Bálványosfürdő (Băile Balvanyos) is a place where you’ll find an ancient citadel, highly potent mineral springs, and strong-smelling caves that can either kill or cure you. About 1,000 meters above sea level in a mountainous region, the town is built on spa tourism, which has grown up around its three important springs.

 

Smelly cave of Torja/Turia. (Me and my brother in front of it.)

The village Torja is my paternal grandma's birthplace. (This cave is in the hillside above the village.)

 

One of the most famous mofettes of Europe in a romantic landscape, with many dry baths, mineral water springs and spas. It's called mofetta, meaning that people sit down and “bathe” in the warming gas almost as if it were a water spring. .Because of the gases, after spending a few minutes in the cave we will have a sensation of warmth, almost like in a sauna. On the edges of the walls the yellow discolouration shows where the borderline between life and death lies, because the mofetic gas is hevier than the air. In the cave it is fatal to get under the gas level. Even the first breath can be intoxicant. The safest way to check the level of the gas is with open flame. The chemical composition of the gas looks as follows: 95,82% carbon dioxide, 0,38%-a sulphurous hydrogen, 0,14% oxigen and 2,66%-nitrogen. For hundreds of years the cave has been used for treating cardio-vascular diseases, rheumatism and gynecological problems and it even gets prescribed in medical treatment courses. At one time, moisture from its walls was gathered and utilized as an ointment. Take off silver jewelry before entering the cave, unless you want to come out with yellow jewelry. The healing powers can be experienced after repeated visits to the cave.

 

Madártemető ( ’bird cemetery’ ) is nothing else but a collapsed sulfur mine’s hollow in which a lot of carbon dioxide has accumulated. If a bird flies too low and gets under the level of this gas, he will fall down dead into the hollow. The bodies of small mammals and deer have also been found here.

 

yourownwalk.com/tours/health/smelly

 

What is the mofetta? : www.info-covasna.ro/index.php?option=com_content&view...

 

hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCd%C3%B6s-barlang

 

-----------------

 

It was our first long, beautiful and touching journey to my family's second home to Erdély/Transylvania (previously Hungary, it has belonged to Romania since the end of WW1) - and a happy family reunion with my Transylvanian Sekler/Hungarian paternal Grandmother's niece, nephew and Dad's cousins in Székely Land/Székelyföld (a part of Transylvania).

(Dad's mother died 1947, just when his son, my father was allowed to come home from the Soviet lager where he had been a POV for five years.)

 

My maternal grandfather (1888-1948) was born and grown up as well in Erdély/Transylvania, his hometown was Brassó/Brasov/Kronstadt, so we visited his favourite places too. His mother was born in a well-posessed Saxon family in Brassó, his father was a Hungarian nobleman who was born in Upper Hungary (now it belongs to Slovakia.).

 

About Erdély/Transylvania (including Székely Land with majority of Hungarian population)::

 

Transylvania, is a geographical region of Romania near the Hungarian border. It covers about 39,000 square miles (101,000 square kilometers). The majority of its people are Romanians, but about a quarter of the population are Magyars (Hungarians). Magyars make up the largest ethnic group in Hungary. Transylvania also has a sizeable Gypsy minority. The Carpathian Mountains and Transylvanian Alps separate the region from the rest of Romania. For years, Romanians and Hungarians quarreled over Transylvania. Magyars conquered the region in the 900’s. From 1526 to 1699, Transylvania was part of the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire. It was under Hungarian control from 1699 to 1867, when it once again became part of Hungary. During World War I (1914-1918), Romania joined the Allies after being promised Transylvania. After the war, Transylvania became part of Romania. In August 1940, Germany and Italy forced Romania to give northern Transylvania to Hungary. After World War II (1939-1945), Transylvania was returned to Romania and lost its political identity. Transylvania is the main site of the legend about the vampire Dracula. The character of Dracula is based on Vlad Tepes, a cruel prince of the 1400’s who lived in Walachia, a region south of Transylvania. Vlad executed many of his enemies by driving a stake through their bodies. A belief vampires once held by many Romanian peasants added details to the legend. Dracula (1897), a novel by the English author Bram Stoker, made the legend famous. This immensely popular book has inspired numerous plays and motion pictures.

 

---------------

 

This trip was not an everyday occurence because we have never met with this part of our family before. The reasons were due to sad and serious historical events:

 

After WW1 the Treaty of Trianon defined new borders of Hungary due to its role in Great War: we fighted on the side of Central Powers.

Compared to the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary, post-war Hungary had 72% less territory. Its population was 7.6 million, which was 64% less than the population of the pre-war kingdom, whose population was 20.9 million.

31% (3.3 out of 10.7 million) of ethnic Hungarians who lived in the pre-war kingdom lived outside the newly defined borders of post-war Hungary, just like a part of my paternal and maternal family as well as some people of my husband's family (not only in Romania but also in present Slovakia and Ukraine).

 

After WW2, due to the communist era and especially Ceausescu's politics my father couldn't visit his mother's relatives in Erdély/Transylvania, who lived in Székelyföld (Székely Land or Szekler Land). So we were all happy to meet each other after so many decades!

 

And another happy ending: both countries has been members of Europe Union since 2004 (Hungary) and 2007 (Romania).

  

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%A9kely

   

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%A9kelyf%C3%B6ld

   

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon

   

Kali Temple Lucknow Chowk..

Here on Kali Puja Day devotees cut their tongues that come back miraculously in 16 hours..

 

Tantra (Sanskrit: loom), Tantric Yoga or Tantrism is any of several esoteric traditions rooted in Hindu and Buddhist philosophy. Extolled as a short-cut to self-realization and spiritual enlightenment by some, tantric rites are often rejected as dangerous by most orthodox Hindus. There are two "paths" in Tantra: dakshinachara (also known as samayachara), the "Right-Hand Path", and vamachara, the "Left-Hand Path". The latter is associated with many ritual practices that go against the grain of mainstream Hinduism, including sexual rituals, consumption of alcohol and other intoxicants, animal sacrifice and flesh-eating. The terms Left-Hand Path and Right-Hand Path have been adopted by Western occultists.

 

According to another popular view, Tantra is classified as either red (rajas or heat, fire, restlessness, anger), black (tamas or darkness, ignorance, stagnation) or white (sattwa pure, moderate, divine). These correspond to three Hindu conceptions of the qualities of existence first posited in Samkhya.

 

Some Tantric aspirants simply feel the union is accomplished internally and with spiritual entities of various kinds. For this reason, almost all Tantrik writing has a gross, higher and subtle meaning. This tripartite system of understanding readily obscures the true purport of many passages for those without the necessary background or deeper understandings so crucial to Tantra. Thus, a 'union' could mean the actual act of sexual intercourse, ritual uniting of concepts through chanting and sacrifice, or realization of one's true self in the cosmic joining of the divine principles of Shiva and Shakti in Para Shiva.

 

The Hindu Tantra Tradition

 

According to John Woodroffe, one of the foremost Western scholars on Tantra, and translator of its greatest works (including the Mahanirvana Tantra):

 

"The Indian Tantras, which are numerous, constitute the Scripture (Shastra) of the Kaliyuga, and as such are the voluminous source of present and practical orthodox "Hinduism." The Tantra Shastra is, in fact, and whatever be its historical origin, a development of the Vaidika Karmakanda, promulgated to meet the needs of that age. Shiva says: "For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given" (Chap. IX., verse 12). To the Tantra we must therefore look if we would understand aright both ritual, yoga, and sadhana of all kinds, as also the general principles of which these practices are but the objective expression."

 

- Introduction to Sir John Woodroffe's translation of "Mahanirvana Tantra."

The word "tantra" means "treatise", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as "tantric". Most tantras were written between the 10th and 14th centuries CE.

 

While Hinduism is typically viewed as being Vedic, the Tantras are not considered part of the orthodox Hindu/Vedic scriptures. They are said to run alongside each other, The Vedas of orthodox Hinduism on one side and the Agamas of Tantra on the other. However, the practices, mantras and ideas of the Atharva Veda are markedy different from those of the prior three and show signs of powerful non-Aryan influence. Indeed, the Atharva Veda is cited by many Tantra texts as a source of great knowledge. it is notable that throughout the Tantras, such as the Mahanirvana Tantra, they align themselves as being natural progressions of the Vedas. Tantra exists for spiritual seekers in the age of Kaliyuga, when Vedic practices no longer apply to the current state of morality and Tantra is the most direct means to realization. Thus, aside from Vajrayana Buddhism, much of Tantric thought is Hindu Tantra, most notably those that council worship of Lord Shiva and the Divine Mother, Kali.

 

A Tantra typically takes the form of a dialogue between the Hindu gods Shiva and Shakti/Parvati, being that Shiva is known in Hinduism as being 'Yogiraj' or 'Yogeshwara,' 'The King of Yoga' or 'God of Yoga' and that his consort is known to be his perfect feminine equal. Each explains to the other a particular group of techniques or philosophies for attaining moksha (liberation/ enlightenment), or for attaining a certain practical result. [Agamas are Shiva to Shakti, and Nigamas are Shakti to Shiva.]

 

This extract from the beginning of the Yoni Tantra (translated by Mike Magee) gives an idea of the style.

 

Seated upon the peak of Mount Kailasa the God of Gods, the Guru of all creation was questioned by Durga-of-the-smiling-face, Naganandini.

 

"Sixty-four tantras have been created O Lord, tell me, O Ocean of Compassion, about the chief of these."

 

Mahadeva said:

 

"Listen, Parvati, to this highly secret one, Dearest. Ten million times have you wanted to hear this. Beauteous One, it is from your feminine nature that you continually ask me. You should conceal this by every effort. Parvati, there is mantra-pitha, yantra-pitha and yoni-pitha. Of these, the chief is certainly the yoni-pitha, revealed to you from affection."

 

History of Tantra

 

Tantra as a post-Vedic Hindu Yogic movement began in North India and flourished in the middle ages before declining in the nineteenth century, partly as a result of persecution by the British and orthodox Hindus, and partly, perhaps, because of the increasing popularity of Bhakti yoga amongst the masses.

 

Legend ascribes the origin of Tantra to Dattatreya, a semi-mythological yogi and the assumed author of the Jivanmukta Gita ("Song of the liberated soul"). Others see Lord Adinath, or Shiva, as the first Guru of Tantra. Things become a little more clear with Matsyendranath ("Master of fish" - so-called either because he was a fisherman, or, less probably, because he discovered a tantra inside a fish). He is accredited with authorship of the Kaulajnana-nirnaya, a voluminous ninth-century tantra dealing with a host of mystical and magical subjects, and occupies an important position in the Hindu tantric lineage, as well as in Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism. His disciple, Gorakhnath, founded laya yoga. Hatha Yoga was penned by Swami Swatamarama as the secrets of Lord Adinath (another name for Shiva) in the 15th century.

 

Tantra evolved into a number of orders (sampradaya) and diverged into so-called "left-hand tantra" (varma marg), in which sexual yoga and other antinomian practices occurred, and "right-hand tantra", in which such practices were merely visualized. Both groups, but in particular the left-hand tantriks, opposed many features of orthodox Hindu culture, particularly the caste system and patriarchy. Despite this, Tantra was accepted by some high-caste Hindus, most notably the Rajput princes. Hindu tantra even briefly enabled a yogic/sufi synthesis among some Indian Muslims. Nowadays Tantra has a large, though not always well-informed, following worldwide.

 

Buddhist and Hindu Tantra, though having many similarities from the outside, do have some clear distinctions. Scholars are unable to determine whether the Hindu or the Buddhist version of Tantra appeared first in history. Buddhist Tantra is always part of the Mahayana school of Buddhism, which has as main aim to help all sentient beings becoming free from problems (Dukkha), in order to achieve this aim, one should try to achieve Buddhahood oneself, in order to be the most profound teacher for others. Buddhist Tantra spread out from (North) India, chiefly to Tibet, where it became known as the Vajrayana school of Buddhism. It also had some influence on Chinese and Japanese Buddhism (notably Shingon)

 

Tantric practices

 

Because of the wide range of groups covered by the term "tantra", it is hard to describe tantric practices definitively. The basic practice, the Hindu image-worship known as "puja" may include any of the elements below.

 

Mantra and Yantra

 

As in all of Hindu and Buddhist yogas, mantras plays an important part in Tantra, not only for focusing the mind, often through the conduit of specific Hindu gods like Shiva, Ma Kali (mother Kali, another form of Shakti) and even Ganesh, the elephant-headed god of wisdom. Similarly, puja will often involve concentrating on a yantra or mandala.

 

Identification with Deities

 

Tantra, being a development of Atharva Vedic and pre-Brahmanical thought, embraced the Hindu gods and goddesses, especially Shiva and Shakti, along the Advaita (nondualist Vedic) philosophy that each represents an aspect of the ultimate Param Shiva, or Brahman. These deities may be worshipped externally (with flowers, incense etc.) but, more importantly, are used as objects of meditation, where the practitioner imagines him- or herself to be the deity in question. The ancient devadasi tradition of sacred temple-dance, seen in the contemporary Bharata Natyam is the example of such meditation in movement. The divine love is expressed in Sringara and Bhakti.

 

Concentration on the Body

 

Tantriks generally see the body as a microcosm; thus in the Kaulajnana-nirnaya, for example, the practitioner meditates on the head as the moon, the heart as the sun and the genitals as fire. Many groups hold that the body contains a series of energy centers (chakra - "wheel"), which may be associated with elements, planets or occult powers (siddhi). The phenomenon of Kundalini, a flow of energy through the chakras, is controversial; most writers see it as essential to Tantra, while others regard it as unimportant or as an abreaction. As it is, kundalini is nothing but the flow of the central sushumna nadi, a spiritual current, that, when moving, opens chakras, and is fundamental to the siddhi concept that forms a part of all tantra, including Hatha yoga.

 

Sexual intercourse is not at all a part of all tantric practice, but it is the definitive feature of left-hand Tantra. All tantra states that there were certain groups of personalities who were not fit for certain practices. Tantra was personality specific and insisted that those with pashu-bhava (animal disposition), which are people of dishonest, promiscuous, greedy or violent natures who ate meat and indulged in intoxication, would only incur bad Karma by following Tantrik paths without the aid of a Guru who could instruct them on the correct path.

 

There are three types of Tantric Sex: White, Gray, and Black. White Tantra never ejaculates nor reaches orgasm in order to awaken consciousness. Gray Tantra elongates the sexual act, and sometimes concludes with orgasm/ejaculation, but without any longing towards awakening consciousness. Black Tantra always concludes with orgasm/ejaculation in order to awaken consciousness. It is said that White Tantra awakens consciousness to the absence of desire, while Black Tantra awakens consciousness into desire. In Buddhist tantra, actual ejaculation is very much a taboo, as the main goal of the sexual practice is to use the sexual energy towards achieving full enlightenment, rather than ordinary pleasure.

 

Sexual intercourse, preferably with a low-caste partner, was one method by which traditional left-hand practice forced practitioners to confront their conditioned responses. Others include the eating of meat (particularly beef and pork) and drinking of alcohol. Fear has also been used as a method to break down conditioning; rites would often take place in a cremation ground amidst decomposing corpses. This, of course, also falls under the prerequisite of the practitioner's nature, in such cases demanding a vir- (heroic) or even devya- (godlike) -bhava (disposition of purity, self-control, suppression of pride, respect to parents and guru and often celibacy).

 

Tantra in the Modern World

 

Tantra is used in the West, as a general term which relates to sexual practice as a spiritual evolutionary scheme. There are in fact many different approaches as to how this manifests in American society. There have been many civilizations which have deified sexuality as the most approximate expression of cosmic love or God. Regardless, the point is that tantra is moldable. It changes with each moment and environment. It especially depends on the nature of the practitioner.

 

In traditional pockets of Tantric practice in India, such as in Assam near the venerated Hindu temple of Kali, Kammakha, in parts of West Bengal, in Siddhanta temples of South India, and in Kashmiri Shiva temples up north, Tantra has retained its true form. Its variance in practice is seen, where many tantriks are known to frequent cremation grounds in attempts to transcend their worldly attachment to life, and others are assuredly performing still more arcane acts. But what is common to them all is the intense secrecy in which their secrets are kept and the almost godlike reverence paid to the Guru, who is seen as a the pinnacle of Tantra. It would be safe to say that every single Hindu Tantra Yogin in India is a Shiva and/or Shakti worshipper, and the more wide-spread practices to which all Hindus commit themselves, like pooja and worship through devotion, are maintained while more occult yogic practices involving sacred rites continue. Tibet too has a very strong Buddhist Tantric background which continues, albeit many have been transplanted to monasteries in India, but can be said to widely cleave to the right-hand path, in contrast to the more varied Hindu counterparts.

 

Modern Tantra may be divided into practices based on Hinduism and Buddhism, Indian and Tibetan, traditions. In America, a mutilated and extremely narrow-minded, sensationalist approach encompassing only a misguided thinking about "sacred sexuality," with little reference to its true practice, has captured the Western mind. Real Tantra involves much more than mere wizardry or sexual titillation: like the rest of Yoga (Hindu and Buddhist), it requires self-analysis and conquering of material ignorance, often through the body, but always through a pure outlook of the mind. 'Real Tantra' is about transforming one's sexual energy into spiritual progress, and has nothing to do with 'sex just for fun'. Those without a guru or lacking in discipline of the mind and body are unfit. It is telling that a Tantrik in West Bengal, a devotee of the Hindu goddess Kali, once said that 'those most fit for Tantra almost never take it up, and those least fit pursue it with zeal.'

 

www.haryana-online.com/Culture/tantra.htm

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a basidiomycete of the genus Amanita. It is a large white-gilled, white-spotted, and usually red mushroom.

 

Despite its easily distinguishable features, A. muscaria is a fungus with several known variations, or subspecies. These subspecies are slightly different, some having yellow or white caps, but are all usually called fly agarics, most often recognizable by their notable white spots. Recent DNA fungi research, however, has shown that some mushrooms called 'fly agaric' are in fact unique species, such as A. persicina (the peach-colored fly agaric).

 

Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, A. muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine and birch plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species. It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees.

 

Although poisonous, death due to poisoning from A. muscaria ingestion is quite rare. Parboiling twice with water draining weakens its toxicity and breaks down the mushroom's psychoactive substances; it is eaten in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. All A. muscaria varieties, but in particular A. muscaria var. muscaria, are noted for their hallucinogenic properties, with the main psychoactive constituents being muscimol and its neurotoxic precursor ibotenic acid. A local variety of the mushroom was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the indigenous peoples of Siberia.

 

Arguably the most iconic toadstool species, the fly agaric is one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular culture, including in video games—for example, the frequent use of a recognizable A. muscaria in the Mario franchise (e.g. its Super Mushroom power-up)—and television—for example, the houses in The Smurfs franchise. There have been cases of children admitted to hospitals after consuming this poisonous mushroom; the children may have been attracted to it because of its pop-culture associations.

 

Taxonomy

The name of the mushroom in many European languages is thought to derive from its use as an insecticide when sprinkled in milk. This practice has been recorded from Germanic- and Slavic-speaking parts of Europe, as well as the Vosges region and pockets elsewhere in France, and Romania. Albertus Magnus was the first to record it in his work De vegetabilibus some time before 1256, commenting vocatur fungus muscarum, eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas, "it is called the fly mushroom because it is powdered in milk to kill flies."

 

The 16th-century Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius traced the practice of sprinkling it into milk to Frankfurt in Germany, while Carl Linnaeus, the "father of taxonomy", reported it from Småland in southern Sweden, where he had lived as a child. He described it in volume two of his Species Plantarum in 1753, giving it the name Agaricus muscarius, the specific epithet deriving from Latin musca meaning "fly". It gained its current name in 1783, when placed in the genus Amanita by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, a name sanctioned in 1821 by the "father of mycology", Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries. The starting date for all the mycota had been set by general agreement as January 1, 1821, the date of Fries's work, and so the full name was then Amanita muscaria (L.:Fr.) Hook. The 1987 edition of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi, and names can now be considered valid as far back as May 1, 1753, the date of publication of Linnaeus's work. Hence, Linnaeus and Lamarck are now taken as the namers of Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam..

 

The English mycologist John Ramsbottom reported that Amanita muscaria was used for getting rid of bugs in England and Sweden, and bug agaric was an old alternative name for the species. French mycologist Pierre Bulliard reported having tried without success to replicate its fly-killing properties in his work Histoire des plantes vénéneuses et suspectes de la France (1784), and proposed a new binomial name Agaricus pseudo-aurantiacus because of this. One compound isolated from the fungus is 1,3-diolein (1,3-di(cis-9-octadecenoyl)glycerol), which attracts insects. It has been hypothesised that the flies intentionally seek out the fly agaric for its intoxicating properties. An alternative derivation proposes that the term fly- refers not to insects as such but rather the delirium resulting from consumption of the fungus. This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person's head and cause mental illness. Several regional names appear to be linked with this connotation, meaning the "mad" or "fool's" version of the highly regarded edible mushroom Amanita caesarea. Hence there is oriol foll "mad oriol" in Catalan, mujolo folo from Toulouse, concourlo fouolo from the Aveyron department in Southern France, ovolo matto from Trentino in Italy. A local dialect name in Fribourg in Switzerland is tsapi de diablhou, which translates as "Devil's hat".

 

Classification

Amanita muscaria is the type species of the genus. By extension, it is also the type species of Amanita subgenus Amanita, as well as section Amanita within this subgenus. Amanita subgenus Amanita includes all Amanita with inamyloid spores. Amanita section Amanita includes the species with patchy universal veil remnants, including a volva that is reduced to a series of concentric rings, and the veil remnants on the cap to a series of patches or warts. Most species in this group also have a bulbous base. Amanita section Amanita consists of A. muscaria and its close relatives, including A. pantherina (the panther cap), A. gemmata, A. farinosa, and A. xanthocephala. Modern fungal taxonomists have classified Amanita muscaria and its allies this way based on gross morphology and spore inamyloidy. Two recent molecular phylogenetic studies have confirmed this classification as natural.

 

Description

A large, conspicuous mushroom, Amanita muscaria is generally common and numerous where it grows, and is often found in groups with basidiocarps in all stages of development. Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from the soil looking like white eggs. After emerging from the ground, the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow pyramid-shaped warts. These are remnants of the universal veil, a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young. Dissecting the mushroom at this stage reveals a characteristic yellowish layer of skin under the veil, which helps identification. As the fungus grows, the red colour appears through the broken veil and the warts become less prominent; they do not change in size, but are reduced relative to the expanding skin area. The cap changes from globose to hemispherical, and finally to plate-like and flat in mature specimens. Fully grown, the bright red cap is usually around 8–20 centimetres (3–8 inches) in diameter, although larger specimens have been found. The red colour may fade after rain and in older mushrooms.

 

The free gills are white, as is the spore print. The oval spores measure 9–13 by 6.5–9 μm; they do not turn blue with the application of iodine. The stipe is white, 5–20 cm (2–8 in) high by 1–2 cm (1⁄2–1 in) wide, and has the slightly brittle, fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms. At the base is a bulb that bears universal veil remnants in the form of two to four distinct rings or ruffs. Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the partial veil (which covers the gills during development) in the form of a white ring. It can be quite wide and flaccid with age. There is generally no associated smell other than a mild earthiness.

 

Although very distinctive in appearance, the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red mushroom species in the Americas, such as Armillaria cf. mellea and the edible A. basii—a Mexican species similar to A. caesarea of Europe. Poison control centres in the U.S. and Canada have become aware that amarill (Spanish for 'yellow') is a common name for the A. caesarea-like species in Mexico. A. caesarea is distinguished by its entirely orange to red cap, which lacks the numerous white warty spots of the fly agaric (though these sometimes wash away during heavy rain). Furthermore, the stem, gills and ring of A. caesarea are bright yellow, not white. The volva is a distinct white bag, not broken into scales. In Australia, the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the native vermilion grisette (Amanita xanthocephala), which grows in association with eucalypts. The latter species generally lacks the white warts of A. muscaria and bears no ring. Additionally, immature button forms resemble puffballs.

 

Controversy

Amanita muscaria var. formosa is now a synonym for Amanita muscaria var. guessowii.

Amanita muscaria varies considerably in its morphology, and many authorities recognize several subspecies or varieties within the species. In The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy, German mycologist Rolf Singer listed three subspecies, though without description: A. muscaria ssp. muscaria, A. muscaria ssp. americana, and A. muscaria ssp. flavivolvata.

 

However, a 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of different regional populations of A. muscaria by mycologist József Geml and colleagues found three distinct clades within this species representing, roughly, Eurasian, Eurasian "subalpine", and North American populations. Specimens belonging to all three clades have been found in Alaska; this has led to the hypothesis that this was the centre of diversification for this species. The study also looked at four named varieties of the species: var. alba, var. flavivolvata, var. formosa (including var. guessowii), and var. regalis from both areas. All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and North American clades, evidence that these morphological forms are polymorphisms rather than distinct subspecies or varieties. Further molecular study by Geml and colleagues published in 2008 show that these three genetic groups, plus a fourth associated with oak–hickory–pine forest in the southeastern United States and two more on Santa Cruz Island in California, are delineated from each other enough genetically to be considered separate species. Thus A. muscaria as it stands currently is, evidently, a species complex. The complex also includes at least three other closely related taxa that are currently regarded as species: A. breckonii is a buff-capped mushroom associated with conifers from the Pacific Northwest, and the brown-capped A. gioiosa and A. heterochroma from the Mediterranean Basin and from Sardinia respectively. Both of these last two are found with Eucalyptus and Cistus trees, and it is unclear whether they are native or introduced from Australia.

 

Distribution and habitat

A. muscaria is a cosmopolitan mushroom, native to conifer and deciduous woodlands throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, including higher elevations of warmer latitudes in regions such as Hindu Kush, the Mediterranean and also Central America. A recent molecular study proposes that it had an ancestral origin in the Siberian–Beringian region in the Tertiary period, before radiating outwards across Asia, Europe and North America. The season for fruiting varies in different climates: fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most of North America, but later in autumn and early winter on the Pacific coast. This species is often found in similar locations to Boletus edulis, and may appear in fairy rings. Conveyed with pine seedlings, it has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and South America, where it can be found in the Brazilian states of Paraná, São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul.

 

Ectomycorrhizal, A. muscaria forms symbiotic relationships with many trees, including pine, oak, spruce, fir, birch, and cedar. Commonly seen under introduced trees, A. muscaria is the fungal equivalent of a weed in New Zealand, Tasmania and Victoria, forming new associations with southern beech (Nothofagus). The species is also invading a rainforest in Australia, where it may be displacing the native species. It appears to be spreading northwards, with recent reports placing it near Port Macquarie on the New South Wales north coast. It was recorded under silver birch (Betula pendula) in Manjimup, Western Australia in 2010. Although it has apparently not spread to eucalypts in Australia, it has been recorded associating with them in Portugal. Commonly found throughout the great Southern region of western Australia, it is regularly found growing on Pinus radiata.

 

Toxicity

a tall red mushroom with a few white spots on the cap

Mature. The white spots may wash off with heavy rainfall.

A. muscaria poisoning has occurred in young children and in people who ingested the mushrooms for a hallucinogenic experience, or who confused it with an edible species.

 

A. muscaria contains several biologically active agents, at least one of which, muscimol, is known to be psychoactive. Ibotenic acid, a neurotoxin, serves as a prodrug to muscimol, with a small amount likely converting to muscimol after ingestion. An active dose in adults is approximately 6 mg muscimol or 30 to 60 mg ibotenic acid; this is typically about the amount found in one cap of Amanita muscaria. The amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region and season to season, which can further confuse the issue. Spring and summer mushrooms have been reported to contain up to 10 times more ibotenic acid and muscimol than autumn fruitings.

 

Deaths from A. muscaria have been reported in historical journal articles and newspaper reports, but with modern medical treatment, fatal poisoning from ingesting this mushroom is extremely rare. Many books list A. muscaria as deadly, but according to David Arora, this is an error that implies the mushroom is far more toxic than it is. Furthermore, The North American Mycological Association has stated that there were "no reliably documented cases of death from toxins in these mushrooms in the past 100 years".

 

The active constituents of this species are water-soluble, and boiling and then discarding the cooking water at least partly detoxifies A. muscaria. Drying may increase potency, as the process facilitates the conversion of ibotenic acid to the more potent muscimol. According to some sources, once detoxified, the mushroom becomes edible. Patrick Harding describes the Sami custom of processing the fly agaric through reindeer.

 

Pharmacology

Ibotenic acid, a prodrug to muscimol found in A. muscaria

Muscarine, discovered in 1869, was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in A. muscaria. Muscarine binds with muscarinic acetylcholine receptors leading to the excitation of neurons bearing these receptors. The levels of muscarine in Amanita muscaria are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi such as Inosperma erubescens, the small white Clitocybe species C. dealbata and C. rivulosa. The level of muscarine in A. muscaria is too low to play a role in the symptoms of poisoning.

 

The major toxins involved in A. muscaria poisoning are muscimol (3-hydroxy-5-aminomethyl-1-isoxazole, an unsaturated cyclic hydroxamic acid) and the related amino acid ibotenic acid. Muscimol is the product of the decarboxylation (usually by drying) of ibotenic acid. Muscimol and ibotenic acid were discovered in the mid-20th century. Researchers in England, Japan, and Switzerland showed that the effects produced were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol, not muscarine. These toxins are not distributed uniformly in the mushroom. Most are detected in the cap of the fruit, a moderate amount in the base, with the smallest amount in the stalk. Quite rapidly, between 20 and 90 minutes after ingestion, a substantial fraction of ibotenic acid is excreted unmetabolised in the urine of the consumer. Almost no muscimol is excreted when pure ibotenic acid is eaten, but muscimol is detectable in the urine after eating A. muscaria, which contains both ibotenic acid and muscimol.

 

Ibotenic acid and muscimol are structurally related to each other and to two major neurotransmitters of the central nervous system: glutamic acid and GABA respectively. Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these neurotransmitters, muscimol being a potent GABAA agonist, while ibotenic acid is an agonist of NMDA glutamate receptors and certain metabotropic glutamate receptors which are involved in the control of neuronal activity. It is these interactions which are thought to cause the psychoactive effects found in intoxication.

