# PRELIMINARY FINDINGS WITHHELD PENDING INDEPENDENT SCIENTIFIC BODY/TEAM INVESTIGATIONS. PLEASE CONTACT MR. TRONA FOR ANY ADDTL. INQUIRIES [WITH THE EXCEPTION OF ANY/ALL LEGAL ISSUES, WHICH SHOULD BE FF TO MR. TRONA'S ATTORNEY [ADDRESS: TWILIGHT ZONE]. WORD TO THE WISE: THE ATTORNEY IS QUITE INSANE, BUT MORE CHARMING THAN MR. TRONA, NO SURPRISES. AS AN ASIDE, I BELIEVE HE HAS A FUNCTIONAL UNDERSTANDING OF WHAT THE "POP CULTURE" IDENTIFIES AS "TIME TRAVEL," ALTHOUGH IN PRACTICE... WELL, I'LL NEED TO REVIEW YOUR CLEARANCE FIRST. INCIDENTALLY, I BELIEVE HE IS ONE OF THE INSPIRATIONS THAT HST USED FOR HIS ATTORNEY CHARACTER FROM "FEAR AND LOATHING IN LAS VEGAS," CONTRARY TO SOME POP LITERARY THEORIES.] THANK YOU.

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# IMAGERY from THE TRONA LO-FI OBSERVATORY -- DATA SET ANALYTICAL STATUS: ACTIVE

  

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TRONA TAGS: #FILM #35mm #MULTIPLEEXPOSURE #ANOMALY #DISCOVERY #SOUTHCENTRALTEXASANOMALY #POSSIBLERELATIONTOSOUTHAMERICANANOMALY #CONFINEDBYINTENSITYOFEARTHMAGNETICFIELDATLESSTHAN32KNANOTESLAATSEALEVEL #POTENTIALLYCORRESPONDSTOTHEDIPOLARMAGNETICFIELDATIONOSPHERICALTITUDES #TRONALOFISCIENCE #LOFIREDSCALEIMAGERY #REDSCALE #TRONASCIENCE #TRONASCIFI #DIMENSIONALITY #MISTERTRONA #STARS #SKY #DARKTEXASSKY #STRANGETEXASSKY #WTF #THELIMINALFRAMESERIES #AUTOMATICALLYGENERATEDTAG

  

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# PRINCIPALLY REDSCALE IMAGERY

Absolutely love this figure, damn. This was the only good shot I could get using the Cobra logo as a backdrop.

Classified as being in the family Hyacinthaceae, they have also been placed amongst the Liliaceae as a member of the Hyacintheae tribe. There are about forty species. These are subdivided into four groups, or subgenera; Botryanthus, Pseudomuscari, Leopoldia and Muscarimia. Leopoldia and Pseudomuscari have been considered by some authorities (e.g. Kew and Mobot) to have genus status.

The nature of the missions that G.I. Joe finds itself involved in can have its operatives sent anywhere. After receiving word of gunfire and explosions along a river delta, the Joe team has appropriately dispatched divers to investigate the disturbed waters. On the outside looking in, someone would likely expect a deeper body of water to justify each of these Sailors carrying a generous personal arsenal. But with how ambitious - and arguably unhinged - Cobra's weapons research has become, fortune would justify those who came better prepared...

 

My 60th Anniversary Action Sailor makes his solo debut here! The original box art of the 1960s G.I. Joe sailor featured a deep-sea diver with a combat knife and a bundle of TNT. With Hasbro electing to have its modern-day tribute kitted out in a similar get-up, I suppose it was the look that the project managers considered to be the most "exciting" in the 1960s, and what experts call here in the present, "tacti-cool."

Mesa Arch is classified as a pothole arch. The arch was formed by surface water pooling on the sandstone behind the arch which slowly eroded the rock. This erosion resulted in an arch that is suspended across the mesa’s edge.

I happened to find our favorite warrant officer at Target last week, along with Lady Jaye, and I decided to pick them up. I'm a year late to the G.I.Joe Classified party, but I have my reasons. Now that the figures look better I'm going to give this line a shot.

ev GVU 134 Utrecht a Verheul Holland Coach from 1955 here in Rotterdam, Rotterdam Art Festival on 5 Febr. 2015. The bus is owned by SVA - Stichting Veteraan Autobussen. Wonderful old Utrecht city bus, no power steering, semi autimatic, power brakes, great festival public, the other terminus was the old Van Nelle factory, now a classified building, me driving. I used to go to school with cars like this.

Rotterdam

Zuid-Holland

Nederland

Photo by ; Maurits Vink

5 Feb 2015

G.I.Joe Commander

 

I did make a few alterations to this one. I hated the hands they chose for him, so I swapped them out for some extra Neca MacReady hands I had. Also repainted his hair blonde for a more comic accurate look.

22/05/2023, Kråkøya Kysthavn, Trøndelag, Norway.

 

Classified as a small chemical tanker. Actually used as a silage vessel, assisting in the collection, management and re-distribution of fish farm wastage.

 

See the video here - but give it a moment or two to load:

scanbio.com/about-scanbio/#vessels

 

Keel laid on 05/11/2010, launched on 16/02/2011, and completed on 11/10/2011.

 

Hull built by Poltramp Yard, Swinoujscie, Poland (47/10)

Outfitting and completion by Blaalid Slip & Mek Verksted AS, Raudeberg, Norway (35)

499 g.t. and 630 dwt., as:

'Haugfjord'.

 

Photo with the kind permission of Ovanes Agaryan.

photo: expired color fuji 400 film / pentax film camera

photo theme: veteran dadt.repeal / social issue class project

subject: iconography

soldier: j.b.

location: fort sutter california

photographer: alex calder

human rights

04/100

Great Central Railway class 11F Improved Director, 4-4-0 506 Butler Henderson stands in the yard at Loughborough Central some time in 1974.

 

Locomotive History

506 was the first of thirty five engines built between December 1919 and November 1924 and were classified as class D11 by the London and North Eastern Railway. Withdrawals commenced in September 1958 and the last D11 was withdrawn in 1962. The prototype engine, Butler-Henderson was built at the Great Central Railway works at Gorton and entered traffic in December 1919. It was renumbered 5506 in 1924 and 2660 in 1946 by the London and North Eastern Railway and became 62660 under British Railways. 62660 was withdrawn in November 1960 and as the only surviving Great Central Railway passenger locomotive it was restored to Great Central Railway condition for static display at the British Transport Commission Museum at Clapham. With the demise of the museum at Clapham in 1975 506 entered the National Collection and was loaned to the Main Line Steam Trust (now The Great Central Railway). Restoration to running condition started in 1981, and 506 returned to steam in 1982. 506 was moved to the National Railway Museum at York after its boiler certificate expired in 1992 and is currently (April 2014) located at Barrow Hill.

 

Rescanned and re-edited from original negative 4th November 2018.

 

Hanimex Compact, Ilford FP4

 

SN/NC: Persea Americana, Laureaceae Family

 

The avocado (Persea Americana), a tree with probable origin in south-central Mexico, is classified as a member of the flowering plant family Lauraceae. The fruit of the plant also called an avocado (or avocado pear or alligator pear), is botanically a large berry containing a single large seed. Avocados are commercially valuable and are cultivated in tropical and Mediterranean climates throughout the world. They have a green-skinned, fleshy body that may be pear-shaped, egg-shaped, or spherical. Commercially, they ripen after harvesting. Avocado trees are partially self-pollinating and are often propagated through grafting to maintain predictable fruit quality and quantity. In 2017, Mexico produced34% of the world's supply of avocados. The word "avocado" comes from the Spanish aguacate, which in turn comes from the Nahuatl word āhuacatl [aːˈwakat͡ɬ], which goes back to the theproto-Aztecan *pa:wa which also meant "avocado".Sometimes the Nahuatl word was used with the meaning "testicle", probably because of the likeness between the fruit and the body part. The modern English name comes from an English rendering of the Spanish aguacate as avogato. The earliest known written use in English is attested from 1697 as "avocado pear", a term which was later corrupted as "alligator pear". Because the word avogato sounded like"advocate", several languages reinterpreted it to have that meaning. French uses avocat, which also means lawyer, and"advocate" — forms of the word appear in several Germanic languages, such as the (now obsolete) German Advogato-Birne, the old Danish advokat-pære (today is called avocado), and the Dutch advocaatpeer. Regional Names: In other Central American and Caribbean Spanish-speaking countries, it is known by the Mexican name, while South American Spanish-speaking countries use a Quechua-derived word, palta. InPortuguese, it is abacate. The fruit is sometimes called an avocado pear or alligator pear (due to its shape and the rough green skin of some cultivars). The Nahuatl āhuacatl can be compounded with other words, as in ahuacamolli, meaning avocado soup or sauce, from which the Spanish word guacamole derives. In the United Kingdom, the term avocado pear is still sometimes misused as applied when avocados first became commonly available in the 1960s. Originating as a diminutive in Australian English, a clipped form, avo, has since become a common colloquialism in South Africa and the United Kingdom. It is known as"butter fruit" in parts of India.

 

O abacate é o frutocomestível do abacateiro (Persea americana), uma árvore da família da Lauraceae nativa do México ouda América do Sul, hoje extensamente cultivada em regiões tropicais e subtropicais,inclusive nas Ilhas Canárias, na Ilha da Madeira e na Sicília."Abacate" originou-se do náuatle, língua falada por grupos indígenasque habitavam o México e El Salvador. O vocábulo āhuacatl, naquele idioma, significa "testículo" e foi utilizado para nomear o fruto. Tem mais de 30% de gorduras (extraída comercialmente da semente, como do mesocarpo do fruto e de aplicação cosmética ), é rico em açúcares e vitaminas e possui umdos mais elevados teores de proteínas evitamina A entre as frutas. Possui, ainda, quantidades úteis de ferro,magnésio e vitaminas C, E e B6 ,além da vitamina A. É consumido isoladamente ou em saladas temperadas com molhos, como no guacamole,prato da culinária mexicana, ou como sobremesa, batido com leite e açúcar ou com açúcar e limão, em Moçambique e no Brasil. De janeiro a dezembro, com ênfase em abril e maio. É realizada normalmente utilizando escadas e tesouras apropriadas, ou "apanhadores de saco" que são utilizados para colher os frutos nas partes mais altas da árvore. Os frutos não devem ser colhidos sem pedúnculo, os quais devem ser aparados, deixando-se 6 a 10mm de seu comprimento para facilitar o acondicionamento na embalagem. O abacate era amplamente cultivado antes da conquista espanhola, mas só mereceu a atenção dos horticultores no século XIX. O nome náuatle do fruto é ahuacatl (o qual significa "testículo", em referência a sua forma), que originou, em espanhol, a palavra aguacate .O abacate é um fruto arredondado ou piriforme, de peso médio de 500 a 1 500g. Sua casca varia, em colorido, do verde aovermelho-escuro, passando pelo pardo, violáceo ou negro. As suas duas principais variedades são a Strong (cor verde) e a Hass (cor roxa). A árvore, o abacateiro, atinge até 30m e cresce melhor em climas quentes. Recentemente começou a ser comercializado na Europa uma nova variedade de abacate, desenvolvido pela empresa norte-americana Apeel, e que irá ter uma vida média 2 vezes superior ao das variedades existente. Além do seu valor nutritivo a Persea americana é amplamente utilizada na Medicina Ayurvédica para o tratamento de várias doenças, tais como hipertensão, dor de estômago, bronquite, diarreia,e diabetes. Pesquisas tem evidenciado que seu extrato aquoso tem atividade analgésica e anti-inflamatória comparável ao ácido acetilsalicílico. Na década de 1960 alguns estudos realizados por Grant demonstraram que o consumo do abacate ocasionou uma diminuição do colesterol de 8,7 a 42,8%. Mais tarde, no ano de 1992, uma pesquisa no Hospital Geral de Morélia observou uma diminuição significativa tanto no nível de colesterol quanto no nível plasmático de triglicérides. A diminuição do triglicérides foi inesperada visto que o abacate caracteriza-se como uma das frutas mais ricas em triglicérides. (Pamplona, p. 75). Normalmente o ferro que se encontra nos vegetais é assimilado com maior dificuldade pelo organismo, no entanto, o ferro do abacate é relativamente melhor assimilado do que outros alimentos de origem vegetal, mesmo este não sendo do tipo "hem" (Ibid., 75)

 

El aguacate (Persea americana), también conocido como palta (quechua), cura, avocado (inglés) o abacate (portugués) es un árbol con fruto comestible que pertenece a la familia Lauraceae,una de las más antiguas entre las plantas con flores. En esta familia seincluyen alrededor de 3,000 especies principalmente arbóreas de regionestropicales y subtropicales, incluyendo a la canela (Cinnamomumverum), al laurel (Laurus nobilis) y al árbol de sasafrás (Sassafras albidum). "Antesque los humanos gozáramos de los aguacates, fueron un fruto preferido de losgrandes mamíferos de la Edad de Hielo." El género Persea tienealrededor de 90 especies en América, desde el centro de México hastaCentroamérica. Su centro de origen parece ser Mesoamérica y particularmente losbosques nublados. El nombre aguacate proviene del náhuatl ahuacatl,que significa "testículos del árbol". El árbol crece hasta 20 metrosde altura, pero generalmente en los cultivos se mantiene de menos de cincometros. Su nombre proviene del náhuatl ahuacatl, que significa"testículos de árbol". El árbol crece hasta 20 metros de altura, perogeneralmente en los cultivos se mantiene de menos de 5 metros. Del aguacate (Perseaamericana) se reconocen tres razas o variedades botánicas:mexicana, auácatl (P.a. var. drymioflia);guatemalteca, quilauácatl (P.a. var. guatemalensis),y antillana tlacozalauácatl (P.a. var. americana)que dan lugar a una gran cantidad de híbridos. Existen una gran diversidad decultivares nativos, que actualmente son conocidos en muchas regiones como"criollos". Además, en los últimos 100 años, se han desarrolladoalrededor de 400 cultivares, entre los que sobresalen "Fuerte","Hass", "Bacon", "Pinkerton", "Gwen" y"Reed". Sabía usted que el aguacate (palta), ha sido llamado elalimento más perfecto del mundo? Se ha logrado esta distinción porquemuchos nutricionistas afirman que no sólo contiene todo lo que unapersona necesita para sobrevivir; pero también se ha encontrado que contribuyea la prevención y control de la enfermedad como Alzheimer, cáncer, diabetes,enfermedades cardíacas y otras condiciones de salud. El aguacate (Perseagratissima o P. americana) se originó en Puebla, México y su uso más antiguo seremonta a 10.000 años AC. Desde el año 900, el árbol de aguacate se hacultivado y cultiva en América Central y del Sur. En el siglo 19, elaguacate hizo su entrada en California, y se ha convertido en uncultivo comercial muy exitoso. Noventa y cinco por ciento (95%) de losaguacates producidos en los EE.UU. crecen en el sur de California. El aguacate, tieneun alto contenido de fibra, sodio, y libre de colesterol, alimentoque proporciona cerca de 20 nutrientes esenciales, incluyendo la fibra. Esrico en grasas saludables monoinsaturadas y poliinsaturadas (como los ácidosgrasos omega 3), vitaminas A, C, D, E K, y vitaminas del complejo B (tiamina,riboflavina,niacina, ácido pantoténico, biotina, vitamina B-6, vitamina B-12 yácido fólico), así como el potasio. Los alimentos naturalmente ricos enácidos grasos omega 3, como el aguacate, son ampliamente reconocidos como elsecreto para tener un corazón sano, un cerebro brillante y ojosde águila. El Dr. Daniel G. Amen, un neurocientífico clínico,psiquiatra, experto en creación de imágenes del cerebro y autor del bestsellerdel New York Times, "Cambia tu Cerebro, Cambia tu Vida"incluye al aguacate como uno de los alimentos más importantes quepuede ayudar a prevenir la enfermedad de Alzheimer. Eso no sólo a causa del contenidoen ácidos grasos omega-3 del aguacate, sino también su contenido de vitaminaE (revista internacional llamada "Enfermedades y TrastornosAsociados al Alzheimer", presentó sus conclusiones de años de ensayosclínicos); las dosis elevadas de vitamina E pueden neutralizar losradicales libres y la acumulación de proteínas para revertirla pérdida de memoria en los pacientes de Alzheimer; contrarrestarlos síntomas del Alzheimer en las etapas temprana y retrasar la progresión dela enfermedad; el contenido de folato ayuda a prevenir la formaciónde las fibras nerviosas enredadas asociados con la enfermedad de Alzheimer.Las virtudes del aguacate son demasiado numerosas para mencionarlas, pero aquíseñalamos algunos cuantos beneficios para la salud que su perfil nutricionalproporciona: Las grasas monoinsaturadas - Estostipos de grasas ayudan a controlar los triglicéridos en la sangre, disminuir elcolesterol en la sangre y controlar la diabetes. El folato -Esta vitamina B soluble en agua-promueve el desarrollo saludable de las célulasy tejidos. Según el "Instituto Nacional de la Oficina de Salud de losSuplementos Dietéticos", "Esto es especialmente importantedurante los períodos de rápida división celular y el crecimiento como en lainfancia y el embarazo. El folato es también esencial para el metabolismo de lahomocisteína y ayuda a mantener niveles normales de este aminoácido." Luteína -Este es un carotenoide (pigmento natural) que protege contra las cataratas yciertos tipos de cáncer, y reduce el riesgo de degeneración macular, laprincipal causa de ceguera en adultos de 65 años de edad y mayores.Losaguacates contienen tres veces o más luteína que en otras verduras y frutascomunes. Ácido oleico y Potasio - Ambos nutrientestambién ayudan a reducir el colesterol y reducir el riesgo de presión arterialalta. Asi que ya sabe... A COMER AGUACATE ! ! !

 

De avocado(Persea americana), een boom met vermoedelijke oorsprong in zuid-centraalMexico, is geclassificeerd als een lid van de bloeiende plantenfamilieLauraceae. De vrucht van de plant, ook wel avocado (of avocado-peer ofalligatorpeer) genoemd, is botanisch gezien een grote bes die één groot zaadbevat. Avocado's zijn commercieel waardevol en worden over de hele wereld intropische en mediterrane klimaten gekweekt. Ze hebben een groen, vlezig lichaamdat peervormig, eivormig of bolvormig kan zijn. Commercieel rijpen ze na deoogst. Avocadobomen zijn gedeeltelijk zelfbestuivend en worden vaak vermeerderddoor enten om een ​​voorspelbare fruitkwaliteit en kwantiteit te behouden. In2017 produceerde Mexico 34% van het wereldaanbod aan avocado's. Het woord"avocado" komt van het Spaanse aguacate, dat op zijn beurt komt vanhet Nahuatl-woord āhuacatl [aːˈwakat͡ɬ], dat teruggaat op het proto-Azteekse*pa:wa wat ook "avocado" betekende. Soms werd het Nahuatl-woordgebruikt met de betekenis "testikel", waarschijnlijk vanwege degelijkenis tussen de vrucht en het lichaamsdeel. Het wordt beschouwd als het"perfecte voedsel" dat helpt om ziekten te genezen en andere tevoorkomen.

 

L'avocado (Persea americana), albero di probabile origine nel Messico centro-meridionale, è classificato come membro della famiglia delle piante da fiore delle Lauracee. Il frutto della pianta, chiamato anche avocado (o pera avocado o pera alligatore), è botanicamente una grande bacca contenente un unico grande seme. Gli avocado sono commercialmente preziosi e sono coltivati ​​nei climi tropicali e mediterranei di tutto il mondo. Hanno un corpo carnoso dalla pelle verde che può essere a forma di pera, a forma di uovo o sferico. Commercialmente, maturano dopo la raccolta. Gli alberi di avocado sono parzialmente autoimpollinanti e vengono spesso propagati tramite innesto per mantenere prevedibili la qualità e la quantità dei frutti. Nel 2017, il Messico ha prodotto il 34% della fornitura mondiale di avocado. La parola "avocado" deriva dallo spagnolo aguacate, che a sua volta deriva dalla parola nahuatl āhuacatl [aːˈwakat͡ɬ], che risale al proto-azteco *pa:wa che significava anche "avocado". Talvolta la parola nahuatl veniva usata con il significato di "testicolo", probabilmente per la somiglianza tra il frutto e la parte del corpo. È considerato il "cibo perfetto" che aiuta a curare le malattie e a prevenirne altre.

 

L'avocatier (Persea americana), un arbre probablement originaire du centre-sud du Mexique, est classé parmi les plantes à fleurs de la famille des Lauracées. Le fruit de la plante, également appelé avocat (ou poire avocat ou poire alligator), est botaniquement une grosse baie contenant une seule grosse graine. Les avocats ont une valeur commerciale et sont cultivés dans les climats tropicaux et méditerranéens du monde entier. Ils ont un corps charnu à la peau verte qui peut être en forme de poire, en forme d'œuf ou sphérique. Commercialement, ils mûrissent après la récolte. Les avocatiers sont partiellement autogames et sont souvent propagés par greffage pour maintenir une qualité et une quantité de fruits prévisibles. En 2017, le Mexique a produit 34 % de l'offre mondiale d'avocats. Le mot "avocat" vient de l'espagnol aguacate, qui à son tour vient du mot nahuatl āhuacatl [aːˈwakat͡ɬ], qui remonte au proto-aztèque *pa:wa qui signifiait aussi "avocat". Parfois, le mot nahuatl était utilisé avec le sens "testicule", probablement à cause de la ressemblance entre le fruit et la partie du corps. Il est considéré comme "l'aliment parfait" aidant à guérir les maladies et à en prévenir d'autres.

