View allAll Photos Tagged Neolithic
Europe, Netherlands, Drenthe, Aa en Hunze, Balloo, Hunebed (uncut)
The landscape of Drenthe…..its long history is evocated by the lazy rhythm of the pushed moraines (stuwwallen), ancient burial mounds, megalithic dolmen (hunebedden) and ‘Celtic’ fields….they give it a slightly mysterious feel, especially when you hike through it with the sun low in the sky with a little mist above the horizon.
The Hunebed (dolmen / portal tomb) on display here is number D16 (there are 54 in Drenthe) and is near Balloo. It’s a single-chamber megalithic tomb, consisting of 2 rows of 9 upright stones which support 8 capstones (one stone is missing). At both ends of the hunebed are closing stones. Hunebedden are an artifact of the Neolithic 'Funnelneck beaker' culture (ca 4300 BC–ca 2800 BC) – it was a sedentary culture formed by the first farmers of Northern Europe.
The stones used for the hunebedden were not local, they originated from the Baltic and were pushed to this region by the giant gletschers of the second ice age, 150.000 years ago.
After assembly, the big stones were either covered with dirt or with smaller stones to form a barrow or a cairn. In many instances, that cover disappeared thru erosion, leaving only the stone skeleton of the burial mound intact. Hunebedden were probably not used as primary graves but as ossuaries.
(During our Peleponnesos (Greece) tour in 2013 we visited ancient Lerna in the Argolis, which was founded in the Early Neolithicum. Long before that that we visited the Oppidia d'Ensérune & de Nages in the Languedoc (France) which were founded at about the same time. When we were exploring Lerna we remembered that and realized that we still hadn't visited the Neolithic Hunebedden in Drente which are basically 'round the corner'. It took a while to 'correct' this, but now we did.)
Grotte de la Madeleine
Villeneuve-lès-Maguelone (Hérault),
Site archéologique Lattara
Montpellier
Dated as Chasséen which bridges with Montbolo dates and follows on, so from around 6,300 to 5,500 ybp. The site is a day's long walk or so from Belesta, which is in turn a long days walk from the Spanish border. Stylistic changes between these geographies are gradual with a mix of inventiveness and system. You can see how, rather than handles to carrying, these were pots designed to be suspended from a beam. The marks you see are not ornamental, with two fired fixtures either side for a circumferential string. The marks for the string's movement suggest that there may have been one string around the circumference with the vertical hanging strings attached to this, rather than directly from the side holes, offering suspension against tugging and breakage.
AJ
An interesting film on low temperature pottery, rich in techniques and worth watching through for its final conclusion:
Late Neolithic to early bronze age. North Yorkshire.
There is no blue-green lichen on the lowest band of rock. The attritional abrasion of children running around in circles, hands touching, backs leaning and bums brushing have all kept the surface clean, and provide a marker to help viewers gauge just how tall this standing stone is: 6.7m tall, 1.5 and 1.2m in section, with a slight but noticeable lean to the south. Excavations in 1709 found a further 1.5 metres of the stone below ground level
Other standing stones on the site are missing. It is thought that one stood close to the current central stone - recorded as standing by the antiquary John Leland in the early part of the 16th century, although 30 years later William Camden reported that it has been felled by those in search of buried treasure. The top part of this stone is said to stand in the ground of Aldborough Manor while another part of it may have been used to construct a bridge across the wonderfully named River Tutt.
If the remaining 170m alignment of the standing stones currently known as the 'Devil's Arrows' were to be extended northwestwards, it would quickly lead down to a ford in a bend on the River Ure, the same river that passes aside to the earthwork henges at Cana and Hutton Moor about 4 miles to the northwest. The destroyed Nunwick henge was 7 miles northwest and the three linked henges at Thornborough (a vast megasite) has its cursus by the same river banks 10 miles northwest. All of these sites sitting back from the same direction of diagonal flow between the coasts.
The 'Northern Antiquarian' has found texts relating to a visiting 17th century fisherman who reported having seen 7 stones in the above stone row. If other observers avoided the river's boggiest soil, then they may have missed his insight of smaller or fallen riverside stones, long since appropriated into building projects. One might thus imagine three smaller stones in the line after the far stone, with one larger stone missing from between the two seen above, and a last giant standing stone annexed by a road behind the tripod.
Visible in the distance of the above image at the northern end of the alignment (direction of the river) is the more squat 5.5 metres tall standing stone. Excavations here in 1876 revealed 1.4 metres of the stone was beneath ground level.
Some of the stone circles, henges, cairns and other standing stones in the area can be understood as nodes along communication routes. The continuity of the river Ure's general flow takes you to The Shap Stone Avenue, to the south of Penrith, (including the Goggleby Stone, the Thunder Stone, Skellaw Hill, as well as Oddendale to the east). This scattered lineal cluster signals an 'avenue' running to the east of the River Lowther along a main route to the north. Further to the north east, The Long Meg complex runs alongside the River Eden, close by, the Mayburgh and KHM henges run alongside the River Eamont near its confluence with the River Lowther. Whilst Megasites can also sprawl with multiple megalithic expression (Kilmartin Glen, Avebury and Stonehenge all have linked elements), I think that the relationship between the Thornborough henges and the Devils arrows was probably closer to a scattered cluster of landscape definition than a coherent expanded loci. Certainly Thornborough had a vast capacity to bring together people. Each of the three henges being around 240m in diameter with their causways aligned and formed as a globally unique cursus totalling 1.6km in length. Enough envelope and definition to link visiting peoples from the east, west and centre, mass gatherings from the north, south and centre, and enough cursus for ceremony, trade and sporting entertainment. Anyone walking to visit, to or from Stonehenge might change directions at the Devils Arrows, as it is at this point that the Foss Way joins with the extended Ure diagonal. The 10 mile distance between the two megasites would probably prohibit everyday joint ceremony, with Thornborough being big enough to sustain its own definitions.
www.stone-circles.org.uk/stone/devilsarrows.htm
AJ
#FlickrFriday
#Rocky
Stone tools. Hand axes.
