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188/365 Typewriter Hispano Olivetti Lexicon 80
Día 07 de Enero
2014_01_07_188_365_BarrasDeTipoLexicon80
En 1908 Camillo Olivetti fundó la marca de máquinas de escribir tan conocida mundialmente. En España se instaló en Barcelona en 1929, con la firma Hispano Olivetti. Una empresa con una importante historia. La Hispano Olivetti Lexicon 80 nace de 1948 y hoy se ha convertido en un objeto de culto para los amantes de las máquinas de escribir.
3849 Wolff4 Strasburg Stahlstich Neues elegantestes Conversations-Lexicon Dr. Oscar Ludwig Bernhard Wolff Vierter Band Leipzig 1837. Verlag von Christian Ernst Kollmann Kunstverlag W. Creuzbauer
Strasbourg Lower Alsatian: Strossburi, German: Straßburg, is the capital and principal city of the Alsace region in eastern France and is the official seat of the European Parliament. Located close to the border with Germany, it is the capital of the Bas-Rhin département. The city and the region of Alsace were historically Alemannic-speaking, which explains the city's Germanic name. In 2006, the city proper had 272,975 inhabitants and its urban community 467,375 inhabitants. With 759,868 inhabitants in 2010, Strasbourg's metropolitan area (only the part of the metropolitan area on French territory) is the ninth largest in France. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 884,988 inhabitants in 2008.
Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe (with its European Court of Human Rights, its European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and its European Audiovisual Observatory) and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is also the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine and the International Institute of Human Rights.
Strasbourg's historic city centre, the Grande Île (Grand Island), was classified a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988, the first time such an honour was placed on an entire city centre. Strasbourg is immersed in the Franco-German culture and although violently disputed throughout history, has been a bridge of unity between France and Germany for centuries, especially through the University of Strasbourg, currently the second largest in France, and the coexistence of Catholic and Protestant culture. The largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque, was inaugurated by French Interior Minister Manuel Valls on 27 September 2012.
DLR Lexicon opened to the public in December 2014 despite much opposition. Be prepared to be as surprised and delighted as nearly everyone I know who has seen the interior of this very large building in Dún Laoghaire.
It is in fact the first major public building in the town since its County Hall was completed in 1999.
3598 Wolff1 Bingen am Rhein Steel engraving from "Travelling Sketches" by William Clarkson Stanfield (around 1833): Bingen. Conversations-Lexicon von Dr. Oscar Ludwig Bernhard Wolff Erster Band A bis C Leipzig 1834. Verlag von Christian Ernst Kollmann. Durch Kunst Verlag W. Creuzbauer in Carlsruhe.
Bingen am Rhein is a town in the Mainz-Bingen district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.
The settlement's original name was Bingium, a Celtic word that may have meant "hole in the rock"[citation needed], a description of the shoal behind the Mäuseturm, known as the Binger Loch. Bingen was the starting point for the Via Ausonia, a Roman military road that linked the town with Trier. Bingen is well known for, among other things, the story about the Mouse Tower, in which allegedly the Bishop of Mainz Hatto was eaten by mice.
Dante's tomb in Ravenna, built in 1780
4229 Wolff4 Ravena Dante's Grab Rosmäster in Berlin 1835.Neueselegantestes Conversations-Lexicon Dr. Oscar Ludwig Bernhard Wolff Vierter Band Leipzig 1837. Verlag von Christian Ernst Kollmann. Stahlstich.
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Das Dante-Grabmal ist eine Gedenkstätte in der architektonischen Gestalt eines Tempelchens, das den Sarkophag mit den Überresten der vermeintlichen Gebeine des Dichters Dante Alighieri enthält. Es steht an der Außenmauer des Kreuzgangs der ehemaligen Klosterkirche San Franceso in der Stadt Ravenna in Italien.
Wenige Jahre vor seinem Tod war Dante nach Ravenna geflohen, wo er von Guido Novello da Polenta aufgenommen worden war. In seinem ravennatischen Asyl vollendete der Dichter seine Göttliche Komödie (ital. Divina Commedia), bevor er dort am 13. September 1321 verstarb.
1357 verfasste Bernado folgende lateinische Grabesinschrift:
Die Rechte der Monarchie, die Himmel und Wasser des Phlegoton, die ich besuchte, besang ich, bis sich mein irdisches Geschick dem Ende zuneigte. Aber während meine Seele entwich, um bessere Gefilde zu bewohnen, und selig ihren Schöpfer unter den Sternen erreichte, bin ich hier begraben, Dante, den Florenz, eine kärglich liebende Mutter, gebar.
Mit Genehmigung des Medici-Papstes Leo X. versuchten 1519 die Stadtväter von Florenz, die sterblichen Überreste Dantes in ihre Stadt umzubetten. Den Zugriff vereitelten die Franziskaner-Mönche, indem sie die sterblichen Überreste vorher heimlich dem Sarkophag entnahmen, um sie in ihrem Kreuzgang beizusetzen. Um die sterblichen Überreste möglichst schnell und unauffällig fortschaffen zu können, gruben die Mönche in einigen Metern Entfernung vom Sarkophag einen kleinen Tunnel unterhalb Kreuzgangmauer. Die dem Sarkophag entnommenen sterblichen Überreste wurden anschließend innerhalb des Kreuzgangs versteckt.