 

Die Avocado (Persea americana), ein Baum mit wahrscheinlichem Ursprung in Süd-Zentral-Mexiko, wird als Mitglied der blühenden Pflanzenfamilie Lauraceae klassifiziert. Die Frucht der Pflanze, auch Avocado (oder Avocadobirne oder Alligatorbirne) genannt, ist botanisch gesehen eine große Beere, die einen einzigen großen Samen enthält. Avocados sind kommerziell wertvoll und werden in tropischen und mediterranen Klimazonen auf der ganzen Welt angebaut. Sie haben einen grünhäutigen, fleischigen Körper, der birnenförmig, eiförmig oder kugelförmig sein kann. Kommerziell reifen sie nach der Ernte. Avocadobäume sind teilweise selbstbestäubend und werden oft durch Pfropfen vermehrt, um eine vorhersagbare Fruchtqualität und -quantität aufrechtzuerhalten. Im Jahr 2017 produzierte Mexiko 34 % des weltweiten Angebots an Avocados. Das Wort „Avocado" kommt vom spanischen aguacate, das wiederum vom Nahuatl-Wort āhuacatl [aːˈwakat͡ɬ] stammt, das auf das proto-aztekische *pa:wa zurückgeht, was ebenfalls „Avocado" bedeutet. Manchmal wurde das Nahuatl-Wort mit der Bedeutung „Hoden" verwendet, wahrscheinlich wegen der Ähnlichkeit zwischen der Frucht und dem Körperteil. Es gilt als das "perfekte Lebensmittel", das hilft, Krankheiten zu heilen und anderen vorzubeugen.

 

アボカド (Persea americana) はメキシコ中南部に起源があると考えられている木で、顕花植物のクスノキ科のメンバーとして分類されています。アボカド（またはアボカドナシまたはワニナシ）とも呼ばれる植物の果実は、植物学的に単一の大きな種子を含む大きなベリーです.アボカドは商業的に価値があり、世界中の熱帯および地中海性気候で栽培されています。彼らは緑色の肌をした肉付きの良い体をしており、ナシ型、卵型、または球形の場合があります。商業的には、収穫後に熟します。アボカドの木は部分的に自家受粉し、多くの場合、予測可能な果実の品質と量を維持するために接ぎ木によって繁殖します. 2017 年、メキシコは世界のアボカド供給量の 34% を生産しました。 「アボカド」という言葉はスペイン語の aguacate に由来し、これはナワトル語の āhuacatl [aːˈwakat͡ɬ] に由来し、これは「アボカド」を意味する原アステカの *pa:wa にまでさかのぼります。ナワトル語が「睾丸」という意味で使われることもありましたが、これはおそらく果実と体の部分が似ているためでしょう。病気を治したり、他人を予防したりするのに役立つ「完璧な食べ物」と考えられています.

 

تصنف الأفوكادو (Persea americana) ، وهي شجرة ذات أصل محتمل في جنوب وسط المكسيك ، على أنها عضو في عائلة النباتات المزهرة Lauraceae. ثمرة النبات ، التي تسمى أيضًا الأفوكادو (أو كمثرى الأفوكادو أو الكمثرى التمساح) ، هي نباتًا توتًا كبيرًا يحتوي على بذرة واحدة كبيرة. تعتبر الأفوكادو ذات قيمة تجارية وتتم زراعتها في المناخات الاستوائية والبحر الأبيض المتوسط ​​في جميع أنحاء العالم. لديهم جسم سمين ذو بشرة خضراء قد يكون على شكل كمثرى أو بيضة أو كروي. تجاريا ، تنضج بعد الحصاد. تعتبر أشجار الأفوكادو ذاتية التلقيح جزئيًا ، وغالبًا ما يتم نشرها من خلال التطعيم للحفاظ على جودة وكمية الفاكهة التي يمكن التنبؤ بها. في عام 2017 ، أنتجت المكسيك 34٪ من المعروض العالمي من الأفوكادو. تأتي كلمة "أفوكادو" من الكلمة الإسبانية aguacate ، والتي تأتي بدورها من كلمة Nahuatl [awakat] ، والتي تعود إلى proto-Aztecan * pa: wa والتي تعني أيضًا "الأفوكادو". في بعض الأحيان تم استخدام كلمة الناهيوتل بمعنى "الخصية" ، ربما بسبب التشابه بين الثمرة وجزء الجسم. يعتبر "الغذاء المثالي" الذي يساعد على شفاء الأمراض والوقاية من الآخرين.

Finished dry-brushing the arms (and various arm attachments). nothing wrong with the stock gunmetal plastic, I just wanted them a little shinier to complete with that really loud yellow (what kind of yellow is that? It's almost orange. I've tried to look at yellow hues but can't find something to describe it). I also added a dark brown wash to those yellow parts with mixed results.

 

What an awesome figure! He's taken a decent sized round right to the chest and keeps on ticking. I can definitely see why people army-build these with ten or twelve B.A.T.s on their shelf. I might have to get a second one. Because robots.

Classified.

Shorebirds of Ireland, Freshwater Birds of Ireland and The Birds of Ireland: A Field Guide with Jim Wilson.

www.markcarmodyphotography.com

 

The Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), also known as the European Starling, or in Ireland and the British Isles as just the Starling, is a medium-sized passerine bird in the starling family, Sturnidae. It has glossy black plumage with a metallic sheen, which is speckled with white at some times of year. The legs are pink and the bill is black in winter and yellow in summer; young birds have browner plumage than the adults. It is a noisy bird, especially in communal roosts and other gregarious situations, with an unmusical but varied song. Its gift for mimicry has been noted in literature.

 

The common starling has about a dozen subspecies breeding in open habitats across its native range in temperate Europe and western Asia, and it has been introduced to Australia, New Zealand, Canada, United States, Mexico, Peru, Argentina, the Falkland Islands, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, South Africa and Fiji. This bird is resident in southern and western Europe and southwestern Asia, while northeastern populations migrate south and west in winter within the breeding range and also further south to Iberia and North Africa.

 

The species has declined in numbers in parts of northern and western Europe since the 1980s due to fewer grassland invertebrates being available as food for growing chicks. Despite this, its huge global population is not thought to be declining significantly, so the common starling is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

 

The common starling is a highly gregarious species, especially in autumn and winter. Although flock size is highly variable, huge, noisy flocks - murmurations - may form near roosts. These dense concentrations of birds are thought to be a defence against attacks by birds of prey such as peregrine falcons or Eurasian sparrowhawks. (wikipedia)

 

This youngster was begging for food relentlessly from its weary parents along the Wicklow coast, Ireland.

València, España.

 

Las Fallas de Valencia (Falles en valenciano) son unas fiestas que van del 14 (plantà infantil) al 19 (cremà) de marzo con una tradición arraigada en la ciudad española de Valencia. Oficialmente empiezan el último domingo de febrero con el acto de la crida (en valenciano; 'pregón o llamada', en español).

 

La fiesta de las Fallas de Valencia

Actualmente, esta festividad se ha convertido en un atractivo turístico muy importante, ya que además de estar catalogadas como fiesta de Interés Turístico Internacional, en noviembre de 2016 la Unesco las inscribió en su . Estas fiestas también son llamadas fiestas josefinas o fiestas de San José, ya que se celebran en honor de san José, patrón de los carpinteros, que era un gremio muy extendido en la ciudad cuando empezaron a celebrarse a finales del siglo xix, y que conservó hasta la actualidad, dada la importancia de la industria del mueble en la región.

 

The Fallas of Valencia (Falles in Valencian) are festivals that go from the 14th (children's plant) to the 19th (cremà) of March with a tradition rooted in the Spanish city of Valencia. They officially begin on the last Sunday of February with the act of the crida (in Valencian; 'pregón or call', in Spanish).

 

Currently, this holiday has become a very important tourist attraction, since in addition to being classified as a festival of International Tourist Interest, in November 2016 UNESCO inscribed them on its Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. These festivals are also called Josefin festivals or feasts of San José, since they are celebrated in honor of St. Joseph, patron saint of carpenters, who was a very widespread guild in the city when they began to be held at the end of the nineteenth century, and which has preserved until today, given the importance of the furniture industry in the region.

VV 340, also known as Arp 302, provides a textbook example of colliding galaxies seen in the early stages of their interaction. The edge-on galaxy near the top of the image is VV 340 North and the face-on galaxy at the bottom of the image is VV 340 South. Millions of years later these two spirals will merge -- much like the Milky Way and Andromeda will likely do billions of years from now. Data from NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory (purple) are shown here along with optical data from the Hubble Space Telescope (red, green, blue). VV 340 is located about 450 million light years from Earth.

 

Because it is bright in infrared light, VV 340 is classified as a Luminous Infrared Galaxy (LIRG). These observations are part of the Great Observatories All-Sky LIRG Survey (GOALS) combining data from Chandra, Hubble, NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope and Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) and ground-based telescopes. The survey includes over two hundred LIRGs in the local Universe. A chief motivation of this study is to understand why LIRGs emit so much infrared radiation. These galaxies generate energy at a rate this is tens to hundreds of times larger than that emitted by a typical galaxy. An actively growing supermassive black hole or an intense burst of star formation is often invoked as the most likely source of the energy.

 

Work on the full GOALS survey is ongoing, but preliminary analysis of data for VV 340 provides a good demonstration of the power of observing with multiple observatories. The Chandra data show that the center of VV 340 North likely contains a rapidly growing supermassive black hole that is heavily obscured by dust and gas. The infared emission of the galaxy pair, as observed by Spitzer, is dominated by VV 340 North, and also provides evidence for a growing supermassive black hole. However, only a small fraction of the infrared emission is generated by this black hole.

 

By contrast most of the ultraviolet and short wavelength optical emission in the galaxy pair -- as observed by GALEX and HST -- comes from VV 340 South. This shows that VV 340 South contains a much higher level of star formation. (The Spitzer and GALEX images are not shown here because they strongly overlap with the optical and X-ray images, but they are shown in a separate composite image.) VV 340 appears to be an excellent example of a pair of interacting galaxies evolving at different rates.

 

These results on VV 340 were published in the June 2009 issue of the Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. The lead author was Lee Armus from the Spitzer Science Center in Pasadena, CA.

 

Credit: X-ray NASA/CXC/IfA/D.Sanders et al; Optical NASA/STScI/NRAO/A.Evans et al

 

Read entire caption/view more images: chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2011/vv340/

 

Caption credit: Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

 

Read more about Chandra:

www.nasa.gov/chandra

 

p.s. You can see all of our Chandra photos in the Chandra Group in Flickr at: www.flickr.com/groups/chandranasa/ We'd love to have you as a member!

SN/NC: Vaccinium Caesariense, Ericaceae family

 

Blueberries are a widely distributed and widespread group of perennial flowering plants with blue or purple berries. They are classified in the section Cyanococcus within the genus Vaccinium. Vaccinium also includes cranberries, bilberries, huckleberries and Madeira blueberries. Commercial blueberries—both wild (lowbush) and cultivated (highbush)—are all native to North America. The highbush varieties were introduced into Europe during the 1930s.

Blueberries are usually prostrate shrubs that can vary in size from 10 centimeters (4 inches) to 4 meters (13 feet) in height. In commercial production of blueberries, the species with small, pea-size berries growing on low-level bushes are known as "lowbush blueberries" (synonymous with "wild"), while the species with larger berries growing on taller, cultivated bushes are known as "highbush blueberries". Canada is the leading producer of lowbush blueberries, while the United States produces some 40% of the world supply of highbush blueberries.

 

Os mirtilos são um grupo amplamente distribuído e difundido de plantas perenes com bagas azuis ou roxas. Eles são classificados na seção Cyanococcus dentro do gênero Vaccinium. Vaccinium também inclui cranberries, mirtilos, mirtilos e mirtilos da Madeira. Os mirtilos comerciais - tanto selvagens (lowbush) quanto cultivados (highbush) - são todos nativos da América do Norte. As variedades highbush foram introduzidas na Europa durante a década de 1930.

Os mirtilos são geralmente arbustos prostrados que podem variar em tamanho de 10 centímetros (4 polegadas) a 4 metros (13 pés) de altura. Na produção comercial de mirtilos, as espécies com bagas pequenas do tamanho de ervilhas que crescem em arbustos de baixo nível são conhecidas como "mirtilos de arbusto baixo" (sinônimo de "selvagem"), enquanto as espécies com bagas maiores crescendo em arbustos mais altos e cultivados são conhecidas como "mirtilos highbush." O Canadá é o principal produtor de mirtilos lowbush, enquanto os Estados Unidos produzem cerca de 40% da oferta mundial de mirtilos highbush.

 

Los arándanos son un grupo ampliamente distribuido y extenso de plantas con flores perennes con bayas azules o moradas. Se clasifican en la sección Cyanococcus dentro del género Vaccinium. Vaccinium también incluye arándanos, arándanos, moras y arándanos de Madeira. Los arándanos comerciales, tanto silvestres (lowbush) como cultivados (highbush), son nativos de América del Norte. Las variedades highbush se introdujeron en Europa durante la década de 1930.

Los arándanos suelen ser arbustos postrados que pueden variar en tamaño desde 10 centímetros (4 pulgadas) hasta 4 metros (13 pies) de altura. En la producción comercial de arándanos, las especies con bayas pequeñas del tamaño de un guisante que crecen en arbustos bajos se conocen como "arándanos de arbusto bajo" (sinónimo de "silvestres"), mientras que las especies con bayas más grandes que crecen en arbustos cultivados más altos se conocen los "arándanos highbush". Canadá es el principal productor de arándanos lowbush, mientras que Estados Unidos produce alrededor del 40% del suministro mundial de arándanos highbush.

 

Bosbessen zijn een wijdverspreide en wijdverbreide groep van meerjarige bloeiende planten met blauwe of paarse bessen. Ze zijn ingedeeld in de sectie Cyanococcus binnen het geslacht Vaccinium. Vaccinium bevat ook veenbessen, bosbessen, bosbessen en madeira-bosbessen. Commerciële bosbessen - zowel wild (lowbush) als gekweekt (highbush) - zijn allemaal inheems in Noord-Amerika. De highbush-variëteiten werden in de jaren dertig in Europa geïntroduceerd.

Bosbessen zijn meestal uitgestrekte struiken die in grootte kunnen variëren van 10 centimeter (4 inch) tot 4 meter (13 voet) hoog. Bij de commerciële productie van bosbessen staan ​​de soorten met kleine bessen ter grootte van een erwt die op lage struiken groeien bekend als "lowbush bosbessen" (synoniem met "wild"), terwijl de soorten met grotere bessen die op hogere, gecultiveerde struiken groeien bekend zijn als "highbush bosbessen." Canada is de grootste producent van blauwe bosbessen, terwijl de Verenigde Staten zo'n 40% van de wereldvoorraad aan bosbessen produceren.

 

I mirtilli sono un gruppo ampiamente distribuito e diffuso di piante da fiore perenni con bacche blu o viola. Sono classificati nella sezione Cyanococcus all'interno del genere Vaccinium. Il vaccino comprende anche mirtilli rossi, mirtilli, mirtilli e mirtilli di Madeira. I mirtilli commerciali, sia selvatici (lowbush) che coltivati ​​(highbush), sono tutti originari del Nord America. Le varietà highbush furono introdotte in Europa negli anni '30.

I mirtilli sono solitamente arbusti prostrati che possono variare di dimensioni da 10 centimetri (4 pollici) a 4 metri (13 piedi) di altezza. Nella produzione commerciale di mirtilli, le specie con bacche piccole e grandi come un pisello che crescono su cespugli a bassa quota sono conosciute come "mirtilli a cespuglio basso" (sinonimo di "selvatico"), mentre sono note le specie con bacche più grandi che crescono su cespugli coltivati ​​più alti come "mirtilli highbush". Il Canada è il principale produttore di mirtilli a cespuglio basso, mentre gli Stati Uniti producono circa il 40% della fornitura mondiale di mirtilli a cespuglio alto.

 

Heidelbeeren sind eine weit verbreitete und weit verbreitete Gruppe mehrjähriger Blütenpflanzen mit blauen oder violetten Beeren. Sie werden in die Sektion Cyanococcus innerhalb der Gattung Vaccinium eingeordnet. Vaccinium umfasst auch Preiselbeeren, Heidelbeeren, Heidelbeeren und Madeira-Heidelbeeren. Kommerzielle Blaubeeren – sowohl wilde (Lowbush) als auch kultivierte (Highbush) – sind alle in Nordamerika beheimatet. Die Highbush-Sorten wurden in den 1930er Jahren in Europa eingeführt.

Blaubeeren sind normalerweise niederliegende Sträucher, die in der Größe von 10 Zentimetern (4 Zoll) bis 4 Meter (13 Fuß) Höhe variieren können. In der kommerziellen Produktion von Blaubeeren sind die Arten mit kleinen, erbsengroßen Beeren, die auf niedrigen Büschen wachsen, als "Lowbush Blueberries" (synonym mit "wild") bekannt, während die Arten mit größeren Beeren, die auf höheren, kultivierten Büschen wachsen, bekannt sind als "highbush Blaubeeren." Kanada ist der führende Produzent von Lowbush-Heidelbeeren, während die Vereinigten Staaten etwa 40 % des weltweiten Angebots an Highbush-Heidelbeeren produzieren.

 

Les myrtilles sont un groupe largement répandu et répandu de plantes à fleurs vivaces à baies bleues ou violettes. Ils sont classés dans la section Cyanococcus du genre Vaccinium. Vaccinium comprend également des canneberges, des myrtilles, des myrtilles et des myrtilles de Madère. Les bleuets commerciaux, qu'ils soient sauvages (nains) ou cultivés (en corymbe), sont tous originaires d'Amérique du Nord. Les variétés en corymbe ont été introduites en Europe dans les années 1930.

Les myrtilles sont généralement des arbustes prostrés dont la taille peut varier de 10 centimètres (4 pouces) à 4 mètres (13 pieds) de hauteur. Dans la production commerciale de bleuets, les espèces à petites baies de la taille d'un pois poussant sur des buissons bas sont appelées « bleuets nains » (synonyme de « sauvages »), tandis que les espèces à baies plus grosses poussant sur des buissons cultivés plus grands sont connues. comme "bleuets en corymbe". Le Canada est le premier producteur de bleuets nains, tandis que les États-Unis produisent environ 40 % de l'offre mondiale de bleuets en corymbe.

 

العنب البري هو مجموعة منتشرة وواسعة الانتشار من النباتات المزهرة المعمرة مع التوت الأزرق أو الأرجواني. يتم تصنيفها في القسم Cyanococcus ضمن جنس Vaccinium. يشمل Vaccinium أيضًا التوت البري والتوت البري والتوت البري وتوت ماديرا. توت العنب البري التجاري - سواء البري (لوبوش) أو المزروع (هايبوش) - كلها موطنها أمريكا الشمالية. تم إدخال أصناف highbush إلى أوروبا خلال الثلاثينيات.

عادة ما يكون العنب البري عبارة عن شجيرات سجودة يمكن أن تختلف في الحجم من 10 سم (4 بوصات) إلى 4 أمتار (13 قدمًا) في الارتفاع. في الإنتاج التجاري للتوت ، تُعرف الأنواع التي تحتوي على توت صغير بحجم حبة البازلاء التي تنمو على شجيرات منخفضة المستوى باسم "توت لو بوش" (مرادف لكلمة "بري") ، في حين تُعرف الأنواع التي تحتوي على توت أكبر تنمو على شجيرات طويلة ومزروعة كـ "توت هايبوش". كندا هي المنتج الرئيسي للتوت الأزرق ، بينما تنتج الولايات المتحدة حوالي 40 ٪ من الإمداد العالمي من التوت الأزرق.

 

ブルーベリーは、青または紫の果実を持つ多年生の顕花植物の広く分布し、広範なグループです。それらは、Vaccinium 属内の Cyanococcus セクションに分類されます。 Vaccinium には、クランベリー、ビルベリー、ハックルベリー、マデイラ ブルーベリーも含まれます。市販のブルーベリーは、野生 (ローブッシュ) と栽培 (ハイブッシュ) の両方で、すべて北米原産です。ハイブッシュの品種は、1930 年代にヨーロッパに導入されました。

ブルーベリーは通常、高さ 10 センチメートル (4 インチ) から 4 メートル (13 フィート) までのサイズのさまざまな低木です。ブルーベリーの商業生産では、低地の茂みに小さなエンドウ豆サイズの果実が成長する種は「ローブッシュ ブルーベリー」(「野生」と同義) として知られていますが、より背の高い栽培された茂みに大きな果実が成長する種が知られています。 「ハイブッシュブルーベリー」として。カナダはローブッシュ ブルーベリーの主要生産国であり、米国はハイブッシュ ブルーベリーの世界供給量の約 40% を生産しています。

Das Tagpfauenauge (Inachis io; Syn.: Nymphalis io) ist ein Schmetterling (Tagfalter) aus der Familie der Edelfalter (Nymphalidae). Das Tagpfauenauge ist Schmetterling des Jahres 2009.

The European Peacock (Inachis io), more commonly known simply as the Peacock butterfly, is a colourful butterfly, found in Europe and temperate Asia as far east as Japan. Classified as the only member of the genus Inachis (the name is derived from Greek mythology, meaning Io, the daughter of Inachus). It should not be confused or classified with the "American peacocks" in the genus Anartia; these are not close relatives of the Eurasian species.

(Wikipedia)

The photo contains a small portion of the Palas Valley project which is visible from the KKH. To check out more detailed information and see more photos do click the website below!

 

www.palasvalley.org/

 

Types of Palas Forest:-

The forests according to the species composition can be classified as below:

  

Broadleaved Forests

These forests occur in scattered patches from 3,500 to 6,000 feet elevation. The canopy is broken by cultivated fields on moderate slopes and nullahs. On northern aspects these forests occupy an altitudinal range up to 5,000 feet merging into dry sub-tropical forests below and coniferous forests in he upper reaches. The principal species are xerophytic evergreen Oak Quercus baloot, associated by Deodar Cedrus deodara, Olive Olea cuspidata, Acacia Acacia modesta Gurgura Monotheca buxifolia, Pomegranate Pumica granatum, Adhatoda vassica, Zizyphus nummularia and Amlok Diospyros lotous

Undergrowth is generally by Daphane oleoides, Berberis lycium, Dodonea viscosa and various types of grasses. Regeneration of oak is unsatisfactory due to unrestricted felling, loping and browsing of trees.

 

Blue pine Forests

Blue Pine is the dominant species on North-Western aspects of Kolai and Batera forests at an altitude ranging from 5500 to 9000 feet. Pine forests are subjected to heavy felling and encroachment for cultivation. The slopes are generally moderate with deep soil. On cooler aspects at higher altitudes, Fir and Spruce get mixed with Pine. The crop is mostly middle-aged although all age classes are found.

