"The KIA ProCeed combines the elegance of a coupé with the practical refinement of a sportswagon"...

...but if you want to haul actual stuff, get an old model Volvo estate - you know, one with flat sides and a vertical tailend.

Bonnie’s turn to wear the hat! She teamed it with Refinement Vanessa’s fab coat from 2015

_DSC9021S

Central Air Force Museum at Monino Airfield. Moscow

Центральный Музей ВВС. Монино.

The Tupolev ANT-40, also known by its service name Tupolev SB (Russian: Скоростной бомбардировщик – Skorostnoi Bombardirovschik – "high speed bomber"), and development co-name TsAGI-40, was a high speed twin-engined three-seat monoplane bomber, first flown in 1934.

The design was very advanced, but lacked refinement, much to the dismay of crews and maintenance personnel – and of Stalin, who pointed out that "there are no trivialities in aviation".

Numerically the most important bomber in the world in the late 1930s, the SB was the first modern stressed-skin aircraft produced in quantity in the Soviet Union and probably the most formidable bomber of the mid-1930s. Many versions saw extensive action in Spain, the Republic of China, Mongolia, Finland and at the beginning of the War against Germany in 1941. It was also used in various duties in civil variants, as trainers and in many secondary roles.

Successful in the Spanish Civil War because it outpaced most fighters, the aircraft was obsolete by 1941. By June 1941, 94% of bombers in the Red Army air force (VVS RKKA) were SBs.

In 1933 the Soviet Air Force ministry (UVVS) issued an outline requirement for a high-speed bomber. Work on this proposal at TsAGI began in January 1934. The SB was designed and developed in the Tupolev KB ("Design Bureau") by a team led by A. A. Arkhangelski. Two versions were planned – with Wright Cyclone radial engines (ANT-40 RTs), and with the Hispano-Suiza 12Y liquid-cooled V12 engines (ANT-40 IS). The skills gained in the design of the MI-3 and DI-8 aircraft were widely used. The first two prototypes were designed as ANT-40.1 and ANT-40.2. The Cyclone powered prototype flew first, on 7 October 1934, with the first Hispano-Suiza powered prototype (ANT-401), which featured a larger wing, flew on 30 December 1934, demonstrating superior performance.

The second Hispano-Suiza powered aircraft, the ANT-402 was considered a production prototype, and its performance was impressive. It was however plagued by teething problems, leading unhappy test personnel to cover the ANT-402 with placards listing the aircraft's defects prior to a visit by Sergo Ordzhonikidze, the Commissar for Heavy Industry. On seeing these placards, Ordzhonikidze summoned Tupolev to a meeting at the Kremlin to discuss these shortfalls. When Tupolev stated that most of the defects were trivial. On hearing this, Joseph Stalin said:

There are no trivialities in aviation; everything is serious and any uncorrected 'triviality' could lead to the loss of an aircraft and its crew.

The first production aircraft, designated SB, rolled off the production line before the end of 1935, and before ANT-402 had completed its flight test programme.[5] The aircraft entered full production in 1936, and was produced in two plants, State Aircraft Factory No 22 at Moscow and No 125 at Irkutsk until 1941.

Despite the fact that the assembly lines were plagued with a constant string of modifications, some 400 SBs were delivered by the end of 1936 – a number of these being diverted to Spain – and 24 VVS squadrons were in the process of working up with the new bomber. Giving excellent performance in the Spanish Civil War, it acquired the popular name "Katyusha" (Catherine).

In 1937, negotiations were successfully concluded between the Soviet and Czechoslovak governments for the supply of SB bombers and a licence for local production in exchange for the right to produce the Skoda 75 mm Model 1936 mountain gun. The version of the SB to be supplied to, and subsequently license-built as the Avia B-71 was fundamentally the SB 2M-100A but fitted with the Avia-built Hispano-Suiza 12-Ydrs engine. A single 7.92 mm ZB-30 machine gun supplanted the twin ShKAS machine guns in the nose and similar weapons were provided for the dorsal and ventral stations.

Sixty aircraft were to be flown to Czechoslovakia by mid-1938. The planned licensed production program took a decidedly leisurely course, despite the increasingly dangerous political situation. By 15 March 1939, when the German Wehrmacht occupied Bohemia and Moravia, not one Czech-built aircraft had been delivered.

Development of the SB continued, meanwhile, with revisions being made to reflect the lessons of early operations in Spain. As problems were encountered in converting pilots to fly the SB, a trainer version, the USB was built in September 1937, with a modified nose with an open cockpit for an instructor and dual controls. Problems were also encountered with the aircraft's armament, with the nose guns having limited traverse and so being little use against head-on attacks. Later aircraft were modified with a better field of fire. From 1940 the dorsal gun position was replaced by an enclosed turret, while the ventral gun position, which was difficult to use effectively, was also modified.

The aircraft was also progressively fitted with improved engines. At first it was equipped with the Klimov M-100, a license-built version of the Hispano-Suiza 12Ybrs engine, but this was soon replaced by the more powerful M-100A, and from 1938 by the yet more powerful M-103. While the engine installation of the SB 2-M103 initially retained the drag inducing frontal radiators of the M-100 powered aircraft, an improved engine installation was developed with the radiators slung under the engines.[15] On 2 September 1937 M.Yu. Alexeev set an official altitude record of 12,246 m (40,177 ft) with load of 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) in an M-103 powered SB. He had earlier set an unofficial record of 12,695 m (41,650 ft).

In an attempt to further improve the performance of the SB, which by 1939 was becoming obsolete, the development of two second-generation versions were authorised, a direct replacement for the SB and a specialised dive bomber. The level bomber, known as the SN-MN or MMN, had a new wing of reduced wing area and was powered by more powerful Klimov M-105 engines. Performance was little better than the standard aircraft, however, and it was abandoned. The dive-bomber, designated SB-RK (later redesignated Arkhangelsky Ar-2 after its designer, with Tupolev having been imprisoned and being in disgrace) was similar to the MMN but was fitted with dive brakes. Testing was successful, and it was ordered into production.

Even though the SB was no longer a state of the art aircraft, production continued to increase through 1939 and 1940, as the Soviet Union tried to build up the strength of their air forces to compete with the growing threat of Nazi Germany, with almost 4,000 being built in these two years. The SB was phased out of production in early 1941, being replaced by the Petlyakov Pe-2. A total of 5,695 were built at Factory No 22 at Moscow before it was evacuated to Kazan, while Factory No 125 built a further 1,136 at Irkutsk. Three prototypes were built at the Tupolev design bureau, while Aero Vodochody and Avia in Czechoslovakia built 45 and 66 respectively, giving a total of 6,945 built.

The SB was an all-metal monoplane powered by two Klimov M-100 12-cylinder water-cooled engines (license production version of Hispano-Suiza 12-Yrds engine) which drove fixed-pitch two-bladed metal propellers. The engines were provided with honeycomb-type frontal radiators enclosed by vertical thermostat-controlled cooling shutters. At an early production stage, the M-100 engine gave place to an improved M-100A engine, driving ground-adjustable three-pitch propellers, with speed being boosted to 423 km/h (263 mph) at 4,000 m (13,000 ft). Because of its broad, high aspect ratio wing, that gave it a good altitude performance – Russian crews nicknamed the SB the "Pterodactyl"

After war, many ANT-40s that survived the Second World War were scrapped. In the late 1970s, however, Vozdushni Transport (A Soviet aviation newspaper) sent an expedition led by Evgeny Konoplev to survey an ANT-40 that was forced to land during a snow storm near the Yuzhne Muiski mountain range in the Baikal region. Konoplev considered what they found encouraging, with the aircraft being in fairly decent condition, in turn leading a team of VVS pilots to recover the airplane. It was returned to Moscow and restored by a group of volunteer Tupolev employees. The restored aircraft was unveiled in April 1982 at the Central Air Force Museum at Monino Airfield, the only known surviving ANT-40 of the almost 7,000 built.

Starting off the day with refinement of one of my all time SF faves. New updates are on its way soon.

Strong, feminine, elegant, and powerful illustration. I really love it and she's all in my mind now.

I am very glad to customise minifigures. The process is long and challenging. I wish you will like the final result.

The modifications continue of this 60074-based model! I've made heavy changes to coloration of certain parts, and refinement of the blade portion of the bulldozer. Only 82 bricks to still find for the bulldozer as of right now. (of which 70 are tread links.)

coat, dress, knee-highs - Clear Lan

boots - Three Hour Tour outfit

purse - Refinement Vanessa

earrings - IT Girl Poppy

Lamchabang city, oil refinery industry plant at twilight morning

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the model, the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

Some background:

The SAAB B31 was a Swedish jet-powered multirole aircraft, originally designed to serve as a tactical bomber, ground attack, reconnaissance and interceptor aircraft. In the aftermath of the Second World War, Sweden set about the rebuilding and modernization of its armed forces. Regarding aviation, jet propulsion had been identified as the powerplant of the future, and experience with the SAAB 21R, which had been converted from a propeller-pusher aircraft into a jet-powered fighter and attack aircraft in 1947, bolstered confidence in the home industry’s competence. The Saab 21R was only an interim solution, though. One hundred and twenty-four aircraft were planned but this number was reduced to only 64 and they were mainly used as fighter-bombers. The Flygvapnet’s standard post-war bomber, the Saab 18, a twin piston-engine design from 1944, was outdated, too, and its performance was regarded as inadequate for the Fifties. This led to a major development initiative for modern jet aircraft for the Flygvapnet in 1946, which spawned the Saab 29 ‘Tunnan’ fighter and the Saab B31 light bomber. Both aircraft were initially designed around the de Havilland Goblin turbojet of British origin, but when the more powerful de Havilland Ghost became available, this was chosen as the standard powerplant. Both aircraft incorporated such modern features as swept wings or ejection seats.

When the Saab 32’s fighter version, the J 32B, eventually became operational in 1958, it was clear that the heavy and highly limited twin-engine J31B would not remain in service for much longer. By 1963 all machines had been retired from frontline service, initially stored in reserve but scrapped by 1970. Two machines remained operational, though: as flying test beds for the Swedish Air Force’s Försökscentralen (FC) at Malmen AB, where they served until 1981 – primarily to test radar and missile guidance systems, and as radar targets for war games and anti-aircraft unit trainings.

General characteristics:

Crew: 2

Length: 15,76 m (51 ft 7 1/2 in)

Wingspan: 16.96 m (55 ft 2/3 in)

Height: 4,21 m (13 ft 9 1/2 in)

Wing area: 45 m2 (480 sq ft)

Empty weight: 9,000 kg (19,823 lb)

Gross weight: 17,500 kg (38,546 lb)

….Max takeoff weight: 19,000 kg (41,850 lb)

Fuel capacity: 5,100 L (1,350 US gal / 1,120 imp gal) maximum internal fuel

plus 2x 570 L (150 US gal, 120 imp gal) optional drop-tanks

Powerplant:

2× Svenska Flygmotor RM2F centrifugal-flow turbojet engine (Rolls Royce Ghost), each with

4,750 lbf (21.1 kN) dry thrust at 10,250 rpm and

5,400 lbf (24.02 kN) with temporary water-alcohol injection

Performance:

Maximum speed: 1,090 km/h (677 mph, 588 kn; Mach 0.9) at 10,000 ft (3,000 m)

Cruise speed: 732 km/h (455 mph, 395 kn)

Stall speed: 150 km/h (92.8 mph, 80.6 kn) with approach power

Combat range: 1.850 km (1,145 mi, 995 nmi) on internals

Ferry range: 2.200 km (1,375 mi, 1,195 nmi) with 2× 570 l drop-tanks

Service ceiling: 16,200 m (53,062 ft)

Rate of climb: 40 m/s (7.681 ft/min)

Wing loading: 87.1 lb/sq ft (388 kg/m²)

Thrust/weight: 0.32

Armament:

4× 20 mm (0.79 in) akan m/47C (license produced Hispano Mark V) autocannon with 220 RPG

48× 75 mm (3.0 in) srak m/55 (Bofors 75 mm (3.0 in) rocket "Frida") unguided air-to-air missiles

with contact fuze high-capacity warhead on retractable rack in ventral bay

(not used operationally, later completely deleted in favor of a second water-alcohol tank)

2× wet underwing hardpoints outside of the engine nacelles for 600 kg (1.321 lb) each;

alternatively a pair of Rb24 (AIM9-B Sidewinder) IR-guided air-to-air missiles

The model and its assembly:

While it does not look spectacular, the J31 (actually my second use of this designation for a Swedish Fifties all-weather fighter, the first was an A.W. Meteor NF.14, but the “31” was lent from the Spitfire PR.XIX in Swedish service as S31) was a major creation feat. It all started with a discussion with fellow Swedish board member Pellson at whatifmodellers.com about Saab prototypes, esp. the early designs. That made me wonder about a twin-jet engine aircraft, something that could replace the Saab 18 bombers much like the BAC Canberra with the RAF’s Mosquito – and looking at similar international projects of the time like the Soviet Il-29 and Yak-25 as well as the French S.O. 4050 Vautour I thought that something similar could work well for Sweden, too.

My concept started with a primary light bomber and attack role, much like the B18 and the Canberra, with the outlook to develop a radar-bearing all-weather fighter from it, which was direly needed in Sweden in the Mid-Fifties and led to the procurement of two interim types in real life, the J30 (Mosquito night fighter) and the J33 (Venom night fighter), while plans were made to equip the J29 with a radar and the Saab 32 already on the drawing boards, even though the latter’s fighter version would be delayed well into the Sixties.

The core of the build was a leftover fuselage from a Matchbox F3D Skyknight – from an incomplete kit that came OOB with one of its three sprue trees double (even though in different colours!). The canopy was also still there, and now I eventually found a good use for it. However, not much more would be taken over from the Skyknight, because the overall layout would be much different, dictated by the bulky centrifugal flow engines that were (only) available to Sweden in the late Forties and which also powered the successful J29 Tunnan. The engines could, due to their diameter and the need for ducts, not be buried in the fuselage, so that they would go under the wings, directly attached to them as in the Il-29 and Vautour. The wings would be slightly swept (around 20°), as a compromise between modernism (as on the J29) and good range/endurance, and shoulder-mounted for good ground clearance and to avoid FOP (an issue of the Yak-25).

Since the engine pods should not be too large and bulky I decided that the main wheels would not retract into them (à la Il-28) and rather follow the Vautour route: with a tandem arrangement retracting into the fuselage and with small outrigger wheels. This had, for the original bomber version, the benefit, that the internal bomb bay could become longer than with a more conventional tricycle landing gear arrangement that would full retract into the hull, much like the Douglas A3D/B.66, with a wider track. And it would look more exotic, too.

With this concept I started a donor parts safari and started work on the fuselage. First major feat was to clean the F3D’s flanks from its original engine fairings – thankfully the Matchbox kit provides them as separate parts, so omitting them was simple, but there were enough major recesses and areas beyond the F3D’s basically teardrop shape hull that had to be filled and PSRed, including the original wing attachment points in the hull’s middle.

Another issue was the cockpit, which was missing through the double sprues. I was lucky to find an original Matchbox F3D tub in the spare box, from my first Skyknight build ever in the late Eighties (then built as a Vietnam era EF-10). New seats were procured as well as two (ugly) pilot figures and a dashboard from an Italeri Tornado IDS. However, the cockpit would later cause some more trouble…

The nose was generously filled with steel balls to keep it down (you never know…), and once the hull was closed, I implanted a new rear landing gear well. In the meantime, I kept searching for engine nacelle and wing parts – both turned out to be challenging. Not that I had not enough material to choose from, but I wanted to make the parts to be as authentic as possible – the nacelles conveying a centrifugal engine inside (see the Gloster Meteor for reference), and the light wing sweep angle as well as the desire for a not-too-modern look made the wing choice really hard.

The nacelles were completed first. I remembered some leftover parts from a Matchbox Meteor night fighter, mainly the intakes, which would be perfect. But the rest of the nacelles took a while to materialize. Eventually I found engine pods from a Hobbycraft Su-25, which are separate pieces. They had a more or less square diameter shape, but their size was good and so I combined them with the round (and bigger!) Meteor NF.14 intakes, after having added trimmed-down intake cones from a Trumpeter Il-28 inside, and PSRing the different shapes into something …more natural. Even though outrigger wheels would later be added I omitted eventual wells at this point, because I had to define the stance through the tandem main wheels first, and this was still tbd.

The wing donors became a lengthy affair. At one point I became so desperate that I tried to use the wing tips from a VEB Plasticart 1:100 Tu-20/95 bomber, but that failed (thankfully!) because the parts turned out to be warped and simply too ugly for the build. I did not find any suitable material in The Stash™, tested wings from an A-6 and an F-14, nothing worked well. I eventually procured – in a forlorn move – a vintage Revell 1:113 B-47 kit. Horrible thing, but its outer wings were useful, even though they required massive modifications. Their roots were cut away to reduce span and their angle was set at about 20°; the slender tips were also cut off, resulting in an almost trapezoid shape with a slightly extended wing chord at the trailing edge of the roots. Lots of PSR was required to improve the surface and to fill some gaps from the OOB engine pod attachment points of the B-47. Ugh.

At that point I had also already found a good fin: from an Academy/Minicraft 1:144 B-1B bomber! This not only offered a very Fifties-esque round and swept shape, it also had suitable attachment points for the stabilizers for a cruciform tail, which appeared necessary due to the engines’ wing position. As a side benefit, I could use the B-47’s wing tips as stabilizers, even though they had to be PSRed a lot, too.

To attach the new wings to the F3D fuselage I made cutouts at shoulder height, but the engine pods were first mounted and PSRed under the wings. More putty and sanding mess, but it was worthwhile.

In the meantime I worked on the landing gear and used parts from the ugly VEB Plasticart Tu-20/95 to scratch a tandem layout with twin wheels and a significant nose-up stance (due to the rear wheels’ position beyond the aircraft’s centre of gravity). Once this was settled and the wings in place I could work on the outrigger wheels. These were procured from a Matchbox 1:72 Sea Harrier and mounted in scratched fairings under the engine pods, so that they could semi-retract. With the ground clearance defined by the main wheels a suitable position and length for the outriggers could be found, and in the end the J31 has a proper stance with all four legs on the ground.

