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Annibale Carracci, Landscape with the Flight into Egypt, c. 1604, oil on canvas, 122 x 230 cm (Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome)
Annibale Carracci, Landscape with the Flight into Egypt, c. 1604, oil on canvas, 122 x 230 cm (Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome)
Annibale Carracci, Bologna 1560 - Rom 1609
Leichnam Christi mit den Leidenswerkzeugen – Corps of Christus with Arma Christi (ca. 1582)
Staatsgalerie Stuttgart – State Gallery Stuttgart
Dieses Frühwerk des bologneser Malers gehört mit zu den bedeutendsten Erwerbungen des Museums. Frappierend ist die Wiedergabe des Leichnams, der sich dem Betrachter in verkürzender Sicht (in scorcio) von den durchbohrten Fußsohlen an aufwärts darbietet. Unverkennbar wird Andrea Mantegnas berühmtes Vorbild in Erinnerung gerufen. Demgegenüber verzichtete Annibale, der zu den Bahnbrechern barocker Malerei zählt, auf Assistenzfiguren, die den toten Christus betrauern. In dieser Reduktion ist Annibales Darstellung erst recht auf den sakralen Aspekt gerichtet, nämlich auf das „Corpus Christi“, somit auf nichts anderes als auf die Verbildlichung der Eucharistie.
Quelle: Staatsgalerie Stuttgart
National Trust. Kedleston Hall. Derbyshire. Drawing Room
The Drawing Room, showing the painting 'Orlando delivering Olympia from the Sea-monster' attributed to Lodovico Carracci, over the fireplace. This room was planned by the architect James Paine before he was superseded by Robert Adam. It was one of the first rooms to be completed in the recent restoration project. You can see the Waterford crystal chandelier and the Exeter carpet.
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Throughout the centuries, satyrs, fauns and the god Pan – half human, half Goat creatures of Greek and Roman mythology – have been variously understood. Considered lustful ad foreboding in the 1500s during the Italian Renaissance, they were later seen as more kind and sympathetic by baroque artists, such as Annibale Carracci and Antoine Coypel. This more favourable interpretation continued into the 19th century, giving rise to Franz von Stuck’s Battling Fauns and Emmanuel Fremiet’s sculpture Pan and Bear Cubs (1867), represented in Paul P.’s sketch Untitled (Faun), exhibited here.
Lavinia Fontana, Bologna 1552 – Rom 1614
Lavinia Fontana, Porträt eines Jugendlichen - Portrait of a youth - Ritratto di giovane(1603 -04)
Galleria Borghese, Rom
Lavinia Fontana war eine sehr erfolgreiche Malerin des Manierismus, deren Porträts sehr geschätzt wurden. Diese Arbeit entstand während ihres Aufenthalts in Rom wahrscheinlich als Vorskizze für ein Porträt. Sie spiegelt den Einfluss der Carracci Brüder wider, die die Accademia degli Incamminati gegründet hatten mit dem Ziel, die Merkmale des Manierismus zugunsten einer größeren Natürlichkeit zu überwinden.
Annibale Carracci, Landscape with the Flight into Egypt, c. 1604, oil on canvas, 122 x 230 cm (Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome)
Sant'Andrea della Valle is a basilica church in Rome, Italy.
The fresco decoration of Sant'Andrea's dome was one of the largest commissions of its day. The work was disputed by two Carracci pupils, Giovanni Lanfranco and Domenichino. In 1608, Lanfranco had been chosen by Cardinal Alessandro, but the Ludovisi papacy of Pope Gregory XV favored the Bolognese Domenichino. In the end, both artists were employed, and Lanfranco's lavish dome decoration (completed 1627) set the model for such decorations for the following decades.
This dome was for a long time the third largest dome in Rome (only preceded by the Basilica of St. Peter and the Pantheon).
The first act of the opera Tosca by Puccini is set in Sant'Andrea della Valle.
O Interior do Pantheon, em Roma.
The Pantheon's Interior, in Rome.
A text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
Pantheon, Rome.
The Pantheon (Latin: Pantheon, from Greek: Πάνθειον, meaning "Temple of all the gods") is a building in Rome which was originally built as a temple to all the gods of Ancient Rome, and rebuilt circa 126 AD during Hadrian's reign. The intended degree of inclusiveness of this dedication is debated. The generic term pantheon is now applied to a monument in which illustrious dead are buried. It is the best preserved of all Roman buildings, and perhaps the best preserved building of its age in the world. It has been in continuous use throughout its history. The design of the extant building is sometimes credited to Trajan's architect Apollodorus of Damascus, but it is equally likely that the building and the design should be credited to Emperor Hadrian's architects, though not to Hadrian himself as many art scholars once thought. Since the 7th century, the Pantheon has been used as a Roman Catholic church. The Pantheon is the oldest standing domed structure in Rome. The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43.3 metres (142 ft).
n the aftermath of the Battle of Actium (31 BC), Agrippa built and dedicated the original Pantheon during his third consulship (27 BC). Agrippa's Pantheon was destroyed along with other buildings in a huge fire in 80 AD. The current building dates from about 126 AD, during the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, as date-stamps on the bricks reveal. It was totally reconstructed with the text of the original inscription ("M·AGRIPPA·L·F·COS·TERTIVM·FECIT", standing for Latin: Marcus Agrippa, Lucii filius, consul tertium fecit translated to "'Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, Consul for the third time, built this") which was added to the new facade, a common practice in Hadrian's rebuilding projects all over Rome. Hadrian was a cosmopolitan emperor who travelled widely in the East and was a great admirer of Greek culture. He might have intended the Pantheon, a temple to all the gods, to be a kind of ecumenical or syncretist gesture to the subjects of the Roman Empire who did not worship the old gods of Rome, or who (as was increasingly the case) worshipped them under other names. How the building was actually used is not known.
Cassius Dio, a Graeco-Roman senator, consul and author of a comprehensive History of Rome, writing approximately 75 years after the Pantheon's reconstruction, mistakenly attributed the domed building to Agrippa rather than Hadrian. Dio's book appears to be the only near-contemporary writing on the Pantheon, and it is interesting that even by the year 200 there was uncertainty about the origin of the building and its purpose:
Agrippa finished the construction of the building called the Pantheon. It has this name, perhaps because it received among the images which decorated it the statues of many gods, including Mars and Venus; but my own opinion of the name is that, because of its vaulted roof, it resembles the heavens. (Cassius Dio History of Rome 53.27.2)
The building was repaired by Septimius Severus and Caracalla in 202 AD, for which there is another, smaller inscription. This inscription reads "pantheum vetustate corruptum cum omni cultu restituerunt" ('with every refinement they restored the Pantheon worn by age').
In 609 the Byzantine emperor Phocas gave the building to Pope Boniface IV, who converted it into a Christian church and consecrated it to Santa Maria ad Martyres, now known as Santa Maria dei Martiri.
The building's consecration as a church saved it from the abandonment, destruction, and the worst of the spoliation which befell the majority of ancient Rome's buildings during the early medieval period. Paul the Deacon records the spoliation of the building by the Emperor Constans II, who visited Rome in July 663:
Remaining at Rome twelve days he pulled down everything that in ancient times had been made of metal for the ornament of the city, to such an extent that he even stripped off the roof of the church [of the blessed Mary] which at one time was called the Pantheon, and had been founded in honor of all the gods and was now by the consent of the former rulers the place of all the martyrs; and he took away from there the bronze tiles and sent them with all the other ornaments to Constantinople.
Much fine external marble has been removed over the centuries, and there are capitals from some of the pilasters in the British Museum. Two columns were swallowed up in the medieval buildings that abbutted the Pantheon on the east and were lost. In the early seventeenth century, Urban VIII Barberini tore away the bronze ceiling of the portico, and replaced the medieval campanile with the famous twin towers built by Maderno, which were not removed until the late nineteenth century. The only other loss has been the external sculptures, which adorned the pediment above Agrippa's inscription. The marble interior and the great bronze doors have survived, although both have been extensively restored.
Since the Renaissance the Pantheon has been used as a tomb. Among those buried there are the painters Raphael and Annibale Carracci, the composer Arcangelo Corelli, and the architect Baldassare Peruzzi. In the 15th century, the Pantheon was adorned with paintings: the best-known is the Annunciation by Melozzo da Forlì. Architects, like Brunelleschi, who used the Pantheon as help when designing the Cathedral of Florence's dome, looked to the Pantheon as inspiration for their works.
