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7 Ways Toward Successful Student Social Media Involvement
PST Poster Sessions Track
Tuesday,
3:30
–
5:00
PM
As social media visionary Vanilla Ice once said, the keys to Web 2.0 success are to "Stop! Collaborate and listen!" By stopping to collaborate with and listen to our students and future students, SUNY Oswego has built an increasingly user-centered social media presence. How do we involve students in managing, creating and influencing what we do? Let me count the ways: 1. Student bloggers; 2. Interns managing the Facebook page and class of 2010 groups; 3. Twitter guides; 4. Flickr photosets; 5. YouTube videos; 6. Geosocial: i.e. FourSquare/Gowalla stops; 7. Feedback loops and focus groups.
Presenter
Tim Nekritz
Director of Web Communication, SUNY Oswego
Tim serves as Director of Web Communication at SUNY Oswego after spending the last several years as chief content editor of oswego.edu, canary in the coal mine for all social media efforts, coordinator of student bloggers, and much more.
Drawing is a form of visual art in which a person uses various drawing instruments to mark paper or another two-dimensional medium. Instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoal, chalk, pastels, various kinds of erasers, markers, styluses, various metals (such as silverpoint) and electronic drawing.
A drawing instrument releases small amount of material onto a surface, leaving a visible mark. The most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials, such as cardboard, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, may be used. Temporary drawings may be made on a blackboard or whiteboard or indeed almost anything. The medium has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating visual ideas.[1] The wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities.
In addition to its more artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercial illustration, animation, architecture, engineering and technical drawing. A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as a finished work, is sometimes called a sketch. An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, draftsman or a draughtsman.[2]
Drawing is one of the major forms of expression within the visual arts. It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, where the accurate representation of the visual world is expressed upon a plane surface.[3] Traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour,[4] while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting. In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks. Dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings. Drawing may be done with a liquid medium, applied with brushes or pens. Similar supports likewise can serve both: painting generally involves the application of liquid paint onto prepared canvas or panels, but sometimes an underdrawing is drawn first on that same support.
Madame Palmyre with Her Dog, 1897. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
Galileo Galilei. Phases of the Moon. 1616.
Drawing is often exploratory, with considerable emphasis on observation, problem-solving and composition. Drawing is also regularly used in preparation for a painting, further obfuscating their distinction. Drawings created for these purposes are called studies.
There are several categories of drawing, including figure drawing, cartooning, doodling, free hand and shading. There are also many drawing methods, such as line drawing, stippling, shading, the surrealist method of entopic graphomania (in which dots are made at the sites of impurities in a blank sheet of paper, and lines are then made between the dots), and tracing (drawing on a translucent paper, such as tracing paper, around the outline of preexisting shapes that show through the paper).
A quick, unrefined drawing may be called a sketch.
In fields outside art, technical drawings or plans of buildings, machinery, circuitry and other things are often called "drawings" even when they have been transferred to another medium by printing.
History[edit]
Drawing as a Form of Communication Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression, with evidence for its existence preceding that of written communication.[5] It is believed that drawing was used as a specialised form of communication before the invent of the written language,[5][6] demonstrated by the production of cave and rock paintings created by Homo sapiens sapiens around 30,000 years ago.[7] These drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts.[8] The sketches and paintings produced in prehistoric times were eventually stylised and simplified, leading to the development of the written language as we know it today.
Drawing in the Arts Drawing is used to express one's creativity, and therefore has been prominent in the world of art. Throughout much of history, drawing was regarded as the foundation for artistic practise.[9] Initially, artists used and reused wooden tablets for the production of their drawings.[10] Following the widespread availability of paper in the 14th century, the use of drawing in the arts increased. At this point, drawing was commonly used as a tool for thought and investigation, acting as a study medium whilst artists were preparing for their final pieces of work.[11][12] In a period of artistic flourish, the Renaissance brought about drawings exhibiting realistic representational qualities,[13] where there was a lot of influence from geometry and philosophy.[14]
The invention of the first widely available form of photography led to a shift in the use of drawing in the arts.[15] Photography took over from drawing as a more superior method for accurately representing visual phenomena, and artists began to abandon traditional drawing practises.[16] Modernism in the arts encouraged "imaginative originality"[17] and artists' approach to drawing became more abstract.
Drawing Outside the Arts Although the use of drawing is extensive in the arts, its practice is not confined purely to this field. Before the widespread availability of paper, 12th century monks in European monasteries used intricate drawings to prepare illustrated, illuminated manuscripts on vellum and parchment. Drawing has also been used extensively in the field of science, as a method of discovery, understanding and explanation. In 1616, astronomer Galileo Galilei explained the changing phases of the moon through his observational telescopic drawings.[16] Additionally, in 1924, geophysicist Alfred Wegener used illustrations to visually demonstrate the origin of the continents.The medium is the means by which ink, pigment or color are delivered onto the drawing surface. Most drawing media are either dry (e.g. graphite, charcoal, pastels, Conté, silverpoint), or use a fluid solvent or carrier (marker, pen and ink). Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencils, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded) invisible ink. Metalpoint drawing usually employs either of two metals: silver or lead.[20] More rarely used are gold, platinum, copper, brass, bronze, and tinpoint.
Paper comes in a variety of different sizes and qualities, ranging from newspaper grade up to high quality and relatively expensive paper sold as individual sheets.[21] Papers can vary in texture, hue, acidity, and strength when wet. Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail, but a more "toothy" paper holds the drawing material better. Thus a coarser material is useful for producing deeper contrast.
Newsprint and typing paper may be useful for practice and rough sketches. Tracing paper is used to experiment over a half-finished drawing, and to transfer a design from one sheet to another. Cartridge paper is the basic type of drawing paper sold in pads. Bristol board and even heavier acid-free boards, frequently with smooth finishes, are used for drawing fine detail and do not distort when wet media (ink, washes) are applied. Vellum is extremely smooth and suitable for very fine detail. Coldpressed watercolor paper may be favored for ink drawing due to its texture.
Acid-free, archival quality paper keeps its color and texture far longer than wood pulp based paper such as newsprint, which turns yellow and become brittle much sooner.
The basic tools are a drawing board or table, pencil sharpener and eraser, and for ink drawing, blotting paper. Other tools used are circle compass, ruler, and set square. Fixative is used to prevent pencil and crayon marks from smudging. Drafting tape is used to secure paper to drawing surface, and also to mask an area to keep it free of accidental marks sprayed or spattered materials and washes. An easel or slanted table is used to keep the drawing surface in a suitable position, which is generally more horizontal than the position used in painting.
Technique[edit]
Raphael, study for what became the Alba Madonna, with other sketches
Almost all draftsmen use their hands and fingers to apply the media, with the exception of some handicapped individuals who draw with their mouth or feet.[22]
Prior to working on an image, the artist typically explores how various media work. They may try different drawing implements on practice sheets to determine value and texture, and how to apply the implement to produce various effects.
The artist's choice of drawing strokes affects the appearance of the image. Pen and ink drawings often use hatching—groups of parallel lines.[23] Cross-hatching uses hatching in two or more different directions to create a darker tone. Broken hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, form lighter tones—and controlling the density of the breaks achieves a gradation of tone. Stippling, uses dots to produce tone, texture or shade. Different textures can be achieved depending on the method used to build tone.[24]
Drawings in dry media often use similar techniques, though pencils and drawing sticks can achieve continuous variations in tone. Typically a drawing is filled in based on which hand the artist favors. A right-handed artist draws from left to right to avoid smearing the image. Erasers can remove unwanted lines, lighten tones, and clean up stray marks. In a sketch or outline drawing, lines drawn often follow the contour of the subject, creating depth by looking like shadows cast from a light in the artist's position.
Sometimes the artist leaves a section of the image untouched while filling in the remainder. The shape of the area to preserve can be painted with masking fluid or cut out of a frisket and applied to the drawing surface, protecting the surface from stray marks until the mask is removed.
Another method to preserve a section of the image is to apply a spray-on fixative to the surface. This holds loose material more firmly to the sheet and prevents it from smearing. However the fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can harm the respiratory system, so it should be employed in a well-ventilated area such as outdoors.
Another technique is subtractive drawing in which the drawing surface is covered with graphite or charcoal and then erased to make the image.[25]
Tone[edit]
Line drawing in sanguine by Leonardo da Vinci
Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light, shadows and highlights can result in a very realistic rendition of the image.
Blending uses an implement to soften or spread the original drawing strokes. Blending is most easily done with a medium that does not immediately fix itself, such as graphite, chalk, or charcoal, although freshly applied ink can be smudged, wet or dry, for some effects. For shading and blending, the artist can use a blending stump, tissue, a kneaded eraser, a fingertip, or any combination of them. A piece of chamois is useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone. Continuous tone can be achieved with graphite on a smooth surface without blending, but the technique is laborious, involving small circular or oval strokes with a somewhat blunt point.
Shading techniques that also introduce texture to the drawing include hatching and stippling. A number of other methods produce texture. In addition to the choice of paper, drawing material and technique affect texture. Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is drawn next to a contrasting texture; a coarse texture is more obvious when placed next to a smoothly blended area. A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones close together. A light edge next to a dark background stands out to the eye, and almost appears to float above the surface.
Form and proportion[edit]
Pencil portrait by Ingres
Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of the subject. Tools such as a compass can be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. A ruler can be used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions.
When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of primitive volumes. Almost any form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic volumes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the primitive volumes are removed and replaced by the final likeness. Drawing the underlying construction is a fundamental skill for representational art, and is taught in many books and schools. Its correct application resolves most uncertainties about smaller details, and makes the final image look consistent.[26]
A more refined art of figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait.
Perspective[edit]
Linear perspective is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions shrink with distance. Each set of parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table, follows lines that eventually converge at a vanishing point. Typically this convergence point is somewhere along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface. When multiple structures are aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms of the structures typically converge at a vanishing point.
Two-point perspective drawing
When both the fronts and sides of a building are drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side converge at a second point along the horizon (which may be off the drawing paper.) This is a two-point perspective.[27] Converging the vertical lines to a third point above or below the horizon then produces a three-point perspective.
Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above. Objects of similar size should appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer. Thus the back wheel of a cart appears slightly smaller than the front wheel. Depth can be portrayed through the use of texture. As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth can also be portrayed by reducing the contrast in more distant objects, and by making their colors less saturated. This reproduces the effect of atmospheric haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground.
Artistry[edit]
Chiaroscuro study drawing by William-Adolphe Bouguereau
The composition of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of artistic merit. The artist plans element placement in the art to communicate ideas and feelings with the viewer. The composition can determine the focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that is aesthetically appealing and stimulating.
The illumination of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features.
When drawing an object or figure, the skilled artist pays attention to both the area within the silhouette and what lies outside. The exterior is termed the negative space, and can be as important in the representation as the figure. Objects placed in the background of the figure should appear properly placed wherever they can be viewed.
Drawing process in the Academic Study of a Male Torso by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1801, National Museum, Warsaw)
A study is a draft drawing that is made in preparation for a planned final image. Studies can be used to determine the appearances of specific parts of the completed image, or for experimenting with the best approach for accomplishing the end goal. However a well-crafted study can be a piece of art in its own right, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study.
Process[edit]
Individuals display differences in their ability to produce visually accurate drawings.[28] A visually accurate drawing is described as being "recognized as a particular object at a particular time and in a particular space, rendered with little addition of visual detail that can not be seen in the object represented or with little deletion of visual detail”.[29]
Investigative studies have aimed to explain the reasons why some individuals draw better than others. One study posited four key abilities in the drawing process: perception of objects being drawn, ability to make good representational decisions, motor skills required for mark-making and the drawer's own perception of their drawing.[29] Following this hypothesis, several studies have sought to conclude which of these processes are most significant in affecting the accuracy of drawings.
Motor function Motor function is an important physical component in the 'Production Phase' of the drawing process.[30] It has been suggested that motor function plays a role in drawing ability, though its effects are not significant.[29]
Perception It has been suggested that an individual's ability to perceive an object they are drawing is the most important stage in the drawing process.[29] This suggestion is supported by the discovery of a robust relationship between perception and drawing ability.[31]
This evidence acted as the basis of Betty Edwards' how-to drawing book, Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain.[32] Edwards aimed to teach her readers how to draw, based on the development of the reader's perceptual abilities.
Furthermore, the influential artist and art critic John Ruskin emphasised the importance of perception in the drawing process in his book The Elements of Drawing.[33] He stated that "For I am nearly convinced, that once we see keenly enough, there is very little difficult in drawing what we see".
Visual memory has also been shown to influence one's ability to create visually accurate drawings. Short-term memory plays an important part in drawing as one’s gaze shifts between the object they are drawing and the drawing itself.[34]
Participatory 3 Dimensional Mapping of Kwaebibirem municipality in the Eastern Region of Ghana.
Photo by Yvonne Baraza/CIFOR-ICRAF
If you use one of our photos, please credit it accordingly and let us know. You can reach us through our Flickr account or at: cifor-mediainfo@cgiar.org and m.edliadi@cgiar.org
This is the professor fang ruida in world history and the history of the universe and Integral International Symposium lecture report was the subject of lectures and academic exchange reports. From the natural sciences , the universe, the human to the world development trend of history and the world of human society future and may go , important questions the evolution of the world situation in the world competition and the world order , universe, the evolution of human society development and evolution , etc. , clearly beyond the mere Category important issue academic scientific research , but directly related to the future of the world and the final outcome of the universe and other human mankind are extremely attention and study , but also involves the foreseeable future world peace , world politics , world economy , the world's military , world religion, world culture , world science and technology , human rights , and so the development trend. It was mainly international academic exchanges , and world-renowned think tank to provide research information. Now published the full text to readers .
Ceci est le professeur Fang Ruida dans l'histoire du monde et de l'histoire de l'univers et Integral rapport de conférence Symposium international a fait l'objet de conférences et de rapports d'échanges universitaires. A partir des sciences naturelles, l'univers, l'homme à la tendance du développement mondial de l'histoire et le monde de l'avenir de la société humaine et peuvent aller, des questions importantes de l'évolution de la situation mondiale dans la compétition mondiale et l'ordre du monde, l'univers, l'évolution de la développement de la société et de l'évolution, etc., bien au-delà de la simple catégorie importante question de la recherche scientifique universitaire humaine, mais directement liée à l'avenir du monde et le résultat final de l'univers et d'autres l'humanité humaine sont extrêmement attention et d'étude, mais implique aussi le avenir prévisible paix dans le monde, la politique mondiale, l'économie mondiale, l'armée du monde, la religion du monde, la culture mondiale, la science et de la technologie mondiale, les droits de l'homme, et ainsi la tendance de développement. Ce sont surtout les échanges universitaires internationaux, et de renommée mondiale de réflexion pour fournir des informations de recherche. Maintenant publié le texte intégral pour les lecteurs.
Это профессор Fang Ruida в мировой истории и истории Вселенной и интегрального доклада лекции Международный симпозиум был предметом лекций и научных докладов по обмену. Из естественных наук, вселенной, человек с тенденцией развития мировой истории, и мир будущего человеческого общества и может идти, важные вопросы эволюции мировой ситуации в мировой конкуренции и мирового порядка, вселенной, эволюция человеческого развития общества и эволюция, и т.д., явно выходит за пределы просто Категория важный вопрос академических научных исследований, но и непосредственно связано с будущим мира и конечный результат вселенной и другого человеческого человечества чрезвычайно внимания и изучения, но и вовлекает обозримое будущее мира во всем мире, мировая политика, мировая экономика, мировой военный, мировая религия, мировая культура, мировая наука и техника, права человека, и поэтому тенденция развития. В основном международные академические обмены, а также всемирно известный мозговой центр, чтобы обеспечить исследовательскую информацию. Теперь опубликовала полный текст для читателей.//
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Natural history of universe history // // // human history, world history --- Research Overview
Chronology of World History (Natural universe, the earth, the human world, life) // New geological new astronomical - chronological universe
Historical records and research according to the World, World History, the history of world civilization, chronicle world events, as well as natural history, earth history, history of the universe, geological history, biological history and the like.
World History books have a lot of authority, the United States, Britain, Russia, Europe, middle country have similar universal history masterpiece. Scroll a few million words, it is worth intensive reading. Shanfanjiujian this article, a brief description of some of the problems, as superficial academic exchanges.
Chronology of World History
About 300,400 million years ago: humans appeared on earth.
About 200,300 --1 million years ago: Palaeolithic humans. Chipped stone popular, has been the use of fire
Collection industry, descent and family matriarchal commune produced.
BC 3 - 1 million years ago: the primitive religion appears.
About 12,000 BC - 4000 BC: Stone Age humans. Invention and using a bow, fine stone widely used hunting industry.
From about 8000 BC - Former 2000: mankind has entered the Neolithic Age. Popular burnishing stone, there have been primitive agriculture and animal husbandry
. Matriarchal commune prosperity.
6000 BC: Asia Minor appeared linen and wool fabrics.
Circa 6000 - 1000 BC: ancient Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other places were primitive and ancient religions
Teach prevalent.
BC 4000 - 3000 BC: Ancient Egypt, Southwest Asia, Southern Europe, Central Europe and China and other places have started to use copper ore.
3500 BC - 3100 years ago: in ancient Mesopotamia Uruk period. It appears pottery wheel pottery and ziggurat building, creating a cuneiform. Gouy
And national (Nome) is formed. It appeared hieroglyphics.
3500 BC - 3000 BC: Ancient Mesopotamia residents began to use wheeled transport. The ancient Egyptians used in agriculture plow, harrow
And fertilization.
3100 years ago: the rulers of ancient Egypt conquered Lower Egypt Menes, the initial formation of national unity. Egypt started the Early Dynastic Period.
3000 BC: Ancient Mesopotamia Sumerian city-state area appeared slavery.
3000 BC: Ancient Egyptian appear paddle and sail boats. The ancient Egyptians used bronze mirrors. Ancient Indians invented the stamp characters.
Before 2686 - before 2181: the Egyptian Old Kingdom. Complete national unity, large-scale construction of the pyramid.
Before the 27th century: the heroic epic of ancient Mesopotamia Sumerian era of the "Epic of Gilgamesh" is formed.
26th century BC: the famous ancient Egyptian Sphinx completed.
Europe appears knitting machine.
Chronology of World History "World History, World History." Long and complicated history of the world, some historical facts will inevitably have questions or inaccurate too, need to continue to identify and correct them later modified to restore the original appearance of history.
About 300,400 million years ago: humans appeared on earth.
About 200,300 --1 million years ago: Palaeolithic humans. Chipped stone popular, it has been the use of fire, late extensive use of bone, horn device. Hunting.
Collection industry, descent and family matriarchal commune produced.
About 170 million years ago: Yuanmou Yuanmou Chinese people living in this area, has been able to manufacture and use of stone tools.
{[(See World History, encyclopedias Stavros reason Oceanus: "Global History" McNeil "Rise of the West - the history of the human community" and "World History", as well as W · H.. McNeil's "World History" (1967), Stavrianos "global History" and so on.}
1
BC 3 - 1 million years ago: the primitive religion appears.
About 12,000 BC - 4000 BC: Stone Age humans. Invention and using a bow, fine stone widely used hunting industry.
From about 8000 BC - Former 2000: mankind has entered the Neolithic Age. Burnishing stone popular, there have been primitive agriculture and animal husbandry.
. Matriarchal commune prosperity.
6000 BC: Asia Minor appeared linen and wool fabrics.
Circa 6000 - 1000 BC: ancient Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other places were primitive and ancient religions
Teach prevalent.
Circa 5000: Start with a cold forging method and processing of natural copper southwest Asia and Central Asia. Ancient Egypt has been used and other arms balance scale, the most known
Weighing early.
From about 5000 BC - Former 4000: In ancient Egypt, the sun and moon appear as regular calendar.
BC 4000 - 3000 BC: Ancient Egypt, Southwest Asia, Southern Europe, Central Europe and China and other places have started to use copper ore.
3760 years ago: the first year of the ancient Jewish calendar.
3500 BC - 3100 years ago: in ancient Mesopotamia Uruk period. It appears pottery wheel pottery and ziggurat building, creating a cuneiform. Gouy
And national (Nome) is formed. It appeared hieroglyphics.
3500 BC - 3000 BC: Ancient Mesopotamia residents began to use wheeled transport. The ancient Egyptians used in agriculture plow, harrow
And fertilization.
{5ooo BC before}
Before 2686 - before 2181: the Egyptian Old Kingdom. Complete national unity, large-scale construction of the pyramid.
26th century BC: the famous ancient Egyptian Sphinx completed.
2,500 years ago: the ancient Sumerian Medicine found that mineral water has healing properties, the ancient Sumerians used oil lamps, learn to bake bread and brew beer
liqueur. Europe appears knitting machine.
Circa 2500 - 1500 BC: Xiyaguya said period
Before the 25th century - before the 23 century: in Ancient Babylonians invention of pottery carved on the map.
