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Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
See also: www.albelli.nl/onlinefotoboek-bekijken/66948188-f350-4898...
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And, as Apollo punished him (Marsyas), he cried, “Ah-h-h! why are you now tearing me apart? A flute has not the value of my life!”
Even as he shrieked out in his agony, his living skin was ripped off from his limbs, till his whole body was a flaming wound, with nerves and veins and viscera exposed.
But all the weeping people of that land, and all the Fauns and Sylvan Deities, and all the Satyrs, and Olympus, his loved pupil—even then renowned in song, and all the Nymphs, lamented his sad fate; and all the shepherds, roaming on the hills, lamented as they tended fleecy flocks.
And all those falling tears, on fruitful Earth, descended to her deepest veins, as drip the moistening dews,—and, gathering as a fount, turned upward from her secret-winding caves, to issue, sparkling, in the sun-kissed air, the clearest river in the land of Phrygia,—through which it swiftly flows between steep banks down to the sea: and, therefore, from his name, ’tis called “The Marsyas” to this very day.
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Apamea Cibotus, Apamea ad Maeandrum (on the Maeander), Apamea or Apameia (Ancient Greek: Ἀπάμεια, Ancient Greek: κιβωτός) was an ancient city in Anatolia founded in the 3rd century BC by Antiochus I Soter, who named it after his mother Apama. It was in Hellenistic Phrygia, but became part of the Roman province of Pisidia. It was near, but on lower ground than, Celaenae (Kelainai).
The site is now partly occupied by the city of Dinar (sometimes locally known also as Geyikler, "the gazelles," perhaps from a tradition of the Persian hunting-park, seen by Xenophon at Celaenae), which by 1911 was connected with İzmir by railway; there are considerable remains, including a theater and a great number of important Graeco-Roman inscriptions. Strabo (p. 577) says, that the town lies at the source (ekbolais) of the Marsyas, and the river flows through the middle of the city, having its origin in the city, and being carried down to the suburbs with a violent and precipitous current it joins the Maeander after the latter is joined by the Orgas (called the Catarrhactes by Herodotus, vii. 26).
The original inhabitants were residents of Celaenae who were compelled by Antiochus I Soter to move farther down the river, where they founded the city of Apamea (Strabo, xii. 577). Antiochus the Great transplanted many Jews there. (Josephus, Ant. xii. 3, § 4). It became a seat of Seleucid power, and a center of Graeco-Roman and Graeco-Hebrew civilization and commerce. There Antiochus the Great collected the army with which he met the Romans at Magnesia, and two years later the Treaty of Apamea between Rome and the Seleucid realm was signed there. After Antiochus' departure for the East, Apamea lapsed to the Pergamene kingdom and thence to Rome in 133 BCE, but it was resold to Mithridates V of Pontus, who held it till 120 BCE. After the Mithridatic Wars it became and remained a great center for trade, largely carried on by resident Italians and by Jews. By order of Flaccus, a large amount of Jewish money – nearly 45 kilograms of gold – intended for the Temple in Jerusalem was confiscated in Apamea in the year 62 BCE. In 84 BCE Sulla made it the seat of a conventus, and it long claimed primacy among Phrygian cities. When Strabo wrote, Apamea was a place of great trade in the Roman province of Asia, next in importance to Ephesus. Its commerce was owing to its position on the great road to Cappadocia, and it was also the center of other roads. When Cicero was proconsul of Cilicia, 51 BCE, Apamea was within his jurisdiction (ad Fam. xiii. 67), but the dioecesis, or conventus, of Apamea was afterwards attached to Asia. Pliny the Elder enumerates six towns which belonged to the conventus of Apamea, and he observes that there were nine others of little note.
coin of Kibotos
The city minted its own coins in antiquity. The name Cibotus appears on some coins of Apamea, and it has been conjectured that it was so called from the wealth that was collected in this great emporium; for kibôtos in Greek is a chest or coffer. Pliny (v. 29) says that it was first Celaenae, then Cibotus, and then Apamea; which cannot be quite correct, because Celaenae was a different place from Apamea, though near it. But there may have been a place on the site of Apamea, which was called Cibotus.
The country about Apamea has been shaken by earthquakes, one of which is recorded as having happened in the time of Claudius (Tacit. Ann. xii. 58); and on this occasion the payment of taxes to the Romans was remitted for five years. Nicolaus of Damascus (Athen. p. 332) records a violent earthquake at Apamea at a previous date, during the Mithridatic Wars: lakes appeared where none were before, and rivers and springs; and many which existed before disappeared. Strabo (p. 579) speaks of this great catastrophe, and of other convulsions at an earlier period.
Apamea continued to be a prosperous town under the Roman Empire. Its decline dates from the local disorganization of the empire in the 3rd century; and though a bishopric, it was not an important military or commercial center in Byzantine times. The Turks took it first in 1080, and from the late 13th century onwards it was always in Muslim hands. For a long period it was one of the greatest cities of Asia Minor, commanding the Maeander road; but when the trade routes were diverted to Constantinople it rapidly declined, and its ruin was completed by an earthquake.
Apamea in Jewish tradition
Apamea is mentioned in the Talmud. The passages relating to witchcraft in Apamea (Ber. 62a) and to a dream in Apamea (Niddah, 30b) probably refer to the Apamea in Phrygia which was looked upon as a fabulously distant habitation. Similarly the much-discussed passage, Yeb. 115b, which treats of the journey of the exilarch Isaac, should also be interpreted to mean a journey from Corduene to Apamea in Phrygia; for if Apamea in Mesene were meant (Brüll's Jahrb. x. 145) it is quite impossible that the Babylonians should have had any difficulty in identifying the body of such a distinguished personage.
Christian Apamea
Apamea Cibotus is enumerated by Hierocles among the episcopal cities of the Roman province of Pisidia. Lequien gives the names of nine of its bishops. The first is a Julianus of Apamea at the Maeander who, Eusebius records, was in about 253 reported by Alexander of Hierapolis (Phrygia) to have joined others in examining the claims of the Montanist Maximilla. The list of bishops from Pisidia who participated in the First Council of Nicaea (325) includes Tharsitius of Apamea. It also gives a Paulus of Apamea, but Lequien considers that in the latter case "Apamea" is a mistake for "Acmonia". A Bishop Theodulus of Apamea (who may, however, have been of Apamea in Bithynia) witnessed a will of Gregory of Nazianzus. Paulinus took part in the Council of Chalcedon (451) and was a signatory of the letter from the bishops of Pisidia to Emperor Leo I the Thracian concerning the killing in 457 of Proterius of Alexandria. In the early 6th century, Conon abandoned his bishopric of Apamea in Phrygia and became a military leader in a rebellion against Emperor Anastasius. The acts of the Second Council of Constantinople (553) were signed by "John by the mercy of God bishop of the city of Apamea in the province of Pisidia". Sisinnius of Apamea was one of the Pisidian bishops at the Second Council of Nicaea (787). The Council held at Constantinople in 879–880 was attended by two bishops of Apamea in Pisidia, one appointed by Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople the other by Photios I of Constantinople (Wikipedia).
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By N.S. Gill
Updated December 09, 2019
01
of 02
Apollo and Marsyas
Time and again in Greek mythology, we see mere mortals foolishly daring to compete with the gods. We call this human trait hubris. No matter how good a pride-filled mortal may be at his art, he can't win against a god and shouldn't even try. Should the mortal manage to earn the prize for the contest itself, there will be little time to glory in victory before the angered deity exacts revenge. It should, therefore, come as no surprise that in the story of Apollo and Marsyas, the god makes Marsyas pay.
It's Not Just Apollo
This hubris/revenge dynamic plays out again and again in Greek mythology. The origin of the spider in Greek myth comes from the contest between Athena and Arachne, a mortal woman who boasted that her weaving skill was better than that of the goddess Athena. To take her down a peg, Athena agreed to a contest, but then Arachne performed as well as her divine opponent. In response, Athena turned her into a spider (Arachnid).
A little later, a friend of Arachne and a daughter of Tantalus, named Niobe, boasted about her brood of 14 children. She claimed she was more fortunate than Artemis and Apollo's mother Leto, who only had two. Angered, Artemis and/or Apollo destroyed Niobe's children.
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
Memorial church of Protestation (Speyer)
The Memorial church of protestation in Speyer was built from the year 1893 to 1904 on the memory of the in 1529 at the Diet of Speyer followed protestation of Speyer. Its tower is with 100 m the highest church tower of the Palatinate and the highest German church tower west of the Rhine between Cologne and Strasbourg.
Reason for remembrance: the protestation in 1529
At the Diet of Speyer in 1529 the princes who supported Luther's doctrine not wanted to accept the fact that it should be decided by a vote on religious affiliation. They expressed their opposition in the protestation at Speyer, hence the term Protestant. This event led to the separation of the Christian denominations in Catholic and Protestant.
The idea for the church construction
In the late 19th century, at the time of the Kulturkampf (culture war), the relations between Protestants and Catholics were heavily loaded due to the proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility and Pope's primacy on the first Vatican Council. Those conflicts had their impact on the church building. The Memorial Church should become a main church of the whole Protestant Christianity, a goal that was much too high. The Memorial Church is hardly known in Germany and even less abroad. Even among the Protestants were the opinions not unanimous, therefore elapsed between the initial idea and the laying of the foundation stone for the Memorial Church more than 35 years, with some heated discussions.
The construction of the Memorial church was a response to the structural renovation and decoration of the Speyer Cathedral by Johann Schraudolph in the years 1846 to 1856. Initially, the Trinity Church near the cathedral should be renovated, but then the decision was made instead of repairing this originating from the Baroque period church to tackle a new building.
Gedächtniskirche der Protestation (Speyer)
Die Gedächtniskirche der Protestation in Speyer wurde in den Jahren 1893 bis 1904 zur Erinnerung an die im Jahre 1529 auf dem Reichstag zu Speyer erfolgte Protestation zu Speyer errichtet. Ihr Turm ist mit 100 m der höchste Kirchturm der Pfalz und der höchste deutsche Kirchturm westlich des Rheins zwischen Köln und Straßburg.
Gedächtnisgrund: die Protestation 1529
Farbspiel im Inneren
Auf dem Reichstag zu Speyer im Jahr 1529 wollten die Fürsten, die Luthers Lehre anhingen, sich nicht damit abfinden, dass durch eine Abstimmung über die Religionszugehörigkeit entschieden werden sollte. Sie äußerten ihren Widerstand in der Protestation zu Speyer, daher der Begriff Protestant. Dieses Ereignis führte zu der Trennung der christlichen Konfessionen in katholisch und protestantisch.
Die Idee zum Kirchenbau
Im ausgehenden 19. Jahrhundert, zur Zeit des Kulturkampfes, waren die Beziehungen zwischen Protestanten und Katholiken infolge der Verkündigung des Dogmas der päpstlichen Unfehlbarkeit und des Papst-Primats auf dem ersten vatikanischen Konzil stark belastet. Diese Auseinandersetzungen hatten ihre Auswirkungen auch auf den Kirchenbau. Die Gedächtniskirche sollte eine Hauptkirche der gesamten protestantischen Christenheit werden, ein Ziel, das viel zu hoch gegriffen war. Die Gedächtniskirche ist in Deutschland kaum bekannt und noch weniger im Ausland. Auch unter den Protestanten waren die Meinungen nicht einhellig, deshalb vergingen zwischen der ersten Idee und der Grundsteinlegung zur Gedächtniskirche mehr als 35 Jahre mit teilweise heftigen Diskussionen.
Der Bau der Gedächtniskirche war eine Reaktion auf die bauliche Erneuerung und Ausmalung des Speyerer Doms durch Johann von Schraudolph in den Jahren 1846 bis 1856. Ursprünglich sollte die Dreifaltigkeitskirche unweit des Doms renoviert werden, dann aber fiel die Entscheidung, anstelle der Instandsetzung dieser aus der Barockzeit stammenden Kirche einen Neubau in Angriff zu nehmen.
de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ged%C3%A4chtniskirche_der_Protestat...(Speyer)
As I watched Joe Biden’s and Kamala Harris’ memorial service at the Lincoln Memorial for the over 400,000 Americans who have died of COVID-19, I was overwhelmed. I hadn’t felt this sense of humanity in four years, and I didn’t know how to process it. My body had forgotten what it felt like. It suddenly occurred to me, Donald Trump’s depravity and lack of empathy had held me hostage during his presidency. And, like those held against their own will by terrorists or bank robbers, now that it’s over, it will take time to adjust—to get back to any semblance of well-being and trust. That feeling of “fight or flight” and the level of cortisol in my body will not go away immediately. It is going to take me time to heal.
But the new year has brought little relief so far. There are people who don’t think I—we were ever held hostage. Georgia’s Republican Congresswoman and QAnon conspiracy adherent Marjorie Greene has already filed articles of impeachment against President Biden for misusing his power as Vice President when his son, Hunter Biden, served on a Ukrainian energy company’s board. She’s the representative who wears facemasks that say “Trump Won” and “Stop the Steal.” And, even though former President Trump has left Washington, she continues to peddle his lies. Millions of Americans still believe he won the election. Despite the facts, MAGA is still alive.
Before his term ended, the House voted to impeach Trump for the second time for inciting the insurrection at the Capitol that killed five people, including a Capitol Police officer. Every Democrat representative plus a record ten Republicans voted to impeach him. But, suddenly, the GOP is talking “unity” as a way to ignore his actions. They have appropriated the word President Biden has used as a building block for his new administration and reframed its meaning. Biden is searching for enough common ground to pass legislation that will end the pandemic, ease people’s economic struggles, deal with climate change, and repair America’s international policies. He has no illusions we will all be singing https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KumbayaKumbaya.
Republicans are using the word to sidestep the transgressions of last four years and their role in perpetuating them. Texas Senator Ted Cruz said an impeachment trial after Trump has left office is “vindictive” and “punitive.” “We’re in the middle of twin crises,” he stated, “a global pandemic and an economic crisis with millions of people out of work. But, instead of focusing on those jobs, the Congressional Democrats seem obsessed with their hatred for Donald Trump.” Cruz speaks as if he’s always believed in the primacy of Americans’ welfare.
Both Cruz and Missouri Senator Josh Hawley voted to reject the lawful Electoral College tallies hours after the insurrection. Many of Cruz’s former aides were “disgusted” by his actions. Amanda Carpenter, who worked for the Senator, said, “she could have never envisioned that the political career of a legal scholar with a reverence for the Constitution would ‘culminate in a stand to potentially cancel votes in a way that defied any standards of federalism and constitutionalism.’”
Senator Hawley gave a fist pump in support to rioters as he walked the grounds of the Capitol that day. After his actions, his hometown newspaper called him on his behavior. The Kansas City Star stated in an editorial, “No one other than President Donald Trump himself is more responsible for Wednesday’s coup attempt at the U.S. Capitol than one Joshua David Hawley, the 41-year-old junior senator from Missouri, who put out a fundraising appeal while the siege was underway.” Hawley’s mentor, former Republican Senator John Danforth, said, “I thought he was special. And I did my best to encourage people to support him both for attorney general and later the U.S. Senate and it was the biggest mistake I’ve ever made in my life.” By ignoring his actions, Republicans become complicit in them.
Both Cruz and Hawley want to run for president in 2024. And both are drooling over at the 70+ million voters who cast their ballots for Trump last November. By supporting Trump’s “stolen election” lie and by supporting his call to storm the Capitol, they have put their interests ahead of the country’s. Worse, they have supported an insurrection against the Constitution they have sworn to uphold. This is sedition, not unity.
Trump has needed enablers like Cruz and Hawley. They and other GOP leaders are the choirboys and choirgirls spreading his gospel of nativism, White supremacy, and economic good fortune for the rich. They perpetuate his lies and alternate truths. Or worse, they look the other way. In doing so, they are just as responsible for over 400,000 Americans lost to COVID and the millions who have lost their jobs and their businesses. And now, with both the executive and legislative branches in the Democrats’ hands, all of a sudden, they’re talking unity? It’s an empty attempt to avoid their responsibilities to the American people.
Every false prophet has their supplicants to sing their praises. This isn’t about the crucifixion of Donald Trump. This is about his deification. He’s no god and doesn’t deserve the perks. He denounced the science of the pandemic, and Americans have died because of it. His lies incited others to storm the Capitol. And people died because of it. So before we can contemplate unity, those who supported these mistruths must take responsibility and be held accountable for their actions.
Ephesians 4:25 says, “Therefore each of you must put off falsehood and speak truthfully to your neighbor, for we are all members of one body.” Privately, many Republican legislators abhor Trump’s presidency and what he stood for. If the Senate vote to convict him was private, they would find Trump guilty. But since the vote is public, no Republican has the fortitude to speak up. Some, like Cruz and Hawley, are in it for themselves. Others, like Greene, are conspiracy addicts. And some fear for their safety and the safety of their families. Continuing this charade will hurt all conservatives and destroy the Constitutional thread that binds us as a people.
For more than a decade, honest and fruitful debate in Congress has been impossible. If we really want unity, then stop the destructive partisan rhetoric and let’s begin this administration as members of one American body. I’m pissed the new year still feels like 2020. Donald Trump may no longer be president, but he still has his hands on the bully pulpit. I’m tired of being held hostage by him and the likes of Cruz, Hawley, and Greene (and let’s not forget Mitch McConnell). It’s all about power and control. And none of it is about the welfare of Americans. Trumpism has become a systemic problem. Lies built upon lies left uncontested by the party of Lincoln. Like unity, ending MAGA distrust and conspiracy theories will be a long process. Republicans, you have the power to do it. You just don’t have the courage.
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Sao Luis do Maranhao - 400 anos !
Portuguese
Desde há cinco séculos que a azulejaria ocupa uma posição de relevo entre as artes decorativas portuguesas e, apesar de ao longo da sua história ter sofrido múltiplas influências, desenvolveu em Portugal características específicas entre as quais merecem destaque a riqueza cromática, a monumentalidade, o sentido cenográfico e a integração na arquitectura.
Foi durante a ocupação árabe da Península que os povos ibéricos tomaram contacto com a cerâmica mural. O termo "azulejo" deriva, aliás, de uma palavra árabe (al zulej) que significa pedra lisa e polida.
Até finais do século XV, os artífices andaluzes produziram grandes placas de barro cobertas de vidrado colorido uniforme que, uma vez cozidas, cortavam em fragmentos geométricos que eram depois recombinados em belos desenhos decorativos. Este processo, conhecido pelo nome de “alicatado”, porque envolvia a utilização de um alicate, era moroso e difícil além de exigir que o artífice acompanhasse a encomenda até ao local da sua aplicação. A impossibilidade de exportar o produto já acabado constituía uma limitação importante e, talvez por isso, os exemplares existentes em Portugal sejam escassos. Os mais célebres são os do Palácio de Sintra (Capela e quarto onde esteve preso D. Afonso VI).
No final do século XVI surge uma transformação técnica que leva ao aparecimento do azulejo tal como o conhecemos hoje: uma placa de barro quadrangular com uma face vidrada lisa ou decorada com desenhos coloridos. Contudo, a separação das cores na superfície vidrada levantava problemas porque as substâncias utilizadas eram hidro-solúveis e misturavam-se quer na fase de aplicação quer durante a cozedura. Para evitar este contratempo utilizava-se, como separador, uma barreira gordurosa constituída por óleo de linhaça e manganês. Esta técnica, conhecida pelo nome de "corda seca" associava-se quase sempre a uma elevação em "aresta" da superfície do barro, que funcionava como barreira mecânica nas zonas de separação dos vidrados. A "aresta" ou "cuenca" só passou a ser utilizada isoladamente depois da introdução de uma outra inovação: a "fritagem" que consistia no aquecimento dos vidrados a altas temperaturas antes de serem aplicados.
Azulejos de "corda seca" e de "aresta" ficaram na História com o nome de mudejares, hispano-árabes ou hispano-mouriscos. Durante o século XVI foram importados em grande quantidade para Portugal e aplicados em igrejas e palácios. Alguns exemplares ficaram célebres como os azulejos de "corda seca" representando a esfera armilar, encomendados por D. Manuel I e que ainda hoje revestem o Pátio das Carrancas, no Palácio de Sintra. Os desenhos dos azulejos hispano-árabes mantinham a influência das decorações árabes e reproduziam as laçarias e os esquemas geométricos. Nos finais do século XVI surge outro avanço técnico decisivo: graças à utilização do esmalte estanífero branco e dos pigmentos metálicos, passou a ser possível pintar directamente sobre o vidrado. Esta nova técnica conhecida pelo nome de "majólica" (provável corruptela da palavra Maiorca, porto de onde os azulejos eram importados) foi trazida para Portugal por Francisco Niculoso. Com ela vinha associada a estética renascentista com a sua gramática decorativa própria e que evoluiria mais tarde para o maneirismo.
Por influência das disposições saídas do Concílio de Trento, foi abolido tudo quanto pudesse lembrar a arte islâmica e em sua substituição passaram a proliferar os motivos ornamentais italo-flamengos. Deste período existem algumas obras notáveis entre as quais merece referência especial o revestimento a azulejos da Capela de S. Roque, em Lisboa, pintados por Francisco de Matos em 1584.