Strobist info:
DIY light tent.
Triggers: Aputure Trigmaster II 2.4GHz
Left: SONY HVL-F60M. 1/8 Power level. Wide angle diffuser.
Right: Minolta Auto 220X. Wide angle diffuser.
Stylized in Capture One Pro 8
Constructed about 2500BCE, a henge monument with around 40 stones, once upright (it has been compared to Avebury in Wiltshire), now lying flat.
Mauve: large cups (some with tails)
Dark blue: small cups or indentations - some as end points and centres of cross schema. One or two of these smaller cups may be geofacts)
Light blue: Canals or 'rigoles'. Some are enhanced lines from the rock itself. In the future this should darken with depth to give a better impression of potential flow.
Red: Scratches, either of modern graffiti, geological effect or original design.
Dolmen de la Creu de la Llosa
(The dolmen is from a cluster associated with the village of St Michrel de Liosa - warm words need to be offered for the care that they and their associations afford to their megalithic heritage).
For the image, about eight RAWs were taken with a manual SMC 50mm on a Pentax K-50.. These were corrected against lens deformation and combined using Photoshop / automate / photomerge / montage (which is the most natural). Some edge errors were adjusted, giving an imperfect but working 400 megabit image. Layers were then assigned and painted freehand. A high-tone of the original picture topped the stack as an 'overlay', which added a background identification texture to, what would otherwise be, flat lines. The final image was then downsized for Flickr (quite a bit of image loss). The image itself is an example of 'layers in progress', and another of my case-studies of art, text and photography mixing with experimental archaeology within the frame of prehistory.
With the final photo developing far away from the original dolmen's table, certain of the light blue 'canals' may be wrong - and I did miss the chance to return to the site. Also of note, some cups are fixed to the very edge of the table and are missing from this image. This is certainly the most 'worked' neolithic table I have seen. Other neighboring dolmen's have lesser hybrid marks.
The canals follow the gradients of the table. Some meet in cups prior to leaving its monolithic frame. The neolithic cruciforms stand out for the eye. With this visualization, many interweb with the cups and canals around them. It has been speculated that the cups (coupelle) might have received offerings : cereals, berries, small fruits, given as part of harvest or funeral rites and brought into ritual movement by liquids such as milk and water - liquids that might have flowed along the canals. The advantages of just such an explanation include the placement of a rites system that may reasonably have rooted into the Gaulish God Bélénos (fertility, water and sun) - thus visualizing a projected continuum from late prehistory into protohistory. It has also been speculated that the cruciform signs are schematic humans. There is certainly lucidity and a capacity for movement on the stone, but, the cruciforms do not appear to me to be anthropomorphic, rather another manifestation from the pallet of canals, small cups and larger cups (larger cups that are still too small to be called basins). Another explanation might be celestial, with reflections of key stars appearing in cups on important dates. Whilst some of the many cups may have just such links, the overall effect seems too fluid for such a precise ambition, and there does not seem to be a specific viewpoint - but, this is certainly a valid general avenue of research.
Today, some of the world's spiritual systems have elements of their 'history' close to prehistory, with date samples of 4,000 ybp, 3,500 ybp and 2,500 ybp for Abraham, Hinduism and Taoism. In the Neolithic, spiritual systems may, in turn, have 'remembered' back to the Mesolithic - a time when clans still wandered as hunter gatherers. 'First Nation' cultures are often found to have strategies to hold onto memories from their deep pasts. Whilst the sedentary neolithic landscape farmed from fixed points, it traded and met on social loci - along the anamistic pathways between 'pech' (hill), natural monolith, confluence and 'cloup' (dip or doline). Many of these 'sacred' or group zones may have been important hunter gatherer meeting points. A schematic map of locations and meanings might be rolled up inside a protected leather hide. The map of the London Underground shows relations but not distance in an elegant and beautifully put way, and this is the sort of 'map' that may be worth holding in mind. Some clans may have moved more than others, and some clan's records of their movements may have been better than others. Taking a sacred leather 'map' and turning it into stone might result in a vivid diorama of lines and points, and this might explain the indubitable feeling of many of the complex curves, straights, crosses and dots.
The best place to celebrate a "spirit" or God may be far away at an exact spot on the landscape, but with a schematic map, offerings can be made to a representative cup when the stars or moon lines up to show that it is time. So, a living 'memory map' might have ritual and pre Bélénos signification as well as being a setting for stories of past events and formative years, present anecdotes and future ambitions. The map fits the clan and links in with the experiences of adjacent clans. Canals as valleys, small cups as places of meaning, large cups as key meeting points ... a story of a past (thin red) line of attack or migration might be scratched as a vector into the stone. The experimental archaeologist and prehistorian Frédéric Grosse commented, along the lines, that from the evidence of things found in and around tumuli, dolmens were places of many activities.