Pope Urban VIII (1623 to 1644) ordered the bronze ceiling of the Pantheon's portico melted down. Most of the bronze was used to make bombards for the fortification of Castel Sant'Angelo, with the remaining amount used by the Apostolic Camera for various other works. It is also said that the bronze was used by Bernini in creating his famous baldachin above the high altar of St. Peter's Basilica, but according to at least one expert, the Pope's accounts state that about 90% of the bronze was used for the cannon, and that the bronze for the baldachin came from Venice. This led the Roman satirical figure Pasquino to issue the famous proverb: Quod non fecerunt barbari, fecerunt Barberini ("What the barbarians did not do, the Barberinis [Urban VIII's family name] did")
In 1747, the broad frieze below the dome with its false windows was “restored,” but bore little resemblance to the original. In the early decades of the twentieth century, a piece of the original, as could be reconstructed from Renaissance drawings and paintings, was recreated in one of the panels.
Also buried there are two kings of Italy: Vittorio Emanuele II and Umberto I, as well as Umberto's Queen, Margherita. Although Italy has been a republic since 1946, volunteer members of Italian monarchist organizations maintain a vigil over the royal tombs in the Pantheon. This has aroused protests from time to time from republicans, but the Catholic authorities allow the practice to continue, although the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage is in charge of the security and maintenance.
The Pantheon is still used as a church. Masses are celebrated there, particularly on important Catholic days of obligation, and weddings.
The building is circular with a portico of three ranks of huge granite Corinthian columns (eight in the first rank and two groups of four behind) under a pediment opening into the rotunda, under a coffered, concrete dome, with a central opening (oculus), the Great Eye, open to the sky. A rectangular structure links the portico with the rotunda. Though often still drawn as a free-standing building, there was a building at its rear into which it abutted; of this building there are only archaeological remains.
In the walls at the back of the portico were niches, probably for statues of Caesar, Augustus and Agrippa, or for the Capitoline Triad, or another set of gods. The large bronze doors to the cella, once plated with gold, still remain but the gold has long since vanished. The pediment was decorated with a sculpture — holes may still be seen where the clamps which held the sculpture in place were fixed.
The 4,535 metric ton (5,000 tn) weight of the concrete dome is concentrated on a ring of voussoirs 9.1 metres (30 ft) in diameter which form the oculus while the downward thrust of the dome is carried by eight barrel vaults in the 6.4 metre (21 ft) thick drum wall into eight piers. The thickness of the dome varies from 6.4 metres (21 ft) at the base of the dome to 1.2 metres (4 ft) around the oculus. The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43.3 metres (142 ft), so the whole interior would fit exactly within a cube (alternatively, the interior could house a sphere 43.3 metres (142 ft) in diameter). The Pantheon holds the record for the largest unreinforced concrete dome. The interior of the roof was possibly intended to symbolize the arched vault of the heavens. The Great Eye at the dome's apex is the source of all light in the interior. The oculus also serves as a cooling and ventilation method. During storms, a drainage system below the floor handles the rain that falls through the oculus.
The interior features sunken panels (coffers), which, in antiquity, may have contained bronze stars, rosettes, or other ornaments. This coffering was not only decorative, but also reduced the weight of the roof, as did the elimination of the apex by means of the Great Eye. The top of the rotunda wall features a series of brick-relieving arches, visible on the outside and built into the mass of the brickwork. The Pantheon is full of such devices — for example, there are relieving arches over the recesses inside — but all these arches were hidden by marble facing on the interior and possibly by stone revetment or stucco on the exterior. Some changes have been made in the interior decoration.
It is known from Roman sources that their concrete is made up of a pasty hydrate of lime, with pozzolanic ash (Latin pulvis puteolanum) and lightweight pumice from a nearby volcano, and fist-sized pieces of rock. In this, it is very similar to modern concrete. No tensile test results are available on the concrete used in the Pantheon; however Cowan discussed tests on ancient concrete from Roman ruins in Libya which gave a compressive strength of 2.8 ksi (20 MPa). An empirical relationship gives a tensile strength of 213 psi (1.5 MPa) for this specimen. Finite element analysis of the structure by Mark and Hutchison found a maximum tensile stress of only 18.5 psi (0.13 MPa) at the point where the dome joins the raised outer wall. The stresses in the dome were found to be substantially reduced by the use of successively less dense concrete in higher layers of the dome. Mark and Hutchison estimated that if normal weight concrete had been used throughout the stresses in the arch would have been some 80% higher.
The 16 gray granite columns Hadrian ordered for the Pantheon's pronaos were quarried at Mons Claudianus in Egypt's eastern mountains. Each was 39 feet (11.8 m) tall, five feet (1.5 m) in diameter, and 60 tons in weight. These were dragged on wooden sledges when transporting on land. They were floated by barge down the Nile and transferred to vessels to cross the Mediterranean to the Roman port of Ostia where they were transferred back onto barges and up the Tiber to Rome.
As the best-preserved example of an Ancient Roman monumental building, the Pantheon has been enormously influential in Western Architecture from at least the Renaissance on; starting with Brunelleschi's 42-meter dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, completed in 1436 – the first sizeable dome to be constructed in Western Europe since Late Antiquity. The style of the Pantheon can be detected in many buildings of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; numerous city halls, universities and public libraries echo its portico-and-dome structure. Examples of notable buildings influenced by the Pantheon include: the Panthéon in Paris, the Temple in Dartrey, the British Museum Reading Room, Manchester Central Library, Thomas Jefferson's Rotunda at the University of Virginia, the Rotunda of Mosta, in Malta, Low Memorial Library at Columbia University, New York, the domed Marble Hall of Sanssouci palace in Potsdam, Germany, the State Library of Victoria, and the Supreme Court Library of Victoria, both in Melbourne, Australia, the 52-meter-tall Ottokár Prohászka Memorial Church in Székesfehérvár, Hungary, Holy Trinity Church in Karlskrona by Nicodemus Tessin the Younger, Sweden, The National Gallery of Art West Building by John Russell Pope, located in Washington, D.C, as well as the California State Capitol in Sacramento.
The present high altar and the apse were commissioned by Pope Clement XI (1700-1721) and designed by Alessandro Specchi. In the apse, a copy of a Byzantine icon of the Madonna is enshrined. The original, now in the Chapel of the Canons in the Vatican, has been dated to the 13th century, although tradition claims that it is much older. The choir was added in 1840, and was designed by Luigi Poletti.
The first niche to the right of the entrance holds a Madonna of the Girdle and St Nicholas of Bari (1686) painted by an unknown artist. The first chapel on the right, the Chapel of the Annunciation, has a fresco of the Annunication attributed to Melozzo da Forli. On the left side is a canvas by Clement Maioli of St Lawrence and St Agnes (1645-1650). On the right wall is the Incredulity of St Thomas (1633) by Pietro Paolo Bonzi.
The second niche has a 15th century fresco of the Tuscan school, depicting the Coronation of the Virgin. In the second chapel is the tomb of King Victor Emmanuel II (died 1878). It was originally dedicated to the Holy Spirit. A competition was held to decide which architect should be given the honor of designing it. Giuseppe Sacconi participated, but lost — he would later design the tomb of Umberto I in the opposite chapel. Manfredio Manfredi won the competition, and started work in 1885. The tomb consists of a large bronze plaque surmounted by a Roman eagle and the arms of the house of Savoy. The golden lamp above the tomb burns in honor of Victor Emmanuel III, who died in exile in 1947.
The third niche has a sculpture by Il Lorenzone of St Anne and the Blessed Virgin. In the third chapel is a 15th-century painting of the Umbrian school, The Madonna of Mercy between St Francis and St John the Baptist. It is also known as the Madonna of the Railing, because it originally hung in the niche on the left-hand side of the portico, where it was protected by a railing. It was moved to the Chapel of the Annunciation, and then to its present position some time after 1837. The bronze epigram commemorated Pope Clement XI's restoration of the sanctuary. On the right wall is the canvas Emperor Phocas presenting the Pantheon to Pope Boniface IV (1750) by an unknown. There are three memorial plaques in the floor, one conmmemorating a Gismonda written in the vernacular. The final niche on the right side has a statue of St. Anastasio (1725) by Bernardino Cametti.