No final do século XVI, Portugal cai sob o domínio dos Filipes. As dificuldades económicas, que não permitiam acesso fácil às tapeçarias, aos vitrais e aos mármores, associadas às experiências acumuladas pelos portugueses no campo das artes e da cerâmica, conduziram ao aproveitamento máximo do azulejo com material decorativo. É então que aparecem numerosos exemplares de composições geométricas que vão desde as combinações em xadrez até formas mais complexas como os "azulejos de caixilho", que com as suas linhas oblíquas, decompõem e modelam as superfícies onde se encontram aplicados.
Na sequência destes exemplares, surgiram os célebres "tapetes" do século XVII, formados pela repetição de padrões polícromos. Estes padrões resultavam de combinações de um número variável de azulejos, formando quadrados de 4, 16, 36, ou mais elementos. Os vários "tapetes", cada um com o seu padrão diferente, justapostos e emoldurados por faixas, revestiam de alto a baixo as paredes das igrejas e por vezes o próprio tecto, produzindo efeitos decorativos surpreendentes. A Igreja de Marvila em Santarém e a Igreja de São Quintino, em Sobral do Montagraço, são dois belos exemplos deste tipo de utilização do azulejo.
A partir do último quartel do século XVII, vários factores provocaram profundas transformações na estética do azulejo. Os navegadores portugueses que tinham viajado pelo Oriente, divulgaram na Europa a faiança chinesa azul e branca que rapidamente conquistou o gosto dos países do Norte da Europa e se estendeu mais tarde aos países meridionais. A policromia dos azulejos foi então sendo substituída pelo monocromatismo, começando a surgir então vários padrões de "tapetes" do século XVII, reproduzidos a azul e branco.
Ao mesmo tempo, alastrava pela Europa a estética do barroco cujos componentes de encenação e de teatralidade da vida e dos costumes se reflectiam sobre todas as formas de arte. Surge então o azulejo historiado, em que os diversos personagens são captados em plena acção e em que as cenas representadas são envolvidas por molduras extremamente ricas que funcionam como a "boca de cena" de um palco. Tudo isto coincide com a reconquista da independência de Portugal em 1640 e com o nascimento de uma nova aristocracia que rapidamente prospera e procura criar os seus próprios cenários. Os palácios são então revestidos com belos painéis de azulejo representando batalhas, caçadas ou cenas da vida quotidiana. Grande parte destes painéis são copiados e adaptados de gravuras que nessa altura chegam de França e que passam a ditar as modas.
Nas escadarias e vestíbulos dos palácios mais abastados, surgem também as célebres "figuras de convite" que representam porteiros ou soldados armados, enquanto que nas casas de recursos mais limitados, se recorre aos alizares, com módulos repetidos, em que predominam as "albarradas". Pela mesma altura, a "figura avulsa", também de influência holandesa, ganha em Portugal uma expressão própria e uma invulgar força decorativa, apesar do seu desenho de traço grosseiro e pouco cuidado.
Mas foi sobretudo nas igrejas e nos conventos que o azulejo barroco adquiriu a monumentalidade que o imortalizou. São muitos os exemplares espalhados por todo o País, representando cenas do Velho e do Novo Testamento e contando episódios da vida dos santos, em séries de painéis que assumem, por vezes, um carácter narrativo que quase lembra a banda desenhada. A igreja de São Lourenço, em Almansil, e o Convento dos Loios, em Arraiolos, constituem dois casos brilhantes da azulejaria portuguesa desta época.
Deve dizer-se que a expressão assumida pela azulejaria barroca portuguesa ficou fortemente ligada a alguns pintores de azulejos que a marcaram, desde o início, com o seu estilo pessoal. O primeiro e talvez o mais importante, foi Gabriel del Barco, nascido em Espanha e que veio aos 20 anos para Lisboa, onde morreu em 1703. Influenciado pela azulejaria holandesa, particularmente por Jan van Oort de quem copiou alguns painéis, revelou na sua pintura pouca preocupação pelo rigor e perfeição do desenho para, através de um traço vigoroso e expontâneo, dar primazia aos efeitos cenográficos que iriam marcar a azulejaria portuguesa durante várias décadas.
Mas igual destaque merece António Oliveira Bernardes (1660-1730) e todos os seus discípulos entre os quais se conta o seu filho Policarpo de cujas oficinas saíram alguns dos mais brilhantes revestimentos de azulejo do barroco português.
Cerca de 1750, após a morte de D. João V e já em pleno consulado do Marquês de Pombal, a azulejaria decorativa passou a ser influenciada pela estética "rocaille". Desapareceram então as exuberâncias decorativas do período anterior, regressou o policromatismo com uma paleta de quatro cores e as guarnições passaram a exibir as asas de morcego e os concheados assimétricos, típicos do estilo Luis XV. Na Fábrica do Rato, fundada em 1764, foram produzidos alguns dos mais belos exemplares deste período e é possível que de lá tenha saído um dos mais admirados: O Jardim da Quinta dos Azulejos, em Lisboa.
Mas a época pombalina ficou igualmente marcada por um tipo de azulejaria utilitária que surgiu após o Terramoto de 1755. Durante a reconstrução da cidade, o Marquês de Pombal incentivou a produção de azulejos, que constituíam material barato, higiénico e resistente. Os vestíbulos e escadas da Baixa lisboeta foram então revestidos com azulejos de padronagem polícroma, com desenhos simples mas extremamente decorativos, que ficaram definitivamente ligados à arquitectura pombalina.
É também a partir da segunda metade do século XVIII e sobretudo depois do Terramoto que proliferaram em todo o País, e particularmente em Lisboa, os registos de santos, pequenos painéis devocionais que eram colocados nas fachadas com o objectivo de obter protecção contra as catástrofes. Em Lisboa, as imagens que aparecem com mais frequência são as de Sto. António, protector da cidade, e São Marçal, o santo invocado contra os incêndios.
Mas cerca de 1780, já em pleno reinado de D. Maria I, surge o estilo neo-clássico. O azulejo português aderiu rapidamente às influências que chegavam da Europa e exprimiu-se, sobretudo sob a forma de alizares com enquadramentos rectilíneos e elementos decorativos polícromos em que predominam os florões, as grinaldas, as plumas, as "chinoiseries" e os medalhões com paisagens. O "estilo D. Maria", como ficou conhecido em Portugal, durou até ao princípio do século XIX.
Mas nessa altura, Portugal iria mergulhar numa grave crise política e económica que afectou a actividade produtiva, nomeadamente o fabrico de azulejos. Primeiro as invasões francesas, depois a independência do Brasil e mais tarde a guerra civil de 1832-1834. Grande parte das olarias portuguesas foram obrigadas a fechar e deixaram de poder responder às encomendas dos seus clientes habituais.
No Brasil, para onde desde o século XVII eram enviadas grandes quantidades de azulejos portugueses, a azulejaria vai passar a ter uma utilização diferente: o revestimento das fachadas. De início, foram aplicados apenas azulejos brancos em fachadas de igrejas, mas posteriormente esta prática estendeu-se aos prédios urbanos que se cobririam de padronagem polícroma. A partir de meados do século XIX, esta prática estendeu-se a Portugal, trazida pelos emigrantes endinheirados que regressavam às suas terras e que ficaram conhecidos na História pelo nome de "brasileiros". As fachadas das povoações do Norte (Porto, Ovar, Aveiro) e mais tarde, as do Sul, vão cobrir-se da azulejos produzidos nas fábricas surgidas após a recuperação económica que se iniciou cerca de 1840.
Esta azulejaria de fachada, de fabrico semi-industrial, coexistiu com outra em que estavam presentes tendências românticas e revivalistas, marcadas por uma linguagem eclética. Nesta fase, distinguiu-se Ferreira das Tabuletas, autor de composições ornamentais aplicadas em fachadas de vários prédios de Lisboa, nas quais estão presentes simbologias maçónicas.
Nas primeiras décadas do século XX, o azulejo foi influenciado pela Arte Nova que aparece nos trabalhos de Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro e em numerosos frontões e faixas decorativas produzidas nas fábricas de Sacavém, Desterro, Carvalhino e Fonte Nova. A Arts Deco, que teve uma presença mais discreta na azulejaria portuguesa, foi predominantemente utilizada em vestíbulos, tabernas e num núcleo numeroso de fachadas em Vila Franca de Xira.
Durante os dois primeiros quartéis do século XX, a azulejaria revivalista ocupou um espaço importante, sendo numerosos os painéis de pendor historicista e folclórico produzidos durante este período. O principal representante desta corrente foi Jorge Colaço, autor de uma vasta obra em que a técnica da pintura a óleo se procurou adaptar ao azulejo.
A partir de 1950, os artistas plásticos portugueses começaram a interessar-se pela utilização do azulejo. Para isso contribuiram Jorge Barradas, considerado o renovador da cerâmica portuguesa e Keil do Amaral que, nos contactos com os arquitectos brasileiros, redescobriu as potencialidades deste material de revestimento cerâmico. Embora sejam numerosos os artistas plásticos que ensaiaram experiências no campo da azulejaria, alguns deles conquistaram uma posição de destaque mercê da dimensão e da qualidade da obra produzida, como é o caso de Maria Keil, Manuel Cargaleiro, Querubim Lapa e Eduardo Nery. Na sequência de encomendas feitas por entidades oficiais ou por particulares, a azulejaria moderna portuguesa enriqueceu-se com alguns exemplares notáveis como os conjuntos de painéis da Av. Infante Santo e do Metropolitano, a fachada da Reitoria da Universidade e o painel da Av. Calouste Gulbenkian, todos em Lisboa.
A par desta azulejaria de características eruditas, o azulejo português continuou, nesta segunda metade do século XX, a manifestar-se através de exemplares menos elaborados ou de carácter popular, como os revestimentos das fachadas das casas dos emigrantes e os registos, cartelas e painéis naturalistas, desenhados pelos artífices que trabalham nas fábricas. Mas, através de todas estas formas, continuou a revelar a sua vitalidade e a reafirmar-se como uma das manifestações mais originais das artes decorativas europeias.
Fonte: www.oazulejo.net/oazulejo_frame.html
PS: Texto gentilmente enviado pela amiga do Flickr, da cidade do Porto, Portugal, Maria Aurora Pires.
English
Since five centuries, tile occupies a prominent position among the Portuguese decorative arts, and although throughout its history to have suffered multiple influences, developed in Portugal including specific features deserve highlighting the richness of color, monumentality, a sense scenic architecture and integration.
It was during the Arab occupation of the Iberian Peninsula that the people had contact with the ceramic mural. The term "tile" is derived, moreover, an Arabic word (al zulej) which means smooth, polished stone.
Until the late fifteenth century, the Andalusian craftsmen have produced large boards covered with glazed clay colored uniform that, once cooked, cut into geometric pieces that were then recombined into beautiful decorative designs. This process, known as "tongs," because it involved the use of pliers, was slow and difficult in addition to requiring that the author accompany the consignment to the place of its application. The inability to export the finished product has already constituted a major constraint, and perhaps this is why the existing copies in Portugal are scarce. The most famous are the Palace of Sintra (Chapel room where he was imprisoned and Alfonso VI).
At the end of the sixteenth century comes a transformation technique that leads to the appearance of the tile as we know today: a clay plate with a square face plain glazed or decorated with colored drawings. However, the separation of colors on the glass surface caused a problem because the substances used were water soluble and mingled both in the implementation phase and during cooking. To avoid this mishap is used as separator, a barrier consisting of fat linseed oil and manganese. This technique, known as "dry rope" is almost always associated to an increase in "edge" of the surface of clay, which functioned as a mechanical barrier in the separation zones of the glazes. The "edge" or "cuenca" only began to be used alone after the introduction of another innovation: the "sintering" which consisted of heating the glaze at high temperatures before being applied.
Tiles "dry rope" and "edge" gone down in history with the name of Mudejar Moorish-or Hispano-Moorish. During the sixteenth century were imported in large quantities to Portugal and used in churches and palaces. Some specimens were celebrated as the tiles of "dry rope" representing the armillary sphere, commissioned by King Manuel I, who still line the courtyard of the Gargoyles at the Palace of Sintra. The drawings of the Hispano-Arab influence remained of the decorations and setting out the Arabs laçarias and geometric patterns. In the late sixteenth century comes another crucial technical advance: thanks to the use of white tin glaze and metallic pigments, it became possible to paint directly on the glaze. This new technique known as "majolica" (probably a corruption of the word Majorca, port from where the tiles were imported) was brought to Portugal by Francisco Niculi. With it came the Renaissance aesthetics associated with its own decorative language that evolved later in mannerism.
Influenced by the provisions of the outputs the Council of Trent abolished all that could remind the Islamic art in place and started to proliferate the Italo-Flemish ornamental motifs. This period there are some outstanding works among which deserves special mention flooring tiles of the chapel of S. Roque, Lisbon, painted by Francisco de Matos in 1584.
At the end of the sixteenth century, Portugal falls under the rule of Kings. The economic difficulties that do not allow easy access to the tapestries, stained glass windows and marble, combined with the experience accumulated by the Portuguese in the arts and ceramics, leading to maximum utilization of the tile with decorative material. It appears then that numerous examples of geometric compositions ranging from the combinations in chess to more complex forms such as "tile frame," which with its oblique lines, they decompose and model surfaces where applied.
Following these examples, there were the famous "carpet" of the seventeenth century, formed by the repetition of patterns polychrome. These patterns resulted from a combination of a variable number of tiles, forming squares of 4, 16, 36 or more elements. The various rugs, each with their different pattern, juxtaposed and framed by bands, lined up and down the walls of churches and sometimes also the ceiling, producing amazing decorative effects. The Church of Marvila in Santarém and the Church of St. Quentin, in Sobral's Montagraço are two fine examples of use of this type of tile.
From the last quarter of the seventeenth century, several factors have caused profound changes in the aesthetics of the tile. The Portuguese sailors who had traveled to the East, released in Europe in Chinese blue and white earthenware which gained a taste of the countries of northern Europe and later spread to southern countries. The tiling has therefore been replaced by monochromatic, then beginning to surface various patterns of "carpet" of the seventeenth century, played in blue and white.
At the same time, sweeping through Europe in the Baroque aesthetic in which the components of staging and theatricality of life and morals were reflected on all forms of art. Then comes the tile historians, in which several characters are captured in full action and the scenes represented are surrounded by extremely rich frames that act as a "proscenium arch" of a stage. All this coincides with the regaining of independence from Portugal in 1640 and with the birth of a new aristocracy which quickly prospered and seeks to create your own scenarios. The palaces are then covered with beautiful tile panels representing battles, hunted and scenes from everyday life. Most of these panels are copied and adapted from engravings that then come to France and spend dictating fashions.
In stairwells and hallways of wealthy palaces, there are also the famous "figures of invitation" which represent armed soldiers or porters, while the homes of more limited resources, it uses the frames with repeated modules, which are predominant "albarradas" . Around the same time, "the spare figure, also of Dutch influence, Portugal won in a personal expression and an unusual decorative power, despite its design receding hairline and a little care.
But it was mainly in churches and convents that purchased the tile baroque monumentality that immortalized him. There are many examples scattered throughout the country, depicting scenes from the Old and New Testament episodes and counting of the saints, in a series of panels assume that sometimes a character narrative that recalls the almost comic. The church of San Lorenzo in Almansil and the Convent of Loios in Arraiolos, are two cases of Portuguese tile brilliant this season.
It should be noted that the expression assumed by the Portuguese baroque tiles was strongly linked to some painters of tiles that marred from the start, with his personal style. The first and perhaps most important, was Gabriel del Barco, born in Spain who came to Lisbon for 20 years, where he died in 1703. Influenced by Dutch tiles, particularly by Jan van Oort who swiped some panels, revealed in his painting little concern for accuracy and perfection in design, by means of a dash vigorous and spontaneous, giving primacy to the scenic effects that would mark the Portuguese tiles during several decades.
But equal emphasis deserves Antonio Oliveira Bernardes (1660-1730) and all his disciples among them is her son whose Polycarp of workshops left some of the most brilliant of tile coatings Portuguese baroque.
Around 1750, after the death of D. John V and already in the consulate of the Marquis of Pombal, the decorative tiles began to be influenced by the aesthetics rocaille. Disappeared then the decorative exuberance of the previous period, returned the polychromatic with a palette of four colors and trims now display the bat wings and scoops asymmetrical, typical of the style of Louis XV. Mouse Factory, founded in 1764, were produced some of the finest examples of this period and it is possible that there has emerged one of the most admired: The Garden of Tiles Thursday in Lisbon.
But the time Pombal was also marked by a kind of utilitarian tiles that emerged after the 1755 earthquake. During the reconstruction of the city, the Marquis of Pombal encouraged the production of tiles, which were inexpensive material, hygienic and durable. The halls and stairs of the downtown Lisbon were then covered with polychrome tiles patterned with simple but highly decorative designs, which were definitively linked to Pombaline.
It is also from the second half of the eighteenth century and especially after the earthquake that proliferated throughout the country, and particularly in London, the records of saints, small devotional panels that were placed on the facades in order to obtain protection against disasters. In Lisbon, the images that appear most frequently are those of Sto. Anthony, patron of the city, and St. Martial, the saint invoked against fire.
But around 1780, already in the reign of King Mary I, there is the neo-classical style. The Portuguese tile adhered quickly to the influences that came from Europe and expressed itself mainly in the form of frames with straight frames and decorative elements in polychrome dominated by rosettes, wreaths, plumes, the "chinoiserie" and the medallions with landscapes . The "Queen Mary style," as it became known in Portugal, lasted until the early nineteenth century.
But then, Portugal would plunge into a serious political and economic crisis that affected the productive activity, including the manufacture of tiles. First the French invasion, after Brazil's independence and later civil war of 1832-1834. Much of the pottery Portuguese were forced to close and no longer respond to orders from its regular customers.
In Brazil, where since the seventeenth century were sent large numbers of Portuguese tiles, the tile is going to have a different use: the lining of the facades. Initially, only white tiles were used on the facades of churches, but later this practice was extended to urban buildings that cover patterned polychrome. From the mid-nineteenth century, this practice has spread to Portugal, brought by wealthy emigrants returning to their land and became known in history as the "Brazilians". The facades of the towns in the north (Porto, Ovar, Aveiro) and later the South, will cover the tiles are produced in factories that emerged after the economic recovery that began about 1840.
This tile facade, semi-industrial manufacturing, coexisted with other trends that were present in romantic revival, marked by an eclectic language. At this stage, he distinguished himself from tablets Ferreira, author of ornamental compositions applied on the facades of several buildings in Lisbon, in which there are Masonic symbols.
In the first decades of the twentieth century, the tile was influenced by Art Nouveau which appears in the work of Raphael Bordallo Pinheiro and numerous gables and decorative bands produced in factories Sacavem, Desterro, Carvalhino and New Source. The Arts Deco, who had a discreet presence in the Portuguese tiles, was predominantly used in entrance halls, taverns and a large core of facades in Vila Franca de Xira.
During the first two quarters of the twentieth century, revivalist tiles occupied an important place, there are numerous panels and historicist bent folk produced during this period. The main representative of this current was Colaço George, author of a vast work in which the technique of oil painting that sought to adapt to the tile.
Since 1950, the Portuguese artists began to become interested in the use of tile. Contributed to this Jorge Barradas, considered the renewal of Portuguese ceramics and Keil do Amaral, in contacts with Brazilian architects, has rediscovered the potential of ceramic material. Although there are many artists who rehearsed the experiences in the field of tiles, some of them have gained a leading position thanks to the size and quality of work produced, as is the case of Mary Keil, Manuel Cargaleiro, Cherubim and Lapa Eduardo Nery. Following orders made by authorities or private persons, the modern Portuguese tiling enriched with some notable examples as the sets of panels of Avenida Infante Santo and the Metropolitan, the facade of Regents of the University and the panel of Avenida Calouste Gulbenkian , all in Lisbon.
Alongside the classical features tilework, the tile Portuguese continued in the second half of the twentieth century, manifesting itself through less elaborate or copies of a popular nature, such as the linings of the facades of the houses of emigrants and records, cards and boards naturalists, designed by artisans who work in factories. But through all these forms, continued to show their vitality and reassert itself as one of the most original expressions of European decorative arts.
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Sao Luis do Maranhao - 400 anos !
Portuguese
Desde há cinco séculos que a azulejaria ocupa uma posição de relevo entre as artes decorativas portuguesas e, apesar de ao longo da sua história ter sofrido múltiplas influências, desenvolveu em Portugal características específicas entre as quais merecem destaque a riqueza cromática, a monumentalidade, o sentido cenográfico e a integração na arquitectura.
Foi durante a ocupação árabe da Península que os povos ibéricos tomaram contacto com a cerâmica mural. O termo "azulejo" deriva, aliás, de uma palavra árabe (al zulej) que significa pedra lisa e polida.
Até finais do século XV, os artífices andaluzes produziram grandes placas de barro cobertas de vidrado colorido uniforme que, uma vez cozidas, cortavam em fragmentos geométricos que eram depois recombinados em belos desenhos decorativos. Este processo, conhecido pelo nome de “alicatado”, porque envolvia a utilização de um alicate, era moroso e difícil além de exigir que o artífice acompanhasse a encomenda até ao local da sua aplicação. A impossibilidade de exportar o produto já acabado constituía uma limitação importante e, talvez por isso, os exemplares existentes em Portugal sejam escassos. Os mais célebres são os do Palácio de Sintra (Capela e quarto onde esteve preso D. Afonso VI).