The broadleaved associates are Aesculus indica, Quercus ilex, Acer caesium, Jugluns regia and Prunus padus. Undergrowth consists of Vibernum nervosum, Berberis lycium, lndigofera spp., Cotoneaster bacillaris, Lonicera spp, Rossa spp. and Parrotia jacquemontiana.

Regeneration of Blue Pine in remote areas is satisfactory while in areas adjoining to habitations it is scanty or absent due to illicit cuttings and heavy grazing pressure.

  

Fir/Spruce Forests

The forests occupy few compartments in Bela/Kolai and most of the area in Musha’ga at an altitude varying from 7,000 to 10,500 feet. Fir is the dominant species and tends to purity on Northern aspects at higher altitudes. Scattered Blue Pine trees are found at higher altitudes. The crop is generally mature to over-mature lacking young age classes. The forests are in the form of patches separated by nullahs. Considerable damage to crop is caused due to snow creeping and avalanches. Dry standing trees are not uncommon.

Regeneration of fir is inadequate, which may be attributed to the thick layer of litter and non-manipulation of the crop canopy. Many fir saplings die due to constant overhead shade. Spruce regeneration comes vigorously on favourable sites.

 

The major associates are Birch Betula utilis, Walnut Jugluns regia Oak Quercus sp., Maple Acer caesium), Horse chestnut Aesculus indica, Bird Cherry Prunus padus, Amlok Diospryus lotous and Populus cilata. Undergrowth consists of Vibernum spp., Parrotopsis sp. Rosa sp. and Prunus sp.

 

Mixed Coniferous

 

Spruce, Fir and Blue Pine

The forests are composed of varying mixture of some or all the four major species depending upon aspect and altitude. These forests occur mostly in Sheryal and Musha’ga valleys. The exposed southern aspects contain a mixture of Blue Pine/Deodar in lower reaches and Blue Pine/Spruce on higher altitudes. Northern aspects are covered by Fir and Spruce with Deodar at lower elevations due to local variation of aspect and Pine at higher altitudes. The canopy is broken by nullahs and large patches of broadleaves. Fir and Spruce trees are mostly mature to over-mature. Blue Pine in upper and reaches is in stunted form and over-mature. The forests occupy an elevation zone ranging from 1,820 to 2,880 meters. Regeneration of Fir and Spruce is hampered either due to thick humus layer and profuse growth of shrubs or heavy grazing pressure. Blue Pine regeneration is profuse on favourable sites and is the coloniser species on sites where Fir and Spruce have been removed. Deodar regeneration is inadequate and found on southern aspects in lower reaches only.

Walnut Juglans regia, Oak Quercus sp., Maple Acer caesium, Horse Chestnut Aesculus indica, Bird Cherry Prunus padus, Amlok Diospryus lotous, Popular Poplus celiata, Birch Betula utilis, Parrotia Parratopsis iacouemontiana and Yew Taxus baccata are major associates.

Predominantly undergrowth, according to order of occurrence, comprises of Vibernum nervosum, Indigofera sp. Rosa sp. Berberis lycium, Artimisia maritima, and Cotoneaster bacillaris.

Deciduous Forests

 

Sub-tropical broad-leaved deciduous forest is found at lower elevation along the Indus river and lower reaches of Palas valley. The main species includes Acacia modesta, Olea ferruginea, Zizyphus sativa, and Quercuss baloot. Scattered trees of Fraxinus can also been seen at bottom of the valley.

 

Alpine

Alpine pastures occupy an elevation zone from 11,000 to 14,000 feet. The pastures extend over large areas and make watershed ridge with Kaghan and Allai valleys in the east and south, respectively. The biggest alpine pasture is Chor nullah, which is best known for its luxuriant grass growth

Sub-alpine

This type is found above mixed forests of Fir/Spruce and Blue Pine in Musha’ga, Kolai and Kunsher Sub Valleys from 3333 to 3490 meters elevation. The main species is Birch Betula utilis. The associate shrubs are Salix sp, Juniperus sp., Rosa webbiana, Prunus spp. Rhamnus spp., Ephedra geradiana and Rhododendron sp. The plants utilize water from glaciated peaks. Growth is slow and plants in stunted form due to high altitude, severe cold and short growth season. The bushy trees are hacked by nomads in summer for firewood.

   

Bird Life

The Western Tragopan belongs to one of five species in its genus that collectively span a range across the Himalayan chain to Eastern China. As the name suggests the Western Tragopan is most westerly in distribution, occurring in Pakistan, North-west India and possibly the extreme South-west of Tibet (Ali and Ripley 1987, Roberts 1991, de Schauensee 1984).

 

Being classified as a species that is ‘vulnerable to extinction’ (McGowan, P, Garson, P, 1995, Collar et al (1994). Reasons for its decline are suspected to be forest degradation and complete loss of forest habitat, as well as hunting and trapping. The species has not been kept successfully in captivity in the recent past with only one documented breeding of a single male in Sarahan pheasantry, Himachal Pradesh, India.

 

The Western Tragopan

The Western Tragopan is confined to relatively undisturbed areas of the West Himalayan temperate forest in northern Pakistan and North-West India. Forest loss and degradation resulting from excessive, livestock grazing and the collection of fodder and firewood, together with timber harvesting and the subsequent conversion of land for agriculture, continues to reduce and fragment its range.

 

Birds to Watch 2 and the World Pheasant Association/ BirdLife/IUCN Pheasant Specialist Group (IUCN 1995) both list the species as “vulnerable” according to IUCN criteria (i.e. facing extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future). While the latter publication estimates the total population of Western Tragopans to be about 5000 individuals.

 

A more recent and detailed assessment of the species status co-authored by the Chairman of the Pheasant Specialist Group (Garson et al., in prep,) is expected to revise this population estimate downward. Surveys of the Palas Valley between 1989 and 1995 have estimated a population of 325 breeding pairs, and there are presumably additional non-breeding individuals present.

 

Density and Distribution of WesternTragopan in Bar Palas

Previous surveys have recorded tragopans in summer, from Muro nullah to Muchaki in varying densities. The distribution boundaries of its range in Palas still have to be determined. Studies have shown that tragopans also breed on the south facing bank ,but again, more surveys are needed to confirm the distribution.

  

Western Tragopan Habitat

Winter distribution has been recorded from Pharogha nullah to west of Karoser. Varying densities have been recorded between these limits and surveys are still needed to confirm the winter limits

 

An average density of 0.0043 calling birds/are indicates a relatively good population and in Kubkot alone the team estimated that 100 - 150 birds may be present.

 

Taking into account the available amount of forest that could potentially hold Tragopans, a very conservative figure of 300 breeding pairs can be suggested.

  

ANASIFORMES

 

1-Common Teal Anas crecca (Observed once in 1994 in the valley)

2-Mallard Anas plantrhynchos (Observed in 1995 flying along the Musha'ga River)

 

ACCIPITRIDAE

 

3-Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus (Common in the valley, descending to lower altitudes in winter)

4-Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis (Probably the most common vulture species in the valley. Observed through out the Palas valley)

5-Eurasian Griffon Gyps fulvus (Observed once in 1995, thought to be an occasional visitor)

6- Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis (Occasionally observed and known as a winter visitor to Pakistan.)

7-Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus (Commonly observed in the valley)

8-Indian Sparrowhawk Accipiter badius (Commonly observed in the valley)

9-Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus (Commonly observed in the valley and during most bird surveys)

10-Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus (Frequently observed throughout the valley)

11-Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos (Quite a common eagle, perhaps the most common eagle species observed during winter surveys.)

 

FALCONIDAE

 

12-Peregrine falcon Falco perireinus (Observed once during a pheasant survey, flying over Karoser village and once in January 1996. Winter visitor to Pakistan.)

13-Eurasian Kestrel Falco tinnunculus (Commonly observed through out the valley)

14-Merlin Falco columbarius (Occasionally observed in the valley, only once recorded during a winter survey.)

15-Northern Hobby (Falco subbuteo Occasionally observed in the Palas valley)

  

PHASIANDAE

 

16-Himalayan Snowcock Tetraogallus himalayensis (Quite a common bird though not frequently observed. )

17-Chukar Alectoris chukar (Frequently observed and often recorded in large number in winter)

18-Western Tragopan Tragopan melanocephalus (Western Himalayan Endemic and the largest population is thought to be found in Palas (refer to relevant chapter))

19-Himalayan Monal Lophophorus impejanus (A Common galliforme in the valley, found near the tree line in summer and in mixed flocks with other pheasant species in winter. Though classified as rare in Pakistan (Roberts), it is common in Palas valley. )

20-Koklas pheasant Pucrasia macrolopha (Probably the most common game bird in the valley though Monal are also found in large numbers)

 

RECURVIROSTRIDAE

 

21-Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantpous (Very occasionally observed on Musha'ga River)

 

SCOLOPACINAE

 

2-Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola( Recorded in summer, presumed to be breeding and often males have been observed roding in adjoining areas. No winter observation. Thought to be rare in Pakistan (Roberts))

23-Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucis (Occasionally observed during surveys)

 

COLUMBIDAE

 

24-Snow Pigeon Columba leuconota (Observed in summer and winter though not particularly common. Probably more frequently found at higher elevations.)

25-Wood Pigeon Columba palumbas (Observed in large flocks during winter, occasionally observed in summer.)

26-Speckled Wood-pigeon Columba hodgsonii (Occasional observed and perhaps a breeding bird on the valley. Classified as a rare visitor and perhaps on the limit of its distribution in Palas.)

27-Oriental Turtle-Dove Streptopelia orientatlis (Commonly observed during summer at forested areas)

28-Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis (Occasionally observed in summer)

 

PSITTACIDAE

 

29-Slaty-headed Parakeet Psittacula himalayana (Commonly recorded at lower elevations of the valley, probably a breeding bird in the valley. Absent in winter)

 

CUCULIDAE

30-Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus (Heard and observed frequently, breeding in summer. Common up to the tree-line)

31-Himalayan Cuckoo Cuculus saturatus (Less common than C.canorus but regularly recorded in summer. Breeding in Palas.)

32-Small Cuckoo Cuculus poliocephalus (Commonly recorded in Palas in summer)

 

STRIGIDAE

33-Collared Pygmy Owl Glaucidium brodiei (Occasionally recorded in wooded areas in summer. Status unknown in winter).

34- Asian Barred Owlet Glaucidium cuculoides (Status uncertain)

35-Tawny Owl Strix aluco (Summer and winter resident of the valley. Various morphs noticed within the valley).

36-Eurasian Scops Owl (Recorded very rarely during the surveys)

37-Long Eared Owl Asio otus (Occasional recorded during bird surveys, especially at higher elevation in summer)

38-Northern Eagle Owl Bubo bubo (Once recorded near Karat in 1996 at night)

 

APODIDAE

39-White-throated Needletail Hirundapus caudacutus (Observed during summer only, usually at high altitudes or on the road into Bar Palas).

40-Little Swift Apus affinis (Commonly observed in summer).

41-Common Swift Apus apus (Commonly observed in summer)

42-Alpine Swift Apus affinis (Commonly observed in summer)

 

ALCEDINIDAE

43-Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis (Occasionally recorded in the valley)

44-Crested Kingfisher Megaceryle lugubris (Occasionally observed on the Musha'ga River)

 

CORACIIDAE

45-Roller species Coracias sp (Usually observed on the road into Bar Palas only in summer).

 

UPUPIDAE

46-Hoopoe Upupa epops (Observed outside winter season and usually at lower elevation, often near cultivated lands).

 

PICIDAE

47-Wryneck Jynx torquilla (Frequently observed in the valley, probably a breeding resident)

48-Speckled Piculet Picummus innominatus (Rarely recorded during surveys but observed breeding in the valley)

49-Himalayan Pied Woodpecker Dendrocopos himalayensis (The most common woodpecker in Palas)

50-Brown-fronted Woodpecker Dendrocopos auriceps (Uncommon, recorded occasionally only).

51-Slaty-bellied Woodpecker Picus squaamatus (Frequently recorded, winter and summer resident in the valley).

 

HIRUNDINDAE

52-Sand Martin Riparia riparia (Occasionally recorded during summer. Uncommon).

53-Eurasian Crag Martin Hirundo rupestris (Mainly a summer visitor but rarely encountered).

54-Asian House Martin Delichon dasypus (Summer visitor and common throughout the valley).

55-Northern House Martin Delichon urbical (Summer visitors though not supposed to be breeding (Roberts))

 

MOTACILLIDAE

56-Rosy Pipit Anthus roseatus (Frequently recorded in summer, usually above the tree-line and on pasture areas).

57-Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis (Not as common as A.roseatus but regularly recorded during surveys).

58-Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citerea (Fairly common in summer).

59-Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea (Commonly recorded during summer up to high altitudes, occasionally observed in winter also).

60-White Wagtail Motacilla alba (Recorded regularly in summer at lower altitudes (along the Musha'ga)).

  

CAMPEPHAIDAE

61-Long-tailed Minivet Pericrocotus ethologus (Commonly observed as a summer visitor, presumed breeding).

 

PYCNONOTIDAE

62-Himalayan Bulbul Pycnonotus leucoenys (Regularly encountered throughput the year in lower reached of Palas).

63-Black Bulbul Hypsipetes leucocephlaus (Quite common throughout the year).

 

CINCLIDAE

64-Brown Dipper Cinclus pallasii (Commonly observed, especially in winter. Observed in summer at higher altitudes).

 

TROGLODYTIDAE

65-Northern Wren Troglodytes troglodytes (Commonly observed. Winter and summer resident)

 

PRUNELLIDAE

66-Rufous-breasted Accentor Prunella strophiata (Commonly observed in summer only)

67-Rufous-streaked Accentor Prunella himalaya (Observed usually only in winter though could possible be a summer breeder)

68-Alpine Accentor Prunella collaris (Quite common as a summer visitor).

69-Black-throated Accentor Prunella atrogularis (Rarely recorded in Palas valley, the only recording taken from Kot).

 

TURDINAE

70-White-tailed Rubythroat Luscinia pectoralis (Occasionally recorded, usually at higher altitudes. Not common nut regularly recorded none the less).

71-Indian Blue Robin Erithacus brunneus (Commonly recorded during the summer, its conspicuous call heard daily during summer).

72-Orange-flanked Bush-robin Tarsiger cyanurus Commonly recorded during summer and occasionally during winter. Breeding resident).

73-Eversmann's Redstart Phoenicurus erythronoya (One recode from Kot in 1996. Winter visitor to Pakistan (Roberts))

74-Blue-capped Redstart Phoenicurus caeruleocephalus (Commonly recorded breeding resident).

75-Blue-fronted Redstart Phoenicurus frontalis (Summer visitor and presumed to be a breeding bird).

76-Plumbeous Redstart Phoenicurus fuliginosus (A common to abundant breeding bird. Resident throughout the year though found at much lower elevations in winter and in lower densities).

77-White-bellied Redstart Hodsonius phoenicuroides (Very occasionally observed during surveys. Classified as rare in Pakistan (Roberts))

78-White-capped Redstart Chaimarroornis leucocephalus (Common along water bodies, also resident in winter but at lower densities).

79-Siberian Stonechat Saxicola maura (Fairly common during summer. Often observed nesting around habitations and in pasture areas).

80-Pied Bush-chat Saxicola caprata (Commonly observed in summer in most areas on Palas).

81-Dark-grey bush-chat Saxicola ferrea (Commonly observed in summer, usually above 2000mASL)

82-Scaly Thrush Zoothera dauma (Not common but regularly observed during summer surveys in Palas).

83-Blue-capped Rock Thrush Monticola cincclorhyncha (Recorded regularly and summer breeder in Palas)

84-Chestnut-bellied Rock Thrush Monticola rufiventris (Unconfirmed but expected)

85-Blue Rock Thrush Monticola solitarius (Common summer resident of Palas).

86-Blue Whistling Thrush Myiophoneus caeruleus (Regularly recorded during all surveys)

87-Grey-winged Blackbird Turdus boulboul (Unconfirmed but expected)

88-Chestnut Thrush Turdus rubrocanus (Resident breeder, recorded frequently in most of the surveys)

89-Dark-throated Thrush Turdus ruficollis (Observed in winter only. Possible summer breeder)

90-Himalayan Blackbird Turdus merula maximus (Occasionally observed at higher altitudes in forest such as Kubkot and Diwan. Uncommon but resident)

91-Mistle Thrush Turdus visivorus (Fairly common in spring at high altitudes).

 

ENICURINAE

92-Little Forktail Enicurus scouleri (Seems to be more common that E.maculatus and quite common in summer and commonly recorded along the Musha'ga in winter).

93-Spotted Forktail Enicurus maculatus (Observed very occasionally in summer).

 

SYLVIIDAE

94-Brown-flanked Bush Warbler Cettia fortipes (Summer visitor and commonly recorded during all summer surveys)

95-Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca (Observed at lower elevations)

96-Grey-headed Flycatcher-warbler Seicercus xanthoschistos (Resident and quite common at lower reached of the valley especially in Quercus habitat).

97-Western-crowned warbler Phylloscopus occipitalis (Common and resident

98-Tytler's Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus tytleri (One of the eight endemic birds to western Himalayas. Recorded frequently during most summer surveys though reasonably habitat specific)

99-Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides (Fairly common in Palas though its' breeding status is unclear).

100-Lemon-rumped Warbler Phyllosopus chloronatus (Commonly observed during summer. Breeding resident).

101-Inornate Leaf Warbler Phyllosopus inornatus (Summer visitor)

102-Brooks Leaf Warbler Phyllosopus subviridis (Endemic. Fairly common though restricted to certain areas)

103-Tickells's Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus affinis (Summer visitor. Only occasionally observed in the valley)

104-Large-billed Leaf Warbler Phylloscpopus magnirostris (Summer visitor and quite common along side tributaries of Palas)

105-Goldcrest Regulus regulus (Common resident in the valley)

 

MUSCICAPIDAE

106-Beautiful Niltava Niltava sundara (Uncommon. Recorded in 1992 and 2002. thought to be the most western distribution of this species).

107-Verditer Flycatcher Muscicapa thalassina (Frequently observed in the valley, presumed breeding)

108-Rufous-tailed Flycatcher Muscicapa ruficauda (Summer visitor to the valley and fairly common)

109-Dark-sided Flycatcher Muscicapa sibirica (Summer visitor. Commonly recorded at high altitudes)

110-Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata (Occasionally observed in summer only)

111-Slaty Blue Flycather Ficedula tricolor (Summer visitor and commonly observed during most of the spring surveys)

112-Ultramarine Flycatcher Ficedula superciliaris (Summer visitor, frequently recorded).

113-Grey-headed Flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonensis (Summer visitor and quite common)

 

MONARCHIDAE

114-Asian Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi (Often recorded along the valley bottom in summer. Presumably breeding. Not common but frequently observed).

 

TIMALIIDAE

115-Variegated Laughing-thrush Garrulax variegatus (Common and resident. Can be observed at lower elevations during winter)

116-Streaked Laughing Thrush Garrulax lineatus (Resident and common in the valley).

117-Green Shrike-Babbler Pteruthius xantholchlorus (Observed only one in the valley)

118-Oriental Skylark Alauda gulgula

 

AEGITHALIDAE

119-White throated Tit Aegithalos niveoularis (Endemic. Resident but not as common as A. leucogenys)

120-White-cheeked Tit Aegithalos leucogenys (Endemic. Resident and fairly common in the valley)

121-Black-throated Tit Aegithalos concinnus (Occasionally observed and its status is uncertain)

 

PARIDAE

122-Black Crested Tit Parus rufonuchalis (Resident and common)

123-Spot-winged Black Tit Parus melanolophus (Resident and common)

124-Grey Tit Parus (major Resident and frequently observed during surveys)

125-Green-backed Tit Parus monticolus (Resident. Regularly recorded on all surveys)

 

SITTIDAE

126-White-cheeked Nuthatch Sitta leucopsis (Probably the most common nuthatch found in the valley. Breeding resident).

127-Kashmir Nuthatch Sitta europaea cashmirensis (One of the eight endemics found in Palas. Commonly observed in summer and winter).

 

TICHODROMADIDAE

128-Wallcreeper Tichodroma muraria (Commonly observed at lower elevation in winter. Not thought to be resident during summer).

 

CERTHIIDAE

129-Himalayan Tree Creeper Certhia himalayana (Commonly observed during summer and winter).

130-Eurasian Tree-creeper Certhia familiaris (Uncommon)

 

REMIZIDAE

131-Fire-capped Tit Cephalopyrus flammiceps (Summer visitor but observed frequently in the valley during spring and summer surveys)

 

ORIOLIDAE

132-Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus (Summer visitor. Regularly recorded during spring surveys)

 

LANIIDAE

133-Long-tailed Shrike Lanius schach (Summer visitor. Small numbers recorded during most spring surveys)

DICRURIDAE

134-Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus (Summer visitor to the valley)

 

CORVIDAE

135-Lanceolated Jay Garrulus lanceolatus (Commonly recorded at lower elevations. Both winter and summer resident)

136-Yellow-billed Blue Magpie Urocissa flavirostris (Breeding in the valley though probably migrate to lower regions in winter)

137-Spotted Nutcracker Nucifraga caryocatactes (Resident in the valley).

138-Yellow-billed Chough Pyrrhocorax graculus (Resident in the valley).

139-Red-billed Chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax (Occasionally recorded in the valley)

140-Large-billed Crow Corvus macrorhynchos (Common to abundant in the valley throughout winter and summer).

141-Common Raven Corvus corax (Very occasional visitor to Palas)

 

STURNIDAE

142-Common Myna Acridotheres tristis (Records of this bird are increasing and this species seems to be migrating to areas such as the watershed of Sherakot and Bar Paro).

143-Brahminy Myna Sturnus pagodarum (Recorded from Badakot and alos observed breeding at Pattan town)

144-Common Startling Sturnus vulgaris (One bird recorded in 1996).

 

PASSERIDAE

145-House Sparrow Passer domesticus (Observed in Kuz Palas, usually on the road entering Bar Palas)

146-Russet Sparrow Passer rutilans (Quite common though only recorded during summer).

 

ESTRILDIDAE

147-Red Adadavat Amandava amandava (Very occasional visitor to Palas)

148-Scaly-breasted Munia Lonchura punctulata (Very occasional visitor to Palas)

 

CARDUELINAE

149-Spectacled Rosefinch Callacanthis burtoni (Endemic and quite frequently recorded in summer, especially on the borders of sub-alpine areas).