The encapsulating capacity of a cup as an envelope for ideas may also have facilitated communication when different languages met. The same cups might receive liquids on certain days or times only then to serve as receptacles for the informal exchange of beads and shells. On others days, clay foundations for simple wooden toys might provide birthday amusement. Today religious buildings switch between death, marriage and community festival without a bat of the eyelid, with people happy to exchange rings over the graves of anonymous ancestors.
The stone itself is hard, and tools were of polished stone. The idea to take the time to produce a 'decorated' table was good enough to follow through, and although the 'image' is complex, it is neither a prehistoric doodle, or, a prehistoric attempt to anticipate Joan Miro. In the same way that there are 'cup and ring' styles in Galicia and other 'cup and ring' styles in Northumbrie, these themes and lines are well known in the greater local area and there is no suspicion of modern input.
AJM 28.4.17
© Saira Bhatti
While crossing thru the Wiltshire County, neolithic age remainents can be found. Apart from the beautiful country side , the vicinity covers neolithic history
There are two neolithic tombs at this site. The southern tomb is the more complete; it has a capstone some 4 by 3 m, supported by three stout upright stones at the south end and by a single more slender stone at the north. The northern tomb is considerably damaged with two remaining uprights at the north end. The capstone has fallen and is leaning against them. It is unclear whether these chambers, which are only a few metres apart, were part of the same structure or were independent. It may have been, that at one time, both chambers were buried under a single mound.
Grime's Graves. Norfolk. British Isles.
4,600 ybp through to the Iron Age, so an active prehistoric exploitation for around 2,000 years. The name comes from Anglo Saxon days. The quality of flint was so good that the greater site also provided flints to spark early firearms.
A segment of a site dedicated to the extraction of highest quality "floor stone" flint.
Systematic and specialist dedicated neolithic flint mining can be found in the South Downs in Sussex (Cissbury, Harrow Hill...) - similar shafts that have been infilled to leave just such small depressions. Despite the technique being far from unique, the Grime's Grave site remains astonishing for its sheer dedication and repetition. The above shot shows a clear dozen or more infilled shafts - a subset of the total 433 shafts of 91 acres !
Mining and trading quality flint was not unique to the UK with Grimes Grave comparable with the megasites of Krzemionki in Poland and Spiennes in the Walloon region of Belgium and Fritch in Texas. These mine shaft sites can also be contrasted with other stone age facilities of apt mineral exploitation including Italien 'Mont Viso' Jadite, English 'Langdale Pike' Greenstone, Northern Irish 'Tievebulliagh' porcellanite and many more.
Shafts descend as much as 14m into the ground for a cylindric width of up to 12m. When visiting today's darkened shaft, it is worth remembering that daylight once keyholed down, bouncing off the white chalk sides. Today's presentation turns the descent from an active atrium into that of a coal mine, with a dark top covering, metal ladder and artificial light, the sensation offered is of descending into an underworld. The daylight that once bounced into the shafts now gone. Day light saved on candles and I would expect there to have been a simple temporary leather or weave cover to have been tightened up on poles over the aperture in the event of rain, thus keeping the mine dry or open to light with an ease of gest.
Flint mining in the Brighton area would have provided mobile and chattering neolithic populations with the knowledge that the best core stone was to be found deep underground - a crunching walk along the pebbles of the chalk cliff-face being enough to provide empirical evidence of deep high quality floor-stone strata. Applying just such insights to an inland site such as Grime's Grave a simple conjecture.
A good flint core is a core without imperfections. When knapping, a core is struck with a hammer stone, and the impact fractures in known predictable angles and ways. As with a diamond - imperfections divert fractures, and the more imperfections decrease the chances that a tool will finish as imagined. Large and pure core stones thus saved time for any knapper, from family to local specialist. Whilst it is true that flint nodules were here everywhere in river and field from layers known as 'top stone' and 'wall stone'; and whilst these might be picked up and knapped for a sudden need, the real 'professional' 'inspirational' flint was in the lower floorstone layers.
Another time saving aspect to getting flint from a mine is that it would often come without a spall. The spall is the 'skin' that covers a top stone nodule. Finding the first stike when removing the spall of a large nodule can be one of the most irritating and difficult moments in the knapping narrative.
Once a shaft had been dug to get to the floor stone, side shafts were dug with antler picks, hammer stones, wedges and levers.
Chalk is not reliable and side tunnels needed to be short. An experience miner would respect fissures and stress points. An excited visitor might tumble through the playful mini maze, and skeletons found today, buried in the tunnels may be of the exuberant inexperienced and not of archetypal miners. Some of my first memories are of playing in an ex World War 2 shelter of tunnels, a collective maze dug in a wood behind our house in Sussex. The tunnels were only full of kids. None of the kids made the tunnels and when I think back, it was not without risk.
Once a shaft had been exploited, a new shaft would be dug with the old filled in with the new rubble - once again descending passed the 'cheaper layers' of flint, and once again arriving at to the floor-stone and new side tunnels (there are no side tunnels for the layers of standard quality filnt.
A flickering candle in the tight exterior side tunnels, but never far from the soft light adjacent to the shaft, and the milky shaft light. Probably quite an easy switch for a long term population who, (unlike many of today's human populations), were used to switching over to their retinas high ISO low quality 'rods' when navigating in limited lighting conditions.
Awe and wonder were ever present in prehistory, but I sometimes ask if the transcendental and hyperbolic reactions of some television archaeologists do not blanket over the reality of what must have been for many in the Grime's graves megasite a simple workers lifestyle for generations of 'stone age' people who felt a pride in getting their hands on finest quality flint. There are other sites where stone seems to come from ritual landscape, but there is no need to colour every scene with this idea. With so many seemingly ritual tools kept in perfect condition, a mine like Grime's Graves from a flatland with little spiritual luggage might provide practical tools that could be used without implication or forethought.