No final do século XVI surge uma transformação técnica que leva ao aparecimento do azulejo tal como o conhecemos hoje: uma placa de barro quadrangular com uma face vidrada lisa ou decorada com desenhos coloridos. Contudo, a separação das cores na superfície vidrada levantava problemas porque as substâncias utilizadas eram hidro-solúveis e misturavam-se quer na fase de aplicação quer durante a cozedura. Para evitar este contratempo utilizava-se, como separador, uma barreira gordurosa constituída por óleo de linhaça e manganês. Esta técnica, conhecida pelo nome de "corda seca" associava-se quase sempre a uma elevação em "aresta" da superfície do barro, que funcionava como barreira mecânica nas zonas de separação dos vidrados. A "aresta" ou "cuenca" só passou a ser utilizada isoladamente depois da introdução de uma outra inovação: a "fritagem" que consistia no aquecimento dos vidrados a altas temperaturas antes de serem aplicados.
Azulejos de "corda seca" e de "aresta" ficaram na História com o nome de mudejares, hispano-árabes ou hispano-mouriscos. Durante o século XVI foram importados em grande quantidade para Portugal e aplicados em igrejas e palácios. Alguns exemplares ficaram célebres como os azulejos de "corda seca" representando a esfera armilar, encomendados por D. Manuel I e que ainda hoje revestem o Pátio das Carrancas, no Palácio de Sintra. Os desenhos dos azulejos hispano-árabes mantinham a influência das decorações árabes e reproduziam as laçarias e os esquemas geométricos. Nos finais do século XVI surge outro avanço técnico decisivo: graças à utilização do esmalte estanífero branco e dos pigmentos metálicos, passou a ser possível pintar directamente sobre o vidrado. Esta nova técnica conhecida pelo nome de "majólica" (provável corruptela da palavra Maiorca, porto de onde os azulejos eram importados) foi trazida para Portugal por Francisco Niculoso. Com ela vinha associada a estética renascentista com a sua gramática decorativa própria e que evoluiria mais tarde para o maneirismo.
Por influência das disposições saídas do Concílio de Trento, foi abolido tudo quanto pudesse lembrar a arte islâmica e em sua substituição passaram a proliferar os motivos ornamentais italo-flamengos. Deste período existem algumas obras notáveis entre as quais merece referência especial o revestimento a azulejos da Capela de S. Roque, em Lisboa, pintados por Francisco de Matos em 1584.
No final do século XVI, Portugal cai sob o domínio dos Filipes. As dificuldades económicas, que não permitiam acesso fácil às tapeçarias, aos vitrais e aos mármores, associadas às experiências acumuladas pelos portugueses no campo das artes e da cerâmica, conduziram ao aproveitamento máximo do azulejo com material decorativo. É então que aparecem numerosos exemplares de composições geométricas que vão desde as combinações em xadrez até formas mais complexas como os "azulejos de caixilho", que com as suas linhas oblíquas, decompõem e modelam as superfícies onde se encontram aplicados.
Na sequência destes exemplares, surgiram os célebres "tapetes" do século XVII, formados pela repetição de padrões polícromos. Estes padrões resultavam de combinações de um número variável de azulejos, formando quadrados de 4, 16, 36, ou mais elementos. Os vários "tapetes", cada um com o seu padrão diferente, justapostos e emoldurados por faixas, revestiam de alto a baixo as paredes das igrejas e por vezes o próprio tecto, produzindo efeitos decorativos surpreendentes. A Igreja de Marvila em Santarém e a Igreja de São Quintino, em Sobral do Montagraço, são dois belos exemplos deste tipo de utilização do azulejo.
A partir do último quartel do século XVII, vários factores provocaram profundas transformações na estética do azulejo. Os navegadores portugueses que tinham viajado pelo Oriente, divulgaram na Europa a faiança chinesa azul e branca que rapidamente conquistou o gosto dos países do Norte da Europa e se estendeu mais tarde aos países meridionais. A policromia dos azulejos foi então sendo substituída pelo monocromatismo, começando a surgir então vários padrões de "tapetes" do século XVII, reproduzidos a azul e branco.
Ao mesmo tempo, alastrava pela Europa a estética do barroco cujos componentes de encenação e de teatralidade da vida e dos costumes se reflectiam sobre todas as formas de arte. Surge então o azulejo historiado, em que os diversos personagens são captados em plena acção e em que as cenas representadas são envolvidas por molduras extremamente ricas que funcionam como a "boca de cena" de um palco. Tudo isto coincide com a reconquista da independência de Portugal em 1640 e com o nascimento de uma nova aristocracia que rapidamente prospera e procura criar os seus próprios cenários. Os palácios são então revestidos com belos painéis de azulejo representando batalhas, caçadas ou cenas da vida quotidiana. Grande parte destes painéis são copiados e adaptados de gravuras que nessa altura chegam de França e que passam a ditar as modas.
Nas escadarias e vestíbulos dos palácios mais abastados, surgem também as célebres "figuras de convite" que representam porteiros ou soldados armados, enquanto que nas casas de recursos mais limitados, se recorre aos alizares, com módulos repetidos, em que predominam as "albarradas". Pela mesma altura, a "figura avulsa", também de influência holandesa, ganha em Portugal uma expressão própria e uma invulgar força decorativa, apesar do seu desenho de traço grosseiro e pouco cuidado.
Mas foi sobretudo nas igrejas e nos conventos que o azulejo barroco adquiriu a monumentalidade que o imortalizou. São muitos os exemplares espalhados por todo o País, representando cenas do Velho e do Novo Testamento e contando episódios da vida dos santos, em séries de painéis que assumem, por vezes, um carácter narrativo que quase lembra a banda desenhada. A igreja de São Lourenço, em Almansil, e o Convento dos Loios, em Arraiolos, constituem dois casos brilhantes da azulejaria portuguesa desta época.
Deve dizer-se que a expressão assumida pela azulejaria barroca portuguesa ficou fortemente ligada a alguns pintores de azulejos que a marcaram, desde o início, com o seu estilo pessoal. O primeiro e talvez o mais importante, foi Gabriel del Barco, nascido em Espanha e que veio aos 20 anos para Lisboa, onde morreu em 1703. Influenciado pela azulejaria holandesa, particularmente por Jan van Oort de quem copiou alguns painéis, revelou na sua pintura pouca preocupação pelo rigor e perfeição do desenho para, através de um traço vigoroso e expontâneo, dar primazia aos efeitos cenográficos que iriam marcar a azulejaria portuguesa durante várias décadas.
Mas igual destaque merece António Oliveira Bernardes (1660-1730) e todos os seus discípulos entre os quais se conta o seu filho Policarpo de cujas oficinas saíram alguns dos mais brilhantes revestimentos de azulejo do barroco português.
Cerca de 1750, após a morte de D. João V e já em pleno consulado do Marquês de Pombal, a azulejaria decorativa passou a ser influenciada pela estética "rocaille". Desapareceram então as exuberâncias decorativas do período anterior, regressou o policromatismo com uma paleta de quatro cores e as guarnições passaram a exibir as asas de morcego e os concheados assimétricos, típicos do estilo Luis XV. Na Fábrica do Rato, fundada em 1764, foram produzidos alguns dos mais belos exemplares deste período e é possível que de lá tenha saído um dos mais admirados: O Jardim da Quinta dos Azulejos, em Lisboa.
Mas a época pombalina ficou igualmente marcada por um tipo de azulejaria utilitária que surgiu após o Terramoto de 1755. Durante a reconstrução da cidade, o Marquês de Pombal incentivou a produção de azulejos, que constituíam material barato, higiénico e resistente. Os vestíbulos e escadas da Baixa lisboeta foram então revestidos com azulejos de padronagem polícroma, com desenhos simples mas extremamente decorativos, que ficaram definitivamente ligados à arquitectura pombalina.
É também a partir da segunda metade do século XVIII e sobretudo depois do Terramoto que proliferaram em todo o País, e particularmente em Lisboa, os registos de santos, pequenos painéis devocionais que eram colocados nas fachadas com o objectivo de obter protecção contra as catástrofes. Em Lisboa, as imagens que aparecem com mais frequência são as de Sto. António, protector da cidade, e São Marçal, o santo invocado contra os incêndios.
Mas cerca de 1780, já em pleno reinado de D. Maria I, surge o estilo neo-clássico. O azulejo português aderiu rapidamente às influências que chegavam da Europa e exprimiu-se, sobretudo sob a forma de alizares com enquadramentos rectilíneos e elementos decorativos polícromos em que predominam os florões, as grinaldas, as plumas, as "chinoiseries" e os medalhões com paisagens. O "estilo D. Maria", como ficou conhecido em Portugal, durou até ao princípio do século XIX.
Mas nessa altura, Portugal iria mergulhar numa grave crise política e económica que afectou a actividade produtiva, nomeadamente o fabrico de azulejos. Primeiro as invasões francesas, depois a independência do Brasil e mais tarde a guerra civil de 1832-1834. Grande parte das olarias portuguesas foram obrigadas a fechar e deixaram de poder responder às encomendas dos seus clientes habituais.
No Brasil, para onde desde o século XVII eram enviadas grandes quantidades de azulejos portugueses, a azulejaria vai passar a ter uma utilização diferente: o revestimento das fachadas. De início, foram aplicados apenas azulejos brancos em fachadas de igrejas, mas posteriormente esta prática estendeu-se aos prédios urbanos que se cobririam de padronagem polícroma. A partir de meados do século XIX, esta prática estendeu-se a Portugal, trazida pelos emigrantes endinheirados que regressavam às suas terras e que ficaram conhecidos na História pelo nome de "brasileiros". As fachadas das povoações do Norte (Porto, Ovar, Aveiro) e mais tarde, as do Sul, vão cobrir-se da azulejos produzidos nas fábricas surgidas após a recuperação económica que se iniciou cerca de 1840.
Esta azulejaria de fachada, de fabrico semi-industrial, coexistiu com outra em que estavam presentes tendências românticas e revivalistas, marcadas por uma linguagem eclética. Nesta fase, distinguiu-se Ferreira das Tabuletas, autor de composições ornamentais aplicadas em fachadas de vários prédios de Lisboa, nas quais estão presentes simbologias maçónicas.
Nas primeiras décadas do século XX, o azulejo foi influenciado pela Arte Nova que aparece nos trabalhos de Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro e em numerosos frontões e faixas decorativas produzidas nas fábricas de Sacavém, Desterro, Carvalhino e Fonte Nova. A Arts Deco, que teve uma presença mais discreta na azulejaria portuguesa, foi predominantemente utilizada em vestíbulos, tabernas e num núcleo numeroso de fachadas em Vila Franca de Xira.
Durante os dois primeiros quartéis do século XX, a azulejaria revivalista ocupou um espaço importante, sendo numerosos os painéis de pendor historicista e folclórico produzidos durante este período. O principal representante desta corrente foi Jorge Colaço, autor de uma vasta obra em que a técnica da pintura a óleo se procurou adaptar ao azulejo.
A partir de 1950, os artistas plásticos portugueses começaram a interessar-se pela utilização do azulejo. Para isso contribuiram Jorge Barradas, considerado o renovador da cerâmica portuguesa e Keil do Amaral que, nos contactos com os arquitectos brasileiros, redescobriu as potencialidades deste material de revestimento cerâmico. Embora sejam numerosos os artistas plásticos que ensaiaram experiências no campo da azulejaria, alguns deles conquistaram uma posição de destaque mercê da dimensão e da qualidade da obra produzida, como é o caso de Maria Keil, Manuel Cargaleiro, Querubim Lapa e Eduardo Nery. Na sequência de encomendas feitas por entidades oficiais ou por particulares, a azulejaria moderna portuguesa enriqueceu-se com alguns exemplares notáveis como os conjuntos de painéis da Av. Infante Santo e do Metropolitano, a fachada da Reitoria da Universidade e o painel da Av. Calouste Gulbenkian, todos em Lisboa.
A par desta azulejaria de características eruditas, o azulejo português continuou, nesta segunda metade do século XX, a manifestar-se através de exemplares menos elaborados ou de carácter popular, como os revestimentos das fachadas das casas dos emigrantes e os registos, cartelas e painéis naturalistas, desenhados pelos artífices que trabalham nas fábricas. Mas, através de todas estas formas, continuou a revelar a sua vitalidade e a reafirmar-se como uma das manifestações mais originais das artes decorativas europeias.
Fonte: www.oazulejo.net/oazulejo_frame.html
PS: Texto gentilmente enviado pela amiga do Flickr, da cidade do Porto, Portugal, Maria Aurora Pires.
English
Since five centuries, tile occupies a prominent position among the Portuguese decorative arts, and although throughout its history to have suffered multiple influences, developed in Portugal including specific features deserve highlighting the richness of color, monumentality, a sense scenic architecture and integration.
It was during the Arab occupation of the Iberian Peninsula that the people had contact with the ceramic mural. The term "tile" is derived, moreover, an Arabic word (al zulej) which means smooth, polished stone.
Until the late fifteenth century, the Andalusian craftsmen have produced large boards covered with glazed clay colored uniform that, once cooked, cut into geometric pieces that were then recombined into beautiful decorative designs. This process, known as "tongs," because it involved the use of pliers, was slow and difficult in addition to requiring that the author accompany the consignment to the place of its application. The inability to export the finished product has already constituted a major constraint, and perhaps this is why the existing copies in Portugal are scarce. The most famous are the Palace of Sintra (Chapel room where he was imprisoned and Alfonso VI).
At the end of the sixteenth century comes a transformation technique that leads to the appearance of the tile as we know today: a clay plate with a square face plain glazed or decorated with colored drawings. However, the separation of colors on the glass surface caused a problem because the substances used were water soluble and mingled both in the implementation phase and during cooking. To avoid this mishap is used as separator, a barrier consisting of fat linseed oil and manganese. This technique, known as "dry rope" is almost always associated to an increase in "edge" of the surface of clay, which functioned as a mechanical barrier in the separation zones of the glazes. The "edge" or "cuenca" only began to be used alone after the introduction of another innovation: the "sintering" which consisted of heating the glaze at high temperatures before being applied.
Tiles "dry rope" and "edge" gone down in history with the name of Mudejar Moorish-or Hispano-Moorish. During the sixteenth century were imported in large quantities to Portugal and used in churches and palaces. Some specimens were celebrated as the tiles of "dry rope" representing the armillary sphere, commissioned by King Manuel I, who still line the courtyard of the Gargoyles at the Palace of Sintra. The drawings of the Hispano-Arab influence remained of the decorations and setting out the Arabs laçarias and geometric patterns. In the late sixteenth century comes another crucial technical advance: thanks to the use of white tin glaze and metallic pigments, it became possible to paint directly on the glaze. This new technique known as "majolica" (probably a corruption of the word Majorca, port from where the tiles were imported) was brought to Portugal by Francisco Niculi. With it came the Renaissance aesthetics associated with its own decorative language that evolved later in mannerism.
Influenced by the provisions of the outputs the Council of Trent abolished all that could remind the Islamic art in place and started to proliferate the Italo-Flemish ornamental motifs. This period there are some outstanding works among which deserves special mention flooring tiles of the chapel of S. Roque, Lisbon, painted by Francisco de Matos in 1584.
At the end of the sixteenth century, Portugal falls under the rule of Kings. The economic difficulties that do not allow easy access to the tapestries, stained glass windows and marble, combined with the experience accumulated by the Portuguese in the arts and ceramics, leading to maximum utilization of the tile with decorative material. It appears then that numerous examples of geometric compositions ranging from the combinations in chess to more complex forms such as "tile frame," which with its oblique lines, they decompose and model surfaces where applied.
Following these examples, there were the famous "carpet" of the seventeenth century, formed by the repetition of patterns polychrome. These patterns resulted from a combination of a variable number of tiles, forming squares of 4, 16, 36 or more elements. The various rugs, each with their different pattern, juxtaposed and framed by bands, lined up and down the walls of churches and sometimes also the ceiling, producing amazing decorative effects. The Church of Marvila in Santarém and the Church of St. Quentin, in Sobral's Montagraço are two fine examples of use of this type of tile.
From the last quarter of the seventeenth century, several factors have caused profound changes in the aesthetics of the tile. The Portuguese sailors who had traveled to the East, released in Europe in Chinese blue and white earthenware which gained a taste of the countries of northern Europe and later spread to southern countries. The tiling has therefore been replaced by monochromatic, then beginning to surface various patterns of "carpet" of the seventeenth century, played in blue and white.
At the same time, sweeping through Europe in the Baroque aesthetic in which the components of staging and theatricality of life and morals were reflected on all forms of art. Then comes the tile historians, in which several characters are captured in full action and the scenes represented are surrounded by extremely rich frames that act as a "proscenium arch" of a stage. All this coincides with the regaining of independence from Portugal in 1640 and with the birth of a new aristocracy which quickly prospered and seeks to create your own scenarios. The palaces are then covered with beautiful tile panels representing battles, hunted and scenes from everyday life. Most of these panels are copied and adapted from engravings that then come to France and spend dictating fashions.
In stairwells and hallways of wealthy palaces, there are also the famous "figures of invitation" which represent armed soldiers or porters, while the homes of more limited resources, it uses the frames with repeated modules, which are predominant "albarradas" . Around the same time, "the spare figure, also of Dutch influence, Portugal won in a personal expression and an unusual decorative power, despite its design receding hairline and a little care.
But it was mainly in churches and convents that purchased the tile baroque monumentality that immortalized him. There are many examples scattered throughout the country, depicting scenes from the Old and New Testament episodes and counting of the saints, in a series of panels assume that sometimes a character narrative that recalls the almost comic. The church of San Lorenzo in Almansil and the Convent of Loios in Arraiolos, are two cases of Portuguese tile brilliant this season.
It should be noted that the expression assumed by the Portuguese baroque tiles was strongly linked to some painters of tiles that marred from the start, with his personal style. The first and perhaps most important, was Gabriel del Barco, born in Spain who came to Lisbon for 20 years, where he died in 1703. Influenced by Dutch tiles, particularly by Jan van Oort who swiped some panels, revealed in his painting little concern for accuracy and perfection in design, by means of a dash vigorous and spontaneous, giving primacy to the scenic effects that would mark the Portuguese tiles during several decades.
But equal emphasis deserves Antonio Oliveira Bernardes (1660-1730) and all his disciples among them is her son whose Polycarp of workshops left some of the most brilliant of tile coatings Portuguese baroque.
Around 1750, after the death of D. John V and already in the consulate of the Marquis of Pombal, the decorative tiles began to be influenced by the aesthetics rocaille. Disappeared then the decorative exuberance of the previous period, returned the polychromatic with a palette of four colors and trims now display the bat wings and scoops asymmetrical, typical of the style of Louis XV. Mouse Factory, founded in 1764, were produced some of the finest examples of this period and it is possible that there has emerged one of the most admired: The Garden of Tiles Thursday in Lisbon.
But the time Pombal was also marked by a kind of utilitarian tiles that emerged after the 1755 earthquake. During the reconstruction of the city, the Marquis of Pombal encouraged the production of tiles, which were inexpensive material, hygienic and durable. The halls and stairs of the downtown Lisbon were then covered with polychrome tiles patterned with simple but highly decorative designs, which were definitively linked to Pombaline.
It is also from the second half of the eighteenth century and especially after the earthquake that proliferated throughout the country, and particularly in London, the records of saints, small devotional panels that were placed on the facades in order to obtain protection against disasters. In Lisbon, the images that appear most frequently are those of Sto. Anthony, patron of the city, and St. Martial, the saint invoked against fire.
But around 1780, already in the reign of King Mary I, there is the neo-classical style. The Portuguese tile adhered quickly to the influences that came from Europe and expressed itself mainly in the form of frames with straight frames and decorative elements in polychrome dominated by rosettes, wreaths, plumes, the "chinoiserie" and the medallions with landscapes . The "Queen Mary style," as it became known in Portugal, lasted until the early nineteenth century.
But then, Portugal would plunge into a serious political and economic crisis that affected the productive activity, including the manufacture of tiles. First the French invasion, after Brazil's independence and later civil war of 1832-1834. Much of the pottery Portuguese were forced to close and no longer respond to orders from its regular customers.
In Brazil, where since the seventeenth century were sent large numbers of Portuguese tiles, the tile is going to have a different use: the lining of the facades. Initially, only white tiles were used on the facades of churches, but later this practice was extended to urban buildings that cover patterned polychrome. From the mid-nineteenth century, this practice has spread to Portugal, brought by wealthy emigrants returning to their land and became known in history as the "Brazilians". The facades of the towns in the north (Porto, Ovar, Aveiro) and later the South, will cover the tiles are produced in factories that emerged after the economic recovery that began about 1840.
This tile facade, semi-industrial manufacturing, coexisted with other trends that were present in romantic revival, marked by an eclectic language. At this stage, he distinguished himself from tablets Ferreira, author of ornamental compositions applied on the facades of several buildings in Lisbon, in which there are Masonic symbols.
In the first decades of the twentieth century, the tile was influenced by Art Nouveau which appears in the work of Raphael Bordallo Pinheiro and numerous gables and decorative bands produced in factories Sacavem, Desterro, Carvalhino and New Source. The Arts Deco, who had a discreet presence in the Portuguese tiles, was predominantly used in entrance halls, taverns and a large core of facades in Vila Franca de Xira.
During the first two quarters of the twentieth century, revivalist tiles occupied an important place, there are numerous panels and historicist bent folk produced during this period. The main representative of this current was Colaço George, author of a vast work in which the technique of oil painting that sought to adapt to the tile.