 

Muscazone is another compound that has more recently been isolated from European specimens of the fly agaric. It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by ultra-violet radiation. Muscazone is of minor pharmacological activity compared with the other agents. Amanita muscaria and related species are known as effective bioaccumulators of vanadium; some species concentrate vanadium to levels of up to 400 times those typically found in plants. Vanadium is present in fruit-bodies as an organometallic compound called amavadine. The biological importance of the accumulation process is unknown.

 

Symptoms

Fly agarics are best known for the unpredictability of their effects. Depending on habitat and the amount ingested per body weight, effects can range from mild nausea and twitching to drowsiness, cholinergic crisis-like effects (low blood pressure, sweating and salivation), auditory and visual distortions, mood changes, euphoria, relaxation, ataxia, and loss of equilibrium (like with tetanus.)

 

In cases of serious poisoning the mushroom causes delirium, somewhat similar in effect to anticholinergic poisoning (such as that caused by Datura stramonium), characterised by bouts of marked agitation with confusion, hallucinations, and irritability followed by periods of central nervous system depression. Seizures and coma may also occur in severe poisonings. Symptoms typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours, but certain effects can last for several days. In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 to 24 hours. The effect is highly variable between individuals, with similar doses potentially causing quite different reactions. Some people suffering intoxication have exhibited headaches up to ten hours afterwards.[56] Retrograde amnesia and somnolence can result following recovery.

 

Treatment

Medical attention should be sought in cases of suspected poisoning. If the delay between ingestion and treatment is less than four hours, activated charcoal is given. Gastric lavage can be considered if the patient presents within one hour of ingestion. Inducing vomiting with syrup of ipecac is no longer recommended in any poisoning situation.

 

There is no antidote, and supportive care is the mainstay of further treatment for intoxication. Though sometimes referred to as a deliriant and while muscarine was first isolated from A. muscaria and as such is its namesake, muscimol does not have action, either as an agonist or antagonist, at the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor site, and therefore atropine or physostigmine as an antidote is not recommended. If a patient is delirious or agitated, this can usually be treated by reassurance and, if necessary, physical restraints. A benzodiazepine such as diazepam or lorazepam can be used to control combativeness, agitation, muscular overactivity, and seizures. Only small doses should be used, as they may worsen the respiratory depressant effects of muscimol. Recurrent vomiting is rare, but if present may lead to fluid and electrolyte imbalances; intravenous rehydration or electrolyte replacement may be required. Serious cases may develop loss of consciousness or coma, and may need intubation and artificial ventilation. Hemodialysis can remove the toxins, although this intervention is generally considered unnecessary. With modern medical treatment the prognosis is typically good following supportive treatment.

 

Uses

The wide range of psychoactive effects have been variously described as depressant, sedative-hypnotic, psychedelic, dissociative, or deliriant; paradoxical effects such as stimulation may occur however. Perceptual phenomena such as synesthesia, macropsia, and micropsia may occur; the latter two effects may occur either simultaneously or alternatingly, as part of Alice in Wonderland syndrome, collectively known as dysmetropsia, along with related distortions pelopsia and teleopsia. Some users report lucid dreaming under the influence of its hypnotic effects. Unlike Psilocybe cubensis, A. muscaria cannot be commercially cultivated, due to its mycorrhizal relationship with the roots of pine trees. However, following the outlawing of psilocybin mushrooms in the United Kingdom in 2006, the sale of the still legal A. muscaria began increasing.

 

Marija Gimbutas reported to R. Gordon Wasson that in remote areas of Lithuania, A. muscaria has been consumed at wedding feasts, in which mushrooms were mixed with vodka. She also reported that the Lithuanians used to export A. muscaria to the Sami in the Far North for use in shamanic rituals. The Lithuanian festivities are the only report that Wasson received of ingestion of fly agaric for religious use in Eastern Europe.

 

Siberia

A. muscaria was widely used as an entheogen by many of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. Its use was known among almost all of the Uralic-speaking peoples of western Siberia and the Paleosiberian-speaking peoples of the Russian Far East. There are only isolated reports of A. muscaria use among the Tungusic and Turkic peoples of central Siberia and it is believed that on the whole entheogenic use of A. muscaria was not practised by these peoples. In western Siberia, the use of A. muscaria was restricted to shamans, who used it as an alternative method of achieving a trance state. (Normally, Siberian shamans achieve trance by prolonged drumming and dancing.) In eastern Siberia, A. muscaria was used by both shamans and laypeople alike, and was used recreationally as well as religiously. In eastern Siberia, the shaman would take the mushrooms, and others would drink his urine. This urine, still containing psychoactive elements, may be more potent than the A. muscaria mushrooms with fewer negative effects such as sweating and twitching, suggesting that the initial user may act as a screening filter for other components in the mushroom.

 

The Koryak of eastern Siberia have a story about the fly agaric (wapaq) which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home. In the story, the deity Vahiyinin ("Existence") spat onto earth, and his spittle became the wapaq, and his saliva becomes the warts. After experiencing the power of the wapaq, Raven was so exhilarated that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children, the people, could learn from it. Among the Koryaks, one report said that the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy, who could afford to buy the mushrooms. It was reported that the local reindeer would often follow an individual intoxicated by the muscimol mushroom, and if said individual were to urinate in snow the reindeer would become similarly intoxicated and the Koryak people's would use the drunken state of the reindeer to more easily rope and hunt them.

 

Other reports and theories

The Finnish historian T. I. Itkonen mentions that A. muscaria was once used among the Sámi peoples. Sorcerers in Inari would consume fly agarics with seven spots. In 1979, Said Gholam Mochtar and Hartmut Geerken published an article in which they claimed to have discovered a tradition of medicinal and recreational use of this mushroom among a Parachi-speaking group in Afghanistan. There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of A. muscaria among two Subarctic Native American tribes. Ojibwa ethnobotanist Keewaydinoquay Peschel reported its use among her people, where it was known as miskwedo (an abbreviation of the name oshtimisk wajashkwedo (= "red-top mushroom"). This information was enthusiastically received by Wasson, although evidence from other sources was lacking. There is also one account of a Euro-American who claims to have been initiated into traditional Tlicho use of Amanita muscaria. The flying reindeer of Santa Claus, who is called Joulupukki in Finland, could symbolize the use of A. muscaria by Sámi shamans. However, Sámi scholars and the Sámi peoples themselves refute any connection between Santa Claus and Sámi history or culture.

 

"The story of Santa emerging from a Sámi shamanic tradition has a critical number of flaws," asserts Tim Frandy, assistant professor of Nordic Studies at the University of British Columbia and a member of the Sámi descendent community in North America. "The theory has been widely criticized by Sámi people as a stereotypical and problematic romanticized misreading of actual Sámi culture."

 

Vikings

The notion that Vikings used A. muscaria to produce their berserker rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödmann in 1784. Ödmann based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among Siberian shamans. The notion has become widespread since the 19th century, but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of berserkers. Muscimol is generally a mild relaxant, but it can create a range of different reactions within a group of people. It is possible that it could make a person angry, or cause them to be "very jolly or sad, jump about, dance, sing or give way to great fright". Comparative analysis of symptoms have, however, since shown Hyoscyamus niger to be a better fit to the state that characterises the berserker rage.

 

Soma

See also: Botanical identity of Soma-Haoma

In 1968, R. Gordon Wasson proposed that A. muscaria was the soma talked about in the Rigveda of India, a claim which received widespread publicity and popular support at the time. He noted that descriptions of Soma omitted any description of roots, stems or seeds, which suggested a mushroom, and used the adjective hári "dazzling" or "flaming" which the author interprets as meaning red. One line described men urinating Soma; this recalled the practice of recycling urine in Siberia. Soma is mentioned as coming "from the mountains", which Wasson interpreted as the mushroom having been brought in with the Aryan migrants from the north. Indian scholars Santosh Kumar Dash and Sachinanda Padhy pointed out that both eating of mushrooms and drinking of urine were proscribed, using as a source the Manusmṛti. In 1971, Vedic scholar John Brough from Cambridge University rejected Wasson's theory and noted that the language was too vague to determine a description of Soma. In his 1976 survey, Hallucinogens and Culture, anthropologist Peter T. Furst evaluated the evidence for and against the identification of the fly agaric mushroom as the Vedic Soma, concluding cautiously in its favour. Kevin Feeney and Trent Austin compared the references in the Vedas with the filtering mechanisms in the preparation of Amanita muscaria and published findings supporting the proposal that fly-agaric mushrooms could be a likely candidate for the sacrament. Other proposed candidates include Psilocybe cubensis, Peganum harmala, and Ephedra.

 

Christianity

Philologist, archaeologist, and Dead Sea Scrolls scholar John Marco Allegro postulated that early Christian theology was derived from a fertility cult revolving around the entheogenic consumption of A. muscaria in his 1970 book The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross. This theory has found little support by scholars outside the field of ethnomycology. The book was widely criticized by academics and theologians, including Sir Godfrey Driver, emeritus Professor of Semitic Philology at Oxford University and Henry Chadwick, the Dean of Christ Church, Oxford. Christian author John C. King wrote a detailed rebuttal of Allegro's theory in the 1970 book A Christian View of the Mushroom Myth; he notes that neither fly agarics nor their host trees are found in the Middle East, even though cedars and pines are found there, and highlights the tenuous nature of the links between biblical and Sumerian names coined by Allegro. He concludes that if the theory were true, the use of the mushroom must have been "the best kept secret in the world" as it was so well concealed for two thousand years.

 

Fly trap

Amanita muscaria is traditionally used for catching flies possibly due to its content of ibotenic acid and muscimol, which lead to its common name "fly agaric". Recently, an analysis of nine different methods for preparing A. muscaria for catching flies in Slovenia have shown that the release of ibotenic acid and muscimol did not depend on the solvent (milk or water) and that thermal and mechanical processing led to faster extraction of ibotenic acid and muscimol.

 

Culinary

The toxins in A. muscaria are water-soluble: parboiling A. muscaria fruit bodies can detoxify them and render them edible, although consumption of the mushroom as a food has never been widespread. The consumption of detoxified A. muscaria has been practiced in some parts of Europe (notably by Russian settlers in Siberia) since at least the 19th century, and likely earlier. The German physician and naturalist Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff wrote the earliest published account on how to detoxify this mushroom in 1823. In the late 19th century, the French physician Félix Archimède Pouchet was a populariser and advocate of A. muscaria consumption, comparing it to manioc, an important food source in tropical South America that must also be detoxified before consumption.

 

Use of this mushroom as a food source also seems to have existed in North America. A classic description of this use of A. muscaria by an African-American mushroom seller in Washington, D.C., in the late 19th century is described by American botanist Frederick Vernon Coville. In this case, the mushroom, after parboiling, and soaking in vinegar, is made into a mushroom sauce for steak. It is also consumed as a food in parts of Japan. The most well-known current use as an edible mushroom is in Nagano Prefecture, Japan. There, it is primarily salted and pickled.

 

A 2008 paper by food historian William Rubel and mycologist David Arora gives a history of consumption of A. muscaria as a food and describes detoxification methods. They advocate that Amanita muscaria be described in field guides as an edible mushroom, though accompanied by a description on how to detoxify it. The authors state that the widespread descriptions in field guides of this mushroom as poisonous is a reflection of cultural bias, as several other popular edible species, notably morels, are also toxic unless properly cooked.

 

In culture

The red-and-white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture. Garden ornaments and children's picture books depicting gnomes and fairies, such as the Smurfs, often show fly agarics used as seats, or homes. Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the Renaissance, albeit in a subtle manner. For instance, in Hieronymus Bosch's painting, The Garden of Earthly Delights, the mushroom can be seen on the left-hand panel of the work. In the Victorian era they became more visible, becoming the main topic of some fairy paintings. Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the Mario franchise (specifically two of the Super Mushroom power-up items and the platforms in several stages which are based on a fly agaric), and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film Fantasia.

 

An account of the journeys of Philip von Strahlenberg to Siberia and his descriptions of the use of the mukhomor there was published in English in 1736. The drinking of urine of those who had consumed the mushroom was commented on by Anglo-Irish writer Oliver Goldsmith in his widely read 1762 novel, Citizen of the World. The mushroom had been identified as the fly agaric by this time. Other authors recorded the distortions of the size of perceived objects while intoxicated by the fungus, including naturalist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke in his books The Seven Sisters of Sleep and A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi. This observation is thought to have formed the basis of the effects of eating the mushroom in the 1865 popular story Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. A hallucinogenic "scarlet toadstool" from Lappland is featured as a plot element in Charles Kingsley's 1866 novel Hereward the Wake based on the medieval figure of the same name. Thomas Pynchon's 1973 novel Gravity's Rainbow describes the fungus as a "relative of the poisonous Destroying angel" and presents a detailed description of a character preparing a cookie bake mixture from harvested Amanita muscaria. Fly agaric shamanism is also explored in the 2003 novel Thursbitch by Alan Garner.

There is a flower of climate rare, that had eluded me. I searched the wood, I searched the moor, and even the emerald sea. Alone upon an icy coast, by Arctic's hem it grows. Its beauty is intoxicant, to those who brave the snows. But when the Bear shines clear and high, I dream of Polar night. Wherein this wondrous flower blooms, in sheaves of rainbow light. 🌺🌼🌸💮

Amanita Muscaria, a particular beautiful yet toxic mushroom often seen growing locally in the fall. This one was photographed at Tatlow Park in Vancouver, on a beautiful background of leaves and grass.

From The Evening Telegraph, Monday 25 September 1905:

 

A Mosman Street Melee.

 

On Saturday evening about dusk a brawl took place in the vicinity of the Waverley Hotel, where a young fellow and his lady love, both of whom appear to be particularly fond of intoxicants, had a row. For a long time it was blow for blow, but not being able to do sufficient damage to each other with their hands their tongues were let loose, and the atmosphere soon became impregnated with sulphurous fumes of blasphemy.

 

It got so strong that the police had to be telephoned for and on the arrival of one constable the booser went for him, and a catch-as-catch-can rough and tumble took place. Timely aid in the person of a second constable secured the young fellow, and he was safely marched off in triumph. Later on the limbs of the law returned for the female friend of the man they had just taken, but it is said she kept them at bay for a few brief seconds by splashing beer at them from a bottle.

 

The constables were afraid to let any of it get on their clothes for fear their superiors might smell it and think they had been drinking ; but, all the same, they perhaps thought it a pity to waste it, and that woman would doubtless have given a trifle next morning to have had the contents of that bottle at Constable Andrews' establishment.

 

This pair are most perculiar, for, like true lovers, they fight for the purpose of making it up again, and drink together as long as their silver holds out. They both appeared at the Police Court this morning. The man gave the name of William Boyce and pleaded guilty to disorderly conduct. He was further charged with using indecent language.

 

Defendant stated he did not know if he had used the language, as he had taken a few drinks. He had received a cut on his head at one time and was silly whenever he took a few drinks.

The P.M. : Well, you should not take drink.

Sub-inspector Sweetman said the disorderly conduct consisted of jostling people on the footpath.

Defendant : There were a lot of us larking, your Worship.

The P.M. : You are fined £1 on each charge or seven days imprisonment.

Defendant : Can I get time to pay the fines, your Worship? I have got good work to go to to-day and I don't want to lose it, as work is hard to get.

Sub-inspector Sweetman said he could recommend time being given, otherwise he would only be too willing to do so.

Defendant : I have got work to go to, but if I stay away for a few days I will lose it and be idle again.

The P.M. refused to allow time.

 

The female defendant, who looked tidy and respectable, but carried marks of the melee on her face, answered to the name of Margaret Chantler. She was only charged with drunkenness and had a fine of 5/- inflicted or six hours in the cells.

  

Queensland State Archives Item ID 435753, Photographic material

 

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a mushroom and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine and birch plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species. It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees.

 

Arguably the most iconic toadstool species, the fly agaric is a large white-gilled, white-spotted, usually red mushroom, and is one of the most recognisable and widely encountered in popular culture. Several subspecies with differing cap colour have been recognised, including the brown regalis (often considered a separate species), the yellow-orange flavivolvata, guessowii, formosa, and the pinkish persicina. Genetic studies published in 2006 and 2008 show several sharply delineated clades that may represent separate species.

 

Although classified as poisonous, reports of human deaths resulting from its ingestion are extremely rare. After parboiling—which weakens its toxicity and breaks down the mushroom's psychoactive substances—it is eaten in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. Amanita muscaria is noted for its hallucinogenic properties, with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound muscimol. The mushroom was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the peoples of Siberia, and has a religious significance in these cultures. There has been much speculation on possible traditional use of this mushroom as an intoxicant in other places such as the Middle East, Eurasia, North America, and Scandinavia.

(Wikipedia)

Mes poésies Bouddha "Médecine animale" : www.amazon.fr/Pand%C3%A9mie-anti-animal-M%C3%A9decine-Ani...

 

This is famous story of taming wild monkey. We are said to be like wild monkeys jumping from one pleasure to the other without clear direction or logic: do u really choose ur thoughts or dreams. So budism is about training the wild monkey into logic, detachment from narcisstic pleasure, to find a plan to end as fast as possible evry suffering such as animals and ghosts.

 

Here are bodisatva vows in chinese tradition. A bodisatva is being/energy that vows to come back as long as necessary to end cycle of violence and suffering. She promises to do all possible 2 be buda

 

One vow is vegetarianism, as killing an animal that wants to live can be deep obscuration of compassion and non violence that could lead to hell realms.

 

True or not? Doubt and know by urself what is absolute non violence!

 

www.ymba.org/bns/bnsframe.htm

  

1. First Major Precept

 

On Killing

A disciple of the Buddha shall not himself kill, encourage others to kill, kill by expedient means, praise killing, rejoice at witnessing killing, or kill through incantation or deviant mantras. He must not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of killing, and shall not intentionally kill any living creature. (24)

 

As a Buddha's disciple, he ought to nurture a mind of compassion and filial piety, always devising expedient means to rescue and protect all beings. If instead, he fails to restrain himself and kills sentient beings without mercy, he commits a Parajika (major) offense. (25)

  

2. Second Major Precept

 

On Stealing

A disciple of the Buddha must not himself steal or encourage others to steal, steal by expedient means, steal by means of incantation or deviant mantras. He should not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of stealing. No valuables or possessions, even those belonging to ghosts and spirits or thieves and robbers, be they as small as a needle or blade of grass, may be stolen.

 

As a Buddha's disciple, he ought to have a mind of mercy, compassion, and filial piety -- always helping people earn merits and achieve happiness. If instead, he steals the possessions of others, he commits a Parajika offense. (26)

  

3. Third Major Precept

 

On Sexual Misconduct

A disciple of the Buddha must not engage in licentious acts or encourage others to do so. [As a monk] he should not have sexual relations with any female -- be she a human, animal, deity or spirit -- nor create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of such misconduct. Indeed, he must not engage in improper sexual conduct with anyone. (27)

 

A Buddha's disciple ought to have a mind of filial piety -- rescuing all sentient beings and instructing them in the Dharma of purity and chastity. If instead, he lacks compassion and encourages others to engage in sexual relations promiscuously, including with animals and even their mothers, daughters, sisters, or other close relatives, he commits a Parajika offense. (28)

  

4. Fourth Major Precept

 

On Lying and False Speech

A disciple of the Buddha must not himself use false words and speech, or encourage others to lie or lie by expedient means. He should not involve himself in the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of lying, saying that he has seen what he has not seen or vice-versa, or lying implicitly through physical or mental means. (29)

 

As a Buddha's disciple, he ought to maintain Right Speech and Right Views always, and lead all others to maintain them as well. If instead, he causes wrong speech, wrong views or evil karma in others, he commits a Parajika offense.

  

5. Fifth Major Precept

 

On Selling Alcoholic Beverages

A disciple of the Buddha must not trade in alcoholic beverages or encourage others to do so. He should not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of selling any intoxicant whatsoever, for intoxicants are the causes and conditions of all kinds of offenses.

 

As a Buddha's disciple, he ought to help all sentient beings achieve clear wisdom. If instead, he causes them to have upside-down, topsy-turvy thinking, he commits a Parajika offense. (30)

  

6. Sixth Major Precept

 

On Broadcasting the Faults of the Assembly

A disciple of the Buddha must not himself broadcast the misdeeds or infractions of Bodhisattva-clerics or Bodhisattva-laypersons, or of [ordinary] monks and nuns -- nor encourage others to do so. He must not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of discussing the offenses of the assembly.

 

As a Buddha's disciple, whenever he hears evil persons, externalists or followers of the Two Vehicles speak of practices contrary to the Dharma or contrary to the precepts within the Buddhist community, he should instruct them with a compassionate mind and lead them to develop wholesome faith in the Mahayana.

 

If instead, he discusses the faults and misdeeds that occur within the assembly, he commits a Parajika offense. (31)

  

7. Seventh Major Precept

 

On Praising Oneself and Disparaging Others

A disciple of the Buddha shall not praise himself and speak ill of others, or encourage others to do so. He must not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of praising himself and disparaging others.

 

As a disciple of the Buddha, he should be willing to stand in for all sentient beings and endure humiliation and slander -- accepting blame and letting sentient beings have all the glory. If instead, he displays his own virtues and conceals the good points of others, thus causing them to suffer slander, he commits a Parajika offense. (32)

  

8. Eighth Major Precept

 

On Stinginess and Abuse

A disciple of the Buddha must not be stingy or encourage others to be stingy. He should not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of stinginess. As a Bodhisattva, whenever a destitute person comes for help, he should give that person what he needs. If instead, out of anger and resentment, (33) he denies all assistance -- refusing to help with even a penny, a needle, a blade of grass, even a single sentence or verse or a phrase of Dharma, but instead scolds and abuses that person -- he commits a Parajika offense.

  

9. Ninth Major Precept

 

On Anger and Resentment

A disciple of the Buddha shall not harbor anger or encourage others to be angry. He should not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of anger.

 

As a disciple of the Buddha, he ought to be compassionate and filial, helping all sentient beings develop the good roots of non-contention. If instead, he insults and abuses sentient beings, or even transformation beings [such as deities and spirits], with harsh words, hitting them with his fists or feet, or attacking them with a knife or club -- or harbors grudges even when the victim confesses his mistakes and humbly seeks forgiveness in a soft, conciliatory voice -- the disciple commits a Parajika offense. (34)

  

10. Tenth Major Precept

 

On Slandering the Triple Jewel

A Buddha's disciple shall not himself speak ill of the Triple Jewel or encourage others to do so. He must not create the causes, conditions, methods or karma of slander. If a disciple hears but a single word of slander against the Buddha from externalists or evil beings, he experiences a pain similar to that of three hundred spears piercing his heart. How then could he possibly slander the Triple Jewel himself?

 

Hence, if a disciple lacks faith and filial piety towards the Triple Jewel, and even assists evil persons or those of aberrant views to slander the Triple Jewel, he commits a Parajika offense. (35)

  

V. Conclusion: The Ten Major Precepts

As a disciple of the Buddha, you should study these ten parajika (major) precepts and not break any one of them in even the slightest way -- much less break all of them! Anyone guilty of doing so cannot develop the Bodhi Mind in his current life and will lose whatever high position he may have attained, be it that of an emperor, Wheel-Turning King, Bhiksu, Bhiksuni -- as well as whatever level of Bodhisattvahood he may have reached, whether the Ten Dwellings, the Ten Practices, the Ten Dedications, the Ten Grounds -- and all the fruits of the eternal Buddha Nature. He will lose all of those levels of attainment and descend into the Three Evil Realms, unable to hear the words "parents" or "Triple Jewel" for eons! (36) Therefore, Buddha's disciples should avoid breaking any one of these major precepts. (37) All of you Bodhisattvas should study and observe the Ten Precepts, which have been observed, are being observed, and will be observed by all Bodhisattvas. They were explained in detail in the chapter, "The Eighty Thousand Rules of Conduct." (38)

 

VI. The Forty-eight Secondary Precepts

  

1. Disrespect toward Teachers and Friends

A disciple of the Buddha who is destined to become an emperor, a Wheel-Turning King, or high official should first receive the Bodhisattva precepts. He will then be under the protection of all guardian deities and spirits, and the Buddhas will be pleased. (39)

 

Once he has received the precepts, the disciple should develop a mind of filial piety and respect. Whenever he meets an Elder Master, a monk, or a fellow cultivator of like views and like conduct, he should rise and greet him with respect. He must then respectfully make offerings to the guest-monks, in accord with the Dharma. (40) He should be willing to pledge himself, his family, as well as his kingdom, cities, jewels and other possessions.

 

If instead, he should develop conceit or arrogance, delusion or anger, refusing to rise and greet guest-monks and make offerings to them respectfully, in accordance with the Dharma, he commits a secondary offense.

  

3. On Eating Meat

A disciple of the Buddha must not deliberately eat meat. He should not eat the flesh of any sentient being. The meat-eater forfeits the seed of Great Compassion, severs the seed of the Buddha Nature and causes [animals and transcendental] beings to avoid him. Those who do so are guilty of countless offenses. Therefore, Bodhisattvas should not eat the flesh of any sentient beings whatsoever. If instead, he deliberately eats meat, he commits a secondary offense. (43)

  

5. On Not Teaching Repentance

If a disciple of the Buddha should see any being violate the Five Precepts, the Eight Precepts, the Ten Precepts, other prohibitions, or commit any of the Seven Cardinal Sins or any offense which leads to the Eight Adversities -- any violations of the precepts whatever -- he should counsel the offender to repent and reform. (46)

 

Hence, if a Bodhisattva does not do so and furthermore continues to live together in the assembly with the offender, share in the offerings of the laity, participate in the same Uposatha ceremony (47) and recite the precepts -- while failing to bring up that person's offense, enjoining him to repent -- the disciple commits a secondary offense.

  

6. Failing to Request the Dharma or Make Offerings

If an Elder Master, a Mahayana monk or fellow cultivator of like views and practice should come from far away to the temple, residence, city or village of a disciple of the Buddha, the disciple should respectfully welcome him and see him off. He should minister to his needs at all times, though doing so may cost as much as three taels of gold! Moreover, the disciple of the Buddha should respectfully request the guest-master to preach the Dharma three times a day by bowing to him without a single thought of resentment or weariness. (48) He should be willing to sacrifice himself for the Dharma and never be lax in requesting it.

 

If he does not act in this manner, he commits a secondary offense.

  

9. On Failure to Care for the Sick

If a disciple of the Buddha should see anyone who is sick, he should wholeheartedly provide for that person's needs just as he would for a Buddha. Of the eight Fields of Blessings, looking after the sick is the most important. A Buddha's disciple should take care of his father, mother, Dharma teacher or disciple -- regardless of whether the latter are disabled or suffering from various kinds of diseases. (51)

 

If instead, he becomes angry and resentful and fails to do so, or refuses to rescue the sick or disabled in temples, cities and towns, forests and mountains, or along the road, he commits a secondary offense. (52)

  

10. On Storing Deadly Weapons

A disciple of the Buddha should not store weapons such as knives, clubs, bows, arrows, spears, axes or any other weapons, nor may he keep nets, traps or any such devices used in destroying life. (53)

 

As a disciple of the Buddha, he must not even avenge the death of his parents -- let alone kill sentient beings! (54) He should not store any weapons or devices that can be used to kill sentient beings. If he deliberately does so, he commits a secondary offense.

 

The first ten secondary precepts have just been described. Disciples of the Buddha should study and respectfully observe them. They are explained in detail in the six chapters [now lost] following these precepts.

  

11. On Serving as an Emissary

A disciple of the Buddha shall not, out of personal benefit or evil intentions, act as a country's emissary to foster military confrontation and war causing the slaughter of countless sentient beings. As a disciple of the Buddha, he should not be involved in military affairs, or serve as a courier between armies, much less act as a willing catalyst for war. If he deliberately does so, he commits a secondary offense. (55)

  

12. On Unlawful Business Undertakings

A disciple of the Buddha must not deliberately trade in slaves or sell anyone into servitude, nor should he trade in domestic animals, coffins or wood for caskets. He cannot engage in these types of business himself much less encourage others to do so. Otherwise, he commits a secondary offense. (56)

  

13. On Slander and Libel

A disciple of the Buddha must not, without cause and with evil intentions, slander virtuous people, such as Elder Masters, monks or nuns, kings, princes or other upright persons, saying that they have committed the Seven Cardinal Sins or broken the Ten Major Bodhisattva Precepts. He should be compassionate and filial and treat all virtuous people as if they were his father, mother, siblings or other close relatives. If instead, he slanders and harms them, he commits a secondary offense. (57)

 

18. On Serving as an Inadequate Master

A disciple of the Buddha should study the Twelve Divisions of the Dharma and recite the Bodhisattva precepts frequently. He should strictly observe these precepts in the Six Periods of the day and night and fully understand their meaning and principles as well as the essence of their Buddha Nature. (62)

 

If instead, the disciple of the Buddha fails to understand even a sentence or a verse of the moral code or the causes and conditions related to the precepts, but pretends to understand them, he is deceiving both himself and others. A disciple who understands nothing of the Dharma, yet acts as a teacher transmitting the precepts, commits a secondary offense.

  

19. On Double-tongued Speech

A disciple of the Buddha must not, with malicious intent gossip or spread rumors and slander, create discord and disdain for virtuous people. [An example is] disparaging a monk who observes the Bodhisattva precepts, as he [makes offerings to the Buddhas by] holding an incense burner to his forehead. (63) A disciple of the Buddha who does so commits a secondary offense.

  

20. Failure to Liberate Sentient Beings

A disciple of the Buddha should have a mind of compassion and cultivate the practice of liberating sentient beings. He must reflect thus: throughout the eons of time, all male sentient beings have been my father, all female sentient beings my mother. I was born of them. (64) If I now slaughter them, I would be slaughtering my parents as well as eating flesh that was once my own. This is so because all elemental earth, water, fire and air -- the four constituents of all life -- have previously been part of my body, part of my substance. I must therefore always cultivate the practice of liberating sentient beings and enjoin others to do likewise -- as sentient beings are forever reborn, again and again, lifetime after lifetime. If a Bodhisattva sees an animal on the verge of being killed, he must devise a way to rescue and protect it, helping it to escape suffering and death. The disciple should always teach the Bodhisattva precepts to rescue and deliver sentient beings. (65)

 

On the day his father, mother, and siblings die, he should invite Dharma Masters to explain the Bodhisattva sutras and precepts. This will generate merits and virtues and help the deceased either to achieve rebirth in the Pure Lands and meet the Buddhas or to secure rebirth in the human or celestial realms. (66) If instead, a disciple fails to do so, he commits a secondary offense.

