUGI in Dec-04.

 

The aircraft was ferried Toulouse / St. Athan, Wales, UK in Dec-22 and permanently retired. Updated 15-Dec-22.

Now replaced with new iPhone 8 copy from the iPad 21/08/25

 

Original shot taken from my stretcher in the tent with my new Pentax SV, probably using Adox KB21 film and processed by Georges camera store in Elizabeth St Sydney where I mailed all my #GSWANullarbor B&W film. They were the best for B&W processing at the time.

 

Still going.. www.georges.com.au/collections/cameras

 

Home page.. www.georges.com.au/#

 

And they still process film.. georgescameras.zendesk.com/hc/en-au

Replacing an earlier scanned slide with a better version 22-Oct-21 (DeNoise AI).

 

The previous day, 1st April 1982, this aircraft was parked at Manchester, UK in full Laker Airways livery, Laker having ceased trading in Feb-82. During the day on the 1st, intense negotiations had been going on in London between the Laker liquidators and B.Cal for the purchase of Laker's four One-Elevens. Having worked a full day already (I was B.Cal's Station Manager at Manchester), I had to sit in the office until the sale was confirmed.

 

Just before midnight it was all confirmed and the liquidator's Representative was on his way to the airport with the aircraft log book (Yes, aircraft have log books very similar to the ones for a car in the UK, and no, I didn't know that either!). He arrived at the airport just after 1:00am and, having signed all the paperwork, I became the proud owner of a BAC One-Eleven (well, for a few hours at least!).

 

Before I went home I called Dan Air Engineering (who looked after our engineering at Manchester) and asked them to paint out the Laker name and put the new registration, G-BKAU, on the aircraft. When I came back next morning they had done the painting but were having problems with the lettering transfers. You'd think that an engineer could have at least put the new registration on straight!

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Delivered to Laker Airways in Feb-67 as G-AVBW, it was sub-leased to Air Congo between Feb/May-68. This aircraft was impounded and stored at Manchester, UK, when Laker Airways ceased operations in 05-Feb-82.

 

It was repossessed by Nordic Finance in Mar-82 and sold to British Caledonian Airways on 01-Apr-82 as G-BKAU. It didn't stay with B.Cal for long though and was sold to OBS Ltd in Nov-83.

 

It was immediately sold on to Okada Air, Nigeria, as 5N-AOZ. It was operated by Okada for another 13 years until it was retired at Benin City, Nigeria, in Dec-97 and was subsequently broken up.

Isolette iii/Solinar.

Fuji Neopan Acros 100, Xtol 1+2 13 min.

Braun FS 120.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 09-Sep-21 (DeNoise AI)

 

This aircraft was ordered by ILFC International Lease Finance Corporation for Canadian Airlines International as C-FBCA, however the order was cancelled before completion (C-FBCA was later used on a different frame in Apr-92).

 

It first flew with the Boeing test registration N6009F and was delivered to ILFC and leased to VARIG Brasil as PP-VPI in May-91. It was returned to ILFC in Aug-94 as N891LF and was stored.

 

The aircraft was due to be leased to Air New Zealand as ZK-ILF, however that registration wasn't used and it was delivered as ZK-SUH in Nov-94. With the worldwide downturn in passenger traffic after the 9/11 terrorist atrocity in Sep-01, the aircraft was returned to the lessor in Feb-02 and was stored at Auckland, New Zealand.

 

Air New Zealand renewed the lease again in Aug-02. The aircraft continued in service until it was permanently retired in Jul-14. It was stored at Victorville, CA, USA and was last noted still at Victorville in Oct-16.

The Green Bus are acquiring former London Enviro 400s, TP replace their ageing fleet of Dennis Tridents and Volvo B7TLs. So far there are 9 of these former Abellio examples in use, for now remaining in base red, and now with updated blindsets (featuring Rail Replacement destinations such as Leicester, Derby, Burton, Nuneaton, Tamworth, Coleshill and Birmingham). When time allows they will be repainted into a new identity for the company, and will receive new LED displays. When pictured on their debut weekend in the Midlands, none had any form of destination displays, and said blinds were fitted ready for the next weekend. Pictured here at Coleshill Parkway are three of them - 604 LJ09CDE, 603 LJ09CCZ, 608 LJ09CDO

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 06-Sep-22 (DeNoise AI).

 

Leased from / operated by Titan Airways.

 

First flown in Sep-90 with the British Aerospace (Avro) registration G-PRCS, this aircraft was converted to a -200QC (Quick Change) with the addition of a main cabin cargo door in Mar-91. It had been ordered by Princess Air (UK), however, they ceased operations in Feb-91.

 

The aircraft was leased to National Jet Systems (Australia) as VH-NJQ in Jul-91. It was returned to B.Ae Asset Management as G-BWLG in Jan-96. The aircraft was sold to Sterope Leasing and leased to Air Jet (France) as F-GMMP in Apr-96. It was operated on behalf of Air France between Jan/Jul-00 before being returned to Asset Management and to B.Ae Systems in Aug-00.

 

In Sep-00 the aircraft was leased to Titan Airways as G-ZAPO. It was wet-leased to Go Fly ('Just Go / Go Today') in May-01 and returned to Titan Airways in Sep-01. It was wet-leased to Aurigny Airlines (Guernsey CI, UK) between Aug-03/Feb-04, then to Scot Airways (Scotland, UK) between May/Jul-05.

 

The aircraft continued in operation for Titan until it was withdrawn from service and stored at Kemble, UK in May-11. It was returned to B.Ae Systems Asset Management five days later. B.Ae Systems returned it to Falco Regional Aircraft in Jul-11 when it was permanently retired. It was broken up at Kemble in Jul-16. Updated 06-Sep-22.

In a number of locations London Underground and Network Rail run parallel and one such location is Paddington station. A low Winter shaft of afternoon sunshine illuminates a London Underground Circle Line train to Hammersmith formed of unit 5545 standing alongside a First Great Western Network Turbo DMU 165124 about to depart with 2R43, 16:12 London Paddington – Reading service, 20th February 2013.

 

Unit Histories

5545 is a C69 stock unit and was built by Metro Cammell, Birmingham for the Hammersmith and City and Circle Lines of London Underground. One hundred and six, two car C69 stock units were built formed of a motor car with driving cab and a trailer car. Trains are formed as six car sets using three C69 stock units coupled together with a driving cab at each end of the six car set. The stock entered service in 1970 and is due to be replaced by new S stock trains in the next few months. Thirty seven 165/1 Network Turbo DMU’s were built at York in 1992 in three car (165101 – 165117) and two car (165118 – 165137) versions. 165124 is a two car unit and is operated by First Great Western on Paddington – Thames Valley suburban duties

 

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 19-Jan-22 (DeNoise AI).

 

Air 2000 had a contract with TCS Expeditions for 'Round-the-World' winter charters in the early 2000's and the aircraft was suitably repainted. Air 2000 titles were retained on the right-hand side.

 

Named: "Explorer 1".

 

This aircraft was delivered to Guinness Peat Aviation (later to become GECAS) and leased to Air 2000 as G-OOOU in Aug-91. It was wet-leased to Kiwi Travel International (New Zealand) in Nov-95 and returned to Air 2000 in Apr-96.

 

In Mar-99 it was operated for TCS Expeditions in an all First Class configuration for exclusive 'Round-the-World' charter flights, returning to Air 2000 the following month. Similar flights were operated for TCS Expeditions between Jan/Mar-00, Jan/Mar-01 and Nov-01/Feb-02.

 

The aircraft was returned to the lessor in Sep-02 and stored. In Apr-03 it was leased to Air Atlanta Icelandic as TF-ARI and operated on behalf of Excel Airways in May-03. It returned to Air Atlanta Icelandic in Nov-04 and was placed in winter storage at Marana, AZ, USA until Mar-05 when it was again operated for Excel Airways.

 

In Nov-05 the lease was transferred to Excel Airways and the aircraft was re-registered G-VKNA. Excel Airways was renamed XL Airways in Nov-06. The aircraft was returned to the lessor in Sep-07 and immediately leased to Aladia.com (Mexico) as XA-MTY.

 

Aladia ceased operations in Oct-08 and the aircraft was returned to the lessor and re-registered N240MQ in Nov-08. It was initially stored at Lake City, FL, USA and later at Victorville, CA, USA.

 

It was sold to FedEx Federal Express in Aug-09 and remained stored at Victorville. The aircraft was re-registered N930FD in May-10 and was ferried to Mobile-BFM, AL, USA for freighter conversion with a main deck cargo door. It entered service with FedEx in Oct-10. Now 33.5 years old it continues in service. Updated 19-Jan-25.

The construction of a new fire station to replace Gipton and Stanks fire stations and removal of 24 fulltime posts from the establishment by way of planned retirements.

Key Points:

 Gipton is classed as a very high risk area and Stanks as medium risk area.

 Stanks fire station is poorly located at the outer edge of the local community and access/egress from the site is problematic.

 In the 5 year period between 2004/5 and 2009/10 operational demand in these areas reduced by 28% (there has been a reduction of 61% of serious fires) . 2

 WYFRS has piloted a new type of vehicle (Fire Response Unit) to deal with smaller fires and incidents to free up fire appliances to respond to more serious emergencies.

 The pilot has been successful and it is believed that a District based Fire Response Unit will handle in the region of 3,000 calls per year.

 The new fire station would have lower running costs.

 The two Killingbeck fire appliances would be supplemented by a Resilience Pump for use during spate conditions.

 Targeted community safety and risk reduction work would continue.

  

1. Foreword

 

1.1 This proposal forms one of a number of similar initiatives developed by West Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service (WYFRS) as part of its plans for the future provision of a highly effective and professional Fire and Rescue Service.

1.2 Each proposal is based on sound and comprehensive research, using real data from past performance and predictions of future demand and risk. Multiple sources of analysis have been used, allied to professional judgment and experience, to form the basis of robust business cases for change. The proposals are also reflective of the significant improvements in fire and community safety achieved over the past 10 years and represents a return on the investment made by the Authority on behalf of the public of West Yorkshire.

1.3 The proposals also incorporate a number of new and innovative approaches to addressing the challenge of maintaining high standards of performance for an emergency response service, within ever tightening financial constraints. The proposals have been developed as a package of inter related initiatives, representing major capital investment in local communities, whilst at the same time delivering annual recurring savings.

 

2. Introduction

 

2.1. Gipton fire station was constructed in 1937; it provides the initial emergency response cover for the residential and commercial areas of Gipton, Harehills, Burmantofts, Killingbeck, Halton Moor and Oakwood.

 The fire station area covers approximately 8.45 square miles.

 There is a population of 75,316.

 There are approximately 2015 commercial properties within the area.

2.2. Stanks fire station was constructed 1973; it provides the initial emergency response cover for the mainly residential locations of Whinmoor, Swarcliffe, Whitkirk, Colton, Halton, Crossgates, Scarcroft, North Seacroft, Wellington Hill, Manston, Barwick-in-Elmet, Scholes and Thorner.

 The station area covers approximately 14.39 square miles

 There is a population of 42,452

 There are approximately 663 commercial properties within the area.

2.3. Gipton has been classified as a very high risk area using the WYFRS Risk Matrix methodology. During 2009/10 there were 2196 operational incidents within this area including 86 dwelling fires and 33 Road Traffic Collisions. Stanks fire station area has been classified as medium risk and during the same period there were 688 operational incidents in the area including 34 dwelling fires and 12 Road Traffic Collisions. 1

2.4. Three fire appliances currently provide the initial fire and rescue coverage for Gipton and Stanks and are constantly crewed by 60 whole-time firefighters. The operational demand in these areas has reduced by 28% between 2004/5 and 2009/10 (there has been a reduction of 61% of serious fires) yet the provision of operational resources has remained the same over this period of time. 24

 

3. Community Impact Assessment

 

3.1. The following statement is taken from the 2011-2015 Community Risk Management Strategy and emphasises our commitment to deliver an efficient economic and effective range of services, “Every area within WYFRS will be considered in order to provide a better service at reduced cost”.

3.2. To enable WYFRS to deliver against this commitment a wide range of analysis and modelling tools have been used to determine the current and predicted levels of service delivery, together with their associated costs. These tools have also been used to undertake four separate impact assessments in regard to WYFRS proposals which will seek to:

 Identify options which minimise reductions in service delivery standards and where there is scope for service delivery improvement.

 Develop measures that will mitigate any negative impact upon service delivery and where possible maximise opportunities to achieve improvements.

3.3. WYFRS has developed a risk matrix which allocates a separate score/rating for hazards within communities. It is possible to use this risk rating in conjunction with the costs for providing services to each fire station to compare the cost of fire and rescue cover for each area. Gipton is one of the more cost effective stations in West Yorkshire but Stanks is almost 50% more expensive proportionate to the risk. 6

3.4. For most parts of the day the operational demand on resources based at the new station will be comparable to those of equally resourced fire stations. Figure 1 compares the predicted average operational activity levels for the new station with those of two other fire stations provided with two appliances. It indicates that although operational activity levels are generally comparable they are slightly higher during the evening hours due to the occurrence of smaller nuisance fires. 7

3.5. A Fire Response Unit has been piloted in Leeds District; this unit will attend small fires, car fires and certain fire alarms. These types of incident occur frequently in the East Leeds area. Figure 2 shows the level of activity in the new fire station area with the incidents the Fire response Unit attends taken out of the activity levels. The benefit of the Fire Response Unit can clearly be seen. The activity levels for the new station have been reduced considerably compared to other stations; it also shows that the new station will be less operationally active during the evening than the other local stations.

3.6. The new station in East Leeds will have a comparable level of activity to other fire stations provided with two appliances. 7

Figure 2 - Activity Timeline of Incidents Excluding Secondary Fires and Some False Alarms

Site Locations

3.7. An extensive review of emergency response cover has recently been completed and this has included the use of evaluation tools alongside local knowledge and professional judgment to identify optimum locations to build new WYFRS fire stations.

3.8. A site search mapping system has identified a number of appropriate areas across the County to build new fire stations and a number of sites have been identified within these areas which would provide the best solutions. A new fire station site must first be available for purchase and also provide access to road networks, it must not be located within flood plains and it must meet local planning permission requirements.

3.9. Analysis has been undertaken using the Fire Service Emergency Cover (FSEC – see also para 3.15) toolkit, together with the Phoenix/Active resource modelling toolkit.

3.10. The optimum area for a fire station between Gipton and Stanks has been identified as being situated on the A64 in the vicinity of Killingbeck police station. This proposed site is approximately 1.6 miles from Gipton Approach and 2.2 miles from Sherburn Road. The presence of a large site owned by West Yorkshire Police at this location may also present some potential to co-locate resources.

Determining where resources should be located

3.11. Independent research has assisted WYFRS to determine the potential impact that the implementation of each proposal would have on fire appliance attendance times to operational incidents. A simulation model has been used to identify the performance impact of moving resources to the new fire station. This modelling measures how the location of a new fire station would have performed if it had been in existence and responded to the actual incidents that did occurred in this area between 2007/8 and 2009/10. 4

3.12. Models have been run for locating a two fire appliances at Gipton and closing Stanks, and then run again for locating a two fire appliances at Stanks and closing Gipton, both these options provide a significantly lower level of response performance than would be achieved by locating

 

3.13. The proposals has a small reduction in performance in fire appliance attendance times against the Risk based Planning Assumptions for all incidents across the whole of West Yorkshire of approximately 0.3% for first appliance and 0.1% for the second appliance. 4

3.14. Local Impact – Figure 3 identifies that:

 There is a reduction in response performance against the Risk Based Planning Assumptions in the Gipton station area. The main reason for this is simultaneous activity. This change will be greatly mitigated by the Fire Response Unit. The predicted response times still represent good performance and are appropriate for the. Further impact will be achieved by targeted risk reduction activities.

