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Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Domingo na Casa Fora do Eixo SP, com Parábola, Gegê Caos, Viegas, Hó Mon Tchain, EFX PRO e Mesí.
09/11/2014 | São Paulo-SP
(CC BY-SA) Fora do Eixo
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
finita una lunga avventura... ripenso, rielaboro, faccio il punto. elenco pro e contro, sorrisi e incomprensioni.
mi guardo indietro e poi mi guardo ora.
metto in ordine i sogni e li divido dalle illusioni. ne ho riconosciute un altro paio, sono da lasciare lì.
accendo una candela nuova, quella vecchia è finita. inizio un nuovo diario...
una parte di me è tornata a casa, un'altra è rimasta lontana. ho capito, si è abituata al freddo. non tornerà.
sto annusando un nuovo equilibrio...che richiede tempo, e aria.
e fiducia.
...ma forse.... :)
Domingo na Casa Fora do Eixo SP, com Parábola, Gegê Caos, Viegas, Hó Mon Tchain, EFX PRO e Mesí.
09/11/2014 | São Paulo-SP
(CC BY-SA) Fora do Eixo
Domingo na Casa Fora do Eixo SP, com Parábola, Gegê Caos, Viegas, Hó Mon Tchain, EFX PRO e Mesí.
09/11/2014 | São Paulo-SP
(CC BY-SA) Fora do Eixo
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
LUNEDI' MORIRANNO............MORIRANNO COME DESCRITTO QUI SOTTO.............SOLTANTO CHI LEGGE QUESTA MAIL O LA FA' GIRARE, PUO' TENTARE DI SALVARLI!!!!!!!!!!!! NON DICIAMO CHE NON POSSIAMO SALVARE IL MONDO..........CHE SIAMO LONTANI, CHE DI CANI CE NE SONO TANTI...........INSOMMA NON PARLIAMO SOLTANTO. VI PREGO DI NON FAR FINTA CHE LORO NON ESISTANO......DI NON CHIUDERE IL LORO ULTIMO APPELLO, PRIMA DI MORIRE IN MANIERA ATROCE............
MARGHERITA
CARI AMICI LEGGETE QUESTO APPELLO E FATELO CON IL CUORE! VIENE DA PATRIZIA CHE INSIEME AD ALTRE PERSONE STA CERCANDO DI SALVARE I CANI DESTINATI ALLE CAMERE A GAS IN SPAGNA! Adottate una di queste creature offrite ad esse uno stallo per sottrarle alla morte c’è tempo solo fino a lunedì
leggete qui sotto:
GUARDATE LE LORO FOTO GUARDATE LE LORO GABBIE SPORCHE!!!
Se li prenotiamo li spostiamo, li curiamo e li facciamo arrivare a fine agosto Vi prego di aiutarci in qualsiasi modo abbiamo bisogno di TUTTO!!!
www.facebook.com/home.php?ref=home#/photo.php?pid=294248&...
Per aiutarci economicamente sulla descrizione del gruppo c'è il numero della nostra pp, AIUTATECI AD AIUTARLI
La Golden e la Bassottina sono adottate.
TUTTI CERCANO CASA... 330892891 patriziabitti@gmail.com
Cercano tutti casa sono nel canile spagnolo rimane POCO TEMPO per SALVARLI
330892891 patriziabitti@gmail.com
E' spaventoso guardarli negli occhi. Hanno già l'agonia dentro.
Sono le grida strazianti dei loro compagni ad annunciarla, l'odore stesso che ammorba l'aria, misto di escrementi, cibo andato a male e paura.Nessuna pietà per loro, nè cure. Gesti ruvidi come quelli riservati ad oggetti inutili, ammassati in attesa di essere gettati.Li aspetta un'iniezione nel cuore, o la camera a gas. Verranno afferrati brutalmente e trascinati verso le camere della morte, incuranti delle loro suppliche, la ribellione ribattuta con la violenza mentre vengono impiccati ad un chiodo per domarla.Se ne andranno così, cuccioli e anziani, sani e malati. Che abbiano vissuto sin dalla nascita per la strada o che li abbia condotti alla perrera un padrone che si è stancato di loro.
Tutti questi cani nelle fotografie hanno un'unica via di fuga.Tu.Che in questo istante le guardi.
Ora, sta a te decidere. Hai tutta la vita davanti per riflettere, fare i conti, soppesare pro e contro, chiederti se hai già troppi impegnio o se te la senti di accollartene uno.
Loro hanno tempo solo fino a lunedì.
PER INFO: Patrizia Bitti patriziabitti@gmail.com - 330/892891
DA PATRIZIA BITTI:
STIAMO CERCANDO DI PORTARLI IN UNA PENSIONE QUELLI CHE NESSUNO AL MOMENTO HA RICHIESTO,LA NOSTRA E' DAVVERO UNA TEGOLA CHE NON CI ASPETTAVAMO,SPERAVAMO CHE ALMENO A RIDOSSO DELLE FERIE NESSUNO PASSASSE ALL'AZIONE...ABBIAMO NON NEGO GRANDI PROBLEMI ECONOMICI SE VUOI AIUTARE TI INVIO POSTE PAY DI LAURA E' LEI CHE STA MACINANDO KM E KM, E' LEI CHE PRENDE I CANI,SEMPRE LEI CHE HA PORTATO IN CLINICA 12 CANI MORENTI.....E' LEI CHE HA SALVATO OLIVIA.....ED E' SEMPRE LEI CHE HA FATTO PARTIRE ANCHE IERI DUE CREATURE STUPENDE VERSO LE LORO MAMME ITALIANE.