We all have it within us to really appreciate high quality products, be it perfectly cooked bread, sweet characterful lenses, a fine grain to a wood, a well cooked fish... Our minds look for the best in something, and when they find it, our minds enjoy ... Grime's Grave was a local mine with a national impact - it's flint cores travelling far and wide, pulled out of the ground by a steady supply of passionate knappers rejoicing in the consistency and quality of its output. For two thousand years it provided, only slowing down for bronze and iron. The landscape seems to have been organised enough for bandits to be kept away from the prize and I saw none of the destructive signs of warfare or troubles.
For this text, I needed to re-read up on Robert Turner's excellent experimental archaeology book on flint knapping.
The site of Grime's Graves has no viewers platform and the recommended rise for photographers does not provide a typical or even interesting view (more WW1 than Neolithic). This shot was taken on a day with very poor light and wind : timer, quite fast, and with the camera lifted around 4m above the ground. Thanks to heaps of post prod' for this shot.
AJM 04.10.18
The Volkswagen Beetle—officially the Volkswagen Type 1—is an economy car that was built by the German company Volkswagen (VW) from 1938 until 2003. It has a rear-engine design with a two-door body style and is intended for five occupants (later, Beetles were restricted to four people in some countries).
The need for a people's car (Volkswagen in German), its concept and its functional objectives were formulated by the leader of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler, who wanted a cheap, simple car to be mass-produced for his country's new road network (Reichsautobahn). Members of the National Socialist party, with an additional dues surcharge, were promised the first production, but the Spanish Civil War shifted most production resources to military vehicles to support the Nationalists under Francisco Franco.
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Although designed in the 1930s, due to World War II, civilian Beetles only began to be produced in significant numbers by the end of the 1940s. The car was then internally designated the Volkswagen Type 1, and marketed simply as the Volkswagen. Later models were designated Volkswagen 1200, 1300, 1500, 1302, or 1303, the first three indicating engine displacement, the last two derived from the model number.
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The Beetle marked a significant trend, led by Volkswagen, and then by Fiat and Renault, whereby the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout increased from 2.6 percent of continental Western Europe's car production in 1946 to 26.6 percent in 1956. In 1959 even General Motors launched an air-cooled, rear-engined car, the Chevrolet Corvair—which also shared the Beetle's flat engine and swing axle architecture.
Over time, front-wheel drive, and frequently hatchback-bodied cars would come to dominate the European small-car market. In 1974, Volkswagen's own front-wheel drive Golf hatchback succeeded the Beetle. In 1994, Volkswagen unveiled the Concept One, a "retro"-themed concept car with a resemblance to the original Beetle, and in 1998 introduced the "New Beetle", built on the contemporary Golf platform with styling recalling the original Type 1. It remained in production through 2010, and was succeeded in 2011 by the Beetle (A5), the last variant of the Beetle, which was also more reminiscent of the original Beetle. Production ceased altogether by 2019.
In the 1999 Car of the Century competition, to determine the world's most influential car in the 20th century, the Type 1 came fourth, after the Ford Model T, the Mini, and the Citroën DS.[
Nicosia ( Greek : Λευκωσία (Lefkosia), English : Nicosia), located in the middle of the island of Cyprus , is the capital of the Republic of Cyprus and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus . It is the most populous city of Cyprus and the most important cultural, industrial, trade and transportation center. Nicosia is located at 35°10' north, 33°21' east.
The city is divided into two by the border called the Green Line . Although de jure the Republic of Cyprus has the administration of the entire city, de facto it only has control over South Nicosia . Northern Nicosia is under the rule of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and is considered to be under Turkish occupation by the international community. The two sectors are separated by a Buffer Zone administered by United Nations Peacekeeping Forces . With the 1960 Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, the Turkish Municipality of Nicosia was granted legal status.
Nicosia is known as "Lefkosia" (Λευκωσία) in Greek and "Nicosia" in English .
The first name of the area where the city is located was "Ledra". This name is also written as "Ledrae", "Lidir", "Ledras", "Ledron" and "Letra". Later, this city was destroyed and when it was rebuilt by Leucus, the city was named "Lefkotheon" (Λευκόθεον - city of the white gods). This name was also occasionally referred to as "Ledron". Later, the words "Kermia" and "Leucus" (Λευκούς) were used for the city. In the 7th century, Hierocles, a Byzantine geographer, mentioned the city as Lefkousia (Λευκουσία) in his book Synekdemos (Vademecum) . In the 13th century , the Patriarch of Constantinople referred to Nicosia as Kalli Nikesis (Καλλι Νίκησις - Beautiful Victory). A writer and monk, St. Neophytos referred to Nicosia as "Leucopolis" (Lefkopolis - White City) in a sermon he gave around 1176. Since the 10th century, the name "Nicosia" has become generally accepted. In the 18th century, Greek Cypriot historian Archimandrite Kyprianos stated that another name for Nicosia was "Photolampos" (Shining with Light).
There are various claims that the city is referred to as "Nicosia" and similar forms in European languages. According to one claim, the Latins replaced the first syllable of the word, "Lef", with "Ni" because they could not pronounce it. Another claim is that the name derives from the name "Kallinikesis". A writer from Sicily named Sindaco connects the name "Nicosia" to the town named "Nicosia" in Sicily and claimed that King Tancred from this town was with Richard I during the siege of Cyprus and named the city after his own town. . Another claim is that the name "Nicosia" emerged during the rebellion of the city's people against the Knights Templar in 1192. A German priest named Ludolf named the city "Nycosia" between 1341 and 1363. HAS Dearborn, in his book published in 1819, says that another name for Nicosia is "Nicotia". In 1856, William Curry stated that the Greeks called the city "Escosie" and the Western Europeans called it "Licosia".