 

You should study and respectfully observe the above ten precepts. Each of them is explained in detail in the chapter "Expiating Offenses."

  

21. On Violence and Vengefulness

A disciple of the Buddha must not return anger for anger, blow for blow. He should not seek revenge, even if his father, mother, siblings, or close relatives are killed -- nor should he do so if the ruler or king of his country is murdered. To take the life of one being in order to avenge the killing of another is contrary to filial piety [as we are all related through the eons of birth and rebirth]. (67)

 

Furthermore, he should not keep others in servitude, much less beat or abuse them, creating evil karma of mind, speech and body day after day -- particularly the offenses of speech. How much less should he deliberately commit the Seven Cardinal Sins. Therefore, if a Bodhisattva-monk lacks compassion and deliberately seeks revenge, even for an injustice done to his close relatives, he commits a secondary offense.

  

29. On Improper Livelihoods

A disciple of the Buddha should not, for the sake of gain or with evil intentions, engage in the business of prostitution, selling the wiles and charms of men and women. (76) He must also not cook for himself, milling and pounding grain. Neither may he act as a fortune-teller predicting the gender of children, reading dreams and the like. Nor shall he practice sorcery, work as a trainer of falcons or hunting dogs, nor make a living concocting hundreds and thousands of poisons from deadly snakes, insects, or from gold and silver. Such occupations lack mercy, compassion, and filial piety [toward sentient beings]. Therefore, if a Bodhisattva intentionally engages in these occupations, he commits a secondary offense.

  

32. On Harming Sentient Beings

A disciple of the Buddha must not sell knives, clubs, bows, arrows, other life-taking devices, nor keep altered scales or measuring devices. He should not abuse his governmental position to confiscate people's possessions, nor should he, with malice at heart, restrain or imprison others or sabotage their success. (82) In addition, he should not raise cats, dogs, foxes, pigs and other such animals. (83) If he intentionally does such things, he commits a secondary offense.

  

33. On Watching Improper Activities

A disciple of the Buddha must not, with evil intentions, watch people fighting or the battling of armies, rebels, gangs and the like. (84) He should not listen to the sounds of conch shells, drums, horns, guitars, flutes, lutes, songs or other music, nor should he be party to any form of gambling, whether dice, checkers, or the like. (85) Furthermore, he should not practice fortune-telling or divination nor should he be an accomplice to thieves and bandits. He must not participate in any of these activities. If instead, he intentionally does so, he commits a secondary offense.

  

34. Temporary Abandoning of the Bodhi Mind

A disciple of the Buddha should observe the Bodhisattva precepts every day, whether walking, standing, reclining or seated -- reading and reciting them day and night. He should be resolute in keeping the precepts, as strong as a diamond, as desperate as a shipwrecked person clinging to a small log while attempting to cross the ocean, or as principled as the "Bhiksu bound by reeds". (86) Furthermore, he should always have a wholesome faith in the teachings of the Mahayana. Conscious that sentient beings are Buddhas-to-be while the Buddhas are realized Buddhas, he should develop the Bodhi Mind and maintain it in each and every thought, without retrogression. (87)

 

If a Bodhisattva has but a single thought in the direction of the Two Vehicles or externalist teachings, he commits a secondary offense. (88)

  

35. Failure to Make Great Vows

A Bodhisattva must make many great vows -- to be filial to his parents and Dharma teachers, to meet good spiritual advisors, (89) friends, and colleagues who will keep teaching him the Mahayana sutras and moral codes as well as the Stages of Bodhisattva Practice (the Ten Dwellings, the Ten Practices, the Ten Dedications, and the Ten Grounds). He should further vow to understand these teachings clearly so that he can practice according to the Dharma while resolutely keeping the precepts of the Buddhas. If necessary, he should lay down his life rather than abandon this resolve for even a single moment. If a Bodhisattva does not make such vows, he commits a secondary offense.

  

36. Failure to Make Resolutions

Once a Bodhisattva has made these Great Vows, he should strictly keep the precepts of the Buddhas and make the following resolutions:

 

1.- I would rather jump into a raging blaze, a deep abyss, or into a mountain of knives, than engage in impure actions with any woman, thus violating the sutras and moral codes of the Buddhas of the Three Periods of Time.

 

2.- I would rather wrap myself a thousand times with a red-hot iron net, than let this body, should it break the precepts, wear clothing provided by the faithful.

 

I would rather swallow red hot iron pellets and drink molten iron for hundreds of thousands of eons, than let this mouth, should it break the precepts, consume food and drink provided by the faithful.

 

I would rather lie on a bonfire or a burning iron net than let this body, should it break the precepts, rest on bedding, blankets and mats supplied by the faithful.

 

I would rather be impaled for eons by hundreds of spears, than let this body, should it break the precepts, receive medications from the faithful.

 

I would rather jump into a cauldron of boiling oil and roast for hundreds of thousands of eons, than let this body, should it break the precepts, receive shelter, groves, gardens, or fields from the faithful.

 

3.- I would rather be pulverized from head to toe by an iron sledge hammer, than let this body, should it break the precepts, accept respect and reverence from the faithful. (90)

 

4.- I would rather have both eyes blinded by hundreds of thousands of swords and spears, rather than break the precepts by looking at beautiful forms. [In the same vein, I shall keep my mind from being sullied by exquisite sounds, fragrances, food and sensations.]

 

5.- I further vow that all sentient beings will achieve Buddhahood. (91)

 

If a disciple of the Buddha does not make the preceding great resolutions, he commits a secondary offense

  

39. Failure to Cultivate Merits and Wisdom

A disciple of the Buddha should constantly counsel and teach all people to establish monasteries, temples and pagodas in mountains and forests, gardens and fields. He should also construct stupas for the Buddhas and buildings for winter and summer retreats. All facilities required for the practice of the Dharma should be established.

 

Moreover, a disciple of the Buddha should explain Mahayana sutras and the Bodhisattva precepts to all sentient beings. In times of sickness, national calamities, impending warfare or upon the death of one's parents, brothers and sisters, Dharma Masters and Precept Masters, a Bodhisattva should lecture and explain Mahayana sutras and the Bodhisattva precepts weekly for up to seven weeks. (94)

 

The disciple should read, recite, and explain the Mahayana sutras and the Bodhisattva precepts in all prayer gatherings, in his business undertakings and during periods of calamity -- fire, flood, storms, ships lost at sea in turbulent waters or stalked by demons ... In the same vein, he should do so in order to transcend evil karma, the Three Evil Realms, the Eight Difficulties, the Seven Cardinal Sins, all forms of imprisonment, or excessive sexual desire, anger, delusion, and illness. (95)

 

If a novice Bodhisattva fails to act as indicated, he commits a secondary offense.

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric, is a poisonous and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species. It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees. The quintessential toadstool, it is a large white-gilled, white-spotted, usually deep red mushroom, one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular culture. Several subspecies, with differing cap colour, have been recognised to date, including the brown regalis (considered a separate species), the yellow-orange flavivolvata, guessowii, and formosa, and the pinkish persicina. Genetic studies published in 2006 and 2008 show several sharply delineated clades which may represent separate species.

 

Although it is generally considered poisonous, deaths are extremely rare, and it is consumed as a food in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America after parboiling. Amanita muscaria is now primarily famed for its hallucinogenic properties, with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound muscimol. It was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the peoples of Siberia and has a religious significance in these cultures. There has been much speculation on traditional use of this mushroom as an intoxicant in places other than Siberia; however, such traditions are far less well-documented. The American banker and amateur ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson proposed the fly agaric was in fact the Soma talked about in the ancient Rig Veda texts of India; since its introduction in 1968, this theory has gained both followers and detractors in anthropological literature.

This is not the top of a Big Mac bun. It is the top of a mushroom I saw growing on a boulevard in our damp city in British Columbia. I had seen lots of small grey color ones but I have never seen one like this one previously.

 

Borrowed from Wikipedia:

 

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a mushroom and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine and birch plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species. It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees.

This quintessential toadstool is a large white-gilled, white-spotted, usually red mushroom, and is one of the most recognisable and widely encountered in popular culture. Several subspecies with differing cap colour have been recognised, including the brown regalis (often considered a separate species), the yellow-orange flavivolvata, guessowii, formosa, and the pinkish persicina. Genetic studies published in 2006 and 2008 show several sharply delineated clades that may represent separate species.

Although classified as poisonous, reports of human deaths resulting from its ingestion are extremely rare. After parboiling—which weakens its toxicity and breaks down the mushroom's psychoactive substances—it is eaten in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. Amanita muscaria is noted for its hallucinogenic properties, with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound muscimol. The mushroom was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the peoples of Siberia, and has a religious significance in these cultures. There has been much speculation on possible traditional use of this mushroom as an intoxicant in other places such as the Middle East, Eurasia, North America, and Scandinavia.

 

All I had was my little point and shoot camera in the car with me and I was miles from my good camera and it wasn't really worth driving home to get.

On 1May 2008 there was a procession at Bandra Reclamation by the Hare Rama Hare Krishna devotees , I was on my way to work, but I shot some pictures , that I share with all of you a very delirious moment for the devotees, distribution of prasadam on the route, and this calvacade moved onto SV Road , turning into Hill Road and from there via Mehboob Studios back to Bandra Reclamation.

 

The devotees in all humility were caught in a happy moment, some were distributing prasadam to the crowds, some selling ISKCON literaure , men women children all pulling the Rath.. and adding eternity to their worldly lives.

 

About ISKCON

 

www.iskcon.com/

 

About ISKCON

 

The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) was established in 1966 by His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (Srila Prabhupada). ISKCON has since developed into a worldwide confederation of 10,000 temple devotees and 250,000 congregational devotees.

 

Better known as the Hare Krishna movement, ISKCON is comprised of more than 350 centres, 60 rural communities, 50 schools and 60 restaurants worldwide.

 

The mission of this nonsectarian, monotheistic movement is to promote the well being of society by teaching the science of Krishna consciousness according to Bhagavad-gita and other ancient scriptures.

 

Read on and find out about the seven aims that Srila Prabhupada set out for ISKCON.

  

Hare Rama Hare Krishna

 

The Hare Krishna mantra, also referred to reverentially as the Maha Mantra ("Great Mantra"), is a sixteen-word Vaishnava mantra made well known outside of India by the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (commonly known as 'the Hare Krishnas').[1] It appears within many traditions of Hinduism and is believed by practitioners to bring about a higher state of consciousness when heard, spoken, meditated upon, or sung out loud.[2] According to Gaudiya Vaishnava theology, this higher consciousness ultimately takes the form of pure love of God (Krishna).[3]

 

The Hare Krishna mantra is composed of Sanskrit names in the vocative case: Hare, Krishna, and Rama (in Anglicized spelling, the IAST of the three vocatives is hare, kṛṣṇa and rāma; roughly pronounced IPA: ['hɐre:], ['kɹ̩ʂɳɐ], ['ra:mɐ], see Sanskrit for pronunciation details):Hare Krishna Hare Krishna

Krishna Krishna Hare Hare

Hare Rama Hare Rama

Rama Rama Hare Hare

  

Rama and Krishna both appear as names of Vishnu in the Vishnu sahasranama and refer primarily to the 7th and 8th Maha Avataras of Vishnu[4]. "Hare" can be interpreted as either the vocative of Hari, another name of Vishnu meaning "he who removes illusion", or as the vocative of Harā[5], a name of Rādhā, Krishna's eternal consort or Shakti.[6] According to A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Harā refers to "the energy of God" while Krishna and Rama refer to God himself, meaning "He who is All-Attractive" and "He who is the Source of All Pleasure".[7] Rama can also refer to Radha-Raman, another name of Krishna meaning beloved of Radha[8], or as a shortened form of Balarama, Krishna's first expansion.[9]

 

The mantra is repeated, either out loud (kirtan), softly to oneself (japa), or internally within the mind. Srila Prabhupada describes the process of chanting the Maha Mantra as follows:

"Krishna consciousness is not an artificial imposition on the mind; this consciousness is the original energy of the living entity. When we hear the transcendental vibration, this consciousness is revived ...[]... This chanting of 'Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare / Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare' is directly enacted from the spiritual platform, and thus this sound vibration surpasses all lower strata of consciousness - namely sensual, mental, and intellectual ...[]... As such anyone can take part in the chanting without any previous qualification." [10]

 

[edit]

History

 

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534)

 

The Hare Krishna Tree in Tompkins Square Park under which Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada began the first recorded public chanting of the Hare Krishna mantra outside of India.[11]

 

The mantra is first attested in the kalisaṇṭāraṇopaniṣad (Kali Santarana Upanishad), a Vaishnava Upanishad associated with the Krishna Yajurveda. In this Upanishad, Narada is instructed by Brahma (in the translation of K. N. Aiyar):

"Hearken to that which all Shrutis (the Vedas) keep secret and hidden, through which one may cross the Samsara (mundane existence) of Kali. He shakes off (the evil effects of) Kali through the mere uttering of the name of Lord Narayana, who is the primeval Purusha".

 

Narada asks to be told this name of Narayana, and Brahma replies

"Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare, Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare; These sixteen names are destructive of the evil effects of Kali. No better means than this is to be seen in all the Vedas."

 

The mantra was popularized by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu roughly around 1500 CE when he began his mission to spread this mantra publicly to 'every town and village' in the world, travelling throughout India, and especially within the areas of Bengal and Orissa[12]. Some versions of the Kali Santarana Upanishad give the mantra with Hare Rama preceding Hare Krishna, and others with Hare Krishna preceding Hare Rama (as quoted above). The latter format is by far the more common within the Vaishnava traditions, within which it is a common belief that the mantra is equally potent when spoken in either order.[13]

 

In the 1960's an elderly monk known as A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, on the order of his guru, Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura, brought the teachings of Sri Chaitanya from India and single-handedly took the responsibility of spreading them around the Western world. Beginning in New York, he encircled the globe fourteen times in the final eleven years of his life, thus making 'Hare Krishna' a well-known phrase in many parts of the world.[14]

 

[edit]

The "Hare Krishna" movement

 

Hare Krishna devotees perform a parade in Florida, USA in 2008

 

A Gaudiya Vaishnava (Hare Krishna) temple at Tirupathi

 

Devotees singing the Hare Krishna mantra

Main articles: ISKCON and Gaudiya Math

 

"Hare Krishna" brings to mind, for many, the conspicuous Hare Krishna devotees, who first appeared on the streets of Western cities in the 1960s and 1970s, dancing and chanting with drums and cymbals, wearing saffron dhotis or colourful saris, and selling Bhagavad Gita As It Is and similar literatures. These devotees were members of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), founded by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. ISKCON was the first organized Vaishnava group to make a large impression outside of India. Now a number of such Vaishnava groups are preaching in the Western world, such as the Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mission and other lineages of the Gaudiya Math.[15]

 

From a theological perspective Hare Krishna devotees are classified as practitioners of Bhakti Yoga. They are also referred to as Gaudiya Vaishnavas because they follow a line of gurus descending from Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, who appeared in Bengal (Gauda is an old name of Bengal). Vaishnavism comes under the general banner of being a Hindu religion.[16]

 

Most serious 'Hare Krishna' practitioners live according to strict rules. For example, initiates take vows to abstain from all forms of recreational drugs and intoxicants (including caffeine), from eating meat, fish and eggs, from gambling, and from all sexual relations except for purposes of procreation within marriage. For beginners and non-initiates, how many of these rules are to be followed is left to one's own discretion,[17] but these four 'regulative principles' remain as a standard.[18]

 

In terms of general diet among Gaudiya Vaishnavas, onions, garlic, and mushrooms are also generally avoided due to their purportedly adverse effects on the consciousness of the eater.[19]

 

[edit]

Hippie culture

 

In the 1970s, Hare Krishnas became confused with the hippie subculture. The 1971 Hindi film Hare Rama, Hare Krishna, written and directed by Dev Anand, was shot with many real-life hippie extras. But in fact the genuine Hare Krishna followers were a far cry from hippies. Although Prabhupada was open to anyone, members had to follow the four regulative principles, one of which is "no intoxicants"[20]. Elevation and joy were to be derived from chanting God's holy names.

 

[edit]

Hare Krishna in popular culture

 

The Hare Krishna mantra appears in a number of famous songs, notably those of The Beatles and George Harrison, and has been at the number-one spot in the UK singles charts on more than one occasion within songs such as My Sweet Lord. One song from 1969 by the Radha Krsna Temple, simply entitled Hare Krsna Mantra reached no. 17 in the UK music chart and appeared on the music show Top of the Pops. It also made the no.1 slot in both German and Czechoslovakian music charts.[21]

Further information: Hare Krishna in popular culture

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hare_Krishna

 

Date: 03/03/2006 Time: 04:45 AM Visits: 45

Iranian Shia Cock (ROOSTER)

Little white hens swollen vulvas not getting the required dose in simple wikipedia hen language No Fuck.. this morning the little hens all closed their eyes and said a little prayer..

Oh Bird God lord of hosts Lord of Fearthered Friends..we have sinned , we are paying it in human terms, we are getting gassed but the British historian Irving wont believe it.. he say chicken shit story.. how did so many chickens still remain.. human beings are not as bad as Jews, the Jews deserved it anyway..they dont believe in anything.. not the Holy Land and fuck if Balfour had not got drunk and fucked up the middle eastern map there would have been Palestine instead of Israel..any way the Holy Land for the modern Jewish youth is Pushkar Manale and The lord Of Intoxicants Shiva and who is my Lord of Photography with the Ominious Third eye. India Mountbatten.. did not have to mesmerize Nehru..Edwina did a far better job and fuck we Indians lost Lahore.. but any way we got Kashmir and if we had Lahore Sunnis and Shias would not need to kill each other we would be Indians.Its only in a Muslim country like Pakistan that you have less Muslims, more Terrorist and more Sunnis and less Shias, and more Deobandis..and fuck where are Pakistanis .. they have become English men.. in UK .

And are making a Killing of honor..

Well back to my loving and love lost chikens..

At mass the christian chickens were crying and said a little prayer

Cock a doodle do

Hens to hens cant screw

Just give us one big cock

No other cock will do,

The Muslim hens well they are all gone to Mumbai to AmBush the Americn president and the bird flu was started by the American President to see that more pig is sold in other countries.. this ia swine thing hurts religious sentiments.

Black banners, black bandanas and burning of the Presidents effigy and tarred and black feathered...and dressed as a cock..in stars and stripes.Bird type Cock.

Now the King Broilers at Bandra Bazzar road ,seeing the chaos in the chicken word pleaded to Mr Mahmoud Ahmedinjad Iranian President and asked him if he could help out regarding this bird flu rain attack by the Americans .. the Iranian President loves Shias and even Sunnie Indians so he has loaned the reactor nuclear spermed Rooster Cock.. man The Rooster has a harem and does not get tired .. just goes on fucking , fucking.. and I humble barerfeet bald Firoze shakir Photographer no1 shot this for the folks at Buzznet.. this is after I stepped down from White House rented residential quarters at Bandra Bazzar road next to Variety stores .

The heavenly uranium spermed nuclear endowed Roosters name is Khaile Khube.. he loves to Bishin.. means to sit and fuck hens of all communities.. the eggs of broilers have no religion.... dont bleed..and not under white yolk.

The Father is an imported Iranian Shia Cock...nuclear reactored uranium rich..anti american infected bird flu..

 

Ps ..the writer is a Satirist and his views are not those of Buzznet or the company that runs Buzznet,

Buzznett Buzzboat Paraphenelia Unfeatured Favorite Inc.USA

 

And if I hurt the religious sentiments of the hen community I sincerely apologize.. but I have not given up Chicken lolipops, Chiken Makhani, Chicken Afghani better than Bombay black, Chikan Iraqi,Dabba Chicken,Kadai Chicken yes due to unavoidable reasons I dont eat Kentucky Fried Chicken as they are not Hallal.

And I dont eat Mac Donalds ..they are Israel sponsored chiken Baiters.

This was written during the Bird Flu when chicken was sold at Rs 1 a Kg in Bandra Bazar.

Matin tibétain serein

 

Pluie dans le matin tibétain

Les oiseaux chantent sereins

 

Le long chant d'amour de la Terre Mère

Qui protège et avec sa pluie nourrit sans misère

 

Pour voir et commander mes poésies : linktr.ee/alanpoeme

  

Here a text about bodisatva in budism. Bodisatva is being/energy that makes vow to come back as long as necessary to end cycle of suffering and violence of every beings such as animals, humans, ghots, war beings. She also promises to do all possible 2 b buda.

 

True or not? Doubt and know by urself what is absolute non violence!

 

www.ymba.org/bodhisattva/content.html

 

THE PRACTICE OF BODHISATTVA DHARMA

(Second Edition)

By Dharma Master T'ai-Hsu

 

THE PRACTICE OF BODHISATTVA DHARMA

| content | next |

In the Buddha's teaching, the Sutra collection and the Vinaya collection comprise two kinds of Dharma. The Sutras are the collection of the Buddha's discourses given over a forty-year period in the Ganges valley, in India, nearly 2,600 years ago, and they are concerned with the nature of mind and experience and the reality of the suffering, unsatisfactoriness, and frustration of conditioned existence. The Vinaya is the collection that sets forth the discipline of body and speech that Bhiksus and Bhiksunis (Buddhist monks and nuns) must practice. This monastic code of discipline is undertaken upon ordination, when one formally leaves home life, and Vinaya of this sort is primarily the concern of the Sangha (monastic body). An expanded version of this Buddhist training is the Bodhisattva ordination, wherein one undertakes the practice of the fundamental Bodhisattva Dharma of body and mind. This Bodhisattva Dharma encompasses many levels and degrees of practice, both worldly and transcendental, and it is truly wondrous and inconceivable.

 

Many people are familiar with the term Bodhisattva,but the genuine meaning of the term could stand some clarification. The average person perhaps considers images made of clay, wood or gold or portraits and paintings of saintly personalities to be some manner of substitute Bodhisattva. Indeed, through Asian national customs and traditions, we have come to associate religious statuary of this sort with the term Bodhisattva.Needless to say, this is incorrect. We should understand that there are Buddhist images portraying a higher degree of practice than Bodhisattva and also images of lesser sages, patriarchs, and even demons with bodies of oxen and serpents. These images should not be indiscriminately lumped together under the designation Bodhisattva. Actually, men and women cannot look like the representations of Bodhisattvas that artists have created. However, we are human beings with minds; and if we vow to practice Bodhisattva behavior, then we can gradually become Bodhisattvas. The Sanskrit term Bodhisattvais composed of two words: Bodhi,which means enlightenment or awakening, and sattva, which means living being.

 

The designation Bodhisattvaoriginally meant a living being who had developed or had determined to hold the Bodhicitta. Cittais a Sanskrit word that means mind or heart; in the East, the two words heartand mindare synonymous. To search with great perseverance for the Supreme Bodhi and to develop a compassionate heart in order to effect the liberation of all sentient beings from their states of conditioned suffering--such is the authentic meaning of the life and path of one who has taken the Bodhisattva vows. Therefore, if we can resolve determinedly to develop the Bodhicitta, to search above for the Tao of the Buddha and seek below to convert all sentient beings to the right path--not simply in theory but in genuine practice--then we are practicing realBodhisattva Dharma. Only one who urges all beings to strive upward and penetrate the region of Great Enlightenment can validly be recognized as and be called a Bodhisattva. Thus, it should be clear that images of clay or gold are not the real thing; and only those who have determined the Bodhicitta are genuine Bodhisattvas.

 

To initiate the Tao of the Bodhisattva, one need not already stand in the highest regions of sanctity. By the same token, when we observe our own natures closely, we see that pure-mind realms are not so very far away. Starting from our worldly state, we march, step by step, toward the highest, holiest region and create purity and freedom. Starting from the shallow and progressing to the deep, we transform inferior into superior beauty. Beginning as worldlings, with the Bodhicitta we shall eventually enter the blessed stage of the Final Diamond Heart. This is the condition of the superlatively enlightened Bodhisattva.

 

Most people who have confidence in the Buddhadharma and consider themselves Buddhists do not vow to develop the Bodhicitta. Thus, they remain mere worldlings if they do not choose to add to themselves the dimension of Bodhisattva mind. Genuine Buddhists who have determined the Bodhicitta are as rare as the feathers of a phoenix or the horn of a unicorn.

 

Another kind of Buddhist are those who, after encountering the Buddhadharma, imagine the accomplishment of Buddhahood to be so lofty as to be virtually unreachable. Because of their inadequate self--confidence, such people fail to realize the real goal and cannot complete the Buddha Tao. They grasp the expedient teaching which was revealed gradually by the Buddha--i.e., wholesome karma in this world and the subsequent reward of heavenly bliss. Learning this very shallow Dharma, they wish only to satisfy their desire for bliss and blessings in the present life. They can be said to have learned some Buddhadharma, but they are still quite far, in reality, from any genuine, profound understanding of the Teaching. In short, they are merely grasping expedient teaching as absolute truth. Buddha was to censure this kind of understanding as icchantika,that state of being unable to make spiritual progress.

 

Yet another kind of Buddhist is the sort who is personally aware of the suffering of birth and death and so learns the void Dharma of the Middle Way beyond the two extremes of isand is not.Always grasping the extreme of is notand in quest of liberation, he wishes to attain the non-active stage and Nirvana for himself alone. However, in practicing this Middle Way, one should not cling to the extremes of isand is not, and then one can enter the stage of void samadhi. Even though this is considered a superior position and can lead to the practice of Mahayana, it is, however, notthe Bodhisattva Tao leading to the Supreme Buddha Fruit. Thus, this approach was censured by the Buddha as having the nature of a spoiled seed.

 

We are concerned here with the promotion of the practice of Bodhisattva Dharma, never allowing aspirants to indulge in the bliss of men and devas or to cling to the attainment of void samadhi. The practice of Bodhisattva Dharma, whether high or low, worldly or transcendental, starts from the human level and proceeds until the complete Tao of Bodhi is won. This characterizes that practice which goes all the way through from top to bottom, and it requires nothing apart from determining the Bodhicitta and vowing to act as a Bodhisattva. This development is analogous, by way of example, to a person beginning kindergarten and proceeding until he eventually reaches the research institute and earns his doctoral degree; at all stages of his academic career he is called a student. Similarly, in developing Bodhisattva practice, one begins by vowing to determine the Bodhicitta and progresses to the Final-Diamond-Heart stage. The beginning stages of practice are still at the worldly level, but eventually one approaches the Buddha Fruit. All stages are termed Bodhisattva, and practice is an ongoing matter. The Bodhisattva stage immediately preceding the Buddha Fruit is termed the Final Diamond Heart. Though it is not easy to carry through, by not letting go of Bodhisattva Mind even for one instant, one will gradually complete the work and achieve the goal.

 

The Practice of this Bodhisattva Dharma is easily initiated by accepting the Three Refuges of the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. Because it is feared that a person might stray onto wrong paths, one, after accepting the Three Refuges, is encouraged to determine to hold the Four Great Vows. These are:

 

1. Sentient beings without number I vow to enlighten;

2. Vexations without number I vow to eradicate;

3. Limitless approaches to Dharma I vow to master;

4. Supreme Bodhi I vow to achieve.

The purpose of taking the Three Refuges is to enable people to disentangle themselves from erroneous views; and the Four Great Vows are used to teach people to hold to no desire for the bliss of men and devas or the void samadhi of Dviyana (the two yanas of Sravakas and Pratyekabuddhas). This path can be termed the direct road of the Bodhisattva Tao that leads one to the Supreme Bodhi. After accepting the Three Refuges and thus inaugurating the Bodhisattva-Dharma training, it is very important for one to practice everywhere, continually turning the Wheel of the Dharma and aiding all sentient beings. Relative to this view, The Vimalakirtinirdesa Sutra says: "The Bodhimandala (place of spiritual practice) of the Bodhisattva is everywhere."

 

PRACTICING GOODNESS AND GENEROSITY, INCREASING BLISS AND DISPELLING CALAMITIES

| previous | content | next |

 

Faith or confidence in the Three Precious Ones is extremely wholesome because synonymous with this confidence is the desire to practice loving-kindness and perform acts of goodness. According to the Buddha's Teaching, to respect, to make offerings towards, and to contribute to the happiness and welfare of all sentient beings are the primary field in which to sow the seeds of bliss in this world. Building temples or creating statues of religious personalities, etc., can lead to bliss and wisdom and is termed the field of reverence. Offering devotion, respect and gratitude to one's parents and teachers due to the fact that they are one's benefactors is termed the field of grace. We should do our best for the poverty-stricken, the ill, old, weak and disabled, etc., because they have fallen into a woeful state of existence. Therefore, they are deserving of our compassion. Even if we, ourselves, were to fall into states of woe and calamity, should we be armed with our practice of generosity and purity of heart, we would then be able to transform these situations into more fortunate ones.

 

Natural disasters and catastrophes arise simply as a response to evil minds and unwholesome activities on the part of many living beings. If human beings were to determine to use wholesome mind and pure action in all circumstances, then bliss and happiness would follow naturally. All people want a life free from illness and calamity and full of happiness. To expect a life of happiness without performing wholesome and beneficial activities is not a legitimate expectation. If one does not sow the appropriate seeds, one will surely not reap the desired response or result. The novice Bodhisattva should develop a storehouse of skillful activity and virtue in order to increase the happiness of all sentient beings.

