View allAll Photos Tagged ECOSYSTEMS
Une autre espèce splendide de climat très froid vers 3400 m anm en écosystème de paramo. Cyrtochilum auropurpureum in situ (parfois confondu avec Cyrtochilum pardinum) durant un TOUR EXCEPTIONNEL DE 14 JOURS que j’ai guidé pour la Fédération Française d'Orchidophilie avec Nature Experience (235 ESPÈCES D'ORCHIDÉES FLEURIES IN SITU) en Colombie. Département du Cauca.
Otra especie espléndida de clima muy frío alrededor de 3400 m snm en ecosistema de páramo. Cyrtochilum auropurpureum in situ (a veces confundido con Cyrtochilum pardinum) durante un TOUR EXCEPCIONAL DE 14 DÍAS que guié para la Federación Francesa de Orquideología con Nature Experience (235 ESPECIES DE ORQUÍDEAS FLORECIDAS IN SITU) en Colombia. Departamento del Cauca.
Aambyvalley Rd.,Lonavala,Mah.,India
usually aquatic though some species have tadpoles which are terrestrial or semi terrestrial.
Teeny tiny mushrooms on the end of a decaying log covered in moss...even a tiny little slug making its way; hallmarks of the West Coast environment.
Check out the latest and greatest scientific instruments for environmental research from LI-COR Biosciences, in LEGO form! Several scientists measure photosynthesis, soil flux, leaf area, and light, while an eddy covariance tower silently measures CO2 and CH4 flux.
Poem.
Spectacular kaleidoscopic, early summer colour.
A sky-reflected, blue meander.
Sumptuous summer Broom yellows.
Dark green Spruce forest.
Emerald green Oak, Ash, Sycamore and Silver Birch
frame the manicured Fairways and Greens of Aigas Golf Course.
Nearby, Aigas Field Centre promotes conservation of such flora and fauna in the ecosystem of these wonderful hills, mountains, glens and forests.
From Strathglass to Strathfarrar, Glen Cannich and Glen Affric
the landscape and natural heritage is simply a stunning environment.
Long may it be so.
Shoot date: October 31st 2011
Location: Limburg
Model & styling: Lieke K
Photography & PP: Karin E. Lips
Another digital preview from Monday's shoot with Lieke. (Flickr really did an oversharpening number on this one. Gah.)
Am trying to slowly get out of my comfort zone. Different editing, different compositions, direct sunlight, etc. I love this photo, but it also makes me uncomfortable in ways, haha. Because it's not my usual thing. But it could be a new thing ;) Who says I need only one style!
Getting my film developed today..
& a new computer is coming my way this week, I have had issues with my current computer for about a month now, so I haven't been working much on selfportraits and other projects.. Can finally get back to doing more.
© 2011 Karin E. Lips
I appreciate your comments and faves, so much, but please DON'T POST GROUP INVITES WITH OR WITHOUT IMAGES in my comments, I will delete them. No flickriver streams, either. #notyourstream
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What Drew me to this shot was how such a small body of water existed so close and yet so far from the endless ocean. Reminds me of evolution, where the few life forms in the pond eventually become a different species than those in the ocean. Maybe some little fish will grow legs and upload their own pictures in Flickr some day.
Nikon F4: Roll#3
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Venus Shopping Complex, Tokyo, Japan
0.2mm pinhole; 35mm film; 10 mins
Aambyvalley rd., Upper Lonavala Maharashtra India.
a record monsoon for a extended period of time seems to have disturbed the rhythm of nature.
The pinyon pine and juniper ecosystem of the interior is adapted to regular wildfires, so this is a common sight.
I was thinking about National Parks shut down. How living in big cities affects us. And who should protect what in this country...
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The San Pedro riparian area, containing about 40 miles of the upper San Pedro River, was designated by Congress as a National Conservation Area on November 18, 1988. The primary purpose for the designation is to protect and enhance the desert riparian ecosystem, a rare remnant of what was once an extensive network of similar riparian systems throughout the Southwest.
Many recreational opportunities are available within the NCA. Murray Springs Clovis Site, a significant archaeological site contains an undisturbed stratigraphic record of the past 40,000 years. Excavations were conducted by the University of Arizona from 1966 to 1971. People first arrived in this area 11,000 years ago. They belonged to what we now call the Clovis Culture and were the earliest known people to have inhabited North America. Named after the distinctive and beautifully crafted Clovis spear points they made, they were expert hunters of the large mammals of the last Ice Age. An interpretive trail leads visitors through the site. From Sierra Vista, take State Highway 90 east 6 miles to Monson Road. Turn left, and go about 1.2 miles to the signed turnoff to Murray Springs. The access road is located on the right.