On the first niche to the left of the entrance is an Assumption (1638) by Andrea Camassei. The first chapel on the left, is the Chapel of St Joseph in the Holy Land, and is the chapel of the Confraternity of the Virtuosi at the Pantheon. This refers to the confraternity of artists and musicians that was formed here by a 16th-century Canon of the church, Desiderio da Segni, to ensure that worship was maintained in the chapel. The first members were, among others, Antonio da Sangallo the younger, Jacopo Meneghino, Giovanni Mangone, Zuccari, Domenico Beccafumi and Flaminio Vacca. The confraternity continued to draw members from the elite of Rome's artists and architects, and among later members we find Bernini, Cortona, Algardi and many others. The institution still exists, and is now called the Academia Ponteficia di Belle Arti (The Pontifical Academy of Fine Arts), based in the palace of the Cancelleria. The altar in the chapel is covered with false marble. On the altar is a statue of St Joseph and the Holy Child by Vincenzo de Rossi. To the sides are paintings (1661) by Francesco Cozza, one of the Virtuosi: Adoration of the Shepherds on left side and Adoration of the Magi on right. The stucco relief on the left, Dream of St Joseph is by Paolo Benaglia, and the one on the right, Rest during the flight from Egypt is by Carlo Monaldi. On the vault are several 17th-century canvases, from left to right: Cumean Sibyl by Ludovico Gimignani; Moses by Francesco Rosa; Eternal Father by Giovanni Peruzzini; David by Luigi Garzi and finally Eritrean Sibyl by Giovanni Andrea Carlone.
The second niche has a statue of St Agnes, by Vincenco Felici. The bust on the left is a portrait of Baldassare Peruzzi, derived from a plaster portrait by Giovanni Duprè. The tomb of King Umberto I and his wife Margherita di Savoia is in the next chapel. The chapel was originally dedicated to St Michael the Archangel, and then to St. Thomas the Apostle. The present design is by Giuseppe Sacconi, completed after his death by his pupil Guido Cirilli. The tomb consists of a slab of alabaster mounted in gilded bronze. The frieze has allegorical representations of Generosity, by Eugenio Maccagnani, and Munificence, by Arnaldo Zocchi. The royal tombs are maintained by the National Institute of Honour Guards to the Royal Tombs, founded in 1878. They also organize picket guards at the tombs. The altar with the royal arms is by Cirilli.
The third niche holds the mortal remains — his Ossa et cineres, "Bones and ashes", as the inscription on the sarcophagus says — of the great artist Raphael. His fiancée, Maria Bibbiena is buried to the right of his sarcophagus; she died before they could marry. The sarcophagus was given by Pope Gregory XVI, and its insription reads ILLE HIC EST RAPHAEL TIMUIT QUO SOSPITE VINCI / RERUM MAGNA PARENS ET MORIENTE MORI, meaning "Here lies Raphael, by whom the mother of all things (Nature) feared to be overcome while he was living, and while he was dying, herself to die". The epigraph was written by Pietro Bembo. The present arrangement is from 1811, designed by Antonio Munoz. The bust of Raphael (1833) is by Giuseppe Fabris. The two plaques commemorate Maria Bibbiena and Annibale Carracci. Behind the tomb is the statue known as the Madonna del Sasso (Madonna of the Rock) so named because she rests one foot on a boulder. It was commissioned by Raphael and made by Lorenzetto in 1524.
In the Chapel of the Crucifixion, the Roman brick wall is visible in the niches. The wooden crucifix on the altar is from the 15th century. On the left wall is a Descent of the Holy Ghost (1790) by Pietro Labruzi. On the right side is the low relief Cardinal Consalvi presents to Pope Pius VII the five provinces restored to the Holy See (1824) made by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. The bust is a portrait of Cardinal Agostino Rivarola. The final niche on this side has a statue of St. Rasius (S. Erasio) (1727) by Francesco Moderati.
National Trust. Kedleston Hall. Derbyshire.
Orlando delivering Olympia from the Sea-monster
Ludovico Carracci (Bologna 1555 - Bologna 1619)
1575 - 1619
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La Sibila Cumana de Domenichino en la Pinacoteca Nacional de Bolonia (Italia). Las sibilas eran unos personajes paganos, de la Antigüedad, profetisas que los cristianos quisieron interpretar como la fase previa a los profetas del Antiguo Testamento, puesto que algunas de ellas también hablaban de un «salvador del mundo», naturalmente relacionado por los escritores cristianos con Jesús. El tema de las sibilas en el arte fue muy tratado a partir del Renacimiento, siendo el mayor exponente el techo de la Capilla Sixtina de Miguel Angel, que confronta un friso de sibilas a otro de profetas. Domenichino ha tomado como tema central de su cuadro a la sibila de Cumas, aunque nada excepto el título nos da pistas sobre su identidad. La muchacha viste con lujo oriental, incluso con un extravagante turbante en la cabeza. Su rostro es perfectamente realista, lozano y con las mejillas coloreadas, como una sana muchacha romana de la época. Este matiz de naturalidad es la herencia de Caravaggio, incluso en artistas que como Domenichino cultivaron la corriente idealista del Barroco, por oposición al naturalismo tenebrista. La sibila, además de su libro de profecías, está acompañada de un instrumento musical de cuerda y un rollo de papel pautado. Podría perfectamente recordarnos a una alegoría de la música o del oído, aunque parece ser que estos elementos se explican porque Domenichino tomó como modelo a la Santa Cecilia de Rafael, patrona de la música y los músicos.
Domenichino fue un pintor italiano nacido en Bolonia, cuyo verdadero nombre era Domenico Zampieri. Fue discípulo de Ludovico Carracci en la Academia degli Incaminati de su ciudad natal y en 1602 trabajó con el sobrino de Ludovico, Annibale Carracci, en los frescos de la galería del palacio Farnesio en Roma.
Bolonia (Italia) 14/7/2022
La Iglesia, cuyos orígenes se remontan a muchos siglos atrás, inicialmente pertenecía a la Orden de San Benito. Después de albergar a un grupo de monjas en el siglo XIII, en 1516 la iglesia fue demolida para ser reemplazada por un edificio más grande diseñado por Andrea da Formigine, quien construyó el pórtico y lo enriqueció con finas decoraciones (ahora dañadas).
A finales del siglo XVI, se entregó a los teatinos, cuya iglesia fue reconstruida por G. Battista Natali y Agostino Barelli: se agregó al edificio original un nuevo campanario y una nueva cúpula. Después de eso, los monjes decidieron renombrarlo después del fundador de su orden, dando así a la iglesia un nuevo título: San Bartolomeo (el nombre original) y San Gaetano Thiene (su fundador). Dentro de la iglesia, se pueden encontrar muchas pinturas de Lodovico Carracci, Guido Reni y otros. Además, junto al altar mayor hay una pequeña capilla donde fue enterrada la mística boloñesa Prudenziana Zagnoni.
Ludovico Carracci, The Lamantation, c. 1582.
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
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Portuguese
A Piazza del Popolo (em italino), que em português se traduz para Praça do Povo é uma das célebres praças de Roma.
A praça e a sua porta constituem um óptimo exemplo de "estratificação" arquitectónica, um fenómeno consumado na Cidade Eterna, fruto das várias intervenções por parte dos pontifícios que comportavam modificações e reelaborações dos trabalhos edificadores e viários.
A igreja de Santa Maria del Popolo, ao lado da porta, foi erigida no século XI no local onde Nero morreu e foi sepultado, sendo mais tarde reconstruída por sob o papado de Sisto IV, por Baccio Pontelli e Andrea Bregno, entre 1472 e 1477, que lhe imprimiram um aspecto maioritariamente renascentista. Entre 1655 e 1660, o Papa Alexandre VII devidiu restaurar a igreja, dando-lhe um aspecto brioso; para isso encarregou Giano Lorenzo Bernini, que restauraria novamente a igreja, desta vez imprimindo-lhe uma expressão barroca que permaneceu até hoje. A igreja acolhe obras artísticas de grande relevo: de Caravaggio, a Conversão de São Paulo e a Crucificação de São Pedro, bem como vários afrescos de Pinturicchio, A Assunção de Annibale Carracci; no campo da arquitectura, está patente a marca de Rafael Sanzio e de Bramante, e algumas esculturas de Andrea Bregno e de Gian Lorenzo Bernini, como o magnífico órgão sobre dois anjos em bronze.
Entre 1562 e 1565, Nanni di Baccio Bigio, encarregado pelo Papa Pio IV (Médici), opera sobre a fachada externa da Porta del Popolo. Sucessivamente, em 1655, o Papa Alexandre VII encarrega Gian Lorenzo Bernini dos trabalhos de remodelação da fachada interna.