Before 2378 - before 2371: the ancient Sumerian king of Lagash Urukagina reign,
Before 2371 - before 2154: the ancient Mesopotamian Akkadian Kingdom.
From about 2300 BC - Former 1750: Ancient Indian Harappa culture period.
Before 2181 - before 2040: First Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt.
Before 2017 - before 1595: the era of ancient Mesopotamia Ancient Babylon
Before 2000: - Aegean Mycenaean civilization appears. Ancient Egypt appear library, mummification.
Before 1900-- before 1600: the ancient Greek text appears linear, bronze widely used.
Walsh (William H.Walsh, 1913-1986), British philosopher>
Before 1792 - before 1750: Ancient Mesopotamia Ancient Babylon 6th generation reign of King Hammurabi, will be "Code of Hammurabi"
Before 1786 - before 1567: the Second Intermediate Period of ancient Egypt. Hyksos invasion of Egypt ruled over a hundred years.
Before the 18th century: ancient Babylon occurred farmers almanac, including irrigation, cultivation and harvesting, as the earliest known farmers almanac.
Before 1567 - before 1085: New Kingdom of ancient Egypt.
The ancient Babylonians created a well-developed mathematics and astronomy. Horses start for vehicle transport. UK Salisbury and Wiltshire areas built
Build Stonehenge. Ancient Egyptians used mercury.
About 14 centuries ago: Chinese Pan Geng moved to Yin from Om generate Oracle.
The first 14 - Former 12th century: the ancient Hittite Empire in West Asia.
The mid-14th century BC - 11th century ago: the ancient Xiyaguya said Empire.
About 13 centuries ago: Chinese Shang bronzes heyday. Late Shang Si Mu Wu Ding is the largest remaining bronze.
Former 11-- 9th century BC: the ancient Greek Homeric.
1000 BC - Former 600 years: The ancient Indian Vedic period. Aryan state formation, Brahmanism spread.
10th century - 612 years ago: the ancient Assyrian West New Empire. Iron appeared and widely used.
Top 10 - Top 5 Century: Ancient Indian earliest philosophical writings, Brahmanism classic "Upanishads" formation.
841 years ago
9 century ago: the ancient Greek Sparta state formation.
8th century: the ancient Greek epic "Iliad", "Odyssey" is formed, transfer to Homer. Pergamum invented parchment people in the Middle East.
Ancient Greek first Olympic Games held in Olympia.
BC 700 - 600 years ago: the ancient Phoenicians with suet and mountain ash into soap.
Before 8 - 6th century BC: the Roman monarchy era.
Before 626 BC - 539 years: the ancient Mesopotamia the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom.
Before 624 BC - 547 years: the ancient Greek philosopher Thales alive, the creation of Miletus school.
Before 610 BC - 546 years: the ancient Greek philosopher Anaximander alive.
About 7 centuries ago: the Babylonians found eclipses recurring Saros.
Before 604 BC - 561 years: the ancient Mesopotamia the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II reign, the construction of the Hanging Gardens, destroy the Jewish state.
594 years ago: the ancient Greek Athenian Solon implement political and economic reform, issued the "Code of Attica."
From about 580 BC - 500 years ago: the ancient Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras was alive, the creation of the Pythagoreans.
About 563 years ago - 483 years ago: Sakyamuni, founder of Buddhism alive.
Before 558 BC - 330 years: the ancient Persian Empire and West Asia.
551 BC - 479 BC: Confucius alive, the creation of the Confucian school of thought, the first private school, presided over the compilation of ancient culture finishing. Existing "The Analects
"
.
About the first 500-- 449 years ago: Persian War.
Before 485 BC - 425 years: the ancient Greek historian Herodotus alive.
Before 469 BC - 399 years: the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates alive.
Before about 460 BC - 401 years: the ancient Greek historian Thucydides alive, author of "History of the Peloponnesian War."
About the first 460-- 370 years ago: the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus alive.
432 years ago: the ancient Greek Parthenon, built by the sculptor Phidias decorative design.
Former 431-- 404 years ago: the occurrence of the Peloponnesian War. World military history.
Before 427 BC - 348 years / 347 years ago: the ancient Greek philosopher Plato alive.
Before 334 BC - 324 years: the Macedonian king Alexander the Great led his army conquests of Persia, Central Asia and India, travel thousands of miles, the world's ancient history
The famous military expedition. .
Before 330 BC - 275 years: the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid alive, the "Geometry."
323 BC - 187 years ago: the ancient Indian kingdom of Magadha Mauryan period.
4th century BC - AD 3,4 century: the ancient Indian epic "Mahabharata" is formed.
Before 287 BC - 212 years: the ancient Greek mathematician and physicist Archimedes alive.
About 280 years ago: the ancient port city of Alexandria, Egypt built the Pharos lighthouse, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.
About 269 years ago - 232 years ago: the ancient Indian kingdom of Magadha Mauryan king Ashoka reign of the Mauryan entered its peak phase.
7 years ago or four years ago: According to legend, the founder of the birth of Jesus Christ.
1st century: Greek sculptor Ndiaye Sandra Ross, Nuoduoluosi, 波利佐罗斯 three carved marble statue of "Laocoon."
1st century AD the Roman Empire began
395 years of Christianity
476 years of the Roman Empire split
Early 7th century Frankish kingdom established
622 years of the rise of Islam
676 Japanese Taika Reforms begin
8 mid-century Silla unified the Korean Peninsula most
In the early 9th century Arab empire become
843 formed the Kingdom of the English.
Charlie is not the 12th century division of the empire, France, Germany, and Italy produce prototype
Japan entered the 14-16 century during the reign of the Shogunate
1453 Renaissance in Europe
1453 Byzantine Empire
1492 Dias voyage along the southern coast of Africa
1497--1498, Columbus reached America / Columbus discovered the New World
1519-1522 Voyage Vasco da Gama India
1640 Magellan sailed round the world fleet
1688 English bourgeois revolution began
1760s British coup, the new bourgeoisie and the establishment of the rule of Guizhou
1775--1783 British industrial revolution began
July 4, 1776 North American War of Independence
North American Continental Congress issued a "Declaration of Independence", the United States declared independence
Power 1785 Watt improved the steam engine is made to start a textile machine used / technological revolution, industrial
1848--1849 European revolution
1861 Russian serfdom reform
1861 --1865 US Civil War
Japan's Meiji Restoration began in 1868
Finalize the unification of Italy in 1870
1871 completed the unification of Germany, the German Empire was established
1939.9 Second World War broke out
1
1943.12.1, the United States, Britain issued the Cairo Declaration <>
The United Nations established 1945.10
The former Soviet Union.
1993 establishing the European Union
World History events
Create ancient Egyptian civilization
Old Babylonian kingdom
"Code of Hammurabi" development
Trojan War
Solon
Darius Battle
Battle of Marathon
The birth of Ancient Greek Philosophy / human history, cultural heritage, European civilization
/
Olympic Games / World Sports Events
[Many major events in world history, important people, it is difficult to accurately include all of them. There are various versions of the General History of the World, it is difficult consensus.]
Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire
Establishment and spread of Christianity
"Justinian Code" handed down
Germanic peoples migration
Founding and demise of the Mayan civilization
Collisions of European civilization
The collapse of the Byzantine Empire
The rise of the Ottoman Empire
Hundred Years War
Renaissance
Shakespeare Drama Creation
Opening of new routes
The European Reformation
Copernicus presented heliocentric
Newton discovered gravity
English bourgeois revolution
Faraday invention motor
Enlightenment
Reform of Peter I / Russia
The first industrial revolution
American Revolutionary
The French Revolution
The rise and fall of Napoleon
Latin American War of Independence
1848 European Revolution
Darwin's Theory of Evolution
the Meiji Reform
The establishment of the first international
second industrial revolution
Telephone and radio technology invention
Wright brothers and the birth of the aircraft
Birth car
Krstic invention Train
World War I
Establishment of an international coalition
Einstein theory of relativity
Second World War
The former Soviet Union / the end of the Cold War.
The establishment of the United Nations
New Changes in the third technological revolution the international political and economic new pattern of new trends
Modern society / world economy and world politics / World Military / World Culture / World Religion / World Population, etc.
Globalization - new opportunities, new challenges, new world and evolution
Man on the moon / cosmic revolution, the revolutionary planet, the planet began to society
{{ "The Outline of History" (English) Hz with Joe Wells.
"The Outline of History: Biological and concise history of mankind" (English) Hz with Joe Wells.
"History of Western civilization," [US] · E · Robert Lerner waited. This is a very influential book in North America, three co-historian. The former Soviet Academy of Sciences Editor: World History
"World history of civilization," [US] Philip Lee Ralph waited. 4 co-historian.
"World history of civilization," the Weierdulan. An amazing work. }}
Appears cloning / modern biological technology
Create ancient Egyptian civilization
Old Babylonian kingdom
Trojan War
Solon
Darius Battle
Battle of Marathon
Establishment and spread of Christianity
"Justinian Code" handed down
Germanic peoples migration
Founding and demise of the Mayan civilization
The collapse of the Byzantine Empire
The rise of the Ottoman Empire
Hundred Years War
Renaissance
Opening of new routes
The European Reformation
Copernicus presented heliocentric
Newton discovered gravity
English bourgeois revolution
NYSE / capitalist development
Faraday invention motor
Reform of Peter I
The first industrial revolution
American Revolutionary
The French Revolution
The rise and fall of Napoleon
1848 European Revolution
Darwin's Theory of Evolution
Telephone and radio technology invention
{{Main part of world history events, individual controversial history of the world can be found in general history, world history and civilization classics Encyclopedia of network resources, the world's three encyclopedia}}.
Third technological revolution
After the Cold War new world-changing. Competitive countries in the world, the rapid development of modern science and technology productivity.
Genetic engineering, aerospace engineering, computer and information network engineering, materials engineering, energy engineering, mechatronics, biomedical engineering, agricultural engineering, intelligent robotics, marine technology, military engineering and technology applied to human society greatly.
Competition and conflict in various new challenges, new conflicts, civilization, religion, nationality, culture, etc. followed, the world order is facing change and innovation, a serious challenge to the consolidation and development of the turmoil in the world order - Transformation ago Row.
Humans - primates
Primates - physiological characteristics {evolutionary / biological human primate evolution, comparative study}
Primates primate skull
In primates inhabit trees common features, there are many differences. Including the holding force needed collarbone in the chest ribs, all angles to ensure freedom of movement of the shoulder, in front of the fingers, nails, touch sensitive finger (toe) end, the tendency smell degradation, the number of teeth is relatively degraded, complex visual system (visual sensitivity and color sense), and trunk disproportionate brain, the cerebral cortex expanded pairs of mammary gland, a common child, a longer gestation period and the like.
Usually highly social primates, and there is hierarchy. Pliocene period began monogamous primates, and form a stable patriarchal society.
Primate head has two eyes forward: This binocular can provide an accurate sense of distance. There are towering above the orbital brow.
There is a huge dome on primate skull - skull, which was unusual in its class. Skull protects the brain following the same difference. Human cranial cavity volume (space inside the skull) than non-human primates should be three times the largest cranial cavity, which show that humans have larger brains. The average human cranial volume is 1201 cubic centimeters, while gorillas are 469 cm3, 400 cm3 chimps, orangutans is 397 cubic centimeters. The primary direction of primate evolution is the brain, especially the neocortex. According to anthropologists and geneticists concluded that the evolution and mutation of the human brain in a few tens of thousand years after part of evolution, part may be degraded. to genetic variation, mutation, cells, enzymes, proteins and the like.
Primates generally have five toes on each forelimb (finger), the end of each toe has horny toenails. Hand, foot and toes very sensitive skin, constitute a well-developed sense of touch systems. Most primates are suitable for the thumb grip objects (opposable thumbs), which is characterized by iconic primates, but not unique. For example opossum there so fingers. For primates, such as finger nails is accompanied by short walk between the ancient trees of the product. Many methods thus developed upper limb walking out.
Primate of all ring-shaped neck sternum very obvious
Snout primates (lower jaw) showed shrinking trend. Technically speaking, the Old World and New World monkeys distinction lies in the structure of the nose, and the difference between the Old World monkeys and apes in the arrangement of the teeth. New World monkeys nostrils facing side, and old world monkeys are toward the lower nostril. Primates with a variety of teeth arranged manner. Hominid molar tip (the last tip) is in the early history of primates evolved, and this corresponds to the original lower molars tip (lower front tip) will disappear. Prosimians has its unique fixed upper lip, wet nose and lower front teeth inward.
Primate evolution and vision compared to most mammals was unusual. Primate ancestors developed trichromatic vision (can see three colors function), and nocturnal animals, warm-blooded animals and other mammals in the dinosaur ancestors of the period is lost in one third of the retinal cones.
Movement primates varied and useful arms, feet, jumping, arboreal, and walk on all fours on land, knuckles and other reptiles. Many of the original monkeys suborder animals vertical jumping and attached to trees, shrubs, including many monkeys, all indri. Humans are the only primates to fully upright.
Female migration system - born females leave the group. Male remained in the original population, while females and the collective is not closely linked.
Male exchange system - females remain in the original group and the males in adulthood Relocate. Allow polygamy society will fall into this category. Such social groups usually slightly larger, common in the ring-tailed lemurs, capuchin monkeys.
Monogamy - a male and a female stable structure, sometimes accompanied by heirs. Family care and social services (such as territorial defense) the work is divided into two sides. Parents will leave the territory after adult children. Such a society is more typical gibbon groups. However, where monogamy is not faithful representation of life.
Lonely type (for female) - together with the male will protect their territory, and which will include several female areas of activity. Such structures are found in apes.
Primates
Primate slower growth than other mammals. In addition to humans, primates cubs all rely on breastfeeding transfer of nutrients by the mother to protect, guide and support. Some species are also males, particularly his father, in charge of children's activities and safety. Other family members. encyclopedia site Wikipedia, Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Americana and other information sites.]>
Primate mammals than the same size has a longer childhood (from weaning to sexual maturity). These are usually playing in knowledge gained. Later brought to maturity with the same size primate mammal compared to a longer life. And the average female life expectancy is longer than males.
Primate food source is very extensive. Most primates eat fruits, in order to absorb the digestible carbohydrates and fats for energy. However, other primates also need food, such as leaves or insects, for amino acids, vitamins and minerals (trace elements).
Baboon is the only major herbivorous primates. Tarsiers are the most carnivorous primates - eats insects, reptiles, and other animals. {Advanced intelligent life in the current scientific findings in humans with only other similar microbes in extreme environments - Extreme Life may find other planets or large in the universe, however, similar primate mammals in the visible Earth, the moon. Jupiter, Mars may not have even within the scope of these and other higher organisms. even if there had probably already extinct. As for whether within a larger universe, of course, can not all negative, however, there is the possibility, but not too much. extremophiles or other extreme life have then the possibility of a slightly larger universe in the development of change, extreme extreme biological life will produce and perish. everything is developing and changing universe, astrophysics, particle, expressing various forms of expression of life forms also is full of development and change.}.
Cosmic history summary table:
Temperature (K) Energy (eV) time (s) during physical Times
1032102810-44 Planck era
1028102410-35 grand unified era
10-35, -33 soaring inflation stage process
101310910-6 hadron era
101110710-2 lepton era .
10,101,061 neutrino neutrino decoupling decoupling
5 × 109 5 × 105 5 electron annihilation of electron-positron pairs
1,091,053 points nucleosynthesis era of light nuclides generated
400 million years of the formation of the first stars, reionization
Galaxies, large scale structure formation
2.725 3 × 10-4 137 billion years Modern
.
A brief history of the Earth's geology: for reference only, can be found in the relevant research monograph, the World Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Americana, Wikipedia, Wikipedia and other websites on behalf of strata, representatives of the International Geological years.
Archean (AR, Archean Eon): about 4.567 billion to 25 billion years ago
Eoarchean (Ar0, Eoarchean Era): about 4.567 billion to 36 billion years ago
Paleoarchean (Ar1, Paleoarchean Era): about 3.6 billion to 32 billion years ago
The Archean (Ar2, Mesoarchean Era): about 32 billion to 2.8 billion years ago
Neoarchean (Ar3, Neoarchean Era): about 28 billion to 2.5 billion years ago
Proterozoic (PT, Proterozoic Eon): about 25 billion to 543 million years ago
Paleoproterozoic (Pt1, Paleoproterozoic Era): about 2.5 billion to 18 billion years ago
Before Hutuo discipline: about 2.5 billion to 23 billion years ago
Hutuo Ji (Ht): about 23 billion to 1.8 billion years ago
Mesoproterozoic (Pt2, Mesoproterozoic Era): about 1.8 billion to 10 billion years ago
Great Wall century (Ch): about 1.8 billion to 14 billion years ago
Early Great Wall World (Ch1):
Late Great Wall World (Ch2):
Jixianian (Jx): about 1.4 billion to 10 billion years ago
Early Jixian World (Jx1):
Late Jixian World (Jx2):
Neoproterozoic (Pt3, Neoproterozoic Era): about 10 billion to 543 million years ago
Qingbaikou (Qb): from about 10 million to 800 million years ago / tonian (Tonian Period): about 10 billion to 850 million years ago
Early Qingbaikou World (Qb1):
Late Qingbaikou World (Qb2):
Nanhua (Nh): about 800 million to 6.8 billion years ago / Cryogenian (Cryogenian Period): about 850 million to 6.3 billion years ago
Early Nanhua World (Nh1):
Nanhua Night World (Nh2):
Sinian (Z): about 6.8 billion to 543 million years ago / Ediacaran [Ediacaran Period, also known as the Neoproterozoic record Ⅲ (Neoproterozoic)]: about 635 million ~ 542 million years ago
Early Sinian (Z1):
Late Sinian (Z2):
Phanerozoic (PH, Phanerozoic Eon): about 543 million years ago - the future
Paleozoic (Pz, Paleozoic Era): about 543 million to 2.5 billion years ago
Early Paleozoic: about 542 million ~ 416 million years ago
Cambrian (∈, Cambrian Period): about 543 million to 4.9 billion years ago
Early Cambrian
The Cambrian
Late Cambrian
Ordovician (O, Ordovician Period): about 4.9 billion to 438 million years ago (say about 488 300 000 - 443 700 000 years ago)
Early Ordovician (O1):
Middle Ordovician (O2):
Late Ordovician (O3):
Silurian (S, Silurian Period): about 438 million to 4.1 billion years ago
Early Silurian (S1):
Middle Silurian (S2):
Late Silurian (S3):
Top Silurian (S4):
Late Paleozoic: about 416 million ~ 251 million years ago
Devonian (D, Devonian Period): 4.1 billion to 354 million years ago
Early Devonian
Middle Devonian
Late Devonian
Carboniferous (C, Carboniferous Period): about 354 million to 2.95 million years ago
Early Carboniferous (C1):
Late Carboniferous (C2):
Permian (P, Permian Period): about 295 million to 2.5 billion years ago
Early Permian (P1):
Middle Permian (P2):
Late Permian (P3):
Mesozoic (Mz, Mesozoic Era): about 2.5 million to 65.95 million years ago
Triassic (T, Triassic Period): about 2.5 billion to 205 million years ago
Early Triassic (T1):
Middle Triassic (T2):
Late Triassic (T3): geochronology / stratigraphic division
Jurassic (J, Jurassic Period): about 205 million ~ 137 million years ago
Early Jurassic (J1):
Middle Jurassic (J2):
Late Jurassic (J3):
Cretaceous (K, Cretaceous Period): about 137 million years ago ~ 65,950,000
Early Cretaceous (K1):
Late Cretaceous (K2):
Cenozoic (Cz, Cenozoic Era): approximately 65.95 million years ago - the future
Paleogene (E, Paleogene Period): about 6,500 million to 23.3 million years ago
Paleocene (E1): approximately 65.95 million - 55.8 million years ago
Eocene (E2): about 55.8 million - 33.9 million years ago
Oligocene (E3): about 33.9 million - 23.3 million
Neogene (N, Neogene Period): about 23.3 million to 260 million years ago.
Miocene (N1): about 23.3 million to 530 million years ago
Pliocene (N2): about 530 million to 2.6 million years ago
Quaternary (Q): about 260 million years ago - the future
Pleistocene (Qp): about 2.6 million to 1.15 million years ago
Holocene (Qb): about 1.15 million years ago - 1808
Anthropocene (Anthropocene epoch): about 1808 - Future
In the study of evolutionary history or geological processes on Earth, and sometimes do not necessarily need to know the exact time of geological events, but only needs to know the order between them, the only method of determining the sequence of geological events called relative geological time
Geological age and is closely related to human evolution.
Geologic Time Scale: <> light-years, a great span .1 trillion trillion years in 1oo years equal to .1 trillion light years ----- hundred light years distance traveled. astronomical. Encyclopedia of network resources. Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Americana, Encyclopedia of life, Wikipedia and other geological]. " .