Painting and markings:

I like to apply simple liveries to weird builds, and for the J31 I settled upon a NMF finish – which was typical for the contemporary J29 Tunnan fighters, too. Only the reconnaissance versions as well as the fighters of as single operational unit were ever camouflaged (in dark green and dark blue). The only other realistic cammo option would have been the standard Swedish uniform dark green over blue grey. But bare metal appeared IMHO much better suited.

As a non-standard measure the model received an overall thin coat of grey primer, primarily to identify dents and notches on its many PSRed surface areas – a good move, because a lot of small flaws could be identified and treated before a final overall coat with “White Aluminium” from a rattle can (Duplicolor, RAL 9006) was applied and details like the radome, antennae (both in black) and the landing gear and its wells (in a light bronze tone, seen on Saab 29s and 32s) were painted in detail. I think the silver underlines the J31’s clean lines well?

The model received a light black ink washing, less for true weathering but to emphasize engraved details and for a “cloudier” look of the NMF surfaces. This was further enhanced through a careful treatment with grinded graphite (which adds a truly metallic shine to the paint), and since a lot of surface details were lost through PSR I did some manual panel-shading with different silver tones and re-created panel lines all over the hull with a soft pencil, mostly free-handedly. Quite simple, but it improves the overall impression a lot.

Decals were puzzled together. The Swedish roundels came from a generic TL-Modellbau sheet, the “T” on the tail was scratched from generic white and blue stripes from the same manufacturer. The blue band around the nose was made with the same material, plus a white “T” – inspired by tactical markings from some J29s from the Fifties. Some stencils were collected from the scrap box, and black walkway borders added to the wings’ upper surfaces and the spine behind the cockpit. As a side benefit these hide some lingering inconsistencies on the wing surfaces well.

Finally, the model was sealed with semi-gloss acrylic varnish (Italeri) for a shiny finish, except for the radomes, which became matt.

It might not look spectacular or exciting, but I am quite proud of this “second” J31, because it not only was a major kitbashing project, it also conveys the Fifties “look and feel” I wanted to catch, like its contemporaries S.O. 4050 Vautour, Yak-25, or even the stillborn Baade Ba-152 airliner. From that point it turned out very well, and going for a simple NMF livery was IMHO also a good move – the J31 has a certain “space age” look? At least, this is what you can get when you combine major parts from F3D, B-47. B1, Il-28, Su-25, Tu-95 and a Gloster Meteor… 😉

The ultimate combination of comfort and refinement. This fashionable bar stool adds effortless sophistication to any room.

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my pipping skills need more refinement

Oil refinery industry, oil tank and camical industrial, plant and factory concept

Sunrise scence of Oil Refinery factory industry with blue sky and clouds. Petrochemical plant , Petroleum , Industrial-plant. with reflection

n° 57 of 100

Chassis n° ZA9H12EAYYSF76077

Bonhams

Les Grandes Marques du Monde à Paris

The Grand Palais Éphémère

Place Joffre

Parijs - Paris

Frankrijk - France

February 2023

Estimated : € 2.300.000 - 2.700.000

Unsold

"It's a car with its own personality – or rather its own split personality. Beyond refinement and ease of use is a demon with one eye open waiting for its turn, a car that is scintillatingly fast and hugely demanding, a car that can thrill and terrify in equal measure, a supercar in every sense of the word." – evo.

One of the more fascinating aspects of the modern motoring scene is the recent emergence of the small independent supercar manufacturer, many of which have gone from relative obscurity to the status of household names in just a few short years, usually on the back of a product range offering hitherto almost unimaginable levels of performance. Whereas at one time established manufacturers such as Ferrari, Lamborghini, Porsche, Mercedes-Benz, and Aston Martin only had one another to worry about, they now have to contend with the likes of Koenigsegg, De Tomaso and, of course, Pagani.

Succeeding the Zonda, Pagani's latest offering is the Huayra, a mid-engined coupé hailed by Top Gear magazine as 'Hypercar of the Year 2012'. Horacio Pagani was no newcomer to the world of automotive engineering when he built the first Zonda in 1999, for the Argentine-born industrial design graduate had been working with Lamborghini since the mid-1980s, developing the Countach and Diablo road cars and assisting with the Italian manufacturer's Formula 1 engine programme. The Zonda C12 debuted in coupé form at the 1999 Geneva Motor Show, its maker freely acknowledging that its styling had been inspired by the Mercedes-Benz Group C 'Silver Arrow' sports-racers. Mercedes-Benz's influence was more than just skin deep, for the German firm's AMG performance division was responsible for the Zonda's 6.0-litre V12 engine, which was mounted longitudinally amidships in the predominantly carbon fibre body tub. With some 408 horsepower on tap, the C12 was always going to be quick, but performance figures of 0-60mph in 4.2 seconds and 0-100 in 8.2 were simply staggering plus, of course, that all important 200mph (or thereabouts) top speed.

Seemingly small from the outside yet endowed with a comfortable cabin, the C12 provided the basis for a host of derivatives, which emerged from Pagani's factory at San Cesario sul Panaro near Modena (where else?) in strictly limited numbers over the next 11 years.

Its successor, the Huayra - named after a wind god of the South American Quechua people - made its public debut at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2011. Once again, AMG provided the engine, on this occasion a twin-turbocharged 6.0-litre V12 producing a mighty 620bhp and a titanic 737lb/ft of torque. A mind-boggling top speed of around 238mph (383km/h) was claimed for the Huayra, with the 0-60mph dash accomplished in a neck-snapping 2.8 seconds. Power reaches the road via a transversely-mounted Xtrac seven-speed sequential semi-automatic transmission, while the stupendous performance is kept in check by Brembo carbon ceramic disc brakes featuring four-pot callipers all round. It is worthwhile noting the Horacio Pagani chose to stick with a conventional single clutch rather than the more complex and heavier twin-clutch technology favoured by some rivals, reasoning that the considerable saving in weight would result in a better balanced car.

The most significant difference between the Huayra and its Zonda predecessor is the former's use of active aerodynamic aids. These consist of variable front ride height and moveable spoilers at front and rear, their deployment being managed by a dedicated control unit to minimise drag or maximise downforce as required. Under hard braking, the rear spoiler flaps function as an air brake, the front ride height being increased at the same time to counteract weight transfer to the front wheels and thus maintain stability. Cleverly, this system is also used to limit body roll when cornering by raising the 'inside' flaps to generate increased down force on that side only. As had been the case with the Zonda, an open roadster and various limited edition variants followed.

Testing a Huayra in 2013, evo magazine found that even before the ignition key had been turned, the experience of just sitting in the cockpit was almost overwhelming. 'Inside a leather, carbonfibre and aluminium cocoon of obsession, every detail agonised over and beautifully thought out, every material used sympathetically and expertly integrated into this stunning sculpture. The driving position is superb.' Needless to say, the driving experience did not disappoint: 'the engine is just phenomenally powerful and when it's delivering the full 737lb/ft of torque, it scrambles your brain. This is the sort of performance that doesn't dull even with prolonged exposure'.

Pagani's agreement with AMG limited the supply of engines to 100 units, restricting production to only 100 cars, thus guaranteeing the Huayra's instant exclusivity and future collectible status.

Number '57' of the 100 Huayra Roadsters built, this car was delivered new to Denmark and registered in July 2020. The car had been ordered and specified by a Danish car collector, who took delivery but never drove it. He then sold the car to another Danish collector, in whose hands it has covered fewer than 800 kilometres.

TAKEN

Sammelwerk no. 15 Adolf Hitler, bild no. 147, gruppe 67

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ju 52

RoleTransport aircraft, medium bomber, airliner

ManufacturerJunkers

DesignerErnst Zindel

First flight13 October 1930 (Ju 52/1m); 7 March 1932 (Ju 52/3m)

StatusIn limited use

Primary usersLuftwaffe

Luft Hansa

Spanish Air Force

Produced1931–1945 (Germany)

1945–1947 (France)

1945–1952 (Spain)

Number built4,845

The Junkers Ju 52/3m (nicknamed Tante Ju ("Aunt Ju") and Iron Annie) is a German transport aircraft manufactured from 1931 to 1952, initially designed with a single engine but subsequently produced as a trimotor. It had both civilian and military service during the 1930s and 1940s. In a civilian role, it flew with over 12 airlines including Swissair and Deutsche Luft Hansa as both a passenger carrier and a freight hauler. In a military role, it flew with the Luftwaffe as a troop and cargo transport and briefly as a medium bomber. The Ju 52 continued in postwar service with military and civilian air fleets well into the 1980s. The aircraft has continued to be used well beyond that date for purposes such as sightseeing.

Design and development

The Ju 52 was similar to the company's previous Junkers W 33, although larger. In 1930, Ernst Zindel and his team designed the Ju 52 at the Junkers works at Dessau. The aircraft's unusual corrugated duralumin metal skin, pioneered by Junkers during World War I, strengthened the whole structure.

The Ju 52 had a low cantilever wing, the midsection of which was built into the fuselage, forming its underside.[1] It was formed around four pairs of circular cross-section duralumin spars with a corrugated surface that provided torsional stiffening. A narrow control surface, with its outer section functioning as the aileron, and the inner section functioning as a flap, ran along the whole trailing edge of each wing panel, well separated from it. The inner flap section lowered the stalling speed and the arrangement became known as the Doppelflügel, or "double wing".[2]

The outer sections of this operated differentially as ailerons, projecting slightly beyond the wingtips with control horns. The strutted horizontal stabilizer carried horn-balanced elevators which again projected and showed a significant gap between them and the stabilizer, which was adjustable in-flight. All stabilizer surfaces were corrugated.

Junkers Ju 52

The fuselage was of rectangular section with a domed decking, all covered with corrugated light alloy. A port-side passenger door was placed just aft of the wings, with windows stretching forward to the pilots' cockpit. The main undercarriage was fixed and divided; some aircraft had wheel fairings, others did not. A fixed tailskid, or a later tailwheel, was used. Some aircraft were fitted with floats or skis instead of the main wheels.

In its original configuration, designated the Ju 52/1m, the Ju 52 was a single-engined aircraft, powered by either a BMW IV or Junkers liquid-cooled V-12 engine. However, the single-engined model was underpowered, and after seven prototypes had been completed, all subsequent Ju 52s were built with three radial engines as the Ju 52/3m (drei motoren—"three engines"). Originally powered by three Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet radial engines, later production models mainly received 574 kW (770 hp) BMW 132 engines, a licence-built refinement of the Pratt & Whitney design. Export models were also built with 447 kW (600 hp) Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp and 578 kW (775 hp) Bristol Pegasus VI engines. The two wing-mounted radial engines of the Ju 52/3m had half-chord cowlings and in planform view (from above/below) appeared to be splayed outwards, being mounted at an almost perpendicular angle to the tapered wing's sweptback leading edge (in a similar fashion to the Mitsubishi G3M bomber and Short Sunderland; the angled engines on the Ju 52 were intended to make maintaining straight flight easier should an engine fail, while the others had different reasons). The three engines had either Townend ring or NACA cowlings to reduce drag from the engine cylinders, although a mixture of the two was most common (as can be seen in many of the accompanying photographs), with deeper-chord NACA cowlings on the wing engines and a narrow Townend ring on the center engine (onto which a deeper NACA cowl was more difficult to fit, due to the widening fuselage behind the engine). Production Ju 52/3m aircraft flown by Deutsche Luft Hansa before World War II, as well as Luftwaffe-flown Ju 52s flown during the war, usually used an air-start system to turn over their trio of radial engines, using a common compressed-air supply that also operated the main wheels' brakes.

Prewar civil use

In 1932, James A. Richardson's Canadian Airways received (Werknummer 4006) CF-ARM, the sixth-built Ju 52/1m. The aircraft, first refitted with an Armstrong Siddeley Leopard radial engine and then later with a Rolls-Royce Buzzard and nicknamed the "Flying Boxcar" in Canada,[3][4] could lift about 3 tons and had a maximum weight of 7 tonnes (8 tons). It was used to supply mining and other operations in remote areas with equipment too big and heavy for other aircraft then in use. The Ju 52/1m was able to land on wheels, skis, or floats (as were all Ju 52 variants).[5]

Before the Nazi government seized control of Junkers in 1935, the Ju 52/3m was produced principally as a 17-seat airliner. It was used mainly by Luft Hansa and could fly from Berlin to Rome in 8 hours. The Luft Hansa fleet eventually numbered 80 and flew from Germany on routes in Europe, Asia, and South America.[citation needed]

Military use 1932–1945

The Colombian Air Force used three Ju 52/3mde bombers equipped as floatplanes during the Colombia-Peru War in 1932–1933. After the war, the air force acquired three other Ju 52mge as transports; the type remained in service until after World War II.[citation needed]

Bolivia acquired four Ju 52s in the course of the Chaco War (1932–1935), mainly for medical evacuation and air supply. During the conflict, the Ju 52s alone transported more than 4,400 tons of cargo to the front.[6]

In 1934, Junkers received orders to produce a bomber version of the Ju 52/3m to serve as interim equipment for the bomber units of the still-secret Luftwaffe until it could be replaced by the purpose-designed Dornier Do 11.[7] Two bomb bays were fitted, capable of holding up to 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) of bombs, while defensive armament consisted of two 7.92 mm MG 15 machine guns, one in an open dorsal position, and one in a retractable "dustbin" ventral position, which could be manually winched down from the fuselage to protect the aircraft from attacks from below. The bomber could be easily converted to serve in the transport role.[8] The Dornier Do 11 was a failure, however, and the Junkers ended up being acquired in much larger numbers than at first expected, with the type being the Luftwaffe's main bomber until more modern aircraft such as the Heinkel He 111, Junkers Ju 86 and Dornier Do 17 entered into service.[9][10]

The Ju 52 first was used in military service in the Spanish Civil War against the Spanish Republic. It was one of the first aircraft delivered to the faction of the army in revolt in July 1936, as both a bomber and transport. In the former role, it participated in the bombing of Guernica. No more of the bomber variants were built after this war, though it was again used as a bomber during the bombing of Warsaw[11] during the invasion of Poland in September 1939. The Luftwaffe then relied on the Ju 52 for transport roles during World War II, including paratroop drops.

World War II

In service with Lufthansa, the Ju 52 had proved to be an extremely reliable passenger airplane. Therefore, it was adopted by the Luftwaffe as a standard aircraft model. In 1938, the 7th Air Division had five air transport groups with 250 Ju 52s. The Luftwaffe had 552 Ju 52s at the start of World War II. Though it was built in great numbers, the Ju 52 was technically obsolete. Between 1939 and 1944, 2,804 Ju 52s were delivered to the Luftwaffe (1939: 145; 1940: 388; 1941: 502; 1942: 503; 1943: 887; and 1944: 379). The production of Ju 52s continued until around the summer of 1944; when the war came to an end, 100 to 200 were still available.

The Ju 52 could carry 18 fully equipped soldiers, or 12 stretchers when used as an air ambulance. Transported material was loaded and unloaded through side doors by means of a ramp. Air-dropped supplies were jettisoned through two double chutes; supply containers were dropped by parachute through the bomb-bay doors, and paratroopers jumped through the side doors. Sd.Kfz. 2 Kettenkrafträder (half-track motorcycles) and supply canisters for parachute troops were secured under the fuselage at the bomb bay exits and were dropped with four parachutes. A tow coupling was built into the tail-skid for use in towing freight gliders. The Ju 52 could tow up to two DFS 230 gliders.

Lightly armed, and with a top speed of only 265 km/h (165 mph) – half that of a contemporary Hurricane – the Ju 52 was very vulnerable to fighter attack, and an escort was always necessary when flying in a combat zone. Many Ju 52's were shot down by antiaircraft guns and fighters while transporting supplies, most notably during the desperate attempt to resupply the trapped German Sixth Army during the final stages of the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943.

From November 24, 1942 to January 31, 1943, 488 aircraft were lost (this number included 266 Ju 52, 165 He 111, 42 Ju 86, 9 Fw 200, 5 He 177 and 1 Ju 290) and about 1,000 flight personnel [12]

Denmark and Norway campaign

The first major operation for the aircraft after the bombing of Warsaw was in Operation Weserübung, the attack on Denmark and Norway on 9 April 1940. Fifty-two Ju 52s from 1. and 8. Staffel in Kampfgeschwader 1 transported a company of Fallschirmjäger (paratroopers) and a battalion of infantry to the northern part of Jutland, and captured the airfield at Aalborg, vital to support the operation in southern Norway. Several hundred Ju 52s were also used to transport troops to Norway in the first days of this campaign.

A minesweeper Ju 52/3m MS (Minensuch) equipped with degaussing ring

The seaplane version, equipped with two large floats, served during the Norwegian campaign in 1940, and later in the Mediterranean theatre. Some Ju 52's, both floatplanes and landplanes, were also used as minesweepers, known as Minensuch — literally, "mine-search" aircraft in German — and fitted with a 14 m (46 ft) diameter current-carrying degaussing ring under the airframe to create a magnetic field that triggered submerged naval mines. These aircraft were usually given an -"MS" suffix to designate them, as had been done with the similarly equipped Bv 138 MS trimotor flying boat.[13]

Netherlands campaign

The Ju 52 transport aircraft participated in the attack on the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, where they were deployed in the first large-scale air attack with paratroops in history during the Battle for The Hague. Many aircraft where shot down by Dutch AA-fire; a total of 125 Ju 52s were lost and 47 damaged, a very costly defeat in the opening days for the Luftwaffe[14]

Later, these aircraft were deployed at airfields in the Lyon, Lille, and Arras areas in August 1940.[15]

A Ju 52 approaching Stalingrad, 1942

Balkans campaign

The next major use of the Ju 52 was in the Balkans campaign, most famously in the Battle of Crete in May 1941.