The name of the city is mentioned in Ottoman documents as "Nicosia" or "medine-i Nicosia" . In addition, in a letter regarding the conquest of Nicosia in 1570, the name of the city is mentioned as "Nicosia". Kâtip Çelebi refers to the city as "Nicosia" (which is sometimes used today).
The first settlement in the area where Nicosia is located took place in the Neolithic Age . The date of the first settlement is approximately 3000-4000 BC. In 1050 BC or in the 7th century BC, a city called " Ledra " was founded in the region. This city had an important place among the other city kingdoms on the island. During archaeological excavations, a Greek inscription written in the 4th century BC was found indicating the existence of a temple dedicated to Aphrodite in Ledra. By around 330 BC it had shrunk to a small village. When this city was destroyed due to earthquakes , in 200 BC, Leucus, the son of Ptolemy I Soter , founded the city that is today Nicosia.
The city's importance began to increase in the late Byzantine period. In the 7th century, it became the capital of the island during the Arab raids.
It fell into the hands of Richard I in 1191 . It was the capital of the island during the period when the Knights Templar purchased and dominated the island. A rebellion broke out in the city on 11 April 1192. The knights suppressed this uprising with a massacre and then left the island.
The Lusignans purchased the island and Nicosia remained their capital. During the Lusignan period, he built many new buildings in the city. During the Venetian period, most of these were demolished and used in the construction of walls. During this period, the Lusignans also built walls around the city. These walls were in the shape of an irregular pentagon . There were no walls in the city before. King Henry I built the first walls with two towers in 1211, Peter I built a third tower, and Henry II built the first walls. Henry had the city completely surrounded by walls. The city became quite wealthy during this period. Nicosia was one of four dioceses on the island. It also became the center of an archdiocese in 1212. During this period, events were taking place between Greeks and Latins, and bloody conflicts broke out in the city in 1313 and 1360.
Nicosia has been damaged by many earthquakes throughout its history. The 1222 Cyprus earthquake was felt strongly in the city and caused great damage. In November 1330, a flood occurred in the city and three thousand people lost their lives. In addition, the city was heavily damaged by the Genoese in 1373 and the Mamluks in 1426.
On February 26, 1489, Nicosia, along with the entire island, came under the rule of the Republic of Venice . Just before the Ottoman conquest of the island, the Venetians inspected the walls and found them too weak. According to the new plans, the walls of Nicosia were reduced from eight miles to three miles. Meanwhile, all buildings outside the new walls were destroyed. According to a claim, the route of Kanlıdere was changed by the Venetians. Another claim is that the Ottomans changed the route of the stream to save the city from floods.
During the conquest of Cyprus by the Ottomans , Nicosia was the third largest settlement taken. Piyale Pasha and his army took action to take Nicosia on 22 July 1570. On July 25, Nicosia was besieged. Clashes began on July 27, as the Venetians did not accept the Ottomans' demands to surrender the castle. The fact that the walls were very strong ensured that Nicosia would not fall. At dawn on 9 September 1570, a new attack was launched and troops of more than 20 thousand people conquered Nicosia.
As part of the settlement of Turks in Cyprus during the Ottoman period, the settlement of the Turkish population in Nicosia, as well as in the entire island, started in 1572. Non-professional Greeks in the city were settled in the neighborhoods outside the city and replaced by Turks. According to a census made during this period, the city had 31 neighborhoods. In two of them ("Ermiyan" and "Karaman"), the Armenian population was in the majority.
During the Ottoman period, Nicosia first served as the capital of the State of Cyprus as the center of a district called "Mountain Kaza", and later became a sanjak . During the Ottoman period, St. Large churches such as the Sophia Cathedral were converted into mosques. Nicosia - Larnaca road was built. The gates of the city were opened at sunrise and closed at sunset. The Governor, Judge, Interpreter and Greek Archbishop resided in Nicosia. William Kimbrough Pendleton states that in 1864 most of the houses in the city were made of clay brick. As a result of a major earthquake in 1741, one minaret of the Selimiye Mosque collapsed and had to be rebuilt. There were riots in the city in 1764 and 1821.
On July 12, 1878, Nicosia, along with the rest of the island, came under British rule . British troops entered the city through the Kyrenia Gate and hoisted the first British flag on the Değirmen Bastion next to the Paphos Gate . Nicosia Municipality was established in 1882. Under British rule, Nicosia grew outside the city walls. Between 1930 and 1945, villages such as Ortaköy , Strovolos , Büyük Kaymaklı , Küçük Kaymaklı began to merge with the city, and the first settlements were made in regions such as Yenişehir . On January 1, 1944, Ayii Omoloyitadhes was included in the municipal boundaries. In order to provide access outside the city, the walls on the sides of the Paphos Gate in 1879, the Kyrenia Gate in 1931, and the Famagusta Gate in 1945 were cut. In 1905, a train station was built in Büyük Kaymaklı and train services to Nicosia started, this practice ended in 1955. In 1912, the first electricity came to the city. Also in the same year, kerosene-powered street lamps were replaced with electric ones. Under British rule, the sewer network was cleaned and the roads were repaired. On October 17, 1947, as a result of an explosion in the power plant that supplied energy to the city, the city was left without electricity for 116 days.