Fire Service Emergency Cover (FSEC) toolkit

3.15 The FSEC software toolkit has been developed by Central Government (Department for Communities and Local Government) for use by Fire and Rescue Authorities in determining appropriate fire and emergency cover. It enables the relationship between dwelling fire casualties and the social demographics of small areas in the county (super output areas) and the location of response resources (fire stations) to be determined. Four demographic benchmarks are used to demonstrate this relationship and to represent predicted risk associated with a range of appliance response times.

3.16 Analysis of the FSEC outputs (which is a cost benefit analysis in regard to property and life risk) predicts that the relocating the fire station to Killingbeck will:

 Reduce the risk to the community.

 Result in significant efficiencies. 9

3.17 The FSEC modelling suggests that the impact of the Killingbeck proposal would be less than other relocation options

3.18 The Phoenix/Active software tool is another analysis tool used to identify the impact of any changes of the Risk Based Planning Assumptions referred to above. It predicts that locally there is likely to be a small adverse impact on the performance against Risk Based Planning Assumptions. Across the Brigade the impact is negligible. 10

Predicted Risk Level

3.19. A new fire station located, within the Killingbeck area would attract the same risk classification as the Gipton fire station area therefore the new fire station would be classified as very high risk. Targeted risk reduction activity will help to reduce the risk, with the aim of reducing it sufficiently enough to re-categorise the area as high risk in the future. 1

3.20. Isochrones (travel distance) can be drawn around the proposed location of the new fire station (Section 8). These indicate the distance the appliance would be able to travel within the Risk Based Planning Assumption time of 7 minutes.

3.21. Section 8 also illustrates that for this area of West Yorkshire a single fire station in the new location provides fire appliance coverage which is more proportionate to risk than the current arrangements.

Risk Reduction

3.20 During 2010 a comprehensive and integrated framework for service delivery was developed, this is outlined in the Community Risk Management Strategy 2011-15. This was implemented in 2011 and is proving a very effective means for targeting resources and reducing risk and is an essential method for reducing any negative impact of change in fire cover. Fundamental to this approach is the introduction of District Risk Reduction Teams and Local Area Risk Reductions Teams.

3.21 The location of a fire station in the Killingbeck area will enable targeted community safety activities such as Home Fire Safety Checks to continue.

 

4 Firefighter Safety Impact Assessment

 

Risk and firefighters gathering risk information about premises.

4.1 One of WYFRS’s risk indicators is dedicated solely to “Firefighter safety” and has taken cognisance of the following statement within the 2009 WYFRS Firefighter Safety Strategy; “Effective gathering and analysis of information prior to operational incident attendance is of critical importance”.

4.2 The firefighter safety indicator captures the following information to reflect this statement:

 The predominance of specified commercial properties within each fire station area.

 The availability of associated risk information held for commercial properties.

 The predominance of high-rise properties within each fire station area.

4.3 The swift arrival of supporting resources can have a beneficial impact upon the safe management of operational incidents and this is the rationale for this information being captured by the indicator.

4.4 Following the 2009/10 evaluation process the firefighter safety risk bandings for Gipton and Stanks have been determined as high and very low respectively. 1

8

4.5 The targets for operational risk information for the 2012/13 IRMP Action Plan will be set in a proportionate manner, with areas of higher risk levels receiving a greater number of operational risk information inspections. More inspections will take place in areas such as Gipton to increase the availability of risk information available to firefighters via the Mobile Data Terminals (MDT’s) and as more information is made available the corresponding risk level will be reduced.

4.6 The Premises Data-base currently indicates that there are a total of 1650 commercial properties within the Gipton and Stanks area that have not been made subject to an operational information inspection. A high priority has been placed on firefighters in Gipton visiting the premises where incidents could potentially occur. 11

4.7 It is therefore anticipated that the availability of risk information via the Mobile Data Terminals (MDT’s) for properties within all areas will be considerably improved by 2015, by which time the corresponding firefighter safety risk banding will have been reduced to Medium

The arrival times of the 2nd fire appliance

4.9. During 2009/10 there were a total of 333 operational incidents within the areas of Gipton and Stanks which required the attendance of more than one pumping appliance (one every 1.1 days). 12

4.10. Currently the North and East Leeds area has two fire appliances based at Gipton, Moortown and Leeds with one at Rothwell, Garforth, Stanks and Wetherby.

4.11. Increased second pump arrival times require the first attending crew to manage the initial stages of certain incidents in isolation; there is some potential for fires to become more developed in these initial stages.

4.12. The proposal improves the second appliance attendance times into Garforth station areas and there is little impact for the others local station areas.

 

5. Equality Impact Assessment

 

5.1 The new Public Sector Equality Duty places a requirement on the organisation to ensure where changes affect service delivery to the community or employees WYFRS assess those changes for any possible negative impact on equality. In this context equality refers to the protected characteristics in the Equality Act 2010, race, gender, disability, religion and belief, sexual orientation, age, gender-reassignment, maternity and pregnancy and marriage and civil partnerships.

5.2 This Equality Impact Assessment has been completed by using information drawn from the Office for National Statistics in regard to this area and has been used to determine whether the removal of a fire appliance from the area will lead to an adverse or disproportionate impact upon any sections of the population. 13

5.3 A 2008 report provided by the Communities and Local Government (CLG) department analysed the correlation between dwelling fires and socio demographics. This report has been used to provide an indication of whether any particular groups within the population are at heightened risk from fire. The report indicates that sick/disabled persons, lone pensioners and Black Caribbean/African groups were associated with a greater incidence of dwelling fires.

5.4 The Gipton and Harehills population was estimated as being 24,904 during 2001 with a fairly equal gender distribution. The predominant ethnic group within the population is White British with Asian/Asian British representing the next major group, followed by Pakistani, Black British/Caribbean and Asian/British Bangladeshi.

9

5.5 Approximately 49% of the resident Gipton and Harehills population are Christians, 23% are of Muslim faith and 25% declared no religious preference. In 2001 16% of the population was aged over 60 and 20% of the population had a limiting long-term illness.

5.6 The WYFRS Prevention strategy contained within the 2011-2015 Community Risk Management Strategy emphasises that risk reduction activities will be focussed toward areas of the county identified as being at higher risk from dwelling fires, deliberate fire setting and road traffic collisions and that an appropriate and proportionate allocation of resources will be made available for District Risk Reduction Teams (DRRT) to achieve this.

5.7 Although the Ward statistics indicate that the communities of Gipton and Harehills are very diverse the findings of the Equality Impact Assessment are that this proposal will not lead to any negative changes in the delivery of Prevention, Protection and Response services and consequently there will be no anticipated impact upon any under-represented groups. The Equality Impact Assessment also confirms that there is no negative impact on any employee group.

 

6. Organisational Impact Assessment

 

Efficiencies

 

6.1 This proposal will enable WYFRS to manage some of the financial deficit caused by reduced government funding.

6.2. The proposal has considered the less than optimal positioning of existing fire stations and appliances together with the reduced operational demand placed and associated costs. The most cost effective solution to these issues is to provide a new fire station and ensure that two fire appliances will be crewed by nine firefighters who will respond to emergencies in less than two minutes from being mobilised.

6.3. This can be achieved by reducing the staffing at Gipton and Stanks by 24 posts; this will be done by way of planned retirements. The staffing and duty system at the new fire station will remain the same.

6.4. The removal of posts that coincide with forecasted retirements will achieve significant revenue savings.

6.5. Although capital investment will be required to construct a new fire station, part of these costs will potentially be off-set by the sale of the two existing fire station sites.

6.6. There will be other associated savings delivered by this proposal, including:

 Reduction of Personal Protective Equipment.

 Reduction in consumables and station maintenance costs.

 The new station will be more environmentally friendly and have energy efficiency technology.

6.7. The analysis undertaken for Gipton and Stanks has identified that there is considerable overlap in the existing Risk Based Planning Assumption isochrones (footprints) for these areas. This overlap represents a duplication of resource coverage and therefore one of the objectives for providing a more efficient service within these areas is to reduce this overlap. 14

10

Impact across West Yorkshire and Resilience

6.8 The reduction in pumping appliances in this area does have a small impact upon attendance times against the Risk Based Planning Assumptions across West Yorkshire for all incidents; performance is reduced by 0.3% for first appliances and 0.1% for second appliances. 4

6.9 In order to maintain WYFRS’s operational resilience, the fire appliance currently sited at Stanks will be relocated at the new fire station. This fire appliance will not be continually staff but will be activated during periods of anticipated or unanticipated high levels of operational activity and in response to significant events which could affect emergency response; such as wide area flooding, bonfire night, periods of bad weather or when attending very large incidents.

6.10 The use of Resilience Pumps supports WYFRS strategy of staffing the appropriate number of fire appliances for normal levels of activity and having the mechanisms to add further fire appliance when required. This strategy is important in maintaining an excellent fire and rescue service whilst meeting the efficiencies required by the reduction in public service budgets.

 

7. Conclusions

 

7.1 The existing fire stations at Gipton and Stanks are 3.7 miles apart and consolidating resources at a new fire station at a central location is an economic, effective and efficient way of providing fire and rescue services for these areas.

7.2 The provision of two front-line fire appliances constantly crewed by whole-time firefighters is still deemed appropriate for this area despite the success of previous year’s risk reduction activities.

7.3 Targeted risk reduction initiatives co-ordinated by the Leeds Outer North East, Inner North East and Outer East Local Area Risk Reduction Teams will be undertaken.

7.4 It is expected that the targets established for gathering safety critical risk information, will mitigate the impact upon the safety of WYFRS firefighters resulting from the removal of a pumping appliance from this area.

7.5 The introduction of a Resilience Pump will maintain three appliances in the area and support WYFRSs resilience arrangements

7.6 The consolidation of Gipton and Stanks resources at one central location together with the addition of a Resilience Pump will deliver significant efficiency savings whilst maintaining a high level of service delivery and providing employees with vastly improved accommodation facilities.

 

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 24-Mar-25. I was trying out the new Kodak 800ASA film. Results weren't good, extremely grainy. I soon went back to 100ASA.

 

Fleet No: "801".

 

First flown as N801DE in Nov-91, the aircraft was stored at Long Beach, CA, USA before delivery to Delta Air Lines in Mar-92. It was sold to a lessor five days later and leased back to Delta.

 

The aircraft was withdrawn from service and stored at Montreal-Mirabel in Jan-04. It was ferried to Goodyear, AZ, USA in Nov-04 and sub-leased to World Airways in Dec-04.

 

In Sep-05 the aircraft was returned to the lessor by Delta and leased direct to World Airways. In May-06 it was sold to UPS/United Parcel Service while the lease to World Airways continued.

 

In Jun-06 it was wet-leased to Ethiopian Airlines and returned to World Airways in late Aug-06. The aircraft was returned to UPS in Jan-08 and ferried to Singapore-Paya Lebar for freighter conversion.

 

Conversion to a full freighter with a main deck cargo door was completed in Apr-08 and the aircraft was re-registered N294UP prior to service entry with UPS. After 33 years in service, the aircraft was permanently retired at Roswell, NM. USA in Mar-25.

E48 (SN12AVX) is seen at Kingsend, Ruislip whilst on ML-1.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 01-May-16.

 

Air France by ProteuS AirlineS.

 

First flown with the Dornier test registration D-CDXK, this aircraft was ordered by Tahiti Conquest Airlines but the order was cancelled. It was delivered to Proteus Air System as F-GNPA in Mar-96 and operated for a joint company Air France/Air Inter Express.

 

The product was renamed Air France by ProteuS AirlineS in 1998 after Air Inter had been merged into Air France. The aircraft was returned to Proteus and the lessor in May-00.

 

The following month it was leased to Air Alps Aviation as D-CALP and operated as KLM Alps under a franchise agreement with KLM Royal Dutch Airlines. It was returned to Air Alps Aviation in Apr-01 and was re-registered in Austria in May-03 as OE-LKE.

 

The aircraft was operated by Air Alps Aviation until it was sold to AeroCardal (Chile) as CC-ACG in Aug-10. In Sep-14 it was sold to TEC Aircraft Leasing and leased to Private Wings Flugcharter as D-CITO. Current, updated 07-Aug-24.

Presidential Express Trucking Inc. 218 is a Peterbilt 337 with very obvious heritage. Interestingly, its new owner replaced its original box with one from a Penske truck.

 

Replace the 2x4 white slopes with 2x2.

 

I shortened the tanker to 28 long. It needs alot more work on the top, but

this is mainly just a sketch.

Birdoswald Roman Fort was known as Banna ("horn" in Celtic) in Roman times, reflecting the geography of the site on a triangular spur of land bounded by cliffs to the south and east commanding a broad meander of the River Irthing in Cumbria below.

 

It lies towards the western end of Hadrian's Wall and is one of the best preserved of the 16 forts along the wall. It is also attached to the longest surviving stretch of Hadrian's Wall.

 

Cumbria County Council were responsible for the management of Birdoswald fort from 1984 until the end of 2004, when English Heritage assumed responsibility.

 

This western part of Hadrian's Wall was originally built using turf starting from 122 AD. The stone fort was built some time after the wall, in the usual playing card shape, with gates to the east, west and south.

 

The fort was occupied by Cohors I Aelia Dacorum and by other Roman auxiliaries from approximately AD 126 to AD 400.

 

The two-mile sector of Hadrian's Wall either side of Birdoswald is also of major interest. It is currently the only known sector of Hadrian's Wall in which the original turf wall was replaced, probably in the 130s, by a stone wall approximately 50 metres further north, to line up with the fort's north wall, instead of at its east and west gates. The reasons for this change are unclear, although David Woolliscroft (Woolliscroft, 2001) has plausibly suggested that it was the result of changing signalling requirements, whilst Stewart Ainsworth of Time Team suggested it was a response to a cliff collapse into the river. At any rate, this remains the only area in which both the walls can be directly compared.

 

As of 2005, it is the only site[citation needed] on Hadrian's Wall at which significant occupation in the post-Roman period has been proven. Excavations between 1987 and 1992 showed an unbroken sequence of occupation on the site of the fort granaries, running from the late Roman period until possibly 500AD. The granaries were replaced by two successive large timber halls, reminiscent of others found in many parts of Britain dating to the fifth and sixth centuries. Tony Wilmott (co-director of the excavations) has suggested that, after the end of Roman rule in Britain, the fort served as the power-base for a local warband descended from the late Roman garrison, possibly deriving legitimacy from their ancestors for several generations.

 

Inside were built the usual stone buildings, a central headquarters building (principia), granaries (horrea), and barracks. Unusually for an auxiliary fort, it also included an exercise building (basilica exercitatoria), perhaps reflecting the difficulties of training soldiers in the exposed site in the north of England.

 

Geophysical surveys detected vici (civilian settlements) of different characters on the eastern, western and northern sides of the fort. A bathhouse was also located in the valley of the River Irthing.

 

Approximately 600 metres east of Birdoswald, at the foot of an escarpment, lie the remains of Willowford bridge which carried Hadrian's Wall across the River Irthing. The westward movement of the river course over the centuries has left the east abutment of the bridge high and dry, while the west abutment has probably been destroyed by erosion. Nevertheless, the much-modified visible remains are highly impressive. Until 1996, these remains were not directly accessible from the fort, but they can now be reached by a footbridge.

 

The fort at Birdoswald was linked by a Roman road, sometimes referred to as the Maiden Way, to the outpost fort of Bewcastle, seven miles to the north. Signals could be relayed between the two forts by means of two signalling towers.