North Africa campaign

During the North African campaign, the Ju 52 was the mainstay reinforcement and resupply transport for the Germans, starting with 20 to 50 flights a day to Tunisia from Sicily in November 1942, building to 150 landings a day in early April as the Axis situation became more desperate. The Allied air forces developed a counter-air operation over a two-month period and implemented Operation Flax on 5 April 1943, destroying 11 Ju 52s in the air near Cap Bon and many more during bombing attacks on its Sicilian airfields, leaving only 29 flyable.[16] That began two catastrophic weeks in which more than 140 were lost in air interceptions,[17] culminating on 18 April with the "Palm Sunday Massacre" in which 24 Ju 52s were shot down, and another 35 staggered back to Sicily and crash-landed.[18]

Hitler's personal transport

Main article: Hans Baur § Die Fliegerstaffel des Fuehrers

Hitler used a Deutsche Luft Hansa Ju 52 for campaigning in the 1932 German election, preferring flying to train travel. After he became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hans Baur became his personal pilot, and Hitler was provided with a personal Ju 52. Named Immelmann II after the World War I ace Max Immelmann, it carried the registration D-2600.[19] As his power and importance grew, Hitler's personal air force grew to nearly 50 aircraft, based at Berlin Tempelhof Airport and made up mainly of Ju 52s, which also flew other members of his cabinet and war staff. In September 1939 at Baur's suggestion, Immelmann II was replaced by a four-engine Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor, although Immelman II remained his backup aircraft for the rest of World War II.

Chiang Kai-shek's personal transport

A Ju 52 of Eurasia, 1930s in China

Eurasia was the main Chinese Airliner Company in the 1930s and the Ju-52 was their main airliner plane. One of them was commandeered by the Chinese Nationalist Party government and became Chiang Kai-shek's personal transport.[citation needed]

Postwar use

Ju 52 HB-HOS on sightseeing tour at Degerfeld[20] airfield (2016)

Ju 52/3m of British European Airways in 1947

French-built AAC.1 of STA at Manchester Airport in 1948: This aircraft is preserved in Belgrade.

Junkers C-79, s/n 42-52883, at Howard Field, Panama Canal Zone, late 1942 with the USAAF 20th Transportation Squadron, Sixth Air Force.

Various Junkers Ju 52s continued in military and civilian use following World War II. In 1956, the Portuguese Air Force, which was already using the Ju 52s as a transport plane, employed the type as a paratroop drop aircraft for its newly organized elite parachute forces, later known as the Batalhão de Caçadores Páraquedistas. The paratroopers used the Ju 52 in several combat operations in Angola and other Portuguese African colonies before gradually phasing it out of service in the 1960s.[21]

The Swiss Air Force also operated the Ju 52 from 1939 to 1982, when three aircraft remained in operation, probably the last and longest service in any air force.[22] Museums hoped to obtain the aircraft, but they were not for sale.[23] They are still in flying condition and together with a CASA 352 can be booked for sightseeing tours with Ju-Air.[24] During the 1950s, the Ju 52 was also used by the French Air Force during the First Indochina War as a bomber. The use of these Junkers was quite limited.[25]

The Spanish Air Force operated the Ju 52, nicknamed Pava, until well into the 1970s. Escuadrón 721, flying the Spanish-built versions, was employed in training parachutists from Alcantarilla Air Base near Murcia.[26]

Some military Ju 52s were converted to civilian use. For example, British European Airways operated 11 ex-Luftwaffe Ju 52/3mg8e machines, taken over by the RAF, between 1946 and retirement in 1947 on intra-U.K. routes before the Douglas DC-3 was introduced to the airline.[2] French airlines such as Societe de Transports Aeriens (STA) and Air France flew Toucans in the late 1940s and early 1950s.

In the USSR, captured Ju 52s were allocated to the Civil Air Fleet, being found particularly suitable for transporting sulphur from the Karakum Desert.[27] Various Soviet agencies used the Ju 52 through to 1950.

A Ju 52 and a Douglas DC-3 were the last aircraft to take off from Berlin Tempelhof Airport before all operations ceased there on 30 October 2008.[28]

Other versions

Most Ju 52s were destroyed after the war, but 585 were built after 1945. In France, the machine had been manufactured during the war by the Junkers-controlled Avions Amiot company, and production continued afterwards as the Amiot AAC 1 Toucan. In Spain, Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA continued production as the CASA 352 and 352L. Four CASA 352s are airworthy and in regular use today.

A CASA-built Ju52/3m appears in the opening sequence and finale of the 1968 Richard Burton and Clint Eastwood film Where Eagles Dare.

Variants

Data from Junkers Aircraft & Engines 1913–1945[29]

Civil variants

Ju 52

Prototype of the single-engined transport aircraft, of twelve laid down only six were completed as single-engined aircraft. First flight: 3 September 1930, powered by a BMW VIIaU engine.[30][31]

Ju 52/1mba

The prototype Ju 52, (c/n 4001, regn D-1974), redesignated after being re-engined with a single Junkers L88 engine

Ju 52/1mbe

Aircraft powered by BMW VIIaU

Ju 52/1mbi

The second prototype, (c/n 4002, regn D-2133), fitted with an 600 kW (800 hp) Armstrong Siddeley Leopard engine

Ju 52/1mca

D-1974 fitted with drag flaps and refitted with a BMW VIIaU

Ju 52/1mcai

D-2356, (c/n 4005), crashed in May 1933

Ju 52/1mce

D-USON (c/n 4003) used as a target tug. D-2317, (c/n 4004), converted to a torpedo bomber in Sweden as the K 45

Ju 52/1mci

The second prototype fitted with 11.05 m (36 ft 3 in) long stepped floats, flying from the River Elbe on 17 July 1931

Ju 52/1mdi

The second prototype after having the floats removed and undercarriage reinstated, registered as D-USUS from 1934

Ju 52/1mdo

D-1974 fitted with a Junkers Jumo 4 engine as a testbed, reregistered as D-UZYP from 1937

Ju 52/3m

Three-engined prototype, powered by three 410 kW (550 hp) Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp engines, first flight: 7 March 1932

Ju 52/3mba

VIP version for the president of the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, Romanian prince Gheorghe Bibescu, powered by a 560 kW (750 hp) Hispano-Suiza 12Mb engine in the nose and two 423 kW (567 hp) Hispano-Suiza 12Nb engines (one on each wing)

Ju 52/3mce

Three-engined civil transport aircraft, powered by three Pratt & Whitney Hornet or BMW 132 engines

Ju 52/3mci

Planned version for Sweden, powered by Pratt & Whitney Wasp engines, not built

Ju 52/3mde

Seaplane version for Bolivia and Colombia, converted from Ju 52/1m

Ju 52/3mfe

Improved version, with chassis reinforcements and NACA cowlings on the outer engines, powered by three BMW 132A-3 engines

Ju 52/3mf1e

Trainer version for DVS

Ju 52/3mge

Airliner version, powered by BMW Hornet 132A engines

Ju 52/3mho

Two aircraft powered by Junkers Jumo 205C diesel engines, used only for testing

Ju 52/3mkao

Version powered by two BMW 132A and one BMW 132F or BMW 132N as a testbed

Ju 52/3ml

Powered by three 489 kW (656 hp) Pratt & Whitney R-1690-S1EG engines

Ju 52/3mlu

Airliner version for Italy, powered by Piaggio Stella X engines, later re-engined with Alfa Romeo 126RC/34 engines

Ju 52/3mmao

Similar to kao except with NACA cowling

Ju 52/3mnai

Airliner version for Sweden and Great Britain, powered by Pratt & Whitney Wasp engines

Ju 52/3mreo

Airliner version for South America, powered by BMW 132Da/Dc engines

Ju 52/3msai

Airliner version for Sweden and South America, powered by Pratt & Whitney Wasp engines

Ju 52/3mte

Airliner version, powered by three BMW 132K engines

Ju 52/3mZ5

Export version for Finland, powered by BMW 132Z-3 engines

Military variants

Ju 52/3mg3e

Improved military version, powered by three 541 kW (725 hp) BMW 132A-3 (improved version of the Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet) radial engines, equipped with an improved radio and bomb-release mechanism. Later versions had a tailwheel that replaced the tailskid.

Ju 52/3mg4e

Military transport version, the tailskid was replaced by a tailwheel.

Ju 52/3mg5e

Similar to g4e, but powered by three 619 kW (830 hp) BMW 132T-2 engines, it could be fitted with interchangeable floats, skis, and wheeled landing gear.

Ju 52/3mg6e

Transport version equipped with extra radio gear and autopilot, could also be fitted with a degaussing ring

Ju 52/3mg7e

Transport version, capable of carrying 18 troops or 12 stretchers, featured autopilot and larger cargo doors

Ju 52/3mg8e

Similar to g6e, but with improved radio and direction finding gear, a few were fitted with floats.

Ju 52/3mg9e

Tropical version of g4e for service in North Africa, fitted with glider towing gear and strengthened undercarriage

Ju 52/3mg10e

Similar to g9e, but could be fitted with floats or wheels, lacked deicing equipment

Ju 52/3mg11e

Similar to g10e, but fitted with deicing equipment

Ju 52/3mg12e

Land transport version, powered by three BMW 132L engines

Ju 52/3m12e

Civilian version of Ju 52/3mg12e for Luft Hansa

Ju 52/3mg13e

No details are known.

Ju 52/3mg14e

Similar to g8e, but with improved armor, last German production version

Preserved AAC 1 showing corrugated skin, at Duxford, 2001

A.A.C. 1 Toucan

Postwar French version of g11e, 415 built[32]

CASA 352

Postwar Spanish version, 106 built[32]

CASA 352L

Spanish version with Spanish 578 kW (775 hp) ENMA Beta B-4 (license-built BMW 132) engines, 64 built[32][33]

C-79

Designation assigned to a single example operated by the United States Army Air Forces[34]

D52

Designation used by the Czechoslovak Air Force

T2B

Designation used by the Spanish Air Force

Tp 5

Designation used by the Swedish Air Force

K 45c

A single Ju 52/1mce (c/n 4004) was delivered to the Junkers factory at Limhamn in Sweden, where it was converted to a torpedo bomber as the K 45c.

Operators

Main article: List of Junkers Ju 52 operators

A Lufthansa Junkers Ju 52/3m (registered D-CDLH), until 1984, known as "Iron Annie N52JU", was painted as D-AQUI in historic 1936 Deutsche Luft Hansa colors. D-CDLH has P&W engines, now with three-bladed propellers (ex Caiden).

CASA 352 (license-built Junkers Ju 52/3m) in Ju-Air markings at Zürich airport

Argentina

Austria

Belgium

Bolivia

Brazil

Bulgaria

Canada

Chile

China

Colombia

Independent State of Croatia

Czechoslovakia

Denmark

Ecuador

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Germany

Greece

Hungary

Italy

Lebanon

Norway

Peru

Poland

Portugal

Romania

South Africa

Slovakia Slovakia

Soviet Union

Spanish State

Sweden

Switzerland

Turkey

United Kingdom

United States

Uruguay

Yugoslavia

Accidents and incidents

Main article: List of accidents and incidents involving the Junkers Ju 52

Surviving aircraft

Airworthy aircraft

Main article: List of airworthy Ju 52s

As of 2018, the two remaining Ju 52s which operated pleasure flights from Dübendorf airport in Switzerland, are grounded following corrosion found in the wreck of the JU 52 which crashed in August 2018 with the loss of 20 lives.[35] Lufthansa operates one Ju 52/3m (D-AQUI) for air shows and pleasure flights.[36]

Aircraft on display

Germany

Junkers Ju 52/3m (D-AZAW) is on display at the Deutsches Technikmuseum in Berlin

Junkers Ju 52/3m (Amiot AAC.1 Toucan) is on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich. Ex FAF 363

Junkers Ju 52/3m (CASA 352L, c/n 016) is on display at the Flugausstellung Leo Junior at Hermeskeil, Germany.[37]

Junkers Ju 52/3m (D-AZAW) is on display at the Deutsches Technikmuseum in Berlin.[38]

Junkers Ju 52/3m is on display at the Technikmuseum "Hugo Junkers" in Dessau, which is situated where the Junkers factory stood until 1945.[39]

Junkers Ju 52/3m g4e (WNr.6693) is on display at "Ju 52 Hangar" of Traditionsgemeinschaft Lufttransport Wunstorf e. V.(Air Transport Community of Tradition) near Wunstorf, Germany.[40]

Junkers Ju 52/3m (D-ANOY) is on display at the Visitors Park at Munich Airport.[41]

Survivor in the Munich Airport

Argentina

Junkers Ju 52/3m (WNr.4043) is on display at the Museo Nacional de Aeronáutica de Argentina (National Aeronautics Museum) in Morón, Buenos Aires.[42][43]

Belgium

Junkers Ju 52/3m is on display at the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History in Brussels.

Colombia

Junkers Ju 52/3mge (AMC-625, WNr.5023) is display at the MAECO Museum of Colombian Air Force in El Dorado Airport, Bogotá, Colombia.

France

An Amiot AAC.1 Toucan was acquired in 2011 by the Association des Mécaniciens Pilotes d'Aéronefs Anciens, Brétigny-sur-Orge, Essonne, France. Formerly with the Portuguese Air Force as 6311, it had been stored for over 40 years at the Portuguese Air Force Museum, Alverca do Ribatejo.[44]

Norway

Junkers Ju 52/3m (CASA 352L)(LN-DNL) is on display at the Norwegian Aviation Museum, Bodø, Norway.[45]

Junkers Ju 52/3m g4e (CA+JY) is on display at the Norwegian Armed Forces Aircraft Collection at Gardermoen near Oslo, Norway.[46]

Poland

Junkers Ju 52/3m g10e (Amiot AAC.1 Toucan) previously exhibited in Duxford is on display at the Polish Aviation Museum in Kraków.

Portugal

Junkers Ju 52/3m ge is on display at the Museu do Ar in Sintra, Portugal.

Serbia

Junkers Ju 52/3m (Amiot AAC.1 Toucan) 7208 ex F-BBYB is on display at the Museum of Aviation, Belgrade.

Spain

Junkers Ju 52/3m (CASA 352) is on display at the Spanish Air Museum in Cuatro Vientos (Madrid, Spain).

Sweden

Junkers Ju 52/3m built in Spain in 1948 (painted as a Ju 52 that flew to Sweden with eight German refugees in 1945) is on display at Svedinos Bil- och Flygmuseum in Ugglarp, Sweden.

United Kingdom

Junkers Ju 52/3m (CASA 352L) is on display at the Royal Air Force Museum in Cosford.[47]

United States

Junkers Ju 52/3m (CASA 352L) is on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum in Chantilly, Virginia.[48]

Junkers Ju 52/3m (CASA 352L) is at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. The aircraft was donated to the museum by the Spanish government in 1971. After being on display outside for 40 years, the aircraft has been placed in indefinite storage to protect it from further deterioration.[49]

Junkers Ju 52/3m (CASA 352L) (N352JU) is on display at the Military Aviation Museum, Virginia Beach, Virginia.

Specifications (Junkers Ju 52/3m g3e)

Data from The warplanes of the Third Reich[50]

General characteristics

Crew: Two

Capacity: 17 passengers

Length: 18.90 m (62 ft 0 in)

Wingspan: 29.248 m (95 ft 11.5 in)

Height: 5.550 m (18 ft 2.5 in)

Wing area: 110.5000 m2 (1,189.412 sq ft)

Empty weight: 5,720 kg (12,610 lb)

Gross weight: 9,500 kg (20,944 lb)

Max takeoff weight: 10,499 kg (23,146 lb)

Powerplant: 3 × BMW 132A-3 9-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engines, 541 kW (725 hp) each for take-off(525 PS[51])

Propellers: 2-bladed variable-pitch propeller

Performance

Maximum speed: 265.5 km (165.0 mph, 143.4 kn) at sea level

276.8 km/h (172.0 mph; 149.5 kn) at 910 metres (3,000 ft)

Cruise speed: 246 km (153 mph, 133 kn) maximum continuous at 910 metres (3,000 ft)

209 km/h (130 mph; 113 kn) economical cruise

Range: 998 km (620 mi, 539 nmi)

Service ceiling: 5,900 m (19,360 ft)

Rate of climb: 3.9 m/s (770 ft/min)

Time to altitude: 910 metres (3,000 ft) in 17 minutes 30 seconds

Wing loading: 83.35 kg/m2 (17.07 lb/sq ft)

Power/mass: 7.95 kg/kW

Armament

Guns: * 1 × 7.92 mm (0.312 in) MG 15 machine gun or 13 mm (0.512 in) MG 131 machine gun in a dorsal position

1 × 7.92 mm (0.312 in) MG 15 machine gun in a semi-retractable bustbin turret

Bombs: up to 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) of bombs

Refinement Vanessa wearing Hankie Chic

A big success by any standard both in and out of competition, the Lancia Stratos was developed as a homologation Special for European rallying. After production ceased it became a cult car and is now highly priced as the ‘modern classis' it is. Conceived strictly for rallying, the Lancia Stratos however makes an exciting road car, though it is very far from GT standards in both luxury and refinement.

The concept vehicle responsible for providing the inspiration for the Lancia Stratos Rally car is the Lancia (Bertone) Stratos. The Stratos featured a 1584 cc V4 DOHC with 115 bhp horsepower at 200 rpm. Designed by Marcello Gandini, the same designer responsible for the Lamborghini Countach and Lamborghini Miura, the Stratos concept was a development of the Bertone designed Alfa Romeo Carabo concept from 1968. The Carabo concept was also a Gandini creation.

First revealed at the Turin Motor Show in October of 1970, the Lancia Stratos HF prototype was a styling exercise for Bertone. A futuristic design, the Stratos featured a wedge shaped profile that stood just 33 inches from the ground. Since the vehicle was so low, conventional doors could not be used and instead one accessed the interior of the Stratos by a hinged windscreen. Drivers had to flip up the windscreen and walk into the vehicle. Once inside, visibility was quite restricted since the front windscreen was narrow. The cockpit of the Lancia Stratos was designed specifically for fast forest flying.

The body design was predictably minimal to hold down weight and bulk with its most distinctive features being semi-concealed A-pillars and a door beltline that sharply upswept to the top of the daylight opening. The shape of the resulting unbroken expanse of glass gave the tunnelback roof the appearance of a futuristic crash helmet.