Implicit Phanerozoic:
Archean (Ar): 45 million years ago, lasted for 2.1 billion years.
Proterozoic (Pt): 24 million years ago, lasted for 1.83 billion years.
Phanerozoic:
Paleozoic (Pz):
Cambrian (∈): 5.7 billion years ago, lasted for 70 trillion years.
Ordovician (O): 5 million years ago, lasted for 60 trillion years.
Silurian (S): 4.4 billion years ago, lasted for 40 trillion years.
Devonian (D): 4 billion years ago, lasted for 50 trillion years.
Carboniferous (C): 3.5 billion years ago, lasted for 65 trillion years.
Permian (P): 2.85 billion years ago, lasted for 55 trillion years.
Mesozoic (Mz):
Triassic (T): 2.3 billion years ago, lasted for 35 trillion years.
Jurassic (J): 1.95 billion years ago, lasted for 58 trillion years.
Cretaceous (K): 1.37 billion years ago, lasted for 70 trillion years.
Cenozoic (Kz):
Tertiary (R): 67 trillion years ago, lasted 64.5 trillion years.
Paleocene: 65 trillion years ago for 9 trillion years.
Eocene: 56 trillion years ago, for 21 trillion years.
Oligocene: 35 trillion years ago, for 12 trillion years.
Miocene: 23 trillion years ago, for 18 trillion years.
Pliocene: 5 trillion years ago, continued 3.4 trillion years.
Quaternary (Q): 2.5 trillion years ago for 2.5 trillion years.
Pleistocene: 1.6 trillion years ago, continued 1.59 trillion years.
Holocene: 10,000 years ago. All accounts, a variety of opinions, strengths reference reading is not conclusive.
Geological time scale (refer to reading)
Implicit Phanerozoic:
Ancient offerings: 4.5 billion (some say 4.6 billion) to 38 billion years ago, 700 million years duration.
Archean (Ar): 38 billion to 2.7 billion years ago for 11 million years.
Proterozoic (Pt):
Early: 2.7 billion to 18 billion years ago, 900 million years duration.
Interim:
Changcheng Period: 18 billion to 1.4 billion years ago, for 4 billion years.
Jixianian: 1.4 billion to 10 billion years ago, for 4 billion years.
Late:
Qingbaikou: 10 million to 800 million years ago, the last 2 million years.
Sinian (Z): 8 million to 570 million years ago, 230 million years duration.
Wende Generation: 610 million to 6 million years ago, for 1 million years.
Phanerozoic:
Paleozoic (Pz):
Early:
Cambrian (∈): 5.7 billion to 510 million years ago, for six million years. Anomalocaris.
Ordovician (O): 5.1 billion to 439 million years ago, continued 71 trillion years. Great Ordovician radiation (GOBE, occurred in Phanerozoic evolution of a major biological event). Orthoceras.
The first mass extinction: 438 million years ago
Silurian (S): 4.39 billion to 408 million years ago, continued 31 trillion years. Pterygotus.
Late:
Devonian (D): 4.08 million to 362.5 million years ago, continued 45.5 trillion years. Dunkleosteus.
The second mass extinction: 3.6 billion years ago
Carboniferous (C): 3.625 billion to 290 million years ago, continued 72.5 trillion years. Giant spiders.
Permian (P): 2.9 billion to 245 million years ago, for 45 trillion years. Dimetrodon.
The third mass extinction: 245 million years ago, the number of more than 70%, 97% of species. Trilobites extinct.
Mesozoic (Mz):
Triassic (T):
Early:
Yin Duan Order: 2.5 million to 245 million years ago, for 5 trillion years.
order: 2.45 billion to 242 million years ago, for 3 trillion years.
{{See [US] • James Preston with, geographical thought history,
[English] R.J. Johnston of geography and geographers}}
<>.
AD 2,050- year 2, 100-year {according to the development of modern science and technology, the modern world economy, politics, military, religion, culture, education, resources, environment, ecology, population and so many data, rely on electronic computing model, rough analysis of historical development trends in context, focusing on human society and the whole world history evolution and developments, events, etc., but also a variety of scientific and technological research Advances according to generally study the changes in the natural, historical process of the universe and significant nature, and the universe mutations, etc. the main macro situation, roughly evolution situation, not microscopic scene from the time data, the reference data are also large, and the rest can be used as supplementary information. Therefore, the time span is very inconsistent.}
[Humans into Mars and return safely to Earth. Moon base, Mars base began preliminary work.
Marine rapid technological breakthroughs, the development of the Polar breakthrough.
Slow growth in the world economy, changes in the world situation changes.
Human population growth, resources and environment has deteriorated.
Reform of the United Nations / United Nations Special Representative of the Army / Secretary-General of the United Nations / United Nations permanent and non-permanent / United Nations International Tribunal / United Nations presences
States intensified competition, war occasionally occur. Various conflict-prone world pattern of gradual change, the new industrial revolution, technological revolution gaining momentum.
AD 21oo - AD 22oo years
The new mode of production
Slow world economic growth, after the strong boost
Planet revolution, the development of increasingly powerful universe, moon base, Mars base gradually established.
Polar development, ocean development, utilization or modification desert, mountain use
Increasingly powerful technological development, extension of human life, to overcome incurable diseases
When the nuclear threat of nuclear terrorism is still enveloped the world in some areas and hot spots of conflict have occurred, the individual fighting frequently.
The industrial revolution, agricultural revolution substantial progress, national wrestling competition
Increasing integration of the world, the world changes ASDC preliminary molding
Resource crisis, population growth, conflicts, local wars and danger
Enhanced role of the UN and rights. Enlarge the role of regional organizations of the United Nations to further strengthen the role of
Major issues of peace and security, economic development and human rights.
AD 23oo - AD 25oo years
Accelerate the integration of all aspects of the world / world politics / world economy / World Military / World Religions / World Science and Technology / world culture. National competition and uneven development, different, may go hand in hand, it may lead, lead the world, can not be generalized.
New world, a new world order / US., Russia, India, Europe, Japan, Argentina and other developing countries, appearing in a multi-polar unipolar lead unipolar or multi-pole to keep in hand, like a track and field race , long-distance running, sprinting, sprint, as runner-up or tied, but eventually there will still be a leader in the leading pack, leading the world. this hegemony in the traditional sense is significantly different.
Revolution Universe
AD AD 2,500- 3,000 years {post-industrial era. Intelligent modern industry, modern agriculture, a big step forward.
The situation in the world tend to be stable, easing Human society initially entered the planet. Moon man, Mars and other interstellar humanity.
The new economic structure economy / Economy - wisdom, and increasing social economic productivity, production tools, mode of production, relations of production, production resources.
Increased competition in the world. There are occasional conflicts and war.
When changes occur naturally universe, the earth, the moon is obvious. Earth's natural disasters is more common.
Two pole exploitation.
Moon person / Mars / Earth
Year 3,000 AD 5,000 years {human society entered the era of artificial intelligence, alien immigrants transformation shape.
Mankind enters the moons of Jupiter and other planets. Human detectors flying the solar system.
5th, 2000 --- AD 8,000 years
Earth society will also be significant changes and transformation.
AD 8, 2000 - 12th, 2000 / symbol year from now 2, ooo years -1o, ooo years as a symbol of the Earth {the revolution, the revolutionary planet, the universe will completely change the world revolution}
Super wisdom of the ages, super intelligence community came into being.
AD 15, 000 - AD 20, 2000
Wisdom biological robots appear.
Universe and change the planet. Human activity detector probe into the Milky Way and other galaxies. Humanity into other celestial bodies.
Highly intelligent life is found, but a similar extreme microbes. Planet touch state social model.
[Change the planet, the solar system change. Planet Earth and human survival in severe challenges and risks intensify.
AD 30, 000 - AD 50, 000 years {.. Human beings live on Earth, the Moon and Mars and other celestial bodies, planets society is gradually forming} planet survival technology gradually develop and grow, including Earth, Moon, Mars and the solar system are all in change, the planet of the world. survival and development more difficult and dangerous.
Changes in the universe. Planets and social crisis facing the challenges of changing times Earth's humanity, the Earth revolution.
AD 100, 000 - AD ******* years / 1oo, ooo years as a sign of macroeconomic data are used to study them, which is more in line closer to the natural and human history of the real world and the evolution of evolution trajectory image jump. empt a conclusion, clearly contrary to the true face of historical development, misleading and distorted the history and natural history of the world history of the universe.
AD 15o, ooo years ---- 2oo, ooo years
AD 3oo, ooo years --1, ooo, ooo-year history {Annals, 1oo years as a major landmark in.
AD 1,5oo, ooo years --- 2, ooo, ooo years
New geological new astronomical - chronological universe
........... ********** ********* ----- Other omitted from the year 2ooo years ---- 2 ooo, ooo years, the time span has been great, too great astronomical, so far after the fact without connection, the length of the history of the human history of the universe has enough new geological new astronomy - universe chronology, abbreviation:.. new geological new astronomical - chronological universe / NNACU.
<Mutation nature of the universe, the Earth and endanger other planets. Planets and other parts of the universe, explosion.
Part of human destruction or extinction, celestial hazards, biological extinction inevitable dangers and disasters threaten mankind.
Humans to survive and continue to continue to survive in the planet and the universe. Planet survival techniques developed.
<Universe changes and natural hazards, diverse, compared to a variety of disasters to human society hundreds of millions of times stronger human society can survive, whether planet or perish disintegration, explosion, collapse, these are extremely important problems. so, problem solution natural history of the universe changes, or mutations, this is the key. even if mankind enters Mars, the moon, is also facing these life and death problems. (1) Natural Yu Zhou whether the overall collapse and collapse? (2) whether humans have enough wisdom and ability to escape this unscathed (3) the destruction of the universe is inevitable or necessarily has its chance, including (4) remains the most critical are:?.? the destruction of the universe as a whole or partial destruction, what will matter Ukraine has evolved into what? everything is emptiness. If this theory was established, the inevitable demise of mankind and the universe. In other words, human history will end naturally, will declare the demise of the universe. Should the universe there is no overall destruction and collapse, human life or other life will there are likely to survive. this is the article with particular emphasis on the two major propositions. scientific research and scientific reasoning is sometimes very important, but in the end still needs a lot of verifiable data and the like.
A. nothingness.
B. heat death of the universe theory: Heat Death Theory and cosmic contraction theory is opposed to, in this case, gravity is not strong, you can not go beyond the expansion of the universe appears therefore exponential expansion, heat evenly distributed in the universe is cold, dark TLC, the final will be an all-star by one end perish.
C. Vacuum metastability event: Event metastable vacuum exists in the universe is a basic unstable state, the universe we live in a stable edge to swing. Some scientists say the reasoning, the next few billion years, the universe will be at the edge of subversion, then at some point the bubble universe.
D. On the death of a black hole in the universe most substances are surrounded by a black hole, the galaxy is concerned, it contains a variety of stars in its center there is a supermassive black hole. When the stars fall into the black hole or the galaxy "event boundary", they will be disintegrated, in a finite universe, black holes will eventually engulf most of the material, the final residue of a dark universe.
E. cosmic cycle: the traditional view that the universe is eternal existence, in the big bang singularity theory of the universe starting model, the universe is cyclical, it will be permanently sustained expansion and contraction.
F. cosmic contraction theory: The most prominent theory of how the universe is the Big Bang theory of the beginning, at first only singularities all substances present in the form, which is an infinitely dense point, for some reason after the explosion, it is difficult to outward confidence speed expansion, culminating in today's universe. On the large contraction and the big bang theory contrary, gravity will eventually slow the universe's expansion, stagnation and contraction.
"Kepler's third law: T2 / R3 = K (= 4π2 / GM) {R: radius of the orbit, T: cycle, K: constant (nothing to do with the planet's mass, depending on the quality of the central object)}
The law of gravity: F = Gm1m2 / r2 (G = 6.67 × 10-11N • m2 / kg2, directions on their connection)
Gravity and gravitational acceleration celestial bodies: GMm / R2 = mg; g = GM / R2 {R: celestial body radius (m), M: celestial body mass (kg)}
4. satellites orbiting velocity, angular velocity, period: V = (GM / r) 1/2; ω = (GM / r3) 1/2; 1/2 {M T = 2π (r3 / GM): the central body mass }. "
1. Dark energy is too large, too little dark matter, cosmic expansion rate is too large, continue to accelerate the expansion and eventually unlimited expansion.
2 dark energy and gravity of various substances in the universe was flat, the universe will continue to slow down the expansion, the expansion rate will be closer to zero, but can never reach zero.
3 less dark energy, gravity dominates the expansion of the universe will continue to slow down, then stop the expansion, contraction steering, all matter in the universe ultimately shrink back into a point, and start all over.
In the first model (ie, closed universe), the expansion of the universe was sufficiently slowly that the gravitational difference between galaxies in the expansion slows down and eventually make it stop. Then start close to each galaxy, the universe began to shrink.
the first sort
In the second model (open space), the expansion of the universe was so fast that gravity make it slow although some never could make it stop. Nearby galaxies distance versus time. Distance to zero at the beginning of the last galaxies steady speed away from each other;
In the second type is always expanded model, additional space is curved, like a saddle. Therefore, in this case space is infinite.
Finally, there is a third class of solutions, expansion of the universe is just fast enough to avoid collapsing. Distance galaxies started from zero, always increases. However, although the speed of the galaxy apart will never become zero, this speed is getting slower.
In the third category Friedmann model just the critical rate of expansion, space is flat (it is unlimited).
Theoretical physicist noted, human or gradually decay into radiation, after its own collapse completely disappeared, or because the faster expansion of the universe to collapse.
According to Big Rip theory, dark energy will make the structure of the universe distorted, leading to the first galaxies tear, followed by a smaller black holes, planets and stars. Expansion of the universe is growing drag force, once it reaches more than galaxies gather
Another possible way to the end of the universe is called the "big contraction."
If the substance within the universe declining over time, there will be a large contraction, resulting gravitational forces become dominant. Gravitational contraction of the universe leads to the result that stars, galaxies and planets collide with each other, the universe collapse occurred. Theoretical physicist, said some areas within the universe has begun to collapse, the collapse of the universe will eventually devour its
According to Higgs theory, the phase change in ten billion of a second after the Big Bang occurred, resulting in changes in the structure of space-time.
Newtonian cosmology:
1 was observed at any point in the universe, the center of the universe were symmetrical
2 the same time measuring the universe points, density are equal
3 little universe in any other conduct particle measurements relations
About the structure of the universe are:
Gaitian said: day round as cover sheets, places such as chess game.
Ancient Greek and Roman doctrine of original universe
Water is the origin of the universe - Thales
The outermost layer of the universe is never extinguished Skyfire said - Pythagoras
Multilayer crystal ball says - Aristotle
Earth is the center - Ptolemy
Western medieval universe theory
After the Middle Ages, cosmology was included in the scholastic system, know the late Renaissance Copernicus based on astronomical observations long write "heavenly bodies" presented heliocentric. Bruno is further believed that the sun is not the center of the universe, the universe is infinite, there is no center.
The classic model of the universe
Newton's first classical mechanics and Euclidean geometry concepts to establish a system of absolute infinite universe.
Relativistic cosmological model
Einstein November 1915 published a general theory of relativity, space and time can not be pointed out substance alone, they established a limited boundless four-dimensional model of the universe.
Big Bang Theory Model
The expansion
20 years later, due to the cosmic microwave background radiation was confirmed, together with the further development of nuclear physics, the Big Bang model shine, to be recognized by the standard model of the universe.
String theory models of the universe
Gradually developed in the last century, superstring theory, at another point to establish a more esoteric string theory models of the universe, we proposed the concept model of the universe of 11 dimensions.
1, on a closed space model of the universe, we need to understand a closed space.
A closed space from any point of view, do not turn to it, all will return to the same place, the same as rotate about a point.
2, a closed space model of the universe
Closed space universe model rule is half closed space of all symmetric point directional movement at the same rate, the move does not coincide with any two points, and keep symmetry.
Now is the "big bang model of the universe" is called the standard model of the universe. In addition are non-standard cosmological model of the universe model.
Such as: steady state model of the universe, the universe cycle model, film universe, the mirror universe. . . and many more.
A theory, also known as the Big Bang cosmology. Compared with other models of the universe, it could indicate more observational facts. Its main point is that we think the universe had a period from hot to cold in the course of evolution.
Einstein field equations: R_uv-1/2 * R * g_uv = κ * T_uv
(Rμν- (1/2) gμνR = 8GπTμν / (c * c * c * c) -gμν)
Description: g_uv to metric, κ is a coefficient, can be slow to determine the Newtonian theory. "_" After the letter subscript "^" after the letter as superscript.
Meaning: matter energy space - momentum (T_uv) = distribution bends space (R_uv)
Form solution is: ds ^ 2 = Adt ^ 2 + Bdr ^ 2 + Cdθ ^ 2 + Ddφ ^ 2
Wherein A, B, C, D for the metric g_uv components.
Consider the energy - momentum tensor T_uv solution is more complex. The easiest is to make T_uv equal to 0,
2. The field equations contain the cosmological constant term:
R_uv-1/2 * R * g_uv + Λ * g_uv = κ * T_uv
Here Λ is the cosmological constant, which is the physical meaning of the universe vacuum field. Λ * g_uv the cosmological term.
If from
ds ^ 2 = Adt ^ 2 + Bdr ^ 2 + Cdθ ^ 2 + Ddφ ^ 2 [1]
Wherein A, B, C, D for the metric g_uv components.
Here ds is the expression of the degree of bending of space a short distance.
If understood in the physical sense, then, the universe items to the right-hand side, it is:
R_uv-1/2 * R * g_uv = κ * T_uv-Λ * g_uv
In 1929, American astronomer Hubble Hubble's law is proposed from the galaxy redshift galaxies and proportional,
In the expansion of the universe away from each other, he said.
State when the distribution of matter in the universe imbalance, the local structure of matter will continue to expand and contract changes, but the relative balance between the overall structure of the universe will not change.
In 1994, the Carnegie Institute of Friedman et al., With an estimated age of the universe when calculating the rate of expansion of the universe approach, the calculated values obtained the age of 80 to 12 billion a year. However, according to the analysis of stellar spectra, the oldest stars in the universe age of 140 to 160 million years.
Wonderful spiral is the nature of the most common and most basic form of exercise substances. This spiral shape phenomenon for the understanding of the universe has an important role in enlightening, to a large spiral galaxy, small DNA molecules are produced in such a spiral line. Nature does not recognize straight form nature all the basic structure of matter are annular shape of the curve of movement. From atoms and molecules to planets, galaxies until galaxies, superclusters, without exception, no doubt, the vastness of the universe is a big whirlpool. Therefore, the establishment of a "spiral movement patterns of the universe model"
Origin of the universe
About whether the universe and how to initiate the debate throughout the history of the entire record. Basically there are two schools of thought. Many early traditions, as well as Judaism, Christianity and Islam that the universe is fairly recent creation of the past.
Two schools of thought believe that the universe is fundamentally unchanged over time. Because human life - the whole of recorded history is so short, the universe was never significantly changed during this period. In the framework of a stable and unchanging universe, and if it has existed forever or is limited in the long past birth problems.
Wormhole eruption, he said that: in a time and space to open the door of the origin of the universe we now live. In many parallel universe, there is a very ordinary parallel universe, in this universe, the largest mass of a black hole is constantly engulfed other celestial bodies in the universe, its quality is increasing, large enough to destroy all of its gravitational physical form when the energy released completely after the eruption stopped wormhole, time and space the door is closed. And emitted by high-energy particles, after a long evolution, the formation of the universe we are now living; the eruption of the wormhole into a parallel universe that previously an ordinary objects, which is why we can not find the center of the universe the reason.
According to the Big Bang theory, many scientists for decades has consistently supported our universe was born about 140 million years ago. Accordance with the interpretation of this theory, the universe formed in a very small volume and density of great explosive substances 140 million years ago, ejected material particles and energy, it is also since then began after the explosion had time and space mass and energy. Before the big bang happened, neither matter nor energy, of course, no life.
Solar System
The solar system is a system of celestial bodies bound by the gravitational force of the sun's composition, its maximum range can be extended to about 1 light-years away. The main members of the solar system are: solar (star), the eight planets (including Earth), and countless asteroids, many satellite
Astronomers object by analyzing light atomic absorption or release of an object is measured or far away from close to the earth, the light in a unique color or frequency of occurrence. When the object away from the Earth, these frequencies will move on the red spectrum.
Standard Big Bang model shows that the universe erupted from a singularity of infinite density. But I do not know what triggered this outbreak.
Simultaneously.