The Spanish Presidio Santa Cruz de Terrenate is the most intact remaining example of a once-extensive network of similar presidios. These fortresses marked the northern extension of New Spain into the New World. Only a stone foundation and a few remaining adobe wall remnants mark the location of an isolated and dangerous military station. From Fairbank on Highway 82, drive approximately 2 miles west on Highway 82, turn right on the Kellar Ranch Road and travel approximately 3 miles to the trailhead. Hike about 2 miles to the ruins and interpretive displays.
The San Pedro House, located 9 miles east of Sierra Vista on State Highway 90, is a popular trailhead for birdwatchers, hikers, and mountain bikers. The Friends of San Pedro operate a bookstore and information center.
Photo by Bob Wick, BLM.
The acridotheres is standing on the back of buffalo. This is the sample of the protocoordination ecosystem.
Huge ecosystem of mudflat is distributed in western coast of Korea, providing ecological services of extremely high value. However, this kind of natural habitats is not much remained because of human activities such as reclamation.
The red plant distributed broadly is a Suaeda species, a salt-tolerable plant.
The Parque Nacional Cajas (Cajas National Park) is a national park in the highlands of Ecuador. It is located about 30 km west of Cuenca. It covers an area of 285 km² and ranges in altitude between 3100m and 4450m above sea level--here just over 4000 meters or 13,000 feet. It offers a tundra vegetation on a jagged landscape of hills and valleys. The park contains about 270 lakes and lagoons. Glaciers shaped the landscape of the Cajas leaving U-shaped valleys and ravines. The Cajas provides about 60% of the drinking water for the Cuenca area.
Humidity, low temperature, and high altitude with low atmospheric pressure create an ecosystem that accumulates organic material in the soil that is able to retain water. The high grassland ecosystem (páramo) contains plants suitably adapted to this unique ecosystem, many of them endemic to the Cajas.
Please don't use this photo on websites, blogs or other media without my written permission. (c) Yago Veith - Flickr Interesting | www.yago1.com
Marine systems are the world’s oceans. For mapping purposes, the map shows ocean areas where the depth is greater than 50 meters. Global fishery catches from marine systems peaked in the late 1980s and are now declining despite increasing fishing effort.
For any form of publication, please include the link to this page:
This photo has been graciously provided to be used in the GRID-Arendal resources library by: Philippe Rekacewicz, Emmanuelle Bournay, UNEP/GRID-Arendal
Jethro Tull - Living In The Past (Supersonic, 27.03.1976)
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JETHRO TULL - THIS WAS
The main environmental issues associated with the implementation of the 5G network come with the manufacturing of the many component parts of the 5G infrastructure. In addition, the proliferation of new devices that will use the 5G network that is tied to the acceleration of demand from consumers for new 5G-dependent devices will have serious environmental consequences. The 5G network will inevitably cause a large increase in energy usage among consumers, which is already one of the main contributors to climate change. Additionally, the manufacturing and maintenance of the new technologies associated with 5G creates waste and uses important resources that have detrimental consequences for the environment. 5G networks use technology that has harmful effects on birds, which in turn has cascading effects through entire ecosystems. And, while 5G developers are seeking to create a network that has fewer environmental impacts than past networks, there is still room for improvement and the consequences of 5G should be considered before it is widely rolled out. 5G stands for the fifth generation of wireless technology. It is the wave of wireless technology surpassing the 4G network that is used now. Previous generations brought the first cell phones (1G), text messaging (2G), online capabilities (3G), and faster speed (4G). The fifth generation aims to increase the speed of data movement, be more responsive, and allow for greater connectivity of devices simultaneously.[2] This means that 5G will allow for nearly instantaneous downloading of data that, with the current network, would take hours. For example, downloading a movie using 5G would take mere seconds. These new improvements will allow for self-driving cars, massive expansion of Internet of Things (IoT) device use, and acceleration of new technological advancements used in everyday activities by a much wider range of people. While 5G is not fully developed, it is expected to consist of at least five new technologies that allow it to perform much more complicated tasks at faster speeds. The new technologies 5G will use are hardware that works with much higher frequencies (millimeter wavelengths), small cells, massive MIMO (multiple input multiple output), beamforming, and full duplex.[3] Working together, these new technologies will expand the potential of many of the devices used today and devices being developed for the future. Millimeter waves are a higher frequency wavelength than the radio wavelength generally used in wireless transmission today.[4] The use of this portion of the spectrum corresponds to higher frequency and shorter wavelengths, in this case in the millimeter range (vs the lower radio frequencies where the wavelengths can be in the meters to hundreds of kilometers). Higher frequency waves allow for more devices to be connected to the same network at the same time, because there is more space available compared to the radio waves that are used today. The use of this portion of the spectrum has much longer wavelengths than of that anticipated for a portion of the 5G implementation. The waves in use now can measure up to tens of centimeters, while the new 5G waves would be no greater than ten millimeters.[5] The millimeter waves will create more transmission space for the ever-expanding number of people and devices crowding the current networks. The millimeter waves will create more space for devices to be used by consumers, which will increase energy usage, subsequently leading to increased global warming. Millimeter waves are very weak in their ability to connect two devices, which is why 5G needs something called “small cells” to give full, uninterrupted coverage. Small cells are essentially miniature cell towers that would be placed 250 meters apart throughout cities and other areas needing coverage.