 

THE FIVE PRECEPTS AND THE TEN VIRTUES

| previous | content | next |

 

The Five Precepts, along with the Three Refuges, are the first step in the practice of Buddhadharma for both laymen and the Sangha. The Five Precepts are the fundamental discipline in Buddhist training and the necessary moral practice for humankind. Therefore, The Bodhisattva Garland of Precious Gems Sutra states that all sentient beings' ability to enter the ocean of the Triple Jewel is dependent on faith and discipline. Our physical, verbal and mental activity are the basis of our production of wholesome and unwholesome karma. According to the Buddhadharma, the Five Precepts are of singular importance to enable us to destroy our evil tendencies, to increase the strength of our good tendencies and to purify our minds. They are considered to be the moral standard for human beings; and, indeed, if they are not practiced and maintained, then this human form of life will have its demise.

 

The first precept is to refrain from killing living beings and, instead, to extend loving-kindness to them. The second precept is to refrain from stealing and, instead, to practice generosity. The third precept is to refrain from adultery and, instead, to practice wholesome family life. The fourth precept is to refrain from lying and, instead, to practice truthfulness in all one's dealings. The fifth precept is to refrain from intoxicants--both drugs and liquor--and, instead, to live in good health and practice clarity of mind.

 

The Buddha explained his ethical principles as follows: The first four precepts are considered to be natural moral principles, whereas the fifth precept is considered to be a conventional moral principle. Natural morality means those ethical principles that all human society should maintain regardless of what religious denomination or philosophy is adhered to. whether one practices Buddhadharma or not, one should refrain from killing, stealing, adultery and lying. Conventional morality means to behave in such a way that unwholesome actions cannot have the opportunity to arise. Even though the consumption of intoxicants need not necessarily involve others, the resulting state can lead to transgression of the first four precepts. Furthermore, if one is given to the habitual consumption of liquor or drugs, the obvious result is the steady deterioration of one's physical and mental health.

 

Whether one practices Buddhadharma or not, if one cultivates these Five Precepts as the standard for one's behavior, one can then become a person of unwavering morality, worthy of the respect of others. Besides the voluntary agreement to refrain from some negative or destructive activity, these precepts all contain a positive attitude or practice to be cultivated as their counterpart. The Five Precepts in Buddhadharma and the Five Constant Virtues in Confucianism are the same.

 

The practice of non-killing means extending kindness to all living beings. To kill people is a serious matter in the eyes of the world, but to kill smaller living things is not conventionally considered quite so serious. In the Buddha's teaching, however, the taking of life of any kind whatsoever is a grave matter. People and societies that value peace and unity must practice non-killing and its positive counterpart-loving-kindness.

 

Practicing non-stealing means the adoption of right livelihood by human beings. Clothing, food, housing and transportation are essential requirements of human society and are produced by people's labor. As such, they are to be gotten in such a way that is justifiable and legitimate. If people resort to cheating and stealing or acquiring their property and wealth without the necessary expenditure of labor, then peaceful co-existence is an impossibility. Therefore, the Buddha stated that even a needle or a weed cannot be taken from another without permission.

 

The practice of refraining from adultery will strengthen moral ties between human beings. The right path to be taken between men and women is wholesome married life with proper responsibility taken for their relationship and whatever children may come as a result of their union. Therefore, the Buddhist tradition allows lay disciples to marry and considers it correct, justifiable and a legitimate source of happiness in the world. To enjoy sexual activity without taking responsibility for one's actions only leads to a degenerate social situation and such unfortunate extremes as incest, venereal disease, etc. Moreover, this is an evasion of one's true responsibility to raise and educate children and to inculcate in them proper moral and social values. Children are not equipped emotionally or intellectually to educate themselves and need the guidance and good example of their parents and teachers to lead and point them toward wholesome behavior and healthy physical and mental development.

 

The practice of non-lying, or truthfulness, means conforming our actions to our words and maintaining the spirit of honesty in all our dealings. Where there is dishonesty, even as small a social unit as that of husband-and-wife cannot live together in love and righteousness,. On an international scale, global unity will remain an impossibility because of the propensity to selfishness, dishonesty and betrayal on the part of nations and societies. The Buddha praised the virtue of words conforming with actions and observed that honesty and sincerity are characteristic of the sage. The commentary to The Prajnaparamita Sutra states that one who habitually lies possesses an ill fame that spreads far and wide, and such a one, at the end of his life, succumbs to rebirth in a hellish realm.

 

The practice of non-intoxication, or sobriety, is necessary to increase and maintain purity of heart and wisdom. Intoxication can frequently lead to the loss of both one's fortune and honor. The Venerable Hsu Yun has so wisely observed: "Drinking wine and eating meat upset the mind-nature: with clear tea and vegetarian food the mind errs not, enjoying Dharma night and day." When the consumption of alcoholic beverages or drugs is allowed to become habitual, laziness and shamelessness will certainly develop. Therefore, if one aspires to develop a noble personality and practice the Bodhisattva Dharma, one should refrain from the use of such debilitating substances.

 

The observation of the Five Precepts is also the basis of discipline for those who leave home to practice the Bodhisattva Tao. Their practice is stricter than that of laypeople, because under extreme conditions the lay-disciple is able to transgress these principles. For example, if a lay-Bodhisattva is a member of the military and is called upon to defend the populace, he can justifiably do so for the greater good of the community. However, the sangha members cannot, under any circumstances, be involved in this activity. Another example would be the legitimate enjoyment of sexuality between husband and wife. Sangha members are prohibited completely from engaging in sexuality.

 

Below is a chart outlining the Five Precepts and how they correspond to the Ten Virtues:

   

The four virtuous modes of verbal activity are here equated to the precept of refraining from untruth. Improper remarks can even be more false than untrue ones, and honeyed words are dishonest. Obscenity and pornography move people's hearts in an immoral direction.

 

Two-faced speech serves only to stir up ill will and instigate trouble on both sides of the fence. It can cause people to separate from their own flesh and blood and cause loved ones to become enemies. On a small scale, it can disrupt a family, and, on a larger one, it can lead to global warfare.

 

The use of ugly speech means to make insulting remarks continually. One uses abusive and intolerable speech to insult others and does not seem to realize the effect of one's own abrasive language. This manner of speech is distorted and unprofitable and, thus, is included in the category of lying.

 

The three virtuous mental actions are the positive counterparts to the fifth precept of refraining from intoxicants. Grasping and clinging mean excessive craving for those things that one should renounce. One craves continually for more and more, never being satisfied with what one has. Being full of anger means the absence of compassion for sentient beings and their situation. Ignorant and enlightened states of mind and action refer to the ignorance of clinging to heterodox views and the lack of that wisdom which would let one follow the correct path. These ignorant and unwise states also refer to that condition where one is full of uncontrollable desire and is foolishly drowning in the sea of false views about the nature of reality.

 

Therefore, one who aspires to tread the Bodhisattva Path must develop right thought and shed all heterodox views. Craving, aversion and delusion are everybody's problem and are referred to in the Buddhadharma as the three poisons or the three roots of unskillfulness. A person who has extinguished these three poisons in himself is called holy.One who aims to practice Bodhisattva Dharma should practice generosity, compassion and wisdom, which are the antidotes for these three roots of unskillfulness. It is said that if the protecting embankment of the precepts is broken, the evil waves of the three poisons will overflow, flooding and destroying the personality.

 

The observing or the Five Precepts will insure that the relationships and moral practice of human society are perfect. To practice the Bodhisattva Dharma, it is essential that the aspirant have a moderately balanced and wholesome temperament. If the stability of personality and behavior is insufficient, where can the Bodhisattva Dharma make its appearance? The observing of the precepts will lend the necessary stability, balance and wholesomeness to one's personality.

 

The cultivation of the Ten Virtues alone will insure one an unobstructed entrance into the realm of the devas. Because craving, aversion and delusion are kept in check, the mind will be calm and full of peace and quite suitable for contemplative practice. If rebirth in heaven-states occurs, the time will not be spent in idle enjoyment of celestial bliss but rather in further practice of the Bodhisattva Tao. Whether in the human or the deva world, the Bodhisattva Path consists in continually practicing virtuous action and developing wisdom. The Bodhisattva extends loving-kindness and compassion to all sentient beings and teaches and illustrates, by example, the Bodhisattva Tao in whatever realm of existence he finds himself.

 

THE EIGHT PRECEPTS

| previous | content | next |

 

The Eight Precepts are the discipline of laypeople engaged in short training periods or in preparation to leave home. Because the world of laypeople with its work and family obligations can be fatiguing both mentally and physically, the Buddhist tradition allows and encourages periods of retreat. During these periods, the lay disciples accept the Eight Precepts and experience a bit of the peace of a well-ordered and disciplined life. In this way, they can develop more understanding of the Buddhadharma and enjoy a clarity of mind analogous to the happiness of springtime. The layman's precepts are the same as the first nine of the Sramanera's precepts, the sixth and seventh being combined to make a total of eight. It is customary in Buddhist countries to observe these precepts on the new- and full-moon days of the lunar calendar. The precepts close the doors to the realms of woe (apaya-bhumi) and open the doors to the heaven--worlds and the realms of the sage.

  

DETERMINING THE BODHICITTA: THE FOUR GREAT VOWS AND THE FOUR DEFEATS OF THE BODHISATTVA DHARMA

| previous | content | next |

 

Determining the Bodhicitta is spoken of in the last of the Four Great Vows as follows:

 

"The Supreme Enlightenment we vow to achieve."

Enlightenment is Bodhi; Supreme Enlightenment is the Anuttara-Samyak-Sambodhi or the Buddha Fruit. Determining the Bodhicitta means using the faith of our worldly minds to vow to complete this path. However, if one is to complete this vow, one should have the support of the other three Great Vows. To arrive at Anuttara-Samyak-Sambodhi, one should have the desire to spread the Buddhadharma and effect the liberation of all sentient beings. Therefore, the first vow is as follows:

"Sentient beings without number we vow to enlighten."

For a Bodhisattva, the eradication of one's own suffering is joined with the desire to aid in the eradication of all others' suffering as well. The real Bodhisattva identifies the immeasurable distress of all sentient beings as his own. With this immeasurable compassion (Mahakaruna), one can take the second vow:

"Vexations without number we vow to eradicate."

The desire to win Supreme Bodhi, convert and liberate sentient beings, aid in the eradication of their distress, etc., should not be an impulse based on idle sentimentality or romantic notions of spiritual life. This noble aspiration can only come to completion provided that there is a strong foundation of wisdom. With wisdom only, and not otherwise, can one spread the Dharma and assist living beings. This wisdom arises from a keen desire to learn and practice the Buddhadharma. Therefore, the Buddha said, "All Buddhas in the three periods arise from learning and practice." One who is not willing to learn will remain eternally foolish, and what foolish man or woman ever completed the Bodhi Tao, spread Dharma and assisted sentient beings?

As there is immeasurable distress in the lives of sentient beings, there are innumerable methods of Dharma practice. Therefore, the third vow of great compassion is as follows:

 

"Limitless approaches to the Dharma we vow to master"

When one perceives the suffering of sentient beings, one vows to enlighten sentient beings without number when perceiving the distress in one's life and that of others, one vows to eradicate vexations without end. Perceiving the myriad Dharma doors to enlightenment, one vows to master them all. Perceiving the truth of Nirvana, one vows to attain the Supreme Bodhi. All Bodhisattvas who determine the Bodhicitta hold these Four Vows of Great Compassion.

There are various conditions leading to the deterioration of both the Bodhicitta and the practice of Bodhisattva Dharma. These conditions are called parajika (defeats), and they are acts or thoughts that break or defeat the Bodhisattva practice. This same term is used in connection with the monastic Vinaya, where it denotes the first four rules, the transgression of which calls for expulsion from the order of Bhiksus. The elder Tripitaka Master Hsuan Tsang translated this term as "overcoming by specific conditions". This means that the good roots necessary for the practice of Bodhisattva Dharma are overcome by the specific conditions of unwholesome roots.

 

The first specific condition which leads to the defeat of the Bodhicitta is the tendency to praise oneself and to slander others. If the Bodhisattva loses his Mahakaruna, he is no longer willing to profit others at his own expense. Being solely concerned with his own name and fame, he loses respect in the eyes of family, friends and society.

 

The second specific condition leading to defeat is seeing someone in a state of suffering and anxiety and not lifting a finger to help. Losing one's Mahakaruna, one makes no effort to teach or profit those who may come for assistance but, instead, cultivates miserly tendencies.

 

The third specific condition leading to defeat is not receiving the repentant or those desirous of following the right path. Losing one's Mahakaruna, one allows himself to bear anger and grudges in his mind and, as a result, is not willing to teach or assist those who are repentant.

 

The fourth specific condition leading to defeat is the act of foolishly deceiving others with pseudo--dharma. Without wisdom, one manipulates heterodox views, slandering the Buddhadharma and deceiving others with what appears to be Dharma but which is, in fact, not genuine.

 

If a Bodhisattva falls into any of these categories of defeat, he loses the Bodhicitta and also the qualifications of Bodhisattva practice. Therefore, one should preserve the qualifications, protect the Bodhicitta and increase the vast storehouse of Bodhisattva Dharma.

  

THE SIX PARAMITAS

| previous | content | next |

 

The Six Paramitas, or perfections, are the means for realizing the Four Great Vows and completing the Bodhisattva practice. They are as follows:

 

1. Dana: generosity, or charity;

2. Sila: the precepts, or morality;

3. Ksanti: patience, or forbearance;

4. Virya: energy, or zeal;

5. Dhyana: contemplative practice, or meditatton;

6. Prajna: wisdom, or the power to discern reality.

After one has heard the Mahayana Dharma and developed great compassion, the practice of the Six Paramitas is the natural next step on the Bodhisattva Path. The Great Vows, deep as the ocean, should have a mountain of practice to fill them up. This mountain is none other than the practice of the Six Paramitas, and filling (or fulfilling) the Vows means to complete the Supreme Bodhi of Buddha Fruit. The Tao of Bodhisattva Dharma is, then, the practice of the Six Paramitas.

The first Paramita is Dana,or charity and generosity. The highest worldly form of this is to give one's body, or even one's very life, for the benefit of others. This is described as internal charity, while the type of generosity regarding property, money, time, etc., is referred to as external charity. Beyond Dana, in this internal and external sense, there is a transcendental form, which is the use of one's talents, intellect, scholarship, eloquence, etc., to spread the message of Buddhadharma. This is called the almsgiving of the Buddha Truth. The principle of Dana is the spirit of self-sacrifice in order to benefit the multitude.

 

The second Paramita is Sila,or morality. As stated above, the discipline of the Mahayana Bodhisattva is not only concerned with the negative prohibitions but also with their positive counterparts. Sila means the cessation of evil and the initiation of the good. This Sila is formulated as the 5, 8, 10 or 250 precepts. The main principle of Bodhisattva moral discipline is to attain the state of non-retrogression in one's moral behavior whereby the observation of Sila becomes automatic.

 

The third Paramita is Ksanti,or patience and forbearance. Holding onto the objective of doing good-specially in this age of chaos and impurity throughout the six realms of sentient beings-is not an easy task. There are so many adverse circumstances to obstruct the practice of Bodhisattva Dharma. The Bodhisattva equipped with right view and his practice of the Ksanti Paramita, is able to deal successfully with these situations, effect his own liberation and aid all other living beings. The Bodhisattva should also develop the capacity for forgiveness, which arises from wisdom. Wisdom perceives that all sentient beings are produced by causal conditions without self-nature and are of the same nature as oneself.

 

The fourth Paramita is Virya,or energy. The term energy is used in the sense of putting forth energy to win those states of wholesomeness as yet unknown and unwon. One puts forth energy in the practice of the Bodhisattva Dharma and energetically maintains the Bodhicitta. Without developing the Virya Paramita, one determines the Bodhicitta only temporarily. When meeting with adverse conditions, one is disillusioned and drops the practice. Virya, then, comes to mean persistence in the face of disillusionment and energetic striving to complete the Bodhi Tao and to win the Supreme Buddha Fruit.

 

The fifth Paramita is Dhyana,or contemplative practice. Dhyana, in Sanskrit, means concentrated practice and is synonymous with Samadhi. Joining the two words, we have the Chinese phrase Ch'an-Ting. The original meaning of Ch'an-Ting is to concentrate the mind on one point. The effort of contemplation is the tonic of spiritual health. One studying the Bodhisattva Tao who cannot control his confused and disorderly mind must necessarily practice Ch'an-Ting and develop light and power as well as the ability to be unmoved by desire. Ch'an-Ting is the source of all wisdom and equanimity, and it means the completion of the Bodhisattva Tao.

 

The sixth Paramita is Prajna,or Wisdom. Although all worldly knowledge and learning are thought of as wisdom, the Wisdom tradition of the Buddhadharma is not quite the same. According to the Buddha, Wisdom is the ability to recognize the truth behind the temporary show of appearances and possess confidence regarding this truth. The method of practice leading to Wisdom, called Ch'an-Ting, encourages us not to seek anything but to unite ourselves with the Truth. This is called Original Wisdom; and it encompasses discriminative wisdom, although its scope and the approach to it are different. Original Wisdom is the apprehension of the truth that all things arise from causal conditions, have no self-nature and are, therefore, void. The very essence of these Six Paramitas is Wisdom, and the Way of Wisdom is the Bodhisattva Tao.

 

The Sanskrit term Paramitameans Gone across to the other shore.The practice of these Paramitas can lead one across the sea of birth, death and distress to the other shore of peace and truth, i.e., Nirvana. The purified mind and wholesome behavior that arise through the practice of the Six Paramitas are praised by all sages, ancient and modern. Perceptively, Chuang Tse observed long ago: "The body as rotten wood, the mind as cold ashes, losing all things, beyond the world." Another Chinese sage, Lao Tse, also insightfully noted: "Actions like the flow of water, mind calm as a mirror; the sounds of the world appear as an echo."

  

Born December 11, 1865, Cincinnati, Ohio

Died October 10, 1934, Chattanooga, Tennessee

 

Remembering the Purity Extract and Tonic Company

 

Mention “Prohibition,” and many people immediately think of the era in our history when the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors was prohibited. This nationwide ban resulted from the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which went into effect in 1920.

 

However, several states already had prohibition laws on the books. In the case of Tennessee, those laws caused the management of a Chattanooga manufacturer to develop a new, non-intoxicating line of products with the name, “Purity Extract and Tonic Company” on the labels.

 

Tennessee has in some way regulated alcoholic beverages ever since its founding in 1796. A temperance movement began near the end of the Civil War, with its advocates continuing to pressure the legislature for reform despite repeated setbacks.

 

In 1909, the “drys” at last succeeded after years of spirited debate, with passage of a bill which halted the production of intoxicating beverages for sale in Tennessee.

 

Opponents had argued that enforcement of the law would be impossible. The 1910’s showed that their prediction was true. The Tennessee prohibition law was unevenly enforced, and frequent “clean-up campaigns” were required. According to author Paul Isaac, a campaign was carried out in Chattanooga in February, 1911, when “one hundred and seventy-five persons, including three members of the city council, were indicted, and the next year over a hundred more were fined, for selling intoxicants in Chattanooga.”

 

Over at the company’s headquarters on the southwest corner of Second and Broad streets, the management of the Chattanooga Brewing Company decided to position the business for either “wet” or “dry” politics.

 

In 1910, Charles Reif became the president of the Purity Extract and Tonic Company, and John Henry Brockhaus, Jr. assumed the office of secretary/treasurer. With a line of “near beer,” soft drinks, and bottled water, Purity was prepared to do business even if the government really was serious about prohibition.

 

Charles Reif’s background prepared him to lead the new venture. Born in Cincinnati in 1865, he joined the Park Packing and Provision Company in his home town immediately after finishing school. In 1890, he moved to Chattanooga after his father acquired the Chattanooga Brewery.

 

Reif was active in community affairs, also ran the Chattanooga Bottle and Glass Company, and was both a promoter and subscriber of river navigation between Chattanooga and St. Louis. John Henry Brockhaus, Jr. was also a native of Cincinnati, and followed Charles Reif southward.

 

In 1909, the Chattanooga Brewery’s advertising was attempting to convince the public that its products were acceptable: “Our beers are pure liquid food. Let’s have a Chatt.” When Purity Extract and Tonic began business the next year, they continued the health food advertising strategy with their near beer product, the Poinsettia.

 

An advertisement proclaimed the Poinsettia to be “The Great Flesh Builder.” Appealing to tired mothers, the company said that the Poinsettia was “an invigorating and pleasant beverage – it enriches her blood and gives baby the necessary sustenance without the ill effects of tonics containing alcohol.” The Poinsettia was also good for the business man, “whose nerve force and physical vigor is impaired by the strain of many cares.” Purity offered to deliver Poinsettia by wagon to any address.

 

Purity’s product line also included Sinalco, a German drink with eight fruit flavors, and sold for a nickel “at every good grocery and drug store.” Other beverages included Cidrola, made with pure apple juice, and the Grape Fizz, made with – you’re reading ahead – pure grape juice. Under the Tripure name, the company sold bottled water (slogan was “Health in Every Drop”) and the Tripure Cola in a triangular bottle. Purity also manufactured ice, the perfect complement to Purity drinks.

 

Charles Reif lent his own name to Reif’s Ginger Ale, as well as to Reif’s Special. An advertisement for it warned readers, “Don’t let Old Man Thirst ruin your good times. There is one way to eject him. Give him the cold shoulder over a cold bottle of Reif’s Special. By golly, it’s good.”

 

The Chattanooga Brewing Company continued to be listed in the city directory alongside Purity until 1920, when prohibition began at a federal level. However, dismal experience in the enforcement of national prohibition laws led to the 1933 ratification of the Twenty-First Amendment to the U.S. Constituion. The amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment, and returned the regulation of liquor to the states.

 

By 1930, Purity Extract and Tonic disappeared from the Chattanooga city directory. The property had been acquired for a new Coca-Cola bottling plant. The old Chattanooga Brewing Company/Purity Extract and Tonic building made a grand last stand. The Chattanooga Times reported on January 16, 1930 that demolition contractor Mark K. Wilson said that “the crews had experienced considerable difficulty in the work on account of the heavy construction used in the old building.”

 

Charles Reif passed away in 1934 at his Fairyland home. His obituary said that “In encouragement of all efforts for the advancement of Chattanooga interests and in donations to churches and charitable causes, his generosity seemed to have no bounds.”

 

The Battle For John Barleycorn

Charles Reif, the son of a German immigrants from Cincinnati, moved to Chattanooga in 1890 when his father bought the Sunny South Brewery from Conrad Geise.

 

Reif in Tennessee

The 1931 Homecoming Court for Bristol Tennessee High School. My maternal grandmother was the queen. I scanned this from her high school scrapbook, which had all sorts of clipping of her activities from captain of the basketball team to roles in school plays. (The blue cast on sections comes from a coating on the photo.)

 

Included in her memory book was this newspaper clipping:

"10 Commandments Given for Girls"

COALVILLE, ENGLAND, February 25 - Father Joesph Degen has started another offensive in his one-man war against the petting party.

Carrying on his campaign to make Coalville black in name only, he has formulated the following "ten commandments" for the girls in his parish.

1. Do not parade with an all-dressed-up-and-nowhere-to-go air waiting to take a walk with the first nice looking boy who speaks to you.

2. Always tell your mother where you are going and with whom, and return home on time.

3. Do not accept gifts of clothing, jewelery, or money from men. Indebtedness creates an obligation.

4. Do not let boys treat you to intoxicants. The hot blood which courses through the veins of youth is stimulant enough.

5. Avoid demoralizing dances, where there is little or no attempt at supervision, or where couples are permitted to hang about in obscure corners outside the premises.

6. Beware of the "something-for-nothing" type of man, who offers you a joy ride in his car--especially if you know nothing more about him than that he has a Charlie Chaplin mustache and scented hair.

7. Hockey, lacrosse, tennis and dancing are healthier forms of excitement than street flirtations.

8. Beware of the man who, after an acquaintanceship of only ten minute, wants to put his arm round your waist. Do not make yourself cheap, even to a Duke's son.

9. If you have found a real boy friend, be true to him and don't flit like a butterfly one to another. Take him home and introduce him to your folks.

10. Do not expect to go through life attired in silk and chiffon, waited on hand and foot, and never doing any hard work. Few men can afford to keep a luxurious and expensive fashion plate. You must learn to be useful as well as ornamental.

Born December 11, 1865, Cincinnati, Ohio

Died October 10, 1934, Chattanooga, Tennessee

 

Remembering the Purity Extract and Tonic Company

 

Mention “Prohibition,” and many people immediately think of the era in our history when the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors was prohibited. This nationwide ban resulted from the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which went into effect in 1920.

 

However, several states already had prohibition laws on the books. In the case of Tennessee, those laws caused the management of a Chattanooga manufacturer to develop a new, non-intoxicating line of products with the name, “Purity Extract and Tonic Company” on the labels.

 

Tennessee has in some way regulated alcoholic beverages ever since its founding in 1796. A temperance movement began near the end of the Civil War, with its advocates continuing to pressure the legislature for reform despite repeated setbacks.

 

In 1909, the “drys” at last succeeded after years of spirited debate, with passage of a bill which halted the production of intoxicating beverages for sale in Tennessee.

 

Opponents had argued that enforcement of the law would be impossible. The 1910’s showed that their prediction was true. The Tennessee prohibition law was unevenly enforced, and frequent “clean-up campaigns” were required. According to author Paul Isaac, a campaign was carried out in Chattanooga in February, 1911, when “one hundred and seventy-five persons, including three members of the city council, were indicted, and the next year over a hundred more were fined, for selling intoxicants in Chattanooga.”

 

Over at the company’s headquarters on the southwest corner of Second and Broad streets, the management of the Chattanooga Brewing Company decided to position the business for either “wet” or “dry” politics.

 

In 1910, Charles Reif became the president of the Purity Extract and Tonic Company, and John Henry Brockhaus, Jr. assumed the office of secretary/treasurer. With a line of “near beer,” soft drinks, and bottled water, Purity was prepared to do business even if the government really was serious about prohibition.

 

Charles Reif’s background prepared him to lead the new venture. Born in Cincinnati in 1865, he joined the Park Packing and Provision Company in his home town immediately after finishing school. In 1890, he moved to Chattanooga after his father acquired the Chattanooga Brewery.

 

Reif was active in community affairs, also ran the Chattanooga Bottle and Glass Company, and was both a promoter and subscriber of river navigation between Chattanooga and St. Louis. John Henry Brockhaus, Jr. was also a native of Cincinnati, and followed Charles Reif southward.

 

In 1909, the Chattanooga Brewery’s advertising was attempting to convince the public that its products were acceptable: “Our beers are pure liquid food. Let’s have a Chatt.” When Purity Extract and Tonic began business the next year, they continued the health food advertising strategy with their near beer product, the Poinsettia.

 

An advertisement proclaimed the Poinsettia to be “The Great Flesh Builder.” Appealing to tired mothers, the company said that the Poinsettia was “an invigorating and pleasant beverage – it enriches her blood and gives baby the necessary sustenance without the ill effects of tonics containing alcohol.” The Poinsettia was also good for the business man, “whose nerve force and physical vigor is impaired by the strain of many cares.” Purity offered to deliver Poinsettia by wagon to any address.

 

Purity’s product line also included Sinalco, a German drink with eight fruit flavors, and sold for a nickel “at every good grocery and drug store.” Other beverages included Cidrola, made with pure apple juice, and the Grape Fizz, made with – you’re reading ahead – pure grape juice. Under the Tripure name, the company sold bottled water (slogan was “Health in Every Drop”) and the Tripure Cola in a triangular bottle. Purity also manufactured ice, the perfect complement to Purity drinks.

 

Charles Reif lent his own name to Reif’s Ginger Ale, as well as to Reif’s Special. An advertisement for it warned readers, “Don’t let Old Man Thirst ruin your good times. There is one way to eject him. Give him the cold shoulder over a cold bottle of Reif’s Special. By golly, it’s good.”

 

The Chattanooga Brewing Company continued to be listed in the city directory alongside Purity until 1920, when prohibition began at a federal level. However, dismal experience in the enforcement of national prohibition laws led to the 1933 ratification of the Twenty-First Amendment to the U.S. Constituion. The amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment, and returned the regulation of liquor to the states.

 

By 1930, Purity Extract and Tonic disappeared from the Chattanooga city directory. The property had been acquired for a new Coca-Cola bottling plant. The old Chattanooga Brewing Company/Purity Extract and Tonic building made a grand last stand. The Chattanooga Times reported on January 16, 1930 that demolition contractor Mark K. Wilson said that “the crews had experienced considerable difficulty in the work on account of the heavy construction used in the old building.”

 

Charles Reif passed away in 1934 at his Fairyland home. His obituary said that “In encouragement of all efforts for the advancement of Chattanooga interests and in donations to churches and charitable causes, his generosity seemed to have no bounds.”

 

The Battle For John Barleycorn

Charles Reif, the son of a German immigrants from Cincinnati, moved to Chattanooga in 1890 when his father bought the Sunny South Brewery from Conrad Geise.

 

Reif in Tennessee

A few words I have "borrowed" from the Internet about this fungi.

 

Amanita muscaria (L. ex Fr.) Hooker Fly Agaric, Amanite tue-mouches, Fausse Oronge Roter Fliegenpilz Cap 8–20cm across, globose or hemispherical at first then flattening, bright scarlet covered with distinctive white pyramidal warts which may be washed off by rain leaving the cap almost smooth and the colour fades. Stem 80–180×10–20mm, white, often covered in shaggy volval remnants as is the bulbous base, the white membranous ring attached to the stem apex sometimes becoming flushed yellow from the pigment washed off the cap. Flesh white, tinged red or yellow below the cap cuticle, Taste pleasant, smell faint. Gills free, white. Spore print white. Spores broadly ovate, nonamyloid, 9.5–10.5×7–8µ. Habitat usually with birch trees, Season late summer to late autumn. Common. Deadly poisonous. It contains many different toxins see below. Distribution, America and Europe.