150-Himalayan Greenfinch Carduelis spinoides (Commonly observed in summer where it is a breeding resident, becoming abundant in areas).

151-Eurasian Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis (Occasionally recorded as a summer visitor and presumed breeding bird in the valley)

152-Plain Mountain Finch Leucosticte nemoricola (Resident and quite commonly observed through out the year. Observed at high altitudes during spring and summer)

153-Common Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus (Fairly common resident in the valley)

154-Pink-browed Rosefinch Carpodacus rhodochros (Resident and breeding in the valley)

155-White-browed Rosefinch Carpodacus thura (Resident in Pakistan but only winter visitor to Palas Valley)

156-Black and Yellow Grosbeak Mycerobas icterioides (The most common Grosbeak recorded in the valley, occasionally observed as a winter resident as well as breeding in the valley).

157-White-winged Grosbeak Mycerobas carnipes (Occasionally observed, usually near high altitude hamlets)

158-Orange Bullfinch Pyrrhula aurantiaca (Endemic to western Himalayas. Breeding resident).

159-Fire-fronted Serin Serinus pusillus (Observed once in the valley)

 

EMBERIZIDAE

160-Rock Bunting Emberiza cia (Common resident)

  

Mammals

  

Palas also contains many rare and/or threatened mammal species of the western Himalaya, including the Kashmir Grey Langur, Brown Bear, Black Bear, Wolf, Snow leopard, Common Leopard, Leopard Cat, Musk Deer and Markhor.

 

Many other species occur in abundance, including: rhesus macaque Red Fox, Jackal, Himalayan Ibex, Grey Goral, Stone Marten, Yellow-throated Pine-marten, Stoat, White-footed weasel, Weasel, Small Kashmir Flying Squirrel, Giant-red Flying-squirrel, Royle’s Pika, Indian crested porcupine, long-tailed marmot, Black Rat, Turkestan Rat, House Mouse, Wood Mouse, Birch Mouse, Burrowing Vole and Shrew, Vole and at least two species of bat Pipistrellus.

 

LIST OF MAMMAL SPECIES RECORDED IN PALAS VALLEY

1 Himalayan Rhesus Macaque Macacca villosa

2 Grey Languor Presbytis entellus

3 Himalayan Black Bear Selanarctois thibetanus

4 Small Kashmir Flying Squirrel

5 Giant-red Flying-squirrel Petaurisa petaurisa

6 Royle's Pika Ochotona roylei

7 Red Fox Vulpes vulpes

8 Jackal Canis Aurea

9 Common leopard Panthera pardus

10 Leopard Cat Felis bengalensis

11 Jungle Cat Felix chaus

12 Yellow-throated Pine-marten Martes flavigula

13 Stone Marten Martes foina

14 Musk Deer Moschus crysogaster

15 Grey Goral Naemorhedus goral

16 Stoat Mustela erminea

17 White-footed weasel Altai Hylopetes

18 Weasel Mustea altaica

19 Black Rat Ratus ratus

20 Indian crested porcupine Hystrix indica

21 Turkestan Rat Rattus turkestanicus

22 House Mouse Mus musculus

23 Wood Mouse Apodemus sylvaticus

24 Birch Mouse Sicita concolor

25 Burrowing Vole Hyperacrius fertilis

26 Shrew Crocidura guldenstadtii

27 Vole Alticola roylei

28 Long-tailed marmot Marmota caudate

29 2 Pipistrelle species Pipistrellus sp

 

Ghadamis is classified as world heritage by the UNESCO, and it's located in south west of Libya, the city is well known in the past because it's linking between Africa South of the Sahara and North of Sahara, it's so beautiful city, the Libyan people call it Diamond of Sahara, and I like to call it triangles city because of unique logo that from first visit you noticed everywhere, as you can see in this shot even in girls Henna the logo is there ;-)

 

This dress is for the Bride and Wear it during the wedding days !!

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghadames

 

Explored Nov 29, 2009 #289

 

Your comments, Favorite, and constructive criticism are most Welcome! Thanks all !!

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Nara Park (奈良公園, Nara Kōen) is a public park located in the city of Nara, Japan, at the foot of Mount Wakakusa. Established in 1880 it is one of the oldest parks in Japan. Administratively, the park is under the control of Nara Prefecture. The park is one of the "Places of Scenic Beauty" designated by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). Over 1,200 wild sika deer (シカ or 鹿 shika) freely roaming around in the park are also under designation of MEXT, classified as natural treasure. While the official size of the park is about 502 hectares (1,240 acres), the area including the grounds of Tōdai-ji, Kōfuku-ji, and Kasuga Shrine, which are either on the edge or surrounded by Nara Park, is as large as 660 hectares (1,600 acres).

While Nara Park is usually associated with the broad areas of the temples and the park proper, previously private gardens are now open to public. These gardens make use of the temple buildings as adjunct features of their landscapes.

The park is home to the Nara National Museum and Todai-ji, where the largest wooden building in the world houses a 15-metre (50 ft) tall statue of Buddha.

According to local folklore, Sika deer from this area were considered sacred due to a visit from Takemikazuchi-no-mikoto, one of the four gods of Kasuga Shrine. He was said to have been invited from Kashima Shrine in present-day Ibaraki Prefecture, and appeared on Mount Mikasa (also known as Mount Wakakusa) riding a white deer. From that point, the deer were considered divine and sacred by both Kasuga Shrine and Kōfuku-ji. Killing one of these sacred deer was a capital offense punishable by death up until 1637, the last recorded date of a breach of that law.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nara_Park

 

www.visitnara.jp/destinations/area/nara-park/

 

Nara Park (奈良 公園, Nara Kōen) es un parque público ubicado en la ciudad de Nara, Japón, al pie del monte Wakakusa. Establecido en 1880, es uno de los parques más antiguos de Japón. Administrativamente, el parque está bajo el control de la prefectura de Nara. El parque es uno de los "Lugares de Belleza Escénica" designado por el Ministerio de Educación, Cultura, Deportes, Ciencia y Tecnología (MEXT). Más de 1200 ciervos sika salvajes (シ カ o 鹿 shika) que deambulan libremente por el parque también están bajo la designación de MEXT, clasificados como tesoros naturales. Si bien el tamaño oficial del parque es de aproximadamente 502 hectáreas (1.240 acres), el área que incluye los terrenos de Tōdai-ji, Kōfuku-ji y el Santuario Kasuga, que están en el borde o rodeados por el Parque Nara, es tan grande como 660 hectáreas (1,600 acres).

Si bien el Parque Nara generalmente se asocia con las áreas amplias de los templos y el parque propiamente dicho, los jardines que antes eran privados ahora están abiertos al público. Estos jardines hacen uso de los edificios del templo como características adjuntas de sus paisajes.

El parque alberga el Museo Nacional de Nara y Todai-ji, donde el edificio de madera más grande del mundo alberga una estatua de Buda de 15 metros (50 pies) de altura.

Según el folclore local, los ciervos Sika de esta zona se consideraban sagrados debido a la visita de Takemikazuchi-no-mikoto, uno de los cuatro dioses del Santuario Kasuga. Se dice que fue invitado desde el santuario de Kashima en la actual prefectura de Ibaraki, y apareció en el monte Mikasa (también conocido como monte Wakakusa) montado en un ciervo blanco. Desde ese momento, los ciervos fueron considerados divinos y sagrados tanto por el Santuario Kasuga como por Kōfuku-ji. Matar a uno de estos ciervos sagrados fue un delito capital punible con la muerte hasta 1637, la última fecha registrada de incumplimiento de esa ley.

  

El sika o ciervo sica (Cervus nippon) es una especie de cérvido propia del Extremo Oriente, cuyo hábitat se extiende desde el sur de Siberia hasta Vietnam, incluyendo Japón, Taiwán y varias islas más del Océano Pacífico cercanas a las costas de China. Una distribución tan amplia ha originado su división en varias subespecies, muchas de ellas insulares.

El sika es un ciervo de tamaño medio y cuernos desarrollados. Tiene un pelaje corto de color rojizo, con el vientre de color más claro y manchas blancas por todo el cuerpo, similar a otros cérvidos como el gamo o los ejemplares jóvenes de ciervo de Virginia. Se observa también una banda fina de pelo oscuro a lo largo del cuello y la espalda.

El sika ha sido cazado desde tiempos antiguos en todos los países de su distribución, excepto en Japón, donde, al igual que muchos otros animales salvajes, fue venerado como dios protector de la naturaleza por la religión tradicional sintoísta. Esto cambió durante la Era Meiji, cuando comenzó a ser cazado en gran número y los bosques en que vivía se vieron amenazados por la tala masiva y la tala de grandes superficies para destinarlas a plantaciones. Por suerte, se decidió protegerlo cuando su extinción en el archipiélago japonés parecía ya inminente. En la actualidad abunda especialmente en Hokkaidō, donde se encuentra en expansión debido a que carece de depredadores (las dos subespecies de lobos japoneses fueron exterminadas hace más de cincuenta años). En los últimos años se ha permitido la caza de un número reducido de cabezas al año, con el fin de estabilizar su población. También es un inquilino habitual de los parques y templos de otros lugares de Japón, especialmente en la ciudad de Nara. Por el contrario, en el continente asiático se encuentra en peligro de extinción, y las medidas tomadas al respecto hasta ahora se han mostrado insuficientes.

 

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervus_nippon

 

The sika deer (Cervus nippon) also known as the spotted deer or the Japanese deer, is a species of deer native to much of East Asia and introduced to other parts of the world. Previously found from northern Vietnam in the south to the Russian Far East in the north, it is now uncommon except in Japan, where the species is overabundant.

Its name comes from shika (鹿), the Japanese word for "deer". In Japan, the species is known as the nihonjika (ニホンジカ (日本鹿), "Japan deer").

In Nara Prefecture, Japan, the deer are also known as "bowing deer", as they bow their heads before being fed special shika senbei (鹿せんべい, called "deer cookies"). However, deer bow heads to signal that they are about to headbutt. Therefore, when a human 'bows' to a deer, the deer may take it as a challenge, and will assume the same stance before charging and attempting to headbutt the person. Deer headbutt both for play and to assert dominance, as do goats. Sika deer are found throughout the city of Nara and its many parks and temples like Tōdai-ji, as they are considered to be the messengers of the Shinto gods.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sika_deer

 

Sea angels are a large group of extremely small, swimming sea slugs, classified into six different families.

Classified as a 10 W-W, it is a valid contribution to the daffodils in the bulbocodium division. Bred in Tasmania and officially registered in 1998, it opens with a yellow hue but becomes quite white whlie aging..

Engineers from the NARB recently unearthed the plans of an old spacecraft prototype from before the Alien war.

They discovered, after a little napkin math, that what was cutting edge in its day is still a pretty useful little satellite, so production on the new model is underway.

Above is the ADF-11F Raven Super fighter from the Ace Combat 7 game, one of my favourite games.

 

The ADF-11 Raven is classified in the game as the first "Seven Generation" fighter since it could either be flown as a drone (without a pilot) or with a pilot onboard which could fly the aircraft inside the closed canopy using a special neural helmet. In essence, the pilot´s brain impulses guide the plane automatically, making it far more deadlier than other comparable planes.

 

It´s equipped with a small Pulse Laser (PLSL) for short range aerial battles instead of a conventional gun and features two internal bomb-bays for short range air-to-air missiles.

As special weapons, the Raven can be equipped with an extremely powerful TLS laser that can destroy enemy targets at huge distances or two smaller combat drones that can detach and hunt enemy fighters (my personal favorite option).

 

To know more about the combat usage of this plane, click here for the next picture:

www.flickr.com/photos/einon/52221951546

 

Eínon

Team 6:

//Diagnostic complete

//Manifest incomplete

 

DMZ:

//War Piggy mobilized

//ETA fifteen minutes

**Zone Hot**

 

Team 6:

// 3/10* crew remaining

-Manifest- .../Loading complete

1. Pvt. Murray - Status: Injured - Equipment: UMP45 Suppressed

2. Capt. Daniel - Status: NA - Equipment: TAR-21 Grenade Launcher w/ One Man Army

3. Sgt. LAMBCHOP (Codename) - Status: Active - Equipment: CLASSIFIED

4. //Connection lost//

//Crew status updated, MIA

 

War Piggy:

//TOA - CLASSIFIED

//Hostile activity detected

//15 hostiles KIA

//Remaining crew of manifest identified

//Status updated, Active/ Deployed

Poppy and Paul spent Saturday scouring the classified ads: Paul's job as a costumed sing-a-gram/flower deliveryman isn't going to pay his bills, and with a piano no longer at Boolster's Brew, he has to look further afield for supplemental income.

 

Paul's sweater is Mattel, shirt by IT. Poppy's dress is by Squish.tish.

Vilamarxant, València, España.

 

Las Fallas de Valencia (Falles en valenciano) son unas fiestas que van del 14 (plantà infantil) al 19 (cremà) de marzo con una tradición arraigada en la ciudad española de Valencia. Oficialmente empiezan el último domingo de febrero con el acto de la crida (en valenciano; 'pregón o llamada', en español).

 

La fiesta de las Fallas de Valencia

Actualmente, esta festividad se ha convertido en un atractivo turístico muy importante, ya que además de estar catalogadas como fiesta de Interés Turístico Internacional, en noviembre de 2016 la Unesco las inscribió en su . Estas fiestas también son llamadas fiestas josefinas o fiestas de San José, ya que se celebran en honor de san José, patrón de los carpinteros, que era un gremio muy extendido en la ciudad cuando empezaron a celebrarse a finales del siglo xix, y que conservó hasta la actualidad, dada la importancia de la industria del mueble en la región.

 

The Fallas of Valencia (Falles in Valencian) are festivals that go from the 14th (children's plant) to the 19th (cremà) of March with a tradition rooted in the Spanish city of Valencia. They officially begin on the last Sunday of February with the act of the crida (in Valencian; 'pregón or call', in Spanish).

 

Currently, this holiday has become a very important tourist attraction, since in addition to being classified as a festival of International Tourist Interest, in November 2016 UNESCO inscribed them on its Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. These festivals are also called Josefin festivals or feasts of San José, since they are celebrated in honor of St. Joseph, patron saint of carpenters, who was a very widespread guild in the city when they began to be held at the end of the nineteenth century, and which has preserved until today, given the importance of the furniture industry in the region.

"Asclepias L. (1753), the milkweeds, is a genus of herbaceous perennial, dicotyledonous plants that contains over 140 known species. It previously belonged to the family Asclepiadaceae, but this is now classified as a subfamily Asclepiadoideae of the dogbane family Apocynaceae.

Milkweeds are an important nectar source for bees and other nectar seeking insects, and a larval food source for monarch butterflies and their relatives, as well as a variety of other herbivorous insects (including numerous beetles, moths, and true bugs) specialized to feed on the plants despite their chemical defenses. Milkweed is named for its milky juice, which contains alkaloids, latex, and several other complex compounds including cardenolides. Some species are known to be toxic.

Carolus Linnaeus named the genus after Asclepius, the Greek god of healing, because of the many folk-medicinal uses for the milkweed plants.

The milkweed filaments from the follicles are hollow and coated with wax, and have good insulation qualities. Tests have shown them to be superior to down feathers for insulation. During World War II, over 11 million pounds (5000 t) of milkweed floss were collected in the United States as a substitute for kapok. As of 2007, milkweed is grown commercially as a hypoallergenic filling for pillows.

In the past, the high dextrose content of the nectar led to milkweed's use as a source of sweetener for Native Americans and voyageurs.

The bast fibers of some species were also used for cordage.

Milkweed latex contains about 1 to 2% caoutchouc, and was attempted as a natural source for rubber by both Germany and the United States during World War II. No record has been found of large-scale success.

Milkweed is a common folk remedy used for removing warts. Milkweed sap is applied directly to the wart several times daily until the wart falls off. Dandelion sap is often used in the same manner.

Milkweed is beneficial to nearby plants, repelling some pests, especially wireworms.

Milkweed also contains cardiac glycoside poisons which inhibit animal cells from maintaining a proper K+, Ca+ concentration gradient. As a result many natives of South America and Africa used arrows poisoned with these glycosides to fight and hunt more effectively. Milkweed is toxic and may cause death when animals consume 1/10 its body weight in any part of the plant. Milkweed also causes mild dermatitis in some who come in contact with it.

Milkweed sap is also externally used as a natural remedy for Poison Ivy.

Being the sole food source of Monarch Butterfly larva, the plant is often used in Butterfly gardening." wikipedia.org

Green Lantern Corps

 

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Diorama by High School Creations (Etsy & IG: @highschoolcreations).

 

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GI Joe Classified Gallery

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Ninjas might not be my thing, but I'm starting to think I need a few more of these Red guys.

 

Have fun, and happy snapping!

 

Questionable whether this can be classified as a railway photograph, but squint hard enough and you will find Leander crossing Accrington viaduct with the Great Britain railtour, day 7, Friday 21st April, 2023. No sun at the critical moment, so a composite was used as I wanted sun on the garage doors, and the opportunity was taken at the same time to include the fellow trudging home with his shopping.

 

PS Just spotted the year is set incorrectly in the new camera!

Location: Kodaira, Tokyo.

Gear: Fujifilm X100 / f5.6 @ 1/60 sec @ ISO 640

Processing: Lightroom 5 / Nik Collection

Borgund Stave Church (Norwegian: Borgund stavkyrkje) is a former parish church of the Church of Norway in Lærdal Municipality in Vestland county, Norway. It was built around the year 1200 as the village church of Borgund, and belonged to Lærdal parish (part of the Sogn prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Bjørgvin) until 1868, when its religious functions were transferred to a "new" Borgund Church, which was built nearby. The old church was restored, conserved and turned into a museum. It is funded and run by the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Norwegian Monuments, and is classified as a triple-nave stave church of the Sogn-type. Its grounds contain Norway's sole surviving stave-built free-standing bell tower.

 

Borgund Stave Church was built sometime between 1180 and 1250 AD with later additions and restorations. Its walls are formed by vertical wooden boards, or staves, hence the name "stave church." The four corner posts are connected to one another by ground sills, resting on a stone foundation. The intervening staves rise from the ground sills; each is tongued and grooved, to interlock with its neighbours and form a sturdy wall. The exterior timber surfaces are darkened by protective layers of tar, distilled from pine.

 

Borgund is built on a basilica plan, with reduced side aisles, and an added chancel and apse. It has a raised central nave demarcated on four sides by an arcade. An ambulatory runs around this platform and into the chancel and apse, both added in the 14th century. An additional ambulatory, in the form of a porch, runs around the exterior of the building, sheltered under the overhanging shingled roof. The floor plan of this church resembles that of a central plan, double-shelled Greek cross with an apse attached to one end in place of the fourth arm. The entries to the church are in the three shorter arms of the cross.

 

Structurally, the building has been described as a "cube within a cube", each independent of the other. The inner "cube" is formed by continuous columns that rise from ground level to support the roof. The top of the arcade is formed by arched buttresses, knee jointed to the columns. Above the arcade, the columns are linked by cross-shaped, diagonal trusses, commonly dubbed "Saint Andrew's crosses"; these carry arched supports that offer the visual equivalent of a "second storey". While not a functional gallery, this is reminiscent of contemporary second story galleries of large stone churches elsewhere in Europe. Smaller beams running between these upper supporting columns help clamp everything firmly together. The weight of the roof is thus supported by buttresses and columns, preventing downward and outward movement of the stave walls.

 

The roof beams are supported by steeply angled scissor trusses that form an "X" shape with a narrow top span and a broader bottom span, tied by a bottom truss to prevent collapse. Additional support is given by a truss that cuts across the "X", below the crossing point but above the bottom truss. The roof is steeply pitched, boarded horizontally and clad with shingles. The original outer roof would have been weatherproofed with boards laid lengthwise, rather than shingles. In later years wooden shingles became more common. Scissor beam roof construction is typical of most stave churches.

 

Borgund has tiered, overhanging roofs, topped at their intersection by a shingle-roofed tower or steeple. On each of its four gables is a stylised "dragon" head, swooping from the carved roof ridge crests, Hohler remarks their similarity to the carved dragon heads found on the prows of Norse ships. Similar gable heads appear on small bronze church-shaped reliquaries common in Norway and Europe in this period. Borgund's current dragon heads are possible 18th century replacements; similar, original dragon heads remain on older structures, such as Lom Stave Church and nearby Urnes Stave Church. Borgund is one of the only stave churches to have preserved its crested ridge caps. They are carved with openwork vine and entangled plant designs.

 

The four outer dragon heads are perhaps the most distinctive of all non-Christian symbols adorning Borgund Stave Church. Their function is uncertain, and disputed; if pagan, they are recruited to the Christian cause in the battle between Good and Evil. They may have been intended to keep away evil spirits thought to threaten the church building; to ward off evil, rather than represent it,

 

On the lower side panel of the steeple are four carved circular cutouts. The carvings are weather-beaten, tarred and difficult to decipher, and there is disagreement about what they symbolize. Some[who?] believe they represent the four evangelists, symbolised by an eagle, an ox, a lion and a man. Hauglid describes the carvings as "dragons that extend their heads over to the neighboring field's dragon and bite into it", and points out their similarity to carvings at Høre Stave Church.

 

The church's west portal (the nave's main entrance), is surrounded by a larger carving of dragons biting each other in the neck and tail. At the bottom of the half-columns that flank the front entrance, two dragon heads spew vine stalks that wind upwards and are braided into the dragons above. The carving shares similarities with the west portal of Ål Stave Church, which also has kites[clarification needed] in a band braiding pattern, and follows the usual composition[clarification needed] in the Sogn-Valdres portals, a larger group of portals with very clear similarities. Bugge writes that Christian authority may have come to terms with such pagan and "wild scenes" in the church building because the rift could be interpreted as a struggle between good and evil; in Christian medieval art, the dragon was often used as a symbol of the devil himself but Bugge believes that the carvings were protective, like the dragon heads on the church roof.