[6] The small cells are necessary as emissions [or signals] at this higher frequency/shorter wavelength have more difficulty passing through solid objects and are even easily intercepted by rain.[7] The small cells could be placed on anything from trees to street lights to the sides of businesses and homes to maximize connection and limit “dead zones” (areas where connections are lost). The next new piece of technology necessary for 5G is massive MIMO, which stands for multiple input multiple output. The MIMO describes the capacity of 5G’s base stations, because those base stations would be able to handle a much higher amount of data at any one moment of time. Currently, 4G base stations have around eight transmitters and four receivers which direct the flow of data between devices.[9] 5G will exceed this capacity with the use of massive MIMO that can handle 22 times more ports. Figure 1 shows how a massive MIMO tower would be able to direct a higher number of connections at once. However, massive MIMO causes signals to be crossed more easily. Crossed signals cause an interruption in the transmission of data from one device to the next due to a clashing of the wavelengths as they travel to their respective destinations. To overcome the cross signals problem, beamforming is needed. To maximize the efficiency of sending data another new technology called beamforming will be used in 5G. For data to be sent to the correct user, a way of directing the wavelengths without interference is necessary. This is done through a technique called beamforming. Beamforming directs where exactly data are being sent by using a variety of antennas to organize signals based on certain characteristics, such as the magnitude of the signal. By directly sending signals to where they need to go, beamforming decreases the chances that a signal is dropped due to the interference of a physical object.
One way that 5G will follow through on its promise of faster data transmission is through sending and receiving data simultaneously. The method that allows for simultaneous input and output of data is called full duplexing. While full duplex capabilities allow for faster transmission of data, there is an issue of signal interference, because of echoes. Full duplexing will cut transmission times in half, because it allows for a response to occur as soon as an input is delivered, eliminating the turnaround time that is seen in transmission today. Because these technologies are new and untested, it is hard to say how they will impact our environment. This raises another issue: there are impacts that can be anticipated and predicted, but there are also unanticipated impacts because much of the new technologies are untested. Nevertheless, it is possible to anticipate some of detrimental environmental consequences of the new technologies and the 5G network, because we know these technologies will increase exposure to harmful radiation, increase mining of rare minerals, increase waste, and increase energy usage. The main 5G environmental concerns have to do with two of the five new components: the millimeter waves and the small cells. The whole aim of the new 5G network is to allow for more devices to be used by the consumer at faster rates than ever before, because of this goal there will certainly be an increase in energy usage globally. Energy usage is one of the main contributors to climate change today and an increase in energy usage would cause climate change to increase drastically as well. 5G will operate on a higher frequency portion of the spectrum to open new space for more devices. The smaller size of the millimeter waves compared to radio frequency waves allows for more data to be shared more quickly and creates a wide bandwidth that can support much larger tasks.[15] While the idea of more space for devices to be used is great for consumers, this will lead to a spike in energy usage for two reasons – the technology itself is energy demanding and will increase demand for more electronic devices. The ability for more devices to be used on the same network creates more incentive for consumers to buy electronics and use them more often. This will have a harmful impact on the environment through increased energy use. Climate change has several underlying contributors; however, energy usage is gaining attention in its severity with regards to perpetuating climate change. Before 5G has even been released, about 2% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the ICT industry.[16] While 2% may not seem like a very large portion, it translates to around 860 million tons of greenhouse gas emissions.[17] Greenhouse gas emissions are the main contributors to natural disasters, such as flooding and drought, which are increasing severity and occurrence every year. Currently, roughly 85% of the energy used in the United States can be attributed to fossil fuel consumption.[18] The dwindling availability of fossil fuels and the environmental burden of releasing these fossil fuels into our atmosphere signal an immediate need to shift to other energy sources. Without a shift to other forms of energy production and the addition of technology allowed by the implementation of 5G, the strain on our environment will rise and the damage may never be repaired. With an increase in energy usage through technology and the implementation of 5G, it can be expected that the climate change issues faced today will only increase. The overall contribution of carbon dioxide emissions from the ICT industry has a huge impact on climate change and will continue to have even larger impacts without proper actions. In a European Union report, researchers estimated that in order to keep the increase in global temperature below 2° Celsius a decrease in carbon emissions of around 15-30% is necessary by 2020. Engineers claim that the small cells used to provide the 5G connection will be energy efficient and powered in a sustainable way; however the maintenance and production of these cells is more of an issue. Supporters of the 5G network advocate that the small cells will use solar or wind energy to stay sustainable and green.[20] These devices, labeled “fuel-cell energy servers” will work as clean energy-based generators for the small cells.