The main body structure was steel, like the chassis, and weight-saving fiberglass was used for tilt-up nose and tail sections. A small box above and behind the powertrain was where cargo space was held. Bins were also molded into the interior door panels for storing helmets.

The same engine utilized on the Lancia 1600 HF Fulvia was used on the Bertone designed Lancia Stratos Zero prototype. A triangular shaped panel hinged upwards to allow access to the mid-mounted engine. Developed for rallying purposes, the legendary Lancia Stratos was unveiled in 1974. The production vehicle Stratos was powered by a 2.4 liter mid-mounted V6 from the Ferrari Dino.

Like no other Lancia before or after, the Lancia Stratos was a shock that left enthusiasts and rally fans breathless. For almost a decade the Stratos streaked across the rally landscape much like a brilliant comet, while discarding past principles, it also fearlessly represented something undeniably new. A phenomenal rally car, the Lancia Stratos set an example to every other car manufacturer in the world. The first viable purpose-built rally car ever built, the Stratos was probably the last purpose-built rally car.

Created by the Bertone coachbuilding company, the Stratos was both radical, yet fully functional. Fiorio realized that for Lancia to continue to compete in the World Rally Championship, the Fulvia HF would need a much more powerful replacement. A the time, four-wheel drive was not an option, so a mid-engined configuration seemed ideal. To reinforce Fiori's convictions, the Bertone show car was featured soon after with a mid-engine Fulvia V4.

The introduction of the Ford mid-engine purpose-built GT70 rally car at the 1971Brussels Motor Show was what truly inspired the impetus behind the Stratos proect. It was after this appearance that Lancia's general manager, Pierugo Gobbato contacted Nuccio Bertone. Though the GT70 was actually never put in production by Ford, it was this that sparked the inspiration of the Lancia Stratos.

As always, there was a minimum production requirement, 500 units for the Lancia Stratos. This was an awkward figure that would necessitate funds for at least semi-permanent tooling as well as design and development. This was a job well suited to the Italian industry. Fiorio masterminded the project, and he envisioned a short, wide coupe with transverse midships drivetrain. Bertone was immediately contracted to style the vehicle and built its unit body/chassis structure.

43 months passed in between the time of conception to the actual birth of the Lancia Stratos. The vehicle was developed to take over and make Lancia the outright world rally champ. The Stratos was both short and wide, with a wheelbase of only 7 feet 1.8 inches, the width of the vehicle was only 5 feet 8.9 inches. Weighing only 1958 lbs, the Stratos was only 3 feet 7.9 inches high. Able to easily exceed 140 mph, the Stratos featured 190 horsepower in roadgoing trim.

Having studied every possible powerteam in the Fiat/Lancia group, Fiorio secured 2.4 liter V-6s and 5-speed transaxles from Ferrari, which was an ideal chouse as they'd be installed exactly as the Dino 246. All-independent suspension, rack-and-pinion steering and four-wheel disc brakes were all specifically designed for the Lancia Stratos.

After 1978 the Stratos was officially retired and no longer was officially entered by the Lancia factory, the vehicle was still going strong. The Lancia team was headed by by Sandro Munari who won its first event as a homologated entry in October of 1974. Mun ari entered alone 40 events with the Lancia Stratos and won 14. The Stratos also won the World Rally Championship in 1974, 1975, and 1976 and remained competitive for another four years. The final major win came in 1979 when a Lancia Stratos entered by the Monaco importer won the famed Monte Carlo Rally. Finally the factory retired the Stratos.

By Jessica Donaldson

[Text from ConceptCarz.com]

www.conceptcarz.com/z21737/Lancia-Stratos-HF.aspx

This Lego miniland-scale Lancia Stratos Rally Racer has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 100th Build Challenge - our Centenary, titled 'One Hundred Ways to Win!'. In this challenge, a list of 100 challenges is available, kept by the admins. Individuals wishing to enter, request a number from 1-100 (so long as it has not already been requested) - and the admins assign the individual build challenge associated with that number.

In the case of admins entering models - they request that a general LUGNuts member assigns a number - and the admin must build to that challenge number.

In this case, the number 78 was chosen for me, corresponding to the challenge: '78.Any vehicle from the year you were born'. I was born in 1972, the year that the first Stratos rally cars were built, entering in the Rally Championship as Group 5 (un-homologated) entries.

The road cars required to homologate for Group 4 were built through 1973 to 1978.

Angkor Wat (/ˌæŋkɔːr ˈwɒt/; Khmer: អង្គរវត្ត, "City/Capital of Temples") is a Hindu-Buddhist temple complex in Cambodia, located on a site measuring 162.6 hectares (1,626,000 m2; 402 acres). It resides within the ancient Khmer capital city of Angkor. The Guinness World Records considers it as the largest religious structure in the world. Originally constructed as a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu for the Khmer Empire by King Suryavarman II during the 12th century, it was gradually transformed into a Buddhist temple towards the end of the century; as such, it is also described as a "Hindu-Buddhist" temple.

Angkor Wat was built at the behest of the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura (Khmer: យសោធរបុរៈ, present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat more than 5 kilometres (3 mi) long and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its walls. The modern name Angkor Wat, alternatively Nokor Wat, means "Temple City" or "City of Temples" in Khmer. Angkor (អង្គរ ângkôr), meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular form of the word nokor (នគរ nôkôr), which comes from the Sanskrit/Pali word nagara (Devanāgarī: नगर). Wat (វត្ត vôtt) is the word for "temple grounds", also derived from Sanskrit/Pali vāṭa (Devanāgarī: वाट), meaning "enclosure"

The original name of the temple was Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama Viṣṇuloka meaning "the sacred dwelling of Vishnu".

History

Angkor Wat lies 5.5 kilometres (3+1⁄2 mi) north of the modern town of Siem Reap, and a short distance south and slightly east of the previous capital, which was centred at Baphuon. In an area of Cambodia where there is an essential group of ancient structures, it is the southernmost of Angkor's main sites.

The construction of Angkor Wat took place over 28 years from 1122 to 1150 CE during the reign of King Suryavarman II (ruled 1113–c. 1150).[1] A brahmin by the name of Divākarapaṇḍita (1040–c. 1120) was responsible for urging Suryavarman II to construct the temple. All of the original religious motifs at Angkor Wat derived from Hinduism. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. It was built as the king's state temple and capital city. As neither the foundation stela nor any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple have been found, its original name is unknown, but it may have been known as Vrah Viṣṇuloka after the presiding deity. Work seems to have ended shortly after the king's death, leaving some of the bas-relief decoration unfinished. The term Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama Viṣṇuloka literally means "The king who has gone to the supreme world of Vishnu", which refer to Suryavarman II posthumously and intend to venerate his glory and memory.

In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Thereafter the empire was restored by a new king, Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital and state temple (Angkor Thom and the Bayon, respectively), a few kilometers north, dedicated to Buddhism, because the king's new wife, Indratevi, a devout Mahayana Buddhist, encouraged him to convert. Angkor Wat was therefore also gradually converted into a Buddhist site, and many Hindu sculptures were replaced by Buddhist art.

Towards the end of the 12th century, Angkor Wat gradually transformed from a Hindu centre of worship to Buddhism, which continues to the present day. Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was largely neglected after the 16th century, it was never completely abandoned. Fourteen inscriptions dated from the 17th century, discovered in the Angkor area, testify to Japanese Buddhist pilgrims that had established small settlements alongside Khmer locals. At that time, the temple was thought by the Japanese visitors to be the famed Jetavana garden of the Buddha, which was originally located in the kingdom of Magadha, India. The best-known inscription tells of Ukondayu Kazufusa, who celebrated the Khmer New Year at Angkor Wat in 1632.

The first Western visitor to the temple was António da Madalena, a Portuguese friar who visited in 1586 and said that it "is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of."

In 1622, The Poem of Angkor Wat composed in Khmer verse describes the beauty of Angkor Wat and creates a legend around the construction of the complex, supposedly a divine castle built for legendary Khmer king Preah Ket Mealea by Hindu god Preah Pisnukar (or Braḥ Bisṇukār, Vishvakarman), as Suryavarman II had already vanished from people's minds.

In 1860, with the help of French missionary Father Charles-Émile Bouillevaux, the temple was effectively rediscovered by the French naturalist and explorer Henri Mouhot, who popularised the site in the West through the publication of travel notes, in which he wrote:

One of these temples, a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some ancient Michelangelo, might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome, and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged.

In 1861 German anthropologist Adolf Bastian undertook a four-year trip to Southeast Asia. His account of this trip, The People of East Asia, ran to six volumes. When Bastian finally published the studies and observations during his Journey through Cambodia to Cochinchina in Germany in 1868 – told in detail but uninspiredly, above all without a single one of his drawings of the Angkorian sites – this work hardly made an impression, while everyone was talking about Henri Mouhot's posthumous work with vivid descriptions of Angkor, Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China, Siam, Cambodia and Laos, published in 1864 through the Royal Geographical Society.

There were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement, including cooking utensils, weapons, or items of clothing usually found at ancient sites.

The artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region led directly to France adopting Cambodia as a protectorate on 11 August 1863 and invading Siam to take control of the ruins. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern corner of the country such as the areas of Siem Reap, Battambang, and Sisophon which were under Siamese rule from 1795 to 1907.

Angkor Wat's aesthetics were on display in the plaster cast museum of Louis Delaporte called musée Indo-chinois which existed in the Parisian Trocadero Palace from c.1880 to the mid-1920s.

The 20th century saw a considerable restoration of Angkor Wat. Gradually teams of laborers and archeologists pushed back the jungle and exposed the expanses of stone, permitting the sun to once again illuminate the dark corners of the temple. Angkor Wat caught the attention and imagination of a wider audience in Europe when the pavilion of French protectorate of Cambodia, as part of French Indochina, recreated the life-size replica of Angkor Wat during Paris Colonial Exposition in 1931.

Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953 and has controlled Angkor Wat since then. From the colonial period onwards, until the site was nominated a UNESCO World Heritage in 1992, the temple of Angkor Wat was instrumental in the formation of the modern and gradually globalised concept of built cultural heritage.

Restoration work was interrupted by the Cambodian Civil War and Khmer Rouge control of the country during the 1970s and 1980s, but relatively little damage was done during this period. Camping Khmer Rouge forces used whatever wood remained in the building structures for firewood, and a shoot-out between Khmer Rouge and Vietnamese forces put a few bullet holes in a basrelief. Far more damage was done after the wars, by art thieves working out of Thailand, which, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, claimed almost every head that could be lopped off the structures, including reconstructions.

The temple is a symbol of Cambodia and is a source of national pride that has factored into Cambodia's diplomatic relations with France, the United States, and its neighbour Thailand. A depiction of Angkor Wat has been a part of Cambodian national flags since the introduction of the first version circa 1863. From a larger historical and transcultural perspective, however, the temple of Angkor Wat did not become a symbol of national pride sui generis but had been inscribed into a larger politico-cultural process of French-colonial heritage production in which the original temple site was presented in French colonial and universal exhibitions in Paris and Marseille between 1889 and 1937.

In December 2015, it was announced that a research team from the University of Sydney had found a previously unseen ensemble of buried towers built and demolished during the construction of Angkor Wat, as well as a massive structure of unknown purpose on its south side and wooden fortifications. The findings include evidence of low-density residential occupation in the region, with a road grid, ponds, and mounds. These indicate that the temple precinct, bounded by a moat and wall, may not have been used exclusively by the priestly elite, as was previously thought. The team used LiDAR, ground-penetrating radar and targeted excavation to map Angkor Wat.

According to a myth, the construction of Angkor Wat was ordered by Indra to serve as a palace for his son Precha Ket Mealea. According to the 13th-century Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, some believed that the temple was constructed in a single night by a divine architect.

Architecture

Angkor Wat is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the standard design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of concentric galleries, most of which were originally derived from religious beliefs of Hinduism. The construction of Angkor Wat suggests that there was a celestial significance with certain features of the temple. This is observed in the temple's east–west orientation, and lines of sight from terraces within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise location of the solstice at sunrise. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods according to Hindu mythology: the central quincunx of towers symbolise the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolise the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level.

The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns with the morning sun of the spring equinox. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east. This has led many (including Maurice Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary temple. Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas-reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—prasavya in Hindu terminology—as this is the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services.

Archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container that may have been a funerary jar that was recovered from the central tower. It has been nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of a corpse. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west.

Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka argues that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above." Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles. She distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellation Draco.

The oldest surviving plan of Angkor Wat dates to 1715 and is credited to Fujiwara Tadayoshi. The plan is stored in the Suifu Meitoku-kai Shokokan Museum in Mito, Japan.

Style

Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of

Khmer architecture—the Angkor Wat style—to which it has given its name. By the 12th century, Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use of sandstone (rather than brick or laterite) as the main building material. Most of the visible areas are sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the outer wall and hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified, although natural resins or slaked lime has been suggested.

The temple has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design. According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity, and style."

Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, pediments, extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work. Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time, including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors.

Architect Jacques Dumarçay believes the layout of Angkor Wat borrows Chinese influence in its system of galleries which join at right angles to form courtyards. However, the axial pattern embedded in the plan of Angkor Wat may be derived from Southeast Asian cosmology in combination with the mandala represented by the main temple.

Features

The outer wall, 1,024 m (3,360 ft) by 802 m (2,631 ft) and 4.5 m (15 ft) high, is surrounded by a 30 m (98 ft) apron of open ground and a moat 190 m (620 ft) wide and over 5 kilometres (3 mi) in perimeter. The moat extends 1.5 kilometres from east to west and 1.3 kilometres from north to south. Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge. There are gopuras at each of the cardinal points; the western is by far the largest and has three ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper.

Under the southern tower is a statue known as Ta Reach, originally an eight-armed statue of Vishnu that may have occupied the temple's central shrine. Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances on either side of the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they are large enough to admit those animals. These galleries have square pillars on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The ceiling between the pillars is decorated with lotus rosettes; the west face of the wall with dancing figures; and the east face of the wall with balustered windows, dancing male figures on prancing animals, and devatas, including (south of the entrance) the only one in the temple to be showing her teeth.

The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square metres (203 acres), which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by the city and, to the north of the temple, the royal palace. Like all secular buildings of Angkor, these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets. Most of the area is now covered by forest. A 350 m (1,150 ft) causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper, with naga balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the city on either side. Each side also features a library with entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure.

Central structure

The temple stands on a terrace raised higher than the city. It is made of three rectangular galleries rising to a central tower, each level higher than the last. The two inner galleries each have four large towers at their ordinal corners (that is, NW, NE, SE, and SW) surrounding a higher fifth tower. This pattern is sometimes called a quincunx and represents the mountains of Meru. Because the temple faces west, the features are set back towards the east, leaving more space to be filled in each enclosure and gallery on the west side; for the same reason, the west-facing steps are shallower than those on the other sides.

Mannikka interprets the galleries as being dedicated to the king, Brahma, the moon, and Vishnu. Each gallery has a gopura at each of the points. The outer gallery measures 187 m (614 ft) by 215 m (705 ft), with pavilions rather than towers at the corners. The gallery is open to the outside of the temple, with columned half-galleries extending and buttressing the structure. Connecting the outer gallery to the second enclosure on the west side is a cruciform cloister called Preah Poan (meaning "The Thousand Buddhas" Gallery). Buddha images were left in the cloister by pilgrims over the centuries, although most have now been removed. This area has many inscriptions relating to the good deeds of pilgrims, most written in Khmer but others in Burmese and Japanese. The four small courtyards marked out by the cloister may originally have been filled with water. North and south of the cloister are libraries.

Beyond, the second and inner galleries are connected to two flanking libraries by another cruciform terrace, again a later addition. From the second level upwards, devatas abound on the walls, singly or in groups of up to four. The second-level enclosure is 100 m (330 ft) by 115 m (377 ft), and may originally have been flooded to represent the ocean around Mount Meru. Three sets of steps on each side lead up to the corner towers and gopuras of the inner gallery. The steep stairways may represent the difficulty of ascending to the kingdom of the gods. This inner gallery, called the Bakan, is a 60 m (200 ft) square with axial galleries connecting each gopura with the central shrine and subsidiary shrines located below the corner towers.

The roofings of the galleries are decorated with the motif of the body of a snake ending in the heads of lions or garudas. Carved lintels and pediments decorate the entrances to the galleries and the shrines. The tower above the central shrine rises 43 m (141 ft) to a height of 65 m (213 ft) above the ground; unlike those of previous temple mountains, the central tower is raised above the surrounding four. The shrine itself, originally occupied by a statue of Vishnu and open on each side, was walled in when the temple was converted to Theravada Buddhism, the new walls featuring standing Buddhas. In 1934, the conservator George Trouvé excavated the pit beneath the central shrine: filled with sand and water it had already been robbed of its treasure, but he did find a sacred foundation deposit of gold leaf two metres above ground level.

Decoration

Integrated with the architecture of the building, one of the causes for its fame is Angkor Wat's extensive decoration, which predominantly takes the form of bas-relief friezes. The inner walls of the outer gallery bear a series of large-scale scenes mainly depicting episodes from the Hindu epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Higham has called these "the greatest known linear arrangement of stone carving". From the north-west corner anti-clockwise, the western gallery shows the Battle of Lanka (from the Ramayana, in which Rama defeats Ravana) and the Battle of Kurukshetra (from the Mahabharata, showing the mutual annihilation of the Kaurava and Pandava clans). On the southern gallery follow the only historical scene, a procession of Suryavarman II, then the 32 hells and 37 heavens of Hinduism.

On the eastern gallery is one of the most celebrated scenes, the Churning of the Sea of Milk, showing 92 asuras and 88 devas using the serpent Vasuki to churn the sea under Vishnu's direction (Mannikka counts only 91 asuras and explains the asymmetrical numbers as representing the number of days from the winter solstice to the spring equinox, and from the equinox to the summer solstice). It is followed by Vishnu defeating asuras (a 16th-century addition). The northern gallery shows Krishna's victory over Bana (where according to Glaize, "The workmanship is at its worst").