 

The fort has been extensively excavated for over a century, with twentieth century excavations starting in 1911 by F.G. Simpson and continuing with Ian Richmond from 1927 to 1933 .[6] The gateways and walls were then re-excavated under the supervision of Brenda Swinbank and J P Gillam from 1949 to 1950.

 

Extensive geophysical surveys, both magnetometry and earth resistance survey, were conducted by TimeScape Surveys (Alan Biggins & David Taylor, 1999 & 2004) between 1997 -2001. These surveys established that the sub-surface remains in the fort were well preserved.

 

An area between the fort and the escarpment was excavated by Channel 4's archaeological television programme Time Team in January 2000. The excavation detected signs of an extramural settlement (vicus), but the area is liable to erosion and the majority of the vicus could have fallen over the cliffs.

 

In 2021 Newcastle University, Historic England, and English Heritage launched a major new archaeological excavation at the site.

 

Today the fort's site is operated by English Heritage as Birdoswald Roman Fort. The visitor centre features displays and reconstructions of the fort, exhibits about life in Roman Britain, the site's history through the ages, and archaeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries. Visitors can walk outside along the excavated remains of the fort.

 

Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.

 

Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.

 

The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.

 

Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.

 

Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.

 

History

Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.

 

The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.

 

The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.

 

Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.

 

Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.

 

Roman invasion

The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.

 

The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.

 

The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.

 

Establishment of Roman rule

After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.

 

On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.

 

While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.

 

There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.

 

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.

 

For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.

 

Roman military organisation in the north

In 84 AD

In 84 AD

 

In 155 AD

In 155 AD

 

Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.

 

Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.

 

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.

 

In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.

 

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.

 

During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.

 

In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.

 

The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.

 

3rd century

The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.

 

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.

 

The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.

 

Northern campaigns, 208–211

An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.

 

As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.

 

During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.

 

Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.

 

The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.

 

Diocletian's reforms

As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).

 

The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.

 

Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.

 

The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.

 

The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.

 

Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.

 

In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.

 

A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.

 

4th century

Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.

 

In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.

 

As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.

 

Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.

 

End of Roman rule

The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.

 

The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.

 

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.

 

Sub-Roman Britain

Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.

 

In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.

 

Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.

 

Trade

During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.

 

Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.

 

These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.

 

It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.

 

From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.

 

Economy

Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.

 

The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.

 

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.

 

Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.

 

Government

Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain

Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.

 

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

 

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.

 

Demographics

Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.

 

Town and country

During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.

 

Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.

 

Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C

 

Alcester (Alauna)

Alchester

Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C

Bath (Aquae Sulis) C

Brough (Petuaria) C

Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)

Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C

Caernarfon (Segontium) C

Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C

Caister-on-Sea C

Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C

Carlisle (Luguvalium) C

Carmarthen (Moridunum) C

Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)

Chester (Deva Victrix) C

Chester-le-Street (Concangis)

Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C

Cirencester (Corinium) C

Colchester (Camulodunum) C

Corbridge (Coria) C

Dorchester (Durnovaria) C

Dover (Portus Dubris)

Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C

Gloucester (Glevum) C

Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)

Ilchester (Lindinis) C

Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C

Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C

London (Londinium) C

Manchester (Mamucium) C

Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)

Northwich (Condate)

St Albans (Verulamium) C

Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C

Towcester (Lactodurum)

Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C

Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C

Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C

York (Eboracum) C

 

Religion

The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.

 

The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.

 

Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.

 

Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).

 

Christianity

It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.

 

The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.

 

A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.

 

Environmental changes

The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas

 

Legacy

During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.

 

Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe

St Mary's Old Church is a roofless ruin in the hamlet of Kilmuir, just outside Dunvegan. The church was built in 1694 -- the date is inscribed on a stone over the north door -- to replace an older medieval church that served as the parish church for the Duirinish region of northern Skye.

 

The original building was a simple rectangle, but a north burial aisle was added in 1839. A 1735 burial enclosure with fine Renaissance carving stands against the west gable.

 

The church stands within a stone-walled burial ground enclosure. Within the burial ground are three medieval grave slabs carved with traditional claymore and foliage symbols. The largest of these stones measures 6'5" long and 20 inches across, tapering to 16.5" at the foot.

 

Interestingly, several chiefs of Clan Macleod are buried here, though the church at Rodel on the Isle of Harris was the principal burial place for clan chiefs. Also buried here are several generations of MacCrimmons, who served as hereditary pipers for Clan Macleod.

 

THE DUNVEGAN

TWO CHURCHES WALK

If you’re planning to explore the local area, Dunvegan village and perhaps the Giant MacAskill museum, then this walk will start you off on the right foot. As it’s only minutes from our doorstep, there’s plenty of time for a leisurely breakfast before you set off. Then head out along the road towards Dunvegan Castle to find the starting point.

 

Take a Hike

The relatively easy walk from the Duirinish Church of Scotland is 2 miles (3 km). It passes through woodland and open moor and can take between 45 minutes – 1 hour depending on how long you stop along the way.

 

The walk starts through the gate to the left of the church and there is an information board giving details of the route.

 

If you’re walking this woodland route in spring or summer then you will be treated to a display of wildflowers. You may miss them, however, if you are distracted by glimpses of Loch Dunvegan through the trees.

 

The walk will take you up to the Millennium Stone, a prominent viewpoint over Dunvegan village. From here there are views across Loch Dunvegan to Macleod’s Tables and The Cuillin Ridge in the distance. Then head downhill to the ruins of St Mary’s Church below.

 

More information about this walk can be found on the Walkhighlands website.

 

The Millennium Stone

This 15-foot (5 metre) high stone was brought up from south Skye. It was erected by the people of the Dunvegan community on 24th June 2000 (Midsummer’s Day) to commemorate the new millennium. This was an impressive feat, using only hand power and rope-techniques. A process that would have been used to build stone circles thousands of years ago.

 

The stone stands proudly on top of a low crag overlooking the village of Dunvegan.

 

St Mary’s Church & Burial Ground

The remains of this post-reformation parish church and burial ground are situated in Kilmuir on the outskirts of Dunvegan village. They have been recognised as a monument of national importance by Historic Environment Scotland.

 

The site has been the focus of religious worship over centuries and there are indications that the church was a medieval foundation. This is seen in the East-West alignment of the church and the existence of three medieval carved grave slabs. Although the parish itself dates to the post-reformation period. The north entrance shows a date of 1694 and the burial enclosure with its balustrade walls dates from 1735.

 

Once the parish church for Duirinish, it was the burial site for a number of the Chiefs of the Clan MacLeod. The most recent was John MacLeod of MacLeod in February 2007. In addition, generations of the MacCrimmons, hereditary pipers to the Clan, are at rest in the graveyard.

 

An early 18th-century ashlar obelisk memorial to Lord Thomas Frazer (father of 11th Lord Lovat, who was executed on Towerhill in 1747), dominates the graveyard. There are also two medieval grave slabs with claymore and leaf design and a third that is extremely worn with only the border visible.

 

Dunvegan is a village on the Isle of Skye in Scotland. It is famous for Dunvegan Castle, seat of the chiefs of Clan MacLeod. Dunvegan is within the parish of Duirinish, and Duirinish Parish Church is at Dunvegan. In 2011 it had a population of 386.

 

In The Norse Influence on Gaelic Scotland (1910), George Henderson suggests that the name Dùn Bheagain derives from Old Gaelic Dùn Bheccáin ([the] fort of Beccán), Beccán being a Gaelic personal name. Dùn Bheagain would not mean 'little fort' as this would be Dùn Beag in Gaelic.

 

Dunvegan sits on the shores of the large Loch Dunvegan, and the Old School Restaurant in the village is noted for its fish, caught freshly from the loch itself. Dunvegan is situated at the junction of the A850, and the A863. The B884 road also has a junction with the A863, at the eastern end of Dunvegan.

 

Dunvegan's permanent population is declining. However, numbers staying in the area during holidays have increased dramatically over the years since 2001.

 

Tourist information used to be situated in the parade of shops at Lochside, but is now available on a seasonal basis at Dunvegan Castle's St Kilda Shop. The Giant MacAskill Museum, which celebrates the life of Angus Mòr MacAskill was established in 1989 and is managed by Peter MacAskill, father of the street trials cycle rider Danny MacAskill.

 

The Isle of Skye, is the largest and northernmost of the major islands in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. The island's peninsulas radiate from a mountainous hub dominated by the Cuillin, the rocky slopes of which provide some of the most dramatic mountain scenery in the country. Although Sgitheanach has been suggested to describe a winged shape, no definitive agreement exists as to the name's origins.

 

The island has been occupied since the Mesolithic period, and over its history has been occupied at various times by Celtic tribes including the Picts and the Gaels, Scandinavian Vikings, and most notably the powerful integrated Norse-Gaels clans of MacLeod and MacDonald. The island was considered to be under Norwegian suzerainty until the 1266 Treaty of Perth, which transferred control over to Scotland. The 18th-century Jacobite risings led to the breaking-up of the clan system and later clearances that replaced entire communities with sheep farms, some of which involved forced emigrations to distant lands. Resident numbers declined from over 20,000 in the early 19th century to just under 9,000 by the closing decade of the 20th century. Skye's population increased by 4% between 1991 and 2001. About a third of the residents were Gaelic speakers in 2001, and although their numbers are in decline, this aspect of island culture remains important.

 

The main industries are tourism, agriculture, fishing, and forestry. Skye is part of the Highland Council local government area. The island's largest settlement is Portree, which is also its capital, known for its picturesque harbour. Links to various nearby islands by ferry are available, and since 1995, to the mainland by a road bridge. The climate is mild, wet, and windy. The abundant wildlife includes the golden eagle, red deer, and Atlantic salmon. The local flora is dominated by heather moor, and nationally important invertebrate populations live on the surrounding sea bed. Skye has provided the locations for various novels and feature films, and is celebrated in poetry and song.

 

A Mesolithic hunter-gatherer site dating to the seventh millennium BC at An Corran in Staffin is one of the oldest archaeological sites in Scotland. Its occupation is probably linked to that of the rock shelter at Sand, Applecross, on the mainland coast of Wester Ross, where tools made of a mudstone from An Corran have been found. Surveys of the area between the two shores of the Inner Sound and Sound of Raasay have revealed 33 sites with potentially Mesolithic deposits. Finds of bloodstone microliths on the foreshore at Orbost on the west coast of the island near Dunvegan also suggest Mesolithic occupation. These tools probably originated from the nearby island of Rùm. Similarly, bloodstone from Rum, and baked mudstone, from the Staffin area, were found at the Mesolithic site of Camas Daraich, also from the seventh millennium BC, on the Point of Sleat, which has led archaeologists to believe that Mesolithic people on Skye would travel fairly significant distances, at least 70 km, both by land and sea.

 

Rubha an Dùnain, an uninhabited peninsula to the south of the Cuillin, has a variety of archaeological sites dating from the Neolithic onwards. A second- or third-millennium BC chambered cairn, an Iron Age promontory fort, and the remains of another prehistoric settlement dating from the Bronze Age are nearby. Loch na h-Airde on the peninsula is linked to the sea by an artificial "Viking" canal that may date from the later period of Norse settlement. Dun Ringill is a ruined Iron Age hill fort on the Strathaird Peninsula, which was further fortified in the Middle Ages and may have become the seat of Clan MacKinnon.

 

The late Iron Age inhabitants of the northern and western Hebrides were probably Pictish, although the historical record is sparse. Three Pictish symbol stones have been found on Skye and a fourth on Raasay. More is known of the kingdom of Dál Riata to the south; Adomnán's life of Columba, written shortly before 697, portrays the saint visiting Skye (where he baptised a pagan leader using an interpreter) and Adomnán himself is thought to have been familiar with the island. The Irish annals record a number of events on Skye in the later seventh and early eighth centuries – mainly concerning the struggles between rival dynasties that formed the background to the Old Irish language romance Scéla Cano meic Gartnáin.

 

Legendary hero Cú Chulainn is said to have trained on the Isle of Skye with warrior woman Scáthach.

 

The Norse held sway throughout the Hebrides from the 9th century until after the Treaty of Perth in 1266. However, apart from placenames, little remains of their presence on Skye in the written or archaeological record. Apart from the name "Skye" itself, all pre-Norse placenames seem to have been obliterated by the Scandinavian settlers. Viking heritage, with Celtic heritage is claimed by Clan MacLeod. Norse tradition is celebrated in the winter fire festival at Dunvegan, during which a replica Viking long boat is set alight.

 

The most powerful clans on Skye in the post–Norse period were Clan MacLeod, originally based in Trotternish, and Clan Macdonald of Sleat. The isle was held by Donald Macdonald, Lord of the Isles’ half-brother, Godfrey, from 1389 until 1401, at which time Skye was declared part of Ross. When the Donald Macdonald, Lord of the Isles, re-gained Ross after the battle of Harlaw in 1411, they added "Earl of Ross" to their lords' titles. Skye came with Ross.

 

Following the disintegration of the Lordship of the Isles, Clan Mackinnon also emerged as an independent clan, whose substantial landholdings in Skye were centred on Strathaird. Clan MacNeacail also have a long association with Trotternish, and in the 16th century many of the MacInnes clan moved to Sleat. The MacDonalds of South Uist were bitter rivals of the MacLeods, and an attempt by the former to murder church-goers at Trumpan in retaliation for a previous massacre on Eigg, resulted in the Battle of the Spoiling Dyke of 1578.

 

After the failure of the Jacobite rebellion of 1745, Flora MacDonald became famous for rescuing Prince Charles Edward Stuart from the Hanoverian troops. Although she was born on South Uist, her story is strongly associated with their escape via Skye, and she is buried at Kilmuir in Trotternish. Samuel Johnson and James Boswell's visit to Skye in 1773 and their meeting with Flora MacDonald in Kilmuir is recorded in Boswell's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides. Boswell wrote, "To see Dr Samuel Johnson, the great champion of the English Tories, salute Miss Flora MacDonald in the isle of Sky, was a striking sight; for though somewhat congenial in their notions, it was very improbable they should meet here". Johnson's words that Flora MacDonald was "A name that will be mentioned in history, and if courage and fidelity be virtues, mentioned with honour" are written on her gravestone. After this rebellion, the clan system was broken up and Skye became a series of landed estates.

 

Of the island in general, Johnson observed:

 

I never was in any house of the islands, where I did not find books in more languages than one, if I staid long enough to want them, except one from which the family was removed. Literature is not neglected by the higher rank of the Hebrideans. It need not, I suppose, be mentioned, that in countries so little frequented as the islands, there are no houses where travellers are entertained for money. He that wanders about these wilds, either procures recommendations to those whose habitations lie near his way, or, when night and weariness come upon him, takes the chance of general hospitality. If he finds only a cottage he can expect little more than shelter; for the cottagers have little more for themselves but if his good fortune brings him to the residence of a gentleman, he will be glad of a storm to prolong his stay. There is, however, one inn by the sea-side at Sconsor, in Sky, where the post-office is kept.

 

— Samuel Johnson, A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland.

 

Skye has a rich heritage of ancient monuments from this period. Dunvegan Castle has been the seat of Clan MacLeod since the 13th century. It contains the Fairy Flag and is reputed to have been inhabited by a single family for longer than any other house in Scotland. The 18th-century Armadale Castle, once home of Clan Donald of Sleat, was abandoned as a residence in 1925, but now hosts the Clan Donald Centre. Nearby are the ruins of two more MacDonald strongholds, Knock Castle, and Dunscaith Castle (called "Fortress of Shadows"), the legendary home of warrior woman, martial arts instructor (and, according to some sources, Queen) Scáthach. Caisteal Maol, a fortress built in the late 15th century near Kyleakin and once a seat of Clan MacKinnon, is another ruin.