Em 1573, o Papa Gregório XIII coloca no centro da praça uma fonte de Giacomo della Porta, uma das dezoito novas fontes projectadas após o restauro do aqueduto Vergine. Em 1589 o Sisto V adorna a praça com um grande obelisco, o obelisco Flaminio de 24 metros, construído no templo dos faraós Ramsés II e Mineptah (1232-1220 a.C.), levado para Roma por Augusto e anteriormente colocado no Circo Máximo. Domenico Fontana colocou a fonte de della Porta no início da Via del Corso.
As duas igrejas gémeas, como são chamadas Santa Maria in Montesanto (1675) e Santa Maria dei Miracoli ou dos Milagres (1678) por serem simétricas, foram construídas segundo o desejo do Papa Alexandre VII, embora os trabalhos terminassem apenas após o final do Papado (1667), renovando profundamente o aspecto da praça e constituindo os dois pólos do Tridente, formado pela Via del Corso, Via dela Babuino e Via Ripetta. Os dois edifícios foram iniciados por Carlo Rainaldi e comlpetados por Bernini, com a colaboração de Carlo Fontana.
A forma da praça assumiria a configuração actual apenas nos finais do século XVIII. Anteriormente era uma modesta praça de forma trapezoidal, alargando-se em direcção ao Tridente. Com efeito, à época das ocupação napoleónica o aspecto arquitectónico e urbanístico da praça seria revisto por Giuseppe Valadier, autor da última transformação da praça. Graças à sua intervenção, a praça assumiu uma forma elíptica, na parte central, conjugada com uma dupla exedra, e decorada com numerosas fontes e estátuas, que se estendem em direcção ao rio Tibre. Em 1818, Valadier remove a velha fonte de Giacomo della Porta que, sob o pontificado do Papa Leão XII (1822-1829) seria substituída por uma nova expressão arquitectónica com quatro leões em mármore que deitavam água em quatro vasos. Valadier continuaria a sua obre de restauração, também na zona dos pendentes de Pincio, relacionando a Piazza del Popolo e as sete colinas, terminando em 1834.
Entre 1878 e o ano seguinte são adicionadas as duas torres laterais que serivam para fortificar a porta.
Depois da brecha na Porta Pia, foi construída uma nova estrada de acesso à praça. A última intervenção estrutural relevante ocorreu na época fascista, em 1936, com a inauguração do novo aqueduto Vergine.
Actualmente, a Piazza del Popolo é uma ampla zona pedonal e local de eventos públicos, nomeadamente grandes manifestações, importantes para a cidade.
English
Piazza del Popolo is a large urban square in Rome. The name in modern Italian literally means "People's Square", but historically it derives from the poplars (populus in Latin, pioppo in Italian) after which the church of Santa Maria del Popolo, in the northeast corner of the piazza, takes its name.
The piazza lies inside the northern gate in the Aurelian Walls, once the Porta Flaminia of ancient Rome, and now called the Porta del Popolo. This was the starting point of the Via Flaminia, the road to Ariminum (modern day Rimini) and the most important route to the north. At the same time, before the age of railroads, it was the traveller's first view of Rome upon arrival. For centuries, the Piazza del Popolo was a place for public executions, the last of which took place in 1826.
An Egyptian obelisk of Ramesses II from Heliopolis stands in the centre of the Piazza.
The entrance of the Tridente from Piazza del Popolo, defined by the "twin" churches of Santa Maria in Montesanto (left, built 1662-75) and Santa Maria dei Miracoli (right, built 1675-79). The Via del Corso exits between the two churches.
The layout of the piazza today was designed in neoclassical style between 1811 and 1822 by the architect Giuseppe Valadier, He removed a modest fountain by Giacomo Della Porta, erected in 1572, and demolished some insignificant buildings and haphazard high screening walls to form two semicircles, reminiscent of Bernini's plan for St. Peter's Square, replacing the original cramped trapezoidal square centred on the Via Flaminia.
Valadier's Piazza del Popolo, however, incorporated the verdure of trees as an essential element; he conceived his space in a third dimension, expressed in the building of the viale that leads up to the balustraded overlook from the Pincio (above, right).
An Egyptian obelisk of Sety I (later erected by Rameses II) from Heliopolis stands in the centre of the Piazza. Three sides of the obelisk were carved during the reign of Sety I and the fourth side, under Rameses II. The obelisk, known as the obelisco Flaminio or the Popolo Obelisk, is the second oldest and one of the tallest obelisks in Rome (some 24 m high, or 36 m including its plinth). The obelisk was brought to Rome in 10 BC by order of Augustus and originally set up in the Circus Maximus. It was re-erected here in the piazza by the architect-engineer Domenico Fontana in 1589 as part of the urban plan of Sixtus V. The piazza also formerly contained a central fountain, which was moved to the Piazza Nicosia in 1818, when fountains, in the form of Egyptian-style lions, were added around the base of the obelisk.
Looking from the north (illustration, right), three streets branch out from the piazza into the city, forming the so-called "trident" (il Tridente): the Via del Corso in the centre; the Via del Babuino to the left (opened in 1525 as the Via Paolina) and the Via di Ripetta (opened by Leo X in 1518 as the Via Leonina) to the right. The twin churches (the chiese gemelle) of Santa Maria dei Miracoli (1681) and Santa Maria in Montesanto (1679), begun by Carlo Rainaldi and completed by Bernini and Carlo Fontana, define the junctions of the roads. Close scrutiny of the twin churches reveals that they are not mere copies of one another, as they would have been in a Neoclassical project, but vary in their details, offering variety within their symmetrical balance in Baroque fashion.
The central street, now known as the Via del Corso, was the ancient Via Lata and to the north it links with the ancient Roman road, the Via Flaminia,beyond the city gate and southwards, to the Piazza Venezia (formerly the Piazza San Marco), the Capitol and the forum. The Via di Ripetta leads past the Mausoleum of Augustus to the River Tiber, where the Baroque riverside landing called the Porto di Ripetta was located until it was destroyed in the late nineteenth century. The Via del Babuino ("Baboon"), linking to Piazza di Spagna, takes its name from a grotesque sculpture of Silenus that gained the popular name of "the Baboon".
To the north of the piazza stands the Porta del Popolo, beyond which lies the Piazzale Flaminio and the start of the Via Flaminia. The gateway was reworked to give its current appearance by Bernini for Pope Alexander VII in 1655, to welcome Queen Christina of Sweden to Rome following her conversion to Roman Catholicism and her abdication. Opposite Santa Maria del Popolo stands a Carabinieri station, with a dome reflecting that of the church.
In his urbanistic project, Valadier constructed the matching palazzi that provide a frame for the scenography of the twin churches and hold down two corners of his composition. He positioned a third palazzo to face these and matched a low structure screening the flank of Santa Maria del Popolo, with its fine Early Renaissance façade, together holding down the two northern corners. Valadier outlined this newly-defined oval forecourt to the city of Rome with identical sweeps of wall, forming curving exedra-like spaces. Behind the western one, a screen of trees masks the unassorted fronts of buildings beyond.
Fountains
The aqueduct carrying the Acqua Vergine Nuovo was completed in the 1820s, and its water provided the opportunity for fountains and their basins that offered the usual public water supply for the rioneor urban district. Ever since the Renaissance such terminal fountains also provided an occasion for the grand terminal water show called in Rome a mostra or a show. "What makes a fountain a mostra is not essentially its size or splendor, but its specific designation as the fountain that is a public memorial to the whole achievement of the aqueduct." Valadier had planned fountains in the upper tier of the Pincio slope, but these were not carried out, in part for lack of water.
Fountains by Giovanni Ceccarini (1822–23), with matching compositions of a central figure flanked by two attendant figures, stand on each side of the piazza to the east and west, flanked by neoclassical statues of The Seasons (1828). The Fontana del Nettuno (Fountain of Neptune) stands on the west side, Neptune with his trident is accompanied by two dolphins. Rome between the Tiber and the Aniene on the east side, against the steep slope of the Pincio, represents the terminal mostra of the aqueduct. Dea Roma armed with lance and helmet, and in front is the she-wolf feeding Romulus and Remus.
At the center of the piazza is the Fontana dell' Obelisco: a group of four mini fountains, each comprising a lion on a stepped plinth, surround the obelisk.