For most cosmologists, the most reasonable explanation of consistency, in the universe shortly after, some unknown form of energy so that the young universe expanded more than the speed of light. In this model, the universe is a three-dimensional film
Chaos in the celestial explosion, the birth of the Universe, at a certain time or never newborn newborn state, between its internal explosive remnants of interaction, while forming planet has gradually formed galaxies, in which galaxies are in the formation process gradually formed a multi-N Milky Way, the galaxy in which there is a there is a solar system, the solar system has eight planets, one of which is the Earth we humans live now. Earth is not life long ago, when the Earth's relatively far from the sun, in the Ice Age. When getting closer as the planet from the sun, in the solar system most suitable for life in the initiation position, and constitute the material elements of the earth in line with the initiation of life, we received after joining from foreign matter in the universe, the earth began appeared in the primordial seas, pristine ocean began to Earth this hotbed after a long time gave birth to the primitive life, initially the growth of plants, plant evolution to a certain extent, there has been a simple primitive life, primitive life began the evolution of life, which including the gradual evolution of the formation of prehistoric humans. Prehistoric modern humans than many larger head, looks also differ a lot, IQ is not high, can only be regarded as an animal. At that time the Earth has a primitive atmosphere, creating a long evolution of the planet's largest living things -
<Summary of the above, the relevant causes of the Universe, the model - the structure, the initial state of the universe and the universe final outcome, so a variety of cosmological theories and hypotheses, research and forecasting all kinds, have their own achievements, strengths and weaknesses to the decision to choose, locate one, it is difficult. achievements Natural scientific exploration, research is needed to support a variety of research and theory theory, not in the case failed to confirm, then under the broken language, non-judgment, especially cosmology, astronomy and probing depth study would be distant and long process. various theories and doctrines must be analyzed and gain the most valuable scientific certainty. after all, is an advanced human wisdom of primates, in front of the great deep natural universe, it is still very small childish. even then successful scientific discovery, scientific theorem, it is not absolutely perfect, especially humans triumphantly landed on the moon, Mars, Jupiter, etc. after that, there will be more great brilliant discoveries and achievements on Earth - some of the human race on Earth Research will be rewritten or remodeling. this is the correct understanding of their humanity, understand nature, meeting new milestone in the universe. for example, gravity come from, why stars spiral spin structure, the particles are present when the universe was formed it, universe, whether single or multi-dimensional universe whether the same state, different state, the initial state of the God particle of how the state of the big Bang before the universe, the destruction of the universe is matter thoroughly mound did it, human life or other advanced life in the planet and viability of the universe, and so forth. The critical issue is not resolved, other theories and doctrines, it is difficult to justify. Even the greatest scientist is difficult to make their theories impeccable. The final outcome of the universe, or whether the continuation of the collapse, and whether humans can survive the extinction or destruction, the key point is that the universe is still two major problems: 1. The explosion destroyed the universe collapse disposable destruction or periodic repeat? 2. Distribution of the universe with the state, different state of the universe at the beginning and final states, as well as the planet and human synchronous, asynchronous. ? Whole or in part, the evolution of the evolution of this is the essence of the problem, this is the universe - life theory by far the most important issue. Maybe not solve the big problem, it is difficult to achieve a breakthrough progress. Hypothesis no matter how powerful is also inseparable from experimental simulation studies must, otherwise, it will become airborne hug Court. Natural Sciences stressed empirical observation observation verification testing, the loss of these fans will astray. Heliocentric - geocentric debate lasted for hundreds of years, the theory of evolution is carried out hundreds of years of debate, it is proof. Around at 10:00 on June 30th, 1860, the President of the Conference of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, please Wilberforce Bishop stage presentation. He said: "God and the Church is not against science, but can not tolerate blasphemy, insulting human pseudo-science, Mr. Darwin's theory of evolution is the pseudo-science, it is the lack of conclusive scientific proof powerful, entirely hypothetical style, not registered humble hypothesis to support the entire thesis, therefore, religious insight, and the scientific community will not support this absurd theory, "he stressed:." boundaries between human beings and things in the world is clear, a only radish efforts no matter how impossible the evolution of adult "suddenly, Huxley Wilberforce hand pointing to the audience and asks:"! here even Mr. Huxley says he is a descendant of apes, then I would like to ask this gentleman:? ape ancestors that one of your grandfather, your grandmother or that side of it, "Wilberforce rostrum in the midst of applause and laughter, and many people cheered his speech. Next, people set their sights Huxley, at this time, Huxley even smiling sitting next to the President of the Royal Society Brody said softly:. "God has handed him my hand."
Please Henslow announced Huxley took the floor, Huxley said slowly: "If I have to choose my ancestors in the following two: one side is the ape, one side is an influential figure, and this figure but confusion in serious scientific discussions in black and white, sensational, then I will no
Photos by www.RonSombilonGalleryPhotography.com
ABOUT ROAMING DRAGON
Roaming Dragon came to life as two lifelong friends identified a major void in Vancouver’s food scene…the absence of restaurant quality food being served via Food Trucks!
Since launching in June 2010, Roaming Dragon has earned praise for our menus, our involvement as leaders in the food truck revolution, and for elevating the food truck experience across Canada.
Roaming Dragon can be seen on the streets of Vancouver, catering the city’s most exciting events, at a Farmers Market, or participating in charity events.
We specialize in authentically unauthentic Pan-Asian deliciousness. We offer unique interpretations of dishes and flavours familiar throughout Southeast Asia.
Street Food. Catering. Events.
As crazy as it may sound, the Dragon is so much more than a truck that serves food…the Dragon has a spirit and energy of its own!
From the aesthetics of the Dragon to the delicious smells, the music to the welcoming lanterns, the amazing food to our incredible staff…the Dragon has heart and soul.
The combination of food, music, smells, and smiles from our team make the journey to the Dragon special. We’re PROUD of our team, PROUD of our food, PROUD of our suppliers, and most of all PROUD to serve our customers.
We fundamentally believe that you DESERVE the finest ingredients, prepared with care and respect, and presented in unique and delicious ways.
We’re PROUD to know where our food comes from, that it was raised ETHICALLY and NATURALLY. Our team takes PRIDE in bringing you the most INNOVATIVE Pan-Asian cuisine you’ll ever come across!
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This project involves constructing approximately 11 miles of second track along the North Carolina Railroad (NCRR) corridor in Rowan County. A second track will allow trains to pass more frequently, reducing congestion, increasing capacity and reliability, and decreasing travel time between Raleigh and Charlotte. Additionally, the work will involve upgrading some railroad crossings and permanently closing others, extending Kimball Road from Main Street to Chapel Street, and constructing a bridge carrying the North Carolina Railroad tracks over Kimball Road. The project limits extend along U.S. 29 from Airport Road in Salisbury to 18th Street in Kannapolis.
This project is one of three that in total will add approximately 26 miles of new second track along the main line. These projects will provide an uninterrupted double track spanning 92 miles between Greensboro and Charlotte.
This section of the NCRR is part of the busiest railroad corridor in North Carolina. This project is among improvements to the NCRR corridor between Raleigh and Charlotte to increase railroad capacity, efficiency, and safety.
Project contract was awarded in November 2013.
Project is currently under construction.
Constructing 11 miles of second track between Salisbury and Kannapolis.
Extending Kimball Road from Main Street to Chapel Street and constructing a two-track railroad bridge carrying NCRR tracks over Kimball Road.
Upgrading the following railroad crossings:
Webb Road (Salisbury)
E. Church Street (China Grove)
E. Centerview Street (China Grove)
E. Ryder Avenue (Landis)
E. 22nd Street (Kannapolis)
E. 18th Street (Kannapolis)
Permanently closing the following railroad crossings:
Mount Hope Church Road (China Grove)
E. Thom Street (China Gove)
Eudy Road (China Grove)
N. Central Avenue (Landis)
E. Mill Street (Landis)
E. 29th Street (Kannapolis)
Miracle King | Communications Officer Divisions 7 & 9
North Carolina Department of Transportation
1584 Yanceyville Street 375 Silas Creek PKWY
Greensboro, NC 27405 Winston-Salem, NC 27127
336.487.0157 | miracleking@ncdot.gov| @NCDOT_Triad
Consumers Energy employees, family members and friends volunteered to raise money and Walk For Warmth in Zeeland, Michigan on February 11, 2012.
As part of NRC's public outreach, Don Jackson, a Region I branch chief, meets with various service organizations across southern Vermont on May 6, 2009, to explain NRC activities in the region around the Vermont Yankee nuclear plant.
Visit the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's website at www.nrc.gov/.
To comment on this photo go to public-blog.nrc-gateway.gov/2012/04/01/nrc-moves-its-publ....
Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
Photos by www.RonSombilonGalleryPhotography.com
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Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
NRC's Lynnea Wilkins, Carleen Sanders, Diana Woodyatt and Lisa Regner talk to girls in Laurel, Md., about careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, and provide hands-on activities with household items and a rate meter to help students and parents understand radiation.
Visit the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's website at www.nrc.gov/.
To comment on this photo go to public-blog.nrc-gateway.gov/2012/04/01/nrc-moves-its-publ....
In the background, the art of Gothic church buildings of Vienna, Augustinerkirche, la chiesa dell'Ordine di Sant'Agostino, la iglesia de la Orden de San Agustín, l'église des Augustins, Church of the Augustinians (Augustinerstraße)
The Albertina
The architectural history of the Palais
(Pictures you can see by clicking on the link at the end of page!)
Image: The oldest photographic view of the newly designed Palais Archduke Albrecht, 1869
"It is my will that the expansion of the inner city of Vienna with regard to a suitable connection of the same with the suburbs as soon as possible is tackled and at this on Regulirung (regulation) and beautifying of my Residence and Imperial Capital is taken into account. To this end I grant the withdrawal of the ramparts and fortifications of the inner city and the trenches around the same".
This decree of Emperor Franz Joseph I, published on 25 December 1857 in the Wiener Zeitung, formed the basis for the largest the surface concerning and architecturally most significant transformation of the Viennese cityscape. Involving several renowned domestic and foreign architects a "master plan" took form, which included the construction of a boulevard instead of the ramparts between the inner city and its radially upstream suburbs. In the 50-years during implementation phase, an impressive architectural ensemble developed, consisting of imperial and private representational buildings, public administration and cultural buildings, churches and barracks, marking the era under the term "ring-street style". Already in the first year tithe decided a senior member of the Austrian imperial family to decorate the facades of his palace according to the new design principles, and thus certified the aristocratic claim that this also "historicism" said style on the part of the imperial house was attributed.
Image: The Old Albertina after 1920
It was the palace of Archduke Albrecht (1817-1895), the Senior of the Habsburg Family Council, who as Field Marshal held the overall command over the Austro-Hungarian army. The building was incorporated into the imperial residence of the Hofburg complex, forming the south-west corner and extending eleven meters above street level on the so-called Augustinerbastei.
The close proximity of the palace to the imperial residence corresponded not only with Emperor Franz Joseph I and Archduke Albert with a close familial relationship between the owner of the palace and the monarch. Even the former inhabitants were always in close relationship to the imperial family, whether by birth or marriage. An exception here again proves the rule: Don Emanuel Teles da Silva Conde Tarouca (1696-1771), for which Maria Theresa in 1744 the palace had built, was just a close friend and advisor of the monarch. Silva Tarouca underpins the rule with a second exception, because he belonged to the administrative services as Generalhofbaudirektor (general court architect) and President of the Austrian-Dutch administration, while all other him subsequent owners were highest ranking military.
In the annals of Austrian history, especially those of military history, they either went into as commander of the Imperial Army, or the Austrian, later kk Army. In chronological order, this applies to Duke Carl Alexander of Lorraine, the brother-of-law of Maria Theresa, as Imperial Marshal, her son-in-law Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen, also field marshal, whos adopted son, Archduke Charles of Austria, the last imperial field marshal and only Generalissimo of Austria, his son Archduke Albrecht of Austria as Feldmarschalil and army Supreme commander, and most recently his nephew Archduke Friedrich of Austria, who held as field marshal from 1914 to 1916 the command of the Austro-Hungarian troops. Despite their military profession, all five generals conceived themselves as patrons of the arts and promoted large sums of money to build large collections, the construction of magnificent buildings and cultural life. Charles Alexander of Lorraine promoted as governor of the Austrian Netherlands from 1741 to 1780 the Academy of Fine Arts, the Théâtre de Ja Monnaie and the companies Bourgeois Concert and Concert Noble, he founded the Academie royale et imperial des Sciences et des Lettres, opened the Bibliotheque Royal for the population and supported artistic talents with high scholarships. World fame got his porcelain collection, which however had to be sold by Emperor Joseph II to pay off his debts. Duke Albert began in 1776 according to the concept of conte Durazzo to set up an encyclopedic collection of prints, which forms the core of the world-famous "Albertina" today.
Image : Duke Albert and Archduchess Marie Christine show in family cercle the from Italy brought along art, 1776. Frederick Henry Füger.
1816 declared to Fideikommiss and thus in future indivisible, inalienable and inseparable, the collection 1822 passed into the possession of Archduke Carl, who, like his descendants, it broadened. Under him, the collection was introduced together with the sumptuously equipped palace on the Augustinerbastei in the so-called "Carl Ludwig'schen fideicommissum in 1826, by which the building and the in it kept collection fused into an indissoluble unity. At this time had from the Palais Tarouca by structural expansion or acquisition a veritable Residenz palace evolved. Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen was first in 1800 the third floor of the adjacent Augustinian convent wing adapted to house his collection and he had after 1802 by his Belgian architect Louis de Montoyer at the suburban side built a magnificent extension, called the wing of staterooms, it was equipped in the style of Louis XVI. Only two decades later, Archduke Carl the entire palace newly set up. According to scetches of the architect Joseph Kornhäusel the 1822-1825 retreaded premises presented themselves in the Empire style. The interior of the palace testified from now in an impressive way the high rank and the prominent position of its owner. Under Archduke Albrecht the outer appearance also should meet the requirements. He had the facade of the palace in the style of historicism orchestrated and added to the Palais front against the suburbs an offshore covered access. Inside, he limited himself, apart from the redesign of the Rococo room in the manner of the second Blondel style, to the retention of the paternal stock. Archduke Friedrich's plans for an expansion of the palace were omitted, however, because of the outbreak of the First World War so that his contribution to the state rooms, especially, consists in the layout of the Spanish apartment, which he in 1895 for his sister, the Queen of Spain Maria Christina, had set up as a permanent residence.
Picture: The "audience room" after the restoration: Picture: The "balcony room" around 1990
The era of stately representation with handing down their cultural values found its most obvious visualization inside the palace through the design and features of the staterooms. On one hand, by the use of the finest materials and the purchase of masterfully manufactured pieces of equipment, such as on the other hand by the permanent reuse of older equipment parts. This period lasted until 1919, when Archduke Friedrich was expropriated by the newly founded Republic of Austria. With the republicanization of the collection and the building first of all finished the tradition that the owner's name was synonymous with the building name:
After Palais Tarouca or tarokkisches house it was called Lorraine House, afterwards Duke Albert Palais and Palais Archduke Carl. Due to the new construction of an adjacently located administration building it received in 1865 the prefix "Upper" and was referred to as Upper Palais Archduke Albrecht and Upper Palais Archduke Frederick. For the state a special reference to the Habsburg past was certainly politically no longer opportune, which is why was decided to name the building according to the in it kept collection "Albertina".
Picture: The "Wedgwood Cabinet" after the restoration: Picture: the "Wedgwood Cabinet" in the Palais Archduke Friedrich, 1905
This name derives from the term "La Collection Albertina" which had been used by the gallery Inspector Maurice von Thausing in 1870 in the Gazette des Beaux-Arts for the former graphics collection of Duke Albert. For this reason, it was the first time since the foundation of the palace that the name of the collection had become synonymous with the room shell. Room shell, hence, because the Republic of Austria Archduke Friedrich had allowed to take along all the movable goods from the palace in his Hungarian exile: crystal chandeliers, curtains and carpets as well as sculptures, vases and clocks. Particularly stressed should be the exquisite furniture, which stems of three facilities phases: the Louis XVI furnitures of Duke Albert, which had been manufactured on the basis of fraternal relations between his wife Archduchess Marie Christine and the French Queen Marie Antoinette after 1780 in the French Hofmanufakturen, also the on behalf of Archduke Charles 1822-1825 in the Vienna Porcelain Manufactory by Joseph Danhauser produced Empire furnitures and thirdly additions of the same style of Archduke Friedrich, which this about 1900 at Portois & Ffix as well as at Friedrich Otto Schmidt had commissioned.
The "swept clean" building got due to the strained financial situation after the First World War initially only a makeshift facility. However, since until 1999 no revision of the emergency equipment took place, but differently designed, primarily the utilitarianism committed office furnitures complementarily had been added, the equipment of the former state rooms presented itself at the end of the 20th century as an inhomogeneous administrative mingle-mangle of insignificant parts, where, however, dwelt a certain quaint charm. From the magnificent state rooms had evolved depots, storage rooms, a library, a study hall and several officed.
Image: The Albertina Graphic Arts Collection and the Philipphof after the American bombing of 12 März 1945.
Image: The palace after the demolition of the entrance facade, 1948-52
Worse it hit the outer appearance of the palace, because in times of continued anti-Habsburg sentiment after the Second World War and inspired by an intolerant destruction will, it came by pickaxe to a ministerial erasure of history. In contrast to the graphic collection possessed the richly decorated facades with the conspicuous insignia of the former owner an object-immanent reference to the Habsburg past and thus exhibited the monarchial traditions and values of the era of Francis Joseph significantly. As part of the remedial measures after a bomb damage, in 1948 the aristocratic, by Archduke Albert initiated, historicist facade structuring along with all decorations was cut off, many facade figures demolished and the Hapsburg crest emblems plunged to the ground. Since in addition the old ramp also had been cancelled and the main entrance of the bastion level had been moved down to the second basement storey at street level, ended the presence of the old Archduke's palace after more than 200 years. At the reopening of the "Albertina Graphic Collection" in 1952, the former Hapsburg Palais of splendour presented itself as one of his identity robbed, formally trivial, soulless room shell, whose successful republicanization an oversized and also unproportional eagle above the new main entrance to the Augustinian road symbolized. The emocratic throw of monuments had wiped out the Hapsburg palace from the urban appeareance, whereby in the perception only existed a nondescript, nameless and ahistorical building that henceforth served the lodging and presentation of world-famous graphic collection of the Albertina. The condition was not changed by the decision to the refurbishment because there were only planned collection specific extensions, but no restoration of the palace.
Image: The palace after the Second World War with simplified facades, the rudiment of the Danubiusbrunnens (well) and the new staircase up to the Augustinerbastei
This paradigm shift corresponded to a blatant reversal of the historical circumstances, as the travel guides and travel books for kk Residence and imperial capital of Vienna dedicated itself primarily with the magnificent, aristocratic palace on the Augustinerbastei with the sumptuously fitted out reception rooms and mentioned the collection kept there - if at all - only in passing. Only with the repositioning of the Albertina in 2000 under the direction of Klaus Albrecht Schröder, the palace was within the meaning and in fulfillment of the Fideikommiss of Archduke Charles in 1826 again met with the high regard, from which could result a further inseparable bond between the magnificent mansions and the world-famous collection. In view of the knowing about politically motivated errors and omissions of the past, the facades should get back their noble, historicist designing, the staterooms regain their glamorous, prestigious appearance and culturally unique equippment be repurchased. From this presumption, eventually grew the full commitment to revise the history of redemption and the return of the stately palace in the public consciousness.
Image: The restored suburb facade of the Palais Albertina suburb
The smoothed palace facades were returned to their original condition and present themselves today - with the exception of the not anymore reconstructed Attica figures - again with the historicist decoration and layout elements that Archduke Albrecht had given after the razing of the Augustinerbastei in 1865 in order. The neoclassical interiors, today called after the former inhabitants "Habsburg Staterooms", receiving a meticulous and detailed restoration taking place at the premises of originality and authenticity, got back their venerable and sumptuous appearance. From the world wide scattered historical pieces of equipment have been bought back 70 properties or could be returned through permanent loan to its original location, by which to the visitors is made experiencable again that atmosphere in 1919 the state rooms of the last Habsburg owner Archduke Frederick had owned. The for the first time in 80 years public accessible "Habsburg State Rooms" at the Palais Albertina enable now again as eloquent testimony to our Habsburg past and as a unique cultural heritage fundamental and essential insights into the Austrian cultural history. With the relocation of the main entrance to the level of the Augustinerbastei the recollection to this so valuable Austrian Cultural Heritage formally and functionally came to completion. The vision of the restoration and recovery of the grand palace was a pillar on which the new Albertina should arise again, the other embody the four large newly built exhibition halls, which allow for the first time in the history of the Albertina, to exhibit the collection throughout its encyclopedic breadh under optimal conservation conditions.
Image: The new entrance area of the Albertina
64 meter long shed roof. Hans Hollein.