Since 1950, the Portuguese artists began to become interested in the use of tile. Contributed to this Jorge Barradas, considered the renewal of Portuguese ceramics and Keil do Amaral, in contacts with Brazilian architects, has rediscovered the potential of ceramic material. Although there are many artists who rehearsed the experiences in the field of tiles, some of them have gained a leading position thanks to the size and quality of work produced, as is the case of Mary Keil, Manuel Cargaleiro, Cherubim and Lapa Eduardo Nery. Following orders made by authorities or private persons, the modern Portuguese tiling enriched with some notable examples as the sets of panels of Avenida Infante Santo and the Metropolitan, the facade of Regents of the University and the panel of Avenida Calouste Gulbenkian , all in Lisbon.
Alongside the classical features tilework, the tile Portuguese continued in the second half of the twentieth century, manifesting itself through less elaborate or copies of a popular nature, such as the linings of the facades of the houses of emigrants and records, cards and boards naturalists, designed by artisans who work in factories. But through all these forms, continued to show their vitality and reassert itself as one of the most original expressions of European decorative arts.
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
Central market in the old city of Harar, Ethiopia, 2006.
Harar (Ethiopia) is a magical place! See my Harar photo series.
If you have only 12 days to finally visit Africa, you should perhaps focus on one place: let it be Harar, Ethiopia (July 2006).
For centuries, until about 1860, it was an independent city at the borders of two different worlds: the Abbysinian mountains and the deserts stretching to the Red Sea coast. Trade and religious affairs (Muslim) must have alternated primacy during its history. As a holy city to Islam it feels as a surprisingly relaxed place. Tom Waits can not imagine the kind of dark yet exalted bars you find here at night. The size of the walled old city is at least half that of Jerusalem's old city. Most important the people are really open and the city is one of the world's few cities that within a few days demonstrate their very own distinct living atmosphere you'll never forget.
(See also my friend Elmer's photos from this trip, where by change you can also see me on a photo.)
São Miguel dos Milagres é um município brasileiro do estado de Alagoas. Sua população estimada em 2004 era de 6.354 habitantes.
Chamava-se, antes, Freguesia de Nossa Senhora Mãe do Povo. Mudou sua denominação, segundo a tradição, depois que um pescador encontrou na praia uma peça de madeira coberta de musgos e algas marinhas. Ao levá-la para casa e fazer sua limpeza, descobriu que se tratava de uma imagem de São Miguel Arcanjo, provavelmente caída de alguma embarcação. Ao terminar o trabalho de limpeza, o pescador descobriu espantado, que uma ferida persistente que o afligia há tempos estava totalmente cicatrizada.
A notícia logo se espalhou, fazendo com que aparecessem pessoas em busca de cura para suas doenças e de novos milagres. Sua colonização tomou corpo durante o período da invasão holandesa, quando moradores da sofrida Porto Calvo fugiram em busca de um lugar seguro para abrigar suas famílias e de onde pudessem avistar com antecipação a chegada dos inimigos batavos. A capela inicial, que deu origem à freguesia estabelecida pela Igreja Católica, foi dedicada a Nossa Senhora Mãe do Povo.
Sua história está ligada, pela proximidade, à de Porto de Pedras e à de Porto Calvo, antigo Santo Antônio dos Quatro Rios ou, ainda, Bom Sucesso. Disputa com Porto de Pedras a primazia de ser a sede do Engenho Mata Redonda, onde ocorreu a célebre batalha do mesmo nome travada, entre o exército holandês e as forças luso-espanholas e vencida pelo General Artikchof. É compreensível a querela, uma vez que os atuais municípios não estavam formados e os limites eram imprecisos. Por muito tempo, o Engenho Democrata foi destaque na produção de açúcar na região. Igualmente, o povoado foi líder na produção de cocos, quando ainda pertencia a Porto de Pedras.
Foi elevado à vila em 09 de junho de 1864 e, a partir de 1941, um grupo de moradores, entre eles Augusto de Barros Falcão, José Braga, Aderbal da Costa Raposo e João Moraes vinham reivindicando sua emancipação do município de Porto de Pedras. A emancipação política começou no dia 6 de junho de 1960. E pela Lei 2.239, de 07 de junho de 1960, São Miguel dos Milagres emancipa-se, separando-se de Porto de Pedras.
Texto by: pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Miguel_dos_Milagres
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São Miguel dos Milagres is a municipality in the state of Alagoas. Its estimated population in 2004 was 6,354 inhabitants.
His name was before, Parish of Our Lady Mother of the People. It changed its name, according to tradition, after a fisherman found the beach a piece of wood covered with mosses and seaweed. To take it home and do your cleaning, she discovered that it was an image of St. Michael the Archangel probably fallen in some vessel. When you finish the cleaning work, the fisherman discovered amazed that a persistent wound that afflicted him for days was totally healed.
The news soon spread, causing appeared people seeking cures for their diseases and new miracles. Colonization took shape during the period of Dutch invasion when residents suffered Porto Calvo fled in search of a safe place to house their families and where they could sight in advance the arrival of the Batavians enemies. The original chapel, which gave rise to the parish established by the Catholic Church was dedicated to Our Lady Mother of the People.
Its history is linked by proximity to the Porto de Pedras and Porto Calvo, former St. Anthony of the Four Rivers, or even Bom Sucesso. Dispute with Porto de Pedras the primacy of being the seat of the Engenho Mata Redonda, where there was the famous battle of the same name fought between the Dutch army and the Luso-Spanish forces and won by General Artikchof. the complaint, since the current municipalities were not formed were inaccurate and limits is understandable. For a long time, the Democratic Engenho was featured in sugar production in the region. Also, the town was the leading producer of coconuts, when still belonged to Porto de Pedras.
It was elevated to the village on June 9, 1864, and from 1941, a group of residents, among them Augusto de Barros Falcão, José Braga, Adherbal Costa Raposo and John Moraes came claiming emancipation of Porto de Pedras municipality. Political emancipation began on June 6, 1960. And by Law 2239 of 07 June 1960, São Miguel dos Milagres is emancipated, by separating from Porto de Pedras.
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Kamera: Nikon FM
Linse: Nikkor-S Auto 55mm f1.2 (1970)
Film: Rollei P&R 640 @ box speed
Kjemi: Rodinal (1:25 / 13:30 min. @ 20°C)
-Monday 26 February 2024: What an eventful day - so many things happening all at once - all of which deserves looking further into:
- US Air Force soldier Aaron Bushnell self-immolates in a shocking protest outside the Israeli embassy in Washington D.C and dies from his injuries.
- Palestinian prime minister Mohammad Shtayyeh (b. 1958) and his PA government resigns.
- Jordanian Air-Force airdrops humanitarian aid of food and other supplies in Gaza
- Last day of the ICJ hearing on the legality of Israeli occupation of West Bank, Gaza and East Jerusalem.
- Final day for Israel to deliver their report to the ICJ in the South Africa vs. Israel genocide case on what measures they have been taking in order to prevent genocide - it was delivered just hours before the deadline.
While we try to digest the rapid bombardment of suddenly fast-forward development, news and unexpected flux - for a better understanding of the context, I want to share with you a worthwile broadcast which goes deeper into the history of Palestine, the PLO and the PA:
COLONIAL LAW AND THE ERASURE OF PALESTINE
by Chris Hedges (b. 1956), The Real News Network February 2, 2024 [See and listen here]
For a century, international law derived from British colonial rule has been premised on the non-existence of Palestinians as a people.
In Palestine, the law has been used as a tool of oppression to legitimize and advance the dispossession of the Palestinian people for more than a century. From the theft of Palestinian land by legal mechanisms to the non-recognition of Palestinians as a people with the inalienable right of self-determination, the law is yet another weapon wielded against the Palestinian people by Israel and its patrons. Activist, attorney, and Rutgers University professor Noura Erakat joins The Chris Hedges Report to discuss the use of lawfare against Palestine and her new book, Justice for Some: Law and the Question of Palestine.
Studio Production: Cameron Granadino
Post-Production: Adam Coley
TRANSCRIPT
The following is a rushed transcript and may contain errors. A proofread version will be made available as soon as possible.
Chris Hedges:
“Time and time again,” the human rights attorney, Noura Erakat (b. 1980), writes, “we see evidence of the laws assumed insignificance in the dispossession of Palestinians. Great Britain remained committed to establishing a Jewish national homeland and Palestine, despite its legal duties as the mandatory power to shepherd local Arab peoples to independence. The permanent mandates commission remained committed to the incorporation of the Balfour Declaration into the Mandate for Palestine in contravention of the covenant of the League of Nations, which in discussing the dispossession of the communities formally belonging to the Turkish empire, stated that the wishes of these communities must be a primary consideration.”
“The United Nations proposed a partition of Palestine without legal consultation and in disregard of the existing populations wellbeing and development, which the same covenant had declared to be a sacred trust of civilization. Zionist militias established Israel by force without regard to the partition plans stipulated borders.”
“The United Nations accepted Israel as a member despite the state’s violation of the non-discrimination clauses of the partition plan and of the UN’s own condition that Israel permit the return of forcibly displaced Palestinian refugees. The very origins of the Palestinian Israeli conflict,” Erakat continues, “suggests that it is characterized by outright lawlessness and yet few conflicts have been as defined by astute attention to law and legal controversy as this one.”
“Do Jews have a right to self-determination in a territory in which they did not reside but settled? Are Palestinians a nation with the right to self-determination or are they merely a heterogeneous polity of Arabs eligible for minority rights? Did the United Nations have the authority to propose partition in contravention of the will of the local population? Are the West Bank including East Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip occupied as a matter of law that is, are they recognized as such by law?”
Does Israel have the right in law to self-defense against the Palestinians living in the occupied territories? Do Palestinians have the right to use armed force against Israel? Is the root of Israel’s separation barrier built predominantly in the West Bank illegal? Is Israel an apartheid regime?
Joining me, discussing these issues examined in her book, Justice For Some: Law and The Question of Palestine, is the human rights attorney and assistant professor at Rutgers University, Noura Erakat (b. 1980).
You begin the book, I think making a crucial point, and that is that the entire legal system, and this predates the establishment of the state of Israel under the British mandate, is grounded in the denial of sovereignty to the Palestinian people. And I, as we said before I went on air, reminded me very much of the construction of the American legal system, another settler colonial project, basing it on Locke’s primacy of property. So you build a legal system on a distortion. And this was something that the British imposed. Let’s go back and look at that.
Noura Erakat:
Absolutely. And so I think that the invocation of John Locke (1632-1704) is very apt here. Specifically as we were discussing earlier, Locke theorizes the social contract as was later applied in the United States as a social contract for settlers only through the exclusion of indigenous peoples and their erasure. And here what you’re describing as the perversion and the denial of sovereignty to Palestinians is what I capture as a colonial erasure, the erasure of the juridical status of Palestinians as a international people with the right to self-determination. There was never a denial that there were people on these lands, but that there was an outright denial whether these people constituted a political community with the right to exercise self-determination, what we’re using interchangeably here with sovereignty, though I would caution that sovereignty has come to take on quite new meaning beyond just statehood and self-governance. But in so far as we’re discussing this particular moment, it’s the aftermath of the First World War.
And the British have basically promised Palestine to its native peoples and promised self-determination across the former Ottoman territory is what they describe as the area a mandate. They’ve also promised Palestine and designated it as a site of Jewish settlement as captured by the Balfour Declaration, which was approved by British Parliament in 1917. That later becomes the Preambular text for the Palestine mandate, which governs the regulation of this mandate territory. Now, in so doing, and this is why I examine the language of the Balfour Declaration, the declaration itself only recognizes Jews was having a right to self-determination when they designated as a site of settlement and recognizes the original inhabitants, but only describes them as having a right to civil and religious rights. So they have the right to practice their religion freely and to move about freely, but they do not have a right to political rights.
And that’s what I capture as the colonial erasure. Once the British do that, and now it’s incorporated in the Palestine mandate in 1921, it becomes, I suggest, not just British colonial prerogative as the mandatory power. It now becomes international law and policy by which the entire permanent mandate commission, which is overseeing the governance of all the mandates. Now remember the mandates are set up as being trusteeships that will be shepherded to self-determination. But as Timothy Mitchell points out, this was about the consent of the governed. That self-determination here only meant that the governed decided who would be their mandatory power. But this becomes an other way to continue French and British colonial penetration into the Middle East and North Africa without necessarily granting independence to these peoples who have to fight for their independence. But even within that construction, they set apart Palestine as a part of international law and policy.
They set it apart from the other class A mandates in saying unlike those mandates that are being shepherded to independents that have a provisional government, that are able to represent themselves, Palestine because of its designation as a side of Jewish settlement has to be now developed in another way. And so they suppress any form of Palestinian sovereignty and self-determination even in contravention of the League of Nations covenant, which regulates the mandate territories, the mandates themselves that says, for example, “You cannot contravene the wishes of the original inhabitants.” Well, obviously we know that the inhabitants rejected Zionism and wanted self-determination, that there should be some sort of self-government, but they wouldn’t allow representative self-government because if they did, that would contravene the Balfour Declaration.
And now the Balfour Declaration was part of the Palestine mandate, which was international law. The PMC resolves this in basically saying, “Why don’t we first prioritize the settlement of Jewish persons and then we’ll move on to resolve the issue of the rights of the original inhabitants?”
And this points out to something interesting, Chris, which is often I think we give too much credit to Britain and to this imperial access of having a plan, that they planned that there would be a Jewish state. And I don’t think so. I don’t think so. I think that they wanted to thwart self-determination in general and maintain Palestine as a site where they can continually justify their intervention and their colonial penetration in order to basically compete with the French in the MENA region as well as to justify their presence through some sort of colonial benevolence.
And what crystallizes later is why this becomes the demand. Now, the Zionist demand for a Jewish state is not something that they necessarily intended and why it becomes a blunder. This becomes a blunderous policy for them as we see in the aftermath of the Second World War, when the British leave and they give this to the United Nations and they say, “We don’t know what to do anymore. We can’t resolve this. We’ve made too many promises, we’ve created a bit of a Frankenstein here.” But all that to say is that it was through their 30 years of that mandatory authority that they create the conditions that basically make ripe Zionist militias to then establish a Jewish state themselves, a Zionist state with a solid Jewish demographic majority that is contingent on the removal and dispossession of the original Palestinian people.
Chris Hedges:
Well, at the inception, the Jews and Palestine who were a small minority were essentially seen as colonial administrators. And during the Arab Revolt, 37, 38, 39, the British were arming the Zionist militias as auxiliary units. You’re write, all of it backfired. But from the inception, and this was I think the underlying point of the Balfour administration, it was through the Jewish community that essentially they were going to maintain this colony. Isn’t that correct?
Noura Erakat:
Yeah, very interesting here. This is also part of a broader colonial trope that they wanted to protect the minority Jewish population as a religious population, and it’s under this kind of benevolent auspices that they can justify their own intervention, right? But they wanted, for example, to maintain direct access and build a railroad from Haifa to Baghdad as part of a broader British vision, that this wasn’t about creating a homeland for Jews, for the British as much as it was about achieving their policy as you’re describing. A few things about the Great Revolt. The Great Revolt is so significant, not only because here the British are arming the Jewish Yeshu, the Zionists and training them in this moment leaving arms to them. At the same time, Rashid Khalidi (b. 1948) points out to us that through the course of the Great Revolt, the British actually end up decimating 10% of the male adult population either through imprisonment, exile, or outright killing.
And so this makes the Palestinians, in fact, some 10 years later when now they’re facing off with the Zionist militias in the falling apart of the partition plan, unable to resist I think more forcefully. So that’s absolutely significant.
The second thing I’ll say about the Great Revolt is that it changed British policy that whereas the British refused to reexamine their commitment to Zionism between 1917 and 1936 in the aftermath of the Great Revolt because they realized that they could not resolve this forcefully, they could not partition Palestine as a matter of force, that the Palestinians refused that outcome, that it would have to be done by force. They actually revised their Zionist policy for the first time when they issue the white paper and they walk back that policy and now say that the future will be determined by a referendum and that there will somehow be an Arab federal state instead. Obviously, none of this comes to fruition, not least of which because the Second World War begins.
Chris Hedges:
And I just, as you point out in your book, the Arab Revolt was actually quite successful. I think they even occupied, as you say, Jerusalem for five days, huge parts of the country. And the British declared martial law and brought in, was it a hundred thousand or 200,000 British troops? So it required Draconian British military power, in essence to crush these aspirations. And then as you point out, left the Palestinians weakened. You had a Jewish brigade of course in World War II incorporated into the British Army, and then they pushed through the seizure of land, 78% of land 1948 when they created the state of Israel, which is an important part.
Noura Erakat:
Before you go there, Chris, I just want to point out this point about martial law significant in three ways, I should say. Number one, the martial law regime that the British apply during the Great Revolt in order to basically crush the Palestinian insurgency and uprising is something that they’re applying across their colonial geographies and their colonial holdings, whether it be in Malay, in Kenya, in India, this is a form of their suspending all civil rights in order to be able to exercise whatever they deem necessary for their national interests. And so the colonial legacy, here, I say that to just emphasize that as exceptional as many aspects of the Palestinian struggle for liberation are, that it’s actually quite common and emblematic of a broader colonial history. The second thing that I want to point out is that upon its establishment, Israel, one of the first act of the Knesset is to adopt Britain’s emergency regime, almost verbatim, almost verbatim, for the purpose of achieving its settler colonial ambitions.
Of course, they become sovereign over 78% of Palestinian lands, but those lands still belong to Palestinians. It takes 12 years until 1960 in four phase plan where now the state of Israel, no longer the Zionist militias, are now the state forces, are incrementally taking that land through a regime of immigration law, property law, and emergency rule of which the military law is central as it’s applied solely to the Palestinian population that remains, that eventually become citizens of the state as well.
And then the third thing that I’ll say about that martial law is that once they lift the martial law, in 1966, this is precisely what now they apply to the Palestinians and the West Bank in Gaza to continue that settler colonial expansion. So the legacy, this broad global legacy of martial rule in order to achieve their colonial ambitions becomes a central organizing technology of Israeli governance in order to fulfill its own settler colonial ambitions, both within what becomes Israel as well as in what we describe as the occupied territories in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip.
Chris Hedges:
So there were two key points I picked up from your book. One, this continuum between a legal system set up by the British settler Colonial project and the Israeli settler colonial project really almost seamless and premised on exactly the same point that the Palestinians have no sovereignty, the Palestinians, Golda Meir (1898-1978), I think said they don’t exist as a people. And so just the same legal tools that the British were using to dispossess and strip Palestinians of basic rights are no different from the tools that Israel uses. Is that correct?
Noura Erakat:
I’ll modify that slightly. And also, unfortunately, [inaudible 00:18:35] D. Muir says this in an interview with the International Herald Tribune where she says, “It’s not as if there was a land with a people that we dispossessed. It was a land without a people for a people without a land.” This is emphasizing that colonial erasure, Golda Meir, Theodor Herzl (1860-1904), Chaim Weizmann (1874-1952), Arthur Ruppin (1876-1943), all of these founding figures, Zionist figures understand full well there are Palestinians, they just do not recognize them as a political community.
There’s this continuing discourse of savagery, barbarism, lack of civilization, do not know how to rule themselves. It’s a colonial project. Zionism is very much a settler colonial project, which makes this revisionism that we’re seeing today, describing it as a national self-determination movement, or worse as the greatest form of anti-colonial revolt. So laughable because it is exalted, self exalted as a colonial project. The other thing I’ll just modify slightly is that insofar as the British were concerned, it wasn’t just that they were targeting Palestinians, they were also suppressing any form of national self-determination because of their imperial interest.
They wanted to stay there, they didn’t want to leave. But the infrastructure that they set up for us, this emergency infrastructure in particular is what Zionists adopt in Toto, almost verbatim, when the Israel establishes itself and they do so whereas when the British passed, they actually impose the martial law and the emergency regime on everyone. The Jewish Zionists as well as Palestinians, when Israel adopts it in the Knesset, it’s imposed on Palestinians only in order to continue now a specific form of dispossession. What the British do is engage in immigration, which is engage in a discriminatory form of immigration that just doesn’t regulate the immigration of Jewish settlers. And also a land regime where we’re seeing a tremendous sale of lands that’s also unregulated, not regulating the market properly so that Palestinians are not necessarily stripped forcefully what they’re stripped of as their political right, their political right to represent themselves, their political right to organize their political right to make decisions on what this looks like.
But not in the same way of once Israel is established. At that point, the law is retooled specifically to transform Palestinian lands into Israel lands. And once in the form of Israel lands, that’s just the cover because if you say Israel, that means that, oh, everybody who’s a citizen of Israel. But in fact, it’s a cover to say Jewish national lands in particular because upon its establishment in 1950 and 1952, Israel bifurcates Jewish nationality from Israeli citizenship. And this is key. This is key especially to those who discuss apartheid because Israel doesn’t become an apartheid regime for failing to establish a Palestinian state and truncating Zionist sovereignty across the 1949 Armistice lines or what we know as the 1967 lines. Israel is predicated on a discriminatory framework that bifurcates Jewish nationality through which all rights flow.
This is an extraterritorial right that promises any Jewish person within outside, who’s never even heard of the state, who might be born today, to land, to employment, to housing, to education, to governance in a way that will never become accessible even to the Palestinian inhabitants that never leave. 20% of Israel’s population are the Palestinians that stay through the 1948 war, but even they don’t have those same rights. They’re only entitled to Israeli citizenship. And there’s a two-tiered system, one of nationality and citizenship, and one of citizenship only, and citizenship only is a form of second class citizenship or a fifth pillar. And so this too is part of a legal edifice that defines the state and its establishment.