SE VOLETE E' SOLO LEI CHE DOVETE AIUTARE PERCHE' PORTI IN SALVO QUESTE CREATURE CHE NULLA HANNO FATTO DI MALE.
VARALDI LAURA ROBERTA
4023 6004 5153 8377
GRAZIE INFINITE
PATRIZIA
www.gmmoldtech.com/products/mould-design.html
GM-TECH have a much experienced design team, familiar with China domestic, European, American, Japanese and other mold design standards, be able to use all kinds of software skillfully for mold and product designing.
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There are more than 10 engineers who have much experience in plastic part design for injection molding:
GM-TECH have got a set of mature design process, from parts analysis, mold flow, structural analysis to process analysis.
Use full 3D design, With the design ability , can design more than 20 sets of complex molds monthly.
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Emphasizesthe importance of early involvement in projects, designingand developing the product together with the customer.
Preparation of prototype part tools or SLA samples for pre-testing production conditionsof products.
Optimizethe mold structure designingand cooling system
DFM, Mould-flowanalysis
UG, Pro-E, AutoCAD, CAE, CAM
Designers: Average Working Experience: 12 years
Custom Plastic Injection Mold
Custom plastic injection mold has provided solutions to mass production of various parts and components such as household mould, medical mould, electronics mold, home appliance mould, etc. This personalized injection moulding design gives you a high level of production while minimizing the cost per unit. GM-TECH, an certified injection mold design company, has earned a high reputation for a professional design for manufacturing injection molding. We offer you high-quality, low-cost products and mold design services as follow:
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Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Tek Pak knows how important it is for you to deliver new products as promised and ahead of the competition. And when prototypes change at the last minute, it can be especially challenging to meet deadlines. Now our new Trays in Days program takes the worry out of getting custom trays produced in time for your prototype components, connectors and other small parts. With Trays in Days, we can produce one dozen, custom thermoformed trays for you to evaluate in just three days.
Give us the part geometry and we'll design the tray. Because we use Solid Works and Pro/E CAD software, we can handle almost any file type you give us. And your sample trays will be completed three days after approval of your tray design.
We keep all common thermoforming-grade materials in stock. These include: PVC, PETG, PET, HIPS, etc. ln addition, we can provide ESD-rated materials, both topical and intrinsic. Less common materials can be obtained, although this can delay delivery. Material thickness must be between 0.015" and 0.045".
Tek Pak will build your tray according to the most recent thermoform tray standard: EIA-948 or EIA-960. We also will build trays according to any other layout you suggest, as long as the tray is no larger than 14" x 14" x 1.5".
We will use either a male or a female configuration, depending on the requirements and geometry of the tray. A plug assist will be provided if required. Since aluminum is used to make all molds, you will benefit from getting production-quality samples. An additional advantage of aluminum is that the mold can eventually be used for short- to medium-run production at Tek Pak with no additional tooling charge.
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Domingo na Casa Fora do Eixo SP, com Parábola, Gegê Caos, Viegas, Hó Mon Tchain, EFX PRO e Mesí.
09/11/2014 | São Paulo-SP
(CC BY-SA) Fora do Eixo
Domingo na Casa Fora do Eixo SP, com Parábola, Gegê Caos, Viegas, Hó Mon Tchain, EFX PRO e Mesí.
09/11/2014 | São Paulo-SP
(CC BY-SA) Fora do Eixo
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Fundação Pró Monumento e Mausoléu ao Soldado de 1932
"Monumento Obelisco Mausoléu ao Soldado Constitucionalista de 1932" Galileo Emendabili
La nebulosa M1, anche nota come Nebulosa Granchio, è un resto di supernova visibile nella costellazione del Toro. È il primo oggetto del catalogo di oggetti astronomici pubblicato da Charles Messier nel 1774. La nebulosa, oggi vasta più di sei anni luce, è formata dai gas in espansione espulsi durante l’esplosione della Supernova 1054; i gas si stanno espandendo alla velocità di 1.500 km/s e possiedono una massa totale di circa 4,6 ± 1,8 M. La nebulosa del Granchio dista da noi circa 6.300 anni luce.
La Supernova 1054 è una supernova che fu osservata dalla Terra nella costellazione del Toro a partire dal 4 luglio 1054, calendario giuliano. L’esplosione stellare fu osservata e registrata dagli astronomi cinesi ed arabi, i quali scrissero che fu talmente brillante da risultare visibile durante il giorno per 23 giorni consecutivi e durante la notte per 653 giorni consecutivi. La supernova 1054 è stata classificata come una supernova di tipo II.
La nebulosa del Granchio si trova nella sfera celeste circa 1,5° a sud dell’eclittica, ossia il piano dell’orbita terrestre attorno al Sole.
Per quanto riguarda i dati di acquisizione, la fotografia della nebulosa M1 è stata scattata a Cordenons, dal mio giardino di casa, con un cielo Bortle 7-8 (SQM 18.25). Sono stati utilizzati 164 subframe da 300" (58 H-alfa, 51 OIII, 55 SII), acquisiti con Tecnosly SLD130APO, ZWO ASI2600MM-PRO e filtri Antlia narrowband da 3nm. L’elaborazione è stata effettuata in Hubble Palette.