 

This is one of the easiest species to recognize and describe, and consequently its properties have been well documented for centuries. The common name Fly Agaric comes from the practice of breaking the cap into platefuls of milk, used since medieval times to stupefy flies. It is a strong hallucinogen and intoxicant and was used as such by the Lapps. In such cases the cap is dried and swallowed without chewing. The symptoms begin twenty minutes to two hours after ingestion. The central nervous system is affected and the muscles of the intoxicated person start to pull and twitch convulsively, followed by dizzines and a death-like sleep. During this stage the mushrooms are often vomited but nevertheless the drunkenness and stupor continue. While in this state of stupor, the person experiences vivid visions and on waking is usually filled with elation and is physically very active. This is due to the nerves being highly stimulated, the slightest effort of will producing exaggerated physical effects, e.g. the intoxicated person will make a gigantic leap to clear the smallest obstacle. The Lapps may have picked up the habit of eating the Fly Agaric through observing the effects of the fungus on reindeer, which are similarly affected. Indeed, they like it so much that all one has to do to round up a wandering herd is to scatter pieces of Fly Agaric on the ground. Another observation the Lapps made from the reindeer was that the intoxicating compounds in the fungus can be recycled by consuming the urine of an intoxicated person. An experiment carried out in the 1970's with 6 students, had each drink the urine of the previous, and found that the sixth reported effects as strong as the person who had ingested the mushroom in the first place. Only the lack of volunteers led to the failure to ascertain just how long the urine would remain potent for. The effects of consuming this species are exceedingly unpredictable; some people remain unaffected while others have similar, or different, symptoms to those above, and at least one death is attributed to A. muscaria. This unpredictability is due to the fungus containing different amounts of the toxins ibotenic acid and muscimol according to season, method of cooking and ingestion, as well as the subject’s state of mind. Ibotenic acid is mostly concentrated in the coloured skin of the cap. This very unstable compound rapidly degrades on drying to form muscimol which is five to ten times more potent. Traditionally, where A. muscaria is used as an inebriant, it is the dried cap which is taken.

 

by Sukhmandir Khalsa

Updated June 03, 2017

Sikhs are not Hindus. Sikhism rejects many aspects of Hinduism. Sikhism is a distinct religion having a unique scripture, principles, code of conduct guidelines, initiation ceremony and appearance developed over three centuries by ten gurus, or spiritual masters.

 

Many Sikh immigrants are from North India where the national language is Hindi, the native name for the country is Hindustan, and the national religion is Hinduism.

  

Attempts by radical Hindu groups to consign Sikhs to their caste system have made devout Sikhs a potential political target in India, sometimes resulting in violence.

 

Although Sikhs with turbans and beards have a distinct appearance, people in Western countries who come in contact with Sikhs may assume that they are Hindus. Compare these 10 fundamental differences between Sikhism and Hinduism beliefs, faith, practices, social status, and worship.

 

10 Ways That Sikhism Differs From Hinduism

1. Origin

 

Sikhism originated in Punjab, in what is now Pakistan, circa 1469 with the birth of Guru Nanak, and is based on on the guru's writings and teachings.

Hinduism can be traced as far back as 10,000 B.C. and is considered to be one of the earliest religions practiced by civilized man. Aryan invaders introduced the religion to the Sindhu River of the modern day Indus region of India about 2,000 B.C. The river later became known as the Hindu and the people Hindus.

2. Deity

 

Sikhism rejects idolatry and has no clergy system. Guru Nanak introduced the concept of one god, Ik Onkar, one creator present in all of creation. Sikhs refer to the divine as Waheguru, the Wondrous Enlightener.

Hinduism believes in a hierarchy of deities with Brahman as the foremost all encompassing, followed by the trinity Brahma (creator) Vishnu (sustainer) and Shiva (destroyer). Other important gods are Krishna, Rama, Ganesha, and Hanuman, along with goddesses Lakhsmi, Kali, Durga, and Saraswati. There are many lesser demi-gods and demi-goddesss with some 33 million deities in all, which includie plant, animal, and mineral spirits, all of whom are worshiped by means of idolatry, relying on intervention of pandits, or priests.

 

3. Scripture

 

Sikhs believe the scripture of Siri Guru Granth Sahib to be the living word of their Guru or Enlighter. The Guru Granth Sahib offers guidance and instruction on how to be free of egoism and achieve humility, as a means to illuminate spiritual darkness and liberate the soul from the cycle of transmigration.

Hindu scriptures are collectively known as Shastra and are comprised of two types:

Sutri (conceptualized) - Vedas and Upanishads.

Smriti (poetic epics) - Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana, and Mahabharata.

4. Basic Tenets

 

Sikhism tenets denounce caste, idolatry, and ritual. Sikh beliefs include:

Five essentials beliefs in:

One creative source.

Ten gurus of history.

Authority of Guru Granth.

Teachings of the ten gurus.

Initiation rites established by Tenth Guru Gobind Singh.

Five articles of faith worn by initiates on the body:

Kes and Keski - Uncut hair beard and turban.

Kanga - Wooden comb worn in hair.

Kara - Steel bracelet worn on wrist.

Kirpan - Ceremonial short sword worn at the side.

Kachhera - Unique undergarment worn for modesty and chastity.

Hinduism tenets including belief in:

 

Caste

Idolatry

Rites and rituals performed by priests

Philosophies, principles and disciplines

Puja - Worship

Dharma - Ethics

Karma - Actions

Yoga - Discipline

Bhakti - Devotion

Moksha - Liberation

Samsara - Transmigration

5. Worship

 

Sikhs begin the day with meditation and recite morning, evening and bedtime daily prayers. There is no hierarchy of clergy, any Sikh who is knowledgeable may perform religious duties. The congregation gathers with heads covered to worship in the gurdwara where services include:

Kirtan - Devotional hymns.

Ardas - Offering of Prayer.

Hukam - Verse read from Guru Granth Sahib.

Prashad - Sacred pudding distributed to worshipers.

Langar free food from the guru's kitchen.

Hindus worship in a mandir, or temple, where idolatry rituals, and Puja rites and ceremonies are performed by high caste priests. Hindu males don a ritual sacred thread at about the age of puberty, which is ceremoniously changed each year.

6. Conversion and Caste

 

Sikhism does not actively seek converts, but accepts anyone, regardless of social background, who wishes to be initiated.

Hinduism is based on a rigid caste system which one can only be born into, but can neither marry to become, nor convert to. Devotees are welcome to worship deities, but must wait until a future lifetime to be reborn into the hierarchy of the Hindu caste system. Strict adherence to principle and righteous deeds gives hope, that upon rebirth, they may reincarnate into an upper caste.

7. Marriage and Status of Females

 

Sikh women are considered to be equal in status to men in every aspect of worship and life. Sikh women are encouraged to be educated, have careers, become community leaders, and are welcome to take part in every ceremony.

Sikhism teaches that bride and groom are fused by the four rounds of the Anand Karaj ceremony with the divine sharing one light in two bodies. Dowry is discouraged. Caste is not supposed to be a consideration when choosing a spouse. Widows are permitted to remarry.

Hinduism teaches that a women is to be always dependent either on father, or husband, for the duration of her life to insure spiritual advancement.

Hindu marriage is performed according to conditions of the Hindu Marriage Act between any two Hindus generally of the same caste. Dowry is also a consideration when arranging marriage. The marriage is performed by bride and groom taking seven steps around a sacred fire. Hindu widows have little, or no status in India.

8. Dietary Law & Fasting

 

Sikhism scripture counsels against consuming intoxicants and flesh specifically chicken and fish if one wishes to advance spiritually. No kind of meat is ever served in any gurdwara, however a Sikh who decides to indulge in meat eating is restricted only against eat an animal slaughtered ritually according to Muslim law halal. Sikhism does not believe in ritual fasting as a means to spiritual enlightenment.

Hindu dietary law forbids eating meat from a cow. Fasting is done on auspicious occasions for a variety of reasons, and to purify body and soul.

9. Appearance

 

Sikhism Armitdhari initiates and Keshdhari devotees do not cut or remove hair from the scalp, face, or body. Devout Sikh men and some women wear religiously mandated turbans in a variety of styles to cover and protect unshorn hair. Sikhs are not permitted to wear caps or hats. Sikhs traditionally wear warrior style attire. Both men and women wear chollas. Men wear kurta pajama and women salvar kamees.

Hindu men may go bare-headed, wear a cap, or a festive turban over cut hair. Aesthetics may shave heads, or grow hair and a beard, but generally do not wear turbans, although some may. Hindu religious headgear is seldom worn outside of India. Hindu women never wear turbans. Hindu men traditionally wear dhotis, and women saris.

10. Yoga

 

Sikhism scripture and code of conduct consider ritualistic yoga to be an entrapment which may present an obstacle to spiritual growth.

Hinduism outlines a very detailed of 8 limbs and 4 types of yoga designed to perfect the body and soul.

   

Zoroastrianism,[a] also called Mazdayasna[b] or Behdin,[c] is an Iranian religion centred on the Avesta and the teachings of Zarathushtra Spitama, who is more commonly referred to by the Greek translation, Zoroaster (Greek: Ζωροάστρις Zōroastris). Among the world's oldest organized faiths, its adherents exalt an uncreated, benevolent, and all-wise deity known as Ahura Mazda (⸱), who is hailed as the supreme being of the universe. Opposed to Ahura Mazda is Angra Mainyu (⸱), who is personified as a destructive spirit and the adversary of all things that are good. As such, the Zoroastrian religion combines a dualistic cosmology of good and evil with an eschatological outlook predicting the ultimate triumph of Ahura Mazda over evil.[1] Opinions vary among scholars as to whether Zoroastrianism is monotheistic,[1] polytheistic,[2] henotheistic,[3] or a combination of all three.[4] Zoroastrianism shaped Iranian culture and history, while scholars differ on whether it significantly influenced ancient Western philosophy and the Abrahamic religions,[5][6] or gradually reconciled with other religions and traditions, such as Christianity and Islam.[7]

 

Originating from Zoroaster's reforms of the ancient Iranian religion, Zoroastrianism began during the Avestan period (possibly as early as the 2nd millennium BCE), but was first recorded in the mid-6th century BCE. For the following millennium, it was the official religion of successive Iranian polities, beginning with the Achaemenid Empire, which formalized and institutionalized many of its tenets and rituals, and ending with the Sasanian Empire, which revitalized the faith and standardized its teachings.[8] In the 7th century CE, the rise of Islam and the ensuing Muslim conquest of Iran marked the beginning of the decline of Zoroastrianism. The persecution of Zoroastrians by the early Muslims in the nascent Rashidun Caliphate prompted much of the community to migrate to the Indian subcontinent, where they were granted asylum and became the progenitors of today's Parsis. Once numbering in the millions, the world's total Zoroastrian population is estimated to comprise between 110,000 and 120,000 people, with most of them residing either in India (50,000–60,000), in Iran (15,000–25,000), or in North America (22,000). Though the religion is currently sparse due to restrictions on conversion, strict endogamy, and low birth rates, there are reports of conversions and cultural embraces of Zoroastrianism among the Iranian peoples (particularly Persians), most notably the diaspora.[9]

 

The central beliefs and practices of Zoroastrianism are contained in the Avesta, a compendium of sacred texts assembled over several centuries. Its oldest and most central component are the Gathas, purported to be the direct teachings of Zoroaster and his account of conversations with Ahura Mazda. These writings are part of a major section of the Avesta called the Yasna, which forms the core of Zoroastrian liturgy. Zoroaster's religious philosophy divided the early Iranian gods of Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism into emanations of the natural world—the ahura and the daeva; the former class consisting of divinities to be revered and the latter class consisting of divinities to be rejected and condemned. Zoroaster proclaimed that Ahura Mazda was the supreme creator and sustaining force of the universe, working in gētīg (the visible material realm) and mēnōg (the invisible spiritual and mental realm) through the Amesha Spenta, a class of seven divine entities that represent various aspects of the universe and the highest moral good. Emanating from Ahura Mazda is Spenta Mainyu (the Holy or Bountiful Spirit), the source of life and goodness,[10] which is opposed by Angra Mainyu (the Destructive or Opposing Spirit), who is born from Aka Manah (evil thought). Angra Mainyu was further developed by Middle Persian literature into Ahriman (), Ahura Mazda's direct adversary.

 

Zoroastrian doctrine holds that, within this cosmic dichotomy, human beings have the choice between Asha (truth, cosmic order), the principle of righteousness or "rightness" that is promoted and embodied by Ahura Mazda, and Druj (falsehood, deceit), the essential nature of Angra Mainyu that expresses itself as greed, wrath, and envy.[11] Thus, the central moral precepts of the religion are good thoughts (hwnata), good words (hakhta), and good deeds (hvarshta), which are recited in many prayers and ceremonies.[5][12][13] Many of the practices and beliefs of ancient Iranian religion can still be seen in Zoroastrianism, such as reverence for nature and its elements, such as water (aban). Fire (atar) is held by Zoroastrians to be particularly sacred as a symbol of Ahura Mazda himself, serving as a focal point of many ceremonies and rituals, and serving as the basis for Zoroastrian places of worship, which are known as fire temples.

 

Etymology

The name Zoroaster (Ζωροάστηρ) is a Greek rendering of the Avestan name Zarathustra. He is known as Zartosht and Zardosht in Persian and Zaratosht in Gujarati.[14] The Zoroastrian name of the religion is Mazdayasna, which combines Mazda- with the Avestan word yasna, meaning "worship, devotion".[15] In English, an adherent of the faith is commonly called a Zoroastrian or a Zarathustrian. An older expression still used today is Behdin, meaning "of the good religion", deriving from beh < Middle Persian weh 'good' + din < Middle Persian dēn < Avestan daēnā".[16] In the Zoroastrian liturgy, this term is used as a title for a lay individual who has been formally inducted into the religion in a Navjote ceremony, in contrast to the priestly titles of osta, osti, ervad (hirbod), mobed and dastur.[17]

 

The first surviving reference to Zoroaster in English scholarship is attributed to Thomas Browne (1605–1682), who briefly refers to Zoroaster in his 1643 Religio Medici.[18] The term Mazdaism (/ˈmæzdə.ɪzəm/) is an alternative form in English used as well for the faith, taking Mazda- from the name Ahura Mazda and adding the suffix -ism to suggest a belief system.[19]

 

Theology

See also: Criticism of Zoroastrianism and Religious influences on Zoroastrianism

The theological category of Zoroastrianism is hard to define. The reasons are the difficulties in assigning precise dates to the principal texts and the fact that many contain much older material. Furthermore, Zoroastrianism shaped only slowly over time and was not complete even by the time of the Muslim conquest of Persia. Polytheistic, monotheistic, and dualistic strands can be identified in the wider Zoroastrian tradition, with dualism being the dominant tendency. The major difference to Manichaeism lies in the insistence of good in the creation account.[20]

 

Some scholars believe Zoroastrianism started as an Indo-Iranian polytheistic religion: according to Yujin Nagasawa, ‹See Tfd›like the rest of the Zoroastrian texts, the Old Avesta does not teach monotheism.[21] By contrast, Md. Sayem characterizes Zoroastrianism as being one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world.[22]

 

Zoroastrians treat Ahura Mazda as the supreme god, but believe in lesser divinities known as yazatas ("beings worthy of worship"), who share some similarities with the angels in Abrahamic religions.[23] These yazatas include Anahita, Sraosha, Mithra, Rashnu, and Tishtrya. Historian Richard Foltz has put forth evidence that Iranians of the pre-Islamic era worshipped all these figures; especially the gods Mithra and Anahita.[24]

 

Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic, and ‹See Tfd›a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos.[3] Brian Arthur Brown states that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism.[25] Economist Mario Ferrero suggests that Zoroastrianism transitioned from polytheism to monotheism due to political and economic pressures.[26]

 

In the 19th century, through contact with Western academics and missionaries, Zoroastrianism experienced a massive theological change that still affects it today. The Rev. John Wilson led various missionary campaigns in India against the Parsi community, disparaging the Parsis for their "dualism" and "polytheism" and as having unnecessary rituals while declaring the Avesta to not be "divinely inspired". This caused mass dismay in the relatively uneducated Parsi community, which blamed its priests and led to some conversions towards Christianity.[citation needed]

 

The arrival of the German orientalist and philologist Martin Haug led to a rallied defense of the faith through Haug's reinterpretation of the Avesta through Christianized and European orientalist lens. Haug postulated that Zoroastrianism was solely monotheistic with all other divinities reduced to the status of angels while Ahura Mazda became both omnipotent and the source of evil as well as good. Haug's thinking was subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating Haug's theory, and the idea became so popular that it is now almost universally accepted as doctrine (though being re-evaluated in modern Zoroastrianism and academia).[27] It has been argued by Almut Hintze that this designation of monotheism is not wholly perfect and that Zoroastrianism instead has its "own form of monotheism" which combines elements of dualism and polytheism.[28] Farhang Mehr asserts that Zoroastrianism is principally monotheistic with some dualistic elements.[29]

 

Lenorant and Chevallier assert that Zoroastrianism's concept of divinity covers both being and mind as immanent entities, describing Zoroastrianism as having a belief in an immanent self-creating universe with consciousness as its special attribute, thereby putting Zoroastrianism in the pantheistic fold sharing its origin with Indian Hinduism.[30][31]

 

Nature of the divine

Zoroastrianism contains multiple classes of divine beings, who are typically organised into tiers and spheres of influence.[citation needed]

 

Ahuras

Main article: Ahura

The Ahura are a class of divine beings ‹See Tfd›inherited by Zoroastrianism from the prehistoric Indo-Iranian religion. In the Rig Veda, asura denotes the "older gods", such as the "Father Asura", Varuna, and Mitra, who originally ruled over the primeval undifferentiated Chaos.[32]

 

Ahura Mazda

Main article: Ahuramazda

Ahura Mazda, also known as Oromasdes, Ohrmazd, Ormazd, Ormusd, Hoormazd, Harzoo, Hormazd, Hormaz and Hurmz, is the creator deity and the supreme god in Zoroastrianism. Ahura Mazda stands for the dual deity Mitrāˊ-Váruṇā of the Hindu holy book known as the Rigveda.[32]

 

According to scholars, Ahura Mazda is an uncreated, omniscient, omnipotent and benevolent God who has created the spiritual and material existences out of infinite light, and maintains the cosmic law of Asha. He is the first and most invoked spirit in Yasna, and is unrivaled, has no equals and presides over all creation.[33] In Avesta, Ahura Mazda is the only true God, and the representation of goodness, light, and truth. He is in conflict with the evil spirit Angra Mainyu, the representation of evil, darkness, and deceit. Angru Mainyu's goal is to tempt humans away from Ahura Mazda. Notably, Angra Mainyu is not a creation of Ahura Mazda but an independent entity.[34] The belief in Ahura Mazda, the "Lord of Wisdom" who is considered an all-encompassing Deity and the only existing one, is the foundation of Zoroastrianism.[35]

 

Ahura Mithra

Main article: Mithraism

Mitra, also called Mithra, was originally an Indo-Iranian god of ‹See Tfd›covenant, agreement, treaty, alliance, promise. Mitra is considered a being worthy of worship and is "characterized by riches".[36]

 

Yazata

Main article: Yazatas

The Yazata (Avestan: ) are divine beings worshiped by song and sacrifice in Zoroastrianism, in accordance with the Avesta. The word 'Yazata' is derived from 'Yazdan', the Old Persian word for 'god',[37] and literally means "divinity worthy of worship or veneration". As a concept, it also contains a wide range of other meanings; though generally signifying (or used as an epithet of) a divinity.[38][39]

 

The origins of Yazata are varied, with many also being featured as gods in Hinduism, or other Iranian religions. In modern Zoroastrianism, the Yazata are considered holy emanations of the creator, always devoted to him and obey the will of Ahura Mazda. While subject to repression by the Islamic Caliphate, the Yazata were often framed as "angels" to counter accusation of polytheism (shirk).[40] According to the Avesta The Yazata assist Ahura Mazda in his battle against the evil spirit, and are hypostases of moral or physical aspects of creation. The yazatas collectively are ‹See Tfd›the good powers under Ahura Mazda, who is the greatest of the yazatas.[37]

 

Notable Yazata

Ahura Mazda

Mitra or Mithra

Anahita – formerly an Iranian water goddess

Ātar (Fire)

Rashnu, one of the three judges who pass judgment on the souls of people after death

Sraosha or Srōsh

Verethragna – who may be the Vedic god Indra

Amesha Spentas

Yazatas are further divided into Amesha Spentas, their "ham-kar" or "Collaborators" who are Lower Ranking divinities,[41] and also certain healing plants, primordial creatures, the fravashis of the dead, and certain prayers that are themselves considered holy.

 

The Amesha Spentas and their "ham-kar" or "collaborator" Yazatas are as follows:

 

Vohu Manah + Mah / Geush Urvan / Ram

Asha Vahishta + Atar / Sraosha / Verethraghna

Kshatra Vairya + Khwar / Mithra / Asman / Anaghran

Spenta Armaiti + Ap / Daena / Ashi / Manthra Spenta

Haurvatat + Tishtriya / Fravashi / Vata

Ameretat + Rashnu / Arshtat / Zamyad[41]

Principal beliefs

Tenets of faith

 

Faravahar, one of the primary symbols of Zoroastrianism, believed to be the depiction of a Fravashi or the Khvarenah.

In Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda is the beginning and the end, the creator of everything that can and cannot be seen, the eternal and uncreated, the all-good and source of Asha.[15] In the Gathas, the most sacred texts of Zoroastrianism thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, Zoroaster acknowledged the highest devotion to Ahura Mazda, with worship and adoration also given to Ahura Mazda's manifestations (Amesha Spenta) and the other ahuras (Yazata) that support Ahura Mazda.[42]

 

Daena (din in modern Persian and meaning "that which is seen") is representative of the sum of one's spiritual conscience and attributes, which through one's choice Asha is either strengthened or weakened in the Daena.[43] Traditionally, the manthras (similar to the Hindu sacred utterance mantra) prayer formulas, are believed to be of immense power and the vehicles of Asha and creation used to maintain good and fight evil.[44] Daena should not be confused with the fundamental principle of Asha, believed to be the cosmic order which governs and permeates all existence, and the concept of which governed the life of the ancient Indo-Iranians. For these, asha was the course of everything observable—the motion of the planets and astral bodies; the progression of the seasons; and the pattern of daily nomadic herdsman life, governed by regular metronomic events such as sunrise and sunset, and was strengthened through truth-telling and following the Threefold Path.[45]

 

All physical creation (getig) was thus determined to run according to a master plan—inherent to Ahura Mazda—and violations of the order (druj) were violations against creation, and thus violations against Ahura Mazda.[46] This concept of asha versus the druj should not be confused with Western and especially Christian notions of good versus evil, for although both forms of opposition express moral conflict, the asha versus druj concept is more systemic and less personal, representing, for instance, chaos (that opposes order); or "uncreation", evident as natural decay (that opposes creation); or more simply "the lie" (that opposes truth and goodness).[45] Moreover, in the role as the one uncreated creator of all, Ahura Mazda is not the creator of druj, which is "nothing", anti-creation, and thus (likewise) uncreated and developed as the antithesis of existence through choice.[47]

  

A Parsi Wedding, 1905

In this schema of asha versus druj, mortal beings (both humans and animals) play a critical role, for they too are created. Here, in their lives, they are active participants in the conflict, and it is their spiritual duty to defend Asha, which is under constant assault and would decay in strength without counteraction.[45] Throughout the Gathas, Zoroaster emphasizes deeds and actions within society and accordingly extreme asceticism is frowned upon in Zoroastrianism but moderate forms are allowed within.[48]

 

Humata, Huxta, Huvarshta (Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds), the Threefold Path of Asha, is considered the core maxim of Zoroastrianism especially by modern practitioners. In Zoroastrianism, good transpires for those who do righteous deeds for its own sake, not for the search of reward. Those who do evil are said to be attacked and confused by the druj and are responsible for aligning themselves back to Asha by following this path.[49] There is also a heavy emphasis on spreading happiness, mostly through charity,[50] and respecting the spiritual equality and duty of both men and women.[51]

 

Central to Zoroastrianism is the emphasis on moral choice, to choose the responsibility and duty for which one is in the mortal world, or to give up this duty and so facilitate the work of druj. Similarly, predestination is rejected in Zoroastrian teaching and the absolute free will of all conscious beings is core, with even divine beings having the ability to choose. Humans bear responsibility for all situations they are in, and in the way they act toward one another. Reward, punishment, happiness, and grief all depend on how individuals live their lives.[52]

 

In Zoroastrian tradition, life is a temporary state in which a mortal is expected to participate actively in the continuing battle between Asha and Druj. Prior to its incarnation at the birth of the child, the urvan (soul) of an individual is still united with its fravashi (personal/higher spirit), which has existed since Ahura Mazda created the universe. Prior to the splitting off of the urvan, the fravashi participates in the maintenance of creation led by Ahura Mazda. During the life of a given individual, the fravashi acts as a source of inspiration to perform good actions and as a spiritual protector. The fravashis of ancestors cultural, spiritual, and heroic, associated with illustrious bloodlines, are venerated and can be called upon to aid the living.[53]

 

The religion states that active and ethical participation in life through good deeds formed from good thoughts and good words is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. This active participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept of free will, and Zoroastrianism as such rejects extreme forms of asceticism and monasticism but historically has allowed for moderate expressions of these concepts.[48] On the fourth day after death, the urvan is reunited with its fravashi, whereupon the experiences of life in the material world are collected for use in the continuing battle for good in the spiritual world. For the most part, Zoroastrianism does not have a notion of reincarnation; albeit Followers of Ilm-e-Kshnoom in India, among other currently non-traditional opinions, believe in reincarnation and practice vegetarianism.[54]

 

Zoroastrianism's emphasis on the protection and veneration of nature and its elements has led some to proclaim it as the ‹See Tfd›world's first proponent of ecology.[55] The Avesta and other texts call for the protection of water, earth, fire, and air making it, in effect, an ecological religion: It is not surprising that Mazdaism... is called the first ecological religion. The reverence for Yazatas (divine spirits) emphasizes the preservation of nature (Avesta: Yasnas 1.19, 3.4, 16.9; Yashts 6.3–4, 10.13).[56] However, this particular assertion is limited to natural forces held as emanations of asha by the fact that early Zoroastrians had a duty to exterminate "evil" species, a dictate no longer followed in modern Zoroastrianism.[57] Although there have been various theological statements supporting vegetarianism in Zoroastrianism's history and those who believe that Zoroaster was vegetarian.[58]

 

Zoroastrianism is not entirely uniform in theological and philosophical thought, especially with historical and modern influences having a significant impact on individual and local beliefs, practices, values, and vocabulary, sometimes merging with tradition and in other cases displacing it.[59] The ultimate purpose in the life of a practicing Zoroastrian is to become an ashavan (a master of Asha) and to bring happiness into the world, which contributes to the cosmic battle against evil. The core teachings of Zoroastrianism include:

 

Following the threefold path of Asha: Humata, Hūxta, Huvarshta (lit. 'good thoughts, good words, good deeds').[49]

Practicing charity to keep one's soul aligned with Asha and thus with spreading happiness.[50]

The spiritual equality and duty of men and women alike.[51]

Being good for the sake of goodness and without the hope of reward (see Ashem Vohu).