1677 wurden die Gebeine von Pater Antonius Santi gesammelt und in einer Holzkiste geborgen. Die Holzkiste wurde im Kreuzgang in einem Schrein aufbewahrt.
1780 ließ der Kardinallegat Valenti Gonzaga das leere Grab und den Fries beseitigen und an der alten Stelle den noch heute stehenden Erinnerungstempel errichten.
Als der Konvent 1810 aufgelöst wurde, vergruben die abziehenden Mönche die Holzkiste mit den Gebeinen Dantes in ihrem Kreuzgang. Dort wurden die Gebeine 1865 beim Geburtsjubiläum Dantes wieder aufgefunden.
1908 stiftete die italienische Dante-Gesellschaft für das Grabmal eine ewige Lampe.
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Dante's tomb in Ravenna, built in 1780
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Dlr Lexicon is the official name for the Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown library and cultural centre, which opened to the public late last year.
The building became a highly debated issue in Dun Laoghaire asd was criticised as being a “monstrosity”.
DLR Lexicon is structured in vertical layers, from a staff basement to a peak 29 metres above street level. It includes adult, children's, and audiovisual lending libraries with 24-hour automated teller machines for lending and returns; general and local history reference libraries; archives, and library administration offices. There are large open spaces, smaller reading rooms, meeting rooms, an art gallery and workshop, and a performance space and auditorium. A Brambles Café concession on the lower level opens onto a terrace in Moran Park.
3739 Wolff2 Conversations-Lexicon von Dr. Oscar Ludwig Bernhard Wolff Leipzig 1834. Verlag von Christian Ernst Kollmann. Durch Kunst Verlag W. Creuzbauer in Carlsruhe. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Kupferstich von Friedrich Weber
Born 28 August 1749
Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany
Died 22 March 1832 (aged 82)
Weimar, Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, German Confederation
Occupation Poet, novelist, playwright, natural philosopher, diplomat, civil servant
Nationality German
Literary movement Sturm und Drang; Weimar Classicism
Notable worksFaust; The Sorrows of Young Werther; Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship; Elective Affinities; "Prometheus"; Zur Farbenlehre; Italienische Reise; Westöstlicher Diwan
SpouseChristiane Vulpius (1806–16, her death)
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German writer and statesman. His body of work includes epic and lyric poetry written in a variety of metres and styles; prose and verse dramas; memoirs; an autobiography; literary and aesthetic criticism; treatises on botany, anatomy, and colour; and four novels. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters, and nearly 3,000 drawings by him are extant. A literary celebrity by the age of 25, Goethe was ennobled by the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, Carl August in 1782 after first taking up residence there in November 1775 following the success of his first novel, The Sorrows of Young Werther. He was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. During his first ten years in Weimar, Goethe served as a member of the Duke's privy council, sat on the war and highway commissions, oversaw the reopening of silver mines in nearby Ilmenau, and implemented a series of administrative reforms at the University of Jena. He also contributed to the planning of Weimar's botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace, which in 1998 were together designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
After returning from a tour of Italy in 1788, his first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published. In 1791 he was made managing director of the theatre at Weimar, and in 1794 he began a friendship with the dramatist, historian, and philosopher Friedrich Schiller, whose plays he premiered until Schiller's death in 1805. During this period Goethe published his second novel, Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship, the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808, the first part of his most celebrated drama, Faust. His conversations and various common undertakings throughout the 1790s with Schiller, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Gottfried Herder, Alexander von Humboldt, Wilhelm von Humboldt, and August and Friedrich Schlegel have, in later years, been collectively termed Weimar Classicism.
Arthur Schopenhauer cited Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship as one of the four greatest novels ever written[citation needed] and Ralph Waldo Emerson selected Goethe as one of six "representative men" in his work of the same name, along with Plato, Napoleon, and William Shakespeare. Goethe's comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, most notably Johann Peter Eckermann's Conversations with Goethe. There are frequent references to Goethe's writings throughout the works of G. W. F. Hegel, Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Hermann Hesse, Thomas Mann, Sigmund Freud, and Carl Jung. Goethe's poems were set to music throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by a number of composers, including Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Charles Gounod, Richard Wagner, Hugo Wolf, and Gustav Mahler.
Ganesha, also spelled Ganesh, and also known as Ganapati and Vinayaka, is a widely worshipped deity in the Hindu pantheon. His image is found throughout India and Nepal. Hindu sects worship him regardless of affiliations. Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains, Buddhists, and beyond India.
Although he is known by many attributes, Ganesha's elephant head makes him easy to identify. Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles, the patron of arts and sciences and the deva of intellect and wisdom. As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions. Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography.
Ganesha emerged as a distinct deity in the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during the Gupta Period, although he inherited traits from Vedic and pre-Vedic precursors. He was formally included among the five primary deities of Smartism (a Hindu denomination) in the 9th century. A sect of devotees called the Ganapatya arose, who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity. The principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa.
ETYMOLOGY AND OTHER NAMES
Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati and Vighneshvara. The Hindu title of respect Shri is often added before his name. One popular way Ganesha is worshipped is by chanting a Ganesha Sahasranama, a litany of "a thousand names of Ganesha". Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. At least two different versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama exist; one version is drawn from the Ganesha Purana, a Hindu scripture venerating Ganesha.