Angkor Wat is decorated with depictions of apsaras and devata; there are more than 1,796 depictions of devata in the present research inventory. Angkor Wat architects employed small apsara images (30–40 cm or 12–16 in) as decorative motifs on pillars and walls. They incorporated larger devata images (all full-body portraits measuring approximately 95–110 cm or 37–43 in) more prominently at every level of the temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the high towers. In 1927, Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable diversity of their hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewellery, and decorative flowers, which Marchal concluded were based on actual practices of the Angkor period.

Construction techniques

The monument was made of five to ten million sandstone blocks with a maximum weight of 1.5 tons each. The entire city of Angkor used far greater amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined and occupied an area significantly greater than modern-day Paris. Moreover, unlike the Egyptian pyramids, which use limestone quarried 0.5 km (1⁄4 mi) away, the entire city of Angkor was built with sandstone quarried 40 km (25 mi) (or more) away. This sandstone was transported from Mount Kulen, a quarry approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northeast.

The route has been suggested to span 35 kilometres (22 mi) along a canal towards Tonlé Sap lake, another 35 kilometres (22 mi) crossing the lake, and finally 15 kilometres (9 mi) against the current along Siem Reap River, making a total journey of 90 kilometres (55 mi). However, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan have discovered in 2011 a shorter 35-kilometre (22 mi) canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor Wat using satellite imagery. The two believe that the Khmer used this route instead.

Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels and even roofs are carved. There are kilometres of reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian literature including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots, as well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader, and celestial dancing girls with elaborate hairstyles. The gallery wall alone is decorated with almost 1,000 m2 (11,000 sq ft) of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets. These were highly prized in ancient times and were prime targets for robbers.

While excavating Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a stonemason, and sculptor recreated a stone sculpture under 1.2 metres (4 ft), this took about 60 days to carve. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone. The labour force to quarry, transport, carve and install so much sandstone probably ran into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans. The skills required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years earlier, as demonstrated by some artefacts that have been dated to the seventh century, before the Khmer came to power.

Restoration and conservation

The contrast between restored and unrestored figures is deliberate. The major restoration of the causeway was first initiated in the 1960s by the French.

As with most other ancient temples in Cambodia, Angkor Wat has faced extensive damage and deterioration by a combination of plant overgrowth, fungi, ground movements, war damage, and theft. The war damage to Angkor Wat's temples however has been very limited, compared to the rest of Cambodia's temple ruins, and it has also received the most attentive restoration.

The restoration of Angkor Wat in the modern era began with the establishment of the Conservation d'Angkor (Angkor Conservancy) by the École française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO) in 1908; before that date, activities at the site were primarily concerned with exploration. The Conservation d'Angkor was responsible for the research, conservation, and restoration activities carried out at Angkor until the early 1970s, and a major restoration of Angkor was undertaken in the 1960s.

Work on Angkor was abandoned during the Khmer Rouge era and the Conservation d'Angkor was disbanded in 1975. Between 1986 and 1992, the Archaeological Survey of India carried out restoration work on the temple, as France did not recognise the Cambodian government at the time. Criticisms have been raised about both the early French restoration attempts and the later Indian work, with concerns over the damage done to the stone surface by the use of chemicals and cement.

In 1992, following an appeal for help by Norodom Sihanouk, Angkor Wat was listed in UNESCO's World Heritage in Danger (later removed in 2004) and as a World Heritage Site together with an appeal by UNESCO to the international community to save Angkor. Zoning of the area was designated to protect the Angkor site in 1994, APSARA was established in 1995 to protect and manage the area, and a law to protect Cambodian heritage was passed in 1996.

Several countries such as France, Japan, and China are now involved in Angkor Wat conservation projects. The German Apsara Conservation Project (GACP) is working to protect the devatas, and other bas-reliefs that decorate the temple, from damage. The organisation's survey found that around 20% of the devatas were in very poor condition, mainly because of natural erosion and deterioration of the stone but in part also due to earlier restoration efforts. Other work involves the repair of collapsed sections of the structure, and prevention of further collapse: the west facade of the upper level, for example, has been buttressed by scaffolding since 2002, while a Japanese team completed the restoration of the north library of the outer enclosure in 2005.

Microbial biofilms have been found degrading sandstone at Angkor Wat, Preah Khan, and the Bayon and West Prasat in Angkor. The dehydration- and radiation-resistant filamentous cyanobacteria produce organic acids that degrade the stone. A dark filamentous fungus was found in internal and external Preah Khan samples, while the alga Trentepohlia was found only in samples taken from external, pink-stained stone at Preah Khan. Replicas have been made to replace some of the lost or damaged sculptures.

Tourism

Since the 1990s, Angkor Wat has become a major tourist destination. In 1993, there were only 7,650 visitors to the site; by 2004, government figures show that 561,000 foreign visitors had arrived in Siem Reap province that year, approximately 50% of all foreign tourists in Cambodia. The number reached over a million in 2007, and over two million by 2012. Most visited Angkor Wat, which received over two million foreign tourists in 2013, and 2.6 million by 2018.

The site was managed by the private SOKIMEX group between 1990 and 2016, which rented it from the Cambodian government. The influx of tourists has so far caused relatively little damage, other than some graffiti. Ropes and wooden steps have been introduced to protect the bas-reliefs and floors, respectively. Tourism has also provided some additional funds for maintenance—as of 2000 approximately 28% of ticket revenues across the entire Angkor site was spent on the temples—although most work is carried out by teams sponsored by foreign governments rather than by the Cambodian authorities.

Since Angkor Wat has seen significant growth in tourism throughout the years, UNESCO and its International Co-ordinating Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC), in association with representatives from the Royal Government and APSARA, organised seminars to discuss the concept of "cultural tourism". Wanting to avoid commercial and mass tourism, the seminars emphasised the importance of providing high-quality accommodation and services for the Cambodian government to benefit economically, while also incorporating the richness of Cambodian culture. In 2001, this incentive resulted in the concept of the "Angkor Tourist City" which would be developed about traditional Khmer architecture, contain leisure and tourist facilities, and provide luxurious hotels capable of accommodating large numbers of tourists.

The prospect of developing such large tourist accommodations has encountered concerns from both APSARA and the ICC, claiming that previous tourism developments in the area have neglected construction regulations and that more of these projects have the potential to damage landscape features. Also, the large scale of these projects have begun to threaten the quality of the nearby town's water, sewage, and electricity systems. It has been noted that such high frequency of tourism and growing demand for quality accommodations in the area, such as the development of a large highway, has had a direct effect on the underground water table, subsequently straining the structural stability of the temples at Angkor Wat.

Locals of Siem Reap have also voiced concern that the charm and atmosphere of their town have been compromised to entertain tourism.[103] Since this local atmosphere is the key component to projects like Angkor Tourist City, the local officials continue to discuss how to successfully incorporate future tourism without sacrificing local values and culture.

At the ASEAN Tourism Forum 2012, it was agreed that Borobudur and Angkor Wat would become sister sites and the provinces sister provinces.

In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic led to travel restrictions being introduced across the world, which had a severe impact on Cambodia's tourism sector. As a result, visitors to Angkor Wat plummeted, leaving the usually crowded complex almost deserted. Cambodia, including Angkor Wat, reopened to international visitors in late 2021, but as of the end of 2022 had only received a fraction of its pre-pandemic traffic: a total of 280,000 tourists visited the complex in 2022, versus 2.6 million in 2018. In 2023, the temple is seeing an increase in numbers over the previous year, having over 400,000 tourists by late July.

Perseu - Antonio Canova.

Antonio Canova (1 November 1757 – 13 October 1822) was an Italian sculptor who became famous for his marble sculptures that delicately rendered nude flesh. The epitome of the neoclassical style, his work marked a return to classical refinement after the theatrical excesses of Baroque sculpture.

Antonio Canova was born in Possagno, a village of the Republic of Venice situated amid the recesses of the hills of Asolo, where these form the last undulations of the Venetian Alps, as they subside into the plains of Treviso. At three years of age Canova was deprived of both parents, his father dying and his mother remarrying. Their loss, however, was compensated by the tender solicitude and care of his paternal grandfather and grandmother, the latter of whom lived to experience in her turn the kindest personal attention from her grandson, who, when he had the means, gave her an asylum in his house at Rome.

His father and grandfather followed the occupation of stone-cutters or minor statuaries; and it is said that their family had for several ages supplied Possagno with members of that calling. As soon as Canova's hand could hold a pencil, he was initiated into the principles of drawing by his grandfather Pasino. The latter possessed some knowledge both of drawing and of architecture, designed well, and showed considerable taste in the execution of ornamental works. He was greatly attached to his art; and upon his young charge he looked as one who was to perpetuate, not only the family name, but also the family profession.

The early years of Canova were passed in study. The bias of his mind was to sculpture, and the facilities afforded for the gratification of this predilection in the workshop of his grandfather were eagerly improved. In his ninth year he executed two small shrines of Carrara marble, which are still extant. Soon after this period he appears to have been constantly employed under his grandfather. Amongst those who patronized the old man was the patrician family Falier of Venice, and by this means young Canova was first introduced to the senator of that name, who afterwards became his most zealous patron.

Between the younger son, Giuseppe Falier, and the artist a friendship commenced which terminated only with life. The senator Falier was induced to receive him under his immediate protection. It has been related by an Italian writer and since repeated by several biographers, that Canova was indebted to a trivial circumstance - the moulding of a lion in butter - for the warm interest which Falier took in his welfare. The anecdote may or may not be true. By his patron Canova was placed under Bernardi, or, as he is generally called by filiation, Giuseppe Torretto, a sculptor of considerable eminence, who had taken up a temporary residence at Pagnano, one of Asolo's boroughs in the vicinity of the senator's mansion.

This took place whilst Canova was in his thirteenth year; and with Torretto he continued about two years, making in many respects considerable progress. This master returned to Venice, where he soon afterwards died; but by the high terms in which he spoke of his pupil to Falier, the latter was induced to bring the young artist to Venice, whither he accordingly went, and was placed under a nephew of Torretto. With this instructor he continued about a year, studying with the utmost assiduity.

After the termination of this engagement he began to work on his own account, and received from his patron an order for a group, Orpheus and Eurydice. The first figure, which represents Eurydice in flames and smoke, in the act of leaving Hades, was completed towards the close of his sixteenth year. It was highly esteemed by his patron and friends, and the artist was now considered qualified to appear before a public tribunal.

The kindness of some monks supplied him with his first workshop, which was the vacant cell of a monastery. Here for nearly four years he labored with the greatest perseverance and industry. He was also regular in his attendance at the academy, where he carried off several prizes. But he relied far more on the study and imitation of nature. A large portion of his time was also devoted to anatomy, which science was regarded by him as the secret of the art. He likewise frequented places of public amusement, where he carefully studied the expressions and attitudes of the performers. He formed a resolution, which was faithfully adhered to for several years, never to close his eyes at night without having produced some design. Whatever was likely to forward his advancement in sculpture he studied with ardour. On archaeological pursuits he bestowed considerable attention. With ancient and modern history he rendered himself well acquainted and he also began to acquire some of the continental languages.

Three years had now elapsed without any production coming from his chisel. He began, however, to complete the group for his patron, and the Orpheus which followed evinced the great advance he had made. The work was universally applauded, and laid the foundation of his fame. Several groups succeeded this performance, amongst which was that of Daedalus and Icarus, the most celebrated work of his noviciate. The terseness of style and the faithful imitation of nature which characterized them called forth the warmest admiration. His merits and reputation being now generally recognized, his thoughts began to turn from the shores of the Adriatic to the banks of the Tiber, for which he set out at the commencement of his twenty-fourth year.

Before his departure for Rome, his friends had applied to the Venetian senate for a pension, to enable him to pursue his studies without embarrassment. The application was ultimately successful. The stipend amounted to three hundred ducats (about 60 pounds per annum), and was limited to three years. Canova had obtained letters of introduction to the Venetian ambassador, the Cavaliere Zulian, and enlightened and generous protector of the arts, and was received in the most hospitable manner.

His arrival in Rome, on 28 December 1780, marks a new era in his life. It was here he was to perfect himself by a study of the most splendid relics of antiquity, and to put his talents to the severest test by a competition with the living masters of the art. The result was equal to the highest hopes cherished either by himself or by his friends. The work which first established his fame at Rome was Theseus Vanquishing the Minotaur, now in the collections of the Victoria & Albert Museum, in London. The figures are of the heroic size. The victorious Theseus is represented as seated on the lifeless body of the monster. The exhaustion which visibly pervades his whole frame proves the terrible nature of the conflict in which he has been engaged. Simplicity and natural expression had hitherto characterized Canova's style; with these were now united more exalted conceptions of grandeur and of truth. The Theseus was regarded with fervent admiration.

Canova's next undertaking was a monument in honor of Clement XIV; but before he proceeded with it he deemed it necessary to request permission from the Venetian senate, whose servant he considered himself to be, in consideration of the pension. This he solicited, in person, and it was granted. He returned immediately to Rome, and opened his celebrated studio close to the Via del Babuino. He spent about two years of unremitting toil in arranging the design and composing the models for the tomb of the pontiff. After these were completed, other two years were employed in finishing the monument, and it was finally opened to public inspection in 1787. The work, in the opinion of enthusiastic dilettanti, stamped the author as the first artist of modern times.

After five years of incessant labor, he completed another cenotaph, to the memory of Clement XIII, which raised his fame still higher. Works now came rapidly from his chisel. Amongst these is Psyche, with a butterfly, which is placed on the left hand, and held by the wings with the right. This figure, which is intended as a personification of man's immaterial part, is considered as in almost every respect the most faultless and classical of Canova's works. In two different groups, and with opposite expression, the sculptor has represented Cupid with his bride; in the one they are standing, in the other recumbent. These and other works raised his reputation so high that the most flattering offers were sent to him from the Russian court to induce him to remove to St Petersburg, but these were declined, although many of his finest works made their way to the Hermitage Museum. "Italy", says he, in writing of the occurrence to a friend, "Italy is my country - is the country and native soil of the arts. I cannot leave her; my infancy was nurtured here. If my poor talents can be useful in any other land, they must be of some utility to Italy; and ought not her claim to be preferred to all others?"

Numerous works were produced in the years 1795-1797, of which several were repetitions of previous productions. One was the celebrated group representing the Parting of Venus and Adonis. This famous production was sent to Naples. The French Revolution was now extending its shocks over Italy; and Canova sought obscurity and repose in his native Possagno. Thither he retired in 1798, and there he continued for about a year, principally employed in painting, of which art also he had some knowledge. Events in the political world having come to a temporary lull, he returned to Rome; but his health being impaired from arduous application, he took a journey through a part of Germany, in company with his friend Prince Rezzonico. He returned from his travels much improved, and again commenced his labors with vigour and enthusiasm.

The events which marked the life of the artist during the first fifteen years of the period in which he was engaged on the above-mentioned works scarcely merit notice. His mind was entirely absorbed in the labors of his studio, and, with the exception of his journeys to Paris, one to Vienna, and a few short intervals of absence in Florence and other parts of Italy, he never quit Rome. In his own words, "his statues were the sole proofs of his civil existence."

There was, however, another proof, which modesty forbade him to mention, an ever-active benevolence, especially towards artists. In 1815 he was commissioned by the Pope to superintend the transmission from Paris of those works of art which had formerly been conveyed thither under the direction of Napoleon. By his zeal and exertions - for there were many conflicting interests to reconcile - he adjusted the affair in a manner at once creditable to his judgment and fortunate for his country.

In the autumn of this year he gratified a wish he had long entertained of visiting London, where he received the highest tokens of esteem. The artist for whom he showed particular sympathy and regard in London was Benjamin Haydon, who might at the time be counted the sole representative of historical painting there, and whom he especially honored for his championship of the Elgin marbles, then recently transported to England, and ignorantly depreciated by polite connoisseurs. Among Canova's English pupils were sculptors Sir Richard Westmacott and John Gibson.

Canova returned to Rome in the beginning of 1816, with the ransomed spoils of his country's genius. Immediately after, he received several marks of distinction: he was made President of the Accademia di San Luca, the main artistic institution in Rome, and by the hand of the Pope himself his name was inscribed in "the Golden Volume of the Capitol", and he received the title of Marquis of Ischia, with an annual pension of 3000 crowns.

He now contemplated a great work, a colossal statue of Religion. The model filled Italy with admiration; the marble was procured, and the chisel of the sculptor ready to be applied to it, when the jealousy of churchmen as to the site, or some other cause, deprived the country of the projected work. The mind of Canova was inspired with the warmest sense of devotion, and though foiled in this instance he resolved to consecrate a shrine to the cause. In his native village he began to make preparations for erecting a temple which was to contain, not only the above statue, but other works of his own; within its precincts were to repose also the ashes of the founder. Accordingly he repaired to Possagno in 1819. After the foundation-stone of this edifice had been laid, Canova returned to Rome; but every succeeding autumn he continued to visit Possagno, in order to direct the workmen, and encourage them with pecuniary rewards and medals.

In the meantime the vast expenditure exhausted his resources, and compelled him to labor with unceasing assiduity notwithstanding age and disease. During the period which intervened between commencing operations at Possagno and his decease, he executed or finished some of his most striking works. Amongst these were the group Mars and Venus, the colossal figure of Pius VI, the Pietà, the St John, the recumbent Magdalen. The last performance which issued from his hand was a colossal bust of his friend, the Count Cicognara.

In May 1822 he paid a visit to Naples, to superintend the construction of wax moulds for an equestrian statue of the perjured Bourbon king Ferdinand VII. This journey materially injured his health, but he rallied again on his return to Rome. Towards the latter end of the year he paid his annual visit to the place of his birth, when he experienced a relapse. He proceeded to Venice, and expired there at the age of nearly sixty-five. His disease was one which had affected him from an early age, caused by the continual use of carving-tools, producing a depression of the ribs. The most distinguished funeral honors were paid to his remains, which were deposited in the temple at Possagno on 25 October 1822. His heart was interred in a marble pyramid he designed as a mausoleum for the painter Titian in the church of Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari in Venice, now a monument to the sculptor.