Wikipedia
Annibale Carracci, Landscape with the Flight into Egypt, c. 1604, oil on canvas, 122 x 230 cm (Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome)
Annibale Carracci, Landscape with the Flight into Egypt, c. 1604, oil on canvas, 122 x 230 cm (Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome)
La tribuna è interamente occupata dal presbiterio, opera di Domenico Tibaldi, sopraelevato di alcuni gradini dal resto della chiesa, e si articola in un corpo a pianta quadrata coperto con volta a crociera che si apre con due absidi, una per ogni lato, e dall'abside vera e propria, semicircolare. Al di sopra del colossale arco trionfale, dua angeli reggono lo stemma di papa Gregorio XV. La cappella maggiore appare riccamente decorata: nella crociera e negli arconi l'Eterno Padre, affresco di Prospero Fontana del 1579, nel catino dell'abside Cristo che consegna le simboliche chiavi a S. Pietro affrescato da Cesare Fiorini e Cesare Aretusi a cavallo tra il 1500 e il 1600, e nel lunettone di fondo sotto la volta, l'Annunciazione di Maria dipinta da Ludovico Carracci nell'ultimo anno della sua vita, il 1619. L'altare maggiore in marmi policromi è opera di Alfonso Torreggiani ed è sormontato da una pregevole Crocifissione romanica in legno di cedro del XII secolo, costituita dalle statue di Gesù sulla croce, della Maddalena e di San Giovanni Evangelista.
The tribune is entirely occupied by the presbytery, the work of Domenico Tibaldi, raised by some steps from the rest of the church, and is divided into a square-plan body covered with cross vault that opens with two apses, one on each side, and real apse, semicircular. Above the colossal triumphal arch, the two angels hold the coat of arms of Pope Gregory XV. The main chapel appears richly decorated: in the cruise and in the arches the Eternal Father, fresco by Prospero Fontana of 1579, in the apse basin Christ who hands over the symbolic keys to S. Peter frescoed by Cesare Fiorini and Cesare Aretusi on horseback 1500 and 1600, and in the bottom lunettone under the vault, the Annunciation of Mary painted by Ludovico Carracci in the last year of his life, 1619.The major altar in polychrome marble is the work of Alfonso Torreggiani and is surmounted by a cedar wood Romanesque Crucifixion of the XII century, consisting of the statues of Jesus on the cross, the Magdalene and St. John the Evangelist.
www. wikipedia.it
Annibale Carracci, Landscape with the Flight into Egypt, c. 1604, oil on canvas, 122 x 230 cm (Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome)
Painting by Annibale Carracci
About six months ago, a friend was patiently listening to several of my complaints about aging and some of its annoying and irritating consequences. He asked me if black beans were a part of my diet. When I told him I couldn't recall the last time I had eaten black beans, he smiled. "Just what I figured," he said, seemingly glad that my answer was negative.
After a few more minutes listening to his praise about some of the immediate joys of black beans, I was a believer.
That was six months ago. Now, after consuming about seven ounces of black beans with my evening meal, I must say that I am a happier guy, a normal and regular guy with one major complaint about aging gone. It is so good to feel good.
Painting by Annibale Carracci (The Beaneater)
SABRI ED I FOTOGRAFI
A volte mi piace elevare i miei scatti a qualcosa di artistico e di livello superiore, anche per chi non ama vedere le immagini, seppur goderecce, leggermente sexy.
Questo scatto l'ho ripreso al volo, senza badare troppo all'inquadratura perché mi intrigavano quei visi curiosi degli amici fotografi che si stagliavano oltre il vetro.
Se me lo concedete lo paragono, un milionesimo al quadrato, al quadro di Annibale Carracci "Susanna ed i vecchioni"
" Se qualcuno dovesse riconoscersi nella foto e non gradisce comparirvi, mi contatti pure che cercherò di spiegargli che nella vita bisogna prendere le cose con leggerezza e sportività. Se dovesse offendersi sarò pronto ad eliminare l'immagine"
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SABRI AND THE OLD MEN
Sometimes I like to elevate my shots to something artistic and superior, even for those who don't like to see images, even if they are enjoyable, slightly sexy.
I took this shot on the fly, without paying too much attention to the framing because I was intrigued by those curious faces of my photographer friends that stood out beyond the glass.
If you allow me, I compare it, a millionth squared, to Annibale Carracci's painting "Susanna and the Old Men"
"If anyone recognizes themselves in the photo and does not like to appear in it, please contact me and I will try to explain that in life you have to take things lightly and with sportsmanship. If they are offended, I will be ready to delete the image"
CANON EOS 6D Mark II con ob. CANON EF 24-85 f./3,5-4,5 USM
La Basílica de San Domenico es una de las iglesias boloñesas más ricas de historia y de arte, construida por los Frailes Dominicos como lugar para guardar los restos de San Domenico de Guzman, fundador del orden tras llegar a Bolonia alrededor de 1200. En el interior se conservan obras de arte de valor incalculable de autores como Guercino, Filippino Lippi y Ludovico Carracci. En la Capilla de San Domenico está situado el magnífico arca, adornado con esculturas de Miguel Ángel, Nicola Pisano, Alfonso Lombardi y coronado por un cimasio marmóreo moldeado en 1469-73 por Niccolò da Puglia dicho “dell’Arca”, autor también de la Lamentación sobre Cristo Muerto, guardada en la iglesia de Santa Maria della Vita. Obra maestra de la incrustación renacentista es el coro de madera de Fra’ Damiano da Bergamo, definido por los contemporáneos como la octava maravilla del mundo, y también elogiado por el emperador Carlo V. La iglesia presenta también un campanario, construido en 1313 en estilo gótico con una altura de 51 metros. En cambio, el Convento de San Domenico alberga una Biblioteca con un patrimonio de 90.000 volúmenes sobre temas de filosofía, teología, historia y espiritualidad dominicana.
El Castillo de Howard es una mansión situada en el condado de Yorkshire en Inglaterra, a unos 40 kilómetros al norte de la ciudad de York. Es citada entre las mejores residencias campestres de la aristocracia británica, tanto por su compleja y grandiosa arquitectura como por su rico contenido artístico y decorativo, que incluye cuadros de Canaletto, Annibale Carracci, Thomas Gainsborough y Johann Zoffany.
Castle Howard is a stately home in North Yorkshire, England, 15 miles (24 km) north of York. One of the grandest private residences in Britain, most of it was built between 1699 and 1712 for the 3rd Earl of Carlisle, to a design by Sir John Vanbrugh. Although Castle Howard was built near the site of the ruined Henderskelfe Castle, it is not a true castle, but this term is often used for English country houses constructed after the castle-building era (c.1500) and not intended for a military function.
Imagine there's no heaven
It's easy if you try
No hell below us
Above us, only sky
Imagine all the people
Livin' for today
Ah
Imagine there's no countries
It isn't hard to do
Nothing to kill or die for
And no religion, too
Imagine all the people
Livin' life in peace
You
You may say I'm a dreamer
But I'm not the only one
I hope someday you'll join us
And the world will be as one
Imagine no possessions
I wonder if you can
No need for greed or hunger
A brotherhood of man
Imagine all the people
Sharing all the world
You
You may say I'm a dreamer
But I'm not the only one
I hope someday you'll join us
And the world will live as one
John Lennon
Bologna (/bəˈloʊnjə/, UK also /bəˈlɒnjə/, Italian: [boˈloɲɲa]; Emilian: Bulåggna [buˈlʌɲːa]; Latin: Bononia) is a city in and the capital of the Emilia-Romagna region in Northern Italy, of which it is also its largest. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy with about 400,000 inhabitants and 150 different nationalities. Its metropolitan area is home to more than 1,000,000 people. It is known as the Fat City for its rich cuisine, and the Red City for its Spanish-style red tiled rooftops and, more recently, its leftist politics. It is also called the Learned City because it is home to the oldest university in the world.
Originally Etruscan, the city has been an important urban center for centuries, first under the Etruscans (who called it Felsina), then under the Celts as Bona, later under the Romans (Bonōnia), then again in the Middle Ages, as a free municipality and later signoria, when it was among the largest European cities by population. Famous for its towers, churches and lengthy porticoes, Bologna has a well-preserved historical centre, thanks to a careful restoration and conservation policy which began at the end of the 1970s. Home to the oldest university in continuous operation, the University of Bologna, established in AD 1088, the city has a large student population that gives it a cosmopolitan character. In 2000 it was declared European capital of culture and in 2006, a UNESCO "City of Music" and became part of the Creative Cities Network. In 2021 UNESCO recognized the lengthy porticoes of the city as a World Heritage Site.
Bologna is an important agricultural, industrial, financial and transport hub, where many large mechanical, electronic and food companies have their headquarters as well as one of the largest permanent trade fairs in Europe. According to recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index (E-REGI) of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city and the 47th European city in terms of its economic growth rate; in 2022 Il Sole 24 Ore named Bologna the best city in Italy for overall quality of life.