 

The church interior is dark, as not much daylight enters the building. Some of the few sources of natural light are narrow circular windows along the roof, examples of daylighting. It was supposed that the narrow apertures would prevent the entry of evil spirits. Three entrances are heavily adorned with foliage and snakes, and are only wide enough for one person to enter, supposedly preventing the entry of evil spirits alongside the churchgoers. The portals were originally painted green, red, black, and white.

 

Most of the internal fittings have been removed. There is little in the building, apart from the row of benches that are installed along the wall inside the church in the ambulatory outside of the arcade and raised platform, a soapstone font, an altar (with 17th-century altarpiece), a 16th-century lectern, and a 16th-century cupboard for storing altar vessels. After the Reformation, when the church was converted for Protestant worship, pews, a pulpit and other standard church furnishings were included, however these have been removed since the building has come under the protection of the Fortidsminneforeningen (The Society for the Preservation of Norwegian Ancient Monuments).

 

The interior structure of the church is characterized by the twelve free-standing columns that support the nave's elevated central space. On the long side of the church there is a double interval between the second and third pillars, but with a half pillar resting on the lower bracing beam (the pier) which runs in between. The double interval provides free access from the south portal to the church's central compartment, which would otherwise have been obstructed by the middle bar. The tops of the poles are finished with grotesque, carved human and animal masks. The tie-bars are secured with braces in the form of St. Andrew's crosses with a sun - shaped center and carved leaf shapes along the arms. The crosses reappear in less ornate form as braces along the church walls. On the north and south sides of the nave, a total of eight windows let in small amounts of light, and at the top of the nave's west gable is a window of more recent date - probably from pre-Reformation times. On the south wall of the nave, the inauguration crosses are still on the inside of the wall. The interior choir walls and west portal have engraved figures and runes, some of which date to the Middle Ages. One, among the commonest of runic graffiti, reads "Ave Maria". An inscription by Þórir (Thor), written "in the evening at St. Olav's Mass" blames the pagan Norns for his problems; perhaps a residue of ancient beliefs, as these female beings were thought to rule the personal destinies of all in Norse mythology and the Poetic Edda.

 

The medieval interior of the stave church is almost untouched, save for its restorations and repairs, though the medieval crucifix was removed after the Reformation. The original wooden floor and the benches that run along the walls of the nave are largely intact, together with a medieval stone altar and a box-shaped baptismal font in soapstone. The pulpit is from the period 1550–1570 and the altarpiece dates from 1654, while the frame around the tablet is dated to 1620. The painting on the altarpiece shows the crucifixion in the centre, flanked by the Virgin Mary on the left and John the Baptist on the right. In the tympanum field, a white dove hovers on a blue background. Below the painting is an inscription with golden letters on a black background. A sacrament from the period 1550–1570 in the same style as the pulpit is also preserved. A restoration of the building was carried out in the early 1870s, led by the architect Christian Christie, who removed benches, a second-floor gallery with seating, a ceiling over the chancel, and various windows including two large windows on the north and south sides. As the goal was to return the church to pre-Reformation condition, all post-Reformation interior paintwork was also removed.

 

Images from the 1990s show deer antlers hung on the lower, east-facing pillars. A local story claims that this is all that remains of a whole stuffed reindeer, shot when it tried to enter during a Mass. A travelogue from 1668 claims that a reindeer was shot during a sermon "when it marched like a wizard in front of the other animal carcasses"

 

To the south of the church is a free-standing stave-work bell tower that covers remnants of the mediaeval foundry used to cast the church bell. It was probably built in the mid-13th century. It is Norway's only remaining free-standing stave-work bell tower.It was given a new door around the year 1700 but this was removed and not replaced at some time between the 1920s and 1940s, leaving the foundry pit was exposed. To preserve the interior, new walls were built as cladding on the outside of the stave walls in the 1990s. One of the medieval bells is on display in the new Borgund church.

 

Management

In 1868 the building was abandoned as a church but was turned into a museum; this saved it from the commonplace demolition of stave churches in that period. A new Borgund Church was built in 1868 a short distance south of the old church. The old church has not been formally used for religious purposes since that year. Borgund Stave Church was bought by the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Norwegian Monuments in 1877. The first guidebook in English for the stave church was published in 1898. From 2001, the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage has funded a program to research, restore, conserve and maintain stave churches.

 

Legacy

The church served as an example for the reconstruction of the Fantoft Stave Church in Fana, Bergen, in 1883 and for its rebuilding in 1997. The Gustav Adolf Stave Church in Hahnenklee, Germany, built in 1908, is modeled on the Borgund church. Four replicas exist in the United States, one at Chapel in the Hills, Rapid City, South Dakota, another in Lyme, Connecticut, the third on Washington Island, Wisconsin, and the fourth in Minot, North Dakota at the Scandinavian Heritage Park.

 

Borgund is a former municipality in Sogn og Fjordane county, Norway. It was located in the southeastern part of the traditional district of Sogn. The 635-square-kilometre (245 sq mi) municipality existed from 1864 until its dissolution in 1964. It encompassed an area in the eastern part of the present-day Lærdal Municipality. The administrative center of Borgund was the village of Steinklepp, just northeast of the village of Borgund. Steinklepp was the site of a store, a bank, and a school. The historical Filefjell Kongevegen road passes through the Borgund area.

 

Location

The former municipality of Borgund was situated near the southeastern end of the Sognefjorden, along the Lærdalselvi river. The lower parts of the municipality were farms such as Sjurhaugen and Nedrehegg. They were at an elevation of about 270 m (890 ft) above sea level. Høgeloft, on the border with the neighboring municipality of Hemsedal, is a mountain in the Filefjell range and it was the highest point in Borgund at 1,920 m (6,300 ft) above sea level. The lakes Eldrevatnet, Juklevatnet, and Øljusjøen were also located near the border with Hemsedal.

 

History

Borgund was established as a municipality in 1864 when it was separated from the municipality of Lærdal. Initially it had a population of 963. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the municipality of Borgund (population: 492) was merged with the Muggeteigen area (population: 11) of the neighboring Årdal Municipality and all of Lærdal Municipality (population: 1,755) were all merged to form a new, larger municipality of Lærdal

 

Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway , is a Nordic , European country and an independent state in the west of the Scandinavian Peninsula . Geographically speaking, the country is long and narrow, and on the elongated coast towards the North Atlantic are Norway's well-known fjords . The Kingdom of Norway includes the main country (the mainland with adjacent islands within the baseline ), Jan Mayen and Svalbard . With these two Arctic areas, Norway covers a land area of ​​385,000 km² and has a population of approximately 5.5 million (2023). Mainland Norway borders Sweden in the east , Finland and Russia in the northeast .

 

Norway is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy , where Harald V has been king and head of state since 1991 , and Jonas Gahr Støre ( Ap ) has been prime minister since 2021 . Norway is a unitary state , with two administrative levels below the state: counties and municipalities . The Sami part of the population has, through the Sami Parliament and the Finnmark Act , to a certain extent self-government and influence over traditionally Sami areas. Although Norway has rejected membership of the European Union through two referendums , through the EEA Agreement Norway has close ties with the Union, and through NATO with the United States . Norway is a significant contributor to the United Nations (UN), and has participated with soldiers in several foreign operations mandated by the UN. Norway is among the states that have participated from the founding of the UN , NATO , the Council of Europe , the OSCE and the Nordic Council , and in addition to these is a member of the EEA , the World Trade Organization , the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and is part of the Schengen area .

 

Norway is rich in many natural resources such as oil , gas , minerals , timber , seafood , fresh water and hydropower . Since the beginning of the 20th century, these natural conditions have given the country the opportunity for an increase in wealth that few other countries can now enjoy, and Norwegians have the second highest average income in the world, measured in GDP per capita, as of 2022. The petroleum industry accounts for around 14% of Norway's gross domestic product as of 2018. Norway is the world's largest producer of oil and gas per capita outside the Middle East. However, the number of employees linked to this industry fell from approx. 232,000 in 2013 to 207,000 in 2015.

 

In Norway, these natural resources have been managed for socially beneficial purposes. The country maintains a welfare model in line with the other Nordic countries. Important service areas such as health and higher education are state-funded, and the country has an extensive welfare system for its citizens. Public expenditure in 2018 is approx. 50% of GDP, and the majority of these expenses are related to education, healthcare, social security and welfare. Since 2001 and until 2021, when the country took second place, the UN has ranked Norway as the world's best country to live in . From 2010, Norway is also ranked at the top of the EIU's democracy index . Norway ranks third on the UN's World Happiness Report for the years 2016–2018, behind Finland and Denmark , a report published in March 2019.

 

The majority of the population is Nordic. In the last couple of years, immigration has accounted for more than half of population growth. The five largest minority groups are Norwegian-Poles , Lithuanians , Norwegian-Swedes , Norwegian-Syrians including Syrian Kurds and Norwegian-Pakistani .

 

Norway's national day is 17 May, on this day in 1814 the Norwegian Constitution was dated and signed by the presidency of the National Assembly at Eidsvoll . It is stipulated in the law of 26 April 1947 that 17 May are national public holidays. The Sami national day is 6 February. "Yes, we love this country" is Norway's national anthem, the song was written in 1859 by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson (1832–1910).

 

Norway's history of human settlement goes back at least 10,000 years, to the Late Paleolithic , the first period of the Stone Age . Archaeological finds of settlements along the entire Norwegian coast have so far been dated back to 10,400 before present (BP), the oldest find is today considered to be a settlement at Pauler in Brunlanes , Vestfold .

For a period these settlements were considered to be the remains of settlers from Doggerland , an area which today lies beneath the North Sea , but which was once a land bridge connecting today's British Isles with Danish Jutland . But the archaeologists who study the initial phase of the settlement in what is today Norway reckon that the first people who came here followed the coast along what is today Bohuslân. That they arrived in some form of boat is absolutely certain, and there is much evidence that they could easily move over large distances.

 

Since the last Ice Age, there has been continuous settlement in Norway. It cannot be ruled out that people lived in Norway during the interglacial period , but no trace of such a population or settlement has been found.

 

The Stone Age lasted a long time; half of the time that our country has been populated. There are no written accounts of what life was like back then. The knowledge we have has been painstakingly collected through investigations of places where people have stayed and left behind objects that we can understand have been processed by human hands. This field of knowledge is called archaeology . The archaeologists interpret their findings and the history of the surrounding landscape. In our country, the uplift after the Ice Age is fundamental. The history of the settlements at Pauler is no more than fifteen years old.

 

The Fosna culture settled parts of Norway sometime between 10,000–8,000 BC. (see Stone Age in Norway ). The dating of rock carvings is set to Neolithic times (in Norway between 4000 BC to 1700 BC) and show activities typical of hunters and gatherers .

 

Agriculture with livestock and arable farming was introduced in the Neolithic. Swad farming where the farmers move when the field does not produce the expected yield.

 

More permanent and persistent farm settlements developed in the Bronze Age (1700 BC to 500 BC) and the Iron Age . The earliest runes have been found on an arrowhead dated to around 200 BC. Many more inscriptions are dated to around 800, and a number of petty kingdoms developed during these centuries. In prehistoric times, there were no fixed national borders in the Nordic countries and Norway did not exist as a state. The population in Norway probably fell to year 0.

 

Events in this time period, the centuries before the year 1000, are glimpsed in written sources. Although the sagas were written down in the 13th century, many hundreds of years later, they provide a glimpse into what was already a distant past. The story of the fimbul winter gives us a historical picture of something that happened and which in our time, with the help of dendrochronology , can be interpreted as a natural disaster in the year 536, created by a volcanic eruption in El Salvador .

 

In the period between 800 and 1066 there was a significant expansion and it is referred to as the Viking Age . During this period, Norwegians, as Swedes and Danes also did, traveled abroad in longships with sails as explorers, traders, settlers and as Vikings (raiders and pirates ). By the middle of the 11th century, the Norwegian kingship had been firmly established, building its right as descendants of Harald Hårfagre and then as heirs of Olav the Holy . The Norwegian kings, and their subjects, now professed Christianity . In the time around Håkon Håkonsson , in the time after the civil war , there was a small renaissance in Norway with extensive literary activity and diplomatic activity with Europe. The black dew came to Norway in 1349 and killed around half of the population. The entire state apparatus and Norway then entered a period of decline.

 

Between 1396 and 1536, Norway was part of the Kalmar Union , and from 1536 until 1814 Norway had been reduced to a tributary part of Denmark , named as the Personal Union of Denmark-Norway . This staff union entered into an alliance with Napoléon Bonaparte with a war that brought bad times and famine in 1812 . In 1814, Denmark-Norway lost the Anglophone Wars , part of the Napoleonic Wars , and the Danish king was forced to cede Norway to the king of Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel on 14 January of that year. After a Norwegian attempt at independence, Norway was forced into a loose union with Sweden, but where Norway was allowed to create its own constitution, the Constitution of 1814 . In this period, Norwegian, romantic national feeling flourished, and the Norwegians tried to develop and establish their own national self-worth. The union with Sweden was broken in 1905 after it had been threatened with war, and Norway became an independent kingdom with its own monarch, Haakon VII .

 

Norway remained neutral during the First World War , and at the outbreak of the Second World War, Norway again declared itself neutral, but was invaded by National Socialist Germany on 9 April 1940 .

 

Norway became a member of the Western defense alliance NATO in 1949 . Two attempts to join the EU were voted down in referendums by small margins in 1972 and 1994 . Norway has been a close ally of the United States in the post-war period. Large discoveries of oil and natural gas in the North Sea at the end of the 1960s led to tremendous economic growth in the country, which is still ongoing. Traditional industries such as fishing are also part of Norway's economy.

 

Stone Age (before 1700 BC)

When most of the ice disappeared, vegetation spread over the landscape and due to a warm climate around 2000-3000 BC. the forest grew much taller than in modern times. Land uplift after the ice age led to a number of fjords becoming lakes and dry land. The first people probably came from the south along the coast of the Kattegat and overland into Finnmark from the east. The first people probably lived by gathering, hunting and trapping. A good number of Stone Age settlements have been found which show that such hunting and trapping people stayed for a long time in the same place or returned to the same place regularly. Large amounts of gnawed bones show that they lived on, among other things, reindeer, elk, small game and fish.

 

Flintstone was imported from Denmark and apart from small natural deposits along the southern coast, all flintstone in Norway is transported by people. At Espevær, greenstone was quarried for tools in the Stone Age, and greenstone tools from Espevær have been found over large parts of Western Norway. Around 2000-3000 BC the usual farm animals such as cows and sheep were introduced to Norway. Livestock probably meant a fundamental change in society in that part of the people had to be permanent residents or live a semi-nomadic life. Livestock farming may also have led to conflict with hunters.

 

The oldest traces of people in what is today Norway have been found at Pauler , a farm in Brunlanes in Larvik municipality in Vestfold . In 2007 and 2008, the farm has given its name to a number of Stone Age settlements that have been excavated and examined by archaeologists from the Cultural History Museum at UiO. The investigations have been carried out in connection with the new route for the E18 motorway west of Farris. The oldest settlement, located more than 127 m above sea level, is dated to be about 10,400 years old (uncalibrated, more than 11,000 years in real calendar years). From here, the ice sheet was perhaps visible when people settled here. This locality has been named Pauler I, and is today considered to be the oldest confirmed human traces in Norway to date. The place is in the mountains above the Pauler tunnel on the E18 between Larvik and Porsgrunn . The pioneer settlement is a term archaeologists have adopted for the oldest settlement. The archaeologists have speculated about where they came from, the first people in what is today Norway. It has been suggested that they could come by boat or perhaps across the ice from Doggerland or the North Sea, but there is now a large consensus that they came north along what is today the Bohuslän coast. The Fosna culture , the Komsa culture and the Nøstvet culture are the traditional terms for hunting cultures from the Stone Age. One thing is certain - getting to the water was something they mastered, the first people in our country. Therefore, within a short time they were able to use our entire long coast.

 

In the New Stone Age (4000 BC–1700 BC) there is a theory that a new people immigrated to the country, the so-called Stone Ax People . Rock carvings from this period show motifs from hunting and fishing , which were still important industries. From this period, a megalithic tomb has been found in Østfold .

It is uncertain whether there were organized societies or state-like associations in the Stone Age in Norway. Findings from settlements indicate that many lived together and that this was probably more than one family so that it was a slightly larger, organized herd.

 

Finnmark

In prehistoric times, animal husbandry and agriculture were of little economic importance in Finnmark. Livelihoods in Finnmark were mainly based on fish, gathering, hunting and trapping, and eventually domestic reindeer herding became widespread in the Middle Ages. Archaeological finds from the Stone Age have been referred to as the Komsa culture and comprise around 5,000 years of settlement. Finnmark probably got its first settlement around 8000 BC. It is believed that the coastal areas became ice-free 11,000 years BC and the fjord areas around 9,000 years BC. after which willows, grass, heather, birch and pine came into being. Finnmarksvidda was covered by pine forest around 6000 BC. After the Ice Age, the land rose around 80 meters in the inner fjord areas (Alta, Tana, Varanger). Due to ice melting in the polar region, the sea rose in the period 6400–3800 BC. and in areas with little land elevation, some settlements from the first part of the Stone Age were flooded. On Sørøya, the net sea level rise was 12 to 14 meters and many residential areas were flooded.

 

According to Bjørnar Olsen , there are many indications of a connection between the oldest settlement in Western Norway (the " Fosnakulturen ") and that in Finnmark, but it is uncertain in which direction the settlement took place. In the earliest part of the Stone Age, settlement in Finnmark was probably concentrated in the coastal areas, and these only reflected a lifestyle with great mobility and no permanent dwellings. The inner regions, such as Pasvik, were probably used seasonally. The archaeologically proven settlements from the Stone Age in inner Finnmark and Troms are linked to lakes and large watercourses. The oldest petroglyphs in Alta are usually dated to 4200 BC, that is, the Neolithic . Bjørnar Olsen believes that the oldest can be up to 2,000 years older than this.

 

From around 4000 BC a slow deforestation of Finnmark began and around 1800 BC the vegetation distribution was roughly the same as in modern times. The change in vegetation may have increased the distance between the reindeer's summer and winter grazing. The uplift continued slowly from around 4000 BC. at the same time as sea level rise stopped.

 

According to Gutorm Gjessing, the settlement in Finnmark and large parts of northern Norway in the Neolithic was semi-nomadic with movement between four seasonal settlements (following the pattern of life in Sami siida in historical times): On the outer coast in summer (fishing and seal catching) and inland in winter (hunting for reindeer, elk and bear). Povl Simonsen believed instead that the winter residence was in the inner fjord area in a village-like sod house settlement. Bjørnar Olsen believes that at the end of the Stone Age there was a relatively settled population along the coast, while inland there was less settlement and a more mobile lifestyle.

 

Bronze Age (1700 BC–500 BC)

Bronze was used for tools in Norway from around 1500 BC. Bronze is a mixture of tin and copper , and these metals were introduced because they were not mined in the country at the time. Bronze is believed to have been a relatively expensive material. The Bronze Age in Norway can be divided into two phases:

 

Early Bronze Age (1700–1100 BC)

Younger Bronze Age (1100–500 BC)

For the prehistoric (unwritten) era, there is limited knowledge about social conditions and possible state formations. From the Bronze Age, there are large burial mounds of stone piles along the coast of Vestfold and Agder, among others. It is likely that only chieftains or other great men could erect such grave monuments and there was probably some form of organized society linked to these. In the Bronze Age, society was more organized and stratified than in the Stone Age. Then a rich class of chieftains emerged who had close connections with southern Scandinavia. The settlements became more permanent and people adopted horses and ard . They acquired bronze status symbols, lived in longhouses and people were buried in large burial mounds . Petroglyphs from the Bronze Age indicate that humans practiced solar cultivation.

 

Finnmark

In the last millennium BC the climate became cooler and the pine forest disappears from the coast; pine forests, for example, were only found in the innermost part of the Altafjord, while the outer coast was almost treeless. Around the year 0, the limit for birch forest was south of Kirkenes. Animals with forest habitats (elk, bear and beaver) disappeared and the reindeer probably established their annual migration routes sometime at that time. In the period 1800–900 BC there were significantly more settlements in and utilization of the hinterland was particularly noticeable on Finnmarksvidda. From around 1800 BC until year 0 there was a significant increase in contact between Finnmark and areas in the east including Karelia (where metals were produced including copper) and central and eastern Russia. The youngest petroglyphs in Alta show far more boats than the earlier phases and the boats are reminiscent of types depicted in petroglyphs in southern Scandinavia. It is unclear what influence southern Scandinavian societies had as far north as Alta before the year 0. Many of the cultural features that are considered typical Sami in modern times were created or consolidated in the last millennium BC, this applies, among other things, to the custom of burying in brick chambers in stone urns. The Mortensnes burial ground may have been used for 2000 years until around 1600 AD.

 

Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 1050 AD)

 

The Einangsteinen is one of the oldest Norwegian runestones; it is from the 4th century

 

Simultaneous production of Vikings

Around 500 years BC the researchers reckon that the Bronze Age will be replaced by the Iron Age as iron takes over as the most important material for weapons and tools. Bronze, wood and stone were still used. Iron was cheaper than bronze, easier to work than flint , and could be used for many purposes; iron probably became common property. Iron could, among other things, be used to make solid and sharp axes which made it much easier to fell trees. In the Iron Age, gold and silver were also used partly for decoration and partly as means of payment. It is unknown which language was used in Norway before our era. From around the year 0 until around the year 800, everyone in Scandinavia (except the Sami) spoke Old Norse , a North Germanic language. Subsequently, several different languages ​​developed in this area that were only partially mutually intelligible. The Iron Age is divided into several periods:

 

Early Iron Age

Pre-Roman Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 0)

Roman Iron Age (c. 0–c. AD 400)

Migration period (approx. 400–600). In the migration period (approx. 400–600), new peoples came to Norway, and ruins of fortress buildings etc. are interpreted as signs that there has been talk of a violent invasion.

Younger Iron Age

Merovingian period (500–800)

 

The Viking Age (793–1066)

Norwegian Vikings go on plundering expeditions and trade voyages around the coastal countries of Western Europe . Large groups of Norwegians emigrate to the British Isles , Iceland and Greenland . Harald Hårfagre starts a unification process of Norway late in the 8th century , which was completed by Harald Hardråde in the 1060s . The country was Christianized under the kings Olav Tryggvason , fell in the battle of Svolder ( 1000 ) and Olav Haraldsson (the saint), fell in the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 .