Chris Hedges:
In the book, you talk about the legal recourses that Palestinians, in particular the PLO, and what I found interesting is that while they didn’t achieve their ultimate objective, they often achieve secondary objectives that benefited the Palestinian people almost by default. Can you explain that?
Noura Erakat:
Well, you’re leaving it very open-ended because as you know, I divide the book into five critical junctures. Each of those junctures is really catalyzed by some sort of violent confrontation that becomes an opportunity to recalibrate the balance of power. And in each of these episodes, that relationship between power and law becomes formative in both defining how we understand the question of what becomes the question of Palestine as articulated by the United Nations in 1948, it suddenly becomes a question, and defines the meaning of law in particular. So what the Palestinians do, and those junctures are 1917, in the aftermath of the first World War, 1967, the 1967 war, 1973, the October 1973 war, 1987, the First Palestinian Intifada and 2000, the Second Palestinian Intifada, which also shapes and defines ongoing warfare to this day when Israel shifts from a policy of occupation to explicit warfare against the Palestinians who live under its occupation.
So I say that all to lay out the audience, that I’ll just focus on the juncture and the aftermath of the 1973 war. When I articulate in the book that this was really the apex of when the Palestinian Liberation Organization due to the law astutely to achieve its national ambitions. Now, this is also nuanced because at this time in 1973, the PLO as defined by its militia forces who take over the PLO in 1968, their goal is full liberation. They want to liberate all of Palestine. They have no ambitions for a state. There’s no articulation of that. This is a decolonization movement they want to liberate. They want to free the land. In the aftermath of the 1973 war, and specifically we see this very explicitly in ’74, we might see it earlier, but very explicitly in ’74, there is now a seed planted that envisions the establishment of a truncated Palestinian state as either the stepping stone of full liberation or the final solution.
We don’t see that question resolved until 1988 when the Palestinians now enter Oslo. So I’m just setting this up for the audience to be able to explain that even we say, what do Palestinians want? At this point there’s a lot of nuance. There’s an explicit agenda of full liberation, but there’s also now a latent agenda by some elements of the PLO led by Fatah, and I would say even a very conservative element of Fatah, not all of Fatah at this time. So now what? Okay, so in ’74, the Palestinians basically make their first foray into the United Nations. Their objective is actually not to enter the United Nations. They want to enter the Middle East peace process now being shepherded by the Soviet Union, but by primarily the United States, by Nixon, who’s both the Secretary of State and the head of the National Security Council, who in pursuance of Zionist goals as well as US national interest, disaggregates the Arab Israeli question, or the Arab Israeli conflict, I should say, into an Egyptian Israeli track, a Lebanese Israeli track, a Jordanian Israeli track, a Syrian Israeli track, and leaves out the Palestinians altogether.
What the PLO really wants is to be able to negotiate on behalf of themselves and not by proxy. Failure to be able to incorporate themselves into that negotiating process, now they set their sights on the United Nations, and that’s when they enter in ’74 to pass Resolution 3236 and 3237, which together both affirms their Juridical status as a people when it says that the PLO is the sole and legitimate representative of the Palestinian people and not merely a [inaudible 00:28:23] of refugees in need of humanitarian assistance and establishes a corrective to Resolution 242, which doubles down on their erasure by describing them as refugees only, and establishes a quid pro quo arrangement whereby Israel will enjoy permanent peace in recognition for returning all of the territories. And so this is seen as an instrument of defeat. So that’s the first kind of what, I guess, one might describe as that’s not exactly what they wanted.
What they wanted was to enter into the negotiations. This is what they do, which is also very successful. That didn’t advance their cause as much. And in the summer of ’75, they decided that they wanted to expel Israel from the United Nations in the same way that the non-aligned movement had expelled South Africa and unseated it from the United Nations. But in their effort to do so, they were primarily blocked by Egypt under the leadership of Anwar El-Sadat (1918-1981), who saw that the only pathway forward was through some sort of US alliance in order to get the Sinai back to recoup the Sinai and wanted to continue negotiations with Israel. So actually stymied this initiative to unseat Israel from the United Nations. Instead, what the Palestinians do in the summer of ’75 at the International Women’s Conference, at the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, at the non-aligned movement, amongst the organization of African Union is basically a condemnation of Zionism as a form of racism and racial discrimination.
That wasn’t the primary goal, but that was the consensus. So they come back to the general assembly and now work to create one of the most significant, I think, legal achievements when they amend the decade against racism that was targeting apartheid in Namibia and South Africa to also include a condemnation of Zionism. And we get Resolution 3379 that declares that Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination that would only be rescinded by the PLO itself in 1991. And so I would say that these are just a few examples of what… I think I’m responding to your question of perhaps what Palestinians had sought and what they do instead using these legal maneuvers. And obviously all of this entry of foray is also restricting the Palestinians themselves, but it’s a restriction that they welcome in order to advance their other goals.
Chris Hedges:
Let’s talk about Oslo. You opened that chapter quoting Edward Said (1935-2003), who calls it a Palestinian Versailles, and really, I think, you make a very persuasive argument that it destroys the PLO as an effective resistance organization.
Noura Erakat:
When I started this chapter, I really was starting it and interested in it as a legal scholar, and I thought to myself, one of the offerings that I can make is to explain to a non-specialist, what did Oslo do in order to permanently subjugate Palestinians? Because that’s what it is. Oslo is a sovereignty trap. It doesn’t promise, there’s never even a mention of the Palestinian state. None of its negotiating terms promises an eventual outcome of a Palestinian state. Palestinians don’t get anything. And so I wanted to explain that, how does Israel create this new administration under Oslo to regulate access to water, access to land, access to movement? How does Oslo set up all of these strictures? But when I read the actual documents, the Declaration of Principles, also known as Oslo 1, when you read Oslo 2, that sets up this jurisdictional regime of area A, B, and C, when you read why and Taba and so on, it’s so obvious how Palestinians are subjugated that I thought to myself, well, you don’t need to be a legal expert to have this takeaway, you just need to be literate.
So instead, I decide to answer a question I don’t know the answer to yet, which is why? Why would the PLO enter into something so obviously devastating and self-defeating. And in trying to answer that question, what becomes clearer to me anyway, is that this really is about salvaging the PLO, that that’s what was being done. The PLO after its expulsion from Lebanon in 1982 in removal to Tunisia, is now no longer has a solid base where it almost oversees, one would say the infrastructure of a para state with a significant refugee population within Lebanon that constitutes an entire institution of representation and services and functioning, and also it doesn’t have the grounds for cross border attacks. That’s a significant blow. By 1987, they continue to weaken, not least because of the emergence of opposition like Hamas, that now becomes even more popular than the PLO struggle, as well as the fact that now there’s an organic movement within the West Bank in Gaza that’s leading an Intifada, an uprising so that the center of gravity shifts from the Palestinian diaspora to Palestinian lands themselves.
And this is undermining the PLO’s authority together with the fact now by the time Arafat throws his hat in and supports Saddam Hussein’s occupation of Kuwait, which in retribution Gulf states, Kuwait, number one basically says Palestinians out. And now there’s a whole loss of remittances to the Palestinians, as well as the fact that anybody that wants to support Palestine is going to support opposition and not the PLO itself. So all of these things come together to basically shape a moment where the PLO was at the edge of irrelevance, at the edge of irrelevance. And entering into the negotiations, they had a very adept team at Madrid, Washington, that saw the writing on the wall [foreign language 00:35:33] are very clear in their legal analysis in mourning that Israel is basically offering the same thing that was offered in the 1978 Middle East peace process in the negotiation between Sadat and Begin leading up to the 1979 permanent Egyptian Israeli peace, which is an autonomy framework.
That’s all they’re offering. They offered the same thing in ’78. The only difference now when they’re offering it in the lead up to the adoption of the Declaration of principles is that they’re saying that Palestinians will not only be able to govern themselves on these different plot of lands, but can also govern certain plots of land, but only there. They still won’t be able to exercise jurisdiction. And instead of electing a local government to do it, they’ll allow the PLO to do it. Those are literally the only differences between ’78 and what we ultimately see in ’93. One of the interesting things about doing this work, Chris, and this research, is that the legal literature is dominated by Israeli scholars, especially on these questions. So part of the work that I was doing was also helping to create a Palestinian archive to advance these legal arguments.
And doing that meant that I interviewed the interlocutors that were there. I interviewed the negotiators themselves, so Camille Mansour (b. 1945), who was there and was a negotiator and is a legal scholar. It’s his words where he illuminates that if you lose Palestinian representation, we go back to being just no people anymore. We had to save the PLO in order to save our status as a juridical people. But in exchange for that recognition, we basically relinquished Palestine.
The rescindment of the 1975 resolution declaring Zionism is a form of racism, is emblematic. The amendment of the charter that says that Palestinians will no longer resort to armed force when Israel is not making similar concessions. It doesn’t say we’re not resorting to armed force. The recognition of Israel. Palestinians recognize Israel. There’s no mutual recognition of a Palestine. And so Palestinians basically see and surrender what should have remained on the table as part of their negotiating leverage as a condition for entering into Oslo, which becomes the trap that they remained frankly ensconed within. Although we obviously see many, many cracks and Oslo has been dead, even though many have tried to keep it up on stilts. But that’s what’s happening. That’s what people are celebrating in 1993, even though though Edward Said, Haidar Abdel-Shafi, Nabil Shaath, and many others recognized as an instrument of defeat, this Palestine, it’s done, Palestine has been lost. And even Hanan Ashrawi (b. 1946), Dr. Hahan Ashrawi, who recognizes what a loss this is, also agrees that it was still worthwhile because they didn’t want to relinquish the status of the PLO. And so people are not stupid.
This was a very logical decision. The PNC approves Oslo, approves the DOP. So this is also not necessarily just betrayal by the PLO, even though it is betrayal by the negotiating team in Oslo, which was the back channel secret negotiation, but the negotiators in Washington had no idea about. But just adding nuance here that there was a lot. The PLO in its own documentation says that they entered into Oslo and Dr. Nabil Shaath (b. 1938), who’s also one of my interlocutors, says, “We knew it was bad, but we entered on good faith.” And that faith obviously didn’t bear out for them. It didn’t do what they had hoped.
Chris Hedges:
There was a lot of corruption. I was in Gaza after Oslo and the PLO leadership were importing their duty free Mercedes and building villas. As you point out in the book, the PA (Palestinian Authority) spends most of its budget on internal security functioning in essence as a colonial police force, the hierarchy that’s willing to do that dirty work can live very well. But we’ve now reached a point, and of course in the elections in 2006, the PA lost, Hamas won even in the West Bank. So in many ways, I don’t know if you would agree, it’s nullified itself as a credible movement on behalf of the Palestinian people at this point. Would you agree?
Noura Erakat:
100%. I think that this is consensus amongst Palestinians, which is what’s so troubling that the PA, even according to Oslo, the PA is only meant to be an administrative body. It should deliver mail. It should pick up the trash. It should complete administrative functions. It was never appointed to lead the Palestinian liberation movement, which should have remained within the purview of the PLO. But we see a collapse of the PA in the PLO in a way that blurs these lines on the firsthand. And then instead what we see, it was supposed to have a temporary function until we moved into permanent status negotiations and the establishment of the Palestinian state. There’s never a mention of the Palestinian state, Chris. Even the negotiators themselves, Yitzhak Rabin (1922-1995) who is hailed as the peacemaker and assassinated for his willingness to enter into Oslo by an Israeli settler.
Even he says there will never be a Palestinian state. So this temporary arrangement should have only lasted for five years. Let alone now we’re above three decades, and the PA has been a very, very significant instrument part and parcel of Israel’s occupation regime. It is doing the work on behalf of Israel. It is coordinating security with Israel. It is arresting Palestinians. It is providing intelligence on where Palestinians are. It is actually entering into Palestinian public squares to beat Palestinians to suppress their protests, even now against the genocide in Gaza. Just think. Just think the fact that the public sector is bloated, but the primary part of the Palestinian public sector is the security sector. And that security sector is basically policing Palestinians to protect Israel settlement enterprises. I had said before, and I’m saying now again, that in contrast, there’s no dedication, for example, to invest in the agricultural sector.
Had the PA now collapsed with a PLO invested in an agricultural sector, it might’ve been able to create and cultivate an economy that can engage in boycott of Israeli goods even rather than be flooded with Israeli goods into the market. But this also goes hand in hand with the fact that the PLO has never even endorsed boycott. There’s still committed, even if it’s a state led, a truncated Palestinian state, to that structure at the expense of liberation. And why at the expense of liberation, because this is not inclusive of all Palestinians. It’s not inclusive of the Palestinian refugees. It’s certainly not inclusive of the Palestinians who are citizens of Israel, and it doesn’t have a vision of how is it that Palestinians are going to be free from Israeli dominance as opposed to what they’re banking on, which is an autonomy arrangement whereby they will forever receive certain incremental privileges from Israel and its patron, the United States, in exchange for being good natives.
And this is the trap that we remain in, and it puts Palestinians… It makes our struggles so much harder. And many people are asking, how is Gaza? And the West Bank too. I mean, obviously the West Bank is being subject to untold and unprecedented violence from the beginning of this year, but especially since early October. But Palestinians are not even able to mount a significant and a robust resistance to protect themselves because not only are they being attacked by Israel and their settler vigilantes who are being armed, but they’re also being attacked and policed by the Palestinian authority.
Chris Hedges:
You compare the PLO to the Namibians and you make some, I think, really important points about how they were far more astute. They rejected the South African peace process as an alternative. SWAPO refused to enter South Africa’s exclusive sphere of influence and maintain an adversarial position, unlike the PLO, which has committed to US mediated bilateral talks for 25 years, SWAPO never relinquished its right to the use of force, and it never ceased its armed struggle. Talk about the difference because they were far more successful. And then of course you had Cuban troops stationed in Angola.
Noura Erakat:
I bring up Namibia in the conclusion because there is, especially in the realm of Palestine, and we see this now because of the South Africa application at the ICJ, there is a way because of the failure of politics really, and a failure of a Palestinian leadership to articulate some sort of a political program and a resistance vision. And resistance here, I mean robustly like diplomatic resistance, economic resistance, popular resistance, cultural resistance, delegitimizing, a Zionist colonial project. Nothing. There’s nothing. And in the absence of that, unfortunately, human rights and rights-based programs have taken up an inordinate amount of space in a way that even supplants the language of politics that now Palestinian politics are hollowed out instead with principles of law, which is detrimental, is detrimental because the law is only a tool. That very same law like human rights law that Palestinians use to assert their right to family and their right to not be harmed.
Settlers in the West Bank are invoking that same body of law to say that it’s their human right to maintain these lands and to be protected and to be free of Israeli state violence. The law will set up a battleground only, but that can only be resolved through politics. And so I bring that to the fore to say, because so many people bring up Namibia as an example of a very astute use of the law. Here it is. Namibia waged a multi-year legal battle where they incrementally scaffolded a legal argument at the ICJ in order to demonstrate firstly and foremost the illegitimacy of South Africa as a mandatory power and a governing power in Namibia and South Africa. And then scaffolding on top of that other rights of their right to self-determination and so on and so forth. But it’s not because of this robust jurisprudence that the Namibians ultimately gain independence. That’s necessary.
That was strategic. That helped build a language to use. It helped cultivate international support. But ultimately it wasn’t a legal decision. South Africans don’t leave Namibia because the court said so, they could care less. Ultimately why they leave is because you have Cuban forces who are fighting alongside, who are in Angola that the US wants out of Angola. This becomes a proxy for the US and the Soviet Union and Cuba being involved, and part of that negotiation of withdrawal includes withdrawal from Namibia. So there are other things happening where this influences the United States and shifts its position on apartheid as well. But the Namibians, as you point out in and as I point out in the book, are also very astute. They never enter into a South African sphere of influence. They’re offered the same thing that Palestinians are offered in the form of black homelands and autonomous governance.
They reject that. They never rescind their right and to use armed force, which is enshrined as a result of the non-aligned movement, enshrined as a right for people living under alien occupation, racism and domination. So that matters too. Now, I say all that to say to the credit of the Palestinians that this environment in which Namibia is maneuvering or Namibians are maneuvering, excuse me, doesn’t exist by the time the Palestinians are entering into Oslo. In fact, we’re seeing Namibian and South African independence. Mandela has been released. We’re seeing the fall of apartheid. We see the fall of the Soviet Union. We see the emergence of a unipolar world. So this balance of power that really did enable a different kind of liberation struggle for Namibians is not available to the Palestinians at the time. And so we can sit here retrospectively and say, “Well, nothing could have been worse than what they’ve done now.”
But all of this is conjecture, obviously. I’m less concerned about the trap that Palestinians enter into based on this balance of power based on the political considerations. I’m more concerned that they haven’t shifted course and policy when it was clear. If you didn’t know the day of like Abdel-Shafi and Said than others, you certainly knew by 2000 when the Camp David agreement collapses. Now it’s over. [inaudible 00:51:44] is besieged and killed. That’s it. There’s no excuse. Because I want to give some benefit of the doubt that they thought they couldn’t get anything better. Fine. But by 2000, you knew that this was a dead end. So there’s absolutely no explanation why Palestinians would stay in that arrangement since 2000 through 2023, a quarter of a century, knowing full well, there’s no way out.
Chris Hedges:
Well, Palestinian Street. The average Palestinian has walked away from it. They walked away from it a long time ago.
Noura Erakat:
Even in this moment, the Palestinian liberation struggle’s not being led by an official Palestinian leadership, which makes this moment even more profound, that we’re Palestinian Diaspora, Palestinians on the ground. Everybody has been coordinating and working without a centralized governance system, certainly without any means and funding, and yet has been able to mobilize in a decentralized fashion.
The Boycott National Committee establishes itself in 2005, launches an international boycott divestment in sanctions movement. This is civil society. It has nothing to do with the Palestinian leadership. The way that Palestinians bring back a condemnation of Zionism, which we see first in the Durban Conference in 2001. The review conference of the decade against racism happens in Durban, South Africa in 2001, where Palestinians raise the banner and say, “Israel’s an apartheid regime, and Zionism is racism once again.” Palestinians have never relinquished that front, and we even see it in the realm of knowledge production where scholars have reconstructed very robustly, not only making clear that Israel is a settler colonial project, but that there’s an entire realm of Palestinian indigenous studies of tradition, of economy, of belonging, of family, all sorts of tradition of land use, of sea technology that could be studied, which brings us into 2024.
The reason we remain alive as a people is because the people have insisted that we are here.
Chris Hedges:
I want to close by talking about the resistance. That was more than a hundred days of saturation, bombing of Gaza, destruction of every form of infrastructure that can sustain existence from wells to hospitals, to bakeries to schools, horrific numbers of dead. I was in Sarajevo during the war, which was awful, three to 400 shells a day, four to five dead a day, two dozen wounded a day. I only say that as a comparison to Gaza, where hundreds of people are being wounded and killed a day just to point out the scale. And yet, US intelligence estimates that only 20 to 30% of resistance or fighters, Hamas fighters, have been killed. It’s becoming clear that if Israel does not achieve its goal, which I don’t see how it will of eradicating Hamas, and Hamas and the resistance survives, which I feel it will then in any way, the Palestinians win.
And however horrific Gaza becomes other than the Yemenis, the Houthis, nobody is intervening to halt this genocide despite all the legal bodies we have at the UN and everywhere else. But talk about the resistance and whether I know how I knew one of the founders of Hamas, Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi (1947-2004) was in his house with him and his family. His wife was just killed on October 19th. And not by the way, the demonized image of a leader of Hamas. He was a pediatrician, highly educated, graduated first in his class from the University of Alexandria, very soft-spoken, brilliant figure, assassinated in 2004 along with one of his sons. Let’s talk about the resistance. And so whether you embrace the ideology of Hamas or not, for me, is irrelevant. I think it’s been amazingly successful.
Noura Erakat:
Well, I want to nuance this in many ways. I want to nuance this by having a lot of mixed feelings about strategy and moving forward. And I want to emphasize here, I think, and I understand, I understand this idea of that if they’re not defeated, they win, which is a tenant of asymmetric warfare and guerilla combat. But I can’t do that with ease, given the magnitude of loss and given just how painful it’s been.
Images that I saw last night are still ravaging me inside of what are we going to tell these kids who have suffered so much? 355,000 children because of dehydration are at risk of permanent, cognitive, under development and stunting, right? So it’s hard for me, Chris, as much as if they’re not defeated, obviously I don’t want them to be defeated. And what people don’t understand when they say that is because surrender doesn’t bring us back to an ordinary life, which is normally what war looks like. You fight, you fight, you fight, you fight, and then one party surrenders because then you just go back to ordinary life. Palestinians don’t go back to an ordinary life. So surrender is not an option. At the same time, I want to take time to mourn. Palestinians have not had time to mourn. There is such deep devastation that’s generational, that’s traumatic, that’s social, that’s political that I want to honor and hold here. And it’s very painful. It’s just very, very painful.
And I don’t know what we do. I don’t know what we do because not only are we holding onto that pain, but now we have in Israel a society that is not just quasi okay with an apartheid racist regime. They have literally become avid supporters of genocide as a matter of rights. They’re fascists, society, media, children are taunting their elders, their principal for expressing empathy for Palestinians. For me, I paused to say, what is the victory here when now we have to deal with a society? What is the exit plan? How do you defeat fascism in a world where it’s being nurtured by Germany and the United States and Britain and Canada? They’re applauding them. And so where is the accountability here? So I just countenance the language of victory, to be honest, and I know that puts me at odds and probably deflates a lot of people who want to hear something else, and I just want to ground this in something else of what it means that Israel cannot decimate Hamas military.