History
Antiquity and Middle Ages
Traces of human habitation in the area of Bologna go back to the 3rd millennium BCE, with significant settlements from about the 9th century BCE (Villanovan culture). The influence of Etruscan civilization reached the area in the 7th to 6th centuries, and the Etruscan city of Felsina was established at the site of Bologna by the end of the 6th century. By the 4th century BCE, the site was occupied by the Gaulish Boii, and it became a Roman colony and municipium with the name of Bonōnia in 196 BCE. During the waning years of the Western Roman Empire Bologna was repeatedly sacked by the Goths. It is in this period that legendary Bishop Petronius, according to ancient chronicles, rebuilt the ruined town and founded the basilica of Saint Stephen. Petronius is still revered as the patron saint of Bologna.
In 727–28, the city was sacked and captured by the Lombards under King Liutprand, becoming part of that kingdom. These Germanic conquerors built an important new quarter, called "addizione longobarda" (Italian meaning "Longobard addition") near the complex of St. Stephen.[20] In the last quarter of the 8th century, Charlemagne, at the request of Pope Adrian I, invaded the Lombard Kingdom, causing its eventual demise. Occupied by Frankish troops in 774 on behalf of the papacy, Bologna remained under imperial authority and prospered as a frontier mark of the Carolingian empire.
Bologna was the center of a revived study of law, including the scholar Irnerius (c 1050 – after 1125) and his famous students, the Four Doctors of Bologna.
After the death of Matilda of Tuscany in 1115, Bologna obtained substantial concessions from Emperor Henry V. However, when Frederick Barbarossa subsequently attempted to strike down the deal, Bologna joined the Lombard League, which then defeated the imperial armies at the Battle of Legnano and established an effective autonomy at the Peace of Constance in 1183. Subsequently, the town began to expand rapidly and became one of the main commercial trade centres of northern Italy thanks to a system of canals that allowed barges and ships to come and go. Believed to have been established in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely considered the world's oldest university in continuous operation. The university originated as a centre for the study of medieval Roman law under major glossators, including Irnerius. It numbered Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarch among its students. The medical school was especially renowned. By 1200, Bologna was a thriving commercial and artisanal centre of about 10,000 people.
During a campaign to support the imperial cities of Modena and Cremona against Bologna, Frederick II's son, King Enzo of Sardinia, was defeated and captured on 26 May 1249 at the Battle of Fossalta. Though the emperor demanded his release, Enzo was thenceforth kept a knightly prisoner in Bologna, in a palace that came to be named Palazzo Re Enzo after him. Every attempt to escape or to rescue him failed, and he died after more than 22 years in captivity. After the death of his half-brothers Conrad IV in 1254, Frederick of Antioch in 1256 and Manfred in 1266, as well as the execution of his nephew Conradin in 1268, he was the last of the Hohenstaufen heirs.
During the late 1200s, Bologna was affected by political instability when the most prominent families incessantly fought for the control of the town. The free commune was severely weakened by decades of infighting, allowing the Pope to impose the rule of his envoy Cardinal Bertrand du Pouget in 1327. Du Pouget was eventually ousted by a popular rebellion and Bologna became a signoria under Taddeo Pepoli in 1334. By the arrival of the Black Death in 1348, Bologna had 40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants, reduced to just 20,000 to 25,000 after the plague.
In 1350, Bologna was conquered by archbishop Giovanni Visconti, the new lord of Milan. But following a rebellion by the town's governor, a renegade member of the Visconti family, Bologna was recuperated to the papacy in 1363 by Cardinal Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz after a long negotiation involving a huge indemnity paid to Bernabò Visconti, Giovanni's heir, who died in 1354. In 1376, Bologna again revolted against Papal rule and joined Florence in the unsuccessful War of the Eight Saints. However, extreme infighting inside the Holy See after the Western Schism prevented the papacy from restoring its domination over Bologna, so it remained relatively independent for some decades as an oligarchic republic. In 1401, Giovanni I Bentivoglio took power in a coup with the support of Milan, but the Milanese, having turned his back on them and allied with Florence, marched on Bologna and had Giovanni killed the following year. In 1442, Hannibal I Bentivoglio, Giovanni's nephew, recovered Bologna from the Milanese, only to be assassinated in a conspiracy plotted by Pope Eugene IV three years later. But the signoria of the Bentivoglio family was then firmly established, and the power passed to his cousin Sante Bentivoglio, who ruled until 1462, followed by Giovanni II. Giovanni II managed to resist the expansionist designs of Cesare Borgia for some time, but on 7 October 1506, Pope Julius II issued a bull deposing and excommunicating Bentivoglio and placing the city under interdict. When the papal troops, along with a contingent sent by Louis XII of France, marched against Bologna, Bentivoglio and his family fled. Julius II entered the city triumphantly on 10 November.
Early modern
The period of Papal rule over Bologna (1506–1796) has been generally evaluated by historians as one of severe decline. However, this was not evident in the 1500s, which were marked by some major developments in Bologna. In 1530, Emperor Charles V was crowned in Bologna, the last of the Holy Roman Emperors to be crowned by the pope. In 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio, the main building of the university. The period of Papal rule saw also the construction of many churches and other religious establishments, and the restoration of older ones. At this time, Bologna had ninety-six convents, more than any other Italian city. Painters working in Bologna during this period established the Bolognese School which includes Annibale Carracci, Domenichino, Guercino, and others of European fame.
It was only towards the end of the 16th century that severe signs of decline began to manifest. A series of plagues in the late 16th to early 17th century reduced the population of the city from some 72,000 in the mid-16th century to about 47,000 by 1630. During the 1629–1631 Italian plague alone, Bologna lost up to a third of its population] In the mid-17th century, the population stabilized at roughly 60,000, slowly increasing to some 70,000 by the mid-18th century. The economy of Bologna started to show signs of severe decline as the global centres of trade shifted towards the Atlantic. The traditional silk industry was in a critical state. The university was losing students, who once came from all over Europe, because of the illiberal attitudes of the Church towards culture (especially after the trial of Galileo). Bologna continued to suffer a progressive deindustrialisation also in the 18th century.
In the mid-1700s, Pope Benedict XIV, a Bolognese, tried to reverse the decline of the city with a series of reforms intended to stimulate the economy and promote the arts. However, these reforms achieved only mixed results. The pope's efforts to stimulate the decaying textile industry had little success, while he was more successful in reforming the tax system, liberalising trade and relaxing the oppressive system of censorship.
The economic and demographic decline of Bologna became even more noticeable starting in the second half of the 18th century. In 1790, the city had 72,000 inhabitants, ranking as the second largest in the Papal States; however, this figure had remained unchanged for decades.
During this period, Papal economic policies included heavy customs duties and concessions of monopolies to single manufacturers.
Modern history
Napoleon entered Bologna on 19 June 1796. Napoleon briefly reinstated the ancient mode of government, giving power to the Senate, which however had to swear fealty to the short-lived Cispadane Republic, created as a client state of the French First Republic at the congress of Reggio (27 December 1796 – 9 January 1797) but succeeded by the Cisalpine Republic on 9 July 1797, later by the Italian Republic and finally the Kingdom of Italy. After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 restored Bologna to the Papal States. Papal rule was contested in the uprisings of 1831. The insurrected provinces planned to unite as the Province Italiane Unite with Bologna as the capital. Pope Gregory XVI asked for Austrian help against the rebels. Metternich warned French king Louis Philippe I against intervention in Italian affairs, and in the spring of 1831, Austrian forces marched across the Italian peninsula, defeating the rebellion by 26 April.
By the mid-1840s, unemployment levels were very high and traditional industries continued to languish or disappear; Bologna became a city of economic disparity with the top 10 percent of the population living off rent, another 20 percent exercising professions or commerce and 70 percent working in low-paid, often insecure manual jobs. The Papal census of 1841 reported 10,000 permanent beggars and another 30,000 (out of a total population of 70,000) who lived in poverty. In the revolutions of 1848 the Austrian garrisons which controlled the city on behalf of the Pope were temporarily expelled, but eventually came back and crushed the revolutionaries.
Papal rule finally ended in the aftermath of Second War of Italian Independence, when the French and Piedmontese troops expelled the Austrians from Italian lands, on 11 and 12 March 1860, Bologna voted to join the new Kingdom of Italy. In the last decades of the 19th century, Bologna once again thrived economically and socially. In 1863 Naples was linked to Rome by railway, and the following year Bologna to Florence. Bolognese moderate agrarian elites, that supported liberal insurgencies against the papacy and were admirers of the British political system and of free trade, envisioned a unified national state that would open a bigger market for the massive agricultural production of the Emilian plains. Indeed, Bologna gave Italy one of its first prime ministers, Marco Minghetti.