The palace presents itself now in its appearance in the historicist style of the Ringstrassenära, almost as if nothing had happened in the meantime. But will the wheel of time should not, cannot and must not be turned back, so that the double standards of the "Albertina Palace" said museum - on the one hand Habsburg grandeur palaces and other modern museum for the arts of graphics - should be symbolized by a modern character: The in 2003 by Hans Hollein designed far into the Albertina square cantilevering, elegant floating flying roof. 64 meters long, it symbolizes in the form of a dynamic wedge the accelerated urban spatial connectivity and public access to the palace. It advertises the major changes in the interior as well as the huge underground extensions of the repositioned "Albertina".
Christian Benedictine
Art historian with research interests History of Architecture, building industry of the Hapsburgs, Hofburg and Zeremonialwissenschaft (ceremonial sciences). Since 1990 he works in the architecture collection of the Albertina. Since 2000 he supervises as director of the newly founded department "Staterooms" the restoration and furnishing of the state rooms and the restoration of the facades and explores the history of the palace and its inhabitants.
Seen from the deck of the Fano ferry.
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IMO number9753923
Vessel NameMAERSK INVOLVER
Ship typeOffshore Support Vessel
FlagIsle of Man
Homeport-
Gross Tonnage14908
Summer Deadweight (t)9746
Length Overall (m)137
Beam (m)27
Draught (m)-
Year of Built2017
www.vesselfinder.com/vessels/MAERSK-INVOLVER-IMO-9753923-...
Consumers Energy employees participated in the Jackson, Michigan Walk for Warmth hosted by the local Community Action Agency on February 24, 2012. The walk began in front of the Consumers Energy headquarters and more than 255 employees, friends and family volunteered and donated. Funds raised from the walk will help provide home heating assistance to low-income individuals.
Consumers Energy employees participating in the Mt. Pleasant, Michigan Walk for Warmth on February 4, 2012.
20110224, Dr Fred Caldwell, Auburn Veterinarian magazine, Therapeutic Equine Program
at Storybook Farm, involving fourth-year students & our faculty, w/ horses.
More than 25,000 march past the Lincoln Memorial May 3, 1981 on their way from Constitution Gardens to the Pentagon to oppose U.S. military involvement in El Salvador and cuts in social program by U.S. President Ronald Reagan.
One participant, Larry Smith, a 36-year-old Vietnam veteran who lost a leg while service in Vietnam, came from Brooklyn with the Black Veterans for Social Justice, offered his views that summed up many:
“We came back from the war and we still face the same bad things that we left. We fought and died for our country and yet there was still racism against us.”
“Now there is still racism and they want our children to go fight a new war. We shouldn’t be fighting the third world people. Our battle is here.”
About 40 veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, American volunteers who fought against fascism in Spain in the l930s marched with the protesters.
“There are so many parallels between what happened in Spain and what happened in El Salvador, it is frightening. It’s the peasants in El Salvador who are being killed today by the government and it was the peasants of Spain who were killed by Franco, Hitler and Mussolini,” said Maurie Colow, 63, one of the veterans from Woodstock, N.Y.
The loud cheers that the Brigade received “was very moving” according to Colow. After returning to the U.S. from Spain Colow said, “I was hounded out of every job I ever had. My family was put in danger. I was forced to become an artist, literally.”
The Salvadoran Civil War was a conflict between the military-led government of El Salvador backed by the United States and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), a coalition or "umbrella organization" of several left-wing groups.
A military coup on October 15, 1979, led to the killings of anti-coup protesters by the government and is marked as the beginning of the civil war.
The full-fledged civil war lasted for more than 12 years and saw extreme violence by the government forces and from death squads backed by the government.
The FMLN also used brutal methods in the long war, but the massacres were by and large committed by government or allied groups.
A Truth Commission after the war attributed about 85% of the violence against civilians to the government and allied groups. About 5% was attributed to the FMLN with the rest attributed to criminal elements.
An unknown number of people disappeared during the conflict, and the UN reports that more than 75,000 were killed.
The United States contributed to the conflict by providing in excess of $4.5 billion in military and other aid to the government of El Salvador during the Carter and Reagan administrations to be used against the FMLN.
In 1990 the UN began peace negotiations and on January 16, 1992, a final agreement, The Chapultepec Peace Accords, was signed by the combatants in Mexico City, formally ending the conflict.
The FMLN has won both a working majority in the legislature and the presidency in recent years.
For more information and related images, see flic.kr/s/aHsk4kmB99
Photo by Barbara Rice. The image is courtesy of the D.C. Public Library Washington Star Collection © Washington Post.
Photos by www.RonSombilonGalleryPhotography.com
ABOUT ROAMING DRAGON
Roaming Dragon came to life as two lifelong friends identified a major void in Vancouver’s food scene…the absence of restaurant quality food being served via Food Trucks!
Since launching in June 2010, Roaming Dragon has earned praise for our menus, our involvement as leaders in the food truck revolution, and for elevating the food truck experience across Canada.
Roaming Dragon can be seen on the streets of Vancouver, catering the city’s most exciting events, at a Farmers Market, or participating in charity events.
We specialize in authentically unauthentic Pan-Asian deliciousness. We offer unique interpretations of dishes and flavours familiar throughout Southeast Asia.
Street Food. Catering. Events.
As crazy as it may sound, the Dragon is so much more than a truck that serves food…the Dragon has a spirit and energy of its own!
From the aesthetics of the Dragon to the delicious smells, the music to the welcoming lanterns, the amazing food to our incredible staff…the Dragon has heart and soul.
The combination of food, music, smells, and smiles from our team make the journey to the Dragon special. We’re PROUD of our team, PROUD of our food, PROUD of our suppliers, and most of all PROUD to serve our customers.
We fundamentally believe that you DESERVE the finest ingredients, prepared with care and respect, and presented in unique and delicious ways.
We’re PROUD to know where our food comes from, that it was raised ETHICALLY and NATURALLY. Our team takes PRIDE in bringing you the most INNOVATIVE Pan-Asian cuisine you’ll ever come across!
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Schweiz / Berner Oberland - Allmendhubel
Eiger, Mönch and Jungfrau
Eiger, Mönch und Jungfrau
The Allmendhubel (1,932 m) is a hill above Mürren, overlooking the valley of Lauterbrunnen in the canton of Bern. Its summit is easily accessible from Mürren by a funicular, the Allmendhubelbahn, which reaches a height of 1,907 metres. A restaurant is also located near the top.
In winter, the Allmendhubel is part of a ski area and includes several ski lifts.
(Wikipedia)
The Eiger (German pronunciation: [ˈaɪ̯ɡɐ]) is a 3,967-metre (13,015 ft) mountain of the Bernese Alps, overlooking Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen in the Bernese Oberland of Switzerland, just north of the main watershed and border with Valais. It is the easternmost peak of a ridge crest that extends across the Mönch to the Jungfrau at 4,158 m (13,642 ft), constituting one of the most emblematic sights of the Swiss Alps. While the northern side of the mountain rises more than 3,000 m (10,000 ft) above the two valleys of Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen, the southern side faces the large glaciers of the Jungfrau-Aletsch area, the most glaciated region in the Alps. The most notable feature of the Eiger is its nearly 1,800-metre-high (5,900 ft) north face of rock and ice, named Eiger-Nordwand, Eigerwand or just Nordwand, which is the biggest north face in the Alps.] This huge face towers over the resort of Kleine Scheidegg at its base, on the eponymous pass connecting the two valleys.
The first ascent of the Eiger was made by Swiss guides Christian Almer and Peter Bohren and Irishman Charles Barrington, who climbed the west flank on August 11, 1858. The north face, the "last problem" of the Alps, considered amongst the most challenging and dangerous ascents, was first climbed in 1938 by an Austrian-German expedition.The Eiger has been highly publicized for the many tragedies involving climbing expeditions. Since 1935, at least 64 climbers have died attempting the north face, earning it the German nickname Mordwand, literally "murder(ous) wall"—a pun on its correct title of Nordwand (North Wall).
Although the summit of the Eiger can be reached by experienced climbers only, a railway tunnel runs inside the mountain, and two internal stations provide easy access to viewing-windows carved into the rock face. They are both part of the Jungfrau Railway line, running from Kleine Scheidegg to the Jungfraujoch, between the Mönch and the Jungfrau, at the highest railway station in Europe. The two stations within the Eiger are Eigerwand (behind the north face) and Eismeer (behind the south face), at around 3,000 metres. The Eigerwand station has not been regularly served since 2016.
Etymology
The first mention of Eiger, appearing as "mons Egere", was found in a property sale document of 1252, but there is no clear indication of how exactly the peak gained its name. The three mountains of the ridge are commonly referred to as the Virgin (German: Jungfrau – translates to "virgin" or "maiden"), the Monk (Mönch), and the Ogre (Eiger; the standard German word for ogre is Oger). The name has been linked to the Latin term acer, meaning "sharp" or "pointed".
Geographic setting and description
The Eiger is located above the Lauterbrunnen Valley to the west and Grindelwald to the north in the Bernese Oberland region of the canton of Bern. It forms a renowned mountain range of the Bernese Alps together with its two companions: the Jungfrau (4,158 m (13,642 ft)) about 5.6 kilometres (3.5 mi) southwest of it and the Mönch (4,107 m (13,474 ft)) about in the middle of them. The nearest settlements are Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen (795 m (2,608 ft)) and Wengen (1,274 m (4,180 ft)). The Eiger has three faces: north (or more precisely NNW), east (or more precisely ESE), and west (or more precisely WSW). The northeastern ridge from the summit to the Ostegg (lit.: eastern corner, 2,709 m (8,888 ft)), called Mittellegi, is the longest on the Eiger. The north face overlooks the gently rising Alpine meadow between Grindelwald (943 m (3,094 ft)) and Kleine Scheidegg (2,061 m (6,762 ft)), a mountain railways junction and a pass, which can be reached from both sides, Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen/Wengen – by foot or train.
Politically, the Eiger (and its summit) belongs to the Bernese municipalities of Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen. The Kleine Scheidegg (literally, the small parting corner) connects the Männlichen-Tschuggen range with the western ridge of the Eiger. The Eiger does not properly form part of the main chain of the Bernese Alps, which borders the canton of Valais and forms the watershed between the Rhine and the Rhône, but constitutes a huge limestone buttress, projecting from the crystalline basement of the Mönch across the Eigerjoch. Consequently, all sides of the Eiger feed finally the same river, namely the Lütschine.
Eiger's water is connected through the Weisse Lütschine (the white one) in the Lauterbrunnen Valley on the west side (southwestern face of the Eiger), and through the Schwarze Lütschine (the black one) running through Grindelwald (northwestern face), which meet each other in Zweilütschinen (lit.: the two Lütschinen) where they form the proper Lütschine. The east face is covered by the glacier called Ischmeer, (Bernese German for Ice Sea), which forms one upper part of the fast-retreating Lower Grindelwald Glacier. These glaciers' water forms a short creek, which is also confusingly called the Weisse Lütschine, but enters the black one already in Grindelwald together with the water from the Upper Grindelwald Glacier. Therefore, all the water running down the Eiger converges at the northern foot of the Männlichen (2,342 m (7,684 ft)) in Zweilütschinen (654 m (2,146 ft)), about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) northwest of the summit, where the Lütschine begins its northern course to Lake Brienz and the Aare (564 m (1,850 ft)).
Although the north face of the Eiger is almost free of ice, significant glaciers lie at the other sides of the mountain. The Eiger Glacier flows on the southwestern side of the Eiger, from the crest connecting it to the Mönch down to 2,400 m (7,900 ft), south of Eigergletscher railway station, and feeds the Weisse Lütschine through the Trümmelbach. On the east side, the Ischmeer–well visible from the windows of Eismeer railway station–flows eastwards from the same crest then turns to the north below the impressive wide Fiescherwand, the north face of the Fiescherhörner triple summit (4,049 m (13,284 ft)) down to about 1,600 m (5,200 ft) of the Lower Grindelwald Glacier system.
The massive composition of the Eiger, Mönch, and Jungfrau constitutes an emblematic sight of the Swiss Alps and is visible from many places on the Swiss Plateau and the Jura Mountains in the northwest. The higher Finsteraarhorn (4,270 m (14,010 ft)) and Aletschhorn (4,190 m (13,750 ft)), which are located about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) to the south, are generally less visible and situated in the middle of glaciers in less accessible areas. As opposed to the north side, the south and east sides of the range consist of large valley glaciers extending for up to 22 kilometres (14 mi), the largest (beyond the Eiger drainage basin) being those of Grand Aletsch, Fiesch, and Aar Glaciers, and is thus uninhabited. The whole area, the Jungfrau-Aletsch protected area, comprising the highest summits and largest glaciers of the Bernese Alps, was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001.
In July 2006, a piece of the Eiger, amounting to approximately 700,000 cubic metres of rock, fell from the east face. As it had been noticeably cleaving for several weeks and fell into an uninhabited area, there were no injuries and no buildings were hit.
Climbing history
While the summit was reached without much difficulty in 1858 by a complex route on the west flank, the battle to climb the north face has captivated the interest of climbers and non-climbers alike. Before it was successfully climbed, most of the attempts on the face ended tragically and the Bernese authorities even banned climbing it and threatened to fine any party that should attempt it again. But the enthusiasm which animated the young talented climbers from Austria and Germany finally vanquished its reputation of unclimbability when a party of four climbers successfully reached the summit in 1938 by what is known as the "1938" or "Heckmair" route.
The climbers that attempted the north face could be easily watched through the telescopes from the Kleine Scheidegg, a pass between Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen, connected by rail. The contrast between the comfort and civilization of the railway station and the agonies of the young men slowly dying a short yet uncrossable distance away led to intensive coverage by the international media.
After World War II, the north face was climbed twice in 1947, first by a party of two French guides, Louis Lachenal and Lionel Terray, then by a Swiss party consisting of H. Germann, with Hans and Karl Schlunegger.
First ascent
In 1857, a first recorded attempt was made by Christian Almer, Christian Kaufmann, Ulrich Kaufmann guiding the Austrian alpinist Sigismund Porges. They did manage the first ascent of neighboring Mönch instead. Porges, however, successfully made the second ascent of the Eiger in July 1861 with the guides Christian Michel, Hans and Peter Baumann.
The first ascent was made by the western flank on August 11, 1858 by Charles Barrington with guides Christian Almer and Peter Bohren. On the previous afternoon, the party walked up to the Wengernalp hotel. From there they started the ascent of the Eiger at 3:30 a.m. Barrington describes the route much as it is followed today, staying close to the edge of the north face much of the way. They reached the summit at about noon, planted a flag, stayed for some 10 minutes and descended in about four hours. Barrington describes the reaching of the top, saying, "the two guides kindly gave me the place of first man up." After the descent, the party was escorted to the Kleine Scheidegg hotel, where their ascent was confirmed by observation of the flag left on the summit. The owner of the hotel then fired a cannon to celebrate the first ascent. According to Harrer's The White Spider, Barrington was originally planning to make the first ascent of the Matterhorn, but his finances did not allow him to travel there as he was already staying in the Eiger region.
Mittellegi ridge
Although the Mittellegi ridge had already been descended by climbers (since 1885) with the use of ropes in the difficult sections, it remained unclimbed until 1921. On the 10th of September of that year, Japanese climber Yuko Maki, along with Swiss guides Fritz Amatter, Samuel Brawand and Fritz Steuri made the first successful ascent of the ridge. The previous day, the party approached the ridge from the Eismeer railway station of the Jungfrau Railway and bivouacked for the night. They started the climb at about 6:00 a.m. and reached the summit of the Eiger at about 7:15 p.m., after an over 13 hours gruelling ascent. Shortly after, they descended the west flank. They finally reached Eigergletscher railway station at about 3:00 a.m. the next day.
Attempts on the north face
1935
In 1935, two young German climbers from Bavaria, Karl Mehringer and Max Sedlmeyer, arrived at Grindelwald to attempt the ascent of the north face. After waiting some time for the weather to improve, they set off, reaching the height of the Eigerwand station before stopping for their first bivouac. The following day, facing greater difficulties, they gained little height. On the third day, they made hardly any vertical gain. That night, the weather deteriorated, bringing snow and low cloud that shrouded the mountain from the observers below. Avalanches began to sweep the face. Two days later, the weather briefly cleared, and the two men were glimpsed a little higher and about to bivouac for the fifth night, before clouds descended again. A few days later, the weather finally cleared, revealing a completely white north face.: 225 Weeks later, the German World War I ace Ernst Udet went searching for the missing men with his aircraft, eventually spotting one of them frozen to death in what became known as the "Death Bivouac". Sedlmeyer's body was found at the foot of the face the following year by his brothers Heinrich and Martin Meier, who were part of a group looking for the victims of the 1936 climbing disaster. Mehringer's remains were found in 1962 by Swiss climbers below the "Flat Iron" (Bügeleisen) at the lefthand end of the second ice field.
1936
The next year ten young climbers from Austria and Germany came to Grindelwald and camped at the foot of the mountain. Before their attempts started one of them was killed during a training climb, and the weather was so bad during that summer that, after waiting for a change and seeing none on the way, several members of the party gave up. Of the four that remained, two were Bavarians, Andreas Hinterstoisser and Toni Kurz, and two were Austrians, Willy Angerer and Edi Rainer. When the weather improved they made a preliminary exploration of the lowest part of the face. Hinterstoisser fell 37 metres (121 ft) but was not injured. A few days later the four men finally began the ascent of the face. They climbed quickly, but on the next day, after their first bivouac, the weather changed; clouds came down and hid the group to the observers. They did not resume the climb until the following day, when, during a break, the party was seen descending, but the climbers could be seen only intermittently from the ground. The group had no choice but to retreat, since Angerer had suffered serious injuries from falling rock. The party became stuck on the face when they could not recross the difficult Hinterstoisser Traverse, from which they had taken the rope they had first used to climb it. The weather then deteriorated for two days. They were ultimately swept away by an avalanche, which only Kurz survived, hanging on a rope. Three guides started on an extremely perilous rescue attempt. They failed to reach him but came within shouting distance and learned what had happened. Kurz explained the fate of his companions: one had fallen down the face, another was frozen above him, and the third had fractured his skull in falling and was hanging dead on the rope.
In the morning the three guides came back, traversing the face from a hole near the Eigerwand station and risking their lives under incessant avalanches. Toni Kurz was still alive but almost helpless, with one hand and one arm completely frozen. Kurz hauled himself off the cliff after cutting loose the rope that bound him to his dead teammate below and climbed back onto the face. The guides were not able to pass an unclimbable overhang that separated them from Kurz. They managed to give him a rope long enough to reach them by tying two ropes together. While descending, Kurz could not get the knot to pass through his carabiner. He tried for hours to reach his rescuers who were only a few metres below him. Then he began to lose consciousness. One of the guides, climbing on another's shoulders, was able to touch the tip of Kurz's crampons with his ice-axe but could not reach higher. Kurz was unable to descend further and, completely exhausted, died slowly.
1937
An attempt was made in 1937 by Mathias Rebitsch and Ludwig Vörg. Although the attempt was unsuccessful, they were nonetheless the first climbers who returned alive from a serious attempt on the face. They started the climb on 11 August and reached a high point of a few rope lengths above Death Bivouac. A storm then broke and after three days on the wall they had to retreat. This was the first successful withdrawal from a significant height on the wall.
First ascent of the north face
The north face was first climbed on July 24, 1938 by Anderl Heckmair, Ludwig Vörg, Heinrich Harrer and Fritz Kasparek in a German–Austrian party. The party had originally consisted of two independent teams: Harrer (who did not have a pair of crampons on the climb) and Kasparek were joined on the face by Heckmair and Vörg, who had started their ascent a day later and had been helped by the fixed rope that the lead team had left across the Hinterstoisser Traverse. The two groups, led by the experienced Heckmair, decided to join their forces and roped together as a single group of four. Heckmair later wrote: "We, the sons of the older Reich, united with our companions from the Eastern Border to march together to victory."
The expedition was constantly threatened by snow avalanches and climbed as quickly as possible between the falls. On the third day a storm broke and the cold was intense. The four men were caught in an avalanche as they climbed "the Spider," the snow-filled cracks radiating from an ice-field on the upper face, but all possessed sufficient strength to resist being swept off the face. The members successfully reached the summit at four o'clock in the afternoon. They were so exhausted that they only just had the strength to descend by the normal route through a raging blizzard.
Other notable events
1864 (Jul 27): Fourth ascent, and first ascent by a woman, Lucy Walker, who was part of a group of six guides (including Christian Almer and Melchior Anderegg) and five clients, including her brother Horace Walker[
1871: First ascent by the southwest ridge, 14 July (Christian Almer, Christian Bohren, and Ulrich Almer guiding W. A. B. Coolidge and Meta Brevoort).
1890: First ascent in winter, Ulrich Kaufmann and Christian Jossi guiding C. W. Mead and G. F. Woodroffe.
1924: First ski ascent and descent via the Eiger glacier by Englishman Arnold Lunn and the Swiss Fritz Amacher, Walter Amstutz and Willy Richardet.