In 1895, Greeks attacked the Turks in the Tahtakale region of Nicosia. In 1931, Greeks rebelled against British rule and burned the government building. Founded in 1955, EOKA attacked public buildings and the radio station in the city against British rule.
The Republic of Cyprus was established on 16 August 1960 . The flag of the Republic of Cyprus was hoisted in the House of Representatives at midnight that night, ending British rule on the island. In accordance with Article 173 of the 1960 constitution, a Greek (Nicosia -Greek Municipality) and a Turkish ( Nicosia Turkish Municipality ) municipality were established on the island. On the night of 20–21 December 1963, the events known as " Bloody Christmas " began. Zeki Halil and Cemaliye Emirali were killed as a result of fire opened on cars in Tahtakale district of Nicosia. Between 23-30, Küçük Kaymaklı was besieged. On the night of 23-24 January, 11 people were killed in the Kumsal region, and the family of Turkish major Nihat İlhan was killed in the incident known as the Kumsal Raid. An attack was carried out against the Turks in the Kanlıdere region. As a result of the events, the governments of Turkey , Greece and the United Kingdom met on 30 December 1963 . As a result of this meeting, the border , also known as the Green Line, was drawn, dividing the city into Turkish and Greek parts. The reason why this border is called the "Green Line" is that the pen of the United Nations official who drew the line on the map was green. The borders of the city were finalized with the Cyprus Operation carried out in 1974 by the order of Turkish Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit .
On 29 March 1968, the suburbs of Eylence , Büyük Kaymaklı, Küçük Kaymaklı, Pallouriotissa , Strovolos (partially) and Kızılay were also included in the municipal borders. Following the de facto division of the city, the area under the administration of the Republic of Cyprus continued to grow in a southerly direction. North Nicosia also continued to grow and merged with outlying villages such as Gönyeli (which has a separate municipality) and Hamitköy (which is part of the Nicosia Turkish Municipality).
Kermiya Border Gate was opened in 2003, and Lokmacı Gate was opened in 2008 .
Nicosia is located in a central point of the island of Cyprus, in the central parts of the Mesarya Plain .
Nicosia has a hot semi-arid climate according to the Köppen climate classification . The hottest months are July and August, and the coldest months are January and February. The month with the most rainfall is January. Nicosia is one of the warmest places on the island.
Nicosia is located in the center of the geological formation called Nicosia Formation. This region dates back to the Lower Pliocene period. Gray, yellow and white marl layers, sandy and yellow limestones and sparse conglomerate bands are frequently encountered. The reconnection of the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean resulted in the rise of sea water and the formation of new sediments, which formed the Nicosia Formation. Underneath Nicosia is the Nicosia- Serdarlı aquifer , which has an area of 60 km² .
The riverside parts of Nicosia city, especially Kanlıdere , have a great biodiversity. [88] In a research conducted in the streams in a 12.5 km diameter area of the city, which is rich in vegetation (especially in stream beds), 185 different plant species belonging to 62 different families were identified. Among these, there are four endemic and 16 rare species. The most common tree species found on the banks of streams in the city is the eucalyptus tree (various types can be found). There is a total of 0.262 square kilometers of forest area in the Nicosia Central agricultural region of Northern Cyprus . Two kilometers outside Nicosia (in its southern part), within the boundaries of the Municipality of Eylence, is the Pedagogical Academy National Forest Park, and to the south of the city is the Athalassa National Forest Park. In Northern Nicosia, there is the Nicosia Forest Nursery, which is 0.5 hectares in size.
The habitats of animals in the stream beds in some parts of the city are in danger. The reeds along the streams host many animals, especially bird species. Many creatures such as kingfishers , water chickens , striped turtles and chameleons live on the banks of the streams . There are especially many turtles in the streams.
Nicosia is the commercial center of Cyprus. The city hosts the central banks of the Republic of Cyprus and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus .
The city of Nicosia is divided into two parts in terms of urbanization, these are old Nicosia (the area inside the walls) and new Nicosia (outside the walls). In Old Nicosia, the roads are narrow and there are dead ends. In New Nicosia, there is more vertical and horizontal development over a wider area. Junctions and roads are wider, parks occupy larger areas.
In Nicosia during the Ottoman period, Greeks and Turks lived mixed in some neighborhoods, and in some neighborhoods, one of them was the majority. Mosques can be found in Turkish neighborhoods and churches in Greek neighborhoods. Armenians also lived in the city. The houses of the Armenians who used to live in Köşklüçiftlik were all made of cut stone and had their own unique architecture. Bay windows are a common feature in houses in Old Nicosia . The Büyük Han is one of the most advanced architectural works on the island, and today it is a cultural center where various activities such as exhibitions, sales of antiques and traditional items, and shadow plays take place.
There are fourteen museums in the part of Nicosia south of the Green Line. The Cyprus Museum was founded in 1888 and exhibits hundreds of archaeological artifacts brought from all over the island. The house of Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios, who worked as a translator for the Divan during the Ottoman period, built in 1793, is used as an ethnography museum. In the northern part of the city, the number of museums is six. Derviş Pasha Mansion is used as an ethnography museum.