The Nebula M1, also known as the Crab Nebula, is a supernova remnant visible in the constellation Taurus. It is the first object in the catalog of astronomical objects published by Charles Messier in 1774. The nebula, which is now more than six light-years across, is formed from the expanding gases ejected during the explosion of Supernova 1054; the gases are expanding at a speed of 1,500 km/s and have a total mass of about 4.6 ± 1.8 M. The Crab Nebula is located about 6,300 light-years away from us.
Supernova 1054 is a supernova that was observed from Earth in the constellation Taurus starting on July 4, 1054, Julian calendar. The stellar explosion was observed and recorded by Chinese and Arab astronomers, who wrote that it was so bright that it was visible during the day for 23 consecutive days and during the night for 653 consecutive days. Supernova 1054 has been classified as a type II supernova.
The Crab Nebula is located in the celestial sphere about 1.5° south of the ecliptic, which is the plane of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun 1.
Regarding the acquisition data, the photograph of the M1 nebula was taken in Cordenons, from my home garden, under a Bortle 7-8 (SQM 18.25)sky. 164 subframes of 300" (58 H-alpha, 51 OIII, 55 SII) were used, taken with Tecnosky SLD130APO, ZWO ASI2600MM-PRO, and 3nm Antlia narrowband filters. The processing was done in Hubble Palette.
More Technical details on: astrob.in/wincmh/0/
Veleiro weekend ano 2011 em fibra de vido, com 2 velas, carreta rodoviaria licenciada, lona de cobertura, suporte telescopico para motor de popa, 2 paiois bem grandes proa e popa, barco em otimo estado de conservaÇÃO aceito troca por algo de meu interesse valor base r$12.000,00 barco no jabaquara sp
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Veleiro weekend ano 2011 em fibra de vido, com 2 velas, carreta rodoviaria licenciada, lona de cobertura, suporte telescopico para motor de popa, 2 paiois bem grandes proa e popa, barco em otimo estado de conservaÇÃO aceito troca por algo de meu interesse valor base r$12.000,00 barco no jabaquara sp
Veleiro weekend ano 2011 em fibra de vido, com 2 velas, carreta rodoviaria licenciada, lona de cobertura, suporte telescopico para motor de popa, 2 paiois bem grandes proa e popa, barco em otimo estado de conservaÇÃO aceito troca por algo de meu interesse valor base r$12.000,00 barco no jabaquara sp
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Larici sotto la neve
Noasca (TO), Gran Paradiso
Olympus E-3, Zuiko 50-200 1:2,8/3,5 Pro
E' vietata la riproduzione, la copia, l'alterazione o la modifica, anche parziale dell'immagine, senza il consenso scritto dell'autore aresargo.
Domingo na Casa Fora do Eixo SP, com Parábola, Gegê Caos, Viegas, Hó Mon Tchain, EFX PRO e Mesí.
09/11/2014 | São Paulo-SP
(CC BY-SA) Fora do Eixo
Veleiro weekend ano 2011 em fibra de vido, com 2 velas, carreta rodoviaria licenciada, lona de cobertura, suporte telescopico para motor de popa, 2 paiois bem grandes proa e popa, barco em otimo estado de conservaÇÃO aceito troca por algo de meu interesse valor base r$12.000,00 barco no jabaquara sp
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
LUNEDI' MORIRANNO............MORIRANNO COME DESCRITTO QUI SOTTO.............SOLTANTO CHI LEGGE QUESTA MAIL O LA FA' GIRARE, PUO' TENTARE DI SALVARLI!!!!!!!!!!!! NON DICIAMO CHE NON POSSIAMO SALVARE IL MONDO..........CHE SIAMO LONTANI, CHE DI CANI CE NE SONO TANTI...........INSOMMA NON PARLIAMO SOLTANTO. VI PREGO DI NON FAR FINTA CHE LORO NON ESISTANO......DI NON CHIUDERE IL LORO ULTIMO APPELLO, PRIMA DI MORIRE IN MANIERA ATROCE............
MARGHERITA
CARI AMICI LEGGETE QUESTO APPELLO E FATELO CON IL CUORE! VIENE DA PATRIZIA CHE INSIEME AD ALTRE PERSONE STA CERCANDO DI SALVARE I CANI DESTINATI ALLE CAMERE A GAS IN SPAGNA! Adottate una di queste creature offrite ad esse uno stallo per sottrarle alla morte c’è tempo solo fino a lunedì
leggete qui sotto:
GUARDATE LE LORO FOTO GUARDATE LE LORO GABBIE SPORCHE!!!
Se li prenotiamo li spostiamo, li curiamo e li facciamo arrivare a fine agosto Vi prego di aiutarci in qualsiasi modo abbiamo bisogno di TUTTO!!!
www.facebook.com/home.php?ref=home#/photo.php?pid=294248&...
Per aiutarci economicamente sulla descrizione del gruppo c'è il numero della nostra pp, AIUTATECI AD AIUTARLI
La Golden e la Bassottina sono adottate.
TUTTI CERCANO CASA... 330892891 patriziabitti@gmail.com
Cercano tutti casa sono nel canile spagnolo rimane POCO TEMPO per SALVARLI
330892891 patriziabitti@gmail.com
E' spaventoso guardarli negli occhi. Hanno già l'agonia dentro.