1932: First ascent of the northeast face ("Lauper route") by Hans Lauper, Alfred Zürcher, Alexander Graven and Josef Knubel
1970: First ski descent over the west flank, by Sylvain Saudan.
1986: Welshman Eric Jones becomes the first person to BASE jump from the Eiger.
1988: Original Route (ED2), north face, Eiger (3970m), Alps, Switzerland, first American solo (nine and a half hours) by Mark Wilford.
1991: First ascent, Metanoia Route, North Face, solo, winter, without bolts, Jeff Lowe.
1992 (18 July): Three BMG/UIAGM/IFMGA clients died in a fall down the West Flank: Willie Dunnachie; Douglas Gaines; and Phillip Davies. They had ascended the mountain via the Mittellegi Ridge.
2006 (14 June): François Bon and Antoine Montant make the first speedflying descent of the Eiger.
2006 (15 July): Approximately 700,000 cubic metres (20 million cubic feet) of rock from the east side collapses. No injuries or damage were reported.
2015 (23 July): A team of British Para-Climbers reached the summit via the West Flank Route. The team included John Churcher, the world's first blind climber to summit the Eiger, sight guided by the team leader Mark McGowan. Colin Gourlay enabled the ascent of other team members, including Al Taylor who has multiple sclerosis, and the young autistic climber Jamie Owen from North Wales. The ascent was filmed by the adventure filmmakers Euan Ryan & Willis Morris of Finalcrux Films.
Books and films
The 1959 book The White Spider by Heinrich Harrer describes the first successful ascent of the Eiger north face.
The Climb Up To Hell, 1962, by Jack Olson, an account of the ill-fated 1957 attempted climb of the north face by an Italian four-man team and the dramatic rescue of the sole survivor mounted by an international all-volunteer group of rescuers.
Eiger Direct, 1966, by Dougal Haston and Peter Gillman, London: Collins, also known as Direttissima; the Eiger Assault
The 1971 novel The Ice Mirror by Charles MacHardy describes the second attempted ascent of the Eiger north face by the main character.
The 1972 novel The Eiger Sanction is an action/thriller novel by Rodney William Whitaker (writing under the pseudonym Trevanian), based around the climbing of the Eiger. This was then made into the 1975 film The Eiger Sanction starring Clint Eastwood and George Kennedy. The Eiger Sanction film crew included very experienced mountaineers (e.g., Mike Hoover, Dougal Haston, and Hamish MacInnes, see Summit, 52, Spring 2010) as consultants, to ensure accuracy in the climbing footage, equipment and techniques.
The Eiger, 1974, by Dougal Haston, London: Cassell
The 1982 book Eiger, Wall of Death by Arthur Roth is an historical account of first ascents of the north face.
The 1982 book Traverse of The Gods by Bob Langley is a World War II spy thriller where a group escaping from Nazi Germany is trapped and the only possible exit route is via the Nordwand.
Eiger, 1983, a documentary film by Leo Dickinson of Eric Jones' 1981 solo ascent of the north face.
Eiger Dreams, 1990, a collection of essays by Jon Krakauer, begins with an account of Krakauer's own attempt to climb the north face.
Eiger: The Vertical Arena (German edition, 1998; English edition, 2000), edited by Daniel Anker, a comprehensive climbing history of the north face authored by 17 climbers, with numerous photographs and illustrations.
The IMAX film The Alps features John Harlin III's climb up the north face in September 2005. Harlin's father, John Harlin II, set out 40 years earlier to attempt a direct route (the direttissima) up the 6,000-foot (1,800 m) face, the so-called "John Harlin route". At 1300 m, his rope broke, and he fell to his death. Composer James Swearingen created a piece named Eiger: Journey to the Summit in his memory.
The 2007 docu/drama film The Beckoning Silence featuring mountaineer Joe Simpson, recounting—with filmed reconstructions—the ill-fated 1936 expedition up the north face of the Eiger and how Heinrich Harrer's book The White Spider inspired him to take up climbing. The film followed Simpson's eponymous 2003 book. Those playing the parts of the original climbing team were Swiss mountain guides Roger Schäli (Toni Kurz), Simon Anthamatten (Andreas Hinterstoisser), Dres Abegglen (Willy Angerer) and Cyrille Berthod (Edi Rainer). The documentary won an Emmy Award the subsequent year.
The 2008 German historical fiction film Nordwand is based on the 1936 attempt to climb the Eiger north face. The film is about the two German climbers, Toni Kurz and Andreas Hinterstoisser, involved in a competition with an Austrian duo to be the first to scale the north face of Eiger.
The 2010 documentary Eiger: Wall of Death by Steve Robinson.
(Wikipedia)
The Mönch (German pronunciation: [ˈmœnç] German: "monk") at 4,110 metres (13,480 ft) is a mountain in the Bernese Alps, in Switzerland. Together with the Eiger and the Jungfrau, it forms a highly recognisable group of mountains, visible from far away.
The Mönch lies on the border between the cantons of Valais and Bern, and forms part of a mountain ridge between the Jungfrau and Jungfraujoch to the west, and the Eiger to the east. It is west of Mönchsjoch, a pass at 3,650 metres (11,980 ft), Mönchsjoch Hut, and north of the Jungfraufirn and Ewigschneefäld, two affluents of the Great Aletsch Glacier. The north side of the Mönch forms a step wall above the Lauterbrunnen valley.
The Jungfrau railway tunnel runs right under the summit, at an elevation of approximately 3,300 metres (10,830 ft).
The summit was first climbed on record on 15 August 1857 by Christian Almer, Christian Kaufmann (1831-1861), Ulrich Kaufmann and Sigismund Porges.
(Wikipedia)
The Jungfrau (YOONG-frow, German pronunciation: [ˈjʊŋˌfʁaʊ̯], transl. "maiden, virgin"), at 4,158 meters (13,642 ft) is one of the main summits of the Bernese Alps, located between the northern canton of Bern and the southern canton of Valais, halfway between Interlaken and Fiesch. Together with the Eiger and Mönch, the Jungfrau forms a massive wall of mountains overlooking the Bernese Oberland and the Swiss Plateau, one of the most distinctive sights of the Swiss Alps.
The summit was first reached on August 3, 1811, by the Meyer brothers of Aarau and two chamois hunters from Valais. The ascent followed a long expedition over the glaciers and high passes of the Bernese Alps. It was not until 1865 that a more direct route on the northern side was opened.
The construction of the Jungfrau Railway in the early 20th century, which connects Kleine Scheidegg to the Jungfraujoch, the saddle between the Mönch and the Jungfrau, made the area one of the most-visited places in the Alps. Along with the Aletsch Glacier to the south, the Jungfrau is part of the Jungfrau-Aletsch area, which was declared a World Heritage Site in 2001.
Etymology
The name Jungfrau ("maiden, virgin"), which refers to the highest of the three prominent mountains overlooking the Interlaken region, along with the Mönch ("monk") and the Eiger ("ogre"), is most likely derived from the name Jungfrauenberg given to Wengernalp, the alpine meadow directly facing the huge northern side of the Jungfrau, across the Trummelbach gorge. Wengernalp was so named for the nuns of Interlaken Monastery, its historical owner. Contrary to popular belief, the name did not originate from the appearance of the snow-covered mountain, the latter looking like a veiled woman.
The "virgin" peak was heavily romanticized as "goddess" or "priestess" in late 18th to 19th century Romanticism. Its summit, considered inaccessible, remained untouched until the 19th century. After the first ascent in 1811 by Swiss alpinist Johann Rudolf Meyer, the peak was jokingly referred to as "Mme Meyer" (Mrs. Meyer).
Geographic setting
Politically, the Jungfrau (and its massif) is split between the municipalities of Lauterbrunnen (Bern) and Fieschertal (Valais). It is the third-highest mountain of the Bernese Alps after the nearby Finsteraarhorn and Aletschhorn, respectively 12 and 8 km (7.5 and 5 mi) away. But from Lake Thun, and the greater part of the canton of Bern, it is the most conspicuous and the nearest of the Bernese Oberland peaks; with a height difference of 3,600 m (11,800 ft) between the summit and the town of Interlaken. This, and the extreme steepness of the north face, secured for it an early reputation for inaccessibility.
The Jungfrau is the westernmost and highest point of a gigantic 10 km (6.2 mi) wall dominating the valleys of Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald. The wall is formed by the alignment of some of the biggest north faces in the Alps, with the Mönch (4,107 m or 13,474 ft) and Eiger (3,967 m or 13,015 ft) to the east of the Jungfrau, and overlooks the valleys to its north by a height of up to 3 km (1.9 mi). The Jungfrau is approximately 6 km (3.7 mi) from the Eiger; with the summit of the Mönch between the two mountains, 3.5 km (2.2 mi) from the Jungfrau. The Jungfraujoch is the saddle between the Jungfrau and the Mönch and the Eigerjoch is the saddle between the Mönch and the Eiger. The wall is extended to the east by the Fiescherwand and to the west by the Lauterbrunnen Wall, although it follows different directions from the Jungfrau and the Eiger.
The difference of altitude between the deep valley of Lauterbrunnen (800 m or 2,600 ft) and the summit is particularly visible from the area of Mürren. From the valley floor, west of the massif, the altitude gain is more than 3 km (1.9 mi) for a horizontal distance of 4 km (2.5 mi).
The landscapes around the Jungfrau are extremely contrasted. In contrast to the vertiginous precipices of its northwest, the mountain's southeastern side emerges from the upper snows of the Jungfraufirn, one of the main feeders of the Aletsch Glacier, at around 3,500 meters (11,500 ft). The 20-kilometer-long (12 mi) valley of Aletsch on the southeast is completely uninhabited, and is surrounded by neighboring valleys with similar landscapes. The area as a whole constitutes the largest glaciated area not just in the Alps, but in Europe as well.
Climbing history
In 1811, the brothers Johann Rudolf (1768–1825) and Hieronymus Meyer, sons of Johann Rudolf Meyer (1739–1813), the head of a rich merchant family of Aarau, along with several servants and a porter picked up at Guttannen, first reached the Valais by way of the Grimsel, and crossed the Beich Pass, a glacier pass over the Oberaletsch Glacier, to the head of the Lötschen valley. There, they added two local chamois hunters, Alois Volken and Joseph Bortis, to their party and traversed the Lötschenlücke before reaching the Aletschfirn (the west branch of the Aletsch Glacier), where they established the base camp, north of the Aletschhorn. After the Guttannen porter was sent back alone over the Lötschenlücke, the party finally reached the summit of the Jungfrau by the Rottalsattel on August 3. They then recrossed the two passes named to their point of departure in Valais, and went home again over the Grimsel.
The journey was a most extraordinary one for the time, and some persons threw doubts at its complete success. To settle these, another expedition was undertaken in 1812. In this the two sons, Rudolf (1791–1833) and Gottlieb (1793–1829), of Johann Rudolf Meyer, played the chief parts. After an unsuccessful attempt, defeated by bad weather, in the course of which the Oberaarjoch was crossed twice (this route being much more direct than the long detour through the Lötschental), Rudolf, with the two Valais hunters (Alois Volker and Joseph Bortis), a Guttannen porter named Arnold Abbühl, and a Hasle man, bivouacked on a depression on the southeast ridge of the Finsteraarhorn. Next day (August 16) the whole party attempted the ascent of the Finsteraarhorn from the Studer névé on the east by way of the southeast ridge, but Meyer, exhausted, remained behind. The following day the party crossed the Grünhornlücke to the Aletsch Glacier, but bad weather then put an end to further projects. At a bivouac, probably just opposite the present Konkordia Hut, the rest of the party, having come over the Oberaarjoch and the Grünhornlücke, joined the Finsteraarhorn party. Gottlieb, Rudolf's younger brother, had more patience than the rest and remained longer at the huts near the Märjelensee, where the adventurers had taken refuge. He could make the second ascent (September 3) of the Jungfrau, the Rottalsattel being reached from the east side as is now usual, and his companions being the two Valais hunters.
The third ascent dates from 1828, when several men from Grindelwald, headed by Peter Baumann, planted their flag upon the summit. Next came the ascent by Louis Agassiz, James David Forbes, Heath, Desor, and Duchatelier in 1841, recounted by Desor in his Excursions et Séjours dans les Glaciers. Gottlieb Samuel Studer published an account of the next ascent made by himself and Bürki in 1842.
In 1863, a party consisting of three young Oxford University graduates and three Swiss guides successfully reached the summit and returned to the base camp of the Faulberg (located near the present position of the Konkordia Hut) in less than 11 hours (see the section below, The 1863 Ascent). In the same year Mrs Stephen Winkworth became the first woman to climb the Jungfrau. She also slept overnight in the Faulberg cave prior to the ascent as there was no hut at that time.
Before the construction of the Jungfraujoch railway tunnel, the approach from the glaciers on the south side was very long. The first direct route from the valley of Lauterbrunnen was opened in 1865 by Geoffrey Winthrop Young, H. Brooke George with the guide Christian Almer. They had to carry ladders with them in order to cross the many crevasses on the north flank. Having spent the night on the rocks of the Schneehorn (3,402 m or 11,161 ft) they gained next morning the Silberlücke, the depression between the Jungfrau and Silberhorn, and thence in little more than three hours reached the summit. Descending to the Aletsch Glacier they crossed the Mönchsjoch, and passed a second night on the rocks, reaching Grindelwald next day. This route became a usual until the opening of the Jungfraujoch.
The first winter ascent was made on 23 January 1874, by Meta Brevoort and W. A. B. Coolidge with guides Christian and Ulrich Almer. They used a sled to reach the upper Aletsch Glacier, and were accompanied by Miss Brevoort's favorite dog, Tschingel.
The Jungfrau was climbed via the west side for the first time in 1885 by Fritz and Heinrich von Allmen, Ulrich Brunner, Fritz Graf, Karl Schlunegger and Johann Stäger—all from Wengen. They ascended the Rottal ridge (Innere Rottalgrat) and reached the summit on 21 September. The more difficult and dangerous northeast ridge that connects the summit from the Jungfraujoch was first climbed on 30 July 1911 by Albert Weber and Hans Schlunegger.
In July 2007, six Swiss Army recruits, part of the Mountain Specialists Division 1, died in an accident on the normal route. Although the causes of the deaths was not immediately clear, a report by the Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research concluded that the avalanche risk was unusually high due to recent snowfall, and that there was "no other reasonable explanation" other than an avalanche for the incident.
The 1863 Ascent
The Führerbuch of the Alpine guide Peter Baumann records an ascent of the Jungfrau made by himself with three men from England in July 1863. The foreign climbers were long thought to have been John Tyndall, J.J. Hornby and T.H. Philpott, until in 1958 the records were checked by the Alpine Club and the following conclusion was reached:
On July 23, 1963, Phillpotts, with James Robertson and H.J. Chaytor, climbed the Jungfrau (the entry shown in A.J. 32. 227 was wrongly transcribed by Montagnier, who says ‘T.H. Philpott’ for J.S. Phillpotts). The entry in Peter Baumann’s Führerbuch (facsimile in A.C. archives) says that the trio crossed the Strahlegg Pass and the Oberaarjoch, and then climbed the Jungfrau from the Eggishorn.
Tyndall, Hornby and Philpott were well-known Alpinists, but there is no record of their having attempted the Jungfrau in 1863. Robertson, Chaytor and Phillpotts were novices; they had recently graduated from Oxford University where they had all been keen members of the Oxford University Boat Club.
William Robertson (1839–1892), the leader of the expedition (wrongly called ‘James’ in the Note quoted above), was an Australian by birth, and the first non-British national to take part in the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race. He later became a barrister and member of parliament in Australia. He and H.J. Chaytor (possibly the father of the medievalist Henry John Chaytor) were both members of the victorious Oxford team in the 1861 Boat Race. James Surtees Phillpotts (1839–1930) was the third member of the team; he would later become headmaster of Bedford School. The trio had three Swiss guides, Peter Baumann, Peter Kaufmann ("Grabipeter", father of Peter Kaufmann the younger) and Rubi.
A description of the ascent of the Jungfrau is contained in a letter dated Sunday 26 July which Phillpotts wrote to his friend Alexander Potts (later to become the first headmaster of Fettes College). The letter is now in the possession of the Alpine Club. The following extracts are from that letter.
The Virgin certainly did not smile on the poor "fools who rushed in" on her sacred heights, i.e. in plain British, we had the treadmill slog, the biting wind, the half frost-bitten feet and the flayed faces that generally attend an Alpine ascent.
We got to the Faulberg hole about dark, and enjoyed the coffee the longman (Kauffmann) made, as one would in a hole in a rock in a cold evening. The "Faulberg Nachtlager" consists of two holes and a vestibule to the upper hole. The Upper Hole in which we lodged just contained Chay[tor], the Guv [Robertson] and myself, stretched at full length on a little hay over a hard rock mattress, convex instead of concave at the point where one likes to rest one's weight. Chaytor was in the middle, and as we were very close was warm and slept. The Guv and I courted Nature's soft nurse in vain. At two we got up and methodically put our feet into the stocks, i.e. our boots, breakfasted and shivered, then started (unwashed of course, as the cold gave us malignant hydrophobia) a little after 3:30.
The hole was about 150 feet [46 m] up one of the loose stone cliffs one now knows so well. So we groped our way down it and over the moraine – the stars still lingering, as day was just dawning. We could not start at 1:30, the proper time, as there was no moon and we wanted light as we had to tramp the glacier at once. Rubi led, and off we went, roped and in Indian file, in the old treadmill way over the slippery plowed-field-like snow that lay on the upper glacier, for a pull without a check of one or two hours.
At last we came to the region of bergschrunds and crevasses. They seemed to form at first an impassable labyrinth, but gradually the guides wound in and out between the large rifts, which were exquisitely lovely with their overhanging banks of snow and glittering icicles, and then trod as on pins and needles over a snowbridge here and there, or had to take a jump over the more feasible ones – and we found ourselves at the foot of the mountain; trudged up on the snow which ought to have been crisp but was even then more or less fresh fallen and sloppy; had to creep over about three crevasses, and after a tiresome pull, dragging one leg after another out of ankle or knee deep snow, we got on a crest of snow at right angles to the slope we had just come up. That slope with its crevasses on one side, and on the other a shorter and much steeper one which led in a few steps to a precipice.
All along this crest went a snakelike long crevasse, for which we had continually to sound, and go first one side and then the other; then we got to the foot of the saddle. Some twenty or thirty steps, some cut, some uncut, soon took us up a kind of hollow, and we got on a little sloping plateau of some six feet [1.8 m] large, where we left the grub and the knapsack, keeping my small flask of cognac only. Then up a steep ice slope, very steep I should say, down which the bits of ice cut out of the steps hopped and jumped at full gallop and then bounded over to some bottomless place which we could not see down. Their pace gave one an unpleasant idea of the possible consequence of a slip.
Here we encountered a biting bitter wind. Peter Baumann cut magnificent steps, at least he and Rubi did between them, the one improving on the other's first rough blows. After Rubi came Chaytor with Kauffmann behind him, then the Guv, and then myself, the tail of the string. Each step was a long lift from the last one, and as the snow was shallow they had to be cut in the ice which was like rock on this last slope.
Suddenly there burst upon us, on lifting our heads over the ridge, the green and cheerful valleys of Lauterbrunnen and Interlaken, of Grindelwald and a distant view of others equally beautiful stretching on for ever in one vast panorama. On the other side in grim contrast there was a wild and even awful scene. One gazed about one and tried in vain to see to the bottom of dark yawning abysses and sheer cliffs of ice or rock.
Tourism
Named after the Jungfrau, the Jungfrau Region of the Bernese Oberland is a major tourist destination in the Alps and includes a large number of railways and other facilities. While the mountain peak was once difficult to access, the Jungfrau Railway, a rack railway, now goes to the Jungfraujoch railway station at 3,454 m (11,332 ft), therefore providing an easy access to the upper Aletsch Glacier and a relatively short access to the Jungfrau itself, the height difference between the station and the summit being only 704 metres and the horizontal distance being slightly less than 2 kilometres. As a result, in the popular mind, the Jungfrau has become a mountain associated with the Bernese Oberland and Interlaken, rather than with Upper Valais and Fiesch.
In 1893, Adolf Guyer-Zeller conceived of the idea of a railway tunnel to the Jungfraujoch to make the glaciated areas on its south side more accessible. The building of the tunnel took 16 years and the summit station was not opened before 1912. The goal was in fact to reach the summit of the Jungfrau with an elevator from the highest railway station, located inside the mountain. The complete project was not realized because of the outbreak of the World War I. Nevertheless, it was at the time one of the highest railways in the world and remains today the highest in Europe and the only (non-cable) railway on Earth going well past the perennial snow-line.