Although there are many theaters in the south of the city, the headquarters of the Cyprus Theater Association is in Nicosia. The State Theater Building, built in the 2000s, formerly hosted this institution, which suffered from inadequate facilities, and is not allowed to be used by any other theater organization. Nicosia Municipality Theatre, built in 1967, has a capacity of 1220 people. In the north, the Turkish Cypriot State Theater performs plays and organizes tours; but it does not have a hall. Also in the north is the Nicosia Municipal Theater, which was established in 1980. The Cyprus Theater Festival, jointly organized by the Nicosia Turkish Municipality and Nicosia Municipal Theatres, is a large organization attended by institutions such as Istanbul City Theatres , and all of these can be held in only two halls.
There are nineteen cinemas in the southern part of the city, six of which are owned by a company called K Cineplex, and thirteen are owned by other companies. In the north of the city, the number of cinemas is four.
Two waterways built during the Ottoman period were used in Nicosia until the mid-20th century. These waterways were Arab Ahmed and Silihtar waterways. Apart from this, water extracted from wells was also used.
Telegraph was first used in the city in 1873. In 1936, a public telephone network was established covering the entire island and Nicosia.
The migration to the city of Nicosia as a result of the Cyprus Operation in 1974 caused problems such as development, transportation, sewerage, housing shortage and lack of infrastructure in the city.
Since Nicosia is a divided city, the Republic of Cyprus and Northern Cyprus education systems are implemented in the city. A university called Near East University in North Nicosia , Cyprus International University, Mediterranean Karpaz University, Anadolu University 's open education faculty, apart from these, colleges such as Atatürk Teachers Academy and Police School There are. In the area under the control of the Republic of Cyprus , there are universities named University of Cyprus , Open University of Cyprus , Frederick University , University of Nicosia , [132] and European University of Cyprus.
In the Nicosia District of the Republic of Cyprus, there are 42 secondary schools, 133 primary schools and three kindergartens. There are a total of 30 primary schools, kindergartens and special education centers at the primary level in the Nicosia district of Northern Cyprus .
The roads on the island were built to be centered in Nicosia and unite in Nicosia. All important roads meet in Nicosia. During the Ottoman period, only the Larnaca road was built, and the previously built roads were in ruins. Under British rule, these roads were rebuilt and a regular postal service was established between Nicosia and other cities. The first car arrived in the city in 1907. The first bus services from the city started in 1929, these services departed from the Kyrenia Gate and went to Strovolos, Aydemet and Büyük Kaymaklı. [139] Train services started between Nicosia and Famagusta on 21 October 1905 . Train services were organized from Nicosia to approximately 30 stops. Train services ended on December 31, 1951. Nicosia International Airport was opened in 1949 . This airport is in the Buffer Zone today and is not used.
Today, there is a bus service in the Republic of Cyprus controlled part of the city run by a company called Nicosia Bus Company . All buses leave from the terminal in Solomos Square and make stops every 20 to 30 minutes. There are plans to expand the bus line, increase the frequency of services and renew the bus fleet. The Department of Public Works signed an agreement to establish tram and light rail lines between Nicosia - Larnaca and Limassol . There are motorways such as A1 and A2 from the city . In addition to developing this road network, there are also projects to improve the roads within the city. Apart from this, there are also taxis . Air transportation to the city is provided by Larnaca International Airport (44 km away) and Paphos International Airport . Larnaca Airport is used more than Paphos Airport.
LETTAŞ company also has buses in North Nicosia. The first municipal bus was put into operation on the Göçmenköy-Yenişehir route on January 15, 1980, during Mustafa Akıncı 's term as mayor. Starting from 1984, this service was transformed into a public transportation network within the municipality and started to provide service, and later the same vehicles were privatized to be operated by the LETTAŞ company. There is a bus terminal in the Yenişehir area. The airport used by the northern part of the city is Ercan Airport . Transportation to the airport is provided by buses. It is also possible to reach the city by taxi and minibus .
Nicosia Municipality is a sister city with the following cities:
Germany Schwerin , Germany (1974)
Greece Athens , Greece (1988)
Ukraine Odessa , Ukraine (1996)
Iranian Shiraz , Iran (1999)
Romania Bucharest , Romania (2004)
Chinese Shanghai , China (2004)
The city has also collaborated with the following cities:
Russia Moscow , Russia (1997, 2002, 2003-2004, 2006-2008)
Italy Nicosia , Italy (2000-2002)
Chinese Qingdao , China (2001)
Greece Athens , Greece (2001, 2003)
Finland Helsinki , Finland (2003)
Syria Damascus , Syria (2003)
Croatia Zagreb , Croatia (2004)
Malta Valletta , Malta (2007)
Sister cities of Nicosia Turkish Municipality
Türkiye Izmir , Turkey (2019)
Türkiye Ankara , Turkey (1988)
Türkiye Bursa , Turkey
North Macedonia Kumanovo , North Macedonia (2007)
Gagauzia Comrat , Gagauzia
Türkiye Gaziantep Turkey
Türkiye Istanbul Turkey
Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.
Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.
A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.
Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.
Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.
Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.
Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.
The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.
Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.
Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.
By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.
EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.
However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.
On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.
In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.
By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.
In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.
The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.
After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".
As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.
Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.
On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.
The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.
Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.
The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.
Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.
Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria
An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."
In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.
Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.
In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.
Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.
Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.
Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.
The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:
UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.
The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.
By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."
After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.
On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.
The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.
During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.
In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.
Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.
A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.
The pottery of the above Montbolo style and the adjacent Chasseen comes after the early neolithic Cardial ware, a style that can be used to track and date the neolithic movement throughout Europe, and one with a date set of close to a thousand years ending 7,500 ybp. Decoration of soft Cardial clay was with the cardiale' sea shell and other implements from combs to thumb nails and other shells ('impressed ware' perhaps being a better description). It might be argued that the early pottery mimicked surfaces and forms of pre existing baskets - pottery here being a hard new basket.