 

In the late 18th century the harvesting of kelp became a significant activity, but from 1822 onward cheap imports led to a collapse of this industry throughout the Hebrides. During the 19th century, the inhabitants of Skye were also devastated by famine and Clearances. Thirty thousand people were evicted between 1840 and 1880 alone, many of them forced to emigrate to the New World. The "Battle of the Braes" involved a demonstration against a lack of access to land and the serving of eviction notices. The incident involved numerous crofters and about 50 police officers. This event was instrumental in the creation of the Napier Commission, which reported in 1884 on the situation in the Highlands. Disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters' Act and on one occasion 400 marines were deployed on Skye to maintain order. The ruins of cleared villages can still be seen at Lorgill, Boreraig and Suisnish in Strath Swordale, and Tusdale on Minginish.

 

As with many Scottish islands, Skye's population peaked in the 19th century and then declined under the impact of the Clearances and the military losses in the First World War. From the 19th century until 1975 Skye was part of the county of Inverness-shire, but the crofting economy languished and according to Slesser, "Generations of UK governments have treated the island people contemptuously" --a charge that has been levelled at both Labour and Conservative administrations' policies in the Highlands and Islands. By 1971 the population was less than a third of its peak recorded figure in 1841. However, the number of residents then grew by over 28 percent in the thirty years to 2001. The changing relationship between the residents and the land is evidenced by Robert Carruthers's remark c. 1852, "There is now a village in Portree containing three hundred inhabitants." Even if this estimate is inexact the population of the island's largest settlement has probably increased sixfold or more since then. During the period the total number of island residents has declined by 50 percent or more. The island-wide population increase of 4 percent between 1991 and 2001 occurred against the background of an overall reduction in Scottish island populations of 3 percent for the same period. By 2011 the population had risen a further 8.4% to 10,008 with Scottish island populations as a whole growing by 4% to 103,702.

 

Historically, Skye was overwhelmingly Gaelic-speaking, but this changed between 1921 and 2001. In both the 1901 and 1921 censuses, all Skye parishes were more than 75 percent Gaelic-speaking. By 1971, only Kilmuir parish had more than three-quarters of Gaelic speakers while the rest of Skye ranged between 50 and 74 percent. At that time, Kilmuir was the only area outside the Western Isles that had such a high proportion of Gaelic speakers. In the 2001 census Kilmuir had just under half Gaelic speakers, and overall, Skye had 31 percent, distributed unevenly. The strongest Gaelic areas were in the north and southwest of the island, including Staffin at 61 percent. The weakest areas were in the west and east (e.g. Luib 23 percent and Kylerhea 19 percent). Other areas on Skye ranged between 48 percent and 25 percent.

 

In terms of local government, from 1975 to 1996, Skye, along with the neighbouring mainland area of Lochalsh, constituted a local government district within the Highland administrative area. In 1996 the district was included in the unitary Highland Council, (Comhairle na Gàidhealtachd) based in Inverness and formed one of the new council's area committees. Following the 2007 elections, Skye now forms a four-member ward called Eilean a' Cheò; it is currently represented by two independents, one Scottish National Party, and one Liberal Democrat councillor.

 

Skye is in the Highlands and Islands electoral region and comprises a part of the Skye, Lochaber and Badenoch constituency of the Scottish Parliament, which elects one member under the first past the post basis to represent it. Kate Forbes is the current MSP for the SNP. In addition, Skye forms part of the wider Ross, Skye and Lochaber constituency, which elects one member to the House of Commons in Westminster. The present MP Member of Parliament is Ian Blackford of the Scottish National Party, who took office after the SNP's sweep in the General Election of 2015. Before this, Charles Kennedy, a Liberal Democrat, had represented the area since the 1983 general election.

 

The ruins of an old building sit on top of a prominent hillock that overlooks a pier attended by fishing boats.

Caisteal Maol and fishing boats in Kyleakin harbour

The largest employer on the island and its environs is the public sector, which accounts for about a third of the total workforce, principally in administration, education, and health. The second-largest employer in the area is the distribution, hotels, and restaurants sector, highlighting the importance of tourism. Key attractions include Dunvegan Castle, the Clan Donald Visitor Centre, and The Aros Experience arts and exhibition centre in Portree. There are about a dozen large landowners on Skye, the largest being the public sector, with the Scottish Government owning most of the northern part of the island. Glendale is a community-owned estate in Duirinish, and the Sleat Community Trust, the local development trust, is active in various regeneration projects.

 

Small firms dominate employment in the private sector. The Talisker Distillery, which produces a single malt whisky, is beside Loch Harport on the west coast of the island. Torabhaig distillery located in Teangue opened in 2017 and also produces whisky. Three other whiskies—Mac na Mara ("son of the sea"), Tè Bheag nan Eilean ("wee dram of the isles") and Poit Dhubh ("black pot")—are produced by blender Pràban na Linne ("smugglers den by the Sound of Sleat"), based at Eilean Iarmain. These are marketed using predominantly Gaelic-language labels. The blended whisky branded as "Isle of Skye" is produced not on the island but by the Glengoyne Distillery at Killearn north of Glasgow, though the website of the owners, Ian Macleod Distillers Ltd., boasts a "high proportion of Island malts" and contains advertisements for tourist businesses in the island. There is also an established software presence on Skye, with Portree-based Sitekit having expanded in recent years.

 

Some of the places important to the economy of Skye

Crofting is still important, but although there are about 2,000 crofts on Skye only 100 or so are large enough to enable a crofter to earn a livelihood entirely from the land. In recent years, families have complained about the increasing prices for land that make it difficult for young people to start their own crofts.

 

Cod and herring stocks have declined but commercial fishing remains important, especially fish farming of salmon and crustaceans such as scampi. The west coast of Scotland has a considerable renewable energy potential and the Isle of Skye Renewables Co-op has recently bought a stake in the Ben Aketil wind farm near Dunvegan. There is a thriving arts and crafts sector.

 

The unemployment rate in the area tends to be higher than in the Highlands as a whole, and is seasonal, in part due to the impact of tourism. The population is growing and in common with many other scenic rural areas in Scotland, significant increases are expected in the percentage of the population aged 45 to 64 years.

 

The restrictions required by the worldwide pandemic increased unemployment in the Highlands and Islands in the summer of 2020 to 5.7%; which was significantly higher than the 2.4 percent in 2019. The rates were said to be highest in "Lochaber, Skye and Wester Ross and Argyll and the Islands". A December 2020 report stated that between March (just before the effects of pandemic were noted) and December, the unemployment rate in the region increased by "more than 97%" and suggested that the outlook was even worse for spring 2021.

 

A report published in mid-2020 indicated that visitors to Skye added £211 million in 2019 to the island's economy before travel restrictions were imposed because of the COVID-19 pandemic. The report added that "Skye and Raasay attracted 650,000 visitors [in 2018] and supported 2,850 jobs". The government estimated that tourism in Scotland would decline by over 50% as a result of the pandemic. "Skye is highly vulnerable to the downturn in international visitors that will continue for much of 2020 and beyond", Professor John Lennon of Glasgow Caledonian University told a reporter in July 2020.

 

Tourism in the Highlands and Islands was negatively impacted by the pandemic, the effects of which continued into 2021. A September 2020 report stated that the region "has been disproportionately impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic to date when compared to Scotland and the UK as a whole". The industry required short-term support for "business survival and recovery" and that was expected to continue as the sector was "severely impacted for as long as physical distancing and travel restrictions". A scheme called Island Equivalent was introduced by the Scottish government in early 2021 to financially assist hospitality and retail businesses "affected by Level 3 coronavirus restrictions". Previous schemes in 2020 included the Strategic Framework Business Fund and the Coronavirus Business Support Fund.

 

Before the pandemic, during the summer of 2017, islanders complained about an excessive number of tourists, which was causing overcrowding in popular locations such as Glen Brittle, the Neist Point lighthouse, the Quiraing, and the Old Man of Storr. "Skye is buckling under the weight of increased tourism this year", said the operator of a self-catering cottage; the problem was most significant at "the key iconic destinations, like the Old Man of Storr and the Quiraing", he added. Chris Taylor of VisitScotland sympathised with the concerns and said that the agency was working on a long-term solution. "But the benefits to Skye of bringing in international visitors and increased spending are huge," he added.

 

An article published in 2020 confirmed that (before the pandemic), the Talisker Distillery and Dunvegan Castle were still overcrowded in peak periods; other areas where parking was a problem due to large crowds included "the Old Man of Storr, Kilt Rock, the Quiraing, the Fairy Pools, and Neist Point. This source also stated that Portree was "the busiest place on the island" during peak periods and suggested that some tourists might prefer accommodations in quieter areas such as "Dunvegan, Kyleakin and the Broadford and Breakish area".

 

Skye is linked to the mainland by the Skye Bridge, while ferries sail from Armadale on the island to Mallaig, and from Kylerhea to Glenelg, crossing the Kyle Rhea strait on the MV Glenachulish, the last turntable ferry in the world. Turntable ferries had been common on the west coast of Scotland because they do not require much infrastructure to operate, a boat ramp will suffice. Ferries also run from Uig to Tarbert on Harris and Lochmaddy on North Uist, and from Sconser to Raasay.

 

The Skye Bridge opened in 1995 under a private finance initiative and the high tolls charged (£5.70 each way for summer visitors) met with widespread opposition, spearheaded by the pressure group SKAT (Skye and Kyle Against Tolls). On 21 December 2004, it was announced that the Scottish Executive had purchased the bridge from its owners and the tolls were immediately removed.

 

Bus services run to Inverness and Glasgow, and there are local services on the island, mainly starting from Portree or Broadford. Train services run from Kyle of Lochalsh at the mainland end of the Skye Bridge to Inverness, as well as from Glasgow to Mallaig from where the ferry can be caught to Armadale.

 

The island's airfield at Ashaig, near Broadford, is used by private aircraft and occasionally by NHS Highland and the Scottish Ambulance Service for transferring patients to hospitals on the mainland.

 

The A87 trunk road traverses the island from the Skye Bridge to Uig, linking most of the major settlements. Many of the island's roads have been widened in the past forty years although there are still substantial sections of single-track road.

 

A modern 3 story building with a prominent frontage of numerous windows and constructed from a white material curves gently away from a green lawn in the foreground. In the background there is a tall white tower of a similar construction.

 

Students of Scottish Gaelic travel from all over the world to attend Sabhal Mòr Ostaig, the Scottish Gaelic college based near Kilmore in Sleat. In addition to members of the Church of Scotland and a smaller number of Roman Catholics, many residents of Skye belong to the Free Church of Scotland, known for its strict observance of the Sabbath.

 

Skye has a strong folk music tradition, although in recent years dance and rock music have been growing in popularity on the island. Gaelic folk rock band Runrig started in Skye and former singer Donnie Munro still works on the island. Runrig's second single and a concert staple is entitled Skye, the lyrics being partly in English and partly in Gaelic and they have released other songs such as "Nightfall on Marsco" that were inspired by the island. Ex-Runrig member Blair Douglas, a highly regarded accordionist, and composer in his own right was born on the island and is still based there to this day. Celtic fusion band the Peatbog Faeries are based on Skye. Jethro Tull singer Ian Anderson owned an estate at Strathaird on Skye at one time. Several Tull songs are written about Skye, including Dun Ringil, Broadford Bazaar, and Acres Wild (which contains the lines "Come with me to the Winged Isle, / Northern father's western child..." about the island itself). The Isle of Skye Music Festival featured sets from The Fun Lovin' Criminals and Sparks, but collapsed in 2007. Electronic musician Mylo was born on Skye.

 

The poet Sorley MacLean, a native of the Isle of Raasay, which lies off the island's east coast, lived much of his life on Skye. The island has been immortalised in the traditional song "The Skye Boat Song" and is the notional setting for the novel To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf, although the Skye of the novel bears little relation to the real island. John Buchan's descriptions of Skye, as featured in his Richard Hannay novel Mr Standfast, are more true to life. I Diari di Rubha Hunis is a 2004 Italian language work of non-fiction by Davide Sapienza [it]. The international bestseller, The Ice Twins, by S K Tremayne, published around the world in 2015–2016, is set in southern Skye, especially around the settlement and islands of Isleornsay.

 

Skye has been used as a location for several feature films. The Ashaig aerodrome was used for the opening scenes of the 1980 film Flash Gordon. Stardust, released in 2007 and starring Robert De Niro and Michelle Pfeiffer, featured scenes near Uig, Loch Coruisk and the Quiraing. Another 2007 film, Seachd: The Inaccessible Pinnacle, was shot almost entirely in various locations on the island. The Justin Kurzel adaption of Macbeth starring Michael Fassbender was also filmed on the Island. Some of the opening scenes in Ridley Scott's 2012 feature film Prometheus were shot and set at the Old Man of Storr. In 1973 The Highlands and Islands - a Royal Tour, a documentary about Prince Charles's visit to the Highlands and Islands, directed by Oscar Marzaroli, was shot partly on Skye. Scenes from the Scottish Gaelic-language BBC Alba television series Bannan were filmed on the island.

 

The West Highland Free Press is published at Broadford. This weekly newspaper takes as its motto An Tìr, an Cànan 's na Daoine ("The Land, the Language, and the People"), which reflects its radical, campaigning priorities. The Free Press was founded in 1972 and circulates in Skye, Wester Ross, and the Outer Hebrides. Shinty is a popular sport played throughout the island and Portree-based Skye Camanachd won the Camanachd Cup in 1990. The local radio station Radio Skye is a community based station that broadcast local news and entertainment to the Isle Of Skye and Loch Alsh on 106.2 FM and 102.7 FM.

 

Whilst Skye had unofficial flags in the past, including the popular "Bratach nan Daoine" (Flag of the People) design which represented the Cuillins in sky blue against a white sky symbolising the Gaelic language, land struggle, and the fairy flag of Dunvegan, the Island received its first official flag "Bratach an Eilein" (The Skye Flag) approved by the Lord Lyon after a public vote in August 2020. The design by Calum Alasdair Munro reflects the Island's Gaelic heritage, the Viking heritage, and the history of Flora MacDonald. The flag has a birlinn in the canton, and there are five oars representing the five areas of Skye, Trotternish, Waternish, Duirinish, Minginish, and Sleat. Yellow represents the MacLeods, and Blue the MacDonalds or the MacKinnons.

 

The Hebrides generally lack the biodiversity of mainland Britain, but like most of the larger islands, Skye still has a wide variety of species. Observing the abundance of game birds Martin wrote:

 

There is plenty of land and water fowl in this isle—as hawks, eagles of two kinds (the one grey and of a larger size, the other much less and black, but more destructive to young cattle), black cock, heath-hen, plovers, pigeons, wild geese, ptarmigan, and cranes. Of this latter sort I have seen sixty on the shore in a flock together. The sea fowls are malls of all kinds—coulterneb, guillemot, sea cormorant, &c. The natives observe that the latter, if perfectly black, makes no good broth, nor is its flesh worth eating; but that a cormorant, which hath any white feathers or down, makes good broth, and the flesh of it is good food; and the broth is usually drunk by nurses to increase their milk.

 

— Martin Martin, A Description of The Western Islands of Scotland.

 

Similarly, Samuel Johnson noted that:

 

At the tables where a stranger is received, neither plenty nor delicacy is wanting. A tract of land so thinly inhabited must have much wild-fowl; and I scarcely remember to have seen a dinner without them. The moor-game is every where to be had. That the sea abounds with fish, needs not be told, for it supplies a great part of Europe. The Isle of Sky has stags and roebucks, but no hares. They sell very numerous droves of oxen yearly to England, and therefore cannot be supposed to want beef at home. Sheep and goats are in great numbers, and they have the common domestic fowls."