[21] While implementing base stations that use sustainable energy to function would be a step in the right direction in environmental conservation, it is not the solution to the main issue caused by 5G, which is the impact that the massive amount of new devices in the hands of consumers will have on the amount of energy required to power these devices. The wasteful nature of manufacturing and maintenance of both individual devices and the devices used to deliver 5G connection could become a major contributor of climate change. The promise of 5G technology is to expand the number of devices functioning might be the most troubling aspect of the new technology. Cell phones, computers, and other everyday devices are manufactured in a way that puts stress on the environment. A report by the EPA estimated that in 2010, 25% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions comes from electricity and heat production making it the largest single source of emissions.[22] The main gas emitted by this sector is carbon dioxide, due to the burning of natural gas, such as coal, to fuel electricity sources.[23] Carbon dioxide is one of the most common greenhouse gases seen in our atmosphere, it traps heat in earth’s atmosphere trying to escape into space, which causes the atmosphere to warm generating climate change. Increased consumption of devices is taking a toll on the environment. As consumers gain access to more technologies the cycle of consumption only expands. As new devices are developed, the older devices are thrown out even if they are still functional. Often, big companies will purposefully change their products in ways that make certain partner devices (such as chargers or earphones) unusable–creating demand for new products. Economic incentives mean that companies will continue these practices in spite of the environmental impacts. One of the main issues with the 5G network and the resulting increase in consumption of technological devices is that the production required for these devices is not sustainable. In the case of making new devices, whether they be new smart-phones or the small cells needed for 5G, the use of nonrenewable metals is required. It is extremely difficult to use metals for manufacturing sustainably, because metals are not a renewable resource. Metals used in the manufacturing of the smart devices frequently used today often cannot be recycled in the same way many household items can be recycled. Because these technologies cannot be recycled, they create tons of waste when they are created and tons of waste when they are thrown away. There are around six billion mobile devices in use today, with this number expected to increase drastically as the global population increases and new devices enter the market. One estimate of the life-time carbon emissions of a single device–not including related accessories and network connection–is that a device produces a total of 45kg of carbon dioxide at a medium level of usage over three years. This amount of emission is comparable to that of driving the average European car for 300km. But, the most environmentally taxing stage of a mobile device life cycle is during the production stage, where around 68% of total carbon emissions is produced, equating to 30kg of carbon dioxide. To put this into perspective, an iPhone X weighs approximately 0.174kg, so in order to produce the actual device, 172 iPhone X’s worth of carbon dioxide is also created. These emissions vary from person to person and between different devices, but it’s possible to estimate the impact one device has on the environment. 5G grants the capacity for more devices to be used, significantly increase the existing carbon footprint of smart devices today. Energy usage for the ever-growing number of devices on the market and in homes is another environmental threat that would be greatly increased by the new capabilities brought by the 5G network. Often, energy forecasts overlook the amount of energy that will be consumed by new technologies, which leads to a skewed understanding of the actual amount of energy expected to be used.[30] One example of this is with IoT devices.[31] IoT is one of the main aspects of 5G people in the technology field are most excited about. 5G will allow for a larger expansion of IoT into the everyday household.[32] While some IoT devices promise lower energy usage abilities, the 50 billion new IoT devices expected to be produced and used by consumers will surpass the energy used by today’s electronics.
The small cells required for the 5G network to properly function causes another issue of waste with the new network. Because of the weak nature of the millimeter waves used in the 5G technology, small cells will need to be placed around 250 meters apart to insure continuous connection. The main issue with these small cells is that the manufacturing and maintenance of these cells will create a lot of waste. The manufacturing of technology takes a large toll on the environment, due to the consumption of non-renewable resources to produce devices, and technology ending up in landfills. Implementing these small cells into large cities where they must be placed at such a high density will have a drastic impact on technology waste. Technology is constantly changing and improving, which is one of the huge reasons it has such high economic value. But, when a technological advancement in small cells happens, the current small cells would have to be replaced. The short lifespan of devices created today makes waste predictable and inevitable. In New York City, where there would have to be at least 3,135,200 small cells, the waste created in just one city when a new advancement in small cells is implemented would have overwhelming consequences on the environment. 5G is just one of many examples of how important it is to look at the consequences of new advancements before their implementation. While it is exciting to see new technology that promises to improve everyday life, the consequences of additional waste and energy usage must be considered to preserve a sustainable environment in the future. There is some evidence that the new devices and technologies associated with 5G will be harmful to delicate ecosystems. The main component of the 5G network that will affect the earth’s ecosystems is the millimeter waves. The millimeter waves that are being used in developing the 5G network have never been used at such scale before. This makes it especially difficult to know how they will impact the environment and certain ecosystems. However, studies have found that there are some harms caused by these new technologies. The millimeter waves, specifically, have been linked to many disturbances in the ecosystems of birds. In a study by the Centre for Environment and Vocational Studies of Punjab University, researchers observed that after exposure to radiation from a cell tower for just 5-30 minutes, the eggs of sparrows were disfigured.