They cannot. There is no military solution. There is no military solution. They cannot decimate Hamas. They haven’t. Hamas is still firing rockets from the middle of Gaza City. As you point out, they’ve not even decimated half of their militants in the Gaza Strip. They’ve not turned the Palestinians against Hamas, which was part of their military objective. If anything, they’ve made Hamas more popular and robust, not only amongst Palestinians, across the air world and the world in general. And they’re not any closer to retrieving their captive, their captive military personnel or rescuing their civilian hostages, which they were only able to retrieve and return through diplomatic negotiations. Someone has to ask, how can you justify the 11th most significant military in the world? Be trust by US intelligence, with advanced weapons technology that has had no red lines for over a hundred days, that has not even come close to achieving any of its military objectives, but has certainly destroyed Palestinian life, conditions of life that’s promising devastation into the future.
We have to agree that anybody who’s now supporting this is outright supporting a terroristic program that’s basically targeting Palestinian civilians, as put by Professor [inaudible 01:01:51], Palestinian civilians are clearly the military objectives. Hamas is the collateral damage.
So I think that we have to use this to agree that there is no way out, but that the road ahead is what we absolutely need to keep our eyes on. For me, victory is liberation. Victory is a world where Palestinians are recognized as having human life that is sacred and worthy of protection and deserving of self-defense, which Palestinians have asserted over and over and refused to relinquish. I cannot believe this is in controversy.
And so insofar as the cessation, for me, first and foremost, the cessation of hostilities is necessary just to end the genocide. And then insofar as it demonstrates there’s no military solution and exposes that Zionism is predicated on just a genocidal program that’s an ongoing Nakba in their own words, Avi Dichter (b. 1952) said it clearly, “This is Gaza.” Gaza Nakba 2023. They’ve equated their peace and security to genocide and ethnic cleansing. In so far as it illuminates that in order to get us to the threshold that it’s not controversial, that it’s not controversial, that Palestinians deserve life.
Chris Hedges:
Thank you. That was Noura Erakat, human rights attorney and assistant professor at Rutgers University. I want to thank the Real News Network and his production team, Cameron Granadino, Adam Coley, David Hebden, and Kayla Rivara. You can find me at chrishedges.substack.com.
This article first appeared on The Real News Network and is republished here under a Creative Commons license.
Jan Vermeer (Johannes Vermeer), Delft 1632 - 1675
Das Glas Wein oder Herr und Dame beim Wein / The Glass of Wine aka A Lady Drinking and a Gentleman (1661 - 62)
Gemäldegalerie Berlin
The leaden window to the left was entirely overpainted at the time of the purchase by the museum and replaced by a curtain and a view upon a landscape through an open window. When the painting became part of the museum's collections, it was cleaned and the overpaints removed, restoring the original composition. This was the time when genre painting flourished, and artists like Pieter de Hooch, Jan Steen, Frans van Mieris, and Gerard Ter Borch, to name only a few, placed their figures into a light-filled room or courtyard, showing them either socializing or preoccupied with domestic chores. Vermeer's works set the tone for representations of the upper bourgeoisie, a social level more refined than that depicted by his contemporaries. This type of setting required finer and smoother pictorial rendition than, for instance, the Milkmaid.
Consequently, Vermeer adapted his brushwork to the new needs, and more than equaled a Frans van Mieris, for instance, in the delicacy and finesse of the execution. It is proposed by some critics that Vermeer was the originator of the genre. It was he who influenced Pieter de Hooch, not the other way around, as was previously assumed. His elegance, sophistication, and majestic stillness assert the primacy of his conceptions over the more pedestrian de Hooch, who attained brief artistic heights only under Vermeer's impetus during his Delft sojourn in the late 1650s.
Like A Lady and Two Gentlemen, this seduction scene contains an open window which features the warning figure of Temperance.
Source: Web Gallery of Art
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
robin hood gardens, london, 1966-1972.
architects: the smithsons, peter and alison smithson (1923-2003 & 1928-1993).
the bedrooms have escape balconies, good only for drying clothes, airing your bedding and - well, escaping one would hope. I suppose smokers would gather there as well, but their recreational values are entirely accidental, demonstrating the primacy of the streets in the sky within the hierarchy of spaces.
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
St Peter and St Paul, Fressingfield, Suffolk
Large and lovely, Fressingfield is a surprise of a village in the hills of north Suffolk. Hills? In north Suffolk? Yes indeed. Here we are, between Framlingham and the Norfolk town of Harleston, and rising out of the barley plains this village of about 800 people clusters about its beautiful church.
St Peter and St Paul has not one but two pubs in close attendance, their grounds cutting into the churchyard. There used to be a third. One of them, the Fox and Goose, to the south, is the original gild hall, and if you look at the wall post furthest east on the north side you'll see a surviving 15th century image of St Margaret. A gild in her name was active here in the early years of the 16th century, and the north chancel chapel may have been theirs. Arthur Mee's misreading of his notes places this carving inside the church, assuming he ever actually visited here anyway.
But I like to approach this church from the north, climbing the long path through the wide open graveyard. It must be one of Suffolk's biggest, and so many of the stones seem to be to the Etheridge family; it must have been most confusing living in Fressingfield in years gone by. Many of those that aren't Etheridges are Kerridges. Among the Etheridges and Kerridges you may spot a small row of graves to the Borrett family. The right end one is to Mary, the wife of Daniel Borrett, who died December 30th 1853. She was 55. Her inscription reads:
Blest mother, I remember thee from early childhoods hour
When first my heart awoke to feel maternal loves deep power,
In midnight dreams thy angels form around my couch appears,
And oft thy hand seem stretched again to wipe away my tears,
When laid within thy narrow bed where now the green turf grows,
While we where left alone to stem the tide of human woes.
The Suffolk dialect form of the verb in line 4, and the spelling mistake in line 6, only make it more poignant, I think. Beside her lie her husband, who died in the 1880s, and beyond him, their son, the presumed author of the verse. Interestingly, his stone also includes his wife, who died in the mid-20th century, a good 80 years or so after her mother-in-law. Also of interest is that all three gravestones are the same shape, a classical form which must have seemed old-fashioned even in the 1850s; only the lettering reveals that they were produced over the course of a century or so.
The church rises like a great ship amongst all these memories of the past. Riding the gable end is Suffolk's finest medieval sanctus bell turret; the side panelling is gorgeous. It almost certainly dates from 1496, when a new bell was bequeathed. Inside the church, you can still see the hole in the chancel arch through which the bell rope passed. The one at Southwold is grander, but is a Victorian reconstruction. The north side of the church also presents its aisle and chancel chapel, and a rather austere porch that is no longer in use. Coming around to the south of the building, however, you find one of Suffolk's best, a document of the Hundred Years War; Catherine de la Pole built it to her husband and son who died at Harfleur and Agincourt respectively. One of the headstops to the arch shows Henry V, so she can't have blamed him personally. There are some very curious decorations in the spandrels, which were presumably part of a post-iconoclasm repair job, perhaps in the 18th century. I wondered why I didn't come across this kind of thing more often, but then remembered Henry Davy's engraving of Ipswich St Mary at the Elms, which shows the ornate porch plastered over.
Inside the porch are a couple of bosses, one a very rare survival of the Assumption, imagery of which was usually viciously proscribed, and another, now rather hard to make out, of a green man. Given that the stone is very soft, I shouldn't be surprised to learn that the green man has had his eyes and mouth renewed a few times over the centuries.
You step inside, and your first impression will probably be the sea of blue; the entire church is carpeted. A lot of people complain about this, but in honesty I didn't think it was too bad; I'd rather see a brick floor, but the church was so extensively restored in the 19th century that I'm assuming it is all tiles underneath anyway. It does prevent a sight of the 1489 brass to William Brewes and his wife, which is a shame; we have met this family elsewhere at Little Wenham. I was tempted to start tugging the carpet up to look for it, but since I wasn't really sure where it was, and didn't want to end up with several hundred square yards of carpetting piled around me, I resisted.
Fressingfield is most famous for its benches. This has led some writers to eulogise its bench ends, which are not as exciting as those at Wilby, a mile or so off, or Blythburgh's, or Lakenheath's, or a few others others in Suffolk. They're good, but not that good. No, what makes Fressingfield's benches wonderful is the sheer quality of the whole piece; nowhere else in East Anglia is the 15th century so substantial, so full of confidence. Often quoted is Cox in Bench Ends in English Churches (but he is talking about the furnishings as a whole, not just their ends): Fressingfield church, he says, is better fitted throughout with excellent fifteenth-century benches than any other church in the kingdom. Amen to that.
The best and most famous two are those at the west end of the nave, the so-called 'passion bench' and 'dedicatory bench'. The first shows symbols in shields along their backs that are more familiar from East Anglian fonts: the crown of thorns and nails, the reed and sponge, the three dice, and so on. The second shows St Andrew's saltire cross, the papal symbol of St Peter as well as his keys, and several others. They are wonderful.
The bench ends, then: many of them are Saints. Positively identified to varying degrees, these include St Peter with his keys again, St Paul with his sword and book, and St Dorothy with her basket; a man with his dog who may be St Roche, a woman who may be playing a musical instrument, and who may therefore be St Cecilia, and several others. You can see images of these below; click on them to enlarge them.
One of the benches bears initials that may very well be those of Catherine de la Pole, who built the porch. High above, the golden roof is a fine counterpoint to the benches, and the church also retains the window that provided a back-light to the rood. There is also a smattering of surviving medieval glass, including a superb emblem of the Trinity in the south of the chancel. This is slightly different from its normal form; here, the three roundels are labeled Pater (Father) Fili (Son) and Su S (Holy Spirit); the three ribbons into the middle contain the word est, and the centre states Deus (God).
The 19th century restoration provided one of the county's grandest sets of piscina and sedilia up in the sanctuary; it can never have been used for its original purpose. But those decades also left this church a piece of art that is quite frankly superb. This is Henry Holliday's wonderful glass of the figures Hope and Love at the west end of the south aisle, above the font. I immediately fell in love with Hope, but she didn't respond. Holliday has similar figures at Campsea Ash, although there they are of Hope and Faith, causing one to wryly observe that there is no Faith in Fressingfield, and no Love in Campsea Ash...
Facing across from Holliday's gorgeous figures is the rather austere portrait of Archbishop William Sancroft, one of barmy Arthur Mee's heroes. His eulogy in The King's England places a curious slant on Sancroft's life, to say the least. The reality is more interesting, anyway. Sancroft was born here in Fressingfield, and his family lived at Ufford Hall in the south of the parish. He found himself in the unenviable position of being Archbishop of Canterbury during the brief but volatile reign of James II.
Sancroft had to defend the authority and position of the Church of England twice in those three years. His actions may seem contrary to each other when we consider them today; certainly, he seems to have alienated just about everybody at the time.
Firstly, he refused to allow Anglican ministers to read out the King's declaration allowing freedom of worship to non-conformists and Catholics. He drew up a petition at Lambeth Palace with six other Bishops to ensure that Anglican primacy continued to be enshrined in law, and was lucky to escape without a prison sentence. Secondly, he refused to recognise the political coup d'etat by the London merchant classes that deposed James II, and put William III on the throne; Sancroft said that he could not take the oath of allegiance to a King crowned by an authority other than God.
A man of integrity rather than pragmatism, he was thrown out of Canterbury and Lambeth, and retired here, licking his wounds. The last few years of his life were spent lavishing love and attention on the church at nearby Withersdale; it is said that he could never again bear to enter Fressingfield church for Morning Prayer, because this would mean hearing prayers for the King he denied. Was he a bull-headed egomaniac who wanted absolute control over the Church? Or merely a church lawyer who believed in the letter rather than the spirit? Whichever, he is buried here in this churchyard.
14th October
Thailand's Memorial to The People's Revolution October 1973, Ratchadamnoen Avenue, Bangkok.
14.10 is Thailand's Democracy Day
- - - - - -
Thailand's controversial draft constitution explained
6 September 2015
Jonathan Head, BBC
www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34149522
Thailand's National Reform Council has voted to reject a new constitution drafted over the past nine months to replace the one annulled after last year's military coup. The BBC's Jonathan Head looks at the controversy surrounding the charter.
By some counts Thailand has had on average a new constitution every four years since the end of the absolute monarchy in 1932.
No other country has changed its fundamental legal charter with such frequency. With such an apparently casual disregard for the sanctity of constitutions it is perhaps surprising that any Thais took the latest incarnation seriously.
But they did.
"This charter totally disregards the sovereignty of the Thai people," said the Puea Thai party, whose government was deposed by the coup.
"Many provisions are contrary to international democratic principles and the rule of law."
Puea Thai's rivals, the Democrat Party, are no more enamoured of the new charter.
Party leader and former Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva had urged the National Reform Council, tasked with final approval of the charter, to reject it, pending further revision.
What ordinary Thais thought about the constitution was harder to gauge. For one thing, the military government would not allow it to be discussed in public.
That it was rejected, by a council selected by the military government, which had backed the new constitution, surprised some observers.
But in the days leading up to the vote sentiment swung suddenly against the charter, particularly among military members of the council.
It seems the generals who run the country had decided it was not worth trying to get their charter through at this stage.
This extends their rule now through to mid-2017 at the earliest, and of course their next draft, to be competed by April next year, might also falter in the referendum required to approve it.
Key features
So what were the most important changes in this latest constitution?
The most controversial of the 285 articles was the creation of a National Strategic Reform and Reconciliation Committee (NSRRC).
Ostensibly this 23-member committee, which would have included the commanders of all the military services and the police, was supposed to guide the still vaguely defined reform process, the leitmotif of the military government, through a transitional phase after the return of electoral democracy.
But the committee would also have had the authority to take over executive and legislative power in times of crisis - in effect a legal coup. One opponent likened it to an all-powerful politburo.
This authority would have lasted for five years, and could have been extended by approval through a referendum.
But almost all of Thailand's existing political parties condemned it.
The chairman of the drafting committee Borwornsak Uwanno had defended it as a "special tool" essential to ensure a smooth transition.
The question is why was such a provocative article was included only at the last minute into the draft? And will the military insist on including it in the next version?
The new charter also significantly weakened political parties - no surprise then that all the parties were strong critics.
A new electoral system, loosely modelled on Germany's, using a mixed member proportional allocation of seats, would have been used to elect the 450-470 seat lower house of parliament.
Under this system people cast votes for a constituency candidate and for a party - 300 of the seats would be chosen on a first-past-the-post basis.
The remainder would be chosen from party lists - with the total number of seats a party can win capped to a percentage equal to its share of the overall share of the vote.
This would have made it harder for one party to win an overall majority, and force the formation of multi-party coalitions.
The rejected charter would also have allowed a non-MP to become prime minister, giving scope for bargaining coalition partners to choose a non-politician, perhaps even a military officer, as their compromise candidate.
Some believed this would allow Prayuth Chan-ocha, the military-backed prime minister, to extend his term.
Punishments for politicians were toughened too.
Those who have been impeached, or found guilty of electoral fraud, would have been be banned from political office for life, not just five years as at present. A simple majority of votes in parliament was enough to impeach someone.
The upper house, or Senate, would have been largely appointed; of the 200 Senators - up from 150 - 123 would have been appointed, 77 elected, and those 77 chosen from a pre-assigned list.
The Senate would have had greater powers to block legislation and scrutinise the cabinet.
Mistrust
Indeed, if there was one underlying sentiment behind this constitution, it was a deep mistrust of politicians, and of parliamentary democracy.
"Politicians have been notoriously untrustworthy, non-transparent, and seem lacking in morality, ethics and honesty," said Bowornsak Uwanno. However he has now ruled himself out of any involvement in drafting the next charter.
The renowned Thai scholar Duncan McCargo described the thinking behind the constitution as "a quest for a system in which benevolent and morally upstanding elites are able to exercise very substantive control and jurisdiction over what's going on in society", in a presentation to the US Brookings Institute.
"As though it was always clear who the good guys were and the bad guys were, and as though people who were not elected politicians, people who were bureaucrats, people who were military offices, people who were close to the monarchy, people who were judges, would in some way be inherently morally superior to anybody who had been elected".
In some ways this constitution harked back to a past many conservative royalists and military officers believe was a golden age of stability and growth; the decade of the 1980s when former army commander and favourite of King Bhumibol, Prem Tinsulanonda, was a powerful, unelected prime minister.
As if to echo that idea Mr Prem, who is 93 but is still an influential member of the King's Privy Council, recently urged Thais not to show any respect to corrupt or wasteful politicians.
For those who believe in the primacy of an elected parliament and strong political parties, this constitution was seen a huge step backwards.
But for those Thais who dislike what they see as the venality and moral flexibility of elected politicians, and who fear the dominance of a successful prime minister like Thaksin Shinawatra, whose parties have won every election for the past 15 years, the constitution was seen as a necessary correction to the excesses of democracy.
In fact, despite the military's assertion that its coup was a neutral intervention in an intractable conflict between two political factions, this constitution would have reshaped Thailand's political machinery almost exactly as the yellow-shirt protesters who helped bring down the last government wanted.
No wonder Suthep Thaugsuban, the leader of that protest movement, is one of the few who is happy with the new charter.
As they go back to the drawing board, Thailand's military rulers will have to ponder how much of the rejected constitution to include in the next.
But it may be they prefer an endless cycle of controversial drafts being rejected, allowing them to stay in power for many years while they confront the delicate challenge of managing a historic royal succession.
Dedicated to Saint John, the cathedral of Lyon is one of the most prominent churches of France (it is also a UNESCO World Heritage site). Indeed, the archbishop of Lyon has borne the title of “Primate of the Gauls” since the 2nd century, as Lyon was the first bishopric ever created in the “three Gauls”, as the provinces of Lyon and the Alps, the Aquitaine, and Belgium, were known during the times of the Western Roman Empire. Lyon was then the capital of all those vast territories. This “primacy” conferred to the archbishop of Lyon authority over all other bishops, even that of Paris, the secular capital of more recent times. Now, the title is largely honorific.
The Saint-Jean Cathedral is mostly a Gothic church, and as such of limited interest to me. However, having been built over the span of three centuries, from 1175 to 1480, it was begun as a Romanesque church and there are indeed small parts and details that remain from that period, albeit few and far between.
I have visited that church several times, but I went again on the Saturday before Easter (2022) to try and locate a few of those parts and details...
It was also a good opportunity to test my “Brittany Configuration”, i.e., the gear I will bring on my week-long family trip to Brittany at the beginning of May: as I wasn’t sure what kind of equipment would be allowed inside the cathedral, I brought my new 24–120mm ƒ/4 S lens, with the 14–30mm in case of need (I ended up not needing it), and my very small and light Gitzo Series 0 Traveler tripod, which I used for all exposures indoors. That gear worked very satisfactorily. Of course, the tripod is a lot shorter than my usual one (not to mention my big one!), but one has to make do when one must travel light. That was the idea.
Happy Easter to everyone!
In the choir, the low bandes lombardes arcatures I mentioned yesterday run below a short series of blind arcades with trifolium decoration. Those are from Romanesque times.
St Peter and St Paul, Fressingfield, Suffolk
Large and lovely, Fressingfield is a surprise of a village in the hills of north Suffolk. Hills? In north Suffolk? Yes indeed. Here we are, between Framlingham and the Norfolk town of Harleston, and rising out of the barley plains this village of about 800 people clusters about its beautiful church.
St Peter and St Paul has not one but two pubs in close attendance, their grounds cutting into the churchyard. There used to be a third. One of them, the Fox and Goose, to the south, is the original gild hall, and if you look at the wall post furthest east on the north side you'll see a surviving 15th century image of St Margaret. A gild in her name was active here in the early years of the 16th century, and the north chancel chapel may have been theirs. Arthur Mee's misreading of his notes places this carving inside the church, assuming he ever actually visited here anyway.
But I like to approach this church from the north, climbing the long path through the wide open graveyard. It must be one of Suffolk's biggest, and so many of the stones seem to be to the Etheridge family; it must have been most confusing living in Fressingfield in years gone by. Many of those that aren't Etheridges are Kerridges. Among the Etheridges and Kerridges you may spot a small row of graves to the Borrett family. The right end one is to Mary, the wife of Daniel Borrett, who died December 30th 1853. She was 55. Her inscription reads:
Blest mother, I remember thee from early childhoods hour
When first my heart awoke to feel maternal loves deep power,
In midnight dreams thy angels form around my couch appears,
And oft thy hand seem stretched again to wipe away my tears,
When laid within thy narrow bed where now the green turf grows,
While we where left alone to stem the tide of human woes.
The Suffolk dialect form of the verb in line 4, and the spelling mistake in line 6, only make it more poignant, I think. Beside her lie her husband, who died in the 1880s, and beyond him, their son, the presumed author of the verse. Interestingly, his stone also includes his wife, who died in the mid-20th century, a good 80 years or so after her mother-in-law. Also of interest is that all three gravestones are the same shape, a classical form which must have seemed old-fashioned even in the 1850s; only the lettering reveals that they were produced over the course of a century or so.