Sono le grida strazianti dei loro compagni ad annunciarla, l'odore stesso che ammorba l'aria, misto di escrementi, cibo andato a male e paura.Nessuna pietà per loro, nè cure. Gesti ruvidi come quelli riservati ad oggetti inutili, ammassati in attesa di essere gettati.Li aspetta un'iniezione nel cuore, o la camera a gas. Verranno afferrati brutalmente e trascinati verso le camere della morte, incuranti delle loro suppliche, la ribellione ribattuta con la violenza mentre vengono impiccati ad un chiodo per domarla.Se ne andranno così, cuccioli e anziani, sani e malati. Che abbiano vissuto sin dalla nascita per la strada o che li abbia condotti alla perrera un padrone che si è stancato di loro.
Tutti questi cani nelle fotografie hanno un'unica via di fuga.Tu.Che in questo istante le guardi.
Ora, sta a te decidere. Hai tutta la vita davanti per riflettere, fare i conti, soppesare pro e contro, chiederti se hai già troppi impegnio o se te la senti di accollartene uno.
Loro hanno tempo solo fino a lunedì.
PER INFO: Patrizia Bitti patriziabitti@gmail.com - 330/892891
DA PATRIZIA BITTI:
STIAMO CERCANDO DI PORTARLI IN UNA PENSIONE QUELLI CHE NESSUNO AL MOMENTO HA RICHIESTO,LA NOSTRA E' DAVVERO UNA TEGOLA CHE NON CI ASPETTAVAMO,SPERAVAMO CHE ALMENO A RIDOSSO DELLE FERIE NESSUNO PASSASSE ALL'AZIONE...ABBIAMO NON NEGO GRANDI PROBLEMI ECONOMICI SE VUOI AIUTARE TI INVIO POSTE PAY DI LAURA E' LEI CHE STA MACINANDO KM E KM, E' LEI CHE PRENDE I CANI,SEMPRE LEI CHE HA PORTATO IN CLINICA 12 CANI MORENTI.....E' LEI CHE HA SALVATO OLIVIA.....ED E' SEMPRE LEI CHE HA FATTO PARTIRE ANCHE IERI DUE CREATURE STUPENDE VERSO LE LORO MAMME ITALIANE.
SE VOLETE E' SOLO LEI CHE DOVETE AIUTARE PERCHE' PORTI IN SALVO QUESTE CREATURE CHE NULLA HANNO FATTO DI MALE.
VARALDI LAURA ROBERTA
4023 6004 5153 8377
GRAZIE INFINITE
PATRIZIA
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Although scholastic economic philosophers had constructed a wide variety of prohibitions and loopholes related to the conduct of traditional lending (usury), there is very little scholastic thought on foreign exchange transactions except insofar as they related to the covering of loan repayment. Raymond de Roover notes that: "One paradoxical result of this controversy was that pawnbrokers and small money-lenders were the main victims of the campaigns waged against usury by friars like Bernardino of Feltre, but the big bankers and international connections were left undisturbed. Far from being censured they were called "the peculiarly beloved sons of the Church" and prided themselves in being the Pope's exchangers. In fact, their services were indispensable for the transfer of papal funds."[6]
Thus, "Profit and Loss on Exchange" (Pro e danno di cambio) was not considered usury and was frequently listed in accounting books.[6]After the division of the empire of Charlemagne, Papacy and the Empire
The papacy and the empire had a difficult relationship in the period, going back to the 1000’s with the Investiture Crisis. More recently, prior to his death, Frederick received an official deposition notice from Innocent IV at the Council of Lyons.[5] In theory, Innocent IV had the exclusive power to legitimize and de-legitimize the emperor, but in practice this power was only as powerful as those who believed in it. Innocent deposed Frederick, releasing his vassals from their obligations and excommunicating both Frederick and his supporters, but Frederick retained his emperorship and most of his supporters. He responded with a letter of his own to other nobility in Europe to gain support by listing the offenses of the church and clergy.[6] The pope was still somewhat relevant for determining legitimacy despite this, as Henry VII over 50 years later traveled to Rome to be crowned King and was publicly noted for having done so.
Papal Involvement in elections and legitimacy returns in the 1330s with the dispute between Louis Wittelsbach and Frederick Habsburg, with then pope John XXII having denied Louis' election as legitimate, citing that under canon law, legitimacy required papal confirmation of an election.[7] In response, Louis made a declaration at Rhense, declaring that papal interference was no longer necessary if an emperor had sufficient popular support. Because of this, John XXII and his successor Clement VI would look for other imperial candidates to challenge and replace Louis, eventually siding with Charles of Luxembourg, who would shortly thereafter successfully gain the emperorship after Louis' death.
Consequences
The seven prince-electors voting for Henry, Balduineum picture chronicle, 1341
Depiction of the Interregnum in Chronicon pontificum et imperatorum (c. 1450), showing three men standing at the tomb of an emperor with the caption "Thus the Roman Empire for a time had no emperor" (Also das Römische rich eine Wile one keiser stunt).