The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana, meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and isha, meaning lord or master. The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva. The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation. Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the Gaņas" to mean "Lord of Hosts" or "Lord of created categories", such as the elements. Ganapati, a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning "group", and pati, meaning "ruler" or "lord". The Amarakosha, an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha : Vinayaka, Vighnarāja (equivalent to Vighnesha), Dvaimātura (one who has two mothers), Gaṇādhipa (equivalent to Ganapati and Ganesha), Ekadanta (one who has one tusk), Heramba, Lambodara (one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), and Gajanana; having the face of an elephant).
Vinayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak (aṣṭavināyaka). The names Vighnesha and Vighneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) refers to his primary function in Hindu theology as the master and remover of obstacles (vighna).
A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai. A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a "child" while pillaiyar means a "noble child". He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk", also "elephant tooth or tusk". Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant "the young of the elephant", because the Pali word pillaka means "a young elephant".
In the Burmese language, Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne, derived from Pali Mahā Wināyaka. The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Phra Phikhanet or Phra Phikhanesuan, both of which are derived from Vara Vighnesha and Vara Vighneshvara respectively, whereas the name Khanet (from Ganesha) is rather rare.
In Sri Lanka, in the North-Central and North Western areas with predominantly Buddhist population, Ganesha is known as Aiyanayaka Deviyo, while in other Singhala Buddhist areas he is known as Gana deviyo.
ICONOGRAPHY
Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art. Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time. He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down or on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations.
Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century. The 13th century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900–1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973–1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost, and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal. Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature. A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century. Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a pasha (noose) in the other upper arm.
The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (abhaya mudra). The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme.
COMMON ATTRIBUTES
Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art. Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head. One of his popular forms, Heramba-Ganapati, has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known. While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories. The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay to protect her and Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant. Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source. Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva's laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.
Ganesha's earliest name was Ekadanta (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken. Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk. The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha's second incarnation is Ekadanta. Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries). This feature is so important that, according to the Mudgala Purana, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: Lambodara (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) and Mahodara (Great Belly). Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly. The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., cosmic eggs) of the past, present, and future are present in him. The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms. Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts. His earliest images had two arms. Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries. The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms. According to the Ganesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck. Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha's forehead may be a third eye or the Shaivite sectarian mark , which consists of three horizontal lines. The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead. A distinct form of Ganesha called Bhalachandra includes that iconographic element. Ganesha is often described as red in color. Specific colors are associated with certain forms. Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise on Hindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations as Heramba-Ganapati and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage). Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualized as blue during meditation in that form.
VAHANAS
The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana (mount/vehicle). Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana, Ganesha uses a mouse (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation as Vikata, and Shesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation as Vighnaraja. Mohotkata uses a lion, Mayūreśvara uses a peacock, Dhumraketu uses a horse, and Gajanana uses a mouse, in the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse, elephant, tortoise, ram, or peacock.
Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse, shrew or rat. Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet. The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag. The names Mūṣakavāhana (mouse-mount) and Ākhuketana (rat-banner) appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama.
The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret Gaṇapati's mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes tamoguṇa as well as desire". Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish. Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word mūṣaka (mouse) is derived from the root mūṣ (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāma-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence. Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.
ASSOCIATIONS
OBSTACLES
Ganesha is Vighneshvara or Vighnaraja or Vighnaharta (Marathi), the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order. He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Paul Courtright says that "his task in the divine scheme of things, his dharma, is to place and remove obstacles. It is his particular territory, the reason for his creation."
Krishan notes that some of Ganesha's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time. Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the Ganapatyas, to this shift in emphasis from vighnakartā (obstacle-creator) to vighnahartā (obstacle-averter). However, both functions continue to be vital to his character.
BUDDHI (KNOWLEDGE)
Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning. In Sanskrit, the word buddhi is a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect. The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in the Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya. This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important. The word priya can mean "fond of", and in a marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband", so the name may mean either "Fond of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband".
AUM
Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Aum, also spelled Om. The term oṃkārasvarūpa (Aum is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows:
(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trinity) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and Swargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).
Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body in iconography and the shape of Aum in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts.
FIRST CHAKRA
According to Kundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the first chakra, called Muladhara (mūlādhāra). Mula means "original, main"; adhara means "base, foundation". The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests. This association is also attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Courtright translates this passage as follows: "[O Ganesha,] You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra]." Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara. Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby "governing the forces that propel the wheel of life".
FAMILY AND CONSORTS
Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati, the Puranic myths give different versions about his birth. In some he was created by Parvati, in another he was created by Shiva and Parvati, in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati's bath water that had been thrown in the river.
The family includes his brother the war god Kartikeya, who is also called Subramanya, Skanda, Murugan and other names. Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the first born. In northern India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, when worship of him declined significantly in northern India. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers and may reflect sectarian tensions.
Ganesha's marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories. One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried brahmacari. This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India. Another pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity); these qualities are sometimes personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha's wives. He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: daşi). Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, Sarasvati or Śarda (particularly in Maharashtra). He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi. Another pattern, mainly prevalent in the Bengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo.
The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons: Kşema (prosperity) and Lābha (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to be Śubha (auspiciouness) and Lābha. The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity.
WOSHIP AND FESTIVALS
Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions; especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business. K.N. Somayaji says, "there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. [..] Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country". Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity.
Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity, and Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies. Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin performances of arts such as the Bharatnatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha. Mantras such as Om Shri Gaṇeshāya Namah (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah (Om, Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).
Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and small sweet balls (laddus). He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a modakapātra. Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste (raktacandana) or red flowers. Dūrvā grass (Cynodon dactylon) and other materials are also used in his worship.
Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesh Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in the śuklapakṣa (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of bhādrapada (August/September) and the Gaṇeśa jayanti (Gaṇeśa's birthday) celebrated on the cathurthī of the śuklapakṣa (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of māgha (January/February)."
GANESH CHATURTI
An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September. The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising Ganesha's visit. The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi, when idols (murtis) of Ganesha are immersed in the most convenient body of water. Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893, Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event. He did so "to bridge the gap between the Brahmins and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them" in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra. Because of Ganesha's wide appeal as "the god for Everyman", Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule. Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day. Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra. The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai, Pune, and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples.
TEMPLES
In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as an acolyte or subordinate deity (pãrśva-devatã); as a deity related to the principal deity (parivāra-devatã); or as the principal deity of the temple (pradhāna), treated similarly as the highest gods of the Hindu pantheon. As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati’s doorkeeper. In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (lit. "eight Ganesha (shrines)") in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city of Pune, each of these eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore and legend. The eight shrines are: Morgaon, Siddhatek, Pali, Mahad, Theur, Lenyadri, Ozar and Ranjangaon.
There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations: Wai in Maharashtra; Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Jodhpur, Nagaur and Raipur (Pali) in Rajasthan; Baidyanath in Bihar; Baroda, Dholaka, and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following: Kanipakam in Chittoor; the Jambukeśvara Temple at Tiruchirapalli; at Rameshvaram and Suchindram in Tamil Nadu; at Malliyur, Kottarakara, Pazhavangadi, Kasargod in Kerala, Hampi, and Idagunji in Karnataka; and Bhadrachalam in Andhra Pradesh.
T. A. Gopinatha notes, "Every village however small has its own image of Vighneśvara (Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below pīpaḹa (Sacred fig) trees [...], in a niche [...] in temples of Viṣṇu (Vishnu) as well as Śiva (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in Śiva temples [...]; the figure of Vighneśvara is invariably seen." Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, including southeast Asia, Nepal (including the four Vinayaka shrines in the Kathmandu valley), and in several western countries.
RISE TO PROMINENCE
FIRST APEARANCE
Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries. Shanti Lal Nagar says that the earliest known iconic image of Ganesha is in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been dated to the Gupta period. His independent cult appeared by about the 10th century. Narain summarizes the controversy between devotees and academics regarding the development of Ganesha as follows:
What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaņeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaņeśa's Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.
POSSIBLE INFLUENCES
Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:
In the post 600 BC period there is evidence of people and places named after the animal. The motif appears on coins and sculptures.
Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that, "although by the second century CE the elephant-headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut."
One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vinayakas (Vināyakas). In Hindu mythology, the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties but who were easily propitiated. The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, "He is a non-vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering". Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century. According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre-Christian era.
A metal plate depiction of Ganesha had been discovered in 1993, in Iran, it dated back to 1,200 BCE. Another one was discovered much before, in Lorestan Province of Iran.
First Ganesha's terracotta images are from 1st century CE found in Ter, Pal, Verrapuram and Chandraketugarh. These figures are small, with elephant head, two arms, and chubby physique. The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times (2nd-3rd centuries CE).
VEDIC AND EPIC LITERATURE
The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit: gaṇapati) occurs twice in the Rig Veda, but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati, according to commentators. While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today. In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to Bṛhaspati—who is the deity of the hymn—and Bṛhaspati only". Equally clearly, the second passage (RV 10.112.9) refers to Indra, who is given the epithet 'gaṇapati', translated "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts)." However, Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha .
Two verses in texts belonging to Black Yajurveda, Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā (2.9.1) and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (10.1), appeal to a deity as "the tusked one" (Dantiḥ), "elephant-faced" (Hastimukha), and "with a curved trunk" (Vakratuņḍa). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentator Sayana explicitly establishes this identification. The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk (vakratuṇḍa) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane, and a club, is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin". However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions. Thapan reports that these passages are "generally considered to have been interpolated". Dhavalikar says, "the references to the elephant-headed deity in the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā have been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity".
Ganesha does not appear in Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata says that the sage Vyasa (Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed, but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata, in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix. The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during preparation of the critical edition. Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyāsa's dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation. Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend. The term vināyaka is found in some recensions of the Śāntiparva and Anuśāsanaparva that are regarded as interpolations. A reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām ("Creator of Obstacles") in Vanaparva is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.
PURANIC PERIOD
Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas "defy precise chronological ordering", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300. Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant's head are in the later Puranas, which were composed from c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries.
In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that:
Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.
Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century, when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The 9th-century philosopher Adi Shankara popularized the "worship of the five forms" (Panchayatana puja) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition. This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, and Surya. Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.
SCRIPTURES
Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism, some Brahmins (brāhmaṇas) chose to worship Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed the Ganapatya tradition, as seen in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.
The date of composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana - and their dating relative to one another - has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comments about dating and provides her own judgement. "It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries", she says, "but was later interpolated." Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana to be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.