[34] The disfiguration of birds exposed for such a short amount of time to these frequencies is significant considering that the new 5G network will have a much higher density of base stations (small cells) throughout areas needing connection. The potential dangers of having so many small cells all over areas where birds live could cause whole populations of birds to have mutations that threaten their population’s survival. Additionally, a study done in Spain showed breeding, nesting, and roosting was negatively affected by microwave radiation emitted by a cell tower. Again, the issue of the increase in the amount of connection conductors in the form of small cells to provide connection with the 5G network is seen to be harmful to species that live around humans. Additionally, Warnke found that cellular devices had a detrimental impact on bees.[36] In this study, beehives exposed for just ten minutes to 900MHz waves fell victim to colony collapse disorder.Colony collapse disorder is when many of the bees living in the hive abandon the hive leaving the queen, the eggs, and a few worker bees. The worker bees exposed to this radiation also had worsened navigational skills, causing them to stop returning to their original hive after about ten days. Bees are an incredibly important part of the earth’s ecosystem. Around one-third of the food produced today is dependent on bees for pollination, making bees are a vital part of the agricultural system. Bees not only provide pollination for the plant-based food we eat, but they are also important to maintaining the food livestock eats. Without bees, a vast majority of the food eaten today would be lost or at the very least highly limited. Climate change has already caused a large decline in the world’s bee population. The impact that the cell towers have on birds and bees is important to understand, because all ecosystems of the earth are interconnected. If one component of an ecosystem is disrupted the whole system will be affected. The disturbances of birds with the cell towers of today would only increase, because with 5G a larger number of small cell radio-tower-like devices would be necessary to ensure high quality connection for users. Having a larger number of high concentrations of these millimeter waves in the form of small cells would cause a wider exposure to bees and birds, and possibly other species that are equally important to our environment.As innovation continues, it is important that big mobile companies around the world consider the impact 5G will have on the environment before pushing to have it widely implemented. The companies pushing for the expansion of 5G may stand to make short term economic gains. While the new network will undoubtedly benefit consumers greatly, looking at 5G’s long-term environmental impacts is also very important so that the risks are clearly understood and articulated. The technology needed to power the new 5G network will inevitably change how mobile devices are used as well as their capabilities. This technological advancement will also change the way technology and the environment interact. The change from using radio waves to using millimeter waves and the new use of small cells in 5G will allow more devices to be used and manufactured, more energy to be used, and have detrimental consequences for important ecosystems. While it is unrealistic to call for 5G to not become the new network norm, companies, governments, and consumers should be proactive and understand the impact that this new technology will have on the environment. 5G developers should carry out Environmental Impact Assessments that fully estimate the impact that the new technology will have on the environment before rushing to widely implement it. Environmental Impact Assessments are intended to assess the impact new technologies have on the environment, while also maximizing potential benefits to the environment. This process mitigates, prevents, and identifies environmental harm, which is imperative to ensuring that the environment is sustainable and sound in the future. Additionally, the method of Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) of devices would also be extremely beneficial for understanding the impact that 5G will inevitably have on the environment. An LCA can be used to assess the impact that devices have on carbon emissions throughout their life span, from the manufacturing of the device to the energy required to power the device and ultimately the waste created when the device is discarded into a landfill or other disposal system. By having full awareness of the impact new technology will have on the environment ways to combat the negative impacts can be developed and implemented effectively.
jsis.washington.edu/news/what-will-5g-mean-for-the-enviro...
Ecosystem services - I recently contributed illustration for the DEFRA Natural Environment White Paper, which is launched today. DEFRA - The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs is a government department in the UK. You can download the Natural Environment White Paper here
www.defra.gov.uk/environment/natural/whitepaper/
The Natural Environment White Paper is a bold and ambitious statement outlining the Government’s vision for the natural environment over the next 50 years, backed up with practical action to deliver that ambition.
Nature is sometimes taken for granted and undervalued. But people cannot flourish without the benefits and services our natural environment provides. A healthy, properly functioning natural environment is the foundation of sustained economic growth, prospering communities and personal wellbeing.
© Rod Hunt 2011
View Rod Hunt full portfolio here
On September 01, 2007, the most ambitious program yet to resettle Mumbai's ‘Dharavi’ slum entered an active phase, promising to free the city of the biggest embarrassment in its quest to become a global business destination. An Indian government agency began evaluating "prequalification" bids submitted by developers across the world to build housing and social infrastructure to resettle the slum's residents. About 57,000 families with about 340,000 people and hundreds of small businesses currently occupy the 535-acre stretch in mostly illegal structures that have multiplied over decades.