 

Sources of prehistoric times

Shrinking glaciers in the high mountains, including in Jotunheimen and Breheimen , have from around the year 2000 uncovered objects from the Viking Age and earlier. These are objects of organic material that have been preserved by the ice and that elsewhere in nature are broken down in a few months. The finds are getting older as the melting makes the archaeologists go deeper into the ice. About half of all archaeological discoveries on glaciers in the world are made in Oppland . In 2013, a 3,400-year-old shoe and a robe from the year 300 were found. Finds at Lomseggen in Lom published in 2020 revealed, among other things, well-preserved horseshoes used on a mountain pass. Many hundreds of items include preserved clothing, knives, whisks, mittens, leather shoes, wooden chests and horse equipment. A piece of cloth dated to the year 1000 has preserved its original colour. In 2014, a wooden ski from around the year 700 was found in Reinheimen . The ski is 172 cm long and 14 cm wide, with preserved binding of leather and wicker.

 

Pytheas from Massalia is the oldest known account of what was probably the coast of Norway, perhaps somewhere on the coast of Møre. Pytheas visited Britannia around 325 BC. and traveled further north to a country by the "Ice Sea". Pytheas described the short summer night and the midnight sun farther north. He wrote, among other things, that people there made a drink from grain and honey. Caesar wrote in his work about the Gallic campaign about the Germanic tribe Haruders. Other Roman sources around the year 0 mention the land of the Cimbri (Jutland) and the Cimbri headlands ( Skagen ) and that the sources stated that Cimbri and Charyds lived in this area. Some of these peoples may have immigrated to Norway and there become known as hordes (as in Hordaland). Sources from the Mediterranean area referred to the islands of Scandia, Scandinavia and Thule ("the outermost of all islands"). The Roman historian Tacitus wrote around the year 100 a work about Germania and mentioned the people of Scandia, the Sviones. Ptolemy wrote around the year 150 that the Kharudes (Hordes) lived further north than all the Cimbri, in the north lived the Finnoi (Finns or Sami) and in the south the Gutai (Goths). The Nordic countries and Norway were outside the Roman Empire , which dominated Europe at the time. The Gothic-born historian Jordanes wrote in the 5th century about 13 tribes or people groups in Norway, including raumaricii (probably Romerike ), ragnaricii ( Ranrike ) and finni or skretefinni (skrid finner or ski finner, i.e. Sami) as well as a number of unclear groups. Prokopios wrote at the same time about Thule north of the land of the Danes and Slavs, Thule was ten times as big as Britannia and the largest of all the islands. In Thule, the sun was up 40 days straight in the summer. After the migration period , southern Europeans' accounts of northern Europe became fuller and more reliable.

 

Settlement in prehistoric times

Norway has around 50,000 farms with their own names. Farm names have persisted for a long time, over 1000 years, perhaps as much as 2000 years. The name researchers have arranged different types of farm names chronologically, which provides a basis for determining when the place was used by people or received a permanent settlement. Uncompounded landscape names such as Haug, Eid, Vik and Berg are believed to be the oldest. Archaeological traces indicate that some areas have been inhabited earlier than assumed from the farm name. Burial mounds also indicate permanent settlement. For example, the burial ground at Svartelva in Løten was used from around the year 0 to the year 1000 when Christianity took over. The first farmers probably used large areas for inland and outland, and new farms were probably established based on some "mother farms". Names such as By (or Bø) show that it is an old place of residence. From the older Iron Age, names with -heim (a common Germanic word meaning place of residence) and -stad tell of settlement, while -vin and -land tell of the use of the place. Farm names in -heim are often found as -um , -eim or -em as in Lerum and Seim, there are often large farms in the center of the village. New farm names with -city and -country were also established in the Viking Age . The first farmers probably used the best areas. The largest burial grounds, the oldest archaeological finds and the oldest farm names are found where the arable land is richest and most spacious.

 

It is unclear whether the settlement expansion in Roman times, migrations and the Iron Age is due to immigration or internal development and population growth. Among other things, it is difficult to demonstrate where in Europe the immigrants have come from. The permanent residents had both fields (where grain was grown) and livestock that grazed in the open fields, but it is uncertain which of these was more important. Population growth from around the year 200 led to more utilization of open land, for example in the form of settlements in the mountains. During the migration period, it also seems that in parts of the country it became common to have cluster gardens or a form of village settlement.

 

Norwegian expansion northwards

From around the year 200, there was a certain migration by sea from Rogaland and Hordaland to Nordland and Sør-Troms. Those who moved settled down as a settled Iron Age population and became dominant over the original population which may have been Sami . The immigrant Norwegians, Bumen , farmed with livestock that were fed inside in the winter as well as some grain cultivation and fishing. The northern border of the Norwegians' settlement was originally at the Toppsundet near Harstad and around the year 500 there was a Norwegian settlement to Malangsgapet. That was as far north as it was possible to grow grain at the time. Malangen was considered the border between Hålogaland and Finnmork until around 1400 . Further into the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, there was immigration and settlement of Norwegian speakers along the coast north of Malangen. Around the year 800, Norwegians lived along the entire outer coast to Vannøy . The Norwegians partly copied Sami livelihoods such as whaling, fur hunting and reindeer husbandry. It was probably this area between Malangen and Vannøy that was Ottar from the Hålogaland area. In the Viking Age, there were also some Norwegian settlements further north and east. East of the North Cape are the scattered archaeological finds of Norwegian settlement in the Viking Age. There are Norwegian names for fjords and islands from the Viking Age, including fjord names with "-anger". Around the year 1050, there were Norwegian settlements on the outer coast of Western Finnmark. Traders and tax collectors traveled even further.

 

North of Malangen there were Norse farming settlements in the Iron Age. Malangen was considered Finnmark's western border until 1300. There are some archaeological traces of Norse activity around the coast from Tromsø to Kirkenes in the Viking Age. Around Tromsø, the research indicates a Norse/Sami mixed culture on the coast.

 

From the year 1100 and the next 200–300 years, there are no traces of Norwegian settlement north and east of Tromsø. It is uncertain whether this is due to depopulation, whether it is because the Norwegians further north were not Christianized or because there were no churches north of Lenvik or Tromsø . Norwegian settlement in the far north appears from sources from the 14th century. In the Hanseatic period , the settlement was developed into large areas specialized in commercial fishing, while earlier (in the Viking Age) there had been farms with a combination of fishing and agriculture. In 1307 , a fortress and the first church east of Tromsø were built in Vardø . Vardø became a small Norwegian town, while Vadsø remained Sami. Norwegian settlements and churches appeared along the outermost coast in the Middle Ages. After the Reformation, perhaps as a result of a decline in fish stocks or fish prices, there were Norwegian settlements in the inner fjord areas such as Lebesby in Laksefjord. Some fishing villages at the far end of the coast were abandoned for good. In the interior of Finnmark, there was no national border for a long time and Kautokeino and Karasjok were joint Norwegian-Swedish areas with strong Swedish influence. The border with Finland was established in 1751 and with Russia in 1826.

 

On a Swedish map from 1626, Norway's border is indicated at Malangen, while Sweden with this map showed a desire to control the Sami area which had been a common area.

 

The term Northern Norway only came into use at the end of the 19th century and administratively the area was referred to as Tromsø Diocese when Tromsø became a bishopric in 1840. There had been different designations previously: Hålogaland originally included only Helgeland and when Norse settlement spread north in the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, Hålogaland was used for the area north approximately to Malangen , while Finnmark or "Finnmarken", "the land of the Sami", lay outside. The term Northern Norway was coined at a cafe table in Kristiania in 1884 by members of the Nordlændingernes Forening and was first commonly used in the interwar period as it eventually supplanted "Hålogaland".

 

State formation

The battle in Hafrsfjord in the year 872 has long been regarded as the day when Norway became a kingdom. The year of the battle is uncertain (may have been 10-20 years later). The whole of Norway was not united in that battle: the process had begun earlier and continued a couple of hundred years later. This means that the geographical area became subject to a political authority and became a political unit. The geographical area was perceived as an area as it is known, among other things, from Ottar from Hålogaland's account for King Alfred of Wessex around the year 880. Ottar described "the land of the Norwegians" as very long and narrow, and it was narrowest in the far north. East of the wasteland in the south lay Sveoland and in the north lay Kvenaland in the east. When Ottar sailed south along the land from his home ( Malangen ) to Skiringssal, he always had Norway ("Nordveg") on his port side and the British Isles on his starboard side. The journey took a good month. Ottar perceived "Nordveg" as a geographical unit, but did not imply that it was a political unit. Ottar separated Norwegians from Swedes and Danes. It is unclear why Ottar perceived the population spread over such a large area as a whole. It is unclear whether Norway as a geographical term or Norwegians as the name of a ethnic group is the oldest. The Norwegians had a common language which in the centuries before Ottar did not differ much from the language of Denmark and Sweden.

 

According to Sverre Steen, it is unlikely that Harald Hårfagre was able to control this entire area as one kingdom. The saga of Harald was written 300 years later and at his death Norway was several smaller kingdoms. Harald probably controlled a larger area than anyone before him and at most Harald's kingdom probably included the coast from Trøndelag to Agder and Vestfold as well as parts of Viken . There were probably several smaller kingdoms of varying extent before Harald and some of these are reflected in traditional landscape names such as Ranrike and Ringerike . Landscape names of "-land" (Rogaland) and "-mark" (Hedmark) as well as names such as Agder and Sogn may have been political units before Harald.

 

According to Sverre Steen, the national assembly was completed at the earliest at the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 and the introduction of Christianity was probably a significant factor in the establishment of Norway as a state. Håkon I the good Adalsteinsfostre introduced the leasehold system where the "coastal land" (as far as the salmon went up the rivers) was divided into ship raiders who were to provide a longship with soldiers and supplies. The leidange was probably introduced as a defense against the Danes. The border with the Danes was traditionally at the Göta älv and several times before and after Harald Hårfagre the Danes had control over central parts of Norway.

 

Christianity was known and existed in Norway before Olav Haraldson's time. The spread occurred both from the south (today's Denmark and northern Germany) and from the west (England and Ireland). Ansgar of Bremen , called the "Apostle of the North", worked in Sweden, but he was never in Norway and probably had little influence in the country. Viking expeditions brought the Norwegians of that time into contact with Christian countries and some were baptized in England, Ireland and northern France. Olav Tryggvason and Olav Haraldson were Vikings who returned home. The first Christians in Norway were also linked to pre-Christian local religion, among other things, by mixing Christian symbols with symbols of Odin and other figures from Norse religion.

 

According to Sverre Steen, the introduction of Christianity in Norway should not be perceived as a nationwide revival. At Mostratinget, Christian law was introduced as law in the country and later incorporated into the laws of the individual jurisdictions. Christianity primarily involved new forms in social life, among other things exposure and images of gods were prohibited, it was forbidden to "put out" unwanted infants (to let them die), and it was forbidden to have multiple wives. The church became a nationwide institution with a special group of officials tasked with protecting the church and consolidating the new religion. According to Sverre Steen, Christianity and the church in the Middle Ages should therefore be considered together, and these became a new unifying factor in the country. The church and Christianity linked Norway to Roman Catholic Europe with Church Latin as the common language, the same time reckoning as the rest of Europe and the church in Norway was arranged much like the churches in Denmark, Sweden and England. Norway received papal approval in 1070 and became its own church province in 1152 with Archbishop Nidaros .

 

With Christianity, the country got three social powers: the peasants (organized through the things), the king with his officials and the church with the clergy. The things are the oldest institution: At allthings all armed men had the right to attend (in part an obligation to attend) and at lagthings met emissaries from an area (that is, the lagthings were representative assemblies). The Thing both ruled in conflicts and established laws. The laws were memorized by the participants and written down around the year 1000 or later in the Gulationsloven , Frostatingsloven , Eidsivatingsloven and Borgartingsloven . The person who had been successful at the hearing had to see to the implementation of the judgment themselves.

 

Early Middle Ages (1050s–1184)

The early Middle Ages is considered in Norwegian history to be the period between the end of the Viking Age around 1050 and the coronation of King Sverre in 1184 . The beginning of the period can be dated differently, from around the year 1000 when the Christianization of the country took place and up to 1100 when the Viking Age was over from an archaeological point of view. From 1035 to 1130 it was a time of (relative) internal peace in Norway, even several of the kings attempted campaigns abroad, including in 1066 and 1103 .

 

During this period, the church's organization was built up. This led to a gradual change in religious customs. Religion went from being a domestic matter to being regulated by common European Christian law and the royal power gained increased power and influence. Slavery (" servitude ") was gradually abolished. The population grew rapidly during this period, as the thousands of farm names ending in -rud show.

 

The urbanization of Norway is a historical process that has slowly but surely changed Norway from the early Viking Age to today, from a country based on agriculture and sea salvage, to increasingly trade and industry. As early as the ninth century, the country got its first urban community, and in the eleventh century we got the first permanent cities.

 

In the 1130s, civil war broke out . This was due to a power struggle and that anyone who claimed to be the king's son could claim the right to the throne. The disputes escalated into extensive year-round warfare when Sverre Sigurdsson started a rebellion against the church's and the landmen's candidate for the throne , Magnus Erlingsson .

 

Emergence of cities

The oldest Norwegian cities probably emerged from the end of the 9th century. Oslo, Bergen and Nidaros became episcopal seats, which stimulated urban development there, and the king built churches in Borg , Konghelle and Tønsberg. Hamar and Stavanger became new episcopal seats and are referred to in the late 12th century as towns together with the trading places Veøy in Romsdal and Kaupanger in Sogn. In the late Middle Ages, Borgund (on Sunnmøre), Veøy (in Romsdalsfjorden) and Vågan (in Lofoten) were referred to as small trading places. Urbanization in Norway occurred in few places compared to the neighboring countries, only 14 places appear as cities before 1350. Stavanger became a bishopric around 1120–1130, but it is unclear whether the place was already a city then. The fertile Jæren and outer Ryfylke were probably relatively densely populated at that time. A particularly large concentration of Irish artefacts from the Viking Age has been found in Stavanger and Nord-Jæren.

 

It has been difficult to estimate the population in the Norwegian medieval cities, but it is considered certain that the cities grew rapidly in the Middle Ages. Oscar Albert Johnsen estimated the city's population before the Black Death at 20,000, of which 7,000 in Bergen, 3,000 in Nidaros, 2,000 in Oslo and 1,500 in Tunsberg. Based on archaeological research, Lunden estimates that Oslo had around 1,500 inhabitants in 250 households in the year 1300. Bergen was built up more densely and, with the concentration of exports there, became Norway's largest city in a special position for several hundred years. Knut Helle suggests a city population of 20,000 at most in the High Middle Ages, of which almost half in Bergen.

 

The Bjarkøyretten regulated the conditions in cities (especially Bergen and Nidaros) and in trading places, and for Nidaros had many of the same provisions as the Frostating Act . Magnus Lagabøte's city law replaced the bjarkøretten and from 1276 regulated the settlement in Bergen and with corresponding laws also drawn up for Oslo, Nidaros and Tunsberg. The city law applied within the city's roof area . The City Act determined that the city's public streets consisted of wide commons (perpendicular to the shoreline) and ran parallel to the shoreline, similarly in Nidaros and Oslo. The roads were small streets of up to 3 cubits (1.4 metres) and linked to the individual property. From the Middle Ages, the Norwegian cities were usually surrounded by wooden fences. The urban development largely consisted of low wooden houses which stood in contrast to the relatively numerous and dominant churches and monasteries built in stone.

 

The City Act and supplementary provisions often determined where in the city different goods could be traded, in Bergen, for example, cattle and sheep could only be traded on the Square, and fish only on the Square or directly from the boats at the quayside. In Nidaros, the blacksmiths were required to stay away from the densely populated areas due to the risk of fire, while the tanners had to stay away from the settlements due to the strong smell. The City Act also attempted to regulate the influx of people into the city (among other things to prevent begging in the streets) and had provisions on fire protection. In Oslo, from the 13th century or earlier, it was common to have apartment buildings consisting of single buildings on a couple of floors around a courtyard with access from the street through a gate room. Oslo's medieval apartment buildings were home to one to four households. In the urban farms, livestock could be kept, including pigs and cows, while pastures and fields were found in the city's rooftops . In the apartment buildings there could be several outbuildings such as warehouses, barns and stables. Archaeological excavations show that much of the buildings in medieval Oslo, Trondheim and Tønsberg resembled the oblong farms that have been preserved at Bryggen in Bergen . The land boundaries in Oslo appear to have persisted for many hundreds of years, in Bergen right from the Middle Ages to modern times.

 

High Middle Ages (1184–1319)

After civil wars in the 12th century, the country had a relative heyday in the 13th century. Iceland and Greenland came under the royal authority in 1262 , and the Norwegian Empire reached its greatest extent under Håkon IV Håkonsson . The last king of Haraldsätten, Håkon V Magnusson , died sonless in 1319 . Until the 17th century, Norway stretched all the way down to the mouth of Göta älv , which was then Norway's border with Sweden and Denmark.

 

Just before the Black Death around 1350, there were between 65,000 and 85,000 farms in the country, and there had been a strong growth in the number of farms from 1050, especially in Eastern Norway. In the High Middle Ages, the church or ecclesiastical institutions controlled 40% of the land in Norway, while the aristocracy owned around 20% and the king owned 7%. The church and monasteries received land through gifts from the king and nobles, or through inheritance and gifts from ordinary farmers.

 

Settlement and demography in the Middle Ages

Before the Black Death, there were more and more farms in Norway due to farm division and clearing. The settlement spread to more marginal agricultural areas higher inland and further north. Eastern Norway had the largest areas to take off and had the most population growth towards the High Middle Ages. Along the coast north of Stad, settlement probably increased in line with the extent of fishing. The Icelandic Rimbegla tells around the year 1200 that the border between Finnmark (the land of the Sami) and resident Norwegians in the interior was at Malangen , while the border all the way out on the coast was at Kvaløya . From the end of the High Middle Ages, there were more Norwegians along the coast of Finnmark and Nord-Troms. In the inner forest and mountain tracts along the current border between Norway and Sweden, the Sami exploited the resources all the way down to Hedmark.

 

There are no censuses or other records of population and settlement in the Middle Ages. At the time of the Reformation, the population was below 200,000 and only in 1650 was the population at the same level as before the Black Death. When Christianity was introduced after the year 1000, the population was around 200,000. After the Black Death, many farms and settlements were abandoned and deserted, in the most marginal agricultural areas up to 80% of the farms were abandoned. Places such as Skien, Veøy and Borgund (Ålesund) went out of use as trading towns. By the year 1300, the population was somewhere between 300,000 and 560,000 depending on the calculation method. Common methods start from detailed information about farms in each village and compare this with the situation in 1660 when there are good headcounts. From 1300 to 1660, there was a change in the economic base so that the coastal villages received a larger share of the population. The inland areas of Eastern Norway had a relatively larger population in the High Middle Ages than after the Reformation. Kåre Lunden concludes that the population in the year 1300 was close to 500,000, of which 15,000 lived in cities. Lunden believes that the population in 1660 was still slightly lower than the peak before the Black Death and points out that farm settlement in 1660 did not reach the same extent as in the High Middle Ages. In 1660, the population in Troms and Finnmark was 6,000 and 3,000 respectively (2% of the total population), in 1300 these areas had an even smaller share of the country's population and in Finnmark there were hardly any Norwegian-speaking inhabitants. In the High Middle Ages, the climate was more favorable for grain cultivation in the north. Based on the number of farms, the population increased 162% from 1000 to 1300, in Northern and Western Europe as a whole the growth was 200% in the same period.

 

Late Middle Ages (1319–1537)

Due to repeated plague epidemics, the population was roughly halved and the least productive of the country's farms were laid waste. It took several hundred years before the population again reached the level before 1349 . However, those who survived the epidemics gained more financial resources by sharing. Tax revenues for the state almost collapsed, and a large part of the noble families died out or sank into peasant status due to the fall in national debt . The Hanseatic League took over trade and shipping and dominated fish exports. The Archbishop of Nidaros was the country's most powerful man economically and politically, as the royal dynasty married into the Swedish in 1319 and died out in 1387 . Eventually, Copenhagen became the political center of the kingdom and Bergen the commercial center, while Trondheim remained the religious center.

 

From Reformation to Autocracy (1537–1660)

In 1537 , the Reformation was carried out in Norway. With that, almost half of the country's property was confiscated by the royal power at the stroke of a pen. The large seizure increased the king's income and was able, among other things, to expand his military power and consolidated his power in the kingdom. From roughly the time of the Reformation and in the following centuries, the state increased its power and importance in people's lives. Until around 1620, the state administration was fairly simple and unspecialised: in Copenhagen, the central administration mainly consisted of a chancellery and an interest chamber ; and sheriffs ruled the civil (including bailiffs and sheriffs) and the military in their district, the sheriffs collected taxes and oversaw business. The accounts were not clear and without summaries. The clergy, which had great power as a separate organization, was appointed by the state church after the Reformation, administered from Copenhagen. In this period, Norway was ruled by (mainly) Danish noble sheriffs, who acted as intermediaries between the peasants and the Oldenborg king in the field of justice, tax and customs collection.

 

From 1620, the state apparatus went through major changes where specialization of functions was a main issue. The sheriff's tasks were divided between several, more specialized officials - the sheriffs retained the formal authority over these, who in practice were under the national administration in Copenhagen. Among other things, a separate military officer corps was established, a separate customs office was established and separate treasurers for taxes and fees were appointed. The Overbergamtet, the central governing body for overseeing mining operations in Norway, was established in 1654 with an office in Christiania and this agency was to oversee the mining chiefs in the Nordenfjeld and Sønnenfjeld areas (the mines at Kongsberg and Røros were established in the previous decades). The formal transition from county government to official government with fixed-paid county officials took place after 1660, but the real changes had taken place from around 1620. The increased specialization and transition to official government meant that experts, not amateurs, were in charge of each area, and this civil service meant, according to Sverre Steen that the dictatorship was not a personal dictatorship.