R.C. Hazra suggests that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400. However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the four Puranas (the Brahma, the Brahmanda, the Ganesha, and the Mudgala Puranas) which deal at length with Ganesha. While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions. Another highly regarded scripture, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th centuries.
BEYOND INDIA AND HINDUISM
Commercial and cultural contacts extended India's influence in western and southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who reached foreign lands as a result.
Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures. From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders. The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.
Hindus migrated to Maritime Southeast Asia and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them. Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in Hindu art of Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences. The spread of Hindu culture to southeast Asia established Ganesha in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina, Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region. In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles. Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success.
Before the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.
Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name. His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period. As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, he is often shown dancing. This form, called Nṛtta Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet. In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as Heramba, is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion. Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him. A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is tshogs bdag. In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot by Mahākāla, (Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity. Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, and sometimes dancing. Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In northern China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531. In Japan, where Ganesha is known as Kangiten, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.
The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention the worship of Ganesha. However, Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of Kubera. Jain connections with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections. The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century. A 15th-century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of Ganapati images. Images of Ganesha appear in the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
WIKIPEDIA
The name of Bracknell's new shopping centre which opens in Spring 2017 will be The Lexicon and this is one of the cranes that are putting all of the pieces together.
A Compendium of Curiosities
-illogical lexicons & convivial characters
PS: everything in this display is made of paper!
Venetian rule
Padua passed under Venetian rule in 1405, and so mostly remained until the fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797.
There was just a brief period when the city changed hands (in 1509) during the wars of the League of Cambrai. On 10 December 1508, representatives of the Papacy, France, the Holy Roman Empire, and Ferdinand I of Spain concluded the League of Cambrai against the Republic. The agreement provided for the complete dismemberment of Venice's territory in Italy and for its partition among the signatories: Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I of the Habsburg, was to receive Padua in addition to Verona and other territories. In 1509 Padua was taken for just a few weeks by Imperial supporters. Venetian troops quickly recovered it and successfully defended Padua during siege by Imperial troops. (Siege of Padua). The city was governed by two Venetian nobles, a podestà for civil and a captain for military affairs. Each was elected for sixteen months. Under these governors, the great and small councils continued to discharge municipal business and to administer the Paduan law, contained in the statutes of 1276 and 1362. The treasury was managed by two chamberlains; and every five years the Paduans sent one of their nobles to reside as nuncio in Venice, and to watch the interests of his native town.
Venice fortified Padua with new walls, built between 1507 and 1544, with a series of monumental gates.
Austrian rule
In 1797 the Venetian Republic was wiped off the map by the Treaty of Campo Formio, and Padua was ceded to the Austrian Empire; then in 1806 the city passed to the French puppet Kingdom of Italy. After the fall of Napoleon, in 1814, the city became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, part of the Austrian empire.
The Austrians were unpopular with progressive circles in northern Italy, but the feelings of the population (from the lower to the upper classes) towards the Austrian rule were mixed. In Padua, the year of revolutions of 1848 saw a student revolt which on 8 February turned the University and the Caffè Pedrocchi into battlegrounds in which students and ordinary Paduans fought side by side. The revolt was however short-lived, and there were no other unrests under the Austrian Empire (nor previously had there been any), as in Venice or in other parts of Italy; while opponents of Austria were forced into exile.
Under Austrian rule, Padua began its industrial development; one of the first Italian rail tracks, Padua-Venice, was built in 1845.
In 1866 the Battle of Königgrätz gave Italy the opportunity, as an ally of Prussia, to take Veneto, and Padua was also annexed to the recently formed Kingdom of Italy.
3837 Wolff3 Padua sc. Nbg. 1834. Stahlstich Neues elegantestes Conversations-Lexicon Dr. Oscar Ludwig Bernhard Wolff Dritter Band Leipzig 1836. Verlag von Christian Ernst Kollmann Kunstverlag W. Creuzbauer
3802 Wolff3 Fürst von Pückler-Muskau Stahlstich von Jules Ferdinand Jacquemart Neues elegantestes Conversations-Lexicon Dr. Oscar Ludwig Bernhard Wolff Dritter Band Leipzig 1834. Verlag von Christian Ernst Kollmann Kunstverlag W. Creuzbauer
Prince About this sound Hermann Ludwig Heinrich von Pückler-Muskau (born as Count Pückler, from 1822 Prince) (30 October 1785 – 4 February 1871) was a German nobleman, who was an excellent artist in landscape gardening and wrote widely appreciated books, mostly about his travels in Europe and Northern Africa, published under the pen name of "Semilasso".
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann,_F%C3%BCrst_von_P%C3%BCckle...
3648 Wolff2 Neues elegantestes Conversations-Lexicon Dr. Oscar Ludwig Bernhard Wolff Zweiter Band Leipzig 1834. Verlag von Christian Ernst Kollmann Kunstverlag W. Creuzbauer Sankt Goar
Hessen- und Franzosenzeit bis 1815
Am 1. November 1527 begann der spätere Theologieprofessor Adam Krafft im Auftrag des hessischen Landgrafen Philipps I. die Reformation einzuführen. 1567 wurde die Landgrafschaft Hessen nach dem Tode Philipps I. unter seinen vier Söhnen aufgeteilt. Der jüngste Sohn, Philipp II., erhielt die Niedergrafschaft Katzenelnbogen, nunmehr Hessen-Rheinfels genannt, und damit Burg und Stadt.