The crisis of the Great Interregnum established an official set of prince-electors as the legal entities that could elect an emperor, and the college of prince-electors as the only source of legitimacy of the German king. Charles' actions in his reign also saw a modest revival of imperial interest in Italy[8] and shifted the center of German politics from central and southern Germany towards the east at Bohemia, and later Austria. At the same time, it set back the progress of centralization achieved under previous dynasties and rulers and severely weakened the authority of the emperor and the king. The lack of central government strengthened the communal movements, such as the Swabian League of Cities, the Hanseatic League and the Swiss Confederacy. It also encouraged increased feuding among the lesser nobility, leading to conflicts such as the Thuringian Counts' War, leading to a general state of near-lawlessness in Germany where robber barons acted unopposed by the nominal system of justice. The role of the papacy in the elections and general governance of the empire were also put into question and would steadily diminish until later emperors would ignore Rome entirely in the election process. Germany was fractured into countless minor states fending for themselves, a condition that would persist into the modern period and, termed Kleinstaaterei, present an obstacle to the modern project of national unification.
Avignon came within the Kingdom of Burgundy, and was owned jointly by the Count of Provence and the Count of Toulouse. From 1060, the Count of Forcalquier also had nominal overlordship, until these rights were resigned to the local Bishops and Consuls in 1135.From 1316 to 1342, the Avignon popes relied on the exchange services of three large Florentine banking houses—the Bardi, Peruzzi, and Acciaioli—all of whom failed in 1342, bringing down the entire papal transfer system with them.[5]
From 1342 to 1362, the Apostolic Camera was required to use the services of several smaller and weaker firms from Asti (especially Malabayla), Lucca, and Pistoia; the Camera was unsuccessful in trying to build up the capacity of each of these bankers.[5]
However, in 1362, the papacy was able to employ the services of the Alberti antichi banking house in Florence, which had recently risen to prominence.[5] The papacy did not use the mechanism of the bill of exchange (which had been common since the 13th century), but rather employed a unique procedure, which required a receipt in notarial form for all transfers to Avignon, called the instrumentum cambii; this instrument—always made out in duplicate or triplicate—specified the amount received by the banker and proxy and recorded a promise to transmit to Avignon and pay to the pope or his agent a certain amount.[5] One copy of the instrument was sent to Avignon by the papal carrier which enabled the Avignon administration to obtain payment from either the banker or their Avignon representative.[5] The use of written documents was considered "not businesslike" by contemporaries as it required the constant "intervention of notaries".[5]
The instrumentum cambii (also known as an "Avisa") did not eliminate the possibility of fraud, but rather created different possibilities for misdealings, as seen with a 1359 exchange between Venice and Avignon.[7]
The Avignon branch of the Medici bank was not established until 1446, the same year as the London branch.[
With the German rulers at a distance, Avignon set up an autonomous administration with the creation of a consulat in 1129, two years before its neighbour Arles.
In 1209 the Council of Avignon ordered a second excommunication for Raymond VI of Toulouse.[12]
At the end of the twelfth century, Avignon declared itself an independent republic, and sided with Raymond VII of Toulouse during the Albigensian Crusade. In 1226, the citizens refused to open the gates of Avignon to King Louis VIII of France and the papal legate. They besieged the city for three months (10 June-12 September).[13] Avignon was captured and forced to pull down its city walls and fill up its moat.
At the end of September, a few days after the surrender of the city to the troops of King Louis VIII, Avignon experienced severe flooding.[14]
In 1249 the city again declared itself a republic on the death of Raymond VII, his heirs being on a crusade.
On 7 May 1251, however, the city was forced to submit to two younger brothers of King Louis IX, Alphonse of Poitiers and Charles of Anjou (Charles I of Naples). They were heirs through the female line of the Marquis and Count of Provence, and thus co-lords of the city. After the death of Alphonse in 1271, Philip III of France inherited his share of Avignon and passed it to his son Philip the Fair in 1285. It passed in turn in 1290 to Charles II of Naples, who thereafter remained the sole lord of the entire city.
The University of Avignon was founded by Pope Boniface VIII in 1303 and was famed as a seat of legal studies, flourishing until the French Revolution (1792).In 1309 the city, still part of the Kingdom of Arles (as the Kingdom of Burgundy was known by then), was chosen by Pope Clement V as his residence at the time of the Council of Vienne and, from 9 March 1309 until 13 January 1377, Avignon, rather than Rome, was the seat of the Papacy. At the time the city and its surroundings (the Comtat Venaissin) were ruled by the kings of Sicily of the House of Anjou. The French King Philip the Fair, who had inherited from his father all the rights of Alphonse de Poitiers (the last Count of Toulouse), made them over to Charles II, King of Naples and Count of Provence (1290). Nonetheless, Philip was a shrewd ruler. Inasmuch as the eastern banks of the Rhône marked the edge of his kingdom, when the river flooded up into the city of Avignon, Philip taxed the city since during periods of flood, the city technically lay within his domain.