 

From 1570 until 1721, the Oldenborg dynasty was in repeated wars with the Vasa dynasty in Sweden. The financing of these wars led to a severe increase in taxation which caused great distress.

 

Politically-geographically, the Oldenborg kings had to cede to Sweden the Norwegian provinces of Jemtland , Herjedalen , Idre and Särna , as well as Båhuslen . As part of the financing of the wars, the state apparatus was expanded. Royal power began to assert itself to a greater extent in the administration of justice. Until this period, cases of violence and defamation had been treated as civil cases between citizens. The level of punishment was greatly increased. During this period, at least 307 people were also executed for witchcraft in Norway. Culturally, the country was marked by the fact that the written language became Danish because of the Bible translation and the University of Copenhagen's educational monopoly.

 

From the 16th century, business became more marked by production for sale and not just own consumption. In the past, it was particularly the fisheries that had produced such a large surplus of goods that it was sold to markets far away, the dried fish trade via Bergen is known from around the year 1100. In the 16th century, the yield from the fisheries multiplied, especially due to the introduction of herring in Western Norway and in Trøndelag and because new tools made fishing for herring and skre more efficient. Line fishing and cod nets that were introduced in the 17th century were controversial because the small fishermen believed it favored citizens in the cities.

 

Forestry and the timber trade became an important business, particularly because of the boom saw which made it possible to saw all kinds of tables and planks for sale abroad. The demand for timber increased at the same time in Europe, Norway had plenty of forests and in the 17th century timber became the country's most important export product. There were hundreds of sawmills in the country and the largest had the feel of factories . In 1680, the king regulated the timber trade by allowing exports only from privileged sawmills and in a certain quantity.

 

From the 1520s, some silver was mined in Telemark. When the peasants chased the German miners whereupon the king executed five peasants and demanded compensation from the other rebellious peasants. The background for the harsh treatment was that the king wanted to assert his authority over the extraction of precious metals. The search for metals led to the silver works at Kongsberg after 1624, copper in the mountain villages between Trøndelag and Eastern Norway, and iron, among other things, in Agder and lower Telemark. The financial gain of the quarries at that time is unclear because there are no reliable accounts. Kongsberg ma

There is no official definition or height above which a building may be classified as a skyscraper. One common feature of skyscrapers is having a steel framework from which curtain walls are suspended, rather than load-bearing walls of conventional construction.

View On Black

++++++FROM WIKIPEDIA ++++

 

Puri (About this soundlisten (help·info)) is a city and a Municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, 60 kilometres (37 mi) south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as Sri Jagannatha Dhama after the 12th-century Jagannatha Temple located in the city. It is one of the original Char Dham pilgrimage sites for Hindus.

Puri

 

ପୁରୀ

 

Puri is known by several names since the ancient times, and was locally known as "Sri Kshetra" and Lord Jagannatha temple is known as "Badadeula". Puri and the Jagannatha Temple were invaded 18 times by Hindu and Muslim rulers, from the 4th century AD till the early 19th century with the objective of looting the treasures of the temple. Odisha, including Puri and its temple, were part of British India from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947. Even though princely states do not exist in India today, the heirs of the Gajapati Dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple. The temple town has many Hindu religious mathas or monasteries.

 

The economy of Puri is dependent on the religious importance of the Jagannatha Temple to the extent of nearly 80 percent. The 24 festivals, including 13 major ones, held every year in the temple complex contribute to the economy; Ratha Yatra and its related festivals are the most important which are attended by millions of people every year. Sand art and applique art are some of the important crafts of the city.

 

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) scheme of Government of India.

Geography and climateEdit

GeographyEdit

The Atharanala Bridge dating back to the 16th century at the entrance of Puri

 

Puri, located on the east coast of India on the Bay of Bengal, is in the centre of the Puri district. It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, the Mauza Sipaurubilla on the west, Mauza Gopinathpur in the north and Mauza Balukhand in the east. It is within the 67 kilometres (42 mi) coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between Chilika Lake and the south of Puri city. However, the administrative jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of 16.3268 square kilometres (6.3038 sq mi) spread over 30 wards, which includes a shore line of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi).[1]

 

Puri is in the coastal delta of the Mahanadi River on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. In the ancient days it was near to Sisupalgarh (also known as "Ashokan Tosali"). Then the land was drained by a tributary of the Bhargavi River, a branch of the Mahanadi River. This branch underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the estuary, and formed many sand hills. These sand hills could be cut through by the streams. Because of the sand hills, the Bhargavi River, flowing to the south of Puri, moved away towards the Chilika Lake. This shift also resulted in the creation of two lagoons, known as Sar and Samang, on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively. Sar lagoon has a length of 5 miles (8.0 km) in an east-west direction and a width of 2 miles (3.2 km) in north-south direction. The estuary of the Bhargavi River has a shallow depth of just 5 feet (1.5 m) and the process of siltation continues. According to a 15th-century Odia writer Saraladasa, the bed of the unnamed stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or Neelachal was filled up. Katakarajavamsa, a 16th-century chronicle (c.1600), attributes filling up of the bed of the river which flowed through the present Grand Road, as done during the reign of King Narasimha II (1278–1308) of Eastern Ganga dynasty.[2]

ClimateEdit

 

According to the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system the climate of Puri is classified as Aw (Tropical savanna climate). The city has moderate and tropical climate. Humidity is fairly high throughout the year. The temperature during summer touches a maximum of 36 °C (97 °F) and during winter it is 17 °C (63 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,337 millimetres (52.6 in) and the average annual temperature is 26.9 °C (80.4 °F). The weather data is given in the following table.[3][4]

 

HistoryEdit

Main article: Timeline of Puri

Names in historyEdit

 

Puri, the holy land of Lord Jagannatha, also known by the popular vernacular name Shrikhetra, has many ancient names in the Hindu scriptures such as the Rigveda, Matsya purana, Brahma Purana, Narada Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Kapila Purana and Niladrimahodaya. In the Rigveda, in particular, it is mentioned as a place called Purushamandama-grama meaning the place where the Creator deity of the world – Supreme Divinity deified on an altar or mandapa was venerated near the coast and prayers offered with Vedic hymns. Over time the name got changed to Purushottama Puri and further shortened to Puri, and the Purusha came to be known as Jagannatha. Sages like Bhrigu, Atri and Markandeya had their hermitage close to this place.[5] Its name is mentioned, conforming to the deity worshipped, as Srikshetra, Purusottama Dhāma, Purusottama Kshetra, Purusottama Puri and Jagannath Puri. Puri, however, is the popular usage. It is also known by the geographical features of its location as Shankhakshetra (the layout of the town is in the form of a conch shell),[6] Neelāchala ("Blue mountain" a terminology used to name a very large sand lagoon over which the temple was built but this name is not in vogue), Neelāchalakshetra, Neelādri.[7] In Sanskrit, the word "Puri" means town or city,[8] and is cognate with polis in Greek.[9]

 

Another ancient name is Charita as identified by General Alexander Cunningham of the Archaeological Survey of India, which was later spelled as Che-li-ta-lo by Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang. When the present temple was built by the Eastern Ganga king Anantavarman Chodaganga in the 11th and 12th centuries AD, it was called Purushottamkshetra. However, the Moghuls, the Marathas and early British rulers called it Purushottama-chhatar or just Chhatar. In Moghul ruler Akbar's Ain-i-Akbari and subsequent Muslim historical records it was known as Purushottama. In the Sanskrit drama Anargha Raghava Nataka as well, authored by Murari Mishra, a playwright, in the 8th century AD, it is referred to as Purushottama.[6] It was only after the 12th century AD that Puri came to be known by the shortened form of Jagannatha Puri, named after the deity or in a short form as Puri.[7] It is the only shrine in India, where Radha, along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga, Bhudevi, Sati, Parvati, and Shakti, abodes with Krishna, who is also known by the name Jagannatha.[10]

Ancient periodEdit

king Indradyumna of Ujjayani credited with building the original temple in 318 AD

 

According to the chronicle Madala Panji, in 318 AD, the priests and servitors of the temple spirited away the idols to escape the wrath of the Rashtrakuta king Rakatavahu.[11] In the temple's historical records it finds mention in the Brahma Purana and Skanda Purana stating that the temple was built by the king Indradyumna, Ujjayani.[12]

 

S. N. Sadasivan, a historian, in his book A Social History of India quotes William Joseph Wilkins, author of the book Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Purānic as stating that in Puri, Buddhism was once a well established practice but later Buddhists were persecuted and Brahmanism became the order of the religious practice in the town; the Buddha deity is now worshipped by the Hindus as Jagannatha. It is also said by Wilkinson that some relics of Buddha were placed inside the idol of Jagannatha which the Brahmins claimed were the bones of Lord Krishna. Even during Maurya king Ashoka's reign in 240 BC, Kalinga was a Buddhist center and that a tribe known as Lohabahu (barbarians from outside Odisha) converted to Buddhism and built a temple with an idol of Buddha which is now worshipped as Jagannatha. Wilkinson also says that the Lohabahu deposited some Buddha relics in the precincts of the temple.[13]

 

Construction of the Jagannatha Temple started in 1136 AD and completed towards the latter part of the 12th century. The Eastern Ganga king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to Lord Jagannatha, then known as the Purushottama-Jagannatha, and resolved that from then on he and his descendants would rule under "divine order as Jagannatha's sons and vassals". Even though princely states do not exist in India today, the heirs of the Gajapati dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple; the king formally sweeps the road in front of the chariots before the start of the Ratha Yatra.[14]

Medieval and early modern periodsEdit

 

The history of Puri is on the same lines as that of the Jagannatha Temple, which was invaded 18 times during its history to plunder the treasures of the temple, rather than for religious reasons. The first invasion occurred in the 8th century AD by Rastrakuta king Govinda-III (798–814 AD), and the last took place in 1881 AD by the monotheistic followers of Alekh (Mahima Dharma) who did not recognise the worship of Jagannatha.[15] From 1205 AD onward [14] there were many invasions of the city and its temple by Muslims of Afghan and Moghul descent, known as Yavanas or foreigners. In most of these invasions the idols were taken to safe places by the priests and the servitors of the temple. Destruction of the temple was prevented by timely resistance or surrender by the kings of the region. However, the treasures of the temple were repeatedly looted.[16] The table lists all the 18 invasions along with the status of the three images of the temple, the triad of Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra following each invasion.[15]

Invasion number Invader (s), year (s) AD Local rulers Status of the three images of the Jagannatha temple

1 Raktabahu or Govinda III (798–814) of the Rashtrakuta Empire King Subhanadeva of Bhaumakara dynasty Idols shifted to Gopali near Sonepur. Was brought back to Puri by Yayati I after 146 years and re-consecrated after performing Nabakalebara.[17]

2 Illias Shah, Sultan of Bengal, 1340 Narasinghadeva III Images shifted to a secret location.[18]

3 Feroz Shah Tughlaq, 1360 Ganga King Bhanudeva III Images not found, though rumored that they were thrown into the Bay Of Bengal.[18]

4 Ismail Ghazi commander of Alauddin Hussain Shah of Bengal, 1509 King Prataprudradeva Images shifted to Chandhei Guha Pahada near Chilika Lake.[18]

5 Kalapahara, army assistant general of Sulaiman Karrani of the Afghan Sultan of Bengal, 1568 Mukundadeva Harichandan Images initially hidden in an island in Chilika Lake. However, the invader took the idols from here to the banks of the Ganges River and burnt them. Bisher Mohanty, a Vaishnavite saint, who had followed the invading army, retrieved the Brahmas and hid it in a drum at Khurdagada in 1575 AD and finally re-installed it in the deities. Deities were brought back to Puri and consecrated in the Jagannatha Temple.[19]

6 Suleman, the son of Kuthu Khan and Osman, the son of Isha (ruler of Orissa), 1592 Ramachandradeva, the Bhoi dynasty ruler of Khurda Revolt was by local Muslim rulers who desecrated the images.[20]

7 Mirza Khurum, the commander of Islam Khan I, the Nawab of Bengal, 1601 Purushottamadeva of Bhoi Dynasty Image moved to Kapileswarpur village by boat through the river Bhargavi and kept in the Panchamukhi Gosani temple. Thereafter, the deities were kept in Dobandha—Pentha.[20]

8 Hasim Khan, the Subedar of Orissa, 1608 Purushottam Deva, the King of Khurda Images shifted to the Gopal temple at Khurda and brought back in 1608.[20]

9 Hindu Rajput Jagirdar Kesodasmaru, 1610 Purusottamdeva, the king of Khurda Images kept at the Gundicha Temple and brought back to Puri after eight months.[20]

10 Kalyan Malla, 1611 Purushottamadeva, the King of Khurda Images moved to 'Mahisanasi' also known as'Brahmapura' or 'Chakanasi' in the Chilika Lake where they remained for one year.[21]

11 Kalyan Malla, 1612 Paiks of Purushottamadeva, the King of Khurda Images placed on a fleet of boats at Gurubai Gada and hidden under the 'Lotani Baragachha' or Banyan tree) and then at 'Dadhibaman Temple'.[22]

12 Mukarram Khan, 1617 Purushottama Deva, the King of Khurda Images moved to the Bankanidhi temple, Gobapadar and brought back to Puri in 1620.[22]

13 Mirza Ahmad Beg, 1621 Narasingha Deva Images shifted to 'Andharigada' in the mouth of the river Shalia across the Chilika Lake. Moved back to Puri in 1624.[23]

14 Amir Mutaquad Khan alias Mirza Makki, 1645 Narasingha Deva and Gangadhar Not known.[24]

15 Amir Fateh Khan, 1647 Not known Not known[24]

16 Ekram Khan and Mastram Khan on behalf of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, 1692 Divyasingha Deva, the king of Khurda Images moved to 'Maa Bhagabati Temple' and then to Bada Hantuada in Banpur across the Chilika Lake, and finally brought back to Puri in 1699.[24]

17 Muhammad Taqi Khan, 1731 and 1733 Birakishore Deva and Birakishore Deva of Athagada Images moved to Hariswar in Banpur, Chikili in Khalikote, Rumagarh in Kodala, Athagada in Ganjam and lastly to Marda in Kodala. Shifted back to Puri after 2.5 years.[24]

18 Followers of Mahima Dharma, 1881 Birakishore Deva and Birakishore Deva of Athagada Images burnt in the streets. [25]

 

Puri is the site of the Govardhana Matha, one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankaracharya, when he visited Puri in 810 AD, and since then it has become an important dham (divine centre) for the Hindus; the others being those at Sringeri, Dwarka and Jyotirmath. The Matha (monastery of various Hindu sects) is headed by Jagatguru Shankarachrya. It is a local belief about these dhams that Lord Vishnu takes his dinner at Puri, has his bath at Rameshwaram, spends the night at Dwarka and does penance at Badrinath.[12][26]

 

In the 16th century, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Bengal established the Bhakti movements of India, now known by the name the Hare Krishna movement. He spent many years as a devotee of Jagannatha at Puri; he is said to have merged with the deity.[27] There is also a matha of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu here known as Radhakanta Math.[12]

 

In the 17th century, for the sailors sailing on the east coast of India, the temple served as a landmark, being located in a plaza in the centre of the city, which they called the "White Pagoda" while the Konark Sun Temple, 60 kilometres (37 mi) away to the east of Puri, was known as the "Black Pagoda".[27]

 

The iconic representation of the images in the Jagannatha temple is believed to be the forms derived from the worship made by the tribal groups of Sabaras belonging to northern Odisha. These images are replaced at regular intervals as the wood deteriorates. This replacement is a special event carried out ritualistically by special group of carpenters.[27]

Govardhana matha main gate

 

The city has many other Mathas as well. The Emar Matha was founded by the Tamil Vaishnava saint Ramanujacharya in the 12th century AD. This Matha, which is now located in front of Simhadvara across the eastern corner of the Jagannatha Temple, is reported to have been built in the 16th century during the reign of kings of Suryavamsi Gajapatis. The Matha was in the news on 25 February 2011 for the large cache of 522 silver slabs unearthed from a closed chamber.[28][29]

 

The British conquered Orissa in 1803, and, recognising the importance of the Jagannatha Temple in the life of the people of the state, they initially appointed an official to look after the temple's affairs and later declared the temple as part of a district.[14]

Modern historyEdit

H.H Jagadguru Swami Nischalananda Saraswati, The Shankaracharya of Puri

 

In 1906, Sri Yukteswar, an exponent of Kriya Yoga and a resident of Puri, established an ashram, a spiritual training center, named "Kararashram" in Puri. He died on 9 March 1936 and his body is buried in the garden of the ashram.[30][31]

 

The city is the site of the former summer residence of British Raj, the Raj Bhavan, built in 1913–14 during the era of governors.[32]

 

For the people of Puri, Lord Jagannatha, visualized as Lord Krishna, is synonymous with their city. They believe that Lord Jagannatha looks after the welfare of the state. However, after the partial collapse of the Jagannatha Temple (in the Amalaka part of the temple) on 14 June 1990, people became apprehensive and considered it a bad omen for Odisha. The replacement of the fallen stone by another of the same size and weight (7 tonnes (7.7 tons)), that could be done only in the early morning hours after the temple gates were opened, was done on 28 February 1991.[27]

 

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of the Indian Government. It is chosen as one of the 12 heritage cities with "focus on holistic development" to be implemented within 27 months by the end of March 2017.[33]

 

Non-Hindus are not permitted to enter the shrines but are allowed to view the temple and the proceedings from the roof of the Raghunandan library, located within the precincts of the temple, for a small donation.[34]

DemographicsEdit

See also: List of cities in Odisha

 

According to the 2011 Census of India, Puri is an urban agglomeration governed by the Municipal Corporation in Odisha state, with a population of 201,026[35] This rose to 200,564 in 2011 – comprising 104,086 males, 96,478 females, and 18,471 children (under six years of age). The sex ratio is 927. The average literacy rate in the city is 88.03 percent (91.38 percent for males and 84.43 percent for females).

EconomyEdit

 

The economy of Puri is dependent on tourism to the extent of about 80 percent. The temple is the focal point of the city and provides employment to the people of the town. Agricultural production of rice, ghee, vegetables and so forth of the region meet the large requirements of the temple. Many settlements around the town exclusively cater to the other religious requirements of the temple.[36] The temple administration employs 6,000 men to perform the rituals. The temple also provides economic sustenance to 20,000 people.[34] According to Colleen Taylor Sen an author on food and travel, writing on the food culture of India, the temple kitchen has 400 cooks serving food to as many as 100,000 people,.[37] According to J Mohapatra, Director, Ind Barath Power Infra Ltd (IBPIL), the kitchen is known as "a largest and biggest kitchen of the world."[38]

City management and governanceEdit

Samudra arati or worship of the sea at Swargadwar by disciples of the Govardhana matha

 

The Puri Municipality, Puri Konark Development Authority, Public Health Engineering Organisation and Orissa Water Supply Sewerage Board are some of the principal organisations that are devolved with the responsibility of providing for civic amenities such as water supply, sewerage, waste management, street lighting and infrastructure of roads. The major activity, which puts maximum pressure on these organisations, is the annual event of the Ratha Yatra held during June- July. According to the Puri Municipality more than a million people attend this event. Hence, development activities such as infrastructure and amenities to the pilgrims, apart from security, gets priority attention.[39]

 

The civic administration of Puri is the responsibility of the Puri Municipality. The municipality came into existence in 1864 in the name of the Puri Improvement Trust, which was converted into Puri Municipality in 1881. After India's independence in 1947, the Orissa Municipal Act (1950) was promulgated entrusting the administration of the city to the Puri Municipality. This body is represented by elected representatives with a Chairperson and councilors representing the 30 wards within the municipal limits.[40]

LandmarksEdit

Jagannatha temple

Jagannatha Temple at PuriEdit

Main article: Jagannath Temple (Puri)

Left: Jagannath Temple at Puri Right: View of the temple at night

 

The Jagannatha Temple at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples built in the Kalinga style of architecture.[41] The temple tower, with a spire, rises to a height of 58 metres (190 ft), and a flag is unfurled above it, fixed over a wheel (chakra).[34][42]

Left:Ritual chakra and flags at the top shikhara of Puri temple of Jagannatha also related to Sudarsana chakra. The red flag (12 hand or 14 feet (4.3 m) denotes that Jagannath is within the temple.