The Jungfrau Railway leaves from Kleine Scheidegg, which can be reached from both sides by trains from Grindelwald, and Lauterbrunnen via Wengen. The train enters the Jungfrau Tunnel running eastward through the Eiger just above Eigergletscher, which is, since 2020, also accessible by aerial tramway from Grindelwald. Before arriving at the Jungfraujoch, it stops for a few minutes at two other stations, Eigerwand (on the north face of the Eiger) and Eismeer (on the south side), where passengers can see through the holes excavated from the mountain. The journey from Kleine Scheidegg to Jungfraujoch takes approximately 50 minutes including the stops; the downhill return journey taking only 35 minutes.
A large complex of tunnels and buildings has been constructed at the Jungfraujoch, referred to as the "Top of Europe". There are several restaurants and bars, shops, multimedia exhibitions, a post office, and a research station with dedicated accommodation facilities. An elevator enables access to the top of the Sphinx and its observatory, at 3,571 m (11,716 ft), the highest viewing platform of the area. Outside, at the level of the Jungfraujoch, there is a ski school, and the "Ice Palace", a collection of elaborate ice sculptures displayed inside the Aletsch Glacier. Another tunnel leads to the east side of the Sphinx, where one can walk on the glacier up to the Mönchsjoch Hut, the only hotel infrastructure in the area.
Apart from the Jungfraujoch, many facilities have been built in the Jungfrau Region, including numerous mountain railways. In 1908, the first public cable car in the world, the Wetterhorn Elevator, opened at the foot of the Wetterhorn, but was closed seven years later. The Schilthorn above Mürren, the Männlichen above Wengen, and the Schynige Platte above Wilderswil, offer good views of the Jungfrau and the Lauterbrunnen valley. On the south side, the Eggishorn above Fiesch also offers views of the Jungfrau, across the Aletsch Glacier.
Climbing routes
The normal route follows the traces of the first climbers, but the long approach on the Aletsch Glacier is no longer necessary. From the area of the Jungfraujoch the route to the summit takes only a few hours. Most climbers start from the Mönchsjoch Hut. After a traverse of the Jungfraufirn the route heads to the Rottalsattel (3,885 m or 12,746 ft), from where the southern ridge leads to the Jungfrau. It is not considered a very difficult climb but it can be dangerous on the upper section above the Rottalsattel, where most accidents happen. The use of the Jungfrau Railway instead of the much more gradual approach from Fiesch (or Fieschertal), via the Konkordia Hut, can cause some acclimatization troubles as the difference of altitude between the railway stations of Interlaken and Jungfraujoch is almost 3 km (1.9 mi).
(Wikipedia)
Der Eiger ist ein Berg in den Berner Alpen mit einer Höhe von 3967 m ü. M. Er ist dem Hauptkamm der Berner Alpen etwas nördlich vorgelagert und steht vollständig auf dem Territorium des Schweizer Kantons Bern. Zusammen mit Mönch und Jungfrau, deren Gipfel auf der Grenze zum Kanton Wallis liegen, dominiert der Eiger die Landschaft des zentralen Berner Oberlandes. Die etwa 3000 Meter über dem Tal aufragenden Nordflanken dieser Berge stellen die Schauseite einer der bekanntesten je als ein «Dreigestirn» bezeichneten Gipfel-Dreiergruppen in den Alpen dar.
Insbesondere die Nordwand des Eigers fasziniert sowohl Bergsteiger als auch Alpin-Laien. Durch dramatische Begehungsversuche und gelungene Begehungen dieser Wand wurde der Eiger weltweit bekannt und immer wieder ins Blickfeld der Öffentlichkeit gerückt – nicht zuletzt, da die gesamte Wand von Grindelwald und der Bahnstation Kleine Scheidegg aus einsehbar ist. Die Jungfraubahn mit ihrem Tunnel durch den Eigerfels ist seit ihrer Eröffnung im Jahr 1912 ein Touristenmagnet.
Namensherkunft
Die erste urkundliche Erwähnung des Eigers stammt aus dem Jahre 1252 – dies ist die zweitfrüheste urkundliche Erwähnung eines Schweizer Bergs nach dem Bietschhorn (1233). Am 24. Juli 1252 wurde in einer Verkaufsurkunde zwischen Ita von Wädiswyl und der Propstei Interlaken ein Grundstück mit den Worten «ad montem qui nominatur Egere» (dt.: Bis zum Berg, der Eiger genannt wird) abgegrenzt. Ein halbes Jahrhundert später wird der Eiger in einem Belehnungsbrief erstmals in deutscher Sprache erwähnt: «under Eigere».
Für die Herkunft des Namens gibt es drei gängige Erklärungen. Eine erste ist der althochdeutsche Name Agiger oder Aiger, wie der erste Siedler unterhalb des Eigers geheissen haben soll. Der Berg über dessen Weiden wurde deshalb Aigers Geissberg oder auch nur Geissberg genannt. Hieraus entwickelten sich dann im Laufe der Zeit die direkten Vorgänger der heutigen Bezeichnung. Die Herkunft des Namens könnte auch von dem lateinischen Wort acer kommen, woraus sich im Französischen aigu entwickelte. Beide Worte haben die Bedeutung scharf beziehungsweise spitz – in Anlehnung an die Form des Eigers. Die dritte Erklärung stammt von der früher gebräuchlichen Schreibweise Heiger, was sich aus dem Dialektausdruck «dr hej Ger» entwickelt haben könnte (hej bedeutet hoch, Ger war ein germanischer Wurfspiess). Wiederum wäre hier die Form des Eigers ausschlaggebend für seine Bezeichnung.
Im Zusammenhang mit dem Eiger wird auch des Öfteren die Namensähnlichkeit mit dem Oger, einem menschenähnlichen Unhold, genannt. In Anlehnung an das Dreigestirn «Eiger–Mönch–Jungfrau» gibt es die Erzählung, der Unhold Eiger wolle seine lüsternen Pranken auf die Jungfrau legen, woran er aber vom fröhlichen Mönch gehindert werde. Zu dieser Geschichte sind in Grindelwald alte Karikaturen und neuere Postkarten zu kaufen.
Lage und Umgebung
Der Eiger erhebt sich direkt südwestlich von Grindelwald (Amtsbezirk Interlaken). Die bekannte Nordwand ist genaugenommen eine Nordwestwand. Neben dieser existiert in der berühmten «Eiger-Nordansicht» auch noch die Nordostwand. Sie bildet die Basis für den scharfen Mittellegigrat, der vom Unteren Grindelwaldgletscher zum Gipfel zieht. Auf der gegenüberliegenden Seite begrenzt der Westgrat die Nordwand. Ihm folgt die Westflanke, in welcher sich der Eigergletscher und der Klein Eiger befinden. An diesen schliessen sich der Südwestgrat und noch ein Stück östlicher der Südgrat an, der wiederum die Südostwand begrenzt, welche bis zum Mittellegigrat reicht. Südöstlich des Eigers liegt der Grindelwald-Fieschergletscher.
In der Umgebung des Eigers befinden sich einige Viertausender des Aarmassivs. Im Osten ist er umgeben von Schreckhorn (4078 m ü. M.) und Lauteraarhorn (4042 m ü. M.), im Südosten vom Grossen Fiescherhorn (4049 m ü. M.), und im Südwesten ist der Mönch (4107 m ü. M.) durch das Nördliche und Südliche Eigerjoch vom Eiger getrennt. Zusammen mit dem Mönch und der Jungfrau (4158 m ü. M.) bildet der Eiger das «Dreigestirn», bei dem der Eiger den nordöstlichen und die Jungfrau den südwestlichen Endpunkt bildet. Entgegen der steil abfallenden Nordseite des Berges befindet sich im Süden des Eigers die Hochfläche und Gletscherwelt der Berner Alpen. Seit Ende 2001 gehört der Eiger zum Gebiet des UNESCO-Weltnaturerbes Schweizer Alpen Jungfrau-Aletsch.
Geologie
Der Eiger ist ein Teil des helvetischen Systems, das im Grossraum um den Thunersee die Decken des Alpennordrandes bildet. In einer späten Phase der alpidischen Gebirgsfaltung wurden die helvetischen Kalk-Sedimente von ihrer kristallinen Basis abgeschürft und in Form einer Abscherungsdecke nach Nordwesten verschoben. Während des Faltungsprozesses in der Alpenentstehung brachen die Kalkbänke auf und Kluft- sowie Faltensysteme entstanden, die später mit ausgefälltem Calcit geschlossen wurden. Wichtigste Bestandteile der Sedimente sind der Schrattenkalk der Kreidezeit und der Malmkalk. Als Füll- und Schmiermaterial dienten Mergel und Tonschiefer.
Die klar erkennbare Faltung des Helvetikums mit seinen gebänderten, plattigen Kalkschichten zeigt sich auch am Eiger. Das Massiv des Eigers besteht komplett aus Kalk der helvetischen Zone und schliesst die Flyschschichten und die Molasse des Grindelwaldbeckens steil nach Süden hin ab. Weil der Talkessel von Grindelwald so reich gegliedert ist, finden hier die verschiedensten Tiere einen Lebensraum.[6] Südlich des Eigers schliesst sich das Aarmassiv mit seinem Innertkirchner-Lauterbrunner-Kristallin an. Teilweise hat sich dieses über die Sedimente des Eiger geschoben. Im Bereich des Mönchs treffen die Sedimente auf Altkristallin. Die typischen Gesteine des helvetischen Systems im Bereich des Eigers entstanden während des Jura, dem mittleren Zeitabschnitts des Mesozoikums. Der vorherrschende Kalk ist dabei mit verschiedenen Gesteinen durchmischt. Es zeigen sich Mergel-Kalke und -Schiefer, Ton-Schiefer, Eisenoolith sowie kalkige Sandsteine.
Blick auf Eigergletscher und Klein Eiger
Die Kalkschichten des Eigers lagern auf Gneis und sind um 60–70° nach Norden geneigt. Geprägt wurde die heutige Form des Eigers durch die Eiszeiten. Während der Riss-Kaltzeit reichte die Vergletscherung bis an den Fuss der Nordwand. In der Würm-Kaltzeit war die Mächtigkeit des Eises um 200 Meter geringer. Durch die Bewegung der Gletscher wurde die Erdoberfläche umgestaltet. Vom Eis überlagerte Landschaften wurden abgeschliffen, wohingegen unbedeckte Bereiche durch Verwitterung und andere Formen der Erosion verändert wurden. Mit dem Rückzug des Eises änderten sich auch die Druckverhältnisse im Gestein, was sich durch Entlastungsbewegungen formgebend auswirkte. Prägend für den Eiger und seine Form war die allseitige Umlagerung von Eismassen, welche für einen recht gleichmässigen und markanten Abrieb aller Wände sorgte. Darüber hinaus war die Nordwand durch ihre Exposition den Abtragungsprozessen wie Frostverwitterung mehr ausgesetzt.
Felssturz
2006 ereignete sich am Eiger ein grosser Bergsturz, der öffentliches Interesse auf sich zog. An der Ostseite des Berges, unterhalb des Mittellegigrates, war durch Felsbewegungen ein rund 250 Meter langer Spalt entstanden, der eine Breite von etwa 7 Metern erreichte.Danach senkten sich die äusseren Teile mehrere Zentimeter pro Tag ab. Eine Ursache dieser Felsabspaltung könnte sowohl das massive Eindringen von Schmelzwasser in den Felsen gewesen sein, als auch eine Instabilität des Gesteins durch den Rückgang des Gletschers unterhalb des Felsabbruchs infolge der globalen Erwärmung. Am 13. Juli 2006 um 19:24 Uhr stürzten rund 500'000 Kubikmeter Felsbrocken auf den Unteren Grindelwaldgletscher. Über der Gemeinde Grindelwald schwebte stundenlang eine Staubwolke. Bereits am Nachmittag desselben Tages war die sogenannte «Madonna vom Eiger» zu Tal gestürzt. Hierbei handelte es sich um einen ungefähr 30 Meter hohen schlanken Felsturm mit rund 600 Kubikmeter Volumen.
Seit diesen Ereignissen wird die Felsnase (Gesamtvolumen: ungefähr eine Million Kubikmeter Gestein), aus der die Gesteinsmasse abbrach, von der Universität Lausanne beobachtet. Die Beobachtungen ergaben, dass sich die Nase von Juli 2007 bis August 2008 auf einer nach Osten geneigten Gleitfläche um 15 Meter talwärts bewegte. Zusätzlich kippte die Gesteinsmasse um zwei Grad nach Nordosten. Die Kluft zwischen Berg und Felsbrocken betrug im August 2008 50 Meter. Immer wieder brechen Gesteinsteile ab und stürzen zu Tal. Gebremst und stabilisiert wird die Masse vom Gletschereis, in das die Felsnase gleitet. Dies verhindert, dass die Nase als kompakte Masse zu Tal stürzt. So gilt es als wahrscheinlicher, dass der Gesteinsblock in sich selbst zusammenfallen wird.
(Wikipedia)
Der Mönch ist ein 4107 m ü. M. hoher Berg der Berner Alpen in der Schweiz. Zusammen mit dem Eiger und der Jungfrau bildet er eine markante, von weit her sichtbare Dreiergruppe, ein sogenanntes „Dreigestirn“.
Seine Erstbesteigung fand am 15. August 1857 durch Christian Almer, Christian Kaufmann, Ulrich Kaufmann und Sigismund Porges statt.
Südöstlich des Mönch liegt die Mönchsjochhütte, eine 3657 m ü. M. hoch gelegene Berghütte wenig oberhalb des oberen Mönchsjochs, das den Mönch vom Trugberg trennt.
Höhenbestimmung
1935 wurde die Höhe des Mönchs mit 4099 m ü. M. bestimmt. Diese Zahl ist noch heute häufig in der Literatur zu finden. 1993 ergaben jedoch Messungen per Luftfotogrammetrie eine Höhe von 4107 m ü. M.. Daraufhin wurde der Wert auf der Landeskarte der Schweiz korrigiert. Mit einer Messung per GPS ermittelte man 1997 eine Höhe von 4109,4 m ü. M.; und bei einer erneuten luftfotogrammetrischen Messung von 1999 resultierte sogar eine Höhe von 4110 m ü. M.. Diese neuen Messwerte wurden jedoch nicht auf den amtlichen Karten berücksichtigt. Für diese abweichenden Werte sind nicht nur Messfehler verantwortlich, sondern auch die Tatsache, dass der Mönch eine Kuppe aus Firn besitzt, welche in den letzten Jahren gewachsen ist.
Name
Am Fusse des Mönchs befinden sich Alpweiden, auf welchen früher Wallache, sogenannte „Münche“, gesömmert wurden. So hat man den über den Münchenalpen gelegenen Berg Münchenberg genannt und schliesslich nur noch Münch oder Mönch.
Routen
Südarm des Ostgrates (Normalroute)
Schwierigkeit: ZS-, mit II. UIAA-Grad Felskletterei
Zeitaufwand: 2½–3½ Std. von der Mönchsjochhütte, 3–4 Std. vom Jungfraujoch
Ausgangspunkt: Mönchsjochhütte (3657 m ü. M.)
Talort: Grindelwald (1034 m ü. M.)
Südwestgrat
Schwierigkeit: ZS-, mit III-. UIAA-Grad Felskletterei
Zeitaufwand: 3–4 Stunden
Ausgangspunkt: Jungfraujoch (3454 m ü. M.)
Talort: Grindelwald (1034 m ü. M.)
Nordostarm des Ostgrates
Schwierigkeit: ZS, mit III+. UIAA-Grad Felskletterei
Zeitaufwand: 4–5 Stunden
Ausgangspunkt: Mönchsjochhütte (3657 m ü. M.)
Talort: Grindelwald (1034 m ü. M.)
Nordostgrat
Schwierigkeit: ZS
Zeitaufwand: 4–5 Stunden
Ausgangspunkt: Mönchsjochhütte (3657 m ü. M.)
Talort: Grindelwald (1034 m ü. M.)
Nordwestbollwerk (Nollen)
Schwierigkeit: S
Zeitaufwand: 6–10 Stunden
Ausgangspunkt: Guggihütte (2791 m ü. M.)
Talort: Kleine Scheidegg (2061 m ü. M.)
(Wikipedia)
Die Jungfrau ist ein Berg in der Schweiz. Sie ist mit 4158 m ü. M. der dritthöchste Berg der Berner Alpen und bildet zusammen mit Eiger und Mönch eine markante Dreiergruppe, ein sogenanntes «Dreigestirn».
Am 13. Dezember 2001 wurde die Jungfrau zusammen mit südlich angrenzenden Gebieten als Schweizer Alpen Jungfrau-Aletsch in die Liste als UNESCO-Weltnaturerbe aufgenommen.
Lage und Umgebung
Über den Jungfrau-Gipfel verläuft die Grenze zwischen den Kantonen Bern und Wallis. Der Berg ist ausserordentlich vielgestaltig. Im Norden und Nordwesten, auf ihrer „weiblichen“ Schauseite (vgl. Foto) sind ihr Wengen-Jungfrau, Schneehorn, das Silberhorn, das Chly Silberhoren und der „Schwarzmönch“ vorgelagert sowie die zerrissenen Kühlauenen- und Giessengletscher. Im Westen erhebt sie sich fast eisfrei volle 3250 Meter über dem hinteren Lauterbrunnental. Es ist dies (nach dem Mont Blanc) der zweithöchste direkte Abhang in den Alpen. Ihre Südwand erhebt sich über dem versteckten Rottalgletscher und ihre Ostwand über den Firnen am Jungfraujoch.
Die Pläne, auf die Jungfrau eine Bergbahn zu bauen, wurden aufgrund finanzieller Schwierigkeiten nicht realisiert. Die ursprünglich bis unter den Gipfel geplante Jungfraubahn wurde bis 1912 mit Endstation Jungfraujoch fertiggestellt.
Auf dem untersten Absatz des Nordostgrats haben die PTT einen Funk-Umsetzer auf 3777 m ü. M. installiert.
Geologie
Die Jungfrau liegt im nördlichen Randbereich des Aarmassivs, eines der sogenannten Zentralmassive der Schweizer Alpen. Ihre höheren Lagen (Silberhorn, Wengen-Jungfrau und Hauptgipfel) sowie ihre Westflanke bis hinunter zum oberen Ende des Lauterbrunnentals sind weit überwiegend aus kristallinem Grundgebirge (prä-triassische Gneise, Glimmerschiefer u. ä.) der Helvetischen Zone aufgebaut. Die Nordwestflanke hingegen, der ganze «Vorbau» (Schwarzmönch, Rotbrett und Schneehorn) besteht aus sedimentärem, überwiegend jurassischem und kretazischem Deckgebirge des Helvetikums. Eine Besonderheit der Jungfrau ist, dass dort zwischen dem prinzipiell autochthonen Gipfel-Kristallin und dessen Deckschichten ein Überschiebungs-kontakt besteht; somit ist das Grundgebirge geringfügig auf sein Deckgebirge überschoben worden.
Name
Der Name Jungfrau dürfte sich von der Wengernalp am Fusse des Berges ableiten, die – nach den Besitzerinnen, den Nonnen vom Kloster Interlaken – früher Jungfrauenberg genannt wurde. Einer anderen Quelle zufolge leitet sich der Name vom Aussehen des Nordhanges des Berges ab, der aus der Ferne dem Schleier eines Mädchens ähneln soll.
Nach dem Berg ist die Jungfrau-Region benannt, die Tourismusorganisation der Orte Grindelwald, Wengen, Mürren und Lauterbrunnen, ausserdem die Jungfraubahn Holding AG, die neben der Jungfraubahn selbst auch die anderen Bergbahnen in der Region betreibt.
Besteigungsgeschichte
Bergsteiger auf dem Gipfel im Jahr 1878
Erstbesteiger waren Johann Rudolf Meyer und sein Bruder Hieronymus mit den Führern Joseph Bortis und Alois Volken, die am 3. August 1811 vom Lötschental her den Berg von Süden erklommen hatten. Sie folgten ungefähr der heutigen Normalroute. Der Volksmund taufte daraufhin die bis dahin unberührte Jungfrau «Madame Meyer».
1874 erfolgte die Winter-Erstbesteigung durch die Alpinistin Margaret Claudia Brevoort.
Die Jungfrau gilt, obwohl leicht erreichbar, als unfallträchtiger Berg. Bei einem der schwersten Unglücke stürzten am 12. Juli 2007 sechs Rekruten der Gebirgsspezialisten-Rekrutenschule Andermatt vom Rottalsattel 1000 Meter auf den darunterliegenden Rottalgletscher in den Tod, nachdem sie eine Lawine ausgelöst hatten. Das urteilende Militärgericht ging von einem falsch eingeschätzten, heimtückischen Lawinenrisiko aus und sprach in der Folge die verantwortlichen Bergführer frei.