The new "ecosystem" that will replace the slum was conceived by Mr. Mukesh Mehta, a U.S.-trained architect whose firm is the project's manager. Mr. Mehta has become India's pre-eminent slum-rehab guru: He has taken on a handful of similar projects in other cities including Hyderabad and Ahmadabad, and he wants to replicate his model of replacing slums with sustainable ecosystems across the country and in other emerging economies. Mr. Mehta's firm, M. M. Project Consultants, where he is chairman, is also overseeing a project to resettle and rehabilitate between 60,000 and 80,000 families in a slum stretch near Mumbai's international airport, in order to make room for a project already underway to upgrade and expand infrastructure there. India Knowledge@Wharton spoke to Mr. Mehta and Mr. Sanjay Reddy, Chief Executive Officer of Mumbai International Airport (Pvt) Ltd., about the impact these projects will have and any potential challenges that lie ahead.
For the ‘Dharavi’ rehabilitation, 26 consortia comprising 78 companies have filed preliminary bids. The project's total cost is estimated at Rs. 9,250 crore ($2.3 billion), covering housing, civic infrastructure and amenities. It will be distributed across five contracts valued at between Rs. 1,000 crore ($250 million) and Rs. 2,500 crore ($625 million) each. Winning bidders will pay a "premium" to the government in exchange for the development rights. Mr. Mehta says the state government could collect premiums totalling as much as Rs. 4,000 crore ($1 billion), which will come out of the developers' profits.
Mr. Mehta says bidders that meet prequalification criteria will be short-listed by the end of September, and then asked to submit detailed proposals. By early December, he expects to announce the successful bidders, and ground should be broken by January of next year.
Public-Private Partnerships
Mr. Mehta's model is designed to cross-subsidize free housing and infrastructure with for-sale housing and commercial space. Under the plan, developers will provide free housing of 225 sq. ft. to each of 57,000 families. These would be one-room studio apartments with an attached bath and kitchen, plus related utilities and amenities including schools, colleges, hospitals and parks. The developers will offset their costs with for-sale housing and commercial space at market rates. Some of that will come from the market prices residents and commercial establishments like shops will be required to pay for space greater than 225-sq.-ft. A portion of the developers' revenues from these for-sale properties will accrue to the government as a premium.
"All the world's eyes are on Dharavi," says Mr. Mehta about the bidding interest the project has generated so far. The bidders include many of India's major industrial groups such as Reliance; engineering and construction firm Larsen & Toubro; and real estate developers DLF, Hiranandani Constructions, the K. Raheja Group, Tata Housing and Mahindra Gesco. Several foreign companies have also shown interest in bidding, including real estate developer Hines of Houston, Tex.; Ascendas and Capitaland of Singapore; and Emaar Properties of Dubai.
Mr. Mehta acknowledges that the project's schedule could be thrown off course by legal squabbles, bureaucratic delays, disputes between and with slum dwellers, and any opposition from local politicians, underworld slumlords and other interested parties. He says that the project's very economic and social logic will hopefully overwhelm critics, and he routinely addresses local meetings to garner support. He adds that the courts should play a supportive role, because they "have understood the slum rehabilitation scheme and are aware that this has been going on for 10 years."
A City within a City
Mumbai's slums hold 55% of the city's 12 million residents, or 1.2 million families in 1,126 slum pockets, as a survey by Mr. Mehta's firm revealed. ‘Dharavi’ is the most high profile for a variety of reasons, including its prime location straddling the city's eastern and western corridors, flourishing small and medium businesses, a reputation for spawning crime, and chronic unsanitary conditions on which the city's municipality appears to have given up.
"This is now my life's work," says Mr. Mehta, 56, who was born into a wealthy family that ran steel mills and other businesses in India's Gujarat state. ‘Dharavi’ was far from his mind when he graduated with a degree in architecture in India and then left the country to obtain his master's degree at the Pratt Institute in New York City in 1984. While in the U.S., he developed expensive, custom homes in Long Island's affluent Nassau County. Until 1997, he shuttled between the U.S. and India while running a few businesses, but eventually closed them all down to focus on his ‘Dharavi’ project.
Mr. Mehta literally stumbled upon ‘Dharavi’ when he returned from the U.S. He says he was galvanized by the combination of filth, squalor, poverty, enterprise and the locked potential of the slum's prime location, and began to work on a rehabilitation plan. He set up his offices in ‘Dharavi’ "to understand who I am dealing with, and interact at the grassroots level with the slum dwellers."
Perversely, ‘Dharavi’ is also emblematic of the survival instincts of Mumbai's continually expanding population in the face of infrastructure unable to keep pace. About 300 new immigrant families are said to enter the city as permanent residents every day. Meanwhile, the slum residents have started hundreds of small businesses in pottery, leather craft, plastics and metal recycling, cottage-industry electronics and garments. "Show me a single beggar in Dharavi," says Mr. Mehta, underscoring his point that the suburb has the potential to transform itself from an eyesore into an economic engine for the city.