Cosmology

Main article: Zoroastrian cosmology

Cosmogony

According to the Zoroastrian creation myth, there is one universal, transcendent, all-good, and uncreated supreme creator deity Ahura Mazda,[15] or the "Wise Lord" (Ahura meaning "Lord" and Mazda meaning "Wisdom" in Avestan).[15][60] Zoroaster keeps the two attributes separate as two different concepts in most of the Gathas yet sometimes combines them into one form. Zoroaster also proclaims that Ahura Mazda is omniscient but not omnipotent.[15] Ahura Mazda existed in light and goodness above, while Angra Mainyu, (also referred to in later texts as "Ahriman"),[61][62] the destructive spirit/mentality, existed in darkness and ignorance below. They have existed independently of each other for all time, and manifest contrary substances. In the Gathas, Ahura Mazda is noted as working through emanations known as the Amesha Spenta[63] and with the help of "other ahuras".[27] These divine beings called Amesha Spentas, support him and are representative and guardians of different aspects of creation and the ideal personality.[63] Ahura Mazda is immanent in humankind and interacts with creation through these bounteous/holy divinities. In addition to these, He is assisted by a league of countless divinities called Yazatas, meaning "worthy of worship." Each Yazata is generally a hypostasis of a moral or physical aspect of creation. Asha[15][45] is the main spiritual force which comes from Ahura Mazda.[45] It is the cosmic order and is the antithesis of chaos, which is evident as druj, falsehood and disorder, that comes from Angra Mainyu.[47][33] The resulting cosmic conflict involves all of creation, mental/spiritual and material, including humanity at its core, which has an active role to play in the conflict.[64] The main representative of Asha in this conflict is Spenta Mainyu, the creative spirit/mentality.[61] Ahura Mazda then created the material and visible world itself in order to ensnare evil. He created the floating, egg-shaped universe in two parts: first the spiritual (menog) and 3,000 years later, the physical (getig).[46] Ahura Mazda then created Gayomard, the archetypical perfect man, and Gavaevodata, the primordial bovine.[52]

 

While Ahura Mazda created the universe and humankind, Angra Mainyu, whose very nature is to destroy, miscreated demons, evil daevas, and noxious creatures (khrafstar) such as snakes, ants, and flies. Angra Mainyu created an opposite, evil being for each good being, except for humans, which he found he could not match. Angra Mainyu invaded the universe through the base of the sky, inflicting Gayomard and the bull with suffering and death. However, the evil forces were trapped in the universe and could not retreat. The dying primordial man and bovine emitted seeds, which were protected by Mah, the Moon. From the bull's seed grew all beneficial plants and animals of the world and from the man's seed grew a plant whose leaves became the first human couple. Humans thus struggle in a two-fold universe of the material and spiritual trapped and in long combat with evil. The evils of this physical world are not products of an inherent weakness but are the fault of Angra Mainyu's assault on creation. This assault turned the perfectly flat, peaceful, and daily illuminated world into a mountainous, violent place that is half night.[52] According to Zoroastrian cosmology, in articulating the Ahuna Vairya formula, Ahura Mazda made the ultimate triumph of good against Angra Mainyu evident.[65] Ahura Mazda will ultimately prevail over the evil Angra Mainyu, at which point reality will undergo a cosmic renovation called Frashokereti[66] and limited time will end. In the final renovation, all of creation—even the souls of the dead that were initially banished to or chose to descend into "darkness"—will be reunited with Ahura Mazda in the Kshatra Vairya (meaning "best dominion"),[67] being resurrected to immortality.[citation needed]

 

Cosmography

Zoroastrian cosmography, which refers to the description of the structure of the cosmos in Zoroastrian literature and theology, involves a primary division of the cosmos into heaven and earth.[68] The heaven is composed of three parts: the lower-most part, which is where the fixed stars may be found; the middle part, where the domain of the moon is located, and the upper part, which is the domain of the sun and unreachable by Ahirman.[69] Further above the highest level of the heaven/sky includes regions described as the Endless Lights, as well as the Thrones of Amahraspandān and Ohrmazd.[70] Although this is the basic framework which occurs in Avestan texts, later Zoroastrian literature would elaborate on this picture by further subdividing the lowest part of heaven to achieve a total of six or seven layers.[71] The Earth itself was described as possessing three primary mountains: Mount Hukairiia, whose peak was the focal point of the revolution of the star Sadwēs; Mount Haraitī, whose peak was the focal point of the revolution of the sun and the moon, and the greatest of them all, the Harā Bərəz whose peak was located at the center of the Earth and which was the first in a chain of 2,244 mountains which, together, encircled the Earth.[72] Although the planets are not described in early Zoroastrian sources, they entered Zoroastrian thought in the Middle Persian period: they were demonized and took on the names Anāhīd (Pahlavi for Venus), Tīr (Mercury), Wahrām (Mars), Ohrmazd (Jupiter), and Kēwān (Saturn).[73]

 

Eschatology

Main article: Frashokereti

Individual judgment at death is at the Chinvat Bridge ("bridge of judgement" or "bridge of choice"), which each human must cross, facing a spiritual judgment, though modern belief is split as to whether it is representative of a mental decision during life to choose between good and evil or an afterworld location. Humans' actions under their free will through choice determine the outcome. According to tradition, the soul is judged by the Yazatas Mithra, Sraosha, and Rashnu, where depending on the verdict one is either greeted at the bridge by a beautiful, sweet-smelling maiden or by an ugly, foul-smelling old hag representing their Daena affected by their actions in life. The maiden leads the dead safely across the bridge, which widens and becomes pleasant for the righteous, towards the House of Song. The hag leads the dead down a bridge that narrows to a razor's edge and is full of stench until the departed falls off into the abyss towards the House of Lies.[52][74] Those with a balance of good and evil go to Hamistagan, a purgatorial realm mentioned in the 9th century work Dadestan-i Denig.[75]

 

The House of Lies is considered temporary and reformative; punishments fit the crimes, and souls do not rest in eternal damnation. Hell contains foul smells and evil food, a smothering darkness, and souls are packed tightly together although they believe they are in total isolation.[52]

 

In ancient Zoroastrian eschatology, a 3,000-year struggle between good and evil will be fought, punctuated by evil's final assault. During the final assault, the sun and moon will darken, and humankind will lose its reverence for religion, family, and elders. The world will fall into winter, and Angra Mainyu's most fearsome miscreant, Azi Dahaka, will break free and terrorize the world.[52]

 

According to legend, the final savior of the world, known as the Saoshyant, will be born to a virgin impregnated by the seed of Zoroaster while bathing in a lake. The Saoshyant will raise the dead—including those in all afterworlds—for final judgment, returning the wicked to hell to be purged of bodily sin. Next, all will wade through a river of molten metal in which the righteous will not burn but through which the impure will be completely purified. The forces of good will ultimately triumph over evil, rendering it forever impotent but not destroyed. The Saoshyant and Ahura Mazda will offer a bull as a final sacrifice for all time and all humans will become immortal. Mountains will again flatten and valleys will rise; the House of Song will descend to the moon, and the earth will rise to meet them both.[52] Humanity will require two judgments because there are as many aspects to our being: spiritual (menog) and physical (getig).[52]

 

Practices and rituals

 

An 8th century Tang dynasty Chinese clay figurine of a Sogdian man wearing a distinctive cap and face veil, possibly a camel rider or even a Zoroastrian priest engaging in a ritual at a fire temple, since face veils were used to avoid contaminating the holy fire with breath or saliva; Museum of Oriental Art (Turin), Italy.[76]

Throughout Zoroastrian history, shrines and temples have been the focus of worship and pilgrimage for adherents of the religion. Early Zoroastrians were recorded as worshiping in the 5th century BCE on mounds and hills where fires were lit below the open skies.[77] In the wake of Achaemenid expansion, shrines were constructed throughout the empire and particularly influenced the role of Mithra, Aredvi Sura Anahita, Verethragna and Tishtrya, alongside other traditional Yazata who all have hymns within the Avesta and also local deities and culture-heroes. Today, enclosed and covered fire temples tend to be the focus of community worship where fires of varying grades are maintained by the clergy assigned to the temples.[78]

 

The incorporation of cultural and local rituals is quite common and traditions have been passed down in historically Zoroastrian communities such as herbal healing practices, wedding ceremonies, and the like.[79][80][44] Traditionally, Zoroastrian rituals have also included shamanic elements involving mystical methods such as spirit travel to the invisible realm and involving the consumption of fortified wine, Haoma, mang, and other ritual aids.[81][46][82][83][84]

  

Ossuary with reliefs of Zoroastrian priests attending a fire, Mullakurgan (near Samarkand), Uzbekistan, 7–8th century CE.[85]

According to former South Asian studies professor Bettina Robotika, purification ceremonies associated with water (aban) and fire (atar) are considered the basis of Zoroastrian ritual life. Some Zoroastrian communities practice ritual exposure, mainly in regions of the Indian subcontinent where the practice is legal and there are healthy populations of scavenger birds. A corpse is considered a host for decay or druj, and scripture enjoins that it be disposed in a manner that does not pollute the good creation. Structures called Towers of Silence are commonly identified with this practice.[86]

 

The central ritual of Zoroastrianism is the Yasna, which is a recitation of the eponymous book of the Avesta and sacrificial ritual ceremony involving Haoma.[87] Extensions to the Yasna ritual are possible through use of the Visperad and Vendidad, but such an extended ritual is rare in modern Zoroastrianism.[88][89] The Yasna itself descended from Indo-Iranian sacrificial ceremonies and animal sacrifice of varying degrees are mentioned in the Avesta and are still practiced in Zoroastrianism albeit through reduced forms such as the sacrifice of fat before meals.[90] High rituals such as the Yasna are considered to be the purview of the Mobads with a corpus of individual and communal rituals and prayers included in the Khordeh Avesta.[87][91]

 

A Zoroastrian is welcomed into the faith through the Navjote/Sedreh Pushi ceremony, which is traditionally conducted during the later childhood or pre-teen years of the aspirant, though there is no defined age limit for the ritual.[44][92] After the ceremony, Zoroastrians are encouraged to wear their sedreh (ritual shirt) and kushti (ritual girdle) daily as a spiritual reminder and for mystical protection, though reformist Zoroastrians tend to only wear them during festivals, ceremonies, and prayers.[93][44][92]

 

Historically, Zoroastrians are encouraged to pray the five daily Gāhs and to maintain and celebrate the various holy festivals of the Zoroastrian calendar, which can differ from community to community.[94][95] Zoroastrian prayers, called manthras, are conducted usually with hands outstretched in imitation of Zoroaster's prayer style described in the Gathas and are of a reflectionary and supplicant nature believed to be endowed with the ability to banish evil.[96][97][65] Devout Zoroastrians are known to cover their heads during prayer, either with traditional topi, scarves, other headwear, or even just their hands. However, full coverage and veiling which is traditional in Islamic practice is not a part of Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrian women in Iran wear their head coverings displaying hair and their faces to defy mandates by the Islamic Republic of Iran.[98]

 

Scripture

See also: Zoroastrian literature

Avesta

Main articles: Avesta and Avestan

The Avesta is a collection of the central religious texts of Zoroastrianism written in the old Iranian dialect of Avestan. The history of the Avesta is speculated upon in many Pahlavi texts with varying degrees of authority, with the current version of the Avesta dating at oldest from the times of the Sasanian Empire.[99] The Avesta was ‹See Tfd›composed at different times, providing a series of snapshots of the religion that allow historians to see how it changed over time.[100] According to Middle Persian tradition, Ahura Mazda created the 21 Nasks of the original Avesta which Zoroaster brought to Vishtaspa. Here, two copies were created, one which was put in the house of archives and the other put in the Imperial treasury. During Alexander's conquest of Persia, the Avesta (written on 1,200 ox-hides) was burned, and the scientific sections that the Greeks could use were dispersed among themselves. However, there is no strong historical evidence for this and they remain contested despite affirmations from the Zoroastrian tradition, whether it be the Denkart, Tansar-nāma, Ardāy Wirāz Nāmag, Bundahsin, Zand-i Wahman yasn or the transmitted oral tradition.[99][101]

 

As tradition continues, under the reign of King Valax (identified with a Vologases of the Arsacid dynasty[102]), an attempt was made to restore what was considered the Avesta. During the Sassanid Empire, Ardeshir ordered Tansar, his high priest, to finish the work that King Valax had started. Shapur I sent priests to locate the scientific text portions of the Avesta that were in the possession of the Greeks.[103] Under Shapur II, Arderbad Mahrespandand revised the canon to ensure its orthodox character, while under Khosrow I, the Avesta was translated into Pahlavi.

 

The compilation of the Avesta can be authoritatively traced, however, to the Sasanian Empire, of which only fraction survive today if the Middle Persian literature is correct.[99] The later manuscripts all date from after the fall of the Sasanian Empire, the latest being from 1288, 590 years after the fall of the Sasanian Empire. The texts that remain today are the Gathas, Yasna, Visperad and the Vendidad, of which the latter's inclusion is disputed within the faith.[104] Along with these texts is the individual, communal, and ceremonial prayer book called the Khordeh Avesta, which contains the Yashts and other important hymns, prayers, and rituals. The rest of the materials from the Avesta are called "Avestan fragments" in that they are written in Avestan, incomplete, and generally of unknown provenance.[105]

 

Middle Persian (Pahlavi)

Middle Persian and Pahlavi works created in the 9th and 10th century contain many religious Zoroastrian books, as most of the writers and copyists were part of the Zoroastrian clergy. The most significant and important books of this era include the Denkard, Bundahishn, Menog-i Khrad, Selections of Zadspram, Jamasp Namag, Epistles of Manucher, Rivayats, Dadestan-i-Denig, and Arda Viraf Namag. All Middle Persian texts written on Zoroastrianism during this time period are considered secondary works on the religion, and not scripture.[citation needed]

 

History

Zoroaster

Main article: Zoroaster

Zoroastrianism was founded by Zoroaster in ancient Iran. The precise date of the founding of the religion is uncertain and estimates vary wildly from 2000 BCE to ‹See Tfd›200 years before Alexander. Zoroaster was born – in either Northeast Iran or Southwest Afghanistan – into a culture with a polytheistic religion, which featured excessive animal sacrifice[106] and the excessive ritual use of intoxicants. His life was influenced profoundly by the attempts of his people to find peace and stability in the face of constant threats of raiding and conflict. Zoroaster's birth and early life are little documented but speculated upon heavily in later texts. What is known is recorded in the Gathas, forming the core of the Avesta, which contain hymns thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself. Born into the Spitama clan, he refers to himself as a poet-priest and prophet. He had a wife, three sons, and three daughters, the numbers of which are gathered from various texts.[107]

 

Zoroaster rejected many of the gods of the Bronze Age Iranians and their oppressive class structure, in which the Kavis and Karapans (princes and priests) controlled the ordinary people. He also opposed cruel animal sacrifices and the excessive use of the possibly hallucinogenic Haoma plant (conjectured to have been a species of ephedra or Peganum harmala), but did not condemn either practice outright, providing moderation was observed.[90][108]

 

Legendary accounts

According to later Zoroastrian tradition, when Zoroaster was 30 years old, he went into the Daiti river to draw water for a Haoma ceremony; when he emerged, he received a vision of Vohu Manah. After this, Vohu Manah took him to the other six Amesha Spentas, where he received the completion of his vision.[109] This vision radically transformed his view of the world, and he tried to teach this view to others. Zoroaster believed in one supreme creator deity and acknowledged this creator's emanations (Amesha Spenta) and other divinities which he called Ahuras (Yazata).[32] Some of the deities of the old religion, the Daevas (etymologically similar to the Sanskrit Devas), appeared to delight in war and strife and were condemned as evil workers of Angra Mainyu by Zoroaster.[110]

 

Zoroaster's ideas were not taken up quickly; he originally only had one convert: his cousin Maidhyoimanha.[111]

 

Cypress of Kashmar

Main article: Cypress of Kashmar

The Cypress of Kashmar is a mythical cypress tree of legendary beauty and gargantuan dimensions. It is said to have sprung from a branch brought by Zoroaster from Paradise and to have stood in today's Kashmar in northeastern Iran and to have been planted by Zoroaster in honor of the conversion of King Vishtaspa to Zoroastrianism. According to the Iranian physicist and historian Zakariya al-Qazwini King Vishtaspa had been a patron of Zoroaster who planted the tree himself. In his ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt, he further describes how the Abbasid caliph Al-Mutawakkil in 247 AH (861 CE) caused the mighty cypress to be felled, and then transported it across Iran, to be used for beams in his new palace at Samarra. Before, he wanted the tree to be reconstructed before his eyes. This was done in spite of protests by the Iranians, who offered a very great sum of money to save the tree. Al-Mutawakkil never saw the cypress, because he was murdered by a Turkish soldier (possibly in the employ of his son) on the night when it arrived on the banks of the Tigris.[112][113]

 

Fire Temple of Kashmar

Kashmar Fire Temple was the first Zoroastrian fire temple built by Vishtaspa at the request of Zoroaster in Kashmar. In a part of Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the story of finding Zarathustra and accepting Vishtaspa's religion is regulated that after accepting Zoroastrian religion, Vishtaspa sends priests all over the universe And Azar enters the fire temples (domes) and the first of them is Adur Burzen-Mihr who founded in Kashmar and planted a cypress tree in front of the fire temple and made it a symbol of accepting the Bahi religion And he sent priests all over the world, and commanded all the famous men and women to come to that place of worship.[114]

 

According to the Paikuli inscription, during the Sasanian Empire, Kashmar was part of Greater Khorasan, and the Sasanians worked hard to revive the ancient religion. It still remains a few kilometers above the ancient city of Kashmar in the castle complex of Atashgah.[115]

 

Early history

See also: Avestan period and Airyanem Vaejah

 

Geographical horizon of the Avestan people during the Young Avestan period. Sources for the different localizations are in the file description.

The roots of Zoroastrianism are thought to lie in a common prehistoric Indo-Iranian religious system dating back to the early 2nd millennium BCE.[116] The prophet Zoroaster himself, though traditionally dated to the 6th century BCE,[117][14][118] is thought by many modern historians to have been a reformer of the polytheistic Iranian religion who lived much earlier during the second half of the second millennium BCE.[119][120][121][122] Zoroastrian tradition names Airyanem Vaejah as the home of Zarathustra and the birthplace of the religion. No consensus exists as to the localization of Airyanem Vaejah, but the region of Khwarezm has been considered by modern scholars as a candidate.[123] Zoroastrianism as a religion was not firmly established until centuries later during the Young Avestan period. At this time, the Zoroastrian community was concentrated in the eastern portion of Greater Iran.[124] Although no consensus exists on the chronology of the Avestan period, the lack of any discernable Persian and Median influence in the Avesta makes a time frame in the first half of the first millennium BCE likely.[125]

 

Classical antiquity

See also: Western references to Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism and Religion in the Achaemenid Empire

 

Painted clay and alabaster head of a Zoroastrian priest wearing a distinctive Bactrian-style headdress, Takhti-Sangin, Tajikistan, Greco-Bactrian kingdom, 3rd–2nd century BCE.[126]

 

The Tomb of Cyrus the Great at Pasargadae, Iran

Zoroastrianism enters recorded history in the mid-5th century BCE. Herodotus' The Histories (completed c. 440 BCE) includes a description of Greater Iranian society with what may be recognizably Zoroastrian features, including exposure of the dead.[127]

 

The Histories is a primary source of information on the early period of the Achaemenid era (648–330 BCE), in particular with respect to the role of the Magi. According to Herodotus, the Magi were the sixth tribe of the Medes (until the unification of the Persian empire under Cyrus the Great, all Iranians were referred to as "Mede" or "Mada" by the peoples of the Ancient World) and wielded considerable influence at the courts of the Median emperors.[128]

 

Following the unification of the Median and Persian empires in 550 BCE, Cyrus the Great and later his son Cambyses II curtailed the powers of the Magi after they had attempted to sow dissent following their loss of influence. In 522 BCE, the Magi revolted and set up a rival claimant to the throne. The usurper, pretending to be Cyrus' younger son Smerdis, took power shortly thereafter.[129] Owing to the despotic rule of Cambyses and his long absence in Egypt, ‹See Tfd›the whole people, Persians, Medes and all the other nations acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years.[128]

 

Darius I and later Achaemenid emperors acknowledged their devotion to Ahura Mazda in inscriptions, as attested to several times in the Behistun inscription and appear to have continued the model of coexistence with other religions. Whether Darius was a follower of the teachings of Zoroaster has not been conclusively established as there is no indication of note that worship of Ahura Mazda was exclusively a Zoroastrian practice.[130]

 

According to later Zoroastrian legend (Denkard and the Book of Arda Viraf), many sacred texts were lost when Alexander the Great's troops invaded Persepolis and subsequently destroyed the royal library there. Diodorus Siculus's Bibliotheca historica, which was completed c. 60 BCE, appears to substantiate this Zoroastrian legend.[131] According to one archaeological examination, the ruins of the palace of Xerxes I bear traces of having been burned.[132] Whether a vast collection of (semi-)religious texts ‹See Tfd›written on parchment in gold ink, as suggested by the Denkard, actually existed remains a matter of speculation.[133]

 

Alexander's conquests largely displaced Zoroastrianism with Hellenistic beliefs,[122] though the religion continued to be practiced many centuries following the demise of the Achaemenids in mainland Persia and the core regions of the former Achaemenid Empire, most notably Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and the Caucasus. In the Cappadocian kingdom, whose territory was formerly an Achaemenid possession, Persian colonists, cut off from their co-religionists in Iran proper, continued to practice the faith [Zoroastrianism] of their forefathers; and there Strabo, observing in the first century BCE, records (XV.3.15) that these "fire kindlers" possessed many ‹See Tfd›holy places of the Persian Gods, as well as fire temples.[134] Strabo further states that these were noteworthy enclosures; and in their midst there is an altar, on which there is a large quantity of ashes and where the magi keep the fire ever burning.[134] It was not until the end of the Parthian Empire (247 BCE – 224 CE) that Zoroastrianism would receive renewed interest.[122]

 

Late antiquity

See also: Religion in the Parthian era

 

A Zoroastrian ossuary, 7–8th century CE, Hirman Tepe, Uzbekistan.[135]

As late as the Parthian period, a form of Zoroastrianism was without a doubt the dominant religion in the Armenian lands.[136] The Sassanids aggressively promoted the Zurvanite form of Zoroastrianism, often building fire temples in captured territories to promote the religion. During the period of their centuries-long suzerainty over the Caucasus, the Sassanids made attempts to promote Zoroastrianism there with considerable successes.[citation needed]

 

Due to its ties to the Christian Roman Empire, Persia's archrival since Parthian times, the Sassanids were suspicious of Roman Christianity, and after the reign of Constantine the Great, sometimes persecuted it.[137] In 451 CE, the Sassanid authority clashed with their Armenian subjects in the Battle of Avarayr, making them officially break with the Roman Church. But the Sassanids tolerated or even sometimes favored the Christianity of the Church of the East. The acceptance of Christianity in Georgia (Caucasian Iberia) saw the Zoroastrian religion there slowly but surely decline,[138] but as late the 5th century CE, it was still widely practised as something like a second established religion.[139][140]

 

Decline in the Middle Ages

See also: Persecution of Zoroastrians

 

A scene from the Hamzanama where Hamza ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib Burns Zarthust's Chest and Shatters the Urn with his Ashes

Over the course of 16 years during the 7th century, most of the Sasanian Empire was conquered by the emerging Muslim caliphate.[141] Although the administration of the state was rapidly Islamicized and subsumed under the Umayyad Caliphate, in the beginning ‹See Tfd›there was little serious pressure exerted on newly subjected people to adopt Islam.[142] Because of their sheer numbers, the conquered Zoroastrians had to be treated as dhimmis (despite doubts of the validity of this identification that persisted down the centuries),[143] which made them eligible for protection. Islamic jurists took the stance that only Muslims could be perfectly moral, but unbelievers might as well be left to their iniquities, so long as these did not vex their overlords.[143] In the main, once the conquest was over and local terms were agreed on, the Arab governors protected the local populations in exchange for tribute.[143]

 

The Arabs adopted the Sasanian tax-system, both the land-tax levied on landowners and the poll-tax levied on individuals,[143] called jizya, a tax levied on non-Muslims (i.e., the dhimmis). In time, this poll-tax came to be used as a means to humble the non-Muslims, and a number of laws and restrictions evolved to emphasize their inferior status. Under the early orthodox caliphs, as long as the non-Muslims paid their taxes and adhered to the dhimmi laws, administrators were enjoined to leave non-Muslims ‹See Tfd›in their religion and their land.[144]

 

Under Abbasid rule, Muslim Iranians (who by then were in the majority) in many instances showed severe disregard for and mistreated local Zoroastrians. For example, in the 9th century, a deeply venerated cypress tree in Khorasan (which Parthian-era legend supposed had been planted by Zoroaster himself) was felled for the construction of a palace in Baghdad, 2,000 miles (3,200 km) away. In the 10th century, on the day that a Tower of Silence had been completed at much trouble and expense, a Muslim official contrived to get up onto it, and to call the adhan (the Muslim call to prayer) from its walls. This was turned into a pretext to annex the building.[145]

 

Ultimately, Muslim scholars like Al-Biruni found few records left of the belief of for instance the Khawarizmians because figures like Qutayba ibn Muslim ‹See Tfd›extinguished and ruined in every possible way all those who knew how to write and read the Khawarizmi writing, who knew the history of the country and who studied their sciences. As a result, these things are involved in so much obscurity that it is impossible to obtain an accurate knowledge of the history of the country since the time of Islam...[146]

 

Conversion

Though subject to a new leadership and harassment, the Zoroastrians were able to continue their former ways, although there was a slow but steady social and economic pressure to convert,[147][148] with the nobility and city-dwellers being the first to do so, while Islam was accepted more slowly among the peasantry and landed gentry.[149] ‹See Tfd›Power and worldly-advantage now lay with followers of Islam, and although the official policy was one of aloof contempt, there were individual Muslims eager to proselytize and ready to use all sorts of means to do so.[148]

 

In time, a tradition evolved by which Islam was made to appear as a partly Iranian religion. One example of this was a legend that Husayn, son of the fourth caliph Ali and grandson of Islam's prophet Muhammad, had married a captive Sassanid princess named Shahrbanu. This "wholly fictitious figure"[150] was said to have borne Husayn a son, the historical fourth Shi'a imam, who insisted that the caliphate rightly belonged to him and his descendants, and that the Umayyads had wrongfully wrested it from him. The alleged descent from the Sassanid house counterbalanced the Arab nationalism of the Umayyads, and the Iranian national association with a Zoroastrian past was disarmed. Thus, according to scholar Mary Boyce, ‹See Tfd›it was no longer the Zoroastrians alone who stood for patriotism and loyalty to the past.[150] The "damning indictment" that becoming Muslim was un-Iranian only remained an idiom in Zoroastrian texts.[150]

 

With Iranian support, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and in the subsequent caliphate government—that nominally lasted until 1258—Muslim Iranians received marked favor in the new government, both in Iran and at the capital in Baghdad. This mitigated the antagonism between Arabs and Iranians but sharpened the distinction between Muslims and non-Muslims. The Abbasids zealously persecuted heretics, and although this was directed mainly at Muslim sectarians, it also created a harsher climate for non-Muslims.[151]

 

Survival

 

The fire temple of Baku, c. 1860

Despite economic and social incentives to convert, Zoroastrianism remained strong in some regions, particularly in those furthest away from the Caliphate capital at Baghdad. In Bukhara (present-day Uzbekistan), resistance to Islam required the 9th-century Arab commander Qutaiba to convert his province four times. The first three times the citizens reverted to their old religion. Finally, the governor made their religion ‹See Tfd›difficult for them in every way, turned the local fire temple into a mosque, and encouraged the local population to attend Friday prayers by paying each attendee two dirhams.[148] The cities where Arab governors resided were particularly vulnerable to such pressures, and in these cases the Zoroastrians were left with no choice but to either conform or migrate to regions that had a more amicable administration.[148]

 

The 9th century came to define the great number of Zoroastrian texts that were composed or re-written during the 8th to 10th centuries (excluding copying and lesser amendments, which continued for some time thereafter). All of these works are in the Middle Persian dialect of that period (free of Arabic words) and written in the difficult Pahlavi script (hence the adoption of the term "Pahlavi" as the name of the variant of the language, and of the genre, of those Zoroastrian books). If read aloud, these books would still have been intelligible to the laity. Many of these texts are responses to the tribulations of the time, and all of them include exhortations to stand fast in their religious beliefs.[citation needed]

  

Fire Temple of Yazd

 

Museum of Zoroastrians in Kerman

In Khorasan in northeastern Iran, a 10th-century Iranian nobleman brought together four Zoroastrian priests to transcribe a Sassanid-era Middle Persian work titled Book of the Lord (Khwaday Namag) from Pahlavi script into Arabic script. This transcription, which remained in Middle Persian prose (an Arabic version, by al-Muqaffa, also exists), was completed in 957 and subsequently became the basis for Firdausi's Book of Kings. It became enormously popular among both Zoroastrians and Muslims, and also served to propagate the Sassanid justification for overthrowing the Arsacids.[citation needed]

 

Among migrations were those to cities in (or on the margins of) the great salt deserts, in particular to Yazd and Kerman, which remain centers of Iranian Zoroastrianism to this day. Yazd became the seat of the Iranian high priests during Mongol Ilkhanate rule, when the ‹See Tfd›best hope for survival [for a non-Muslim] was to be inconspicuous.[152] Crucial to the present-day survival of Zoroastrianism was a migration from the northeastern Iranian town of "Sanjan in south-western Khorasan",[153] to Gujarat, in western India. The descendants of that group are today known as the Parsis—"as the Gujaratis, from long tradition, called anyone from Iran"[153]—who today represent the larger of the two groups of Zoroastrians in India.[154]

  

A special container carrying the holy fire from Aden to the Lonavala Agiary, India

The struggle between Zoroastrianism and Islam declined in the 10th and 11th centuries. Local Iranian dynasties, "all vigorously Muslim,"[153] had emerged as largely independent vassals of the Caliphs. In the 16th century, in one of the early letters between Iranian Zoroastrians and their co-religionists in India, the priests of Yazd lamented that "no period [in human history], not even that of Alexander, had been more grievous or troublesome for the faithful than 'this millennium of the demon of Wrath'."[155]

 

Modern

Further information: Parsis, Irani (India), Zoroastrianism in Iran, and Zoroastrianism in India

 

A modern Zoroastrian fire temple in Western India

 

Sadeh in Tehran, 2011

Zoroastrianism has survived into the modern period, particularly in India, where the Parsis are thought to have been present since about the 9th century.[156]

 

Today Zoroastrianism can be divided in two main schools of thought: reformists and traditionalists. Traditionalists are mostly Parsis and accept, beside the Gathas and Avesta, also the Middle Persian literature and like the reformists mostly developed in their modern form from 19th century developments. They generally do not allow conversion to the faith and, as such, for someone to be a Zoroastrian they must be born of Zoroastrian parents. Some traditionalists recognize the children of mixed marriages as Zoroastrians, though usually only if the father is a born Zoroastrian.[157] Not all Zoroastrians identify with either school. Notable examples gaining traction include Neo-Zoroastrians/Revivalists, which are usually reinterpretations of Zoroastrianism appealing towards Western concerns,[158] and centering the idea of Zoroastrianism as a living religion. These advocate the revival and maintenance of old rituals and prayers while supporting ethical and social progressive reforms. Both of these latter schools tend to center the Gathas without outright rejecting other texts except the Vendidad.[citation needed]

 

From the 19th century onward, the Parsis gained a reputation for their education and widespread influence in all aspects of society. They played an instrumental role in the economic development of the region over many decades; several of the best-known business conglomerates of India are run by Parsi-Zoroastrians, including the Tata,[159] Godrej, Wadia families, and others.[160]

 

For a variety of social and political factors, the Zoroastrians of the Indian subcontinent, namely the Parsis and Iranis, have not engaged in conversion since at least the 18th century. Zoroastrian high priests have historically opined there is no reason to not allow conversion, which is also supported by the Revayats and other scripture, though later priests have condemned these judgements.[161][27] Within Iran, many of the beleaguered Zoroastrians have been also historically opposed or not practically concerned with the matter of conversion. Currently though, The Council of Tehran Mobeds (the highest ecclesiastical authority within Iran) endorses conversion but conversion from Islam to Zoroastrianism is illegal under the laws of the Islamic Republic of Iran.[157][27]

 

Though the Armenians share a rich history affiliated with Zoroastrianism (that eventually declined with the advent of Christianity), reports indicate that there were Zoroastrians in Armenia until the 1920s.[162]

 

At the request of the government of Tajikistan, UNESCO declared 2003 a year to celebrate the "3,000th anniversary of Zoroastrian culture", with special events throughout the world. In 2011, the Tehran Mobeds Anjuman announced that for the first time in the history of modern Iran and of the modern Zoroastrian communities worldwide, women had been ordained in Iran and North America as mobedyars, meaning women assistant mobeds (Zoroastrian clergy).[163][164][165] The women hold official certificates and can perform the lower-rung religious functions and can initiate people into the religion.[166][167]

 

The current Zoroastrian population is said be around 100,000 to 200,000 and reportedly declining.[168] However, further studies are needed to confirm this, as numbers have also been rising in some areas, such as Iran.[169][170][171]

 

Demographics

Further information: List of countries by Zoroastrian population and List of Zoroastrians

 

The sacred Zoroastrian pilgrimage shrine of Chak Chak in Yazd, Iran

Zoroastrian communities internationally tend to comprise mostly two main groups of people: Indian Parsis and Iranian Zoroastrians. According to a study in 2012 by the Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North America, the number of Zoroastrians worldwide was estimated to be between 111,691 and 121,962. The number is imprecise because of diverging counts in Iran.[167]

 

Iran, Kurdistan Region of Iraq and Central Asia

Main article: Zoroastrians in Iran

 

Parsi Navjote ceremony (rites of admission into the Zoroastrian faith)

Iran's figures of Zoroastrians have ranged widely; the last census (1974) before the revolution of 1979 revealed 21,400 Zoroastrians.[172] Some 10,000 adherents remain in the Central Asian regions that were once considered the traditional stronghold of Zoroastrianism, i.e., Bactria (see also Balkh), which is in Northern Afghanistan; Sogdiana; Margiana; and other areas close to Zoroaster's homeland. In Iran, emigration, out-marriage and low birth rates are likewise leading to a decline in the Zoroastrian population. Zoroastrian groups in Iran say their number is approximately 60,000.[173] According to the Iranian census data from 2011 the number of Zoroastrians in Iran was 25,271.[174]

 

Communities exist in Tehran, as well as in Yazd, Kerman and Kermanshah, where many still speak an Iranian language distinct from the usual Persian. They call their language Dari, not to be confused with the Dari spoken in Afghanistan. Their language is also called Gavri or Behdini, literally "of the Good Religion". Sometimes their language is named for the cities in which it is spoken, such as Yazdi or Kermani. Iranian Zoroastrians were historically called Gabrs.[citation needed]

 

The number of Kurdish Zoroastrians, along with those of non-ethnic converts, has been estimated differently.[175] The Zoroastrian Representative of the Kurdistan Regional Government in Iraq has reported that as many as 100,000 people in Iraqi Kurdistan have converted to Zoroastrianism recently, with some community leaders speculating that even more Zoroastrians in the region are practicing their faith secretly.[176][177][178] However, this has not been confirmed by independent sources.[179]

 

The surge in Kurdish Muslims converting to Zoroastrianism is largely attributed to disillusionment with Islam after experiencing violence and oppression perpetrated by ISIS in the area.[180]

 

South Asia

Main articles: Parsis and Irani (India)

Historical population of Parsis in India

YearPop.±% p.a.