Routen
Rottalsattel und Südostgrat (Normalroute)
Schwierigkeit: ZS-
Zeitaufwand: 4–5 Std. von der Mönchsjochhütte, 3½–4½ Std. vom Jungfraujoch
Ausgangspunkt: Mönchsjochhütte (3657 m)
Talort: Grindelwald (1034 m)
Innere Rottalgrat
Schwierigkeit: ZS
Zeitaufwand: 6–7 Stunden
Ausgangspunkt: Rottalhütte (2755 m)
Talort: Stechelberg (919 m)
Nordwestgrat oder „Rotbrettgrat“
Schwierigkeit: S
Zeitaufwand: 8–12 Stunden
Ausgangspunkt: Silberhornhütte (2663 m)
Talort: Stechelberg (919 m)
Nordostgrat
Schwierigkeit: S+, mit IV. UIAA-Grad Felskletterei
Zeitaufwand: 8–10 Stunden
Ausgangspunkt: Jungfraujoch (3454 m)
Talort: Grindelwald (1034 m)
Kunst
Erwähnt ist die Jungfrau unter anderem bei Friedrich Schiller, Wilhelm Tell, Vers 628 (1804). Lord Byrons Drama Manfred (1817) spielt am Fuss und auf dem Gipfel des Massivs. Ferdinand Hodler hat die Jungfrau mehrfach gemalt, darunter die perspektivisch verfremdete «Jungfrau über dem Nebelmeer». Alex Diggelmann gab 1958 eine Lithographienmappe unter dem Titel Die Jungfrau, mein Berg heraus. Stephan Bundi gestaltete 2005 eine Schweizer Gedenkmünze mit dem Bergmotiv.
Im Januar 2012 wurde zum 100-jährigen bestehen der Jungfraubahn eine übergrosse Schweizer Flagge vom Lichtkünstler Gerry Hofstetter an den Gipfel projiziert. Zeitweise waren neben dem Schweizer Kreuz auch ein Porträt des Zürcher Unternehmers Adolf Guyer-Zeller sowie ein Bild von einem der Züge zu sehen.
(Wikipedia)
Area high school students shadow NRC employees at headquarters as part of "Job Shadow Day" on April 9, 2009, here Darren Ash (left center), Chief Information Officer and Thomas Boyce (right center), director of the Office of Information Services, talk to students about information technology security issues facing federal agencies and the NRC.
Visit the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's website at www.nrc.gov/.
To comment on this photo go to public-blog.nrc-gateway.gov/2012/04/01/nrc-moves-its-publ....
Famous for an incident involving American undeafeated heavyweight world champion Rocky Marciano
During the war GI Rocky was based at Margam Castle in Port Talbot. On a night out in Swansea Rocky visited the pub with a group of friends and ordered a glass of milk. An Australian merchant seaman in the pub saw this and began to mock him for drinking milk and that he was not strong enough to drink alcohol. Rocky ignored the Aussie's taunts of "speak up" and when he'd had enough of the bullying Australian floored him with one punch and the words "That loud enough for ya?"
I had a cool idea involving scarves, and I guess this is how it turned out.
Senioritis is setting in, and school has only been in session for two weeks. I am only taking 12 credits, and I still don't want to do anything. (Don't worry, family that may be reading this--I am still doing my homework. ;D)
SWEATSHIRT: hideandseek.bigcartel.com/product/new-bird-flashdance-hoodie
There For Tomorrow - Re:Deathbed
^^Leaked yesterday! Check it. therefortmrw.tumblr.com/post/1296570575/re-deathbed-leak#...
Strobist info: Sunpak 383 at 1/16th power shot thru an umbrella, camera right.
Fire involving three storey public house. Two hydraulic platforms in use as water towers, water support unit, 12 BA. Six hose reel's and thermal image in use. Building destroyed by fire, now under going demolition.
Seventeen Consumers Energy employees, family members and friends volunteered to raise money and Walk For Warmth in Hartland, Michigan on February 25, 2012.
Burhan C. Doğançay (11 September 1929 – 16 January 2013) was a Turkish-American artist. Doğançay is best known for tracking walls in various cities across the world for half a century, integrating them in his artistic work.
Plane Wing I/Flugzeugflügel I, 1963 (Gouache, Tinte/Gouache, ink), Albertina - Schenkung/Donation, 2015
The Albertina
The architectural history of the Palais
(Pictures you can see by clicking on the link at the end of page!)
Image: The oldest photographic view of the newly designed Palais Archduke Albrecht, 1869
"It is my will that the expansion of the inner city of Vienna with regard to a suitable connection of the same with the suburbs as soon as possible is tackled and at this on Regulirung (regulation) and beautifying of my Residence and Imperial Capital is taken into account. To this end I grant the withdrawal of the ramparts and fortifications of the inner city and the trenches around the same".
This decree of Emperor Franz Joseph I, published on 25 December 1857 in the Wiener Zeitung, formed the basis for the largest the surface concerning and architecturally most significant transformation of the Viennese cityscape. Involving several renowned domestic and foreign architects a "master plan" took form, which included the construction of a boulevard instead of the ramparts between the inner city and its radially upstream suburbs. In the 50-years during implementation phase, an impressive architectural ensemble developed, consisting of imperial and private representational buildings, public administration and cultural buildings, churches and barracks, marking the era under the term "ring-street style". Already in the first year tithe decided a senior member of the Austrian imperial family to decorate the facades of his palace according to the new design principles, and thus certified the aristocratic claim that this also "historicism" said style on the part of the imperial house was attributed.
Image: The Old Albertina after 1920
It was the palace of Archduke Albrecht (1817-1895), the Senior of the Habsburg Family Council, who as Field Marshal held the overall command over the Austro-Hungarian army. The building was incorporated into the imperial residence of the Hofburg complex, forming the south-west corner and extending eleven meters above street level on the so-called Augustinerbastei.
The close proximity of the palace to the imperial residence corresponded not only with Emperor Franz Joseph I and Archduke Albert with a close familial relationship between the owner of the palace and the monarch. Even the former inhabitants were always in close relationship to the imperial family, whether by birth or marriage. An exception here again proves the rule: Don Emanuel Teles da Silva Conde Tarouca (1696-1771), for which Maria Theresa in 1744 the palace had built, was just a close friend and advisor of the monarch. Silva Tarouca underpins the rule with a second exception, because he belonged to the administrative services as Generalhofbaudirektor (general court architect) and President of the Austrian-Dutch administration, while all other him subsequent owners were highest ranking military.
In the annals of Austrian history, especially those of military history, they either went into as commander of the Imperial Army, or the Austrian, later kk Army. In chronological order, this applies to Duke Carl Alexander of Lorraine, the brother-of-law of Maria Theresa, as Imperial Marshal, her son-in-law Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen, also field marshal, whos adopted son, Archduke Charles of Austria, the last imperial field marshal and only Generalissimo of Austria, his son Archduke Albrecht of Austria as Feldmarschalil and army Supreme commander, and most recently his nephew Archduke Friedrich of Austria, who held as field marshal from 1914 to 1916 the command of the Austro-Hungarian troops. Despite their military profession, all five generals conceived themselves as patrons of the arts and promoted large sums of money to build large collections, the construction of magnificent buildings and cultural life. Charles Alexander of Lorraine promoted as governor of the Austrian Netherlands from 1741 to 1780 the Academy of Fine Arts, the Théâtre de Ja Monnaie and the companies Bourgeois Concert and Concert Noble, he founded the Academie royale et imperial des Sciences et des Lettres, opened the Bibliotheque Royal for the population and supported artistic talents with high scholarships. World fame got his porcelain collection, which however had to be sold by Emperor Joseph II to pay off his debts. Duke Albert began in 1776 according to the concept of conte Durazzo to set up an encyclopedic collection of prints, which forms the core of the world-famous "Albertina" today.
Image : Duke Albert and Archduchess Marie Christine show in family cercle the from Italy brought along art, 1776. Frederick Henry Füger.
1816 declared to Fideikommiss and thus in future indivisible, inalienable and inseparable, the collection 1822 passed into the possession of Archduke Carl, who, like his descendants, it broadened. Under him, the collection was introduced together with the sumptuously equipped palace on the Augustinerbastei in the so-called "Carl Ludwig'schen fideicommissum in 1826, by which the building and the in it kept collection fused into an indissoluble unity. At this time had from the Palais Tarouca by structural expansion or acquisition a veritable Residenz palace evolved. Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen was first in 1800 the third floor of the adjacent Augustinian convent wing adapted to house his collection and he had after 1802 by his Belgian architect Louis de Montoyer at the suburban side built a magnificent extension, called the wing of staterooms, it was equipped in the style of Louis XVI. Only two decades later, Archduke Carl the entire palace newly set up. According to scetches of the architect Joseph Kornhäusel the 1822-1825 retreaded premises presented themselves in the Empire style. The interior of the palace testified from now in an impressive way the high rank and the prominent position of its owner. Under Archduke Albrecht the outer appearance also should meet the requirements. He had the facade of the palace in the style of historicism orchestrated and added to the Palais front against the suburbs an offshore covered access. Inside, he limited himself, apart from the redesign of the Rococo room in the manner of the second Blondel style, to the retention of the paternal stock. Archduke Friedrich's plans for an expansion of the palace were omitted, however, because of the outbreak of the First World War so that his contribution to the state rooms, especially, consists in the layout of the Spanish apartment, which he in 1895 for his sister, the Queen of Spain Maria Christina, had set up as a permanent residence.
Picture: The "audience room" after the restoration: Picture: The "balcony room" around 1990
The era of stately representation with handing down their cultural values found its most obvious visualization inside the palace through the design and features of the staterooms. On one hand, by the use of the finest materials and the purchase of masterfully manufactured pieces of equipment, such as on the other hand by the permanent reuse of older equipment parts. This period lasted until 1919, when Archduke Friedrich was expropriated by the newly founded Republic of Austria. With the republicanization of the collection and the building first of all finished the tradition that the owner's name was synonymous with the building name:
After Palais Tarouca or tarokkisches house it was called Lorraine House, afterwards Duke Albert Palais and Palais Archduke Carl. Due to the new construction of an adjacently located administration building it received in 1865 the prefix "Upper" and was referred to as Upper Palais Archduke Albrecht and Upper Palais Archduke Frederick. For the state a special reference to the Habsburg past was certainly politically no longer opportune, which is why was decided to name the building according to the in it kept collection "Albertina".
Picture: The "Wedgwood Cabinet" after the restoration: Picture: the "Wedgwood Cabinet" in the Palais Archduke Friedrich, 1905
This name derives from the term "La Collection Albertina" which had been used by the gallery Inspector Maurice von Thausing in 1870 in the Gazette des Beaux-Arts for the former graphics collection of Duke Albert. For this reason, it was the first time since the foundation of the palace that the name of the collection had become synonymous with the room shell. Room shell, hence, because the Republic of Austria Archduke Friedrich had allowed to take along all the movable goods from the palace in his Hungarian exile: crystal chandeliers, curtains and carpets as well as sculptures, vases and clocks. Particularly stressed should be the exquisite furniture, which stems of three facilities phases: the Louis XVI furnitures of Duke Albert, which had been manufactured on the basis of fraternal relations between his wife Archduchess Marie Christine and the French Queen Marie Antoinette after 1780 in the French Hofmanufakturen, also the on behalf of Archduke Charles 1822-1825 in the Vienna Porcelain Manufactory by Joseph Danhauser produced Empire furnitures and thirdly additions of the same style of Archduke Friedrich, which this about 1900 at Portois & Ffix as well as at Friedrich Otto Schmidt had commissioned.
The "swept clean" building got due to the strained financial situation after the First World War initially only a makeshift facility. However, since until 1999 no revision of the emergency equipment took place, but differently designed, primarily the utilitarianism committed office furnitures complementarily had been added, the equipment of the former state rooms presented itself at the end of the 20th century as an inhomogeneous administrative mingle-mangle of insignificant parts, where, however, dwelt a certain quaint charm. From the magnificent state rooms had evolved depots, storage rooms, a library, a study hall and several officed.
Image: The Albertina Graphic Arts Collection and the Philipphof after the American bombing of 12 März 1945.
Image: The palace after the demolition of the entrance facade, 1948-52
Worse it hit the outer appearance of the palace, because in times of continued anti-Habsburg sentiment after the Second World War and inspired by an intolerant destruction will, it came by pickaxe to a ministerial erasure of history. In contrast to the graphic collection possessed the richly decorated facades with the conspicuous insignia of the former owner an object-immanent reference to the Habsburg past and thus exhibited the monarchial traditions and values of the era of Francis Joseph significantly. As part of the remedial measures after a bomb damage, in 1948 the aristocratic, by Archduke Albert initiated, historicist facade structuring along with all decorations was cut off, many facade figures demolished and the Hapsburg crest emblems plunged to the ground. Since in addition the old ramp also had been cancelled and the main entrance of the bastion level had been moved down to the second basement storey at street level, ended the presence of the old Archduke's palace after more than 200 years. At the reopening of the "Albertina Graphic Collection" in 1952, the former Hapsburg Palais of splendour presented itself as one of his identity robbed, formally trivial, soulless room shell, whose successful republicanization an oversized and also unproportional eagle above the new main entrance to the Augustinian road symbolized. The emocratic throw of monuments had wiped out the Hapsburg palace from the urban appeareance, whereby in the perception only existed a nondescript, nameless and ahistorical building that henceforth served the lodging and presentation of world-famous graphic collection of the Albertina. The condition was not changed by the decision to the refurbishment because there were only planned collection specific extensions, but no restoration of the palace.
Image: The palace after the Second World War with simplified facades, the rudiment of the Danubiusbrunnens (well) and the new staircase up to the Augustinerbastei
This paradigm shift corresponded to a blatant reversal of the historical circumstances, as the travel guides and travel books for kk Residence and imperial capital of Vienna dedicated itself primarily with the magnificent, aristocratic palace on the Augustinerbastei with the sumptuously fitted out reception rooms and mentioned the collection kept there - if at all - only in passing. Only with the repositioning of the Albertina in 2000 under the direction of Klaus Albrecht Schröder, the palace was within the meaning and in fulfillment of the Fideikommiss of Archduke Charles in 1826 again met with the high regard, from which could result a further inseparable bond between the magnificent mansions and the world-famous collection. In view of the knowing about politically motivated errors and omissions of the past, the facades should get back their noble, historicist designing, the staterooms regain their glamorous, prestigious appearance and culturally unique equippment be repurchased. From this presumption, eventually grew the full commitment to revise the history of redemption and the return of the stately palace in the public consciousness.
Image: The restored suburb facade of the Palais Albertina suburb
The smoothed palace facades were returned to their original condition and present themselves today - with the exception of the not anymore reconstructed Attica figures - again with the historicist decoration and layout elements that Archduke Albrecht had given after the razing of the Augustinerbastei in 1865 in order. The neoclassical interiors, today called after the former inhabitants "Habsburg Staterooms", receiving a meticulous and detailed restoration taking place at the premises of originality and authenticity, got back their venerable and sumptuous appearance. From the world wide scattered historical pieces of equipment have been bought back 70 properties or could be returned through permanent loan to its original location, by which to the visitors is made experiencable again that atmosphere in 1919 the state rooms of the last Habsburg owner Archduke Frederick had owned. The for the first time in 80 years public accessible "Habsburg State Rooms" at the Palais Albertina enable now again as eloquent testimony to our Habsburg past and as a unique cultural heritage fundamental and essential insights into the Austrian cultural history. With the relocation of the main entrance to the level of the Augustinerbastei the recollection to this so valuable Austrian Cultural Heritage formally and functionally came to completion. The vision of the restoration and recovery of the grand palace was a pillar on which the new Albertina should arise again, the other embody the four large newly built exhibition halls, which allow for the first time in the history of the Albertina, to exhibit the collection throughout its encyclopedic breadh under optimal conservation conditions.
Image: The new entrance area of the Albertina
64 meter long shed roof. Hans Hollein.
The palace presents itself now in its appearance in the historicist style of the Ringstrassenära, almost as if nothing had happened in the meantime. But will the wheel of time should not, cannot and must not be turned back, so that the double standards of the "Albertina Palace" said museum - on the one hand Habsburg grandeur palaces and other modern museum for the arts of graphics - should be symbolized by a modern character: The in 2003 by Hans Hollein designed far into the Albertina square cantilevering, elegant floating flying roof. 64 meters long, it symbolizes in the form of a dynamic wedge the accelerated urban spatial connectivity and public access to the palace. It advertises the major changes in the interior as well as the huge underground extensions of the repositioned "Albertina".
Christian Benedictine
Art historian with research interests History of Architecture, building industry of the Hapsburgs, Hofburg and Zeremonialwissenschaft (ceremonial sciences). Since 1990 he works in the architecture collection of the Albertina. Since 2000 he supervises as director of the newly founded department "Staterooms" the restoration and furnishing of the state rooms and the restoration of the facades and explores the history of the palace and its inhabitants.
Commonwealth Flotilla - involving more than a thousand people on 250 boats of all shapes and sizes, the RYA Scotland Commonwealth Flotilla departed from Greenock on Saturday 26 July – before making a spectacular journey to the heart of the city to join in the celebrations of the Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games
USC students for the first time in over a years attend the involvement fair in person on Trousdale Parkway, August 30, 2021. (USC Photo/Gus Ruelas)
USC students for the first time in over a years attend the involvement fair in person on Trousdale Parkway, August 30, 2021. (USC Photo/Gus Ruelas)
USC students for the first time in over a years attend the involvement fair in person on Trousdale Parkway, August 30, 2021. (USC Photo/Gus Ruelas)
UIS student Andrea Carlson represents the Young Americans for Liberty group during the Spring Involvement Expo. Students attending the expo learned about opportunities with a variety of campus departments, student organizations, and community organizations.
Anyone who knows Clarence McCray knows he is as kind and awesome as they come. What few may know is that Clarence suffers from Stargardts Macular Degeneration and thus legally blind, but he does not let that slow him down as he still gets crazy on the BMX track. And he is no slouch on the track either, as he just recently won the 41-45 Novice Eastern Division Championship in Louisville KY.
After a recent visit to Wills eye Institute the McCray's were made aware that he is a candidate for stem cell research in the future and a procedure involving telescopic lenses which will enable him to drive again, something he hasn't been able to do so for the past ten years.
The fact that Clarence is not allowed to drive but gets out there on the BMX track and mixes it up just about every single weekend is amazing.
Now we can do something almost equally amazing and help Clarence and the McCray family by raising money to help pay for the procedures.
Come out on Sunday September 21st for a benefit race where 100% of our proceeds will be donated. We will offer treasure trove trophies and custom certificates. The entry fee will be raised to $15 to help ensure we raise every dollar possible.
You can also go to the GoFundMe site that has been setup for Clarence and make a donation directly if you are unable to attend.
Local Race - Single Points
www.facebook.com/richmondbmx?fref=ts
RACE DETAILS
- Single Point USABMX Race
- $15 Entry per bike
- Donated "Treasure Trove Trophies" and custom certificates for awards
- NO SAVER STAMPS
- Strider Bike Races
- Pit Bike Races
- Lots of other fun activities
NRC Headquarters hosts a "pit stop" celebrating National Bike to Work Day on May 18, 2007.
Visit the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's website at www.nrc.gov/.
To comment on this photo go to public-blog.nrc-gateway.gov/2012/04/01/nrc-moves-its-publ....
USC students for the first time in over a years attend the involvement fair in person on Trousdale Parkway, August 30, 2021. (USC Photo/Gus Ruelas)
Fire involving three storey public house. Two hydraulic platforms in use as water towers, water support unit, 12 BA. Six hose reel's and thermal image in use. Building destroyed by fire, now under going demolition.
We have expanded the color range of PRECIOSA Rocailles for you to include new natural colors!
We offer you the PRECIOSA Traditional Czech Beads™ rocaille range in newly developed and unique shades of light lilac and pink. This involves an exceptional change in our standard extensive color range after many years.
Don't miss the opportunity to get your hands on the seed beads in these delicate tones. They are excellent in children's costume jewelry collections, hair decorations or various tassels. The time of brides is also fast approaching. Decorate and adorn your unforgettable day with seed beads in the new glass colors!
The shades of delicate pink and lilac in opaque colors and transparent lilac can also be beautified with the sfinx and rainbow surface finishes. See for yourself.
You will love the unique extended color range of these glass seed beads!
TECHNICAL DATA:
PRECIOSA Rocailles
Article number: 311 19 001
Size: 1/0, 6/0, 8/0, 10/0, 11/0 (opaque pink 73420 and opaque lilac 23420)
Size: 1/0, 6/0, 8/0 (transparent lilac 20420)
Article number: 331 19 001
Size: 6/0 (the sfinx and rainbow finishes)
The Sfinx Finish
78420 (on opaque pink)
28420 (on opaque lilac)
28420 (on opaque lilac)
The Rainbow Finish
74420 (on opaque pink)
24420 (on opaque lilac)
21420 (on transparent lilac)
Visit our website for more information about the PRECIOSA New Seed Beads Colors