Government Planning Shortcomings
Over the years, successive governments have attempted to rehabilitate Dharavi's slum dwellers, and it became one of the first targets of non-government organizations looking for suitable projects. Mr. Mehta felt many of these went about the task in a piecemeal fashion. He drafted an alternative plan that he pitched to the state government in 1997.
Mr. Mehta says the government's plan at that time was "brilliant," in that it sought to use public-private partnerships to extract value from the land on which the slum dwellers resided, by allowing for-sale development options. But it suffered from some fundamental shortcomings, he notes. Most important of all was the failure to recognize the organic and haphazard ways in which slums proliferate into every available area: Lacking contiguous settlements or rectangular plots, they don't allow for conventional master planning.
Dharavi's redevelopment occurred only in those pockets where developers were able to secure the required consent from residents in any slum (70%). But because these pockets were typically mapped out in irregular plots and in what continued to be a slum neighbourhood, the for-sale housing went for low prices. The government, for the most part, kept a hands-off approach after laying down project specifications.
The poorly staffed government machinery was unable to enforce the project specifications on construction quality, and rampant corruption made things worse, says Mr. Mehta. The roughly 100,000 homes that have been built in this manner so far "will become vertical slums," he says. Moreover, he adds, development under the government's plan is not sustainable. "Unless I improve the ability of the slum dwellers to generate income and live the modified lifestyle, they cannot maintain their new housing."
Mr. Mehta proposed a master plan for the entire slum – an integrated, sustainable development approach called HIKES (health, income, knowledge, environment and socio-cultural development). Mr. Mehta says the HIKES approach allows slum dwellers "to maximize their opportunities and be respected for who they are" in terms of their own achievements. The government gave the plan enthusiastic support.
"With HIKES, the chance of [slum residents] leading a sustainable, improved life is greater than you would get by providing just housing," says Mr. Mehta. "This is the mistake that all the developing countries are making – China, Mexico, Brazil, South Africa, Turkey and Malaysia. They are thinking of slum rehabilitation as a housing issue. Housing is only one part of it; the larger part is human resources."
Leveraging Location
‘Dharavi’ has several advantages in terms of its location. It is the only Mumbai suburb with connections to all three of the city's commuter rail corridors (Western, Central and Harbour lines). It is also less than two miles from the airport, and a third of a mile from the new Bandra-Kurla commercial complex.
The integrated development approach and the prospect of a slum-free suburb emerging in ‘Dharavi’ made it easier to market the project to businesses, academic establishments and professional associations. Mr. Mehta lists a string of collaborations that have been struck so far:
A collaboration with the All India Association of Day Surgeons ensures that in exchange for space to house day surgery polyclinics, its member doctors would provide free or subsidized services to slum residents.
Alliances with primary and secondary schools to set up facilities in ‘Dharavi.’ For every free school an educational institution puts up, it will get space for a full fee-paying school, provided the quality of education is the same at both schools.
An agreement with the National Institute of Design (NID) in Ahmadabad to allow for Dharavi's leather crafts and pottery industries to turn out designer brands. "So far they are only imitating the Guccis and the Pierre Cardins and the Christian Diors of the world," says Mr. Mehta. "NID has agreed to upgrade the skills of the leather craftsmen and make ceramists of the potters." A few brand-name retail chains like Metro Shoes and Hi-Design have agreed to market the leather crafts produced through such ventures. Mr. Mehta sees similar possibilities in a range of other industries, from garments to toys and food products.
A provisional agreement with the Gems & Jewellery Export Promotion Council for its members to set up 300 factories and hire 250 people for each, creating a total of 75,000 jobs with an average annual income of Rs. 100,000 ($2,500). Mr. Mehta says this would be a big income generator even if only a third of those employees are hired from ’Dharavi.’ He says this initiative is estimated to generate exports worth $1.5 billion annually.
A project to create a golf driving range in the middle of ‘Dharavi’ has gotten traction among some big businesses such as the Reliance Group, says Mr. Mehta, who argues it would prevent encroachment of vacant land and draw the wealthy into ‘Dharavi.’ Another of Mr. Mehta's ideas is to set up a cricket museum in the suburb. He sees both possibilities as efforts to help integrate the slum population with mainstream middle- and upper-income groups.
Mr. Mehta claims the revised regulations for sewerage, storm water drainage and other utilities are in line with international standards. "We have looked at eco-housing criteria. We're talking about alternative sources of energy, solid waste recycling and management, recycling water, rain water harvesting, energy conservation and even issues related to global warming, at the infrastructure level," he says.