187269,476—

188185,397+2.32%

189189,904+0.52%

190194,190+0.47%

1911100,096+0.61%

1921101,778+0.17%

1931109,752+0.76%

1941114,890+0.46%

197191,266−0.76%

198171,630−2.39%

200169,601−0.14%

201157,264−1.93%

201969,000+2.36%

Sources:[181][182][183][184][185][186][187][188][189][190][191][192]

India is considered to be home to a large Zoroastrian population – the descendants of migrants from Iran and today known as the Parsis. In India's 2001 census, the Parsi population numbered at 69,601, representing about 0.006% of the total population of India, with a concentration in and around the city of Mumbai. By 2008, the birth-to-death ratio was 1:5; 200 births per year to 1,000 deaths.[193] India's 2011 census recorded 57,264 Parsi Zoroastrians.[191]

 

The Zoroastrian population in Pakistan was estimated to number 1,675 people in 2012,[167] mostly living in Sindh (especially Karachi) followed by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.[194][195] The National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) of Pakistan reported that there were 3,650 Parsi voters during the elections in Pakistan in 2013 and 4,235 in 2018.[196] According to the 2023 Pakistani census, there were 2,348 Parsis across the nation, with 1,656 (70.5%) being located in the Karachi Division.[197][198]

 

Western world

See also: Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North America and Zoroastrianism in the United States

North America is thought to be home to 18,000–25,000 Zoroastrians of both South Asian and Iranian backgrounds. As of 2012, the population of Zoroastrians in US was 15,000, making it the third-largest Zoroastrian population in the world af

Explore: Aug 20, 2011 #436

Hydrangea L. è un genere di piante della famiglia delle Hydrangeaceae, originarie della Cina e del Giappone, comunemente note come ortensie.

Il genere comprende diverse specie di piante legnose arbustive originarie e molto diffuse nelle regioni orientali dell'Asia e dell'Himalaya.

La particolarità di questa pianta sono i fiori, riuniti in infiorescenze più o meno sferiche, dette corimbi o pannocchie, che portano fiori per lo più sterili, soprattutto quelli esterni, per cui sono sostituiti dai sepali, grandi e petaliformi, mentre le altre parti fiorali sono abortite.

La specie Hydrangea macrophilla comprende numerose varietà con grosse infiorescenze globose bianche, rosa, rosse o azzurre, utilizzate per la produzione in vaso o nei giardini.

Altre specie del genere Hydrangea sono l'H. paniculata, arbusto con ramificazioni sottili e decombenti sotto il peso delle piccole infiorescenze bianche, che viene coltivata a forma di alberetto o cespuglio e si moltiplica per talea e l'H. arborescens, arbusto con foglie decidue e fiori profumati.

Fu introdotta in Europa nel XVIII secolo dal naturalista Philibert Commerson.

La coltivazione in piena terra richiede clima fresco durante l'estate, esige terreno di brughiera con aggiunta di terriccio di foglie e sabbia, neutro o acido. L'acidità del terreno influenza il colore dei fiori: il blu indica un terreno più acido ( pH < 6 ). L'ortensia può essere coltivata in vaso, forzandola in serra per la fioritura primaverile.

L'esposizione da preferire è a mezz'ombra con irrigazioni generose e frequenti concimazioni liquide nella stagione calda.

La potatura viene effettuata prima della ripresa vegetativa accorciando drasticamente i rami vecchi e lasciando solo due gemme per ramo.

La moltiplicazione avviene per talea erbacea o legnosa nel periodo di ottobre.

 

Hydrangea (common names Hydrangea and Hortensia) is a genus of about 70 to 75 species of flowering plants native to southern and eastern Asia (China, Japan, Korea, the Himalayas, and Indonesia) and North and South America. By far the greatest species diversity is in eastern Asia, notably China, Japan, and Korea. Most are shrubs 1 to 3 meters tall, but some are small trees, and others lianas reaching up to 30 metres by climbing up trees. They can be either deciduous or evergreen, though the widely cultivated temperate species are all deciduous.

Having been introduced to the Azores Islands of Portugal, they are now very common there, particularly on Faial Island, which is known as the "blue island" due to the vast number of hydrangeas present on the island, and on Flores Island. and Sao Miguel.

Species in the related genus Schizophragma, also in Hydrangeaceae, are also often known as hydrangeas. Schizophragma hydrangeoides and Hydrangea petiolaris are both commonly known as climbing hydrangeas.

There are two flower arrangements in hydrangeas. Mophead flowers are large round flowerheads resembling pom-poms or, as the name implies, the head of a mop. In contrast, lacecap flowers bear round, flat flowerheads with a center core of subdued, fertile flowers surrounded by outer rings of showy, sterile flowers.

Hydrangea flowers are produced from early spring to late autumn; they grow in flowerheads (corymbs or panicles) at the ends of the stems. In many species, the flowerheads contain two types of flowers, small fertile flowers in the middle of the flowerhead, and large, sterile bract-like flowers in a ring around the edge of each flowerhead. Other species have all the flowers sterile and of the same size.

Colors and acidityIn most species the flowers are white, but in some species (notably H. macrophylla), can be blue, red, pink, light purple, or dark purple. In these species the color is affected by the pH of the soil; acidic soils produce blue flowers, neutral soils produce very pale cream petals, and alkaline soils results in pink or purple. This is caused by a color change of the flower pigments in the presence of aluminium ions which can be taken up into hyperaccumulating plants.

Hydrangeas are popular ornamental plants, grown for their large flowerheads, with Hydrangea macrophylla being by far the most widely grown with over 600 named cultivars, many selected to have only large sterile flowers in the flowerheads. Some are best pruned on an annual basis when the new leaf buds begin to appear. If not pruned regularly, the bush will become very 'leggy', growing upwards until the weight of the stems is greater than their strength, at which point the stems will sag down to the ground and possibly break. Other species only flower on 'old wood'. Thus new wood resulting from pruning will not produce flowers until the following season.

Hydrangeas are moderately toxic if eaten, with all parts of the plant containing cyanogenic glycosides.Hydrangea paniculata is reportedly sometimes smoked as an intoxicant, despite the danger of illness and/or death due to the cyanide.

In Japan, ama-cha, meaning sweet tea, is another herbal tea made from Hydrangea serrata, whose leaves contain a substance that develops a sweet taste (phyllodulcin). For the fullest taste, fresh leaves are crumpled, steamed, and dried, yielding dark brown tea leaves. Ama-cha is mainly used for kan-butsu-e (the Buddha bathing ceremony) on April 8 every year—the day thought to be Buddha's birthday in Japan. Ama-cha is poured over a statue of Buddha in the ceremony and served to people in attendance. A legend has it that on the day Buddha was born, nine dragons poured Amrita over him; ama-cha is substituted for Amrita in Japan.

In Korean tea, Hydrangea serrata is used for a herbal tea called sugukcha or ilsulcha .

The pink hydrangea has risen in popularity all over the world, namely Asia. Pink hydrangeas have many different meanings, but generally means, "You are the beat of my heart", as described by the celebrated Asian florist Tan Jun Yong, where he was quoted saying, "The light delicate blush of the petals reminds me of a beating heart, while the size could only match the heart of the sender!"

Out of the Archives: The Prattsville Precinct’s motorcycle and mounted police patrolled areas near Schoharie Reservoir as part of its mandate to protect communities during water supply project construction. “Their presence alone was a deterrent to those criminally inclined. They maintained order, protected person and property and enforced sanitary and other rules, as well as local ordinances and laws governing intoxicants, concealed weapons, speeding, etc.”

December 5, 1925.

(Image ID: p011009)

 

Amanita muscaria, is a poisonous and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita.

 

Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the southern hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species. It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees. The quintessential toadstool, it is a large white-gilled, white-spotted, usually deep red mushroom, one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular culture. Several subspecies, with differing cap colour, have been recognised to date, including the brown regalis (considered a separate species), the yellow-orange flavivolvata, guessowii, formosa, and the pinkish persicina.

 

Although it is generally considered poisonous, deaths from its consumption are extremely rare, and it is eaten as a food in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America after parboiling.

 

Amanita muscaria is noted for its hallucinogenic properties, with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound muscimol. It was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the peoples of Siberia and has a religious significance in these cultures. The American banker and amateur ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson proposed that the fly agaric was in fact the soma of the ancient Rig Veda texts of India.

 

The name of the mushroom in many European languages is thought to be derived from its use as an insecticide, when sprinkled in milk.

 

The red-and-white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture, especially in children's books, film, garden ornaments, greeting cards, and more recently computer games. Garden ornaments, and children's picture books depicting gnomes and fairies, such as the Smurfs, very often show fly agarics used as seats, or homes. Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the Renaissance, albeit in a subtle manner. In the Victorian era they became more visible, even becoming the main topic of some fairy paintings. Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the video game series Super Mario Bros., and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film Fantasia.

 

Fly agarics appear on Christmas cards and New Year cards from around the world as a symbol of good luck. The ethnobotanist Jonathan Ott has suggested that the idea of Santa Claus and tradition of hanging stockings over the fireplace is based centrally upon the fly agaric mushroom itself. With its generally red and white color scheme, he argues that Santa Claus's suit is related to the mushroom. He also draws parallels with flying reindeer: reindeer had been reported to consume the mushroom and prance around in an intoxicated manner afterwards. American ethnopharmacologist Scott Hajicek-Dobberstein, researching possible links between religious myths and the red mushroom, notes, "If Santa Claus had but one eye [like Odin], or if magic urine had been a part of his legend, his connection to the Amanita muscaria would be much easier to believe.".

 

The connection was reported to a much wider audience with an article in the magazine of The Sunday Times in 1980, and New Scientist in 1986. Historian Ronald Hutton has since disputed the connection; he noted reindeer spirits did not appear in Siberian mythology, shamans did not travel by sleigh, nor did they wear red and white, or climb out of smoke holes in yurt roofs. Finally, American awareness of Siberian shamanism postdated the appearance of much of the folklore around Santa.

Bhang (Hindi: भाँग) is a preparation from the leaves and flowers (buds) of the female cannabis plant, consumed as a beverage in the Indian subcontinent.

 

INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT

Bhang has been used as an intoxicant for centuries in the Indian sub-continent. Bhang in India and Nepal is distributed during some Hindu festivals like Holi, and consuming bhang at such occasions is a standard practice.

 

It is also available as Bhang goli (pill) which is just freshly ground cannabis with water. Apart from this, sweetened bhang golis are also widely available. These are not considered a drug, but a traditional sleeping aid and appetizer. Bhang is also part of many ayurvedic medicinal preparations. Bhang powder is available at ayurvedic dispensaries.

 

Bhang Ki Thandai also known as Sardai is a drink popular in many parts of sub-continent which is made by mixing bhang with thandai, a cold beverage prepared with almonds, spices (mainly black pepper), milk and sugar.

 

HISTORY

Bhang has been used in India since Vedic times, and is an integral part of Hindu culture. Sadhus and Sufis use Bhang to boost meditation and to achieve transcendental states. Bhang or cannabis is also used amongst Sufis as an aid to spiritual ecstasy.

 

In 1596, Dutchman Jan Huyghen van Linschoten spent three pages on "Bangue" in his historic work documenting his journeys in the East, also mentioning the Egyptian Hashish, Turkish Boza, Turkish Bernavi, and Arabic Bursj forms of consumption.

 

The historian Richard Davenport-Hines lists Thomas Bowrey as the first Westener to document the use of bhang.

 

PREPARATION

Anywhere on the ghats, one can find large number of men engaged in the process of preparing bhang. Using mortar and pestle, the buds and leaves of cannabis are ground into a paste. To this mixture, milk, ghee and spices are added. The bhang base is now ready to be made into a heavy drink, thandai, an alternative to alcohol; this is often referred to casually, if inaccurately, as a "bhang thandai" and "bhang lassi". Bhang is also mixed with ghee and sugar to make a green halva, and into peppery, chewy little balls called 'golee' (which in this context means candy or pill in Hindi).

 

In Kashmir, a common preparation for bhang consists of first boiling the leaves and flowers of the female cannabis plant for a short time. Once the plant matter has become soft, it is mixed with khas khas or white opium poppy seed. The two ingredients are pulverized with a mortar and pestle for 30–60 minutes (adding a few drops of water now and again to keep the paste moist). The paste is then mixed with water by hand and the mixture is poured through a straining cloth to remove all excess plant matter. The remaining green water is known locally as "bhang" and consumed as is. The usage of oil-rich seeds allows THC, the fat-soluble psychoactive chemical from the cannabis, to be extracted into the poppy oil so that potency can be retained in a water-based mixture.

 

CULTURE

Bhang has become an integral part of tradition and custom in the Indian subcontinent.

 

In some sections of rural India, people attribute various medicinal properties to the cannabis plant. If taken in proper quantity, bhang is believed to cure fever, dysentery, sunstroke, to clear phlegm, aid in digestion, appetite, cure speech imperfections and lisping, and give alertness to the body.

 

Bhang lassi is a preparation of powdered green inflorescence with curd and whey put in a village blender (a hand blending operation is carried out till the butter rises). It is regarded as tasty and greatly refreshing, with one or two large glasses having little effect. Bhang goli, on the other hand, hits after approximately two hours, sending one into a dreamlike state.

 

The tradition of consuming bhang during Holi is particularly common in North India where Holi itself is celebrated with a fervor unseen elsewhere. Bhang is heavily consumed in Mathura, an ancient town of religious importance to the Hindus. Here the practice is believed to have been introduced by the followers of Lord Krishna and has stayed ever since. They begin the preparation by Sanskrit chants and recitation of prayers. In Mathura, some people take Bhang to work up their appetite while others do it to de-stress. But the hub of bhang use is Varanasi (or Banaras) where the bhang is prepared on its famous ghats.

 

LEGALITY

As Bhang has served such an important role in India's culture and spiritual practices it would be impossible to criminalize cannabis completely in the country. Cultivation of cannabis is government regulated, and illegal without a government permit. Sale of bhang is also government regulated and illegal without a permit.

 

Bhang is illegal in any country where cannabis is prohibited as marijuana is an integral ingredient of the recipe.

After having been honnored for "my" ordinatio as buthan kagyu wuseng (warrior monk). Honnored and stressed as it is a serious responsabilty. Once vows are taken, it is bad to leave them, isnt it?

 

www.ymba.org/bns/bnsframe.htm

   

1. First Major Precept

 

On Killing

 

A disciple of the Buddha shall not himself kill, encourage others to kill, kill by expedient means, praise killing, rejoice at witnessing killing, or kill through incantation or deviant mantras. He must not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of killing, and shall not intentionally kill any living creature. (24)

 

As a Buddha's disciple, he ought to nurture a mind of compassion and filial piety, always devising expedient means to rescue and protect all beings. If instead, he fails to restrain himself and kills sentient beings without mercy, he commits a Parajika (major) offense. (25)

 

2. Second Major Precept

 

On Stealing

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not himself steal or encourage others to steal, steal by expedient means, steal by means of incantation or deviant mantras. He should not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of stealing. No valuables or possessions, even those belonging to ghosts and spirits or thieves and robbers, be they as small as a needle or blade of grass, may be stolen.

 

As a Buddha's disciple, he ought to have a mind of mercy, compassion, and filial piety -- always helping people earn merits and achieve happiness. If instead, he steals the possessions of others, he commits a Parajika offense. (26)

 

3. Third Major Precept

 

On Sexual Misconduct

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not engage in licentious acts or encourage others to do so. [As a monk] he should not have sexual relations with any female -- be she a human, animal, deity or spirit -- nor create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of such misconduct. Indeed, he must not engage in improper sexual conduct with anyone. (27)

 

A Buddha's disciple ought to have a mind of filial piety -- rescuing all sentient beings and instructing them in the Dharma of purity and chastity. If instead, he lacks compassion and encourages others to engage in sexual relations promiscuously, including with animals and even their mothers, daughters, sisters, or other close relatives, he commits a Parajika offense. (28)

 

4. Fourth Major Precept

 

On Lying and False Speech

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not himself use false words and speech, or encourage others to lie or lie by expedient means. He should not involve himself in the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of lying, saying that he has seen what he has not seen or vice-versa, or lying implicitly through physical or mental means. (29)

 

As a Buddha's disciple, he ought to maintain Right Speech and Right Views always, and lead all others to maintain them as well. If instead, he causes wrong speech, wrong views or evil karma in others, he commits a Parajika offense.

 

5. Fifth Major Precept

 

On Selling Alcoholic Beverages

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not trade in alcoholic beverages or encourage others to do so. He should not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of selling any intoxicant whatsoever, for intoxicants are the causes and conditions of all kinds of offenses.

 

As a Buddha's disciple, he ought to help all sentient beings achieve clear wisdom. If instead, he causes them to have upside-down, topsy-turvy thinking, he commits a Parajika offense. (30)

 

6. Sixth Major Precept

 

On Broadcasting the Faults of the Assembly

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not himself broadcast the misdeeds or infractions of Bodhisattva-clerics or Bodhisattva-laypersons, or of [ordinary] monks and nuns -- nor encourage others to do so. He must not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of discussing the offenses of the assembly.

 

As a Buddha's disciple, whenever he hears evil persons, externalists or followers of the Two Vehicles speak of practices contrary to the Dharma or contrary to the precepts within the Buddhist community, he should instruct them with a compassionate mind and lead them to develop wholesome faith in the Mahayana.

 

If instead, he discusses the faults and misdeeds that occur within the assembly, he commits a Parajika offense. (31)

 

7. Seventh Major Precept

 

On Praising Oneself and Disparaging Others

 

A disciple of the Buddha shall not praise himself and speak ill of others, or encourage others to do so. He must not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of praising himself and disparaging others.

 

As a disciple of the Buddha, he should be willing to stand in for all sentient beings and endure humiliation and slander -- accepting blame and letting sentient beings have all the glory. If instead, he displays his own virtues and conceals the good points of others, thus causing them to suffer slander, he commits a Parajika offense. (32)

 

8. Eighth Major Precept

 

On Stinginess and Abuse

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not be stingy or encourage others to be stingy. He should not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of stinginess. As a Bodhisattva, whenever a destitute person comes for help, he should give that person what he needs. If instead, out of anger and resentment, (33) he denies all assistance -- refusing to help with even a penny, a needle, a blade of grass, even a single sentence or verse or a phrase of Dharma, but instead scolds and abuses that person -- he commits a Parajika offense.

 

9. Ninth Major Precept

 

On Anger and Resentment

 

A disciple of the Buddha shall not harbor anger or encourage others to be angry. He should not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of anger.

 

As a disciple of the Buddha, he ought to be compassionate and filial, helping all sentient beings develop the good roots of non-contention. If instead, he insults and abuses sentient beings, or even transformation beings [such as deities and spirits], with harsh words, hitting them with his fists or feet, or attacking them with a knife or club -- or harbors grudges even when the victim confesses his mistakes and humbly seeks forgiveness in a soft, conciliatory voice -- the disciple commits a Parajika offense. (34)

 

10. Tenth Major Precept

 

On Slandering the Triple Jewel

 

A Buddha's disciple shall not himself speak ill of the Triple Jewel or encourage others to do so. He must not create the causes, conditions, methods or karma of slander. If a disciple hears but a single word of slander against the Buddha from externalists or evil beings, he experiences a pain similar to that of three hundred spears piercing his heart. How then could he possibly slander the Triple Jewel himself?

 

Hence, if a disciple lacks faith and filial piety towards the Triple Jewel, and even assists evil persons or those of aberrant views to slander the Triple Jewel, he commits a Parajika offense. (35)

 

V. Conclusion: The Ten Major Precepts

 

As a disciple of the Buddha, you should study these ten parajika (major) precepts and not break any one of them in even the slightest way -- much less break all of them! Anyone guilty of doing so cannot develop the Bodhi Mind in his current life and will lose whatever high position he may have attained, be it that of an emperor, Wheel-Turning King, Bhiksu, Bhiksuni -- as well as whatever level of Bodhisattvahood he may have reached, whether the Ten Dwellings, the Ten Practices, the Ten Dedications, the Ten Grounds -- and all the fruits of the eternal Buddha Nature. He will lose all of those levels of attainment and descend into the Three Evil Realms, unable to hear the words "parents" or "Triple Jewel" for eons! (36) Therefore, Buddha's disciples should avoid breaking any one of these major precepts. (37) All of you Bodhisattvas should study and observe the Ten Precepts, which have been observed, are being observed, and will be observed by all Bodhisattvas. They were explained in detail in the chapter, "The Eighty Thousand Rules of Conduct." (38)

 

***

 

VI. The Forty-eight Secondary Precepts

 

Then the Buddha told the Bodhisattvas, "Now that I have explained the Ten Major Precepts, I will speak about the forty-eight secondary precepts."

 

1. Disrespect toward Teachers and Friends

 

A disciple of the Buddha who is destined to become an emperor, a Wheel-Turning King, or high official should first receive the Bodhisattva precepts. He will then be under the protection of all guardian deities and spirits, and the Buddhas will be pleased. (39)

 

Once he has received the precepts, the disciple should develop a mind of filial piety and respect. Whenever he meets an Elder Master, a monk, or a fellow cultivator of like views and like conduct, he should rise and greet him with respect. He must then respectfully make offerings to the guest-monks, in accord with the Dharma. (40) He should be willing to pledge himself, his family, as well as his kingdom, cities, jewels and other possessions.

 

If instead, he should develop conceit or arrogance, delusion or anger, refusing to rise and greet guest-monks and make offerings to them respectfully, in accordance with the Dharma, he commits a secondary offense.

 

2. On Consuming Alcoholic Beverages

 

A disciple of the Buddha should not intentionally consume alcoholic beverages, as they are the source of countless offenses. If he but offers a glass of wine to another person, his retribution will be to have no hands for five hundred lifetimes. (41) How could he then consume liquor himself! Indeed, a Bodhisattva should not encourage any person or any other sentient being to consume alcohol, much less take any alcoholic beverages himself. (42) A disciple should not drink any alcoholic beverages whatsoever. If instead, he deliberately does so or encourages others to do so, he commits a secondary offense.

 

3. On Eating Meat

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not deliberately eat meat. He should not eat the flesh of any sentient being. The meat-eater forfeits the seed of Great Compassion, severs the seed of the Buddha Nature and causes [animals and transcendental] beings to avoid him. Those who do so are guilty of countless offenses. Therefore, Bodhisattvas should not eat the flesh of any sentient beings whatsoever. If instead, he deliberately eats meat, he commits a secondary offense.

 

6. Failing to Request the Dharma or Make Offerings

 

If an Elder Master, a Mahayana monk or fellow cultivator of like views and practice should come from far away to the temple, residence, city or village of a disciple of the Buddha, the disciple should respectfully welcome him and see him off. He should minister to his needs at all times, though doing so may cost as much as three taels of gold! Moreover, the disciple of the Buddha should respectfully request the guest-master to preach the Dharma three times a day by bowing to him without a single thought of resentment or weariness. (48) He should be willing to sacrifice himself for the Dharma and never be lax in requesting it.

 

If he does not act in this manner, he commits a secondary offense.

 

7. Failing to Attend Dharma Lectures

 

A Bodhisattva disciple who is new to the Order should take copies of the appropriate sutras or precept codes to any place where such sutras, commentaries, or moral codes are being explained, to listen, study, and inquire about the Dharma. He should go anywhere, be it in a house, beneath a tree, in a temple, in the forests or mountains, or elsewhere. If he fails to do so, he commits a secondary offense. (49)

 

8. On Turning Away from the Mahayana

 

If a disciple of the Buddha disavows the eternal Mahayana sutras and moral codes, declaring that they were not actually taught by the Buddha, and instead follows and observes those of the Two Vehicles and deluded externalists, he commits a secondary offense. (50)

 

9. On Failure to Care for the Sick

 

If a disciple of the Buddha should see anyone who is sick, he should wholeheartedly provide for that person's needs just as he would for a Buddha. Of the eight Fields of Blessings, looking after the sick is the most important. A Buddha's disciple should take care of his father, mother, Dharma teacher or disciple -- regardless of whether the latter are disabled or suffering from various kinds of diseases. (51)

 

If instead, he becomes angry and resentful and fails to do so, or refuses to rescue the sick or disabled in temples, cities and towns, forests and mountains, or along the road, he commits a secondary offense. (52)

 

10. On Storing Deadly Weapons

 

A disciple of the Buddha should not store weapons such as knives, clubs, bows, arrows, spears, axes or any other weapons, nor may he keep nets, traps or any such devices used in destroying life. (53)

 

As a disciple of the Buddha, he must not even avenge the death of his parents -- let alone kill sentient beings! (54) He should not store any weapons or devices that can be used to kill sentient beings. If he deliberately does so, he commits a secondary offense.

 

The first ten secondary precepts have just been described. Disciples of the Buddha should study and respectfully observe them. They are explained in detail in the six chapters [now lost] following these precepts.

 

11. On Serving as an Emissary

 

A disciple of the Buddha shall not, out of personal benefit or evil intentions, act as a country's emissary to foster military confrontation and war causing the slaughter of countless sentient beings. As a disciple of the Buddha, he should not be involved in military affairs, or serve as a courier between armies, much less act as a willing catalyst for war. If he deliberately does so, he commits a secondary offense. (55)

 

12. On Unlawful Business Undertakings

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not deliberately trade in slaves or sell anyone into servitude, nor should he trade in domestic animals, coffins or wood for caskets. He cannot engage in these types of business himself much less encourage others to do so. Otherwise, he commits a secondary offense. (56)

 

13. On Slander and Libel

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not, without cause and with evil intentions, slander virtuous people, such as Elder Masters, monks or nuns, kings, princes or other upright persons, saying that they have committed the Seven Cardinal Sins or broken the Ten Major Bodhisattva Precepts. He should be compassionate and filial and treat all virtuous people as if they were his father, mother, siblings or other close relatives. If instead, he slanders and harms them, he commits a secondary offense. (57)

 

14. On Starting Wildfires

 

A disciple of the Buddha shall not, out of evil intentions, start wildfires to clear forests and burn vegetation on mountains and plains, during the fourth to the ninth months of the lunar year. Such fires [are particularly injurious to animals during that period and may spread] to people's homes, towns and villages, temples and monasteries, fields and groves, as well as the [unseen] dwellings and possessions of deities and ghosts. He must not intentionally set fire to any place where there is life. If he deliberately does so, he commits a secondary offense. (58)

Hydrangea (/haɪˈdreɪndʒiə/) common names hydrangea or hortensia, is a genus of 70–75 species of flowering plants native to Asia and the Americas. By far the greatest species diversity is in eastern Asia, notably Korea, China, and Japan. Most are shrubs 1 to 3 meters tall, but some are small trees, and others lianas reaching up to 30 m by climbing up trees. They can be either deciduous or evergreen, though the widely cultivated temperate species are all deciduous.

 

Hydrangea is derived from Greek and means ‘water vessel’ (hydria), in reference to the shape of its seed capsules. The earlier name, Hortensia, is a Latinised version of the French given name Hortense, referring to French astronomer and mathematician Nicole-Reine Hortense Lepaute

 

LIFE CYCLE

Hydrangea flowers are produced from early spring to late autumn; they grow in flowerheads (corymbs or panicles) most often at the ends of the stems. Typically the flowerheads contain two types of flowers: small non-showy flowers in the center or interior of the flowerhead, and large, showy flowers with large colorful sepals (tepals). These showy flowers are often extended in a ring, or to the exterior of the small flowers. Plants in wild populations typically have few to none of the showy flowers, while cultivated hydrangeas have been bred and selected to have more of the larger type flowers.