Right: Statue of Aruna the charioteer of the Sun God on top of the Aruna Stambha in front of the Singhadwara

 

The temple is built on an elevated platform (of about 420,000 square feet (39,000 m2) area),[43] 20 feet (6.1 m) above the adjacent area. The temple rises to a height of 214 feet (65 m) above the road level. The temple complex covers an area of 10.7 acres (4.3 ha).[39] There are four entry gates in four cardinal directions of the temple, each gate located at the central part of the walls. These gates are: the eastern gate called the Singhadwara (Lions Gate), the southern gate known as Ashwa Dwara (Horse Gate), the western gate called the Vyaghra Dwara (Tigers Gate) or the Khanja Gate, and the northern gate called the Hathi Dwara or (elephant gate). These four gates symbolize the four fundamental principles of Dharma (right conduct), Jnana (knowledge), Vairagya (renunciation) and Aishwarya (prosperity). The gates are crowned with pyramid shaped structures. There is a stone pillar in front of the Singhadwara, called the Aruna Stambha {Solar Pillar}, 11 metres (36 ft) in height with 16 faces, made of chlorite stone; at the top of the stamba an elegant statue of Aruṇa (Sun) in a prayer mode is mounted. This pillar was shifted from the Konarak Sun Temple.[44] The four gates are decorated with guardian statues in the form of lion, horse mounted men, tigers, and elephants in the name and order of the gates.[34] A pillar made of fossilized wood is used for placing lamps as offering. The Lion Gate (Singhadwara) is the main gate to the temple, which is guarded by two guardian deities Jaya and Vijaya.[43][44][45] The main gate is ascended through 22 steps known as Baisi Pahaca, which are revered, as it is believed to possess "spiritual animation". Children are made to roll down these steps, from top to bottom, to bring them spiritual happiness. After entering the temple, on the left side, there is a large kitchen where food is prepared in hygienic conditions in huge quantities; the kitchen is called as "the biggest hotel of the world".[43]

The main entrance of the Jagannatha Temple

 

According to a legend King Indradyumma was directed by Lord Jagannatha in a dream to build a temple for him which he did as directed. However, according to historical records the temple was started some time during the 12th century by King Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. It was completed by his descendant, Anangabhima Deva, in the 12th century. The wooden images of Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra were then deified here. The temple was under the control of the Hindu rulers up to 1558. Then, when Orissa was occupied by the Afghan Nawab of Bengal, it was brought under the control of the Afghan General Kalapahad. Following the defeat of the Afghan king by Raja Mansingh, the General of Mughal emperor Akbar, the temple became part of the Mughal empire till 1751. Subsequently, it was under the control of the Marathas till 1803. During the British Raj, the Puri Raja was entrusted with its management until 1947.[42]

 

The triad of images in the temple are of Jagannatha, personifying Lord Krishna, Balabhadra, His older brother, and Subhadra, His younger sister. The images are made of neem wood in an unfinished form. The stumps of wood which form the images of the brothers have human arms, while that of Subhadra does not have any arms. The heads are large, painted and non-carved. The faces are marked with distinctive large circular eyes.[27]

The Pancha Tirtha of PuriEdit

Main article: Pancha Tirtha of Puri

Markandeshwar Tank

 

Hindus consider it essential to bathe in the Pancha Tirtha or the five sacred bathing spots of Puri, to complete a pilgrimage to Puri. The five sacred water bodies are the Indradyumana Tank, the Rohini Kunda, the Markandeya Tank, the Swetaganga Tank, and the Bay of Bengal also called the Mahodadhi, in Sanskrit 'Mahodadhi' means a "great ocean";[46] all are considered sacred bathing spots in the Swargadwar area.[47][48][49] These tanks have perennial sources of supply from rainfall and ground water.[50]

Gundicha TempleEdit

Main article: Gundicha Temple

The Main Gate of the Gundicha Temple

 

The Gundicha Temple, known as the Garden House of Jagannatha, stands in the centre of a beautiful garden, bounded by compound walls on all sides. It lies at a distance of about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) to the northeast of the Jagannatha Temple. The two temples are located at the two ends of the Bada Danda (Grand Avenue), which is the pathway for the Ratha Yatra. According to a legend, Gundicha was the wife of King Indradyumna who originally built the Jagannatha temple.[51]

 

The temple is built using light-grey sandstone, and, architecturally, it exemplifies typical Kalinga temple architecture in the Deula style. The complex comprises four components: vimana (tower structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), nata-mandapa (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings). There is also a kitchen connected by a small passage. The temple is set within a garden, and is known as "God's Summer Garden Retreat" or garden house of Jagannatha. The entire complex, including the garden, is surrounded by a wall which measures 430 by 320 feet (131 m × 98 m) with height of 20 feet (6.1 m).[52]

 

Except for the 9-day Ratha Yatra, when the triad images are worshipped in the Gundicha Temple, otherwise it remains unoccupied for the rest of the year. Tourists can visit the temple after paying an entry fee. Foreigners (generally prohibited entry in the main temple) are allowed inside this temple during this period.[53] The temple is under the Jagannatha Temple Administration, Puri, the governing body of the main temple. A small band of servitors maintain the temple.[52]

SwargadwarEdit

The Sea at Swargadwar of Puri

 

Swargadwar is the name given to the cremation ground or burning ghat which is located on the shores of the sea. Here thousands of dead bodies of Hindus brought from faraway places are cremated. It is a belief that the Chitanya Mahaparabhu disappeared from this Swargadwar about 500 years back.[54]

BeachEdit

Puri sea sunrise

Puri Sea Beach viewed from the light house

 

The beach at Puri, known as the "Ballighai beach, at the mouth of Nunai River, is 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) away from the town and is fringed by casurina trees.[12] It has golden yellow sand. Sunrise and sunset are pleasant scenic attractions here.[55] Waves break in at the beach which is long and wide.[27]

District museumEdit

 

The Puri district museum is located on the station road where the exhibits in display are the different types of garments worn by Lord Jagannatha, local sculptures, patachitra (traditional, cloth-based scroll painting), ancient Palm-leaf manuscripts, and local craft work.[56]

Raghunandana libraryEdit

 

Raghunandana Library is located in the Emara Matha complex (opposite Simhadwara or lion gate, the main entrance gate). The Jagannatha Aitihasika Gavesana Samiti (Jagannatha Historical Centre) is also located here. The library houses ancient palm leaf manuscripts on Jagannatha, His cult and the history of the city.[56]

Festivals of PuriEdit

Main article: List of festivals observed at Jagannatha Temple, Puri

The Grand Road near the Jagannatha Temple

 

Puri witnesses 24 festivals every year, of which 13 are major. The most important of these is the Ratha Yatra, or the car festival, held in the June–July, which is attended by more than 1 million people.[57]

Ratha Yatra at PuriEdit

Main article: Ratha-Yatra (Puri)

The Ratha Yatra in Puri in modern times showing the three chariots of the deities with the Temple in the background

 

The Jagannatha Temple triad are normally worshipped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of Asadha (rainy season of Orissa, usually in June or July), they are brought out on the Bada Danda (main street of Puri) and taken over a distance of (3 kilometres (1.9 mi)) to the Shri Gundicha Temple[58] in huge chariots (ratha), allowing the public to have darśana (holy view). This festival is known as the Ratha Yatra, meaning the journey (yatra) of the chariots.[59] The yatra starts every year according to the Hindu calendar on the Asadha Sukla Dwitiya day, the second day of bright fortnight of Asadha (June–July).[60]

 

Historically, the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Ratha Yatra on the completion of the Jagannatha Temple around 1150 AD. This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early.[61] Friar Odoric, in his account of 1321, reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the King, the Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.[62][63]

 

The Rathas are huge wooden structures provided with large wheels, which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees. The chariot for Lord Jagannatha is about 45 feet (14 m) high and 35 square feet (3.3 m2) and takes about 2 months for its construction.[64] The chariot is mounted with 16 wheels, each of 7 feet (2.1 m) diameter. The carving in the front face of the chariot has four wooden horses drawn by Maruti. On its other three faces, the wooden carvings are of Rama, Surya and Vishnu. The chariot is known as Nandi Ghosha. The roof of the chariot is covered with yellow and red coloured cloth. The next chariot is of Balabhadra which is 44 feet (13 m) in height fitted with 14 wheels. The chariot is carved with Satyaki as the charioteer, roof covered in red and green coloured cloth, and the chariot is known as Taladhwaja. The carvings on this chariot include images of Narasimha and Rudra as Jagannatha's companions. The next chariot in the order is of Subhadra, which is 43 feet (13 m) in height supported on 12 wheels, roof covered in black and red colour cloth, and the chariot is known as Darpa Dalaan and the charioteer carved is Arjuna. Other images carved on the chariot are of Vana Durga, Tara Devi and Chandi Devi.[60][65] The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels, the wood-carved charioteer and horses, and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne.[59] The chariots of Jagannatha pulled during Ratha Yatra is the etymological origin of the English word Juggernaut.[66] The Ratha Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra and Ghosha yatra[60]

Pahandi bije during Ratha Yatra at Puri

Chhera PaharaEdit

 

The Chhera Pahara (sweeping with water) is a significant ritual associated with the Ratha Yatra. During this ritual, the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots. The king cleans the road in front of the chariots with a gold-handled broom and sprinkles sandalwood water and powder. As per the custom, although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in the Kalingan kingdom, he still renders the menial service to Jagannatha. This ritual signifies that under the lordship of Jagannatha, there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign and the humblest devotee.[67]

Chandan YatraEdit

The Narendra Tirtha tank where ceremonies of Chandan Yatra are performed

Main article: Chandan Yatra

 

The Chandan Yatra festival held every year on Akshaya Tritiya day marks the commencement of the construction of the chariots of the Ratha Yatra. It also marks the celebration of the Hindu new year.[12]

Snana YatraEdit

Main article: Snana Yatra

 

Every year, on the Purnima day in the Hindu calendar month of Jyestha (June), the triad images of the Jagannatha Temple are ceremonially bathed and decorated on the occasion of Snana Yatra. Water for the bath is taken in 108 pots from the Suna kuan (meaning: "golden well") located near the northern gate of the temple. Water is drawn from this well only once in a year for the sole purpose of the religious bath of the deities. After the bath the triad images are dressed in the fashion of the elephant god, Ganesha. Later, during the night, the original triad images are taken out in a procession back to the main temple but kept at a place known as Anasara pindi.[60] After this the Jhulana Yatra is performed when proxy images of the deities are taken out in a grand procession for 21 days, cruised over boats in the Narendra Tirtha tank.[12]

Anavasara or AnasaraEdit

Images during the Snana Yatra.

 

Anasara, a derivative of the Sanskrit word "Anabasara",[68] literally means vacation. Every year after the holy Snana Yatra, the triad images, without the Sudarshana Chakra, are taken to a secret altar named Anavasara Ghar (also known as Anasara pindi, 'pindi' is Oriya term meaning "platform" [68]) where they remain for the next fortnight of (Krishna paksha); devotees are not allowed to view these images. Instead, devotees go to the nearby Brahmagiri to see the Lord in the four-handed form of Alarnath, a depiction of Vishnu.[60][69] Devotees then get the first glimpse of the Lord only on the day before Ratha Yatra, which is called Navayouvana. It is a local belief that the gods suffer from fever after taking an elaborate ritual bath, and they are treated by the special servants, the Daitapatis, for 15 days. Daitapatis perform special nitis (rites) known as Netrotchhaba (a rite of painting the eyes of the triad). During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.[70]

Naba KalebaraEdit

Main articles: Nabakalevara and Nabakalebara 2015

 

Naba Kalebara is one of the most grand events associated with the Lord Jagannatha that takes place when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another of Ashadha called Adhika Masa (extra month). This can take place at an interval of 8, 12 or even 18 years. Literally meaning the "New Body" (Nava = New, Kalevar = Body) in Odia, the festival is witnessed by millions of people and the budget for this event generally exceeds $500,000. The event involves installation of new images in the temple and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha. During the Nabakalebara ceremony held during July 2015 the idols that were installed in the temple in 1996 were replaced by specially carved new images made of neem wood.[71][72] More than 3 million people are reported to have attended this festival.[73]

Suna BeshaEdit

Main article: Suna Besha

Suna Besha or Golden Attire of Lord Jagannatha

 

Suna Besha, ('Suna besh'in English translates to "gold dressing”[74]) also known as Raja or Rajadhiraja Bhesha [75] or Raja Bhesha, is an event when the triad images of the Jagannatha Temple are adorned with gold jewelry. This event is observed five times in a year. It is commonly observed on Magha Purnima (January), Bahuda Ekadashi also known as Asadha Ekadashi (July), Dashahara (Bijayadashami) (October), Karthik Purnima (November), and Pousa Purnima (December).[76][77] One such Suna Bhesha event is observed on Bahuda Ekadashi during the Ratha Yatra on the chariots placed at the Simhadwar. The other four Beshas are observed inside the temple on the Ratna Singhasana (gem studded altar). On this occasion gold plates are decorated over the hands and feet of Jagannatha and Balabhadra; Jagannatha is also adorned with a Chakra (disc) made of gold on the right hand while a silver conch adorns the left hand. Balabhadra is decorated with a plough made of gold on the left hand while a golden mace adorns his right hand.[76]

Niladri BijeEdit

 

Niladri Bije, celebrated in the Hindu calendar month Asadha (June–July) on Trayodashi (13th day),[78] marks the end of the Ratha Yatra. The large wooden images of the triad of gods are taken out from the chariots and then carried to the sanctum sanctorum, swaying rhythmically; a ritual which is known as pahandi.[72]

Sahi yatraEdit

A scene from a play being enacted during the Sahi Yatra

 

The Sahi Yatra, considered the world's biggest open-air theatre,[79] is an annual event lasting 11 days; a traditional cultural theatre festival or folk drama which begins on Ram Navami and ends on Rama avishke (Sanskrit meaning : anointing). The festival includes plays depicting various scenes from the Ramayana. The residents of various localities, or Sahis, are entrusted the task of performing the drama at the street corners.[80]

Samudra AratiEdit

Samudra arati of worship of the sea by disciples of the Matha at Puri

 

The Samudra arati is a daily tradition started by the present Shankaracharya 9 years ago.[81] The daily practise includes prayer and fire offering to the sea at Swargadwar in Puri by disciples of the Govardhan Matha. On Paush Purnima of every year the Shankaracharya himself comes out to offer prayers to the sea.

TransportEdit

 

Earlier, when roads did not exist, people used to walk or travel by animal-drawn vehicles or carriages along beaten tracks to reach Puri. Travel was by riverine craft along the Ganges up to Calcutta, and then on foot or by carriages. It was only during the Maratha rule that the popular Jagannath Sadak (Road) was built around 1790. The East India Company laid the rail track from Calcutta to Puri, which became operational in 1898.[82] Puri is now well-connected by rail, road and air services. A broad gauge railway line of the South Eastern Railways which connects Puri with Calcutta, and Khurda is an important railway junction on this route. The rail distance is about 499 kilometres (310 mi) from Calcutta[83] and 468 kilometres (291 mi) from Vishakhapatnam. Road network includes NH 203 that links the city with Bhubaneswar, the state capital, situated about 60 kilometres (37 mi) away. NH 203 B connects the city with Satapada via Brahmagiri. Marine drive, which is part of NH 203 A, connects Puri with Konark. The nearest airport is the Biju Patnaik International Airport at Bhubaneswar.[57] Puri railway station is among the top hundred booking stations of the Indian Railways.[84]

Arts and craftsEdit

Sand artEdit

Sand art of a Baby Elephant

 

Sand art is a special art form that is created on the beaches of Puri. The art form is attributed to Balaram Das, a poet who lived in the 14th century. Sculptures of various gods and famous people are now created in sand by amateur artists. These are temporary in nature as they get washed away by waves. This art form has gained international fame in recent years. One of the famed sand artists of Odisha is Sudarshan Patnaik. He established the Golden Sand Art Institute in 1995, in the open air on the shores of Bay of Bengal, to provide training to students interested in this art form.[85][80]

Appliqué artEdit

An applique art work

 

Appliqué art, which is a stitching-based craft unlike embroidery, was pioneered by Hatta Maharana of Pipili. It is widely used in Puri, both for decoration of the deities and for sale. Maharana's family members are employed as darjis or tailors or sebaks by the Maharaja of Puri. They prepare articles for decorating the deities in the temple for various festivals and religious ceremonies. The appliqué works are brightly coloured and patterned fabric in the form of canopies, umbrellas, drapery, carry bags, flags, coverings of dummy horses and cows, and other household textiles; these are marketed in Puri. The cloth used is made in dark colours of red, black, yellow, green, blue and turquoise blue.[86]

CultureEdit

Odissi dancer

 

Cultural activities, including the annual religious festivals, in Puri are: The Puri Beach Festival held from 5 to 9 November every year, and the Shreekshetra Utsav held from 20 December to 2 January every year. The cultural programmes include unique sand art, display of local and traditional handicrafts and food festival.[87] In addition, cultural programmes are held for two hours on every second Saturday of the month at the district Collector's Conference Hall near Sea Beach Police Station. Odissi dance, Odissi music and folk dances are part of this event.[87] Odissi dance is the cultural heritage of Puri. This dance form originated in Puri from the dances performed by Devadasis (Maharis) attached to the Jagannatha Temple who performed dances in the Nata mandapa of the temple to please the deities. Though the devadasi practice has been discontinued, the dance form has become modern and classical and is widely popular; many of the Odissi virtuoso artists and gurus (teachers) are from Puri.[88] Some of the famous Odissi dancers are Kelucharan Mohapatra, Mayadhar Raut, Sonal Mansingh, Sanjukta Panigrahi and many more

EducationEdit

Samanta Chandra Sekhar College, Puri

 

Some of the educational institutions in Puri are:

 

Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management

Gangadhar Mohapatra Law College, established in 1981[89]

Extension Unit of Regional Research Institute of Homoeopathy, Puri, under Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH), New Delhi; established in March 2006 [90]

Shri Jagannath Sanskrit University, established in July 1981[91]

Gopabandhu Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya, a college and hospital where treatment and training is based on Ayurveda school of medicine [92]

The Industrial Training Institute, a premier technical institution to provide education to skilled, committed & talented technicians was established in 1966 by the Government of India[93]

Blessed Sacrament High School established in 1952 is otherwise known as Puri convent. It is one of the best schools in the city. The school features classes 1 to 10. It is located in VIP Road, Puri.

 

Puri peopleEdit

 

Jayee Rajguru - Freedom fighter

Chakhi Khuntia (Chandan Hajuri) – Freedom fighter [94]

Utkalmani Pandit Gopabandhu Das – Social worker

Pandit Nilakantha Das – Social activist

Bhaktakabi Madhusudan Rao – Odia Poet

Padma Vibhushan Kelucharan Mohapatra – Odissi dancer

Padma Shri Pankaj Charan Das – Odissi dancer

Padma Shri Pandit Sadashiv Rathasharma – Scholar and Preacher of Shri Jagannatha Culture

Padma Vibhushan Raghunath Mohapatra – Architect and sculptor

Padma Shri Sudarshan Pattnaik – Sand Artist

Baisali Mohanty - ALC Global Fellow at University of Oxford, United Kingdom

Rituraj Mohanty – Singer

Richmond, Old Hobart Town village and the Pooseum.

Just a short distance from Hobart is historic Richmond, home to Australia’s oldest bridge. The Coal River which flows through the town was named and discovered in 1803 not long after the Risdon Cove Hobart settlement began. Coal was discovered along the river banks hence the name. The government granted land to encourage farmers to the district and the town of Richmond was declared in 1824 by Lieutenant Governor William Sorrell. It was the gateway to the East Coast of VDL but also a police outpost with a Courthouse, Gaol, and barracks for soldiers and a watch house. An historic town like Richmond with buildings from the 1830s and 1840s is a testament to the role of convicts in building structures in Australia. Government work gangs of convicts built government and public structures such as the Richmond Bridge, the Courthouse, the Gaol etc but assigned convicts with skills would also have helped build some early structures including private houses for their masters. However, we have no records of this. The Richmond Bridge was built by convicts between 1823-25 and is still in daily use. Nearby is Australia’s oldest gaol built in 1825-28. The town grew quickly in the 1830s with much trade between it and Hobart. It is recorded that convicts built St Luke’s Anglican Church, (1834-36) a structure designed by architect John Lee Archer and opened by Governor Arthur. It is the church with the distinctive square tower and no spire. James Thompson the convict in charge of the interior wood work of the church was granted his freedom for his work. Note that the clock in St Luke’s tower came from the original St David’s church in Hobart when it was demolished in 1868 to make way for the Cathedral. The clock was made in 1828 and still keeps perfect time. The Catholic Church was not built by convicts as it was not the Anglican Church of the government. St John’s Catholic Church is the oldest Catholic Church in Australia and was built in 1836. The spire was added in the early 1900s. It also has an unusual side stone turret which houses the pre-cut stone stairs that give access to the gallery. The spire was added to St John’s in 1859 and was replaced again in 1972.

 

The heritage classified town has many fine Georgian buildings, antique shops and good cafes, 1830s cottages and grander houses. Look out for Oak Lodge in Bridge Street a gentleman’s two storey residence constructed between 1831-42. The bridge was used for all traffic to the east coast (and later to Port Arthur) and by 1830 Richmond was the third largest town in VDL. Wander down to the Coal River and walk under Richmond Bridge. The Richmond Court House was built in 1825-26 by convicts as was the Gaol nearby. Richmond Gaol was designed by Tasmanian architect John Lee Archer and erected by convicts as was the norm for government structures. The gaoler’s house was also designed by John Lee Archer. This complex is the oldest penal set up in Tasmania. In 1826 a group of Aborigines were believed to be attacking and raiding farms. Consequently a group of soldiers on a retribution search attacked and killed 14 Aboriginal people. Six were captured and taken to Richmond Gaol. They were subsequently released as there was no evidence that charges could be laid against them. Such victimisation was not uncommon in those days. Today Richmond relies on tourism and is the base for the Old Hobart Town model village and the scientific based Pooseum- the only one in the world established by an Austrian lady.

 

Some buildings to look for in Richmond starting in Bridge Street.

•On the corner of Henry St – Ashmore coffee shop. A two storey corner store circa 1850.

•LaFayette Galleries and shop – a fine Georgian style building. Built as a single storey Post Office c 1826. Opposite in old c1840 cottage is the Woodcraft Shop. And next to it is the stone Congregational Church built in 1873.

•The Regional Hotel – a typical 1880s Australian pub.

•On the corner of Edward St the old Saddlery. Originally a general store. Built around 1850.

•Next to it is the Bridge Inn licensed in 1834. Upper floor added in 1860s or so.

•Next to it is the Richmond Town Hall. Built in 1908 with stone from the flour mill and police barracks.

•Next to it is the Courthouse. Built by convicts in 1825. Used as Richmond Council Chambers 1861 to 1933.

•As the street bends on the north side is the old bakery c1830 now antiques shop and next to it some old cottages c1840.

•Opposite the cottages is Mill Cottage built around 1850.

•At the end of the street where the triangular park begins veer right to the Richmond Bridge 1823-25. You can walk down to the Coal River beneath the bridge.

•First over the bridge is Mill House as the water mill was on the river. Built in 1850. C1900 it became a butter factory.

•Turn left here into St Johns Court. It takes you to St John’s Catholic Church and spire.

Retrace your steps across the river and along Bridge Street to Edward St. by the old saddlery.

Edward Street.

•At the first intersection on the left is Ochil Cottage built c1840. Behind it down the side street is the Goal built 1825/28.

•Across the intersection the little cottage on left was a morgue and dispensary.

•Next left in Palladian style with a central two storey section is the Anglican Rectory. Built in 1831 for the town magistrate. Was only the Anglican Rectory 1908 to 1972.

•Next to it is St Luke’s Anglican Church built 1834/36. Built by convicts.

Retrace your steps to Bridge Street but detour right to 22 Bathurst St for a fine little cottage built circa 1830 with dormer windows. If you want to see more 1830s and 1840s houses walk down Commercial Street for one block only. It starts at the Ashmore coffee shop. Commercial St also has the Richmond Hotel, a fine Georgian two storey hotel built c1830.