Among Canova's heroic compositions, his Perseus with the Head of Medusa (photo, right) appeared soon after his return from Germany. The moment of representation is when the hero, flushed with conquest, displays the head of the "snaky Gorgon", whilst the right hand grasps a sword of singular device. By a public decree, this fine work was placed in one of the stanze of the Vatican hitherto reserved for the most precious works of antiquity.

In 1802, at the personal request of Napoleon, Canova returned to Paris to model a bust of the first consul. The artist was entertained with munificence, and various honors were conferred upon him. The statue, which is colossal and entitled Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker, was not finished till four years after. On the fall of the great emperor, Louis XVIII presented this statue to the British government, by whom it was afterwards given to the Duke of Wellington.

Palamedes, Creugas and Damoxenus, the Combat of Theseus and the Centaur, and Hercules and Lichas may close the class of heroic compositions, although the catalogue might be swelled by the enumeration of various others, such as Hector and Ajax, and the statues of George Washington (commissioned by the State of North Carolina to be displayed in its Capitol Building), King Ferdinand of Naples, and others.

Under the head of compositions of grace and elegance, the statue of Hebe takes the first place in point of date. Four times has the artist embodied in stone the goddess of youth, and each time with some variation. The last one is in the Museum of Forlì, in Italy. The only material improvement, however, is the substitution of a support more suitable to the simplicity of the art. Each of the statues is, in all its details, in expression, attitude and delicacy of finish, strikingly elegant.

The Dancing Nymphs maintain a character similar to that of the Hebe. The Three Graces and the Venus are more elevated. The Awakened Nymph is another work of uncommon beauty. The mother of Napoleon, his consort Maria Louise (as Concord), to model whom the author made a further journey to Paris in 1810, the princess Esterhazy and the muse Polymnia (Elisa Bonaparte) take their place in this class, as do the ideal heads, comprising Corinna, Sappho, Laura, Beatrice and Helen of Troy.

Of the cenotaphs and funeral monuments the most splendid is the monument to the archduchess Archduchess Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen, consisting of nine figures.

Besides the two for the Roman Pontiffs already mentioned, there is one for Alfieri, another for Emo, a Venetian admiral, and a small model of a cenotaph for Horatio Nelson, besides a great variety of monumental relieves.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MUSEUM

The Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870 by a group of American citizens – businessmen and financiers as well as leading arists and thinkers of the day – who wanted to create a museum to bring art and art education to the American people.

The Metropolitan's paintings collection also began in 1870, when three private European collections, 174 paintings in all, came to the Museum. A variety of excellent Dutch and Flemish paintings, including works by such artists as Hals and Van Dyck, was supplemented with works by such great European artists as Poussin, Tiepolo, and Guardi.

The collections continued to grow for the rest of the 19th century – upon the death of John Kensett, for example, 38 of his canvases came to the Museum. But it is the 20th century that has seen the Museum's rise to the position of one of the world's great art centers. Some highlights: a work by Renoir entered the Museum as early as 1907 (today the Museum has become one of the world's great repositories of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art)...in 1910 the Metropolitan was the first public institution to accept works of art by Matisse...by 1979 the Museum owned five of the fewer than 40 known Vermeers...the Department of Greek and Roman Art now oversees thousands of objects, including one of the finest collections in glass and silver in the world...The American Wing holds the most comprehensive collection of American art, sculpture, and decorative arts in the world...the Egyptian art collection is the finest outside Cairo...the Islamic art collection is without peer...and so on, through many of the 17 curatorial departments.

In 1880, the Metropolitan Museum moved to its current site in Central Park. The original Gothic-Revival-style building has been greatly expanded in size since then, and the various additions (built as early as 1888) now completely surround the original structure. The present facade and entrance structure along Fifth Avenue were completed in 1926.

A comprehensive architectural plan for the Museum approved in 1971 was completed in 1991. The architects for the project were Kevin Roche John Dinkeloo and Associates, and the overall aim was to make the Museum's collections more accessible to the public, more useful to the scholars and, in general, more interesting and informative to all visitors.

Among the additions to the Museum as part of the master plan are: the Robert Lehman Wing (1975), which houses an extraordinary collection of Old Masters, as well as Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art; the installation in The Sackler Wing of the Temple of Dendur (1978), an Egyptian monument (ca. 15 B.C.) that was given to the United States by Egypt; The American Wing (1980), whose magnificent collection also includes 24 period rooms offering an unparalleled view of American art history and domestic life; The Michael C. Rockefeller Wing (1982) for the display of the arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas; the Lila Acheson Wallace Wing (1987), which houses modern art; and the Henry R. Kravis Wing, devoted to European sculpture and decorative arts from the Renaissance to the beginning of the 20th century.

With the building now complete, the Metropolitan Museum continues to refine and reorganize the collections in its existing spaces. In June 1998, the Arts of Korea gallery opened to the public, completing a major suite of galleries – a "museum within the Museum" – devoted to the arts of Asia. In October 1999 the renovated Ancient Near Eastern Galleries reopened. And a complete renovation and reinstallation of the Greek and Roman Galleries is underway: the first phase, The Robert and Renée Belfer Court for early Greek art, opened in June 1996; the New Greek Galleries premiered in April 1999; and in April 2000 the Cypriot Galleries will open to the public.

Antonio Canova (Possagno, 1 de Novembro de 1757 — Veneza, 13 de Outubro de 1822) foi um desenhista, pintor, antiquário e arquiteto italiano, mas é mais lembrado como escultor, desenvolvendo uma carreira longa e produtiva. Seu estilo foi fortemente inspirado na arte da Grécia Antiga, suas obras foram comparadas por seus contemporâneos com a melhor produção da Antiguidade, e foi tido como o maior escultor europeu desde Bernini, sendo celebrado por toda parte. Sua contribuição para a consolidação da arte neoclássica só se compara à do teórico Johann Joachim Winckelmann e à do pintor Jacques-Louis David, mas não foi insensível à influência do Romantismo. Não teve discípulos regulares, mas influenciou a escultura de toda a Europa em sua geração, atraindo inclusive artistas dos Estados Unidos, permanecendo como uma referência ao longo de todo o século XIX especialmente entre os escultores do Academismo. Com a ascensão da estética modernista caiu no esquecimento, mas sua posição prestigiosa foi restabelecida a partir de meados do século XX. Também manteve um continuado interesse na pesquisa arqueológica, foi um colecionador de antiguidades e esforçou-se por evitar que o acervo de arte italiana, antiga ou moderna, fosse disperso por outras coleções do mundo. Considerado por seus contemporâneos um modelo tanto de excelência artística como de conduta pessoal, desenvolveu importante atividade beneficente e de apoio aos jovens artistas. Foi Diretor da Accademia di San Luca em Roma e Inspetor-Geral de Antiguidades e Belas Artes dos estados papais, recebeu diversas condecorações e foi nobilitado pelo papa Pio VII com a outorga do título de Marquês de Ischia.[1][2][3]

ntonio Canova era filho de um escultor de algum mérito, Pietro Canova, que faleceu quando o filho tinha cerca de três anos. Um ano depois sua mãe, Angela Zardo, também o deixou, casando com Francesco Sartori e entregando o menino aos cuidados de seu avô paterno, Passino Canova, também escultor, e de sua tia Caterina Ceccato. Teve um meio-irmão das segundas núpcias de sua mãe, o abade Giovanni Battista Sartori, de quem se tornou amigo íntimo, e que foi seu secretário e executor testamentário. Aparentemente seu avô foi o primeiro a notar seu talento, e assim que Canova pôde segurar um lápis foi iniciado nos segredos do desenho. Sua juventude foi passada em estudos artísticos, mostrando desde cedo predileção pela escultura. Com nove anos já foi capaz de produzir dois pequenos relicários em mármore, que ainda existem, e desde então seu avô o empregou para diversos trabalhos. O avô era patrocinado pela rica família Falier de Veneza, e através dele Canova foi apresentado ao senador Giovanni Falier, que se tornou seu assíduo protetor, e cujo filho Giuseppe se tornou um dos seus mais constantes amigos. Através de Falier, Canova, com cerca de 13 anos, foi colocado sob a orientação de Giuseppe Torretto, um dos mais notáveis escultores do Vêneto em sua geração. Seu estudo foi facilitado pelo acesso que teve a importantes coleções de estatuária antiga, como as mantidas pela Academia de Veneza e pelo colecionador Filippo Farsetti, que foi-lhe útil estabelecendo novos contatos com ricos patronos. Logo suas obras foram elogiadas pela precoce virtuosidade, capacitando-o a receber suas primeiras encomendas, entre elas duas cestas de frutas em mármore para o próprio Farsetti, muito admiradas. A cópia que fez em terracota dos célebres Lutadores Uffizi valeu-lhe o segundo prêmio na Academia.[4][5]

Com a morte de Torretto a continuidade da instrução de Canova foi confiada a Giovanni Ferrari, sobrinho do outro, mas permaneceu com ele apenas um ano. Então, com apenas dezesseis anos, decidiu iniciar o trabalho por conta própria, e logo recebeu de Falier a encomenda para estátuas representando Orfeu e Eurídice. O conjunto, acabado entre 1776-77, resultou tão bem e atraiu tanto aplauso que seus amigos já previam para ele um futuro brilhante.[5] Nele, e em outro grupo importante, representando Dédalo e Ícaro (1778-79), o escultor já mostrava grande maturidade. Seu estilo nessa fase, se tinha um caráter ornamental típico do Rococó, era também vigoroso, e ao mesmo tempo se distinguia da tradição naturalista da arte veneziana e evidenciava uma tendência à idealização que adquirira com seus estudos dos clássicos.[4]

O grande progresso de Canova levou Falier a organizar sua ida para Roma, a fim de que se aperfeiçoasse. Roma nessa época era o mais importante centro de peregrinação cultural da Europa e uma meta obrigatória para qualquer artista que aspirasse à fama. Com sua pletora de monumentos antigos e grandes coleções, numa fase em que estava em pleno andamento a formação do Neoclassicismo, a cidade era toda um grande museu, e oferecia inúmeros exemplares autênticos para estudo em primeira mão da grande produção artística do passado clássico. [4] Antes de sua partida seus amigos conseguiram-lhe uma pensão de 300 ducados anuais, que se manteria por três anos. Também obteve cartas de apresentação para o embaixador veneziano na cidade, o Cavalier Girolamo Zulian, um ilustrado patrono das artes, que o recebeu com grande hospitalidade quando o artista chegou ali em torno de 1779 (Cf. nota: [6]), e providenciou a primeira exibição pública, em sua própria casa, de um trabalho do artista, uma cópia do grupo de Dédalo e Ícaro que mandou vir de Veneza e que suscitou a admiração de quantos a viram. Segundo o relato do conde Leopoldo Cicognara, um de seus primeiros biógrafos, apesar da aprovação unânime da obra Canova sentiu enorme embaraço naquele momento, falando muitas vezes dele anos mais tarde como um dos episódios mais tensos de sua vida. Através de Zulian Canova foi assim introduzido, com um sucesso imediato, na populosa comunidade local de intelectuais, onde brilhavam o arqueólogo Gavin Hamilton, os colecionadores sir William Hamilton e o cardeal Alessandro Albani, e o antiquário e historiador Johann Joachim Winckelmann, o principal mentor do Neoclassicismo, entre tantos outros que partilhavam de seu amor aos clássicos.[5][7]

Em Roma Canova pôde aprofundar o estudo das mais importantes relíquias da Antigüidade, completar sua educação literária, aperfeiçoar sua fluência no francês e colocar-se na competição com os melhores mestres da época.[8] O resultado ficou além de suas próprias expectativas. Sua primeira obra produzida em Roma, patrocinada por Zulian, foi Teseu vencendo o Minotauro (1781), que foi recebida com grande entusiasmo, a ponto de ser declarada como o marco inaugural de uma nova era para as artes. Em seguida esculpiu um pequeno Apolo em ato de coroar a si mesmo (1781-82), para o senador Abondio Rezzonico, uma estátua de Psiquê (1793) para Zulian, e passou a contar com o apoio de Giovanni Volpato, que abriu-lhe outras portas, entre elas a do Vaticano. Nesse período estabeleceu uma ligação tumultuada com a filha de Volpato, Domenica.[9][7]

Sua próxima encomenda, acertada por intermédio de Volpato, foi um monumento fúnebre ao papa Clemente XIV, mas para aceitá-la decidiu pedir permissão ao Senado de Veneza, em consideração à pensão que lhe haviam conseguido. Sendo concedida, fechou sua oficina em Veneza e voltou imediatamente para Roma, onde abriu um novo atelier nas imediações da Via del Babuino, onde os dois anos seguintes foram passados para a conclusão do modelo, e outros dois gastos na realização da obra, que foi finalmente inaugurada em 1787, atraindo o elogio dos maiores críticos da cidade. Durante esse período se engajou paralelamente em projetos menores, alguns baixos-relevos em terracota e uma estátua de Psique. Mais cinco anos foram despendidos na elaboração de um cenotáfio para Clemente XIII, entregue em 1792, que levou sua fama a alturas ainda maiores.[9]

Nos anos seguintes, até o encerramento do século, Canova se aplicou com ingente empenho em produzir um significativo conjunto de novas obras, entre elas vários grupos de Eros e Psiquê, em atitudes diferentes, que lhe valeram um convite para que se instalasse na corte russa, mas declarando sua íntima ligação com a Itália, declinou. Outras foram a Despedida de Vênus e Adônis, o grupo Hércules furioso lançando Licas ao mar, uma estátua de Hebe, e uma primeira versão da Madalena penitente. Mas o esforço foi excessivo para sua saúde, e o uso continuado de um apetrecho de escultura chamado trapano, que comprime o peito, provocou o afundamento de seu esterno. Sentindo-se exausto após tantos anos de atividades intensas e ininterruptas, e em vista da ocupação francesa de Roma em 1798, retirou-se para Possagno, onde aplicou-se à pintura, e logo seguiu em uma excursão de recreio pela Alemanha em companhia de seu amigo o Príncipe Rezzonico. Também passou pela Áustria, onde recebeu a encomenda de um cenotáfio para a arquiduquesa Maria Cristina, filha de Francisco I, que resultou anos mais tarde em uma obra majestosa, a melhor que produziu nesse gênero. Nessa mesma ocasião foi induzido a enviar para a capital austríaca o grupo de Teseu matando o centauro, que havia sido destinado para Milão, e que foi instalado em um templo em estilo grego construído especialmente para esse fim nos jardins do Palácio de Schönbrunn.[9]

Em sua volta a Roma em 1800, revigorado, produziu em poucos meses uma das suas composições mais aclamadas, o Perseu com a cabeça da Medusa (1800-01), inspirado livremente no Apolo Belvedere e julgado digno de ombrear com ele, e que lhe valeu o título de Cavalier, concedido pelo papa. Em 1802 foi convidado por Napoleão Bonaparte para visitar Paris e criar uma estátua sua, e segundo o testemunho de seu irmão, que o acompanhara, o escultor e o estadista mantiveram conversações em um nível de grande franqueza e familiaridade. Também encontrou o pintor Jacques-Louis David, o mais importante dos neoclássicos franceses.[10]

Em 10 de agosto de 1802 o papa Pio VII indicou o artista como Inspetor-Geral das Antiguidades e Belas Artes do Vaticano, posto que conservou até sua morte. Além de ser um reconhecimento de sua obra escultórica, a indicação implicava que ele também era considerado um conhecedor, com a capacidade de julgar a qualidade das obras de arte e um interesse em preservar as coleções papais. Entre as atribuições do cargo estavam a responsabilidade pela emissão de autorizações para escavações arqueológicas e a supervisão dos trabalhos de restauro, aquisição e exportação de antiguidades, além da supervisão sobre a instalação e organização de novos museus nos estados papais. Ele inclusive comprou 80 peças antigas com seus próprios recursos e as doou para os Museus Vaticanos. Entre 1805 e 1814 foi quem decidiu sobre a vinda de todos os artistas bolsistas italianos para aperfeiçoamento em Roma. Em 1810 foi indicado para a presidência da Accademia di San Luca, a mais importante instituição artística da Itália em sua época, e permaneceu como um baluarte de estabilidade na esfera cultural romana ao longo do turbulento período da ocupação francesa, sendo confirmado em suas posições por Napoleão. Sua missão administrativa culminou com a incumbência de resgatar, em 1815, o espólio artístico arrebatado da Itália pelo imperador francês, e por seu zelo e esforço conseguiu resolver o difícil trabalho de acomodar interesses internacionais divergentes e recuperar diversos tesouros para sua pátria, entre eles obras de Rafael Sanzio, o Apolo Belvedere, a Vênus Medici e o Laocoonte.[11][12]

No outono deste ano pôde realizar o sonho há muito acalentado de viajar a Londres, onde foi recebido com grande consideração. Sua viagem tinha dois propósitos primários: agradecer a ajuda que o governo britânico lhe dera da recuperação do acervo italiano confiscado, e conhecer os Mármores de Elgin, um grande conjunto de peças removidas do Partenon de Atenas, criadas por Fídias e seus assistentes, conhecimento que para ele foi uma revelação, contribuindo para confirmar sua impressão de que a arte grega era superior pela qualidade de seu acabamento e pela sua atenção à natureza. Ele também foi solicitado a dar seu parecer de perito sobre a importância do conjunto, que estava sendo posto à venda por Lord Elgin para a Coroa, e expressou-se nos termos mais elogiosos, mas recusou-se a restaurá-las, conforme foi convidado a fazê-lo, considerando que deviam permanecer como testemunhos autênticos da grande arte grega.[13] Voltando a Roma em 1816 com as obras devolvidas pela França, foi recebido em triunfo e recebeu do papa uma pensão de 3 mil escudos, tendo seu nome inscrito no Livro de Ouro do Capitólio com o título de Marquês de Ischia.[3][14]