Further, Mr. Mehta's firm has also rewritten much of the earlier regulations that he felt held site planning and construction norms to low compliance requirements. The mandatory space required between two buildings has been doubled from the earlier level to 20 ft.; similarly, open space requirements, as a proportion of construction area, was increased from 8% to 15% of the developed area.
Under the earlier regime, homes could not get "even light and air ventilation properly," Mr. Mehta says. Some developers "cheated on the 8% open space norm by providing 1% here, 3% somewhere else and 4% in a third place, with the result that you don't even get one maidan [Hindi for "playground"]," he adds. Slum dwellers needed more open space than others, he argues, "because their per-capita housing space is less and the density is higher."
Will people used to the ways of a slum adopt a new outlook about upkeep and keep their surroundings clean? Mr. Mehta isn't taking chances: Deals are in place for all providers of utilities and services, including plumbing, elevators and exterior paint to maintain and undertake repairs free of charge for the first 15 years. Developers, too, will be required to maintain the buildings they erect for 15 years.
Mr. Mehta doesn't see slum proliferation through encroachment as a recurring problem in the areas that will be developed. The residents, as owners of their new dwellings, will prevent that, he says. "If it is your fiefdom or your area you will not let anybody come in." The resettled families will have an initial 30-year lease, with automatic renewal for another 30 years. For each home they build, developers will put Rs. 20,000 ($400) in an escrow account to finance its upkeep; the homeowner will meet costs beyond that. All that comes with a caveat: residents cannot sell their homes for the first 10 years.
Mr. Mehta says his firm's responsibility for managing the project runs "until the last slum dweller is re-housed." That may take about seven years from now, he says. His firm currently has 68 employees; he expects that to grow to more than 350 by the time construction starts in December.
A Different Set of Challenges
The public-private partnership model is also a key driver at the other big slum resettlement project on Mr. Mehta's plate, near the city's international airport. At an estimated cost of Rs.7,200 crore ($1.75 billion), the expansion and upgrade of Mumbai's international airport is among the largest private-sector infrastructure projects underway in the country. Plans are to double both annual passenger capacity to 40 million annually and cargo capacity to 1 million tons.
But to make way for that expansion, the project's promoter – Mumbai International Airport (Pvt) Ltd. (MIAL) – has to clear 276 acres in the airport's vicinity. That stretch includes a slum that houses between 60,000 and 80,000 families. The plans are to resettle them into new housing at another location within a six-mile radius. "They have their social and financial sustenance in this locality, so there would be huge resistance if we try to move them too far out," says Mr. Sanjay Reddy, Chief Executive Officer of MIAL, whose family-run GVK Group is a 74% joint venture partner with the public sector Airports Authority of India (26%).
Mr. Reddy's firm has already identified the lots where it plans to build the new housing, and is in the process of selecting a developer. "We took over the airport's operations about a year ago and are doing many things in parallel," he says. "The first is to continue running the existing facility. Second, we are simultaneously working on improving the operations. The third leg of the project is to redevelop the slum land in the airport area."
But Mr. Mehta notes that having to move people out of the area will likely make for a more challenging project. "Slums are really a vote bank for the political parties," he says. "Even if you can convince the slum dwellers to move and give them a better lifestyle, the political parties obstruct it because they lose their votes. Local politicians don't want to see a vote base they have cultivated for many years suddenly vanish."
Mr. Reddy says MIAL has so far been successful in persuading politicians to cooperate. "We have gotten a lot of support form political, bureaucratic and government officials," he says. "We cannot do anything without them." However, he adds that securing records related to the land and its dwellers has been "a messy affair."
The airport slum resettlement project shares many of the features of the ‘Dharavi’ model. Mr. Mehta says the effort here is also to have an integrated, sustainable development approach with public-private partnerships. "Here, too, we would work for a similar kind of township approach, and maybe even generate opportunities for income generation with skill development and capacity building," he says.
(Courtesy Knowledge@Wharton Network managed by the Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania – U.S.A.)
Related web links :
‘Dharavi’ – largest slum in Asia
‘Dharavi’ – Life in a slum
news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/world/06/dharavi_slum/html...
As Mumbai booms, the poor of its notorious ‘Dharavi’ slum find themselves living in some of India's hottest real estate
www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0705/feature3/
Mumbai slum dwellers fight development plan
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6970800.stm
State makes more squatters eligible for ‘Dharavi’ rehabilitation
economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/PoliticsNation/State_ma...
Reference :
Mike Davis on a planet of slums
www.socialistworker.co.uk/article.php?article_id=9073
The growth of the global slums
www.socialistworker.co.uk/article.php?article_id=9074
Urban population to overtake country dwellers for first time
www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,1798774,00.html
PHOTO : ‘Dharavi’ slum, Mumbai. Photo with courtesy of National Geographic Magazine Interactive Edition published by the National Geographic Society, U.S.A.
Source of Photo :
www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0705/feature3/
Source of Main article :
knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/india/article.cfm?articleid=4223