The church rises like a great ship amongst all these memories of the past. Riding the gable end is Suffolk's finest medieval sanctus bell turret; the side panelling is gorgeous. It almost certainly dates from 1496, when a new bell was bequeathed. Inside the church, you can still see the hole in the chancel arch through which the bell rope passed. The one at Southwold is grander, but is a Victorian reconstruction. The north side of the church also presents its aisle and chancel chapel, and a rather austere porch that is no longer in use. Coming around to the south of the building, however, you find one of Suffolk's best, a document of the Hundred Years War; Catherine de la Pole built it to her husband and son who died at Harfleur and Agincourt respectively. One of the headstops to the arch shows Henry V, so she can't have blamed him personally. There are some very curious decorations in the spandrels, which were presumably part of a post-iconoclasm repair job, perhaps in the 18th century. I wondered why I didn't come across this kind of thing more often, but then remembered Henry Davy's engraving of Ipswich St Mary at the Elms, which shows the ornate porch plastered over.
Inside the porch are a couple of bosses, one a very rare survival of the Assumption, imagery of which was usually viciously proscribed, and another, now rather hard to make out, of a green man. Given that the stone is very soft, I shouldn't be surprised to learn that the green man has had his eyes and mouth renewed a few times over the centuries.
You step inside, and your first impression will probably be the sea of blue; the entire church is carpeted. A lot of people complain about this, but in honesty I didn't think it was too bad; I'd rather see a brick floor, but the church was so extensively restored in the 19th century that I'm assuming it is all tiles underneath anyway. It does prevent a sight of the 1489 brass to William Brewes and his wife, which is a shame; we have met this family elsewhere at Little Wenham. I was tempted to start tugging the carpet up to look for it, but since I wasn't really sure where it was, and didn't want to end up with several hundred square yards of carpetting piled around me, I resisted.
Fressingfield is most famous for its benches. This has led some writers to eulogise its bench ends, which are not as exciting as those at Wilby, a mile or so off, or Blythburgh's, or Lakenheath's, or a few others others in Suffolk. They're good, but not that good. No, what makes Fressingfield's benches wonderful is the sheer quality of the whole piece; nowhere else in East Anglia is the 15th century so substantial, so full of confidence. Often quoted is Cox in Bench Ends in English Churches (but he is talking about the furnishings as a whole, not just their ends): Fressingfield church, he says, is better fitted throughout with excellent fifteenth-century benches than any other church in the kingdom. Amen to that.
The best and most famous two are those at the west end of the nave, the so-called 'passion bench' and 'dedicatory bench'. The first shows symbols in shields along their backs that are more familiar from East Anglian fonts: the crown of thorns and nails, the reed and sponge, the three dice, and so on. The second shows St Andrew's saltire cross, the papal symbol of St Peter as well as his keys, and several others. They are wonderful.
The bench ends, then: many of them are Saints. Positively identified to varying degrees, these include St Peter with his keys again, St Paul with his sword and book, and St Dorothy with her basket; a man with his dog who may be St Roche, a woman who may be playing a musical instrument, and who may therefore be St Cecilia, and several others. You can see images of these below; click on them to enlarge them.
One of the benches bears initials that may very well be those of Catherine de la Pole, who built the porch. High above, the golden roof is a fine counterpoint to the benches, and the church also retains the window that provided a back-light to the rood. There is also a smattering of surviving medieval glass, including a superb emblem of the Trinity in the south of the chancel. This is slightly different from its normal form; here, the three roundels are labeled Pater (Father) Fili (Son) and Su S (Holy Spirit); the three ribbons into the middle contain the word est, and the centre states Deus (God).
The 19th century restoration provided one of the county's grandest sets of piscina and sedilia up in the sanctuary; it can never have been used for its original purpose. But those decades also left this church a piece of art that is quite frankly superb. This is Henry Holliday's wonderful glass of the figures Hope and Love at the west end of the south aisle, above the font. I immediately fell in love with Hope, but she didn't respond. Holliday has similar figures at Campsea Ash, although there they are of Hope and Faith, causing one to wryly observe that there is no Faith in Fressingfield, and no Love in Campsea Ash...
Facing across from Holliday's gorgeous figures is the rather austere portrait of Archbishop William Sancroft, one of barmy Arthur Mee's heroes. His eulogy in The King's England places a curious slant on Sancroft's life, to say the least. The reality is more interesting, anyway. Sancroft was born here in Fressingfield, and his family lived at Ufford Hall in the south of the parish. He found himself in the unenviable position of being Archbishop of Canterbury during the brief but volatile reign of James II.
Sancroft had to defend the authority and position of the Church of England twice in those three years. His actions may seem contrary to each other when we consider them today; certainly, he seems to have alienated just about everybody at the time.
Firstly, he refused to allow Anglican ministers to read out the King's declaration allowing freedom of worship to non-conformists and Catholics. He drew up a petition at Lambeth Palace with six other Bishops to ensure that Anglican primacy continued to be enshrined in law, and was lucky to escape without a prison sentence. Secondly, he refused to recognise the political coup d'etat by the London merchant classes that deposed James II, and put William III on the throne; Sancroft said that he could not take the oath of allegiance to a King crowned by an authority other than God.
A man of integrity rather than pragmatism, he was thrown out of Canterbury and Lambeth, and retired here, licking his wounds. The last few years of his life were spent lavishing love and attention on the church at nearby Withersdale; it is said that he could never again bear to enter Fressingfield church for Morning Prayer, because this would mean hearing prayers for the King he denied. Was he a bull-headed egomaniac who wanted absolute control over the Church? Or merely a church lawyer who believed in the letter rather than the spirit? Whichever, he is buried here in this churchyard.
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
São Miguel dos Milagres é um município brasileiro do estado de Alagoas. Sua população estimada em 2004 era de 6.354 habitantes.
Chamava-se, antes, Freguesia de Nossa Senhora Mãe do Povo. Mudou sua denominação, segundo a tradição, depois que um pescador encontrou na praia uma peça de madeira coberta de musgos e algas marinhas. Ao levá-la para casa e fazer sua limpeza, descobriu que se tratava de uma imagem de São Miguel Arcanjo, provavelmente caída de alguma embarcação. Ao terminar o trabalho de limpeza, o pescador descobriu espantado, que uma ferida persistente que o afligia há tempos estava totalmente cicatrizada.
A notícia logo se espalhou, fazendo com que aparecessem pessoas em busca de cura para suas doenças e de novos milagres. Sua colonização tomou corpo durante o período da invasão holandesa, quando moradores da sofrida Porto Calvo fugiram em busca de um lugar seguro para abrigar suas famílias e de onde pudessem avistar com antecipação a chegada dos inimigos batavos. A capela inicial, que deu origem à freguesia estabelecida pela Igreja Católica, foi dedicada a Nossa Senhora Mãe do Povo.
Sua história está ligada, pela proximidade, à de Porto de Pedras e à de Porto Calvo, antigo Santo Antônio dos Quatro Rios ou, ainda, Bom Sucesso. Disputa com Porto de Pedras a primazia de ser a sede do Engenho Mata Redonda, onde ocorreu a célebre batalha do mesmo nome travada, entre o exército holandês e as forças luso-espanholas e vencida pelo General Artikchof. É compreensível a querela, uma vez que os atuais municípios não estavam formados e os limites eram imprecisos. Por muito tempo, o Engenho Democrata foi destaque na produção de açúcar na região. Igualmente, o povoado foi líder na produção de cocos, quando ainda pertencia a Porto de Pedras.
Foi elevado à vila em 09 de junho de 1864 e, a partir de 1941, um grupo de moradores, entre eles Augusto de Barros Falcão, José Braga, Aderbal da Costa Raposo e João Moraes vinham reivindicando sua emancipação do município de Porto de Pedras. A emancipação política começou no dia 6 de junho de 1960. E pela Lei 2.239, de 07 de junho de 1960, São Miguel dos Milagres emancipa-se, separando-se de Porto de Pedras.
Texto by: pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Miguel_dos_Milagres
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São Miguel dos Milagres is a municipality in the state of Alagoas. Its estimated population in 2004 was 6,354 inhabitants.
His name was before, Parish of Our Lady Mother of the People. It changed its name, according to tradition, after a fisherman found the beach a piece of wood covered with mosses and seaweed. To take it home and do your cleaning, she discovered that it was an image of St. Michael the Archangel probably fallen in some vessel. When you finish the cleaning work, the fisherman discovered amazed that a persistent wound that afflicted him for days was totally healed.
The news soon spread, causing appeared people seeking cures for their diseases and new miracles. Colonization took shape during the period of Dutch invasion when residents suffered Porto Calvo fled in search of a safe place to house their families and where they could sight in advance the arrival of the Batavians enemies. The original chapel, which gave rise to the parish established by the Catholic Church was dedicated to Our Lady Mother of the People.
Its history is linked by proximity to the Porto de Pedras and Porto Calvo, former St. Anthony of the Four Rivers, or even Bom Sucesso. Dispute with Porto de Pedras the primacy of being the seat of the Engenho Mata Redonda, where there was the famous battle of the same name fought between the Dutch army and the Luso-Spanish forces and won by General Artikchof. the complaint, since the current municipalities were not formed were inaccurate and limits is understandable. For a long time, the Democratic Engenho was featured in sugar production in the region. Also, the town was the leading producer of coconuts, when still belonged to Porto de Pedras.
It was elevated to the village on June 9, 1864, and from 1941, a group of residents, among them Augusto de Barros Falcão, José Braga, Adherbal Costa Raposo and John Moraes came claiming emancipation of Porto de Pedras municipality. Political emancipation began on June 6, 1960. And by Law 2239 of 07 June 1960, São Miguel dos Milagres is emancipated, by separating from Porto de Pedras.
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s approach to science is a radical departure from the Cartesian-Newtonian scientific framework and offers contemporary science a pathway toward the cultivation of an alternative approach to the study of the natural world. This paper argues that the CartesianNewtonian pathway is pathological because it has as its premise humanity’s alienation from the natural world, which sets up a host of consequences that terminate in nihilism. As an alternative approach to science, Goethe’s “delicate empiricism” begins with the premise that humanity is fundamentally at home in the world: a notion which forms the basis for a Goethean science that gives primacy to perception, offers a more organic and holistic conception of the universe, and has as its goal the cultivation of aesthetic appreciation and morally responsive obligation to the observed. As an antidote to nihilism and as the basis for a more fulfilling and morally responsive science, Goethean science may serve as a kind of cultural therapeutics, a project which is necessarily interdisciplinary since it requires the integration of multiple ways of seeing from the natural sciences, the human sciences, and the humanities. Most of us are familiar with Goethe the poet, but Goethe’s approach to natural science is far less known. His work has nevertheless been the subject of some serious scholarship in the history and philosophy of science. Among those who have commented on Goethe’s scientific endeavors, there are various opinions about how his method of science relates to the project of “modern science.” According to Amrine & Zucker (1987), there are generally three assessments of Goethe’s science: (1) a few scholars argue that it is not a genuine scientific approach to the investigation of nature; others assert that it was indeed a modern scientific enterprise, which generated legitimate and important interpretations of natural phenomena; and, finally,) there are those scholars—in fact, the majority of Goethe scholars—who argue that Goethe’s way of science provides a model for a viable alternative to modern science. I join with the scholars in the latter category. I believe Goethe’s science is an approach to natural phenomena that addresses many of the problems raised in contemporary philosophy of science. I go a few steps farther in saying that Goethe’s approach to the study of nature provides a method for what I will call a “cultural therapeutics.” As a method for a “cultural therapeutics,” I shall argue, Goethe’s method provides a bridge between the natural sciences, the human sciences, and the humanities.
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
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Napoli stazione metropolitana di Toledo
Toledo è una stazione della linea 1 della metropolitana di Napoli ubicata nel quartiere San Giuseppe. Secondo il quotidiano inglese The Daily Telegraph è la stazione della metropolitana più bella d'Europa. Primato confermato anche nella classifica della CNN. Nel 2013 vince il premio Emirates leaf international award come "Public building of the year".Progettata dall'architetto spagnolo Óscar Tusquets, la stazione serve per spostarsi sia nella zona del rione Carità sia nella zona degli adiacenti Quartieri Spagnoli, nonché della vicina piazza Carità.
Naples subway station of Toledo
Toledo is a station on line 1 of the Naples metro located in the quartiere San Giuseppe. According to the British newspaper The Daily Telegraph is the most beautiful subway station in Europe. Primacy also confirmed in the ranking of CNN. In 2013 WINS Emirates leaf international award for Public building of the year ".Designed by the Spanish architect Óscar Tusquets, the station is required to transfer both in the area of Charity is in the area of the adjacent Spanish quarters, as well as the nearby piazza Carità
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
Enjoy LARGE view and tags on right.
____________
Magdi Allam Recounts His Path to Conversion
Benedict XVI Baptized the Journalist at Easter Vigil
VATICAN CITY, MARCH 23, 2008 (Zenit.org).- Here is a translation of Magdi Allam’s account of his conversion to Catholicism. The Muslim journalist was baptized by Benedict XVI at Saturday's Easter Vigil Mass in St. Peter's Basilica.
An abbreviated form of this account appeared as a letter to Paolo Mieli, the director of the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera. Allam is the paper’s deputy director. The Italian version of the complete text is available at magdiallam.it.
* * *
Dear Friends,
I am particularly happy to share with you my immense joy for this Easter of Resurrection that has brought me the gift of the Christian faith. I gladly propose the letter that I sent to the director of the Corriere della Sera, Paolo Mieli, in which I tell the story of the interior journey that brought me to the choice of conversion to Catholicism. This is the complete version of the letter, which was published by the Corriere della Sera only in part.
* * *
Dear Director,
That which I am about to relate to you concerns my choice of religious faith and personal life in which I do not wish to involve in any way the Corriere della Sera, which it has been an honor to be a part of as deputy director “ad personam” since 2003. I write you thus as protagonist of the event, as private citizen.
Yesterday evening I converted to the Christian Catholic religion, renouncing my previous Islamic faith. Thus, I finally saw the light, by divine grace -- the healthy fruit of a long, matured gestation, lived in suffering and joy, together with intimate reflection and conscious and manifest expression. I am especially grateful to his holiness Pope Benedict XVI, who imparted the sacraments of Christian initiation to me, baptism, confirmation and Eucharist, in the Basilica of St. Peter’s during the course of the solemn celebration of the Easter Vigil. And I took the simplest and most explicit Christian name: “Cristiano.” Since yesterday evening therefore my name is Magdi Crisitano Allam.
For me it is the most beautiful day of [my] life. To acquire the gift of the Christian faith during the commemoration of Christ’s resurrection by the hand of the Holy Father is, for a believer, an incomparable and inestimable privilege. At almost 56 […], it is a historical, exceptional and unforgettable event, which marks a radical and definitive turn with respect to the past. The miracle of Christ’s resurrection reverberated through my soul, liberating it from the darkness in which the preaching of hatred and intolerance in the face of the “different,” uncritically condemned as “enemy,” were privileged over love and respect of “neighbor,” who is always, an in every case, “person”; thus, as my mind was freed from the obscurantism of an ideology that legitimates lies and deception, violent death that leads to murder and suicide, the blind submission to tyranny, I was able to adhere to the authentic religion of truth, of life and of freedom.
On my first Easter as a Christian I not only discovered Jesus, I discovered for the first time the face of the true and only God, who is the God of faith and reason. My conversion to Catholicism is the touching down of a gradual and profound interior meditation from which I could not pull myself away, given that for five years I have been confined to a life under guard, with permanent surveillance at home and a police escort for my every movement, because of death threats and death sentences from Islamic extremists and terrorists, both those in and outside of Italy.
I had to ask myself about the attitude of those who publicly declared fatwas, Islamic juridical verdicts, against me -- I who was a Muslim -- as an “enemy of Islam,” “hypocrite because he is a Coptic Christian who pretends to be a Muslim to do damage to Islam,” “liar and vilifier of Islam,” legitimating my death sentence in this way. I asked myself how it was possible that those who, like me, sincerely and boldly called for a “moderate Islam,” assuming the responsibility of exposing themselves in the first person in denouncing Islamic extremism and terrorism, ended up being sentenced to death in the name of Islam on the basis of the Quran. I was forced to see that, beyond the contingency of the phenomenon of Islamic extremism and terrorism that has appeared on a global level, the root of evil is inherent in an Islam that is physiologically violent and historically conflictive.
At the same time providence brought me to meet practicing Catholics of good will who, in virtue of their witness and friendship, gradually became a point of reference in regard to the certainty of truth and the solidity of values. To begin with, among so many friends from Communion and Liberation, I will mention Father Juliàn Carròn; and then there were simple religious such as Father Gabriele Mangiarotti, Sister Maria Gloria Riva, Father Carlo Maurizi and Father Yohannis Lahzi Gaid; there was rediscovery of the Salesians thanks to Father Angelo Tengattini and Father Maurizio Verlezza, which culminated in a renewed friendship with major rector Father Pascual Chavez Villanueva; there was the embrace of top prelates of great humanity like Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone, Monsignor Luigi Negri, Giancarlo Vecerrica, Gino Romanazzi and, above all, Monsignor Rino Fisichella, who personally accompanied me in the journey of spiritual acceptance of the Christian faith.
But undoubtedly the most extraordinary and important encounter in my decision to convert was that with Pope Benedict XVI, whom I admired and defended as a Muslim for his mastery in setting down the indissoluble link between faith and reason as a basis for authentic religion and human civilization, and to whom I fully adhere as a Christian to inspire me with new light in the fulfillment of the mission God has reserved for me.
Mine was a journey that began when at four years old, my mother Safeya -- a believing and practicing Muslim -- in the first in the series of “fortuitous events” that would prove to be not at all the product of chance but rather an integral part of a divine destiny to which all of us have been assigned -- entrusted me to the loving care of Sister Lavinia of the Comboni Missionary Sisters, convinced of the goodness of the education that would be imparted by the Catholic and Italian religious, who had come to Cairo, the city of my birth, to witness to their Christian faith through a work aimed at the common good. I thus began an experience of life in boarding school, followed by the Salesians of the Institute of Don Bosco in junior high and high school, which transmitted to me not only the science of knowledge but above all the awareness of values.
It is thanks to members of Catholic religious orders that I acquired a profoundly and essentially an ethical conception of life, in which the person created in the image and likeness of God is called to undertake a mission that inserts itself in the framework of a universal and eternal design directed toward the interior resurrection of individuals on this earth and the whole of humanity on the day of judgment, which is founded on faith in God and the primacy of values, which is based on the sense of individual responsibility and on the sense of duty toward the collective. It is in virtue of a Christian education and of the sharing of the experience of life with Catholic religious that I cultivated a profound faith in the transcendent dimension and also sought the certainty of truth in absolute and universal values.
There was a time when my mother’s loving presence and religious zeal brought me closer to Islam, which I occasionally practiced at a cultural level and in which I believed at a spiritual level according to an interpretation that at the time -- it was the 1970s -- summarily corresponded to a faith respectful of persons and tolerant toward the neighbor, in a context -- that of the Nasser regime -- in which the secular principle of the separation of the religious sphere and the secular sphere prevailed.
My father Muhammad was completely secular and agreed with the opinion of the majority of Egyptians who took the West as a model in regard to individual freedom, social customs and cultural and artistic fashions, even if the political totalitarianism of Nasser and the bellicose ideology of Pan-Arabism that aimed at the physical elimination of Israel unfortunately led to disaster for Egypt and opened the way to the resumption of Pan-Islamism, to the ascent of Islamic extremists to power and the explosion of globalized Islamic terrorism.
The long years at school allowed me to know Catholicism well and up close and the women and men who dedicated their life to serve God in the womb of the Church. Already then I read the Bible and the Gospels and I was especially fascinated by the human and divine figure of Jesus. I had a way to attend Holy Mass and it also happened, only once, that I went to the altar to receive communion. It was a gesture that evidently signaled my attraction to Christianity and my desire to feel a part of the Catholic religious community.
Then, on my arrival in Italy at the beginning of the 1970s between the rivers of student revolts and the difficulties of integration, I went through a period of atheism understood as a faith, which nevertheless was also founded on absolute and universal values. I was never indifferent to the presence of God even if only now I feel that the God of love, of faith and reason reconciles himself completely with the patrimony of values that are rooted in me.
Dear Director, you asked me whether I fear for my life, in the awareness that conversion to Christianity will certainly procure for me yet another, and much more grave, death sentence for apostasy. You are perfectly right. I know what I am headed for but I face my destiny with my head held high, standing upright and with the interior solidity of one who has the certainty of his faith. And I will be more so after the courageous and historical gesture of the Pope, who, as soon has he knew of my desire, immediately agreed to personally impart the Christian sacraments of initiation to me. His Holiness has sent an explicit and revolutionary message to a Church that until now has been too prudent in the conversion of Muslims, abstaining from proselytizing in majority Muslim countries and keeping quiet about the reality of converts in Christian countries. Out of fear. The fear of not being able to protect converts in the face of their being condemned to death for apostasy and fear of reprisals against Christians living in Islamic countries. Well, today Benedict XVI, with his witness, tells us that we must overcome fear and not be afraid to affirm the truth of Jesus even with Muslims.