Whilst the Montbolo, Chasseen and associated ware can have decoration ('arts and crafts' geometries on some plates or pot bands) it does tend to differ from Cardial with a move towards form, build quality, innovative grips and blank rigorously buffed surface patina. As I write, the Parisien newspaper Le Monde's style journalists have declared that it is no longer cool for a woman to be seen with sunglasses in their hair. Here a decision has been taken for a vanity of style and the consequences may pan through to a greater population. It may be that the lack of ornamentation on the Montbolo pots came as a meaningless culture 'odor' that creeped through the hill-sides powered by the same force that powers texts on sexual selection. Alternatively you might assign types of people to types of archaeological artefact - here epicardial are from one type of tribe and Montbolo from another and 'blood soil' becomes 'blood ceramic'. The worry for this argument is that you might argue that every teapot has an English man's genes behind it, which could trigger myriad paternity lawsuits from the tea cupboards of Italy, Spain, France and Germany... Artefacts migrate both with and without populations, sometimes within the migration 'suitcases' and sometimes as an enthusiasm passed from a gathering. A last possibility for the change in style may come from a change in utilization. Here, early pots took on the storage relay of baskets and leather bags, retaining the same link between object and ornamentation. As time progressed, the pot became a pot and left behind its inductive past (in the same way early cars looked like carriages until a point came when the car became an independent emergent property). The quality of the pot that left behind the past was as an object that was easier to clean after cooking and collecting (you can't wipe clean a woven basket) and as a reflection of sound - resonance (a basket cannot me made to reverberate). Here, the resonance becomes the ornamentation that replaced the impressions. A pot might still exist that is not made to resonate and this pot may happily live side by side with a resonating pot - and there are many examples of sites with both Montbolo and Epicardial found together - granted with the stratification problems often associated with shallow caves. The people of the Montbolo ware pottery used caves as a complement to huts. Caves also resonate. I once witnessed a visiting choir spontaneously sing in a cave... People who enjoy the qualities that resonance may bring to a song may love the fact that even away from a cave, these qualities might be reproduced with a pot, and that a pot size and shape may be found for many styles of voice. A deep 'tenor' partition to provide the foundation for three harmonised 'soprano' singers in a neolithic round, jig or earthy spiritual cantate. Ceramic decoration would return with Bell Beaker pottery and tests need to be done to see the impact of wide Bell Beaker necks of sound amplification and reverberation.
See how the period of portable resonance may have existed for 1,000 years pre Bell beaker :
7,900 - 7,000 Cardial ware pottery
6,900- 6,100 Montbolo
6,400 - 5,500 Chasseen
4,900 to 3,900 Bell Beaker pottery (Campaniforme).
AJM 24.05.18
Jar (Hu), c. 2650–2350 B.C.E. (Banshan culture, China), earthenware, slip, 34 cm high (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)
The Neolithic cultures of Malta left a legacy of some of the most magnificent temples. The ancient builders used limestone as a basic material for their creations. They created many megalithic temples and through these powerful structures they expressed their religious beliefs. One of such temples is Hagar Qim Temple, located on the main island of Malta, representing one of the best preserved megalithic temples of Malta. Little is known about this structures.
I found these footprints in the mud between Freshfield and Ainsdale on the Sefton Coast. They are between 4,000 and 7,000 years old. They would have been left on marshy ground by a lagoon when the sea was much further away.
The Ring of Brodgar is a Neolithic henge and stone circle about 6 miles north-east of Stromness. The ring of stones stands on a small isthmus between the Lochs of Stenness and Harray.
This is part of the Heart of Neolithic Orkney UNESCO World Heritage Site
Jar (Hu), c. 2650–2350 B.C.E. (Banshan culture, China), earthenware, slip, 34 cm high (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)
I've posted a number of pictures of Calanais but have always felt that they didn't capture the scale of these stones. In this shot my wife stepped out from behind a stone just as I shot. She's 5'7", or 1 3/4 meters tall. The stone she is next to is more than twice her height, more than 3 1/2 meters tall. One disappointment with this shot is that it doesn't show how dominant the central stone is. It is nearly twice the height of the one my wife is next to. I haven't posted other shots from this angle because I'm unhappy about how I lined up the stones with some unfortunate overlaps. You can, however, see the chambered tomb at the base of the central stone.
Cf. Barry Thornton, "Kings Quoit" in Edge of Darkness(2000), p. 101.
Rollei 35, 40mm Tessar, yellow-green filter, FP4+
Manorbier a village in Pembrokeshire, South Wales.
Evidence of early human habitation consists of many flint microliths from the Mesolithic and Neolithic ages, housed in local museums. The cromlech (a portal tomb) known as the King's Quoit is south of Manorbier bay and beach.
Later evidence points to occupation of The Dak with the finding of a perforated mace head as well as Bronze Age burial mounds on the Ridgeway. Fortifications also seem to have been prominent including an Iron Age enclosure near Manorbier station and the site of a multivallate, meaning multiple ditches, promontory fort at Old Castle Head where there are remains of hut platforms within the ditches.
The Norman knight Odo de Barri was granted the lands of Manorbier, Penally and Begelly in gratitude for his military help in conquering Pembrokeshire after 1103. The first Manorbier Castle was motte and bailey style, with the stone walls being added in the next century by later Normans. Giraldus Cambrensis, son of William de Barri, was born in the village in 1146, and called it "the pleasantest place in Wales".
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