Então Canova começou a elaborar o projeto para uma outra estátua, monumental, representando a Religião. Não por servilismo, uma vez que era um devoto ardente, mas sua idéia de instalá-la em Roma acabou frustrado mesmo sendo financiado por ele mesmo e estando pronto o modelo em seu tamanho definitivo, que entretanto acabou sendo executado em mármore em tamanho muito reduzido por ordem Lord Brownlow e levado para Londres. Mesmo assim ele decidiu erguer um templo em sua vila natal que conteria aquela escultura conforme seu plano original e outras peças de sua autoria, e nele deveriam, no tempo, repousar suas cinzas. Em 1819 foi lançada a pedra fundamental, e em seguida Canova retornou a Roma, mas a cada outono voltava às obras para acompanhar o seu progresso e instruir os empregados, encorajando-os com recompensas financeiras e medalhas. Mas o empreendimento se revelou excessivamente custoso, e o artista teve de voltar ao trabalho com renovado empenho a despeito de sua idade e doenças. Desta fase são algumas de suas peças mais significativas, como o grupo de Marte e Vênus para a Coroa Inglesa, a estátua colossal de Pio VI, uma Pietà (somente o modelo), outra versão da Madalena penitente. Sua última obra acabada foi um enorme busto de seu amigo o Conde Cicognara.[15]

Em maio de 1822 visitou Nápoles para superintender a construção do modelo para uma estátua eqüestre do Rei Fernando IV de Nápoles, mas o trajeto cobrou caro de sua saúde. Voltando a Roma, recuperou-se, mas em sua visita anual a Possagno já chegou lá doente, e recusando o repouso seu estado piorou. Então foi levado a Veneza, onde faleceu lúcido e serenamente. Suas últimas palavras foram "Anima bella e pura" (alma bela e pura), que pronunciou várias vezes antes de expirar. Testemunhos de amigos presentes em seu transpasse dizem que seu semblante foi adquirindo uma crescente radiância e expressividade, como se estivesse absorvido em uma contemplação extática. A autópsia realizada em seguida revelou uma obstrução do intestino por uma necrose na altura do piloro. Seu funeral, realizado em 25 de outubro de 1822, foi cercado das mais altas honras, entre a comoção de toda a cidade, e os acadêmicos disputaram para carregar seu caixão. Seu corpo foi em seguida sepultado em Possagno e seu coração foi depositado em uma urna de pórfiro mantida na Academia de Veneza. Sua morte gerou luto em toda a Itália, e as homenagens fúnebres ordenadas pelo papa em Roma foram assistidas por representantes de várias casas reais da Europa. No ano seguinte começou a ser erguido um cenotáfio para ele, a partir de um modelo que havia sido criado pelo próprio Canova em 1792 por encomenda de Zulian, originalmente para celebrar o pintor Ticiano, mas que não havia sido realizado. Hoje o monumento pode ser visitado na Basílica de Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, em Veneza.[15]

Segundo a Memória Biográfica sobre o artista deixada pelo seu amigo íntimo o Conde Cicognara, Canova manteve ao longo de toda sua vida hábitos frugais e uma rotina regular. Acordava cedo e imediatamente começava a trabalhar. Após o almoço costumava retirar-se para um breve repouso. Teve uma doença crônica de estômago que permanece não identificada, que causava dores severas em ataques que se sucederam ao longo de toda sua vida. Parece ter nutrido uma fé religiosa profunda e sincera. Não manteve uma vida social especialmente brilhante, embora fosse constantemente solicitado para frequentar os círculos de personalidades ilustres que o admiravam, mas era comum que recebesse amigos em sua própria casa após sua jornada de trabalho, à noite, quando se revelava um anfitrião de modos finos, inteligente, afável e caloroso. Segundo suas próprias palavras, suas esculturas eram a única prova de sua existência civil. Parece que em duas ocasiões esteve perto de contrair matrimônio, mas permaneceu solteiro por toda a vida. Seu grupo de amigos, porém, era grande e a eles dedicava um afeto intenso e elevado. Não manteve discípulos regulares, mas se notava talento superior em algum artista iniciante não poupava bons conselhos e encorajamento. Muitas vezes apoiou financeiramente jovens promissores e buscou-lhes encomendas. Mesmo sempre às voltas com muito trabalho, não hesitava em abandonar seu atelier assim que fosse chamado por outro artista para dar sua opinião sobre assuntos de arte ou oferecer conselhos técnicos.[16]

Alimentou um perene entusiasmo pelo estudo da arte antiga e pela arqueologia. Gostava da literatura clássica e fazia frequentes leituras, mas de hábito alguém lia para ele enquanto trabalhava. Considerava a leitura de bons autores um recurso indispensável para aperfeiçoamento pessoal e de sua arte. Não foi um escritor, mas manteve profusa correspondência com amigos e intelectuais, onde se evidencia um estilo de escrita claro, simples e vívido, que foi-se refinando ao longo dos anos sem perder sua força e espontaneidade. Uma de suas cartas de 1812 atesta que chegou a pensar em publicar algo sobre sua arte em seus princípios gerais, mas não o concretizou. Contudo, em segredo muitas de suas observações e idéias foram registradas por seu círculo de associados e tornadas públicas mais tarde. Parecia ser imune à inveja, à crítica e à bajulação, e nunca se afligiu com o sucesso alheio; ao contrário, não economizava elogios quando percebia grandeza na obra de seus colegas de ofício, e manifestava gratidão por conselhos ou reparos que julgava justos e apropriados. Quando uma crítica contundente apareceu publicada em um jornal de Nápoles, dissuadiu seus amigos que queriam prover uma réplica, dizendo que seu trabalho se encarregaria de dar a resposta adequada.[17] As relações de Canova com a política de seu tempo são exemplificadas nas obras que criou para a Casa da Áustria e a Casa de Bonaparte, onde os desejos de legitimação e glorificação dos governantes entraram em conflito com a postura politicamente neutra que o escultor desejava manter. Teve obras recusadas ou severamente criticadas por ambas por não se enquadrarem naqueles desejos, como o grupo de Hércules furioso que lança Licas ao mar (1795), rejeitado pelo imperador austríaco, e o mesmo acontecendo com o retrato alegórico que fez para Napoleão como Marte pacificador.[18] Sua opinião a respeito de Napoleão tem sido descrita como ambígua, sendo ao mesmo tempo um admirador, aceitando da sua família várias encomendas, e um crítico, especialmente pela sua invasão da Itália e o confisco de um grande acervo de obras de arte italianas.[19]

Apreciava o sucesso de suas obras e era vivamente grato por isso, mas nunca evidenciou que um desejo de glória pessoal fosse seu objetivo primário, apesar de ter sido um dos artistas de seu tempo mais expostos aos perigos da celebridade, pois recebeu diversas condecorações e a proteção de muitos nobres importantes, foi ele mesmo nobilitado em vários Estados da Europa, incumbido de altos cargos públicos e incluído como membro em muitas academias de arte mesmo sem jamais tê-lo solicitado. Gastou boa parte da fortuna que veio a acumular em obras de caridade, no fomento de associações de classe e no apoio aos jovens artistas. Em várias ocasiões adquiriu com recursos próprios obras de arte para museus públicos e coleções de livros para bibliotecas, não raro fazendo suas doações anonimamente. Também em vários momentos precisou ser alertado para não dissipar seus rendimentos com os problemas alheios.[20][8]

Seu permanente fascínio pela antiguidade clássica fez com que ele acumulasse uma significativa coleção de peças arqueológicas de mármore e terracota. Sua coleção de placas de terracota da Campania era especialmente interessante, embora nunca citada nas suas primeiras biografias. As peças eram em sua maioria fragmentárias, mas muitas estavam íntegras e eram de alta qualidade, e as tipologias que ele preferiu reunir evidenciam que ele estava à frente das tendências museológicas e colecionistas de seu tempo. O seu interesse pelo material estava ligado ao uso da argila para criar os modelos de suas obras em mármore, e ele a preferia antes do que o gesso por ser mais fácil de trabalhar, e a empregava também para a elaboração dos relevos que ele chamava "de recreação privada", onde representava cenas que encontrava em suas leituras de Homero, Virgílio e Platão.[21]

Though the Mikoyan-Gurevich design bureau had put the excellent MiG-15 fighter in production, giving the Soviet Union one of the best fighters of the early 1950s, MiG felt it could further improve on the design. The MiG-15 had shown itself to be unstable as it neared the speed of sound, and it was anticipated that further refinement could be done to the aircraft. As a result, MiG OKB began work on an improved MiG-15, referred to as the MiG-15-45 because of its primary characteristic, an improved swept wing. This new wing was thinner than that on the MiG-15, included wing fences for improved aerodynamics, and was swept at 45 degrees near the wingroot and to a slightly lesser degree at the wingtip, giving the new variant a distinctive “banana-wing” shape.

The fuselage was extended to incorporate an afterburner on the VK-1F turbojet, while a small ventral fin was added beneath the tail to further improve stability. While the MiG-17 could not quite break the sound barrier, it was very stable in most respects and kept the heavy armament and good all-around visibility of the MiG-15. The design changes were enough to warrant a new designation, so it became the MiG-17.

The first MiG-17 flew in January 1950, and despite the loss of the prototype to a fatal crash, low-level production soon began—low-level due to the urgent need for MiG-15s to fight in the Korean War. Not until after the war had ended did full-scale production begin on the MiG-17. By then, it was considered somewhat obsolescent: the supersonic MiG-19 was placed in production alongside the MiG-17, while work had begun on the MiG-21. Nonetheless, it was kept in production for the rest of the decade as the MiG-19 proved to be a bit of a disappointment. The MiG-17 was updated in 1953 after the Soviet Union captured a F-86F Sabre, and copied elements of the Sabre’s ejection seat and gunsight into the new fighter. It was dubbed “Fresco” by NATO. Attempts were made to build all-weather versions of the MiG-17 with mixed results; the all-missile MiG-17PM was reviled by its pilots due to a poor radar and worse missiles. The most common version was the day fighter MiG-17F.

The MiG-17’s combat debut was not auspicious, seeing action in the 1956 Suez War and the 1958 Quemoy Crisis. In the former, Egypt’s few MiG-17s were outnumbered and outflown by French and Israeli Mystere IV and Super Mystere fighters, while over the Taiwan Straits, People’s Republic of China MiG-17s were ambushed by Republic of China F-86Fs equipped with Sidewinder missiles. By 1960, production had ended, and the Soviet Union sold off most of its stock to client states, reequipping with more modern MiG-21s.

In 1962, the Soviet Union supplied the nascent North Vietnamese People’s Air Force with 36 MiG-17Fs as the nucleus of a new air force, and to offset the American-supplied Thai and South Vietnamese air forces. By 1965, when Operation Rolling Thunder began, these aircraft were sent against US Air Force and Navy fighters attacking the Thanh Hoa bridge. On 4 April 1965, a force of four MiG-17s shot down two F-105 Thunderchiefs to score the VPAF’s first victories of the war, but paid a heavy price, losing three out of the four to escorting F-100 Super Sabres and their own antiaircraft fire. The MiG-17 would remain the primary VPAF aircraft throughout Rolling Thunder, though it was gradually supplemented by the MiG-21. Since the MiG-17 was subsonic and lacked radar, it depended on ground radar to guide the pilot to the target, but once in a dogfight, the small, very manueverable, cannon-armed MiG had a definite advantage over American aircraft; only the F-8 Crusader came remotely close to matching it. A favorite tactic of MiG-17 pilots was to hide “in the grass” at low level and pick off any unwary American pilot, or attack during a bomb run when their opponents were at their weakest. It came as a rude surprise to American pilots that semi-obsolete aircraft were still capable of destroying the latest word in military equipment, and it pointed up the deficiencies in American air combat training.

MiG-17s accounted for about 50 USAF and Navy aircraft during Rolling Thunder, enough that when the Top Gun program was formed in 1969, A-4 Skyhawks were assigned specifically to simulate them. This was also secretly supplemented by two ex-Syrian MiG-17Fs captured by Israel in 1968 and given to the United States under Project Have Drill. One deficiency that was found in the MiG-17 was that, at high speeds and low altitudes, compressibility would set in and the aircraft became unresponsive to the controls. These lessons were put to good use when American strikes resumed in 1972. By this time, the VPAF had largely withdrawn its MiG-17s to training units, preferring the more modern MiG-19 and MiG-21. While the MiG-17 did account for a few more kills, they mostly ended up being shot down by better trained US Navy pilots and USAF F-4E pilots, who now had internal guns themselves. In the right hands, a MiG-17 was still a formidable opponent, as US Navy aces Randy Cunningham and William Driscoll found out on 10 May 1972, when a MiG-17 dueled in the vertical with their F-4J for nearly ten minutes before it was finally shot down.

After Vietnam, the MiG-17 had outlived its usefulness, and though it would see limited service in African brushfire wars and in the Yom Kippur War of 1973, what few air forces retained them relegated them to second-line and training units. A few persisted in the Albanian and North Korean air forces until 2000. 10,603 MiG-17s were built by the Soviet Union, Poland, and China, serving in 40 air forces; today, several hundred still remain in museums and in flyable condition, including 27 in the United States alone.

This MiG-17F is a Lim-5, the license-built version produced by WSK-Mielec for the Polish Air Force. Not unusally, not much can be found about this airframe, other than it was part of the Warhawk Air Museum's collection in Nampa, Idaho by 2018. It may still be flyable.

The markings are what is interesting about this particular MiG. It is painted as the first MiG-17 to be used by the USAF's 6513th Flight Test Squadron at Groom Lake--better known as the "Red Hats" at Area 51. The real MiG--which was also a Lim-5--was a Syrian example that accidentally landed in Israel in 1968. After a period of evaluation, Israel turned the aircraft over to the USAF, and it was subsequently based secretly at Groom Lake under Project Have Drill. Along with an ex-Iraqi MiG-21F-13 acquired around the same time (referred to as Have Donut), these aircraft allowed the US military to evaluate firsthand the strengths and weaknesses of aircraft used by the North Vietnamese. Have Drill and Have Donut would be secretly used against the first class of Top Gun graduates, allowing the Navy's fighter pilots to greatly improve their kill ratios over Vietnam; a small group of USAF pilots were also trained against the aircraft, though Red Flag would not be organized until after the end of the war.

The Have Drill MiG-17 retained its Syrian camouflage and nose "Bort" number, but added US insignia and red recognition stripes on the fuselage and wings. Given that most MiG-17s on display in the United States are either finished in bare metal or painted as North Vietnamese aircraft, this was a nice surprise at Warhawk.

The Beijing Garden is designed in the imperial Chinese garden style of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912); a style symbolic of luxury and refinement. It features a traditional Chinese welcome gate, paths that meander past Chinese stone sculptures and a Chinese pavilion offering a place for quiet retreat to enjoy the garden's serenity.

“To live content with small means; to seek elegance rather than luxury, and refinement rather than fashion; to be worthy, not respectable, and wealthy, not, rich; to listen to stars and birds, babes and sages, with open heart; to study hard; to think quietly, act frankly, talk gently, await occasions, hurry never; in a word, to let the spiritual, unbidden and unconscious, grow up through the common - this is my symphony.

William Ellery Channing

~George Herbert

Monochromatic Month is almost over! Only 5 days left! There's still time to join the colorless fun! :)

Tip: One of the qualities I love most about black & white photography is the feel of refinement a monochromatic palette conveys. In addition to that sense of polish, there's also an ambiance and timeless style you seldom find in color photos (this is why B&W is a popular choice for weddings). Regardless of your subject matter, try shooting in monochrome and you'll see not only does it add intimacy and immediacy—it brings the moment closer.

Happy Monday! Thank you all for your continued feedback & support!

Canon 5D Mark II

Canon 50mm f/1.4 USM

Aperture: f/2.8

Focal Length: 50mm

ISO Speed: 200

Lighting: (2) 580EX II w/ shoot-thru umbrella, behind & camera left low

Polarizer/Filter: None

Exposure: 1/40

RAW File Processing: Lightroom 3

Slik Sprint Pro w/ Manfrotto 496RC2 Ballhead

Go ahead, ask.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

© Steven Brisson. Do not use without permission.

twitter | facebook | tumblr | stevenbrisson.com

Just arrived from Seamer Road and had graphics applied. One of a pair of B10M Derwents. The Plaxton package did not have the refinement of the Duple 300.

Happy Furry Friday!

This morning, I woke up early and after a hearty breakfast, went straight to my art studio to paint some works of art. No more sulking in bed. I'm over that. I'd much rather be playfully productive! Franco or Mike, maybe you can give me some tips on techniques? I have brushes, paints, and a few blank canvasses.

Hat

The Dipylon amphora summarizes all the achievements of Geometric art. It embodies both the culmination of the earlier, purely abstract style and the inauguration of the new figural style, the first consistent representational style in Greek art. Its shape is one of utmost refinement: the full ovoid contour tapers gracefully to a low foot; the tall, slightly flaring neck, at roughly one third the total height of the vase, is perfectly proportioned to counterbalance the heavier form of the vase body; two double-loop handles on either side of the belly emphasize the point of widest girth.

Ornament takes cognizance of the form which it covers, aiding our comprehension of the vase as a sculptural entity. Meander zones of various types, simple, complex, and battlement, spread over the surface of the vase like a close-fitting net, their ”weight" determined by their location on the vase: narrow bands of simple meander and other subsidiary ornaments point up the juncture of neck and body and the region tapering to the foot below; wider bands of more complex meander girdle the neck, the belly, and the shoulder; finally, the widest decorative zone, which coincides with the point of greatest tension on the vase, the belly between the handles, is reserved for the most important decorative element, the representational frieze. The scene depicts the prothesis of a woman surrounded by female mourners, as well as two warriors armed with swords who appear at the far left of the composition on the front of the vase. Other female and male figures are confined to a narrow frieze between the handles on each side, as well as beneath them and the effect is understated, restrained, even a bit austere.

Source: Barbara E. Bohen, “The Dipylon Amphora: Its Role in the Development of Greek Art”

Athenian geometric belly-handled amphora

H. 83 cm; D. 29 cm

Attributed to The Dipylon Painter

760 – 750 BC

From Kerameikos cemetery, Athens

Athens, National Museum, inv. 804

2015 FR Collection

Refinement Vanessa

Today, the meanings of orchids are generally regarded as a symbolic of rare and delicate beauty, love, refinement, mature charm.