After World War I, Bologna was heavily involved in the Biennio Rosso socialist uprisings. As a consequence, the traditionally moderate elites of the city turned their back on the progressive faction and gave their support to the rising Fascist movement of Benito Mussolini. Dino Grandi, a high-ranking Fascist party official and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, remembered for being an Anglophile, was from Bologna. During the interwar years, Bologna developed into an important manufacturing centre for food processing, agricultural machinery and metalworking. The Fascist regime poured in massive investments, for example with the setting up of a giant tobacco manufacturing plant in 1937.
World War II
Bologna suffered extensive damage during World War II. The strategic importance of the city as an industrial and railway hub connecting northern and central Italy made it a target for the Allied forces. On 24 July 1943, a massive aerial bombardment destroyed a significant part of the historic city centre and killed about 200 people. The main railway station and adjoining areas were severely hit, and 44% of the buildings in the centre were listed as having been destroyed or severely damaged. The city was heavily bombed again on 25 September. The raids, which this time were not confined to the city centre, left 2,481 people dead and 2,000 injured. By the end of the war, 43% of all buildings in Bologna had been destroyed or damaged.
After the armistice of 1943, the city became a key centre of the Italian resistance movement. On 7 November 1944, a pitched battle around Porta Lame, waged by partisans of the 7th Brigade of the Gruppi d'Azione Patriottica against Fascist and Nazi occupation forces, did not succeed in triggering a general uprising, despite being one of the largest resistance-led urban conflicts in the European theatre. Resistance forces entered Bologna on the morning of 21 April 1945. By this time, the Germans had already largely left the city in the face of the Allied advance, spearheaded by Polish forces advancing from the east during the Battle of Bologna which had been fought since 9 April. First to arrive in the centre was the 87th Infantry Regiment of the Friuli Combat Group under general Arturo Scattini, who entered the centre from Porta Maggiore to the south. Since the soldiers were dressed in British outfits, they were initially thought to be part of the allied forces; when the local inhabitants heard the soldiers were speaking Italian, they poured out onto the streets to celebrate.
Cold War period
In the post-war years, Bologna became a thriving industrial centre as well as a political stronghold of the Italian Communist Party. Between 1945 and 1999, the city was helmed by an uninterrupted succession of mayors from the PCI and its successors, the Democratic Party of the Left and Democrats of the Left, the first of whom was Giuseppe Dozza. At the end of the 1960s the city authorities, worried by massive gentrification and suburbanisation, asked Japanese starchitect Kenzo Tange to sketch a master plan for a new town north of Bologna; however, the project that came out in 1970 was evaluated as too ambitious and expensive. Eventually the city council, in spite of vetoing Tange's master plan, decided to keep his project for a new exhibition centre and business district. At the end of 1978 the construction of a tower block and several diverse buildings and structures started. In 1985 the headquarters of the regional government of Emilia-Romagna moved in the new district.
In 1977, Bologna was the scene of rioting linked to the Movement of 1977, a spontaneous political movement of the time. The police shooting of a far-left activist, Francesco Lorusso, sparked two days of street clashes. On 2 August 1980, at the height of the "years of lead", a terrorist bomb was set off in the central railway station of Bologna killing 85 people and wounding 200, an event which is known in Italy as the Bologna massacre. In 1995, members of the neo-fascist group Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari were convicted for carrying out the attack, while Licio Gelli—Grand Master of the underground Freemason lodge Propaganda Due (P2)—was convicted for hampering the investigation, together with three agents of the secret military intelligence service SISMI (including Francesco Pazienza and Pietro Musumeci). Commemorations take place in Bologna on 2 August each year, culminating in a concert in the main square.
21st century
In 1999, the long tradition of left-wing mayors was interrupted by the victory of independent centre-right candidate Giorgio Guazzaloca. However, Bologna reverted to form in 2004 when Sergio Cofferati, a former trade union leader, unseated Guazzaloca. The next centre-left mayor, Flavio Delbono, elected in June 2009, resigned in January 2010 after being involved in a corruption scandal. After a 15-month period in which the city was administered under Anna Maria Cancellieri (as a state-appointed prefect), Virginio Merola was elected as mayor, leading a left-wing coalition comprising the Democratic Party, Left Ecology Freedom and Italy of Values. In 2016, Merola was confirmed mayor, defeating the conservative candidate, Lucia Borgonzoni. In 2021, after ten years of Merola's mayorship, one of his closest allies, Matteo Lepore, was elected mayor with 61.9% of votes, becoming the most voted mayor of Bologna since the introduction of the direct elections in 1995.
Geography
Territory
Bologna is situated on the edge of the Po Plain at the foot of the Apennine Mountains, at the meeting of the Reno and Savena river valleys. As Bologna's two main watercourses flow directly to the sea, the town lies outside of the drainage basin of the River Po. The Province of Bologna stretches from the western edge of the Po Plain on the border with Ferrara to the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines. The centre of the town is 54 metres (177 ft) above sea level (while elevation within the municipality ranges from 29 metres (95 ft) in the suburb of Corticella to 300 metres (980 ft) in Sabbiuno and the Colle della Guardia). The Province of Bologna stretches from the Po Plain into the Apennines; the highest point in the province is the peak of Corno alle Scale (in Lizzano in Belvedere) at 1,945 metres (6,381 ft) above sea level.
Cityscape
Until the late 19th century, when a large-scale urban renewal project was undertaken, Bologna was one of the few remaining large walled cities in Europe; to this day and despite having suffered considerable bombing damage in 1944, Bologna's 142 hectares (350 acres) historic centre is Europe's second largest, containing an immense wealth of important medieval, renaissance, and baroque artistic monuments.
Bologna developed along the Via Emilia as an Etruscan and later Roman colony; the Via Emilia still runs straight through the city under the changing names of Strada Maggiore, Rizzoli, Ugo Bassi, and San Felice. Due to its Roman heritage, the central streets of Bologna, today largely pedestrianized, follow the grid pattern of the Roman settlement. The original Roman ramparts were supplanted by a high medieval system of fortifications, remains of which are still visible, and finally by a third and final set of ramparts built in the 13th century, of which numerous sections survive. No more than twenty medieval defensive towers remain out of up to 180 that were built in the 12th and 13th centuries before the arrival of unified civic government. The most famous of the towers of Bologna are the central "Due Torri" (Asinelli and Garisenda), whose iconic leaning forms provide a popular symbol of the town.
The cityscape is further enriched by its elegant and extensive porticoes, for which the city is famous. In total, there are some 38 kilometres (24 miles) of porticoes in the city's historical centre (over 45 km (28 mi) in the city proper), which make it possible to walk for long distances sheltered from the elements.
The Portico di San Luca is possibly the world's longest. It connects Porta Saragozza (one of the twelve gates of the ancient walls built in the Middle Ages, which circled a 7.5 km (4.7 mi) part of the city) with the Sanctuary of the Madonna di San Luca, a church begun in 1723 on the site of an 11th-century edifice which had already been enlarged in the 14th century, prominently located on a hill (289 metres (948 feet)) overlooking the town, which is one of Bologna's main landmarks. The windy 666 vault arcades, almost four kilometres (3,796 m or 12,454 ft) long, effectively links San Luca, as the church is commonly called, to the city centre. Its porticos provide shelter for the traditional procession which every year since 1433 has carried a Byzantine icon of the Madonna with Child attributed to Luke the Evangelist down to the Bologna Cathedral during the Feast of the Ascension.
In 2021, the porticoes were named as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
San Petronio Basilica, built between 1388 and 1479 (but still unfinished), is the tenth-largest church in the world by volume, 132 metres long and 66 metres wide, while the vault reaches 45 metres inside and 51 metres in the facade. With its volume of 258,000 m3, it is the largest (Gothic or otherwise) church built of bricks of the world. The Basilica of Saint Stephen and its sanctuary are among the oldest structures in Bologna, having been built starting from the 8th century, according to the tradition on the site of an ancient temple dedicated to Egyptian goddess Isis. The Basilica of Saint Dominic is an example of Romanic architecture from the 13th century, enriched by the monumental tombs of great Bolognese glossators Rolandino de'Passeggeri and Egidio Foscherari. Basilicas of St Francis, Santa Maria dei Servi and San Giacomo Maggiore are other magnificent examples of 14th-century architecture, the latter also featuring Renaissance artworks such as the Bentivoglio Altarpiece by Lorenzo Costa. Finally, the Church of San Michele in Bosco is a 15th-century religious complex located on a hill not far from the city's historical center.