 

There are two flower arrangements in hydrangeas with corymb style inflorescences, which includes the commonly grown "bigleaf hydrangea"—Hydrangea macrophylla. Mophead flowers are large round flowerheads resembling pom-poms or, as the name implies, the head of a mop. In contrast, lacecap flowers bear round, flat flowerheads with a center core of subdued, small flowers surrounded by outer rings of larger flowers having showy sepals or tepals. The flowers of some rhododendrons and viburnums can appear, at first glance, similar to those of some hydrangeas.

 

Hydrangea flowers, when cut, dehydrate easily and wilt very fast due to the large surface area of the petals. A wilted hydrangea may have its hydration restored by first having its stem immersed in boiling water; as the petals of the hydrangea can also absorb water, the petals may then be immersed, in room-temperature water, to restore the flower's hydration.

 

COLOURS AND SOIL ACIDITY

In most species the flowers are white, but in some species (notably H. macrophylla), can be blue, red, pink, light purple, or dark purple. In these species, floral color change occurs due to the presence of aluminum ions which are available or tied up depending upon the soil pH. For H. macrophylla and H. serrata cultivars, the flower color can be determined by the relative acidity of the soil: an acidic soil (pH below 7), will have available aluminum ions and typically produce flowers that are blue to purple,[8] whereas an alkaline soil (pH above 7) will tie up aluminum ions and result in pink or red flowers. This is caused by a color change of the flower pigments in the presence of aluminum ions which can be taken up into hyperaccumulating plants. Lowering the pH of potting soils or mixes usually does not change the flower color to blue, because these soils have no aluminum ions. The ability to blue or pink a hydrangea is also influenced by the cultivar. Some plants are selected for their ability to be blued, while others are bred and selected to be red, pink or white. The flower color of most other Hydrangea species is not affected by aluminum and cannot be changed or shifted. Hydrangeas are also nicknamed 'Change Rose'.

 

FOSSIL RECORDS

†Hydrangea alaskana is a fossil species recovered from paleogene strata in Jaw Mountain Alaska.

 

Four fossil seeds of †Hydrangea polonica have been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.

 

CULTIVATION AND USES

Hydrangeas are popular ornamental plants, grown for their large flowerheads, with Hydrangea macrophylla being by far the most widely grown with over 600 named cultivars, many selected to have only large sterile flowers in the flowerheads. Hydrangea macrophylla, also known as Bigleaf Hydrangea, can be broken up into two main categories; Mophead Hydrangea & Lacecap Hydrangea. Some are best pruned on an annual basis when the new leaf buds begin to appear. If not pruned regularly, the bush will become very 'leggy', growing upwards until the weight of the stems is greater than their strength, at which point the stems will sag down to the ground and possibly break. Other species only flower on 'old wood'. Thus new wood resulting from pruning will not produce flowers until the following season.

 

Hydrangea root and rhizome are indicated for treatment of conditions of the urinary tract in the Physicians' Desk Reference for Herbal Medicine and may have diuretic properties. Hydrangeas are moderately toxic if eaten, with all parts of the plant containing cyanogenic glycosides. Hydrangea paniculata is reportedly sometimes smoked as an intoxicant, despite the danger of illness and/or death due to the cyanide.

 

The flowers on a hydrangea shrub can change from blue to pink or from pink to blue from one season to the next depending on the acidity level of the soil. Adding organic materials such as coffee grounds, citrus peel or eggshells will increase acidity and turn hydrangea flowers blue, as described in an article on Gardenista. A popular pink hydrangea called Vanilla Strawberry has been named "Top Plant" by the American Nursery and Landscape Association.

 

The hybrid "Runaway Bride Snow White", bred by Ushio Sakazaki from Japan, was named Plant of the Year at the 2018 RHS Chelsea Flower Show.

 

IN CULTURE

In Japan, ama-cha, 甘茶, meaning sweet tea, is another herbal tea made from Hydrangea serrata, whose leaves contain a substance that develops a sweet taste (phyllodulcin). For the fullest taste, fresh leaves are crumpled, steamed, and dried, yielding dark brown tea leaves. Ama-cha is mainly used for kan-butsu-e (the Buddha bathing ceremony) on April 8 every year—the day thought to be Buddha's birthday in Japan. During the ceremony, Ama-cha is poured over a statue of Buddha and served to people in attendance. A legend has it that on the day Buddha was born, nine dragons poured Amrita over him; ama-cha is substituted for Amrita in Japan.

 

In Korean tea, Hydrangea serrata (hangul:산수국 hanja:山水菊) is used for an herbal tea called sugukcha (수국차) or isulcha (이슬차).

 

The pink hydrangea has risen in popularity all over the world, especially in Asia. The given meaning of pink hydrangeas is popularly tied to the phrase, "You are the beat of my heart," as described by the celebrated Asian florist Tan Jun Yong, where he was quoted saying, "The light delicate blush of the petals reminds me of a beating heart, while the size could only match the heart of the sender!"

 

Hydrangea quercifolia was declared the official state wildflower of Alabama in 1999.

 

BEE-FRIENDLINESS

Hydrangea variants vary in bee-friendliness and their ability to feed pollinators. In general, the common Hydrangea variants are not bee-friendly because their flowers are sterile, e.g. Hydrangea macrophylla hortensis (mophead) and H. paniculata (limelight). Variants that give food for bees and pollinators are:

 

Hydrangea anomala petiolaris

Hydrangea arborescens

Hydrangea aspera

Hydrangea mycrophylla

Hydrangea paniculata (grandiflora)

Hydrangea quercifolia

 

WIKIPEDIA

"Gluttony, derived from the Latin gluttire meaning to gulp down or swallow, means over-indulgence and over-consumption of food, drink, or intoxicants to the point of waste. In some Christian denominations, it is considered one of the seven deadly sins—a misplaced desire of food or its withholding from the needy." - Wikipedia article on Gluttony.

 

In this specific case it would be:

Nimis - eating too much.

 

I've seen lots of people do a Seven Deadly Sins theme for their 365. It takes care of seven days and is a fun theme to interpret. Here's my first entry on the theme.

Nicotine: "a stress relieving intoxicant containing 12mg Tar and 1.0mg Heaven. May cause slight cough".

Malagash, Nova Scotia, Canada.

 

Possibly it's an Amanita muscaria var. guessowii ...?

 

This variety is found throughout north-eastern North America, especially up into maritime Canada.

 

From Wikipedia -

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita, is a poisonous and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species. It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees. The quintessential toadstool, it is a large white-gilled, white-spotted, usually deep red mushroom, one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular culture. Several subspecies, with differing cap colour have been recognised to date, including the brown regalis (considered a separate species), the yellow-orange flavivolata, guessowii, and formosa, and the pinkish persicina. Genetic studies published in 2006 and 2008 show several sharply delineated clades which may represent separate species.

 

Although generally considered poisonous, deaths are extremely rare, and it has been consumed as a food in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America after parboiling in plentiful water. However, Amanita muscaria is now primarily famed for its hallucinogenic properties with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound muscimol. It was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the peoples of Siberia and has a religious significance in these cultures. There has been much speculation on traditional use of this mushroom as an intoxicant in places other than Siberia; however, such traditions are far less well-documented. The American banker and amateur ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson proposed the fly agaric was in fact the Soma talked about in the ancient Rig Veda texts of India; although this theory has been refuted by anthropologists, it gained common credence when first published in 1968.

 

The common name in English is thought to have been derived from its European use as an insecticide, when sprinkled in milk. The fly-killing agent is now known to be ibotenic acid. An alternative derivation proposes that the term fly- refers not to insects as such but rather the delirium resulting from consumption of the fungus. This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person's head and cause mental illness.

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita, is a poisonous and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species. It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees. The quintessential toadstool, it is a large white-gilled, white-spotted, usually deep red mushroom, one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular culture. Several subspecies, with differing cap colour, have been recognised to date, including the brown regalis (considered a separate species), the yellow-orange flavivolvata, guessowii, and formosa, and the pinkish persicina.

 

Although generally considered poisonous, deaths are extremely rare, and it is consumed as a food in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America after parboiling. Amanita muscaria is now primarily famed for its hallucinogenic properties, with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound muscimol. It was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the peoples of Siberia and has a religious significance in these cultures. There has been much speculation on traditional use of this mushroom as an intoxicant in places other than Siberia; however, such traditions are far less well-documented.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a mushroom and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine and birch plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species. It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees.

 

The quintessential toadstool, it is a large white-gilled, white-spotted, usually red mushroom, one of the most recognisable and widely encountered in popular culture. Several subspecies with differing cap colour have been recognised, including the brown regalis (often considered a separate species), the yellow-orange flavivolvata, guessowii, formosa, and the pinkish persicina. Genetic studies published in 2006 and 2008 show several sharply delineated clades that may represent separate species.

 

Although classified as poisonous, reports of human deaths resulting from its ingestion are extremely rare. After parboiling—which weakens its toxicity and breaks down the mushroom's psychoactive substances—it is eaten in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. Amanita muscaria is noted for its hallucinogenic properties, with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound muscimol. The mushroom was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the peoples of Siberia, and has a religious significance in these cultures. There has been much speculation on possible traditional use of this mushroom as an intoxicant in other places such as the Middle East, Eurasia, North America, and Scandinavia.

Explored! (Just)

 

#495 27th September 2008

 

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita, is a poisonous and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita.

 

Although generally considered poisonous, deaths are extremely rare, and it has been consumed as a food in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America after parboiling in plentiful water. However, Amanita muscaria is now primarily famed for its hallucinogenic properties with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound muscimol. It was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the peoples of Siberia and has a religious significance in these cultures.

After having been honnored for "my" ordinatio as buthan kagyu wuseng (warrior monk). Honnored and stressed as it is a serious responsabilty. Once vows are taken, it is bad to leave them, isnt it?

 

www.ymba.org/bns/bnsframe.htm

   

1. First Major Precept

 

On Killing

 

A disciple of the Buddha shall not himself kill, encourage others to kill, kill by expedient means, praise killing, rejoice at witnessing killing, or kill through incantation or deviant mantras. He must not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of killing, and shall not intentionally kill any living creature. (24)

 

As a Buddha's disciple, he ought to nurture a mind of compassion and filial piety, always devising expedient means to rescue and protect all beings. If instead, he fails to restrain himself and kills sentient beings without mercy, he commits a Parajika (major) offense. (25)

 

2. Second Major Precept

 

On Stealing

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not himself steal or encourage others to steal, steal by expedient means, steal by means of incantation or deviant mantras. He should not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of stealing. No valuables or possessions, even those belonging to ghosts and spirits or thieves and robbers, be they as small as a needle or blade of grass, may be stolen.

 

As a Buddha's disciple, he ought to have a mind of mercy, compassion, and filial piety -- always helping people earn merits and achieve happiness. If instead, he steals the possessions of others, he commits a Parajika offense. (26)

 

3. Third Major Precept

 

On Sexual Misconduct

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not engage in licentious acts or encourage others to do so. [As a monk] he should not have sexual relations with any female -- be she a human, animal, deity or spirit -- nor create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of such misconduct. Indeed, he must not engage in improper sexual conduct with anyone. (27)

 

A Buddha's disciple ought to have a mind of filial piety -- rescuing all sentient beings and instructing them in the Dharma of purity and chastity. If instead, he lacks compassion and encourages others to engage in sexual relations promiscuously, including with animals and even their mothers, daughters, sisters, or other close relatives, he commits a Parajika offense. (28)

 

4. Fourth Major Precept

 

On Lying and False Speech

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not himself use false words and speech, or encourage others to lie or lie by expedient means. He should not involve himself in the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of lying, saying that he has seen what he has not seen or vice-versa, or lying implicitly through physical or mental means. (29)

 

As a Buddha's disciple, he ought to maintain Right Speech and Right Views always, and lead all others to maintain them as well. If instead, he causes wrong speech, wrong views or evil karma in others, he commits a Parajika offense.

 

5. Fifth Major Precept

 

On Selling Alcoholic Beverages

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not trade in alcoholic beverages or encourage others to do so. He should not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of selling any intoxicant whatsoever, for intoxicants are the causes and conditions of all kinds of offenses.

 

As a Buddha's disciple, he ought to help all sentient beings achieve clear wisdom. If instead, he causes them to have upside-down, topsy-turvy thinking, he commits a Parajika offense. (30)

 

6. Sixth Major Precept

 

On Broadcasting the Faults of the Assembly

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not himself broadcast the misdeeds or infractions of Bodhisattva-clerics or Bodhisattva-laypersons, or of [ordinary] monks and nuns -- nor encourage others to do so. He must not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of discussing the offenses of the assembly.

 

As a Buddha's disciple, whenever he hears evil persons, externalists or followers of the Two Vehicles speak of practices contrary to the Dharma or contrary to the precepts within the Buddhist community, he should instruct them with a compassionate mind and lead them to develop wholesome faith in the Mahayana.

 

If instead, he discusses the faults and misdeeds that occur within the assembly, he commits a Parajika offense. (31)

 

7. Seventh Major Precept

 

On Praising Oneself and Disparaging Others

 

A disciple of the Buddha shall not praise himself and speak ill of others, or encourage others to do so. He must not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of praising himself and disparaging others.

 

As a disciple of the Buddha, he should be willing to stand in for all sentient beings and endure humiliation and slander -- accepting blame and letting sentient beings have all the glory. If instead, he displays his own virtues and conceals the good points of others, thus causing them to suffer slander, he commits a Parajika offense. (32)

 

8. Eighth Major Precept

 

On Stinginess and Abuse

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not be stingy or encourage others to be stingy. He should not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of stinginess. As a Bodhisattva, whenever a destitute person comes for help, he should give that person what he needs. If instead, out of anger and resentment, (33) he denies all assistance -- refusing to help with even a penny, a needle, a blade of grass, even a single sentence or verse or a phrase of Dharma, but instead scolds and abuses that person -- he commits a Parajika offense.

 

9. Ninth Major Precept

 

On Anger and Resentment

 

A disciple of the Buddha shall not harbor anger or encourage others to be angry. He should not create the causes, conditions, methods, or karma of anger.

 

As a disciple of the Buddha, he ought to be compassionate and filial, helping all sentient beings develop the good roots of non-contention. If instead, he insults and abuses sentient beings, or even transformation beings [such as deities and spirits], with harsh words, hitting them with his fists or feet, or attacking them with a knife or club -- or harbors grudges even when the victim confesses his mistakes and humbly seeks forgiveness in a soft, conciliatory voice -- the disciple commits a Parajika offense. (34)

 

10. Tenth Major Precept

 

On Slandering the Triple Jewel

 

A Buddha's disciple shall not himself speak ill of the Triple Jewel or encourage others to do so. He must not create the causes, conditions, methods or karma of slander. If a disciple hears but a single word of slander against the Buddha from externalists or evil beings, he experiences a pain similar to that of three hundred spears piercing his heart. How then could he possibly slander the Triple Jewel himself?

 

Hence, if a disciple lacks faith and filial piety towards the Triple Jewel, and even assists evil persons or those of aberrant views to slander the Triple Jewel, he commits a Parajika offense. (35)

 

V. Conclusion: The Ten Major Precepts

 

As a disciple of the Buddha, you should study these ten parajika (major) precepts and not break any one of them in even the slightest way -- much less break all of them! Anyone guilty of doing so cannot develop the Bodhi Mind in his current life and will lose whatever high position he may have attained, be it that of an emperor, Wheel-Turning King, Bhiksu, Bhiksuni -- as well as whatever level of Bodhisattvahood he may have reached, whether the Ten Dwellings, the Ten Practices, the Ten Dedications, the Ten Grounds -- and all the fruits of the eternal Buddha Nature. He will lose all of those levels of attainment and descend into the Three Evil Realms, unable to hear the words "parents" or "Triple Jewel" for eons! (36) Therefore, Buddha's disciples should avoid breaking any one of these major precepts. (37) All of you Bodhisattvas should study and observe the Ten Precepts, which have been observed, are being observed, and will be observed by all Bodhisattvas. They were explained in detail in the chapter, "The Eighty Thousand Rules of Conduct." (38)

 

***

 

VI. The Forty-eight Secondary Precepts

 

Then the Buddha told the Bodhisattvas, "Now that I have explained the Ten Major Precepts, I will speak about the forty-eight secondary precepts."

 

1. Disrespect toward Teachers and Friends

 

A disciple of the Buddha who is destined to become an emperor, a Wheel-Turning King, or high official should first receive the Bodhisattva precepts. He will then be under the protection of all guardian deities and spirits, and the Buddhas will be pleased. (39)

 

Once he has received the precepts, the disciple should develop a mind of filial piety and respect. Whenever he meets an Elder Master, a monk, or a fellow cultivator of like views and like conduct, he should rise and greet him with respect. He must then respectfully make offerings to the guest-monks, in accord with the Dharma. (40) He should be willing to pledge himself, his family, as well as his kingdom, cities, jewels and other possessions.

 

If instead, he should develop conceit or arrogance, delusion or anger, refusing to rise and greet guest-monks and make offerings to them respectfully, in accordance with the Dharma, he commits a secondary offense.

 

2. On Consuming Alcoholic Beverages

 

A disciple of the Buddha should not intentionally consume alcoholic beverages, as they are the source of countless offenses. If he but offers a glass of wine to another person, his retribution will be to have no hands for five hundred lifetimes. (41) How could he then consume liquor himself! Indeed, a Bodhisattva should not encourage any person or any other sentient being to consume alcohol, much less take any alcoholic beverages himself. (42) A disciple should not drink any alcoholic beverages whatsoever. If instead, he deliberately does so or encourages others to do so, he commits a secondary offense.

 

3. On Eating Meat

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not deliberately eat meat. He should not eat the flesh of any sentient being. The meat-eater forfeits the seed of Great Compassion, severs the seed of the Buddha Nature and causes [animals and transcendental] beings to avoid him. Those who do so are guilty of countless offenses. Therefore, Bodhisattvas should not eat the flesh of any sentient beings whatsoever. If instead, he deliberately eats meat, he commits a secondary offense.

 

6. Failing to Request the Dharma or Make Offerings

 

If an Elder Master, a Mahayana monk or fellow cultivator of like views and practice should come from far away to the temple, residence, city or village of a disciple of the Buddha, the disciple should respectfully welcome him and see him off. He should minister to his needs at all times, though doing so may cost as much as three taels of gold! Moreover, the disciple of the Buddha should respectfully request the guest-master to preach the Dharma three times a day by bowing to him without a single thought of resentment or weariness. (48) He should be willing to sacrifice himself for the Dharma and never be lax in requesting it.

 

If he does not act in this manner, he commits a secondary offense.

 

7. Failing to Attend Dharma Lectures

 

A Bodhisattva disciple who is new to the Order should take copies of the appropriate sutras or precept codes to any place where such sutras, commentaries, or moral codes are being explained, to listen, study, and inquire about the Dharma. He should go anywhere, be it in a house, beneath a tree, in a temple, in the forests or mountains, or elsewhere. If he fails to do so, he commits a secondary offense. (49)

 

8. On Turning Away from the Mahayana

 

If a disciple of the Buddha disavows the eternal Mahayana sutras and moral codes, declaring that they were not actually taught by the Buddha, and instead follows and observes those of the Two Vehicles and deluded externalists, he commits a secondary offense. (50)

 

9. On Failure to Care for the Sick

 

If a disciple of the Buddha should see anyone who is sick, he should wholeheartedly provide for that person's needs just as he would for a Buddha. Of the eight Fields of Blessings, looking after the sick is the most important. A Buddha's disciple should take care of his father, mother, Dharma teacher or disciple -- regardless of whether the latter are disabled or suffering from various kinds of diseases. (51)

 

If instead, he becomes angry and resentful and fails to do so, or refuses to rescue the sick or disabled in temples, cities and towns, forests and mountains, or along the road, he commits a secondary offense. (52)

 

10. On Storing Deadly Weapons

 

A disciple of the Buddha should not store weapons such as knives, clubs, bows, arrows, spears, axes or any other weapons, nor may he keep nets, traps or any such devices used in destroying life. (53)

 

As a disciple of the Buddha, he must not even avenge the death of his parents -- let alone kill sentient beings! (54) He should not store any weapons or devices that can be used to kill sentient beings. If he deliberately does so, he commits a secondary offense.

 

The first ten secondary precepts have just been described. Disciples of the Buddha should study and respectfully observe them. They are explained in detail in the six chapters [now lost] following these precepts.

 

11. On Serving as an Emissary

 

A disciple of the Buddha shall not, out of personal benefit or evil intentions, act as a country's emissary to foster military confrontation and war causing the slaughter of countless sentient beings. As a disciple of the Buddha, he should not be involved in military affairs, or serve as a courier between armies, much less act as a willing catalyst for war. If he deliberately does so, he commits a secondary offense. (55)

 

12. On Unlawful Business Undertakings

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not deliberately trade in slaves or sell anyone into servitude, nor should he trade in domestic animals, coffins or wood for caskets. He cannot engage in these types of business himself much less encourage others to do so. Otherwise, he commits a secondary offense. (56)

 

13. On Slander and Libel

 

A disciple of the Buddha must not, without cause and with evil intentions, slander virtuous people, such as Elder Masters, monks or nuns, kings, princes or other upright persons, saying that they have committed the Seven Cardinal Sins or broken the Ten Major Bodhisattva Precepts. He should be compassionate and filial and treat all virtuous people as if they were his father, mother, siblings or other close relatives. If instead, he slanders and harms them, he commits a secondary offense. (57)

 

14. On Starting Wildfires

 

A disciple of the Buddha shall not, out of evil intentions, start wildfires to clear forests and burn vegetation on mountains and plains, during the fourth to the ninth months of the lunar year. Such fires [are particularly injurious to animals during that period and may spread] to people's homes, towns and villages, temples and monasteries, fields and groves, as well as the [unseen] dwellings and possessions of deities and ghosts. He must not intentionally set fire to any place where there is life. If he deliberately does so, he commits a secondary offense. (58)

rude intoxicants

"Got my stuff (jacket, overshirt, sunblock, cds, blanket, flashlight) and headed east at 2. Traffic was pretty heavy the whole way there, especially up to and just over the pass. I ran into an ex-coworker Chris (he got hit in the layoffs last Christmas) and his girlfriend at the rest stop near Cle Elum - they were on their way to the show as well. Said hi, and maybe I'll see you there. Stopped at DQ in Ellensburg for some lunch/dinner. Got the the place right at 5. Right before getting in line to go through the gates, I remembered I left my sunglasses in the car. So I went back and got them, which gave me a good opportunity to find my car in the lot once again. Then, in line and through the gates. Oh, and two people in front of me was an old friend from high school, Kim W. Thought I'd say hi once we got through the gates, but duh she and her companion were long gone once I got through. Oh well. The schedule indicated New Order were going on third, at 7. So, I grabbed a spot up on the hill to enjoy the scenery and the sounds of Rhinocerose, who were pretty neat. Up at that level the sound was just right, too.

Then I checked out the Focus pavillion, which wasn't terribly exciting (yay, a dance club in a tent, and I'm not that big on house/ mainstream techno). So I wandered off towards the food court, without going in since I knew I didn't want anything they had anyway. Ran into said ex-coworker again, and so we stood on the hill in the sun and wind and talked about the recent events and life etc while The Roots played.

After that they went off to check out the Focus place, and I grabbed a drink ($3.50 for a coke - water was the same price (20ozs or so)) and went down to stake out a spot near the stage for New Order. Sadly, NO are short a person on this tour since Steve and Gillian's daughter is sick, so Gillian stayed home. They have an extra keyboard player (who?), and Billy Corgan on guitar. One good side effect is that it allowed Steve to play drums on almost all the songs. Generally they were great, they really rocked, and I liked the new songs I heard. The usual NO quirks were there, out of tune guitars, one or two flubs per song by the bass player. But it was still awesome.

Unfortunately for me it ended on a down note. There were two guys in front of me, who seemed not to bad but generally buffoonish the whole time. Early in the set, one of them kept yelling for them to play songs from Movement, their first album. They didn't. They did however play two Joy Division songs (from before they were New Order), "Atmosphere" and "Love Will Tear Us Apart". So when this guy kept asking for "some early stuff", well. Anyway, by the last three songs of the set this guy, who didn't really seem terribly angry, kept flipping off Peter Hook (in both American and English). Finally Peter noticed and got pissed. Historically Hook has been easily provoked, and today I got the feeling that the level of intoxicants in his system was above average. So the end result was that he stood there giving this dork the look of death for about a song and a half, missing half of his cues. Dork didn't seem to notice, or at least avoided his gaze. Anyway at the end of the last song it was a bilingual "fuck you" gesture once more, which caused Hook to throw down his bass (the Shergold) and walk to the edge of the stage to say something nasty. I was half expecting him to jump into the crowd and kick this guy's ass. Not sure if I'm happy he didn't. Anyway, he left the stage in a very bad mood.

So, once people started leaving, I had to find out what was wrong with this guy.

me: was it something he said? Asshole: who? me: Peter! AH: Oh - yeah I was flipping him off English style me: uh, right. Why? AH: Well I wanted them to play some early stuff me: you mean like "LWTUA"? AH: No, early stuff, from Movement me: LWTUA came out a year before Movement AH's friend: (puts his hand on my shoulder) Hey, I like this guy me: ?? AH: Uh...Hey this guy did the same act last night and he'll do it again tomorrow night! me: With you, here, saying "Fuck you!"? AH: Yeah! me: ?? Whatever - why did you go out of your way to piss him off? I'd have appreciated it if you hadn't done that AH: Don't tell me you wouldn't want to be in his position!! me: What?? What does that have to do with anything? AH: Everything! me: uh... AH: [here it comes] Hey - I paid this guy $70... AH's friend: Yeah, me too! me: ... so? AH: So, I wanted to hear some early stuff! me: [I've had it at this point, walking away] Well, you can believe that if you want. But you're still fucked.

Any of this sound familiar? Anyway, earlier I wasn't sure if I'd stick around for the acts after New Order (Outkast, Moby). But after this I had to leave.

Another down note, I really should've put in the earplugs for the NO set. It was a lot louder than Nine Inch Nails were last year (go figure), and I've got three or four different tones ringing in my ears now. ugh. "

  

Hydrangeas are popular ornamental plants, grown for their large flowerheads, with Hydrangea macrophylla being by far the most widely grown with over 600 named cultivars, many selected to have only large sterile flowers in the flowerheads. Some are best pruned on an annual basis when the new leaf buds begin to appear. If not pruned regularly, the bush will become very 'leggy', growing upwards until the weight of the stems is greater than their strength, at which point the stems will sag down to the ground and possibly break. Other species only flower on 'old wood'. Thus new wood resulting from pruning will not produce flowers until the following season.

Hydrangeas are moderately toxic if eaten, with all parts of the plant containing cyanogenic glycosides. Hydrangea paniculata is reportedly sometimes smoked as an intoxicant, despite the danger of illness and/or death due to the cyanide.

In Japan, ama-cha, meaning sweet tea, is another herbal tea made from Hydrangea serrata, whose leaves contain a substance that develops a sweet taste (phyllodulcin). For the fullest taste, fresh leaves are crumpled, steamed, and dried, yielding dark brown tea leaves. Ama-cha is mainly used for kan-butsu-e (the Buddha bathing ceremony) on April 8 every year—the day thought to be Buddha's birthday in Japan. Ama-cha is poured over a statue of Buddha in the ceremony and served to people in attendance. A legend has it that on the day Buddha was born, nine dragons poured Amrita over him; ama-cha is substituted for Amrita in Japan.

In Korean tea, Hydrangea serrata (hangul:산수국 hanja:山水菊) is used for a herbal tea called sugukcha (수국차) or ilsulcha (이슬차).

The pink hydrangea has risen in popularity all over the world, but especially in Asia. Pink hydrangeas have many different meanings, but generally means, "You are the beat of my heart", as described by the celebrated Asian florist Tan Jun Yong, where he was quoted saying, "The light delicate blush of the petals reminds me of a beating heart, while the size could only match the heart of the sender!"

Michael Pollan in The Botany of Desire makes a good point that every culture has some intoxicants that it embraces and others than it shuns. For example, Islam outlaws alcohol but Christendom seems to generally think it's okay...especially those Catholics.

-------------------------------

I have some history with cannabis protests ever since the 4/20/2010 event in Boulder, CO. Actually, that's been about it for me until now, though I did express a wish to go to this year's 4/20 in Boulder. In preparation for 4/20 in Boulder, I read a couple of books on the subject of marijuana---and also watched a few documentaries---and discovered that the stuff is relatively harmless. Alcohol, nicotine, even driving seems to be more dangerous than marijuana. Also there are numerous medicinal properties attributed to it, but I'm not sure I believe it's the miracle drug that some people make it out to be. Because of what I've discovered, I must admit that I'm curious what it might be like to try. Someday. Maybe.

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric (play /ˈæɡərɪk/) or fly Amanita (play /ˌæməˈnaɪtə/), is a poisonous and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species. It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees. The quintessential toadstool, it is a large white-gilled, white-spotted, usually deep red mushroom, one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular culture. Several subspecies, with differing cap colour, have been recognised to date, including the brown regalis (considered a separate species), the yellow-orange flavivolvata, guessowii, and formosa, and the pinkish persicina. Genetic studies published in 2006 and 2008 show several sharply delineated clades which may represent separate species.

 

Although generally considered poisonous, deaths are extremely rare, and it is consumed as a food in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America after parboiling. Amanita muscaria is now primarily famed for its hallucinogenic properties, with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound muscimol. It was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the peoples of Siberia and has a religious significance in these cultures. There has been much speculation on traditional use of this mushroom as an intoxicant in places other than Siberia; however, such traditions are far less well-documented. The American banker and amateur ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson proposed the fly agaric was in fact the Soma talked about in the ancient Rig Veda texts of India; since its introduction in 1968, this theory has gained both followers and detractors in anthropological literature.[1

Nicotine: "a stress relieving intoxicant containing 12mg Tar and 1.0mg Heaven. May cause slight cough".

The Wannfried Sanatorium in the Tiergarten adjacent to Wannsee: A luxurious spa hotel and clinic devoted to the recuperation of the Extremely Nervous and guests recovering from long illnesses. It is also a treatment center for those guests who need respite from the burden of intoxicants.