Avignon became the Pontifical residence under Pope Clement V in 1309.[15] His successor, John XXII, a former bishop of the diocese, made it the capital of Christianity and transformed his former episcopal palace into the primary Palace of the Popes.[16] It was Benedict XII who built the Old Palace[17] and his successor Clement VI the New Palace.[18] He bought the town on 9 June 1348 from Joanna I of Naples, the Queen of Naples and Countess of Provence for 80,000 florins. Innocent VI endowed the city walls.[19]
Under their rule, the Court seethed and attracted many merchants, painters, sculptors and musicians. Their palace, the most remarkable building in the International Gothic style was the result, in its construction and ornamentation, of the joint work of the best French architects, Pierre Peysson and Jean du Louvres (called Loubières)[20] and the larger frescoes from the School of Siena: Simone Martini and Matteo Giovanetti.[21]
The papal library in Avignon was the largest in Europe in the 14th century, with 2,000 volumes[22] Around the library were a group of passionate clerics of letters who were pupils of Petrarch, the founder of Humanism.[23] At the same time the Clementine Chapel, called the Grande Chapelle, attracted composers, singers, and musicians[24] including Philippe de Vitry, inventor of the Ars Nova, and Johannes Ciconia.[23]
As Bishop of Cavaillon, Cardinal Philippe de Cabassoles, Lord of Vaucluse, was the great protector of the Renaissance poet Petrarch.
Urban V took the first decision to return to Rome, to the delight of Petrarch, but the chaotic situation there with different conflicts prevented him from staying there. He died shortly after his return to Avignon.[25]
His successor, Gregory XI, also decided to return to Rome and this ended the first period of the Avignon Papacy. When Gregory XI brought the seat of the papacy to Rome in 1377, the city of Avignon was administered by a legate.[25]
The early death of Gregory XI, however, caused the Great Schism. Clement VII and Benedict XIII reigned again in Avignon[26] Overall therefore it was nine popes who succeeded in the papal palace and enriched themselves during their pontificate.[20]
From then on until the French Revolution, Avignon and the Comtat were papal possessions:[27] first under the schismatic popes of the Great Schism, then under the popes of Rome ruling via legates until 1542, and then by vice-legates. The Black Death appeared at Avignon in 1348 killing almost two-thirds of the city's population.[28][29]
In all seven popes and two anti-popes resided in Avignon:
Clement V: 1305–1314 (curia moved to Avignon March 9, 1309)
John XXII: 1316–1334
Benedict XII: 1334–1342
Clement VI: 1342–1352
Innocent VI: 1352–1362
Urban V: 1362–1370 (in Rome 1367-1370; returned to Avignon 1370)
Gregory XI: 1370–1378 (left Avignon to return to Rome on September 13, 1376)
Anti-Popes
Clement VII (1378-1394)
Benedict XIII (1394-1403)
The walls that were built by the popes in the years immediately following the acquisition of Avignon as papal territory are well preserved. As they were not particularly strong fortifications, the Popes relied instead on the immensely strong fortifications of their palace, the "Palais des Papes". This immense Gothic building, with walls 17–18 feet thick, was built 1335–1364 on a natural spur of rock, rendering it all but impregnable to attack. After its capture following the French Revolution, it was used as a barracks and prison for many years but it is now a museum.
Avignon, which at the beginning of the 14th century was a town of no great importance, underwent extensive development during the time the seven Avignon popes and two anti-popes, Clement V to Benedict XIII, resided there. To the north and south of the rock of the Doms, partly on the site of the Bishop's Palace that had been enlarged by John XXII, was built the Palace of the Popes in the form of an imposing fortress consisting of towers linked to each other and named as follows: La Campane, Trouillas, La Glacière, Saint-Jean, Saints-Anges (Benedict XII), La Gâche, La Garde-Robe (Clement VI), Saint-Laurent (Innocent VI). The Palace of the Popes belongs, by virtue of its severe architecture, to the Gothic art of the South of France. Other noble examples can be seen in the churches of Saint-Didier, Saint-Pierre, and Saint Agricol as well as in the Clock Tower and in the fortifications built between 1349 and 1368 for a distance of some three miles (4.8 km) flanked by thirty-nine towers, all of which were erected or restored by the Roman Catholic Church.
Main article: Avignon Exchange
The popes were followed to Avignon by agents (or factors) of the great Italian banking-houses who settled in the city as money-changers and as intermediaries between the Apostolic Camera and its debtors. They lived in the most prosperous quarter of the city which was known as the Exchange. A crowd of traders of all kinds brought to market the produce necessary for maintaining the numerous courts and for the visitors who flocked to it: grain and wine from Provence, the south of France, Roussillon, and the country around Lyon. Fish was brought from places as distant as Brittany; rich cloth and tapestries came from Bruges and Tournai. The account-books of the Apostolic Camera, which are still kept in the Vatican archives, give an idea of the trade of which Avignon became the centre. The university founded by Boniface VIII in 1303 had many students under the French popes. They were drawn there by the generosity of the sovereign pontiffs who rewarded them with books or benefices.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Avignon.The Avignon Exchange was one of the first foreign exchange markets in history, established in the Comtat Venaissin during the Avignon Papacy. The Exchange was composed of the agents (factores) of the great Italian banking-houses, who acted as money-changers as well as financial intermediaries between the Apostolic Camera and its debtors and creditors.[1] The most prosperous quarter of the city of Avignon, where the bankers settled, became known simply as the Exchange.[1] According to de Roover, "Avignon can be considered an Italian colony, since the papal bankers were all Italians".[2]
Avignon was the first legal body to regulate fiduciary transactions:[3] a statute of Avignon, of 1243, contains a paragraph entitled De Litteris Cambii, "of bills of exchange".[4]
Background
Main article: Apostolic Camera
Unlike most medieval rulers who levied funds from sources of taxation relatively nearby, the papacy's primary source of income was constituted from taxes and tributes collected across Europe. Moreover, the papacy had a gross geographic mismatch of its assets and liabilities: money collected in France and Poland, for example, might be spent for military reconquest in the Papal States.[5] The papacy soon discovered that the direct transfer or shipment of physical specie over long distances was not only risky but extremely expensive, and was thus forced to procure the services of international merchant-bankers who dealt in foreign exchange from their branches throughout the important commercial centers of Western Europe[5] not only in large centers but at the sites of the Champagne fairs.