1580 fielen der Pest in Sankt Goar 175 Personen zum Opfer; nur 18 Jahre später, 1598, abermals 142. Im Pestjahr 1598 errichtete Franz Schmoll in St. Goar die Rheinfels-Apotheke als dritte Apotheke in Hessen neben Kassel und Marburg. 1635, mitten im Dreißigjährigen Krieg, raffte die Pest noch einmal über 200 Personen hinweg.
Infolge des anhaltenden Rechtsstreits zwischen Hessen-Kassel und Hessen-Darmstadt über die Aufteilung der erloschenen Landgrafschaft Hessen-Marburg ließ Hessen-Darmstadt mit kaiserlichen Truppen Rheinfels und Sankt Goar im Sommer 1626 mehrere Wochen lang belagern, was schließlich zur Kapitulation und anschließenden Plünderung der Stadt durch spanische Truppen führte. Von 1626 bis 1647 gehörte Sankt Goar darsufhin zu Hessen-Darmstadt. 1647 eroberten Truppen der Landgräfin Amalie Elisabeth von Hessen-Kassel die Burg Rheinfels und die Stadt. Am 14. April 1648 trat Landgraf Georg II. von Hessen-Darmstadt die Niedergrafschaft Katzenelnbogen mit Sankt Goar „auf ewige Zeiten“ an Hessen-Kassel ab.
Während Hessen-Kassel reichsrechtlich die Landeshoheit behielt, fiel die Herrschaft über die Grafschaft Niederkatzenelnbogen an Landgraf Ernst, der am 30. März 1649 seinen Einzug in Sankt Goar hielt und die Nebenlinie Hessen-Rheinfels-(Rotenburg) gründete. Landgraf Ernst regierte bis zu seinem Tode 1693 auf Burg Rheinfels, seinem Residenzschloss, als religiös toleranter, geistig höchst interessierter Herrscher, der wesentlich zum wirtschaftlichen Aufschwung der Stadt Sankt Goar beitrug, die unter den Folgen des Dreißigjährigen Krieges zu leiden hatte. 1692 während des Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieges Belagerung von Burg und Stadt durch zuletzt 28.000 Franzosen. Auch der letzte Sturmversuch wird abgeschlagen. 1711 wurde nach Erbauseinandersetzung Landgraf Wilhelm von Hessen-Wanfried die Landgrafschaft Hessen-Rheinfels zugesprochen, er nannte sich Wilhelm von Hessen-Rheinfels. Der Kaiser übertrug ihm 1718 die Burg. 1731 beerbte Christian von Hessen-Wanfried (genannt seit 1711 von Hessen-Eschwege) die Landgrafschaft Hessen-Rheinfels mit Burg. Die Burg wurde 1735 endgültig an Hessen-Kassel abgetreten. 1755 nach dem Tod von Christian 1755 fiel die Landgrafschaft an Hessen-Rotenburg.
1794 wurde die Festung kampflos an französische Revolutionstruppen übergeben und 1796/97 in großen Teilen durch die Ingenieur-Kapitäne Charles und Bouiller gesprengt. Bis 1813 stand sie unter französischer Verwaltung. 1812 wurde die Ruine als französisches Staatseigentum an den St. Goarer Kaufmann Peter Glass verkauft. Das beim Abbruch gewonnene Material wurde zum größten Teil beim Bau der Festung Ehrenbreitstein bei Koblenz verwendet.
Ab 1815: Bei Preußen und Rheinland-Pfalz[Bearbeiten]
Sankt Goar kam 1815 gemäß dem Vertrag des Wiener Kongresses in preußischen Besitz und wurde 1816 Kreisstadt des Kreises Sankt Goar, der rund 28.000 Einwohner zählte. Ab 1825 konnte mit dem Beginn der Dampfschifffahrt, der Vergrößerung des Rheinhafens und dem Bau der Eisenbahnlinie von 1857 bis 1859 ein wirtschaftlicher Aufschwung erreicht werden, der aber durch die Enge des Raumes begrenzt blieb.
1918, am Ende des Ersten Weltkrieges, erfolgte der Rückzug der 5. Armee vom November bis zum Dezember über die rheinische Pionierbrücke zwischen St. Goar und St. Goarshausen. Nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg war die Stadt zeitweise französisch besetzt.
3800 Wolff3 Berg Olymp Stahlstich Neues elegantestes Conversations-Lexicon Dr. Oscar Ludwig Bernhard Wolff Dritter Band Leipzig 1836. Verlag von Christian Ernst Kollmann Kunstverlag W. Creuzbauer Griechenland Ansichten Olymp Griechenland Ellas Greece Alte Stadtansichten und Veduten (anonym)
3637 Wolff2 Neues elegantestes Conversations-Lexicon für Gebildete aus allen Ständen. Dr. Oscar Ludwig Bernhard Wolff Zweiter Band Leipzig 1834. Verlag von Christian Ernst Kollmann Karlsruhe Kunstverlag W. Creuzbauer. Drachenfels
Der Drachenfels ist ein Berg im Siebengebirge am Rhein zwischen Königswinter und Bad Honnef. Aufgrund seiner markanten Erscheinung über dem Rheintal, der Ruine der Burg Drachenfels, seiner Verwendung als Sujet der Rheinromantik und einer frühen touristischen Erschließung erlangte er – trotz seiner Höhe von nur knapp 321 m ü. NHN – Bekanntheit.