For my part, I say that it is time to put an end to the abuse and the violence of Muslims who do not respect the freedom of religious choice. In Italy there are thousands of converts to Islam who live their new faith in peace. But there are also thousands of Muslim converts to Christianity who are forced to hide their faith out of fear of being assassinated by Islamic extremists who lurk among us. By one of those “fortuitous events” that evoke the discreet hand of the Lord, the first article that I wrote for the Corriere on Sept. 3, 2003 was entitled “The new Catacombs of Islamic Converts.” It was an investigation of recent Muslim converts to Christianity in Italy who decry their profound spiritual and human solitude in the face of absconding state institutions that do not protect them and the silence of the Church itself. Well, I hope that the Pope’s historical gesture and my testimony will lead to the conviction that the moment has come to leave the darkness of the catacombs and to publicly declare their desire to be fully themselves. If in Italy, in our home, the cradle of Catholicism, we are not prepared to guarantee complete religious freedom to everyone, how can we ever be credible when we denounce the violation of this freedom elsewhere in the world? I pray to God that on this special Easter he give the gift of the resurrection of the spirit to all the faithful in Christ who have until now been subjugated by fear. Happy Easter to everyone.
Dear friends, let us go forward on the way of truth, of life and of freedom with my best wishes for every success and good thing.
Magdi Allam
"Grace means Love in its purity and beauty, it is God himself as he revealed himself in salvation history, recounted in the Bible and in its fulfillment in Jesus Christ. Mary is called “full of grace” (Lk 1:28) and with her specific identity she reminds us of God’s primacy in our life and in the history of the world, she reminds us that the power of God’s love is stronger than evil, that it can fill the void that selfishness creates in the history of individuals, families, nations and the world.
These forms of emptiness can become hells where human life is drawn downwards and towards nothingness, losing its meaning and its light. The world suggests filling this emptiness with false remedies — drugs are emblematic — that in reality only broaden the abyss. Only love can prevent this fall, but not just any kind of love: a love that contains the purity of Grace — of God who transforms and renews — and can thus fill the intoxicated lungs with fresh oxygen, clean air, new energy for life. Mary tells us that however low man may fall it is never too low for God, who descended even into hell; however far astray our heart may have gone, God is always “greater than our hearts” (1 Jn 3:20). The gentle breath of Grace can dispel the darkest cloud and can make life beautiful and rich in meaning even in the most inhuman situations."
– Pope Benedict XVI.
Today is the Solemnity of the Annunciation when the eternal Word took flesh in Mary's womb.
The text of my televised reflection about today's feast, broadcast on ETWN today, can be read here.
This amazing sculpture of the Annunciation is by Filippo della Valle and it is in the Jesuit church of Sant'Ignazio in Rome.
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
Kent Town Wesley Uniting Church
Built 1864 as Wesleyan Methodist Church.
Tapley’s Hill bluestone construction.
Transepts added 1867, vestries & classrooms 1869, lecture Hall 1874.
Opening service July 1865. First Pastor Rev S Ironside.
Church pioneers include Michael Kingsborough, Mayor 1870–71.
Originally Collegiate Church of Prince Alfred College.
*Ref: plaque by Kensington & Norwood Historical Society Inc. August 1994.
Kent Town was named after pioneer settler, Dr Benjamin Kent MD, who established East Park Farm in 1840 on Section 255 on land leased from Colonel Torrens. However, due to a dispute over ownership it was not subdivided until 1854 following Charles Robin’s purchase of the section. A mere two kilometres east of the city, Kent Town was the largest and most expensive sale of land in the colony and the close proximity made it a desirable residential area for prosperous merchants, enterprising businessmen and for many influential Wesleyan Methodists.
The reformist Wesleyan Methodists were part of South Australia’s great experiment in social democracy which fostered religious freedom and cultivated a ‘Paradise of Dissent’ that challenged the supremacy and authority of Anglicanism. A leading member of the community, Sir John Colton purchased three blocks at the corner of Kent Town and Grenfell Street on which to build a grand church to mark the 1864 jubilee of the Wesleyan Missionary Society and to be a symbol of Wesleyan achievement in the new province.
Prominent Wesleyans such as Francis Faulding of the pharmaceutical business, George P Harris, founder of Harris Scarf & Co, merchants Thomas & William Rhodes and W T Flint, insurance agent Thomas Padman, land agent George Cotton, importer Michael Kingsborough and local vigneron William Clarke donated money to the building of the church. An important benefactor was the wealthy mining investor and founding director of the Bank of Adelaide, Thomas Greaves Waterhouse, whose charismatic conversion to Wesleyan Methodism came after he married Eliza Faulding in 1852.
London trained architects, Edmund Wright (1824–1888) and Edward Woods (1837–1913) were commissioned to design the new church described as ‘English Gothic’ in style. Their design reflected the preoccupation with medieval forms and the devotion to ‘uplifting the spirit’ and the primacy of preaching in Methodism with its magnificent central pulpit. The church was constructed with a steeply pitched roof, pinnacles, arched window tracery, wall buttresses and an imposing grand interior that gave it an aura of religious splendour.
On Sunday 6 August 1865, the nave of the new church was opened by the evangelist American preacher, Reverend William ‘California’ Taylor, with over 4000 people attending the celebratory service. In 1868, transepts and a schoolroom were added to the building. The Kent Town Jubilee Church could seat 1100 people for a service making it one of the largest in the State.
As rivalry between the Wesleyans and the Anglicans grew the idea of a Wesleyan College was considered to counter the influence of the Collegiate School of St Peter’s at Hackney. T G Waterhouse purchased the last section of undeveloped land in Kent Town for the purpose of building a school devoted to the education of young men. In November 1867, one of the greatest controversies to beset the province of South Australia occurred when His Royal Highness Prince Alfred was invited to lay the foundation stone of the new Dissenters’ School and to give permission for it to be named Prince Alfred College.
For over a century, the Jubilee Church had a special place in the hearts of generations of Methodist who were moved to action by great preachers and beliefs which challenged the mores of South Australian society.
Ref: Jubilee Church story board
What strikes you most when traveling in a place like Harar Ethiopia, is the remarkable social-emotional vitality you find all around you.
(In our countries we're such mere shadows of our forgotten hapiness.)
I found a painting after this photo here.
Harar (Ethiopia) is a magical place! See my Harar photo series.
If you have only 12 days to finally visit Africa, you should perhaps focus on one place: let it be Harar, Ethiopia (July 2006).
For centuries, until about 1860, it was an independent city at the borders of two different worlds: the Abbysinian mountains and the deserts stretching to the Red Sea coast. Trade and religious affairs (Muslim) must have alternated primacy during its history. As a holy city to Islam it feels as a surprisingly relaxed place. Tom Waits can not imagine the kind of dark yet exalted bars you find here at night. The size of the walled old city is at least half that of Jerusalem's old city. Most important the people are really open and the city is one of the world's few cities that within a few days demonstrate their very own distinct living atmosphere you'll never forget.
(See also my friend Elmer's photos from this trip, where by change you can also see me on a photo.)
São Miguel dos Milagres é um município brasileiro do estado de Alagoas. Sua população estimada em 2004 era de 6.354 habitantes.
Chamava-se, antes, Freguesia de Nossa Senhora Mãe do Povo. Mudou sua denominação, segundo a tradição, depois que um pescador encontrou na praia uma peça de madeira coberta de musgos e algas marinhas. Ao levá-la para casa e fazer sua limpeza, descobriu que se tratava de uma imagem de São Miguel Arcanjo, provavelmente caída de alguma embarcação. Ao terminar o trabalho de limpeza, o pescador descobriu espantado, que uma ferida persistente que o afligia há tempos estava totalmente cicatrizada.
A notícia logo se espalhou, fazendo com que aparecessem pessoas em busca de cura para suas doenças e de novos milagres. Sua colonização tomou corpo durante o período da invasão holandesa, quando moradores da sofrida Porto Calvo fugiram em busca de um lugar seguro para abrigar suas famílias e de onde pudessem avistar com antecipação a chegada dos inimigos batavos. A capela inicial, que deu origem à freguesia estabelecida pela Igreja Católica, foi dedicada a Nossa Senhora Mãe do Povo.
Sua história está ligada, pela proximidade, à de Porto de Pedras e à de Porto Calvo, antigo Santo Antônio dos Quatro Rios ou, ainda, Bom Sucesso. Disputa com Porto de Pedras a primazia de ser a sede do Engenho Mata Redonda, onde ocorreu a célebre batalha do mesmo nome travada, entre o exército holandês e as forças luso-espanholas e vencida pelo General Artikchof. É compreensível a querela, uma vez que os atuais municípios não estavam formados e os limites eram imprecisos. Por muito tempo, o Engenho Democrata foi destaque na produção de açúcar na região. Igualmente, o povoado foi líder na produção de cocos, quando ainda pertencia a Porto de Pedras.
Foi elevado à vila em 09 de junho de 1864 e, a partir de 1941, um grupo de moradores, entre eles Augusto de Barros Falcão, José Braga, Aderbal da Costa Raposo e João Moraes vinham reivindicando sua emancipação do município de Porto de Pedras. A emancipação política começou no dia 6 de junho de 1960. E pela Lei 2.239, de 07 de junho de 1960, São Miguel dos Milagres emancipa-se, separando-se de Porto de Pedras.
Texto by: pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Miguel_dos_Milagres
-------------------------------------------
São Miguel dos Milagres is a municipality in the state of Alagoas. Its estimated population in 2004 was 6,354 inhabitants.
His name was before, Parish of Our Lady Mother of the People. It changed its name, according to tradition, after a fisherman found the beach a piece of wood covered with mosses and seaweed. To take it home and do your cleaning, she discovered that it was an image of St. Michael the Archangel probably fallen in some vessel. When you finish the cleaning work, the fisherman discovered amazed that a persistent wound that afflicted him for days was totally healed.
The news soon spread, causing appeared people seeking cures for their diseases and new miracles. Colonization took shape during the period of Dutch invasion when residents suffered Porto Calvo fled in search of a safe place to house their families and where they could sight in advance the arrival of the Batavians enemies. The original chapel, which gave rise to the parish established by the Catholic Church was dedicated to Our Lady Mother of the People.
Its history is linked by proximity to the Porto de Pedras and Porto Calvo, former St. Anthony of the Four Rivers, or even Bom Sucesso. Dispute with Porto de Pedras the primacy of being the seat of the Engenho Mata Redonda, where there was the famous battle of the same name fought between the Dutch army and the Luso-Spanish forces and won by General Artikchof. the complaint, since the current municipalities were not formed were inaccurate and limits is understandable. For a long time, the Democratic Engenho was featured in sugar production in the region. Also, the town was the leading producer of coconuts, when still belonged to Porto de Pedras.
It was elevated to the village on June 9, 1864, and from 1941, a group of residents, among them Augusto de Barros Falcão, José Braga, Adherbal Costa Raposo and John Moraes came claiming emancipation of Porto de Pedras municipality. Political emancipation began on June 6, 1960. And by Law 2239 of 07 June 1960, São Miguel dos Milagres is emancipated, by separating from Porto de Pedras.
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Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art, Medzilaborce, Slovakia
Andy Warhol’s Museum is the only one in Europe. A dominant feature is the statue of Andy Warhol with a fountain, standing in front of the museum.
slovakia.travel/en/medzilaborce
slovakia.travel/en/andy-warhol-museum-of-modern-art-medzi...
The small town of Medzilaborce, situated in the south-east of Slovakia, boasts of two European primacies. After the establishment of the first museum named after Andy Warhol, Medzilaborce has also erected the first statue dedicated to this representative of world pop-art.
Nowadays Medzilaborce makes most tourist profit from the fact that the parents of the representative of pop-art Andy Warhol originally came from this town.
In 1991 a unique museum, dedicated to the life and work of the world-wide known avant-garde artist, was opened there.
In November 2002 a fountain with the statue of Andy Warhol was placed here in front of the museum. The author of the statue is the academic sculptor Juraj Bartusz.
The statue in Medzilaborce, made of cast bronze, represents Andy Warhol with an umbrella, in his typical pose. The figure measuring 230cm in height is slightly relaxed and tense at the same time. The artist is hidden behind his glasses and in the imaginary shadow of his umbrella.
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
"Va riconosciuto che la maggior parte degli uomini e delle donne del nostro tempo continuano a vivere in una precarietà quotidiana con conseguenze funeste". Lo afferma papa Francesco in un discorso rivolto ad alcuni ambasciatori che hanno presentato oggi le lettere credenziali. "La paura e la disperazione - ha denunciato - prendono i cuori di numerose persone, anche nei paesi cosiddetti ricchi, la gioia di vivere va diminuendo, l'indecenza e la vilenza sono in aumento, la povertà diventa più evidente".
''Alcune patologie - ha sottolineato il papa - aumentano, con le loro conseguenze psicologiche; si deve lottare per vivere, e spesso per vivere in modo non dignitoso''. ''Una delle cause di questa situazione, a mio parere, - ha aggiunto Francesco - sta nel rapporto che abbiamo con il denaro, nell'accettare il suo dominio su di noi e sulle nostre societa'''.
''Il denaro deve servire e non governare''. ''Il Papa ama tutti, ricchi e poveri ma ha il dovere, in nome di Cristo, di ricordare al ricco che deve aiutare il povero, rispettarlo, promuoverlo''. Cosi' Bergoglio ha esortato alla solidarieta' e al ritorno dell'etica in favore dell'uomo nella realtà finanziaria ed economica''.
"Nella negazione del primato dell'uomo abbiamo creato nuovi idoli", lamenta Francesco. "L'adorazione dell'antico vitello d'oro - osserva - ha trovato una nuova e spietata immagine nel feticismo del denaro e nella dittatura dell'economia senza volto nè scopo realmente umano". Si instaura cosi' "una nuova tirannia invisibile, a volte virtuale, che impone unilateralmente e senza rimedio possibile le sue leggi e le sue regole".
"It should be recognized that most of the men and women of our time continue to live in a precarious daily with disastrous consequences." It's what Pope Francesco in an address to some ambassadors who presented his credentials today. "The fear and despair - has denounced - take the hearts of many people, even in the so-called rich countries, the joy of living is decreasing, the indecency and vilenza are on the rise, poverty becomes more apparent."
'' Some diseases - said the pope - increase, with their psychological consequences, you have to fight for a living, and often to live in a non-decent.'' '' One of the causes of this situation, in my opinion, - added Francis - lies in the relationship that we have with money, to accept his dominion over us and our company'' '.
'' The money must serve and not rule.'' '' The Pope loves everyone, rich and poor, it has a duty, in the name of Christ, to remember that the rich should help the poor, to respect, to promote it.'' So 'Bergoglio urged to solidarity' and the return of ethics in favor of man in financial and economic reality.''
"The denial of the primacy of man we have created new idols," complains Francis. "The worship of the ancient golden calf - notes - has found a new and ruthless image in the fetishism of money and the dictatorship of the economy without purpose nor truly human face." This establishes' "a new tyranny invisible, sometimes virtual, unilaterally and without imposing possible remedy its laws and its rules."
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...
Harar (Ethiopia) is a magical place! See my Harar photo series.
If you have only 12 days to finally visit Africa, you should perhaps focus on one place: let it be Harar, Ethiopia (July 2006).
For centuries, until about 1860, it was an independent city at the borders of two different worlds: the Abbysinian mountains and the deserts stretching to the Red Sea coast. Trade and religious affairs (Muslim) must have alternated primacy during its history. As a holy city to Islam it feels as a surprisingly relaxed place. Tom Waits can not imagine the kind of dark yet exalted bars you find here at night. The size of the walled old city is at least half that of Jerusalem's old city. Most important the people are really open and the city is one of the world's few cities that within a few days demonstrate their very own distinct living atmosphere you'll never forget.
(See also my friend Elmer's photos from this trip, where by change you can also see me on a photo.)
Vienna Baroque
Doris Binder
The center of Baroque art was undisputable Vienna, as a special promoter appeared the Emperor Charles VI., under whose reign not only the Karlskirche was built, but also numerous buildings have been newly planned or built. The passion for building of the High Baroque is not only founded by the destructions of the Turks, but also has its causes in the backward economic structure and its lack of production plants. Whether nobleman, cleric or commoner, all those with sufficient capital put it rather in construction funds into practice than not make use of it. Responsible for this was a deep distrust to the imperial fiscal policy and concern about the currency and a possible bankruptcy.
The Baroque emerged within the civil peace (*) Burgfrieden) of the city of Vienna, had at the beginning of the High Baroque era still dominated religious buildings, so the cityscape changed in just four decades. Vienna was transformed into a "palace city", by the year 1740, the number of pleasure palaces, gardens and belvederes had doubled. The Baroque style, which by crown, church and nobility was forced upon the citizens, is considered of Felix Czeike as "authority art". The existing social gap should be camouflaged by the rubberneck culture in festivities, receptions and parades.
*) Burgfrieden (The term truce or Castle peace referred to a jurisdiction in the Middle Ages around a castle, in which feuds, so hostilities of private individuals among themselves, under penalty of ostracism were banned. Today the term is mainly used in a figurative sense.
Due to the return of Fischer von Erlach to Vienna in 1686 and a decade later, Lukas von Hildebrandt, the primacy of the Italians in architecture was broken and the victory parade of Austrian Baroque began. The connection between the spiritual and secular powers found its mode of expression in the Baroque, which the appearance of the city of Vienna should characterize in a decisive manner.
Construction of Charles Church
The Karlskirche was built by Emperor Charles VI. commemorating the plague saint, Charles Borromeo. In 1713 the plague raged in Vienna and claimed about 8,000 human lives, in February 1714 the plague disappeared and as a sign of gratitude was began with the construction of the church, this should become the most important religious building of Vienna in the 18th century.
In a contest was decided on the builder - participants were Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt and Ferdinando Galli-Bibienas. As winner emerged the famous architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, he died in 1723 and did not live to the achievement of the Church. The supervision was transferred to the imperial court architect Anton Erhard Martinelli, as Fischer von Erlach died, his son, Joseph Emmanuel, finished his work. On 28 October 1737 St. Charles Church was solemnly by the Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Sigismund Count Kollowitz, inaugurated. The spiritual care ceded Emperor Karl VI. to the chivalric Order of the Cross with the Red Star, since 1783 is the Karlskirche imperial patronage parish.
The church at that time lay still behind the regulated river Wien (Wienfluss) and in the open field. The directed towards the city face side of the Charles Church, which stood on the edge of the suburb of Wieden, was target point of a line of sight the Hofburg and St. Charles Church in the sense of a "via triumphalis" connecting. On the temple-like front building of the Karlskirche the dedication inscription is clearly visible "Vota mea Reddam in conspectu timentium Deum" - "I will fulfill my vow before those who fear God."
Already during the construction by Fischer von Erlach (senior), there were several project phases, three of which have been preserved:
1. Medaillon by Daniel Warou for the groundbreaking ceremony
2. Fore stitches in Fischer's draft of a historical architecture 1721
3. Viennese view of work by Klein and Pfeffel 1722 (1724)
Due to the death of Fischer von Erlach, occured recent changes made by his son, Joseph Emmanuel most of all being concerned the dome (much higher and steeper), the priest choir (omitted) and the interior (simpler). The entire project took a total of 21 years and the costs amounted to 304 045 guilders and 22 ¼ cruisers. The construction costs were shouldered by all crown lands of the Empire, but also Spain, Milan and the Netherlands had to make a contribution.
The Karlskirche is the most important Baroque building of the city and represents the most convincing the so-called Empire style in which for the last time an empire awareness in the architecture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire after the victorious ended wars against the Turks and the French was expressed.
Symbolism of the Karlskirche
The Karlskirche consists of a central rotunda with a dome, preceded by a column structure like a Greek temple, of two high pillars illustrated on the model of Trajan's Column in Rome and of two lateral gate pavilions. The illustrated columns represent Charles VI. as a wise and strong secular ruler, the two great pillars were created by Marder and Matielli. The columns are crowned by golden eagles, symbolizing the two virtues of the Emperor - fortitudo (bravery) and constantia (resistance). The two pillars are evocative of the two pillars before the temple in Jerusalem - Jachin and Boaz. However, the illustration of the two columns does not match the model of the Trajan columns in Rome, portraying war deeds, but these tell the life story of St. Borromeo. In the front view of the Karlskirche a wide range of different symbols become one whole - the Roman emperors Trajan and Augustus, the Temple of Solomon, St. Peter's Church in Rome, Hagia Sophia, Charlemagne and the Empire of Charles V. - through the skillfully used symbols should be shown the claim of the house of Habsburg to the European domination.
The plan view of the church is, as in baroque typical, ellipsoid. In the interior of the Karlskirche the great Baroque sculpture is immediately noticeable, representing St. Borromeo. At the base the four Latin Fathers of the Church are depicted. The interior of the Karlskirche is dominated by the tremendous fresco in the oval dome room, it was created by the eminent Baroque painter Johann Michael Rottmayr between 1725-1730. The fresco shows the Mother of God representing the intercession of the patron Saint of the Church to help head off the plague, surrounded is the scene by the cardinal virtues (faith, hope and love). In the left entrance wing is situated the tomb for the Austrian poet Heinrich Joseph von Collin (17771-1811).
Inside the St. Charles Church, there is a museum where the most valuable pieces are exhibited.
These include: the vestments of St. Borromeo, a reliquary of gold and silver - a donation of Emperor Charles VI. and a rococo monstrance (1760) containing a drop of blood of the saint. Thomas Aquinas.
Even the image of the architect Fischer von Erlach, painted by Jacob von Schuppen, is one of the church treasures.
The iconographic program of the Charles Church was written by Carl Gustav Haerus, by this the Saint Charles Borromeo should be connected to the imperial founder.
www.univie.ac.at/hypertextcreator/ferstel/site/browse.php...