 

— Samuel Johnson, A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland.

A black sea bird with a black beak, red feet and a prominent white flash on its wing sits on a shaped stone. The stone is partially covered with moss and grass and there is an indistinct outline of a grey stone wall and water body in the background.

 

In the modern era avian life includes the corncrake, red-throated diver, kittiwake, tystie, Atlantic puffin, goldeneye and golden eagle. The eggs of the last breeding pair of white-tailed sea eagle in the UK were taken by an egg collector on Skye in 1916 but the species has recently been re-introduced. The chough last bred on the island in 1900. Mountain hare (apparently absent in the 18th century) and rabbit are now abundant and preyed upon by wild cat and pine marten. The rich fresh water streams contain brown trout, Atlantic salmon and water shrew. Offshore the edible crab and edible oyster are also found, the latter especially in the Sound of Scalpay. There are nationally important horse mussel and brittlestar beds in the sea lochs and in 2012 a bed of 100 million flame shells was found during a survey of Loch Alsh. Grey Seals can be seen off the Southern coast.

 

Heather moor containing ling, bell heather, cross-leaved heath, bog myrtle and fescues is everywhere abundant. The high Black Cuillins weather too slowly to produce soil that sustains a rich plant life, but each of the main peninsulas has an individual flora. The basalt underpinnings of Trotternish produce a diversity of Arctic and alpine plants including alpine pearlwort and mossy cyphal. The low-lying fields of Waternish contain corn marigold and corn spurry. The sea cliffs of Duirinish boast mountain avens and fir clubmoss. Minginish produces fairy flax, cats-ear, and black bog rush. There is a fine example of Brachypodium-rich ash woodland at Tokavaig in Sleat incorporating silver birch, hazel, bird cherry, and hawthorn.

 

The local Biodiversity Action Plan recommends land management measures to control the spread of ragwort and bracken and identifies four non-native, invasive species as threatening native biodiversity: Japanese knotweed, rhododendron, New Zealand flatworm and mink. It also identifies problems of over-grazing resulting in the impoverishment of moorland and upland habitats and a loss of native woodland, caused by the large numbers of red deer and sheep.

 

In 2020 Clan MacLeod chief Hugh MacLeod announced a plan to reintroduce 370,000 native trees along with beaver and red squirrel populations to the clan estates on Skye, to restore a "wet desert" landscape which had depleted from years of overgrazing.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration D-AVZG, this aircraft was delivered to SABENA Belgian World Airlines as OO-SUB in Apr-99. SABENA ceased trading in Nov-01 and the aircraft was stored at Brussels, Belgium.

 

It was stored at Brussels for more than 4 years until it was sold to Nouvelair Tunisie as TS-IQB in Mar-05. In Apr-14 the aircraft was sold to a lessor and was originally due to be leased to Onur Air as TC-OEB, however the lease wasn't taken up and it was leased to Germania as D-ASTV later that month.

 

It was painted in an Alltours (German Tour Operator) logojet livery in May-14 and repainted into Germania's standard livery in Mar-15. Germania ceased operations in Feb-19, the aircraft was returned to the lessor and initially stored at Dusseldorf before being flown to Castellon de la Plana - Costa Azahar, Spain in Mar-19 for further storage.

 

It was re-registered OE-IDK in May-19 and permanently retired. It was broken up at Castellon de la Plana in Jan-20

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 30-Mar-20.

 

'Silver Bullet' livery.

 

First flown as a passenger aircraft with the Boeing test registration N5573B, this aircraft was delivered to Cathay Pacific Airways as VR-HIH in Apr-84.

 

It was converted into freighter configuration with a main deck side cargo door (SCD) in Jun-94 and transferred to Cathay Pacific Airways Cargo.

 

The aircraft was re-registered B-HIH in Jul-97 when Hong Kong became an autonomous region of China. After 25 years in service it was initially stored at Hong Kong in Jun-09.

 

It was sold to Wells Fargo Bank Northwest as N2868R in Aug-09 and ferried to Kemble, UK in Sep-09 where it was permanently retired and broken up in Feb-10.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a (slightly) better version 03-Dec-21 (DeNoise AI).

 

Very grainy, taken on a dark and murky day at LAX (but rescued by 'noise reduction' software).

 

An 'unlucky' aircraft which didn't stay long with any airline. First flown with the Boeing test registration N57008, this aircraft was an early standard B767-205 (Line No:81), delivered to Braathens S.A.F.E (Norway) as LN-SUV in Mar-84.

 

It was returned to the Boeing Equipment Holding Company as N767BE in Sep-85 and leased to TACA International Airlines in Oct-85. It returned to Boeing in May-86 and was leased to VARIG Brazil as PP-VNL the following month.

 

Boeing sold it to ILFC International Lease Finance Corporation in Aug-86 while the lease to VARIG continued. It was returned to ILFC in May-87 and was leased to Britannia Airways as G-BNAX the following day, for the summer season.

 

Returning to ILFC in Oct-87 as N650TW, the aircraft was converted to a B767-205ER before being leased to TWA Trans World Airlines in Oct-87. It was sub-leased to Gulf Air between May/Sep-88.

 

In Mar-01 it was returned to ILFC and stored. In Oct-01 the aircraft was leased to Aero Continente (Peru) as OB-1758. It became OB-1758-P in Jun-03. It was returned to ILFC in Oct-04 as N371LF and stored at Dothan, AL, USA.

 

The aircraft was leased to MaxJet in Jan-06 and was re-registered N260MY the following month. MaxJet ceased operations in Dec-07 and it was impounded at New York-JFK. ILFC managed to retrieve it in Jan-08 and it was stored at Victorville, CA, USA.

 

It was leased to Air Seychelles (still as N260MY) in Aug-08 and was re-registered in S7-ILF in Sep-10. It was returned to ILFC in Nov-11 as N391LF and permanently retired at Goodyear, AZ, USA. The registration was cancelled in Mar-12. It was last noted still stored at Goodyear in Mar-13 and was subsequently broken up.

Sydney Central Railway Station, in Sydney, Australia.

 

The present Central Railway Station was Sydney's third terminus, replacing the original 1855 station further south in Redfern and a later upgraded station built in the 1870s. Both of these earlier stations had served their time but had become too small and too isolated from the city by the 1890s.

 

A new station had been considered since 1895, with a view to locating the terminal closer to the central business district. A number of sites and schemes were put forward, including a Hyde Park terminus, before the site of the old Devonshire Street cemetery was fixed upon. Although this site was also considered to be further from the city centre than was preferred, the costs of resumptions and construction of a station in the city centre were too high.

 

Resumptions were still necessary even for this construction, which included the widening of Pitt Street and creation of Eddy Avenue. The plan also required some major relocations including the cemetery, a tram depot, the Convent of the Good Samaritan and Female Refuge Centre (both in the old Carters Barracks), the Police Superintendent's residence in Pitt Street, Christ Church Parsonage, the Benevolent Society, the Police Barracks, and some residential property.

 

Work began on the Central Railway Station in June 1901, 12 months after the state public works committee had approved the design. The new building was intended as a focal point for the railway and a junction of the rural network with the expanding city and suburban networks. The initial scheme for the new terminal complex was put together by Henry Deane, the Engineer-in-Chief of Railway Construction, in consultation with the Railway Commissioners.

 

The design of the buildings and complex were investigated by a Station Advisory Board established by the Minister for Works. This included Henry Deane, Government Architect Walter Liberty Vernon and railway experts from New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria. Among other decisions, this committee approved the use of sandstone, quarried from Pyrmont, as the main construction material, rather than a brick and sandstone combination that had been previously suggested.

 

Work continued through 1901–02, with the old buildings removed and the cemetery resumed. The foundation stone was laid on 30 April 1902. Material excavated from the site was subsequently used to improve the adjacent Prince Alfred and Belmore parks, and to form a ramp for an overhead tramway that approached the station from the city.

 

In 1902 the design of the building was altered by the Station Advisory Board, with the addition of an extra floor and a tower, which increased the likely cost from £230,000 to £400,000. The station building would therefore include: offices for the Railway Commissioners; underground subways to convey luggage, mail and other materials; an underground pedestrian walkway between George and Elizabeth streets on the line of the former Devonshire Street; a tramway; taxi ranks; and 12 platforms with the ability to handle up to 40,000 passengers.

 

The first stage of the new station was opened in August 1906 with the second and third storey of the main building and the clock tower completed only in 1921. Additions to the station were made, first for the electrification of the city underground line, including a new overhead approach parallel to Elizabeth Street which opened in 1926, and then again in the 1960s and 1970s for the underground platforms for the eastern suburbs line.

 

The position of the station at the southern end of the city and its scale made it an instant landmark, with the clock in the tower being used by surrounding neighbourhoods as well as commuters. The station remains the gateway to the Sydney and regional rail system.

 

Information Source:

dictionaryofsydney.org/entry/central_railway_station

 

Lothian Country's 181 SN13 BFA a Voith/Volvo B7RLE Wright Eclipse Urban 2, on the service 276 to Loganlea via Uphall Station, Houstoun Industrial Estate, Craigshill, Livingston the Centre, Bellsquary, Polbeth and West Calder.

 

As of the date this was uploaded, Monday the 13th of June 2022, The 276 has since been rerouted and was rerouted on Sunday the 5th of June 2022 to replace the withdrawn service 275. The new service 276 acts like a partial replacement for the 275 which has been rerouted to serve the following areas: Pumpherston and Ladywell, Ash Grove in Blackburn and some of the Wester Inch estate in Bathgate.

 

189 was new to Lothian Buses in early to mid 2013 along with 176 - 188 and 190.

 

2016 seen 190 get repainted and transferred to East Coast Buses with the fleet number being altered with a 10××× prefix added making 190 become 10190.

 

In 2017, 186 - 189, with 190 returning back to Lothain Buses, were all painted into Skylink livery for the launch of service Skylink200, 176 - 185 remained doing City work. 186 - 190 were subsequently repainted into Lothian Buses livery later on in the year once the Gemini 2 B5LH's entered service and the service Skylink200 was upgraded to double decker capacity.

 

In March 2021 186 and 187 were transferred to Lothian Country, in April 2021 188 and 190 were transferred to Lothian Country then finally 189 in May 2021.

 

in November 2019 176 - 185 were transferred to Lothian Country for use on Lothian Country's (new at the time) service X38 between Linlithgow and Edinburgh, 177 - 180 and 182 were branded for service X38 (176 never received the branding but had Lothian Country logos, 181 was never branded for service X38 since it suffered an engine fire and was off service for 2 years)

 

In September 2020 176 - 180 and 182 - 185 returned to service and were all debranded from service X38 ( this was both a result of the Coronavirus lockdown with all services ran with double decker buses loaned by Lothian Buses so Lothian Country's buses could get fitted with driver protection screens and that service X38 was withdrawn due to low customer usage pre-Covid-19).

 

In November 2021 181 re-entered service after its engine fire and is now wearing the new shared livery between Lothian Country and East Coast Buses.

 

As of the date this was uploaded (04/06/2022) Lothian Country have 20 Eclipse 2's in their fleet with 2 currently being used as trainers (171 and 172) 3 in reserve at Lothian Buses Marine depot (173, 174 and 175 along with East Coast Buses 10195 and 10196) and 15 in day to day service (being 176 - 190). All together Lothian Buses has 29 Eclipse 2's across their fleets including 4 training buses (TB1 - TB4), 20 Lothian Country Buses and 5 East Coast Buses.

 

This is a list of all Eclipse 2's across the Lothian Buses fleets including liveries and depots:

Fleet no. - Reg - Livery - Depot - Company

TB1/ 167 - SN58 BYU - ST - LS - LB

TB2/ 168 - SN58 BYV - SW - LS - LB

TB3/ 169 - SN58 BYW - FoTF - LS - LB

TB4/ 170 - SN58 BYX - FoTF - LS - LB

171 - SN60 EOD - SW - LV - LCB

172 - SN60 EOE - SW - LV - LCB

173 - SN60 EOF - SW - MA - LCB

174 - SN60 EOG - SW - MA - LCB

175 - LB60 BUS - FoTF - MA - LCB

176 - SN13 BDZ - LC - LV - LCB

177 - SN13 BEJ - LC - LV - LCB

178 - SN13 BEO - LC - LV - LCB

179 - SN13 BEU - LC - LV - LCB

180 - SN13 BEY - LC - LV - LCB

181 - SN13 BFA - LC - LV - LCB

182 - SN13 BFE - LC - LV - LCB

183 - SN13 BFF - LC - LV - LCB

184 - SN13 BFJ - LC - LV - LCB

185 - SN13 BFK - LC - LV - LCB

186 - SN13 BFL - FoTF - LV - LCB

187 - SN13 BFM - FoTF - LV - LCB

188 - SN13 BFO - FoTF - LV - LCB

189 - SN13 BFP - FoTF - LV - LCB

190 - SN13 BFV - FoTF - LV - LCB

10195 - SN62 BNY - ECB - MA - ECB

10196 - SN62 BPV - ECB - MA - ECB

10197 - SN62 BTF - ECB - MU - ECB

10198 - SN62 BUF - ECB - MU - ECB

10199 - LB62 BUS - ECB - MU - ECB

 

Codes:

Liveries - ST = Horizontal Stripes, SW = Swoops, FoTF = Fleet of The Future, LC = Lothian Country, ECB = East Coast Buses

 

Depots - CE = Central, MA = Marine, LS = Longstone, LV = Livingston, MU = Musselburgh

 

Companies - LB = Lothian Buses, LCB = Lothian Country Buses, ECB = East Coast Buses

 

Disclaimer - the information I have provided about the depots and the liveries are correct from Monday 6th June 2022 (the date of upload), I won't be editing this specific description if there are any changes. I will only update this list (if there are any changes) if I post another photo of a Eclipse 2 which I will post the most up to date information on there!

 

This photo was taken at Uphall West Main Street on Thursday the 24th of March 2022.

 

V Disclaimer V

Do not use any of my photos for any purposes, e.g. editing or just reposting, without my full consent, thank you! 👍

 

Everyone, take care and stay safe out there! 😊

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version on 17-Sep-21 (DeNoise AI).

 

The B747 SR was the 'short range' version of the B747-200 built especially for Japanese domestic services.

 

First flown in Sep-81 with the Boeing test registration N5573B, this aircraft was delivered to ANA All Nippon Airways as JA8156 in Dec-81.

 

It served with ANA for 23 years until it was 'traded in' to Boeing in Jul-04 and stored at Goodyear, AZ, USA as N233BA. It never flew again and was sold to Cargo Aircraft LLC for spares at the end that month. It was broken up at Goodyear in Jan/Feb-05.

A new sandstone gatepost pillar is in place at the northern end of Lord Derby's Coach Road. The previous one had been lying on the ground having been clouted by a "wide load" of agricultural produce.

Replacing a very old but well used Washtec SoftCare Pro

Replacing an earlier scanned 6"x4" print with a better version 22-Mar-22 (DeNoise AI).

 

This aircraft was delivered to AWAS Ansett Worldwide Aviation Services and leased to Royal Brunei Airlines as V8-RBF in Feb-92. It was wet-leased to Vietnam Airlines in Apr-96 (although it's still in full Royal Brunei livery in this photo taken in Jun-96!) and returned to Royal Brunei in Jan-98.

 

It was returned to the lessor in Aug-11 and fitted with blended winglets before being sold to Aerosvit (Ukraine) as UR-AAI later the same month. Aerosvit ceased operations in Feb-13 and the aircraft was stored at Kiev-Borispil, Ukraine.