Der Drachenfels entstand durch aufsteigendes Magma, das nicht zur Erdoberfläche durchbrechen konnte, sondern darunter domartig erstarrte; Vulkanologen nennen das Quellkuppe. Schon aus römischer Zeit sind Steinbrüche (Quarztrachyt) am Drachenfels belegt. Besonders im Mittelalter war der Drachenfels-Trachyt rheinabwärts ein viel verwendeter Baustein, z. B. beim Bau des Kölner Doms.
Am nördlichen Hang über der Stadt Königswinter befindet sich das 1882 im historistischen Stil erbaute Schloss Drachenburg.
This extraordinary edifice houses Malta’s finest art treasures and its splendor tests the limits of the lexicon; words like ‘lavish’ and ‘opulent’ fall far short of the mark.
History and Exterior
After the knights left Birgu (Vittoriosa) in 1571, the need to replace St. Lawrence’s Church with a new Conventual church – one for the brotherhood of the entire Order – was of paramount concern. Yet the new building, dedicated to their patron saint St. John the Baptist, had to be more than a place of collective worship: it had in time to be a place which could embody the wealth, glory and power of the Order itself. With tact, Cassar designed a clean but heavy façade in homage to the then austere military attitudes of his paymasters. For the next 80 years, the interior remained as stark as the exterior.
Work commenced in the autumn of 1573 on a simple but somewhat heavy Renaissance-influence plan: a wide screen façade, an entrance between two Doric columns with twin bell-towers either side (the spires of which were removed during the Second World War). The interior was also to be conventional – a single rectangular nave below a great barrel vault with an apse at the northeast end and eight side chapels, one for each of the langues, between the huge reinforcing buttresses.
The church was consecrated on 20 February 1578 and was built and paid for by the French Grand Master de la Cassiere. Other parts of this calmly severe building were added later; the sacristy in 1598, the oratory in 1603, and the loggia annexes in 1736. The two cannons date from 1600 and 1726; the former with lion handles bears the Battenburg coat of arms, and the latter the arms of Grand Master de Vilhena.
The Interior
As your eyes adjust from the harsh sunlight to the muted, even gloomy interior, they are drawn down the 190 feet length of the nave to the altar, trying, and failing, to take in the opulence and the fields of frescoes en route. Nothing quite prepares your for the engulfing effect of such affluence; not even Napoleon’s wholesale depredations have dimmed it. With every election to the magistracy, or even a promotion, a knight had, by statute, to provide a gioia (gift) to the Order’s church. St. John’s and the neighbouring chapels of each langue were lavished with gifts in expensive rounds of knightly one-upmanship. As the threat of Infidel wars diminished, the Order grew wealthier (and softer) and its tastes became more and more flamboyant.
The Nave: The Order’s inherent ostentation was given further rein upon the death of a knight, for only a knight, and then only one of distinction, could be interred in St. John’s. The entire pavement of the nave is made up of 364 tessellated tombs; the earliest, in the Chapel of Aragon, dates from 1602. Some of the symbols are garish and some simple, but each is individual. One of the memorial slabs by the Republic Street entrance belongs to a French knight, Anselmo de Caijs. His inscription translates: ‘You who tread on me, you will be trodden upon; reflect on that and pray for me.’ Annoyed at not being promoted, he apparently took his grievance to the grave. The bronze and marble Baroque mausoleum remembers Italian Grand Master Zondadari, nephew of Pope Alexander VII who was once an inquisitor in Malta.
The Vault: Nikolaus Pevsner, the art historian, states that Mattia Preti’s work depicting the life of St. John the Baptist in the vault of St. John’s is ‘the first realized example of high Baroque art anywhere.’ The work ws commissioned in 1661 by the Cotoner brothers, Rafael and Nicolas, grand masters from 1660 to 1680. The vault is illuminated by six oval windows and divided into six bays, which in turn are subdivided into three, thereby creating one stone canvas for 18 episodes in the Baptist’s life. Not strictly frescoes – Preti painted in oils directly onto the barely primed and porous stone – they took five years to complete. The cycle commences on the left of the first bay by the main door and ends with the beheading, on the right above the altar. The figures on either side of the windows are of individual knights, and saints revered by the Order.
In the sacristy, Antoine de Favray’s terrific portrait of grand Master Pinto, one of the island’s best paintings, is poorly served by the lighting. Painted in 1747, it tells chromatically and stylistically how far the Order and its magistracy had departed from its crusading Hospitaller origins. Dressed in flowing ermine robes, Pinto almost sweats vanity and decadence as he points at the jeweled crown symbolically placed in front of his redundant steel helmet. Other works include the late 16th-century Baptism of Christ by Matteo Perez d’Aleccio (once St. John’s titular painting), the old Aragonese altarpiece of St. George by Frederico Potenzano from 1585, a portrait of Grand Master Nicolas Cotoner by Mattia Preti and a portrait of Preti himself in what is now the entrance to the sacristy there was once a chapel for the remainder of the English langue, which ceased to exist after 1540, following Henry VIII’s break with Rome. Note Preti’s lunette of the Birth of the Virgin. At the foot of the pillar is his tombstone; a grateful Order had made him a Knight of Grace.