However, the Italian merchant-bankers could be of no assistance for funds collected in Eastern Europe (mainly Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia), Scandinavia, and Northern Germany where there was no organized money market at this time, and thus the direct transfer of funds was still required.[5] The preferred alternative to shipping specie was to entrust small amounts to ecclesiastics who happened to be traveling to visit the pope or (more often) traveling merchants on their way to Bruges or Venice (however, to transfer funds from Kraków to Bruges to Avignon took over a year).[5] Even in Western Europe, direct transfer of funds was required when the foreign exchange market could not provide the necessary liquidity; for example, in 1327, 100,000 florins were sent from Avignon to Bologna in a caravan of fifteen pack animals guarded by an armed escort of forty-six.[5]
The Apostolic Camera, or papal treasury, was established in the 13th century, with close ties to Italian merchant bankers, who were given the title mercatores camerae apostolicae ("mercatores" of the Apostolic Camera).[5] The papal residences of Rome, Viterbo, and Rieti were close to the two main banking centers in Italy: Florence and Siena; however, these connections were severed during the reign of Pope Clement V (1305–1315) as he wandered through Languedoc and Provence.[5]
Only when Pope John XXII (1316–1334) began the construction of a permanent papal residence in Avignon, the Palais des Papes, did the major Italian banks open branches in the Curia and resume their dealings with the Camera.[5] However, the closeness of this relationship never equaled the "intimate" management of the Gran Tavola of Orlando Bonsignori in the 13th century; instead of entrusting idle funds to merchant bankers for investment, the papal Chamberlain, Treasurer, and Vice-treasurer (all high-ranking ecclesiastics, assisted by a "throng" of clerics, notaries, and laymen) managed these funds more physically, keeping them in a "strong room" built specifically for this purpose.[5]
Theology of usury
The Avignon Exchange was created in a theological environment more permissive of money-changing than Biblical accounts of Jesus.
Although scholastic economic philosophers had constructed a wide variety of prohibitions and loopholes related to the conduct of traditional lending (usury), there is very little scholastic thought on foreign exchange transactions except insofar as they related to the covering of loan repayment.[6] Raymond de Roover notes that:
"One paradoxical result of this controversy was that pawnbrokers and small money-lenders were the main victims of the campaigns waged against usury by friars like Bernardino of Feltre, but the big bankers and international connections were left undisturbed. Far from being censured they were called "the peculiarly beloved sons of the Church" and prided themselves in being the Pope's exchangers. In fact, their services were indispensable for the transfer of papal funds."[6]
Thus, "Profit and Loss on Exchange" (Pro e danno di cambio) was not considered usury and was frequently listed in accounting books.[6]
History
From 1316 to 1342, the Avignon popes relied on the exchange services of three large Florentine banking houses—the Bardi, Peruzzi, and Acciaioli—all of whom failed in 1342, bringing down the entire papal transfer system with them.[5]
From 1342 to 1362, the Apostolic Camera was required to use the services of several smaller and weaker firms from Asti (especially Malabayla), Lucca, and Pistoia; the Camera was unsuccessful in trying to build up the capacity of each of these bankers.[5]
However, in 1362, the papacy was able to employ the services of the Alberti antichi banking house in Florence, which had recently risen to prominence.[5] The papacy did not use the mechanism of the bill of exchange (which had been common since the 13th century), but rather employed a unique procedure, which required a receipt in notarial form for all transfers to Avignon, called the instrumentum cambii; this instrument—always made out in duplicate or triplicate—specified the amount received by the banker and proxy and recorded a promise to transmit to Avignon and pay to the pope or his agent a certain amount.[5] One copy of the instrument was sent to Avignon by the papal carrier which enabled the Avignon administration to obtain payment from either the banker or their Avignon representative.[5] The use of written documents was considered "not businesslike" by contemporaries as it required the constant "intervention of notaries".[5]
The instrumentum cambii (also known as an "Avisa") did not eliminate the possibility of fraud, but rather created different possibilities for misdealings, as seen with a 1359 exchange between Venice and Avignon.[7]
The Avignon branch of the Medici bank was not established until 1446, the same year as the London branch.[
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon_Exchange
In the Holy Roman Empire, the Great Interregnum (so-called to distinguish it from the longer period between 924 and 962) was a period of time, from approximately 1254 until 1273, following the throne dispute of Frederick II where the succession of the Holy Roman Empire was contested and fought over between pro- and anti-Hohenstaufen factions. Starting around 1250 with the death of Frederick II, the conflict over who was the rightful emperor and King of the Romans would continue into the 1300s until Charles IV of Luxembourg was elected emperor and secured succession for his son Wenceslaus. This period saw a multitude of emperors and kings be elected or propped up by rival factions and princes, with many kings and emperors having short reigns or reigns that became heavily contested by rival claimants.