 

It was bought by Ukraine International Airways in Jul-13 and after maintenance and painting at Budapest (Hungary), it was re-registered UR-GEB before entering service in Oct-13. The aircraft was permanently retired at Kiev-Borispil, Ukraine in Oct-19. Updated 22-Mar-22.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 23-Mar-18, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 07-Feb-24.

 

'Polar bears in the snow' c/s !! (it was just the same when I'd seen it a year earlier). Operated by Florida West International on behalf of LAN Chile Cargo.

 

This aircraft was delivered to a lessor and leased to United Air Lines as N8096U, a standard DC-8-61, in May-69. It was converted to DC-8-71 standard with CFM.56 engines in Sep-83. United bought it from the lessor in Jun-84, sold it to the GPA Group Ltd in Jan-90 and leased it back.

 

It was returned to the lessor in Aug-90 and converted to DC-8-71(F) standard with a main deck cargo door by Nov-90 and was leased to Southern Air Transport in Mar-91. It was re-registered N872SJ two weeks later.

 

Southern Air returned it to the lessor in Jan-92 and it was stored. The aircraft was leased to Southern Air Transport again in May-92 and returned to the lessor in May-98. It was stored at Miami FL, USA until it was leased to Aircraft International Leasing Lts and sub-leased to Florida West International Airways in Jul-98.

 

It was sub-leased to LAN Chile Cargo in Nov-98 and returned to Florida West in Nov-99. In Mar-02 it was sub-leased to MAS Air Cargo and returned to Florida West and the lessor in Mar-03 when it was stored at Goodyear, AZ, USA.

 

The aircraft was leased to TAMPA Colombia as HK-4294X in Jun-03. It returned to the lessor in Apr-05 and was sold to Murray Air Inc as N872SJ later the same month. Murray Air was renamed National Airlines Dec-08 and the aircraft was re-registered N872CA in Mar-11.

 

The aircraft continued in service until it was permanently retired and stored at Oscoda, MI, USA in Oct-12 after in incredible 43 years in service.

Replacing an earlier scanned slide with a better version 23-Dec-15.

 

Originally this aircraft was to have been registered G-BMMP but this wasn't taken up and it was delivered to Air Europe as G-DDDV in Mar-81.

 

Because UK & European leisure traffic is so seasonal, Air Europe were one of the forerunners in leasing out capacity during the 'low' season. This aircraft was leased to Air Florida between Nov-82/Apr-83. It was also leased to British Airtours between Nov-84/Apr-85.

 

When it returned to Air Europe the aircraft was sold to the GPA Group Ltd (later to become part of GECAS) and leased back. It was sub-leased to British Airtours again from Nov-85/Apr-86, and Nov-86/May-87, and again from Nov-87/Apr-88.

 

In Apr-88 British Airtours was renamed Caledonian Airways after British Airtours parent company British Airways had taken over British Caledonian. The aircraft continued with the new Caledonian until the end of Apr-88 when the lease was transferred to GB Airways.

 

It stayed with GB Airways until mid Nov-89 when it was returned to Air Europe and the GPA Group and leased to Gulf Air the same day as A4O-BL. It returned to GPA Group in Oct-92. In Dec-92 it was leased to East West Airlines (India) as VT-EWD but was repossessed by GPA Group in Oct-96 and stored.

 

In Dec-97 it was sold to Aero USA Inc as N633GP. The aircraft was leased to LAPA Lineas Aereas Privadas Argentinas in Feb-98 as LV-YGB. LAPA was renamed ARG Linea Privada Argentina in Sep-01. It was returned to AeroUSA Inc in Aug-03.

 

Two months later it was sold to La Rioja Air Company and was leased to Southern Winds (Argentina) in Nov-03. It was retired at Cordoba, Argentina, in Aug-05 after 24 years in service. It was last noted still stored at Cordoba in Aug-11 and I'm assuming it's since been broken up.

i might delete this photo to replace it with something that doesn't have that awful line..

Liberty Local Schools 9 - 1986 Thomas Ford - Retired; Bus Yard - Liberty Township, Ohio. Picture taken in 2002. One of two 1986 Thomas Fords once in the fleet. The area where this bus was parked was recently fenced-in when the picture was taken. The spare buses at Liberty park in this lot. The part of the school shown behind the bus has since been torn down. Traded-in to Myers Equipment Corp. and replaced with a 2005 Thomas Freightliner.

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 14-Jun-19.

 

Taken from the Templeton Bridge.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWCU, this aircraft was delivered to China Eastern Airlines as B-6052 in Oct-03. After 12 years in service it was sold to The Boeing Airplane Company in Apr-15 in part exchange for a Boeing 777-300ER and registered to Lufthansa Technik as D-AAAZ. It was stored at Schwerin (Parchim), Germany. It remained there for 3.5 years until it was ferried to Teruel, Spain in Sep-18 and permanently retired.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 14-May-17, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 06-Jul-23.

 

Operated on behalf of British Airways by Citiexpress.

 

'Youm al Suk'(Market Day), Saudi Arabia World Tail livery.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 01-Apr-20.

 

Named: "James Cook".

 

This aircraft was delivered to KLM Royal Dutch Airlines as PH-BTD in Dec-92. It was sold to Privatair (Switzerland) as HB-JJC in Dec-11. It was wet-leased to EC Air (Equatorial Congo Airlines) in Feb-12. The aircraft was withdrawn from service and stored at Brussels in Dec-15. It was sold to EC Air in Jan-18 and re-registered TN-AJX. However, it didn't stay in service for long and was withdrawn from use and stored at Johannesburg in Oct-18. As far as I'm aware, EC Air is no longer operational and the aircraft hasn't flown since. As it's now over 27 years old, I'm assuming it's unlikely to fly again. Updated (Apr-20).

Following on to a rash of disappearing nudes, reported previously on this very stream, there has been a new report of ‘The Venus of Urbino’ being replaced by a supine, decently 'embalmed' (even), MÈRE UBU. Police are currently looking into this incident, and keeping an eye on other ‘stripped’ (denuded) masterpieces.

 

PÈRE UBU denied categorically that this incident had anything to do with the upcoming Coronation of himself and his beloved Consort, in 4 days time. He also protested the non-involvement of the newly formed 'League of Decency' led by his beloved wife, whilst simultaneously scattering the "fake news" sobriquet willy nilly, as if it were cheap confetti.

Covent Garden (/ˈkɒvənt/) is a district in London on the eastern fringes of the West End, between St. Martin's Lane and Drury Lane. It is associated with the former fruit and vegetable market in the central square, now a popular shopping and tourist site, and the Royal Opera House, which is also known as "Covent Garden". The district is divided by the main thoroughfare of Long Acre, north of which is given over to independent shops centred on Neal's Yard and Seven Dials, while the south contains the central square with its street performers and most of the elegant buildings, theatres and entertainment facilities, including the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, and the London Transport Museum.

 

Though mainly fields until the 16th century, the area was briefly settled when it became the heart of the Anglo-Saxon trading town of Lundenwic. After the town was abandoned, part of the area was walled off by 1200 for use as arable land and orchards by Westminster Abbey, and was referred to as "the garden of the Abbey and Convent". The land, now called "the Covent Garden", was seized by Henry VIII, and granted to the Earls of Bedford in 1552. The 4th Earl commissioned Inigo Jones to build some fine houses to attract wealthy tenants. Jones designed the Italianate arcaded square along with the church of St Paul's. The design of the square was new to London, and had a significant influence on modern town planning, acting as the prototype for the laying-out of new estates as London grew. A small open-air fruit and vegetable market had developed on the south side of the fashionable square by 1654. Gradually, both the market and the surrounding area fell into disrepute, as taverns, theatres, coffee-houses and brothels opened up; the gentry moved away, and rakes, wits and playwrights moved in. By the 18th century it had become a well-known red-light district, attracting notable prostitutes. An Act of Parliament was drawn up to control the area, and Charles Fowler's neo-classical building was erected in 1830 to cover and help organise the market. The area declined as a pleasure-ground as the market grew and further buildings were added: the Floral Hall, Charter Market, and in 1904 the Jubilee Market. By the end of the 1960s traffic congestion was causing problems, and in 1974 the market relocated to the New Covent Garden Market about three miles (5 km) south-west at Nine Elms. The central building re-opened as a shopping centre in 1980, and is now a tourist location containing cafes, pubs, small shops, and a craft market called the Apple Market, along with another market held in the Jubilee Hall.

 

Covent Garden, with the postcode WC2, falls within the London boroughs of Westminster and Camden, and the parliamentary constituencies of Cities of London and Westminster and Holborn and St Pancras. The area has been served by the Piccadilly line at Covent Garden tube station since 1907; the journey from Leicester Square, at 300 yards, is the shortest in London.

 

Early history

 

The route of the Strand on the southern boundary of what was to become Covent Garden was used during the Roman period as part of a route to Silchester, known as "Iter VII" on the Antonine Itinerary. Excavations in 2006 at St Martin-in-the-Fields revealed a Roman grave, suggesting the site had sacred significance. The area to the north of the Strand was long thought to have remained as unsettled fields until the 16th century, but theories by Alan Vince and Martin Biddle that there had been an Anglo-Saxon settlement to the west of the old Roman town of Londinium were borne out by excavations in 1985 and 2005. These revealed Covent Garden as the centre of a trading town called Lundenwic, developed around 600 AD, which stretched from Trafalgar Square to Aldwych. Alfred the Great gradually shifted the settlement into the old Roman town of Londinium from around 886 AD onwards, leaving no mark of the old town, and the site returned to fields.

 

Around 1200 the first mention of an abbey garden appears in a document mentioning a walled garden owned by the Benedictine monks of the Abbey of St. Peter, Westminster. A later document, dated between 1250 and 1283, refers to "the garden of the Abbot and Convent of Westminster". By the 13th century this had become a 40-acre (16 ha) quadrangle of mixed orchard, meadow, pasture and arable land, lying between modern-day St. Martin's Lane and Drury Lane, and Floral Street and Maiden Lane. The use of the name "Covent"—an Anglo-French term for a religious community, equivalent to "monastery" or "convent" —appears in a document in 1515, when the Abbey, which had been letting out parcels of land along the north side of the Strand for inns and market gardens, granted a lease of the walled garden, referring to it as "a garden called Covent Garden". This is how it was recorded from then on.

 

The Bedford Estate (1552–1918)

 

After the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1540, Henry VIII took for himself the land belonging to Westminster Abbey, including the convent garden and seven acres to the north called Long Acre; and in 1552 his son, Edward VI, granted it to John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford. The Russell family, who in 1694 were advanced in their peerage from Earl to Duke of Bedford, held the land from 1552 to 1918.

 

Russell had Bedford House and garden built on part of the land, with an entrance on the Strand, the large garden stretching back along the south side of the old walled-off convent garden. Apart from this, and allowing several poor-quality tenements to be erected, the Russells did little with the land until the 4th Earl of Bedford, Francis Russell, an active and ambitious businessman, commissioned Inigo Jones in 1630 to design and build a church and three terraces of fine houses around a large square or piazza. The commission had been prompted by Charles I taking offence at the condition of the road and houses along Long Acre, which were the responsibility of Russell and Henry Carey, 2nd Earl of Monmouth. Russell and Carey complained that under the 1625 Proclamation concerning Buildings, which restricted building in and around London, they could not build new houses; the King then granted Russell, for a fee of £2,000, a licence to build as many new houses on his land as he "shall thinke fitt and convenient". The church of St Paul's was the first building, begun in July 1631 on the western side of the square. The last house was completed in 1637.

 

The houses initially attracted the wealthy, though when a market developed on the south side of the square around 1654, the aristocracy moved out and coffee houses, taverns, and prostitutes moved in. The Bedford Estate was expanded in 1669 to include Bloomsbury, when Lord Russell married Lady Rachel Vaughan, one of the daughters of the 4th Earl of Southampton.

 

By the 18th century, Covent Garden had become a well-known red-light district, attracting notable prostitutes such as Betty Careless and Jane Douglas. Descriptions of the prostitutes and where to find them were provided by Harris's List of Covent Garden Ladies, the "essential guide and accessory for any serious gentleman of pleasure". In 1830 a market hall was built to provide a more permanent trading centre. In 1913, Herbrand Russell, 11th Duke of Bedford agreed to sell the Covent Garden Estate for £2 million to the MP and land speculator Harry Mallaby-Deeley, who sold his option in 1918 to the Beecham family for £250,000.

 

Modern changes

 

Charles Fowler's 1830 neo-classical building restored as a retail market.

The Covent Garden Estate was part of Beecham Estates and Pills Limited from 1924 to 1928, after which time it was managed by a successor company called Covent Garden Properties Company Limited, owned by the Beechams and other private investors. This new company sold some properties at Covent Garden, while becoming active in property investment in other parts of London. In 1962 the bulk of the remaining properties in the Covent Garden area, including the market, were sold to the newly established government-owned Covent Garden Authority for £3,925,000.

 

By the end of the 1960s, traffic congestion had reached such a level that the use of the square as a modern wholesale distribution market was becoming unsustainable, and significant redevelopment was planned. Following a public outcry, buildings around the square were protected in 1973, preventing redevelopment. The following year the market moved to a new site in south-west London. The square languished until its central building re-opened as a shopping centre in 1980. An action plan was drawn up by Westminster Council in 2004 in consultation with residents and businesses to improve the area while retaining its historic character. The market buildings, along with several other properties in Covent Garden, were bought by a property company in 2006.

 

Geography

 

Historically, the Bedford Estate defined the boundary of Covent Garden, with Drury Lane to the east, the Strand to the south, St. Martin's Lane to the west, and Long Acre to the north. However, over time the area has expanded northwards past Long Acre to High Holborn, and since 1971, with the creation of the Covent Garden Conservation Area which incorporated part of the area between St Martins Lane and Charring Cross Road, the Western boundary is sometimes considered to be Charring Cross Road. Shelton Street, running parallel to the north of Long Acre, marks the London borough boundary between Camden and Westminster. Long Acre is the main thoroughfare, running north-east from St Martin's Lane to Drury Lane.

 

The area to the south of Long Acre contains the Royal Opera House, the market and central square, and most of the elegant buildings, theatres and entertainment facilities, including the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, and the London Transport Museum; while the area to the north of Long Acre is largely given over to independent retail units centred on Neal Street, Neal's Yard and Seven Dials; though this area also contains residential buildings such as Odhams Walk, built in 1981 on the site of the Odhams print works, and is home to over 6,000 residents.

 

Governance

The Covent Garden estate was originally under the control of Westminster Abbey and lay in the parish of St Margaret. During a reorganisation in 1542 it was transferred to St Martin in the Fields, and then in 1645 a new parish was created, splitting governance of the estate between the parishes of St Paul Covent Garden and St Martin, both still within the Liberty of Westminster. St Paul Covent Garden was completely surrounded by the parish of St Martin in the Fields. It was grouped into the Strand District in 1855 when it came within the area of responsibility of the Metropolitan Board of Works.

 

In 1889 the parish became part of the County of London and in 1900 it became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Westminster. It was abolished as a civil parish in 1922. Since 1965 Covent Garden falls within the London boroughs of Westminster and Camden, and is in the Parliamentary constituencies of Cities of London and Westminster and Holborn and St Pancras. For local council elections it falls within the St James's ward for Westminster, and the Holborn and Covent Garden ward for Camden.