The Chapels and Sanctuary
In Cassar’s original layout each of the chapels was gated and compartmentalized; the narrow ambulatory that now exists was cut through the walls on Preti’s instigation in the 17th century. The chapel of Germany is dedicated to the Epiphany. Towards the end of the 17th century Stefano Erardi painted the altarpiece, the Adoration of the Magi and the two lunettes. The white marble altar is the only remaining 17th-century Baroque altar in St. John’s. The chapel of Italy houses the painting of St. Jerome, the second of Caravaggio’s works in Malta. It was stolen from St. John’s Museum in December 1984 and recovered in August 1987 after which it was restored and returned to its original setting. Caravaggio’s startling, almost photographically precise, style manages to convey both the physical and metaphysical compassion in St. Jerome even though the study shows only his face and torso (somehow even St. Jerome’s ever-present talisman, the skull, appears benign). By comparison, Preti’s refined altarpiece of the Italian knights’ patron saint, St. Catherin, and the black marble mausoleum of Grand Master Carafa, pale into undeserved insignificance.
The chapel of France, dedicated to St. Paul, was ‘restored’ in the 1840s by those who wished to purify Christian art and eradicate the Baroque legacies. The walls and altar were changed and the only principal work to survive is Preti’s altarpiece. The mausoleums are a languidly reclining Vicomte de Beaujolais, brother of the future King Louis Philippe, Grand Masters de Rohan and Adrien de Wignacourt, and his brother Marquis Giochim de Wignacourt. All except for the Vicomte’s (and possibly the Marquis’s) were badly ‘altered’ during the anti-Baroque purges. The chapel of Provence is dedicated to St. Michael; Provence was the most senior of the langues. The imperial eagle, from Grand Master Lascaris’s arms, is on the wall and he and his predecessor, Grand Master de Paule, are both interred here. Their inlaid mausoleums are typically ornate. Stairs down to the crypt are to the right as you face the Anglo-Bavarian Chapel, also known as the Chapel of the Relics. Essentially a large niche, it was given to the langue in 1784 and held the principal collection of the knight’s reliquaries until Napoleon stole them. The bronze gates are from the next chapel, on the other side of the Sanctuary, Philermos. The old wooden figurehead of St. John is said to have come from the Grand Carrack in which the knights sailed from Rhodes, and this piece evidently had no cash value to Napoleon.
The Grand Masters’ Crypt is not always open and houses the mausoleums of the grand masters who reigned from 1522 to 1623, including de la Valette and de L’Isle Adam. The only memorial here to a knight below the rank of grand master is dedicated to Sir Oliver Starkey, de la Valette’s loyal English secretary – a great honour. At the east end of the south aisle is the chapel of Our Lady of Philermos, also known as the Blessed Sacrament, and a much-venerated chapel. The most important remaining work is the Renaissance Cross dating from 1532. Tradition says the silver gates – a gift in 1752 from two knights – were painted black to resemble coarse iron when Napoleon was looting St. John’s for his war chest. If true, the ruse worked. In the chapel of Auvergne the only mausoleum belongs to Grand Master de Chattes Gessan, whose distinction comes from having had the briefest reign of any grand master, less than four months in 1660. The altarpiece between exaggerated barley-twist columns is of The Martyrdom of St. Sebastian, to whom the chapel is dedicated.
The chapel of Aragon is the finest of the chapels and dedicated to St. George. Preti’s altarpiece of St. George was the artist’s calling card (from Naples) to Grand Master de Redin in 1658, which won him the coveted commission of decorating the vault of St. John’s. All the paintings in the chapel, including the lunette of poor St. Lawrence about the be griddled to death, are by Preti and encapsulate a decade of his work. The four grand masters’ mausoleums are ranged in chronological order: de Redin, Nicolas Cotoner, his brother Rafael and Perellos. Note the exuberant Florentine sculpture on Nicolas Cotoner’s, where the whole mass of military paraphernalia is supported by two buckling slaves – predictably North African and Levantine. A somber bust of Perellos sits above Mazzuoli’s figures of Charity and Justice on his monument.
The chapel of castile et Leon is dedicated to St. James, and the altarpiece is one of Preti’s last works. De Vilhena’s splendid bronze mausoleum (note him inspecting plans of Fort Manoel in relief on the front) is in contrast to the surprisingly classical and restrained monument to Grand Master Pinto. The oval mosaic of Pinto was taken from one of de Favray’s works. Following liturgical changes in the mid-17th century the sanctuary was balustrade off and the layout altered. The high altar is made of lapis lazuli and other semiprecious stones. The fine 16th-century Flemish bronze lecterns were a gift form the Duke of Lorraine, and Grand Master Garzes contributed the walnut choir stalls. The huge Baroque sculpture of the Baptism of Christ dates from the end of the 17th century. Above, in the apse, Preti painted St. John in Heaven.
Dlr Lexicon is the official name for the Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown library and cultural centre, which opened to the public late last year.
The building became a highly debated issue in Dun Laoghaire asd was criticised as being a “monstrosity”.
DLR Lexicon is structured in vertical layers, from a staff basement to a peak 29 metres above street level. It includes adult, children's, and audiovisual lending libraries with 24-hour automated teller machines for lending and returns; general and local history reference libraries; archives, and library administration offices. There are large open spaces, smaller reading rooms, meeting rooms, an art gallery and workshop, and a performance space and auditorium. A Brambles Café concession on the lower level opens onto a terrace in Moran Park.