The long-lasting effects of the Interregnum were primarily the end of centralization of the imperial monarchy and the fragmentation of power towards the princes and prince-electors. The efforts of the Houses of Welf and Hohenstaufen towards expanding the power of the emperor and ensuring a clear line of succession between family members was difficult in this period, with many elections going from one family to another family in a deliberate effort by the electors to prevent a consolidation of power.
Great Interregnum
Following the death of Frederick II in 1250, two claimants claimed the Emperorship, Frederick II's son Conrad IV and the church backed anti-king William of Holland. By Frederick’s death, Conrad had defeated William and forced his submission. Conrad’s position in Germany was strong when he traveled to Italy to claim the rest of his inheritance from his mighty father. However, Conrad's death in 1254 gave William two years of rule but his death in 1256 gave way to a double election in 1257, between Richard of Cornwall and Alfonso X of Castile. Alfonso never set foot in Germany during his lifetime and Richard was crowned in 1257, spending the rest of his reign traveling between England and Germany until his death in 1272. Richard maintained a solid support base in Germany during his reign, keeping the feudal relations of the Hohenstaufens and maintaining some officials of William of Holland. After his death in 1272, there were few obvious candidates to succeed him as multiple dynastic conflicts had splintered the larger dynasty's lands into smaller territories, leaving Ottokar II of Bohemia and Rudolf of Habsburg as the main candidates. Ottokar's ambitions for expanding his territory into Babenberger lands alarmed the princes and they elected Rudolf instead, viewing him as less-threatening and more friendly to their interests.
Rudolf to Albert
Rudolf started his reign by reclaiming Hohenstaufen land that had been pawned off for money or lost during the previous two decades in a policy called revindication,[1] and during the course of his reign he managed to recover a majority of Hohenstaufen lands and estates. This policy met some resistance in 1274 when a Diet held in Nuremberg decreed that the Count Palatine of the Rhine would be the judge in such cases, diluting some of Rudolf’s power.[2] Rudolf continued the course of Richard, maintaining the Hohenstaufen feudal relationships and expanding on policies started by Richard, notably by overhauling judicial oversight of royal lands to be held by loyal knights and retainers to increase revenues from these lands. Rudolf was frustrated in his attempts to gain control of Babenberger lands in modern-day Austria as his base of support rested on appearing as non-threatening to the other princes. After his death in 1291, Adolf of Nassau was chosen over Rudolf's son Albert due to Albert's attitude towards the electors and the potential threat he might be to them.
Adolf of Nassau had more difficulties in securing his authority with the electors than Rudolf, primarily because the electors desired a weaker ruler that they could control more easily. Adolf granted concessions to the princes but otherwise continued Rudolf's policies of revindication to expand royal lands. Adolf utilized funds from England meant to finance a war with France to instead gain control of Thuringia, which was desired by the electors and other princes due to inheritance disputes. This proved to be his undoing as several princes and electors worked together to challenge Adolf and decide to depose him, a highly controversial move as Adolf's claim was never questioned prior to this incident and the group of princes acted without papal approval. The conflict moved onto the battlefield, where Adolf was killed in battle and Albert of Habsburg, Rudolf's son, was elected as King of the Romans in 1298. Albert however turned on the electors later in his reign, trying to consolidate his family's control of both Thuringia and Bohemia, though ultimately failing as he was murdered by his nephew Johann in 1308 before either could be fully brought under control.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interregnum_(Holy_Roman_Empire)
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Domingo na Casa Fora do Eixo SP, com Parábola, Gegê Caos, Viegas, Hó Mon Tchain, EFX PRO e Mesí.
09/11/2014 | São Paulo-SP
(CC BY-SA) Fora do Eixo
Domingo na Casa Fora do Eixo SP, com Parábola, Gegê Caos, Viegas, Hó Mon Tchain, EFX PRO e Mesí.
09/11/2014 | São Paulo-SP
(CC BY-SA) Fora do Eixo
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Domingo na Casa Fora do Eixo SP, com Parábola, Gegê Caos, Viegas, Hó Mon Tchain, EFX PRO e Mesí.
09/11/2014 | São Paulo-SP
(CC BY-SA) Fora do Eixo
Domingo na Casa Fora do Eixo SP, com Parábola, Gegê Caos, Viegas, Hó Mon Tchain, EFX PRO e Mesí.
09/11/2014 | São Paulo-SP
(CC BY-SA) Fora do Eixo
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
Contacto del Chery Tiggo 8 Pro e+. Lugares: Pocitos, Melilla y Carrasco, Montevideo. Producción: Autoblog y Diego Olivera (oliverafotografo.com.uy).
.fomos ontem a um lugar chamado musikzentrale, aqui mesmo em gostenhof, bem pertinho de casa. o lugar é pequeno mas tem uma estrutura de som muito bacana, super pró, e uma decoração aconchegante e criativa. o destaque fica para os banheiros, enfeitados com mil e um elementos e jogos de luzes bem bonitos.
.ah, nós fomos até lá para assistir a um show da cantora karo, uma alemã tímida e gordinha que com sua guitarra, um conjunto de melodias, boas canções e um humor acima da média (fez um mash-up-cover de U2, britney spears e oasis!) arrastou mais ou menos 80 pessoas, muitas delas meninas que curtem meninas, para o show. recomendo para os fãs de cat power.
.link para ouvir karo: www.myspace.com/karosings
.link para o site do clube: www.musikzentrale.com/web/home.html