 

Economy

 

The area's historic association with the retail and entertainment economy continues. In 1979, Covent Garden Market reopened as a retail centre; in 2010, the largest Apple Store in the world opened in The Piazza. The central hall has shops, cafes and bars alongside the Apple Market stalls selling antiques, jewellery, clothing and gifts; there are additional casual stalls in the Jubilee Hall Market on the south side of the square. Long Acre has a range of clothes shops and boutiques, and Neal Street is noted for its large number of shoe shops. London Transport Museum and the side entrance to the Royal Opera House box office and other facilities are also located on the square. During the late 1970s and 1980s the Rock Garden music venue was popular with up and coming punk rock and New Wave artists.

 

The market halls and several other buildings in Covent Garden were bought by CapCo in partnership with GE Real Estate in August 2006 for £421 million, on a 150-year head lease. The buildings are let to the Covent Garden Area Trust, who pay an annual peppercorn rent of one red apple and a posy of flowers for each head lease, and the Trust protects the property from being redeveloped. In March 2007 CapCo also acquired the shops located under the Royal Opera House. The complete Covent Garden Estate owned by CapCo consists of 550,000 sq ft (51,000 m2), and has a market value of £650 million.

 

Landmarks

 

The Royal Opera House, often referred to as simply "Covent Garden", was constructed as the "Theatre Royal" in 1732 to a design by Edward Shepherd. During the first hundred years or so of its history, the theatre was primarily a playhouse, with the Letters Patent granted by Charles II giving Covent Garden and Theatre Royal, Drury Lane exclusive rights to present spoken drama in London. In 1734, the first ballet was presented; a year later Handel's first season of operas began. Many of his operas and oratorios were specifically written for Covent Garden and had their premières here. It has been the home of The Royal Opera since 1945, and the Royal Ballet since 1946.

 

The current building is the third theatre on the site following destructive fires in 1808 and 1857. The façade, foyer and auditorium were designed by Edward Barry, and date from 1858, but almost every other element of the present complex dates from an extensive £178 million reconstruction in the 1990s. The Royal Opera House seats 2,268 people and consists of four tiers of boxes and balconies and the amphitheatre gallery. The stage performance area is roughly 15 metres square. The main auditorium is a Grade 1 listed building. The inclusion of the adjacent old Floral Hall, previously a part of the old Covent Garden Market, created a new and extensive public gathering place. In 1779 the pavement outside the playhouse was the scene of the murder of Martha Ray, mistress of the Earl of Sandwich, by her admirer the Rev. James Hackman.

 

Covent Garden square

 

Balthazar Nebot's 1737 painting of the square before the 1830 market hall was constructed.

The central square in Covent Garden is simply called "Covent Garden", often marketed as "Covent Garden Piazza" to distinguish it from the eponymous surrounding area. Laid out in 1630, it was the first modern square in London, and was originally a flat, open space or piazza with low railings. A casual market started on the south side, and by 1830 the present market hall was built. The space is popular with street performers, who audition with the site's owners for an allocated slot. The square was originally laid out when the 4th Earl of Bedford, Francis Russell, commissioned Inigo Jones to design and build a church and three terraces of fine houses around the site of a former walled garden belonging to Westminster Abbey. Jones's design was informed by his knowledge of modern town planning in Europe, particularly Piazza d'Arme, in Leghorn, Tuscany, Piazza San Marco in Venice, Piazza Santissima Annunziata in Florence, and the Place des Vosges in Paris. The centrepiece of the project was the large square, the concept of which was new to London, and this had a significant influence on modern town planning in the city,[56] acting as the prototype for the laying-out of new estates as the metropolis grew. Isaac de Caus, the French Huguenot architect, designed the individual houses under Jones's overall design.

 

The church of St Paul's was the first building, and was begun in July 1631 on the western side of the square. The last house was completed in 1637. Seventeen of the houses had arcaded portico walks organised in groups of four and six either side of James Street on the north side, and three and four either side of Russell Street. These arcades, rather than the square itself, took the name Piazza; the group from James Street to Russell Street became known as the "Great Piazza" and that to the south of Russell Street as the "Little Piazza". None of Inigo Jones's houses remain, though part of the north group was reconstructed in 1877–79 as Bedford Chambers by William Cubitt to a design by Henry Clutton.

 

Covent Garden market

 

The first record of a "new market in Covent Garden" is in 1654 when market traders set up stalls against the garden wall of Bedford House. The Earl of Bedford acquired a private charter from Charles II in 1670 for a fruit and vegetable market, permitting him and his heirs to hold a market every day except Sundays and Christmas Day. The original market, consisting of wooden stalls and sheds, became disorganised and disorderly, and the 6th Earl requested an Act of Parliament in 1813 to regulate it, then commissioned Charles Fowler in 1830 to design the neo-classical market building that is the heart of Covent Garden today. The contractor was William Cubitt and Company. Further buildings were added—the Floral hall, Charter Market, and in 1904 the Jubilee Market for foreign flowers was built by Cubitt and Howard.

 

By the end of the 1960s, traffic congestion was causing problems for the market, which required increasingly large lorries for deliveries and distribution. Redevelopment was considered, but protests from the Covent Garden Community Association in 1973 prompted the Home Secretary, Robert Carr, to give dozens of buildings around the square listed-building status, preventing redevelopment. The following year the market relocated to its new site, New Covent Garden Market, about three miles (5 km) south-west at Nine Elms. The central building re-opened as a shopping centre in 1980, with cafes, pubs, small shops and a craft market called the Apple Market. Another market, the Jubilee Market, is held in the Jubilee Hall on the south side of the square. The market halls and several other buildings in Covent Garden have been owned by the property company Capital & Counties Properties (CapCo) since 2006.

 

Theatre Royal, Drury Lane

 

The current Theatre Royal on Drury Lane is the most recent of four incarnations, the Second of which opened in 1663, making it the oldest continuously used theatre in London. For much of its first two centuries, it was, along with the Royal Opera House, a patent theatre granted rights in London for the production of drama, and had a claim to be one of London's leading theatres. The first theatre, known as "Theatre Royal, Bridges Street", saw performances by Nell Gwyn and Charles Hart. After it was destroyed by fire in 1672, English dramatist and theatre manager Thomas Killigrew engaged Christopher Wren to build a larger theatre on the same spot, which opened in 1674. This building lasted nearly 120 years, under leadership including Colley Cibber, David Garrick, and Richard Brinsley Sheridan. In 1791, under Sheridan's management, the building was demolished to make way for a larger theatre which opened in 1794; but that survived only 15 years, burning down in 1809. The building that stands today opened in 1812. It has been home to actors as diverse as Shakespearean actor Edmund Kean, child actress Clara Fisher, comedian Dan Leno, the comedy troupe Monty Python (who recorded a concert album there), and musical composer and performer Ivor Novello. Since November 2008 the theatre has been owned by composer Andrew Lloyd Webber and generally stages popular musical theatre. It is a Grade I listed building.

 

London Transport Museum

 

The London Transport Museum is in a Victorian iron and glass building on the east side of the market square. It was designed as a dedicated flower market by William Rogers of William Cubitt and Company in 1871, and was first occupied by the museum in 1980. Previously the transport collection had been held at Syon Park and Clapham. The first parts of the collection were brought together at the beginning of the 20th century by the London General Omnibus Company (LGOC) when it began to preserve buses being retired from service. After the LGOC was taken over by the London Electric Railway (LER), the collection was expanded to include rail vehicles. It continued to expand after the LER became part of the London Passenger Transport Board in the 1930s and as the organisation passed through various successor bodies up to TfL, London's transport authority since 2000. The Covent Garden building has on display many examples of buses, trams, trolleybuses and rail vehicles from 19th and 20th centuries as well as artefacts and exhibits related to the operation and marketing of passenger services and the impact that the developing transport network has had on the city and its population.

 

St Paul's Church

 

St Paul's, commonly known as the Actors' Church, was designed by Inigo Jones as part of a commission by Francis Russell in 1631 to create "houses and buildings fitt for the habitacons of Gentlemen and men of ability". Work on the church began that year and was completed in 1633, at a cost of £4,000, with it becoming consecrated in 1638. In 1645 Covent Garden was made a separate parish and the church was dedicated to St Paul. It is uncertain how much of Jones's original building is left, as the church was damaged by fire in 1795 during restoration work by Thomas Hardwick; though it is believed that the columns are original—the rest is mostly Georgian or Victorian reconstruction.

 

Culture

 

The Covent Garden area has long been associated with both entertainment and shopping, and this continues. Covent Garden has 13 theatres, and over 60 pubs and bars, with most south of Long Acre, around the main shopping area of the old market. The Seven Dials area in the north of Covent Garden was home to the punk rock club The Roxy in 1977, and the area remains focused on young people with its trendy mid-market retail outlets.

 

Street performance

 

Street entertainment at Covent Garden was noted in Samuel Pepys's diary in May 1662, when he recorded the first mention of a Punch and Judy show in Britain. Impromptu performances of song and swimming were given by local celebrity William Cussans in the eighteenth century. Covent Garden is licensed for street entertainment, and performers audition for timetabled slots in a number of venues around the market, including the North Hall, West Piazza, and South Hall Courtyard. The courtyard space is dedicated to classical music only. There are street performances at Covent Garden Market every day of the year, except Christmas Day. Shows run throughout the day and are about 30 minutes in length. In March 2008, the market owner, CapCo, proposed to reduce street performances to one 30-minute show each hour.

 

Pubs and bars

 

The Covent Garden area has over 60 pubs and bars; several of them are listed buildings, with some also on CAMRA's National Inventory of Historic Pub Interiors; some, such as The Harp in Chandos Place, have received consumer awards. The Harp's awards include London Pub of the Year in 2008 by the Society for the Preservation of Beers from the Wood, and National Pub of the Year by CAMRA in 2011. It was at one time owned by the Charrington Brewery, when it was known as The Welsh Harp; in 1995 the name was abbreviated to just The Harp, before Charrington sold it to Punch Taverns in 1997. It has been owned by the landlady since 2010.

 

The Lamb and Flag in Rose Street has a reputation as the oldest pub in the area, though records are not clear. The first mention of a pub on the site is 1772 (when it was called the Cooper's Arms – the name changing to Lamb & Flag in 1833); the 1958 brick exterior conceals what may be an early 18th-century frame of a house replacing the original one built in 1638.[94] The pub acquired a reputation for staging bare-knuckle prize fights during the early 19th century when it earned the nickname "Bucket of Blood". The alleyway beside the pub was the scene of an attack on John Dryden in 1679 by thugs hired by John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, with whom he had a long-standing conflict.

 

The Salisbury in St. Martin's Lane was built as part of a six-storey block around 1899 on the site of an earlier pub that had been known under several names, including the Coach & Horses and Ben Caunt's Head; it is both Grade II listed, and on CAMRA's National Inventory, due to the quality of the etched and polished glass and the carved woodwork, summed up as "good fin de siècle ensemble". The Freemasons Arms on Long Acre is linked with the founding of the Football Association in 1896; however, the meetings took place at The Freemasons Tavern on Great Queen Street, which was replaced in 1909 by the Connaught Rooms.

 

Other pubs that are Grade II listed are of minor interest, they are three 19th century rebuilds of 17th century/18th century houses, the Nell Gwynne Tavern in Bull Inn Court, the Nag's Head on James Street, and the White Swan on New Row; a Victorian pub built by lessees of the Marquis of Exeter, the Old Bell on the corner of Exeter Street and Wellington Street; and a late 18th or early 19th century pub the Angel and Crown on St. Martin's Lane.

 

Cultural connections

 

Covent Garden, and especially the market, have appeared in a number of works. Eliza Doolittle, the central character in George Bernard Shaw's play, Pygmalion, and the musical adaptation by Alan Jay Lerner, My Fair Lady, is a Covent Garden flower seller. Alfred Hitchcock's 1972 film Frenzy about a Covent Garden fruit vendor who becomes a serial sex killer, was set in the market where his father had been a wholesale greengrocer. The daily activity of the market was the topic of a 1957 Free Cinema documentary by Lindsay Anderson, Every Day Except Christmas, which won the Grand Prix at the Venice Festival of Shorts and Documentaries.

 

Transport

 

Covent Garden is served by the Piccadilly line at Covent Garden tube station on the corner of Long Acre and James Street. The station was opened by Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway on 11 April 1907, four months after services on the rest of the line began operating on 15 December 1906. Platform access is only by lift or stairs; until improvements to the exit gates in 2007, due to high passenger numbers (16 million annually), London Underground had to advise travellers to get off at Leicester Square and walk the short distance (the tube journey at less than 300 yards is London's shortest) to avoid the congestion. Stations just outside the area include the Charing Cross tube station and Charing Cross railway station, Leicester Square tube station, and Holborn tube station. While there is only one bus route in Covent Garden itself—the RV1, which uses Catherine Street as a terminus, just to the east of Covent Garden square—there are over 30 routes which pass close by, mostly on the Strand or Kingsway.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covent_Garden

Replacing this photo with better version 18-May-18

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWIM, this aircraft was delivered to SALE (Singapore Aircraft Leasing Enterprise - later renamed BOC Aviation Leasing) and leased to Aero Lloyd, Germany as D-ALAT in May-03. Aero Lloyd ceased trading in Oct-03 and the aircraft was repossessed by the lessor. It was being made ready for a winter wet-lease to Funjet Vacations (USA) which had been due to start on 03-Nov-13. In Dec-03 the aircraft was leased to Ryan International Airlines USA and flown by ex Aero Lloyd crews to fulfil the Funjet contract. It returned to SALE in May-04 and was briefly re-registered N996SE before being leased to Volare Airlines (Italy) in Jun-04 as I-PEKV. Volare ceased operations in Nov-04 and it was repossessed again and parked at Milan-Malpensa. It was re-registered EI-DIX to SALE (Ireland) Ltd and ferried to Cambridge, UK, for storage. In Apr-05 the aircraft was leased to Turkish Airlines as TC-JLL. It returned to BOC Aviation Leasing in May-15 and was immediately leased to Aegean Airlines as SX-DGX. Current (Feb-19).

 

I also have a photo of this in Turkish Airlines livery at ...

www.flickr.com/photos/kenfielding/4651971820

Replacing an earlier photo from Apr-15 with a better version Apr-17.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWAJ in Nov-13. Interior fitout and painting at Airbus Hamburg-Finkenwerder was completed in Jun-14 and the aircraft was stored at Finkenwerder until it was delivered to Qatar Airways as A7-APB in Nov-14. Current (May-17).

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 10-Jan-20.

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N6038E, this aircraft was delivered to Airtours International Airways as G-SJMC in Mar-94. It was wet-leased to Garuda Indonesia Airlines on a Haj Pilgrimage operation between Jan/Mar-02.

 

In May-02 Airtours was renamed MyTravel Airways and more Garuda Haj Pilgrimage operations took place between Jan/Mar-03, Dec-03/Feb-04 and Dec-04/Feb-05.

 

In Apr-05 the aircraft was leased to SkyService Airlines (Canada) as C-GLMC, but not for long... It suffered a 'very' heavy landing at Punta Cana. Dominican Republic in May-05.

 

It bounced and landed nosewheel first causing severe damage to the landing gear, wings and fuselage. It was almost written off and was at Punta Cana for five months being repaired. In Oct-05 it was ferried to Portland, OR, USA for repainting and returned to service with MyTravel Airways as G-SJMC in Nov-05.

 

The aircraft was re-registered G-TCCA in Feb-08 and MyTravel Airways was merged into Thomas Cook Airlines UK at the end of Mar-08. In Nov-08 another Haj Pilgrimage was operated for Garuda Indonesian Airlines with the aircraft returning to Thomas Cook in Jan-09.

 

The Thomas Cook Group also owned Condor Flugdienst and in Dec-13 the aircraft was wet leased to Condor for the winter, returning to Thomas Cook UK at the end of Apr-14. The winter lease was repeated between Nov-14/Apr-15 and Nov-15/Apr-16.