Sadly...all three need some 'plastic surgery'

;P

But their fashions are WONDERFUL!! Perfect mix/match options too! :) <3<3<3

A big success by any standard both in and out of competition, the Lancia Stratos was developed as a homologation Special for European rallying. After production ceased it became a cult car and is now highly priced as the ‘modern classis' it is. Conceived strictly for rallying, the Lancia Stratos however makes an exciting road car, though it is very far from GT standards in both luxury and refinement.

The concept vehicle responsible for providing the inspiration for the Lancia Stratos Rally car is the Lancia (Bertone) Stratos. The Stratos featured a 1584 cc V4 DOHC with 115 bhp horsepower at 200 rpm. Designed by Marcello Gandini, the same designer responsible for the Lamborghini Countach and Lamborghini Miura, the Stratos concept was a development of the Bertone designed Alfa Romeo Carabo concept from 1968. The Carabo concept was also a Gandini creation.

First revealed at the Turin Motor Show in October of 1970, the Lancia Stratos HF prototype was a styling exercise for Bertone. A futuristic design, the Stratos featured a wedge shaped profile that stood just 33 inches from the ground. Since the vehicle was so low, conventional doors could not be used and instead one accessed the interior of the Stratos by a hinged windscreen. Drivers had to flip up the windscreen and walk into the vehicle. Once inside, visibility was quite restricted since the front windscreen was narrow. The cockpit of the Lancia Stratos was designed specifically for fast forest flying.

The body design was predictably minimal to hold down weight and bulk with its most distinctive features being semi-concealed A-pillars and a door beltline that sharply upswept to the top of the daylight opening. The shape of the resulting unbroken expanse of glass gave the tunnelback roof the appearance of a futuristic crash helmet.

The main body structure was steel, like the chassis, and weight-saving fiberglass was used for tilt-up nose and tail sections. A small box above and behind the powertrain was where cargo space was held. Bins were also molded into the interior door panels for storing helmets.

The same engine utilized on the Lancia 1600 HF Fulvia was used on the Bertone designed Lancia Stratos Zero prototype. A triangular shaped panel hinged upwards to allow access to the mid-mounted engine. Developed for rallying purposes, the legendary Lancia Stratos was unveiled in 1974. The production vehicle Stratos was powered by a 2.4 liter mid-mounted V6 from the Ferrari Dino.

Like no other Lancia before or after, the Lancia Stratos was a shock that left enthusiasts and rally fans breathless. For almost a decade the Stratos streaked across the rally landscape much like a brilliant comet, while discarding past principles, it also fearlessly represented something undeniably new. A phenomenal rally car, the Lancia Stratos set an example to every other car manufacturer in the world. The first viable purpose-built rally car ever built, the Stratos was probably the last purpose-built rally car.

Created by the Bertone coachbuilding company, the Stratos was both radical, yet fully functional. Fiorio realized that for Lancia to continue to compete in the World Rally Championship, the Fulvia HF would need a much more powerful replacement. A the time, four-wheel drive was not an option, so a mid-engined configuration seemed ideal. To reinforce Fiori's convictions, the Bertone show car was featured soon after with a mid-engine Fulvia V4.

The introduction of the Ford mid-engine purpose-built GT70 rally car at the 1971Brussels Motor Show was what truly inspired the impetus behind the Stratos proect. It was after this appearance that Lancia's general manager, Pierugo Gobbato contacted Nuccio Bertone. Though the GT70 was actually never put in production by Ford, it was this that sparked the inspiration of the Lancia Stratos.

As always, there was a minimum production requirement, 500 units for the Lancia Stratos. This was an awkward figure that would necessitate funds for at least semi-permanent tooling as well as design and development. This was a job well suited to the Italian industry. Fiorio masterminded the project, and he envisioned a short, wide coupe with transverse midships drivetrain. Bertone was immediately contracted to style the vehicle and built its unit body/chassis structure.

43 months passed in between the time of conception to the actual birth of the Lancia Stratos. The vehicle was developed to take over and make Lancia the outright world rally champ. The Stratos was both short and wide, with a wheelbase of only 7 feet 1.8 inches, the width of the vehicle was only 5 feet 8.9 inches. Weighing only 1958 lbs, the Stratos was only 3 feet 7.9 inches high. Able to easily exceed 140 mph, the Stratos featured 190 horsepower in roadgoing trim.

Having studied every possible powerteam in the Fiat/Lancia group, Fiorio secured 2.4 liter V-6s and 5-speed transaxles from Ferrari, which was an ideal chouse as they'd be installed exactly as the Dino 246. All-independent suspension, rack-and-pinion steering and four-wheel disc brakes were all specifically designed for the Lancia Stratos.

After 1978 the Stratos was officially retired and no longer was officially entered by the Lancia factory, the vehicle was still going strong. The Lancia team was headed by by Sandro Munari who won its first event as a homologated entry in October of 1974. Mun ari entered alone 40 events with the Lancia Stratos and won 14. The Stratos also won the World Rally Championship in 1974, 1975, and 1976 and remained competitive for another four years. The final major win came in 1979 when a Lancia Stratos entered by the Monaco importer won the famed Monte Carlo Rally. Finally the factory retired the Stratos.

By Jessica Donaldson

[Text from ConceptCarz.com]

www.conceptcarz.com/z21737/Lancia-Stratos-HF.aspx

This Lego miniland-scale Lancia Stratos Rally Racer has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 100th Build Challenge - our Centenary, titled 'One Hundred Ways to Win!'. In this challenge, a list of 100 challenges is available, kept by the admins. Individuals wishing to enter, request a number from 1-100 (so long as it has not already been requested) - and the admins assign the individual build challenge associated with that number.

In the case of admins entering models - they request that a general LUGNuts member assigns a number - and the admin must build to that challenge number.

In this case, the number 78 was chosen for me, corresponding to the challenge: '78.Any vehicle from the year you were born'. I was born in 1972, the year that the first Stratos rally cars were built, entering in the Rally Championship as Group 5 (un-homologated) entries.

The road cars required to homologate for Group 4 were built through 1973 to 1978.

Megatron features more than 40 points of articulation with the ability to transform into a toy gun.

He can stand off-balance without any external supports, just like RX-78-S2, and his eyes glows evil red! Ion Cannon lights up as well!

Unlike most Megatron toys or Lego Megatron, the gun mode is symmetrical from left to right and features transformation not found elsewhere.

After close to a dozen retries and rebuilds, this is 2nd version of Megatron I did and am very happy with the result. The headsculpt from the first version was inspired by Moko's Megatron (flic.kr/p/sMZCHf). This is a refinement of my first Megatron headsculpt.

Behold the full wrath of the Big Bad Boss!

After spending an afternoon with [https://www.flickr.com/people/epjl/] I now have directional lighting on my NS 6317, which also meant it was basically ready for the Brick Train Awards. After some last refinements, I'm now calling it finished. All that needs to happen now is ordering better stickers.

I love flower of the rose.

I also love smell of the rose.

I do aromatherapy.

I thought about the name of my "neroli" from refinement of oil.

I repaired her.

I worried about her that I was seen for her the first time.

I came to love her because I repaired her.

I love her so much!!!!

“To live content with small means;

to seek elegance rather than luxury,

and refinement rather than fashion;

to be worthy, not respectable,

and wealthy, not rich;

to listen to stars and birds,

babes and sages, with open heart;

to study hard;

to think quietly, act frankly, talk gently,

await occasions, hurry never;

in a word, to let the spiritual,

unbidden and unconscious,

grow up through the common

- this is my symphony. ”

- William Ellery Channing

Refinement, Sophistiquee, Serenity and Star Power

Despite the light distortion from 18km away, St Peter Cathedral church Spire can be seen in the Silhouettes within the glowing globe.

This little Coolpix 510 with its 42x zoom is not too bad, it lacks a bit of refinements.

The French Room was dedicated in 1943 and decorated in the Empire style of the 18th century. The refinements of the era can be seen in the golden motifs in the furniture and crown mouldings on the walls, some of which are of Greek, Egyptian and Italian influence, an indication of the military campaigns that Napoleon led in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

youtu.be/jR9XBeIGKrw

xxxx

The Nationality Rooms are located in the University of Pittsburgh's Cathedral of Learning building. The rooms are gifts to the university from Pittsburgh's ethnic communities. Each room has been designed to represent the culture of the nation represented. The rooms function as university classrooms and are not open all the time for the public to explore particularly during school terms. Visitors are advised to contact the University for opening times and guided tours.

www.nationalityrooms.pitt.edu/

The very first Nationality Room opened in 1938, and new rooms are still being planned now. There are currently 30 Nationality Rooms at the Cathedral of Learning.

The dramatic upper story is Christmassy in itself, but the addition of trees and garlands gives it the perfect festive touches. Add to that shops selling delicious chocolates and other gifts,The Royal Arcade, nestled in the heart of London’s Bond Street, is one of the city’s most charming shopping destinations. Opened in 1879, this elegant Victorian arcade features a striking glass roof, intricate stucco detailing, and a timeless sense of refinement. A favorite of Edwardian high society, it remains a symbol of understated opulence, perfect for those seeking a quieter, more exclusive shopping experience amidst the bustle of Mayfair.

The coach building stood as a timeless monument to craftsmanship and elegance, its stately facade commanding attention with its grandeur and attention to detail. Nestled amidst a backdrop of rolling hills and lush greenery, it exuded an air of refinement that harkened back to a bygone era.

Luv pink roses... delicate pastel pink tones are so feminine

and lovely! So I went up close and personal with this perfect pinkalicious rosey posey! Wishing y'all a blessed week dear friends! Remember just keep looking up! Hugs!

The meaning of pink roses is as beautiful & as graceful as the delicate blossom. They're often seen in bridal arrangements, thank you or congratulations bouquets. Considering the word "rose" brings to mind the faint blush of a fair maiden's cheeks, it's not surprising these blooms are a favorite to give and receive. Pink is not just for girls, & it is not just a pretty color. Pink roses have deep significance when it comes to affections given and received. The most widely accepted interpretation of pink roses is grace & gentility. An admiration for beauty, refinement & enduring grace is what the pink rose connotes. The receiver of the pink rose can rest assured that he or she is admired for possessing a certain respectability and decorum not commonly found in others. The meaning of pink roses, as expressed by their lovely color is happiness and joy. Being themselves a joy to behold, pink roses express fun & happiness. The pink rose denotes that the receiver is a pleasure to behold, a pleasure to have in company. Thus, it is an indication of deep joy. They indicate happiness or pride, a heart-felt appreciation. Pink roses are generally looked upon as the flower of sweet thoughts & gentle emotions. It indicates an affection that may turn into deeper love. Innocent love that has not yet blossomed into passion, a deep affection that has not yet reached its pinnacle is what the pink rose expresses. There are many different variations of pink, from a pale blush to a gentle medium pink to a vibrant pink, each having its own meaning and implication. The palest pink roses are a sign of gentleness, joy and grace.

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!

Some background:

The Hawker Cyclone was an evolutionary successor to the successful Hawker Typhoon and Tempest fighters and fighter-bombers of the Second World War. The Cyclone's design process was initiated in September 1942 by Sydney Camm, one of Hawker's foremost aircraft designers, to meet the Royal Air Force’s requirement for a lightweight Tempest Mk.II and V replacement.

The project, tentatively designated Tempest Mk. VIII, was formalised in January 1943 when the Air Ministry issued Specification F.2/42 around the "Tempest Light Fighter".This was followed up by Specification F.2/43, issued in May 1943, which required a high rate of climb of not less than 4,500 ft/min (23 m/s) from ground level to 20,000 feet (6,096 m), good fighting manoeu rability and a maximum speed of at least 450 mph (724 km/h) at 22,000 feet (6,705 m). The armament was to be four 20mm Hispano V cannon with a total capacity of 600 rounds, plus the capability of carrying two bombs each up to 1,000 pounds (454 kg). In April 1943, Hawker had also received Specification N.7/43 from the Admiralty, who sought a navalized version of the developing aircraft, what eventually led to the Hawker Sea Fury, which was a completely new aircraft, which only shared the general outlines of the Tempest.

After the end of hostilities in late 1948 and the ensuing independence, the Cyclone squadrons settled into their peace time stations. However, constant engine troubles (particularly the radiator) continued to claim aircraft and lives and the skill required to land the Cyclone because of its high approach speed continued to cause several write offs. The arrival of the jet-engined Vampire were the first signs of the Cyclone’s demise. As the IAF began a rapid expansion to an all jet force, several Tempest and Cyclone squadrons began converting to Vampires, 7 Squadron being the first in Dec 49. By this time it had already been decided that the piston-engine fighters would be relegated to the fighter lead-in role to train pilots for the new jet fighters. A conversion training flight was set up at Ambala in Sep 49 with Spitfire T Mk IXs, XVIIIs and Tempests to provide 16 hrs/six weeks of supervised Tempest training. This unit eventually moved to Hakimpet two years later and operated till the end of 1952. Some Cyclone FR Mk. IIs remained in front line service until 1954, though.

General characteristics:

Crew: One

Length: 35 ft 5 3/4 in (10.83 m)

Wingspan: 42 ft 5 1/2 in (12.96 m)

Height (tail down): 15 ft 6 3/4 in (4.75 m)

Wing area: 302 ft² (28 m²)

Empty weight: 9,250 lb (4,195 kg)

Loaded weight: 11,400 lb (5,176 kg)

Max. takeoff weight: 13,640 lb (6,190 kg)

Powerplant:

1× Napier Sabre V liquid-cooled H-24 sleeve-valve engine with 2,340 hp (1,683 kW)

Performance:

Maximum speed: 460 mph (740 km/h) 18,400 ft (5,608 m),

Range: 740 mi (1,190 km)

1,530 mi (2,462 km) with two 90 gal (409 l) drop tanks

Service ceiling: 36,500 ft (11,125 m)

Rate of climb: 4,700 ft/min (23.9 m/s)

Wing loading: 37.75 lb/ft² (184.86 kg/m²)

Power/mass: 0.21 hp/lb (0.31 kW/kg)

Armament:

4× 20 mm (.79 in) Mark V Hispano cannons, 200 RPG

2× underwing hardpoints for 500 lb (227 kg) or 1,000 lb (454 kg) bombs

or 2 × 45 gal (205 l) or 2 × 90 gal (409 l) drop tanks

plus 6× 3” (76.2 mm) RP-3 rockets

The kit and its assembly:

Another episode in the series “Things to make and do with Supermarine Attacker wings”. And what started as a simple switch of wings eventually turned into a major kitbashing, since the model evolved from a modded Tempest into something more complex and conclusive.

The initial spark was the idea of a Hawker alternative to Supermarine’s Spiteful and Seafang developments – especially with their slender laminar flow wings. Wouldn’t a Hawker alternative make sense?

Said and done, I dug out a NOVO Attacker kit and a Matchbox Tempest, and started measuring – and the wing transplantation appeared feasible! I made the cut on the Tempest wing just outside of the oil cooler, and the Attacker wings were then attached to these stubs – after some gaps for the landing gear wells had been cut into the massive lower wing halves. The stunt went more smoothly than expected, the only cosmetic flaw is that the guns went pretty far outboard, but that’s negligible.

But the different wings were not enough. I had recently seen in a book a picture of a Tempest (NV 768) with an experimental annular radiator for the Sabre engine (looking like a streamlined Tempest II), and wondered if this arrangement would have been the aerodynamically more efficient solution than the bulbous chin radiator of the Tempest V and VI? I decided to integrate this feature into my build, too, even though not as a copy of the real-world arrangement. The whole nose section, even though based on the OOB Mk. V nose, was scratched and re-sculpted with lots of putty. The radiator intake comes from a FROG He 219, with the front end opened and a fan from a Matchbox Fw 190 placed inside, as well as a styrene tube for the new propeller. The latter was scratched, too, from a Matchbox He 70 spinner and single blades from an Italeri F4U, plus a metal axis. The exhaust stubs were taken OOB, but their attachment slits had to be re-engraved into the new and almost massive nose section.

Once the wings and the nose became more concrete, I found that the Tempest’s original rounded tail surfaces would not match with the new, square wings. Therefore I replaced the stabilizers with donations from a Heller F-84G and modified the fin with a new, square tip (from an Intech Fw 190D) and got rid of the fin fillet – both just small modifications, but they change the Tempest’s profile thoroughly.

In order to underline the aircraft’s new, sleek lines, I left away any ordnance – but instead I added some camera fairings: one under the rear fuselage or a pair of vertical/oblique cameras, and another camera window portside for a horizontal camera. The openings were drilled, and, after painting, the kit the camera windows were created with Humbrol Clearfix.

Painting and markings:

Somehow I thought that this aircraft had to carry Indian markings – and I had a set of standard Chakra Wheels from the late Forties period in my stash. The camouflage is, typical for early IAF machines of British origin, RAF standard, with Dark Green and Ocean Grey from above and Medium Sea Grey from below. I just used the more brownish pst-war RAF Dark Green tone (Humbrol 163), coupled with the rather light Ocean Grey from Modelmaster (2057). The underside became Humbrol 165. All interior surfaces were painted with RAF Interior Green, nothing fancy. The only colorful addition is the saffron-colored spinner, in an attempt to match the fin flash’s tone.

As a standard measure, the kit received a black ink wash and some panel post-shading with lighter tones – only subtly, since the machine was not to look too weathered and beaten, just used from its Kashmir involvements.

The national markings come from a Printscale Airspeed Oxford sheet, the tactical code with alternating white and black letters, depending on the underground (the sky fuselage band comes from a Matchbox Brewster Buffalo), was puzzled together from single letters from TL Modellbau – both seen on different contemporary RIAF aircraft.

As another, small individual detail I gave the machine a tactical code letter on the fuselage, and the small tiger emblems under the cockpit were home-printed from the official IAF No. 1 Squadron badge.

Despite the massive modifications this one is a relatively subtle result, all the changes become only visible at a second glance. A sleek aircraft, and from certain angley the Cyclone looks like an A-1 Skyraider on a diet?

Purse is Donna's Doll Designs

after refinements