 

It operated its last service for Thomas Cook UK in Oct-16 and was again leased to Condor in early Nov-16. The aircraft operated its last passenger service from Varadero to Frankfurt on 18/19-Nov-16, ferried back to Thomas Cook UK and was stored at Manchester.

 

It was sold to a lessor and leased to Atlas Air as N1373A in Feb-17 and ferried to Tel Aviv for freighter conversion. The aircraft was converted to 'F' with a main deck cargo door in Oct-17 and operated for Amazon Prime Air in Nov-17.

 

Now 28.5 years old, it continues in service. Updated 01-Dec-22.

The Palladium Theatre was built in 1920. It replaced Llandudno’s first market hall, which was built on the site by the Llandudno Market Company in 1864.

 

The Palladium was initially built “to carry on the business of kinematograph hall, theatre, music hall, opera house, circus and entertainment proprietors etc”. Kinematograph was an early name for film.

 

The building was designed by Arthur Hewitt, whose other works in Llandudno include Clare’s Department Store and the Washington Hotel (which also features a dome). He was a Llandudno councillor and, in the Second World War, a Home Guard commanding officer.

 

The theatre had 1,500 seats in the stalls and two balconies. It had its own orchestra, offering a blend of drama, variety, musical comedy and ballet. One the stars who performed here was Gracie Fields (1898-1979), who grew up in Rochdale. She was a famous singer and actress, making the transition from music hall to cinema films and television.

 

For many years after the Second World War the Palladium functioned principally as a cinema. In 1972 it was split, with a bingo hall occupying the stalls area and a 600-seat cinema above.

 

In 2001 the building was converted by Wetherspoons into a cavernous pub which still retains many of the original features of the theatre.

 

historypoints.org/index.php?page=the-palladium

Replacing an earlier 6"x4" scanned print with a better version 17-Nov-14, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 01-Jul-23.

 

I was unable to read off the serial on this C-141 but thanks to my friend James Hoyle, I now have the serial and date.

The Paddle Steamer Phantom replaced the smaller ferries on the Circular Quay to Manly run in 1859. This image - dated around 1860 - shows the level of development around Manly Cove at that time. This image has been included to indicate the development at Manly at the time the Huntress was operational on the Manly run.

 

The Phantom was a steel vessel - substantially larger than the smaller wooden ferries such as the Huntress that operated the service a few years beforehand.

 

HUNTRESS

The Huntress was built by Alexander Newton and William Malcolm at Pelican on the Manning River in 1853. She operated out of the Hunter River and Sydney Harbour with some brief periods on the Hawkesbury River before being purchased by New Zealand interests. This section deals with the Australian operations - 1853 -1860. Details of her operation in New Zealand Operation are to be found in New Zealand Operation

 

Other images related the Huntress are found in the Album HUNTRESS

 

SECTION 1. AUSTRALIAN OPERATION (1853 - 1860)

 

Details :

Name: Huntress

Type: Schooner Rigged, Cutter/Paddle Steamer.

Length: 89.1 ft

Beam: 16.2 ft

Draft: 7.6 ft

Engine: 2 x 40 h.p. Steam/Built and installed by G. Russell & Co (Sydney)

Builder: Alexander Newton and William Malcolm

Launched: September 1853, Pelican Shipyards, Manning River, NSW.

Registered: Sydney '147/1853' - '25/9/1853'

Re-Registered: Sydney 25/1857

Tonnage: Suggest 54.45 tons

Propelling Power: 32.01

Official Number: ON 032617

Construction:

-Carvel Planked

-Square Stern

 

Owners:

Australia

1853 -1856 Messrs. J. & A. Brown, of Newcastle.

1856 -1860 Thomas Stephenson Rountree [often incorrectly referred to as Rowntree], of Balmain.

 

New Zealand

1860 -1864 Government of Hawke’s Bay Province, New Zealand (registered Napier) Thomas Henry Fitzgerald. 12th March 1860.

1864 -1866 Donald McLean

1866 -1867 G. Edward Reid, 6th December 1866 (registered Auckland)

1867 -1871 William Souter 10th January 1867

1871 -1872 J. S. MacFarlane & Co.

 

HISTORY:

 

1853

NEW STEAMER. A contract for the building of a new steamboat was finally concluded yesterday by Messrs Malcolm and Newton. The matter has been under consideration for some time past, yet in consequence of some proposed alteration with regard to the vessel, it was only determined yesterday. The dimensions will be about 85 ft. keel, 16 ft. beam, and fore hold 7 ft. She will be built at Messrs. Malcolm and Newton’s yard on the Manning River. Her intended trade has not been given. The Maitland Mercury 5 March 1853.

(The side-wheel paddle-steamer Huntress was the only steamship built at the Pelican shipyard on the Manning River.)

 

MAIDEN VOYAGE

“The Phantom, ketch, has cleared out for the Manning River, taking up with her Captain Malcolm and a crew to bring down the new steamer [Huntress] lately built at that place by Messrs. Newton and Malcolm, the well-known shipwrights. The steamer is intended for the Hunter River trade, to ply between Newcastle and Morpeth, and is also to be used as a tug boat.

The steamer will come from the Manning under canvas to receive her engines, and proceed immediately to her destination. This will be a novel feature on the Hunter, and we congratulate the inhabitants on their new acquisition. The builders’ well-earned fame is sufficient guarantee of the faithfulness and superiority of build in the new boat.” The Maitland Mercury and Hunter General Advertiser - 6 August 1853

 

UNDER CANVAS - THREE MASTS

THE HUNTRESS STEAMER. This vessel arrived here on Sunday, the 25th, from the Manning River, for the purpose of being fitted with her engines, &c., which have been constructed by Mr. G. Russell, and, as a specimen of colonial shipbuilding, is worthy of some attention. She is intended for a tug-boat on the Hunter River, and will at the same time carry goods and passengers. Her dimensions are as follows:-Length of keel 86 feet 6 inches, depth of hold 7 feet 6 inches; draws when loaded 5 feet 10 inches aft, 5 feet 1 inch forward, and will be propelled by two engines of the united power of 80 horses. Her builders, Messrs. Newton and Malcolm (who also built the Scotia), have adhered to the usual American system adopted in their river boats, which allows of deck houses being placed on vessels if required, but at present she is flush fore and aft. She is owned by Messrs. J. and A. Brown, of Newcastle, and came up from the Manning rigged as a three–masted schooner, with a large cargo of grain, and proved an excellent sea-boat. [Captain James Malcolm, the agent, has politely furnished the above particulars.]

The Maitland Mercury - 1 October 1853

 

The same newspaper reported the Huntress arrived, from the Manning {26th September], with 1604 bushels grain, 65 hides, 2 tons bags, 700 felloes, 5000 feet timber, 2 casks beef, casks 2 paunches tallow.

 

CONVERSION TO STEAMER AND TRIALS

The Huntress was converted to a steam tug over a period of around three months; it appears that her central mast was removed leaving one fore and one rear mast [this needs checking]. She made a trial trip down to the Heads on 30th December 1853; she went from Pinchgut to the South Reef in 25 minutes, and from the reef to Millers Point in 31 minutes. On the 6th January 1854 she completed her trials, attaining 11 knots an hour outside the Heads.

 

1854

NEWCASTLE

On January the 24th 1854 the Huntress arrived at Newcastle to take up her new duties as the Newcastle steam-tug. On the 25th January she towed out a schooner on the and then proceeded to Morpeth in around four hours, returning to Newcastle on the 1st February to tow out the Mary Nicholson.

 

HUNTRESS RE-LOCATED TO SYDNEY

After 9 months operation on the Hunter River as a ferry from Morpeth to Newcastle and operating as a steam-tug as needed, Huntress was advertised for sale - firstly by Private Treaty and subsequently by auction. With no sale, she was moved to Sydney in November 1854 where she commenced operation as a charter boat. Almost immediately she commenced operation as a ferry taking passengers to observe the Balmain Regatta The Sydney Morning Herald - 30 November 1854. She was again offered for sale the following January

 

1855

WINDSOR SOJOURN

On the 1st February 1855 Huntress was sent to Windsor as so eloquently described:

"On Friday afternoon last [2nd Feb 1855], shortly before two o'clock, several gun-shots were suddenly heard fired in quick succession from the neighbourhood of Thompson's square, and numbers of men, women, and children might be seen hurrying towards the river. What could be the cause of this consternation, thought we? Nothing more nor less than the anxiously looked for arriving of the Huntress steamer, " walking the waters" of our noble Hawkesbury " like a thing of life!" The Huntress left Sydney the day previous and was twenty-four hours on the water, though actually under steam only thirteen hours and a half, having rested at night. We are informed that the passage might have been, and can be made easily in twelve hours, but this, being the maiden trip, was performed cautiously and under suppressed power. Although fears were entertained that the vessel might have met with some obstruction on the way up, we believe she met with none, having found water deep enough the whole distance. As she hauled alongside the temporary wharf erected by the charterers, it was amusing to observe the eager interest and excitement she occasioned amongst the inhabitants, particularly the young, many of whom, we believe, never beheld such a sight before. Fortunately there were not very many passengers on board, and the captain and managers exhibited much good nature, otherwise the crowds of people, including children, who rushed upon the decks and examined the accommodation and machinery, might have been felt to be very inconvenient. We hail the arrival at our wharf of the little Huntress with much satisfaction, and hope she may prove the harbinger of a more extended system of steam communication upon the Hawkesbury, to be carried out at no distant day, and which will to some extent aid in developing the resources of our important district. At present, the steamer will be used for pleasure and excursion trips only, the first of which will take place on Monday. The Sydney Morning Herald - 6 February 1855.

 

RETURN TO SYDNEY CHARTER FERRY

After a short stay at Windsor she returned to Sydney where she was regularly chartered for ferrying passengers to various events. For a time she was leased to Henry Gilbert Smith, who used her as one of the first ferries on the Sunday Manly run.

 

1856

PADDLE WHEELS IMPROVED

MR. RANKEN’S NEW PADDLE – WHEEL FLOAT’S .

Some interest has lately been caused by an invention which is intended to do away with much of the loss of power, and therefore of speed in the common paddle-wheels and floats now in use in most steamers.

A trial has been made with Mr. Ranken’s improvement in the Huntress, running between Circular Quay and Cremorne, and the result is stated as having been very favourable. Upon this Mr. Ranken applied to the Australian Steam Navigation Company for leave to fit one of their sea-going vessels after the same fashion, for a trial of a hundred miles or so; but by some misunderstanding the two parties have come to issue, and science is disappointed. Whichever may be right, it is a pity that more cannot be known of the capabilities of discovery; anything that can increase speed, husband power or lessen the coal bill in steamboats, is a world wide benefit.

The invention, it seems, is simple, but the most simple efforts, have almost always been the manner in which genius works.

The following is a description, :- Upon the common paddle-wheel float, which strikes the water mostly at an angle of 45 degrees, is fitted an iron binding, and to use a homely simile, very like the turned up edges of a dust pan; this is meant to compress the water more solidly within a space, so that the propelling power may have more grip whereby to send the vessel ahead; but on account of a greater force being required to drive the paddle-wheels fitted like this, every alternate float is unshipped. As we believe, in the case of the Huntress in smooth water, Mr. Ranken’s plan answered as well as could be wished; still it is quite another matter with a ship in a sea-way, it being a question whether or not any such iron binding will ever stand the surging of the wheels in a heavy roll, either ahead or on the beam, which nothing can decide except a fair trial in the open sea. The Sydney Morning Herald - 5 July 1856.

 

1857

SYDNEY HARBOUR

In addition to charters and towing contracts, Huntress was regularly utilised on Sydney Harbour to transport passengers to the gardens at Cremorne every Sunday.

 

RETURN TO WINDSOR

During the winter of 1857, Huntress was sent to Windsor where she transported goods that were then sold by auction in Sydney. "SALES BY AUCTION. REGULAR PRODUCE SALE.

MR. W. PRITCHARD will sell by auction, on the Ground Floor of his New Mart, 70, Sussex-street, late Brierley, Dean, and Co.'s Stores, on WEDNESDAY, at 11 o'clock,

300 bushels of wheat, ex Huntress, from Windsor 300 ditto maize, ditto, ditto .

325 ditto fresh coarse bran, ditto, ditto

Also, several other parcels of maize, wheat, bran, hay, hides, sheepskins, tallow, &c., &c.

At half-past 11.

Chaff cutters, corn shellers, corn measures, &c., &c. 385"

Empire - 7 July 1857

On one of these voyages she encountered a sunken ketch on the Hawkesbury River. "The Huntress (s.), from the Hawkesbury, reports having seen, while coming down the river, a ketch sunk, with masts and sails standing. They found it to be the ketch Traveller, with the usual cargo; the mate of the Huntress made several attempts to tow her, but found she was too heavy, and as compelled to leave her there. It is not known whether the crew were saved or went down with the vessel." The Maitland Mercury - 9 July 1857

 

1858 - 1860

CONVERTED

 

ADVERTISED FOR SALE

Over this period the only activity reported was a regular series of advertisements in 1858 offering Huntress for sale. "Also, the powerful steamer HUNTRESS, 84 tons, and 50 H.P., capable of carrying 60 tons cargo, and 250 passengers on river service. The above vessels now lie for inspection in Waterview Bay. Apply to ROWNTREE [ROUNTREE] and CO., Mort's Dry Dock; or T. S. MORT and CO., Pitt-street. The Sydney Morning Herald - 16 October 1858.

 

CONVERTED TO DREDGE

Few details are available for the years 1858/59 but it appears that Huntress was converted into a dredge but details are unclear. She was reportedly re-measured as 86 gross tons 54 net but this requires confirmation.

 

PURCHASED BY NEW ZEALAND INTERESTS

In 1860 it was confirmed that the Huntress had been purchased by Mr. G. Griffith, as agent for the Provincial Government of Hawkes Bay. "The steamer Huntress, recently the property of Captain Rountree, but since purchased from him by Mr. G. Griffith, the agent in Sydney for the Provincial Government of Hawkes Bay, New Zealand, made a trial trip yesterday prior to her departure. She proceeded down the harbour and a few miles to sea. She averaged fully ten knots under steam, and under canvas was remarkably steady and easy. She is to be used as a steam-dredge for the harbour of Napier, Hawkes Bay, for which she has competent machinery, in addition to an effective set of new get, ordered from England." The Sydney Morning Herald - 27 March 1860.

She departed for Hawkes Bay on March on March 27th 1860.

 

Image Source: Image Collection of the State Library of NSW.

 

GREAT LAKES MANNING RIVER SHIPPING, NSW - Flick Group --> Alphabetical Boat Index --> Boat builders Index --> Tags List

  

I have replaced the original colour version of this image as I think mono provides greater impact. The colour version can be seen here...

 

flickr.com/gp/27610886@N03/AfSxUM

This ride replaced a Little Monsters School Bus ride from Jolly Roger (1998 reissue)

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 20-Aug-18.

 

Fleet No: '640'. In Canadian Airlines final livery.

 

This aircraft was delivered to Canadian Airlines International as C-FOCA in Jun-90. Canadian Airlines was merged into Air Canada in Apr-01. The aircraft was wet-leased to QANTAS Airways in Apr-01 for the 2001 summer season, returning to Air Canada in Oct-01. It was withdrawn from service in Mar-20 and initially stored at Montreal-Dorval due to the COVID-19 Pandemic. It was ferried to Marana, AZ, USA in Jun-20 for continued storage. As it's now 30.5 years old it's quite possible that it will be permanently retired. Stored, updated Feb-21.