(Wikipedia)
Bologna [boˈlɔnja, italienisch boˈloɲːa] ist eine italienische Universitätsstadt und die Hauptstadt der Metropolitanstadt Bologna sowie der Region Emilia-Romagna. Die Großstadt ist mit 390.625 Einwohnern (Stand: 31. Dezember 2019) die siebtgrößte italienische Stadt und ein bedeutender nationaler Verkehrsknotenpunkt.
Geografie
Allgemein
Bologna liegt am südlichen Rand der Po-Ebene am Fuße des Apennin, zwischen den Flüssen Reno und Savena in Norditalien. Die Flussläufe und Kanäle in der Stadt wurden im Verlaufe der Stadtentwicklung aus sanitären Gründen fast vollständig überbaut. Die durch Bologna fließenden Gewässer sind der Canale di Reno, der Canale di Savena und der Aposa; sie werden nördlich des Stadtzentrums zum Navile zusammengefasst. Damit wird dem Canale di Savena ein Teil des Wassers entzogen; der nachfolgende Flussarm heißt entsprechend Savena abbandonato („aufgegebener Savena“). In den westlichen Stadtteilen verläuft zudem der Ravone, der sich weiter östlich mit dem Reno vereint. Das Adriatische Meer befindet sich ca. 60 Kilometer östlich der Stadt.
Geschichte
Antike
Die Geschichte der Stadt beginnt als etruskische Gründung mit dem Namen Felsina vermutlich im 6. Jahrhundert v. Chr., Spuren älterer dörflicher Siedlungen der Villanovakultur in der Gegend reichen bis ins 11./10. Jahrhundert v. Chr. zurück. Die etruskische Stadt wuchs um ein Heiligtum auf einem Hügel und war von einer Nekropole umgeben.
Im 5. Jahrhundert v. Chr. eroberten die keltischen Boier Felsina. 191 v. Chr. wurde die Stadt von den Römern erobert, 189 v. Chr. wurde sie als Bononia römische Colonia. 3000 latinische Familien siedelten sich dort an, wobei den ehemaligen Konsuln Lucius Valerius Flaccus, Marcus Atilius Seranus und Lucius Valerius Tappo die Organisation der Stadt(neu)gründung übertragen wurde.[3] Der Bau der Via Aemilia 187 v. Chr. machte Bononia zum Verkehrsknotenpunkt: Hier kreuzte sich die Hauptverkehrsstraße der Poebene mit der Via Flaminia minor nach Arretium (Arezzo). 88 v. Chr. erhielt Bononia über die Lex municipalis wie alle Landstädte Italiens volles römisches Bürgerrecht. Nach einem Brand wurde sie im 1. Jahrhundert unter Kaiser Nero wieder aufgebaut.
Wie für eine römische Stadt typisch, war Bononia schachbrettartig um die zentrale Kreuzung zweier Hauptstraßen angelegt, des Cardo mit dem Decumanus. Sechs Nord-Süd- und acht Ost-West-Straßen teilten die Stadt in einzelne Quartiere und sind bis heute erhalten. Während der römischen Kaiserzeit hatte Bononia mindestens 12.000, möglicherweise jedoch bis 30.000 Einwohner. Bei Ausgrabungen rund um das Forum der antiken Stadt in den Jahren 1989–1994 wurden zwei Tempel, Verwaltungsgebäude, Markthallen und das Tagungsgebäude des Stadtrates gefunden; im südlichen Teil des ursprünglichen Stadtgebietes ist ein Theater freigelegt worden. Die Stadt scheint jedoch deutlich über ihre ursprüngliche Befestigung hinausgewachsen zu sein, beispielsweise sind außerhalb der Stadtmauer ein Amphitheater, ein Aquädukt und ein Thermenareal entdeckt worden. Der Geograph Pomponius Mela zählte die Stadt im 1. Jahrhundert n. Chr. zu den fünf üppigsten (opulentissimae) Städten Italiens.
Mittelalter
Nach einem langen Niedergang wurde Bologna im 5. Jahrhundert unter dem Bischof Petronius wiedergeboren, der nach dem Vorbild der Jerusalemer Grabeskirche den Kirchenkomplex von Santo Stefano errichtet haben soll. Nach dem Ende des Römischen Reiches war Bologna ein vorgeschobenes Bollwerk des Exarchats von Ravenna, geschützt von mehreren Wallringen, die jedoch den größten Teil der verfallenen römischen Stadt nicht einschlossen. 728 wurde die Stadt von dem Langobardenkönig Liutprand erobert und damit Teil des Langobardenreichs. Die Langobarden schufen in Bologna einen neuen Stadtteil nahe Santo Stefano, bis heute Addizione Longobarda genannt, in dem Karl der Große bei seinem Besuch 786 unterkam.
Im 11. Jahrhundert wuchs der Ort als freie Kommune erneut. 1088 wurde der Studio gegründet – heute die älteste Universität Europas –, an der zahlreiche bedeutende Gelehrte des Mittelalters lehrten, unter anderem Irnerius, woraus dann im 12. Jahrhundert die Universität Bologna[4] entstand. Da sich die Stadt weiter ausdehnte, erhielt sie im 12. Jahrhundert einen neuen Wallring, ein weiterer wurde im 14. Jahrhundert fertiggestellt.
1164 trat Bologna in den Lombardenbund gegen Friedrich I. Barbarossa ein, 1256 verkündete die Stadt die Legge del Paradiso (Paradiesgesetz), das Leibeigenschaft und Sklaverei abschaffte und die verbleibenden Sklaven mit öffentlichem Geld freikaufte. 50.000 bis 70.000 Menschen lebten zu dieser Zeit in Bologna und machten die Stadt zur sechst- oder siebtgrößten Europas nach Konstantinopel, Córdoba, Paris, Venedig, Florenz und möglicherweise Mailand. Das Stadtzentrum war ein Wald von Türmen: Schätzungsweise um die 100 Geschlechtertürme der führenden Familien, Kirchtürme und Türme öffentlicher Gebäude bestimmten das Stadtbild.
Bologna entschied sich 1248, die Weizenausfuhr zu verbieten, um die Lebensmittelversorgung seiner schnell wachsenden Bevölkerung zu sichern. Das kam einer Enteignung der venezianischen Grundbesitzer, vor allem der Klöster gleich. 1234 ging die Stadt noch einen Schritt weiter und besetzte Cervia, womit es in direkte Konkurrenz zu Venedig trat, das das Salzmonopol in der Adria beanspruchte. 1248 dehnte Bologna seine Herrschaft auf die Grafschaft Imola, 1252–1254 sogar auf Ravenna aus. Dazu kamen 1256 Bagnacavallo, Faenza und Forlì.
Doch der schwelende Konflikt zwischen Venedig und Bologna wurde 1240 durch die Besetzung der Stadt durch Kaiser Friedrich II. unterbrochen. Nachdem sich Cervia 1252 jedoch wieder Venedig unterstellt hatte, wurde es von einer gemeinsamen ravennatisch-bolognesischen Armee im Oktober 1254 zurückerobert. Venedig errichtete im Gegenzug 1258 am Po di Primaro eine Sperrfestung. Etsch, Po und der für die Versorgung Bolognas lebenswichtige Reno wurden damit blockiert – wobei letzterer von der See aus wiederum nur über den Po erreichbar war, und die Etsch bereits seit langer Zeit durch Cavarzere von Venedig kontrolliert wurde. Mit Hilfe dieser Blockade, vor allem an der Sperrfestung Marcamò – Bologna riegelte Marcamò vergebens durch ein eigenes Kastell ab – zwang Venedig das ausgehungerte Bologna zu einem Abkommen, das die Venezianer diktierten. Das bolognesische Kastell wurde geschleift. Ravenna stand Venedigs Händlern wieder offen, Venedigs Monopol war durchgesetzt.
Im Jahre 1272 starb in Bologna nach mehr als 22-jähriger Haft im Palazzo Nuovo (dem heutigen Palazzo di re Enzo) der König Enzio von Sardinien, ein unehelicher Sohn des Staufer-Kaisers Friedrich II.
Wie die meisten Kommunen Italiens war Bologna damals zusätzlich zu den äußeren Konflikten von inneren Streitigkeiten zwischen Ghibellinen und Guelfen (Staufer- bzw. Welfen-Partei, Kaiser gegen Papst) zerrissen. So wurde 1274 die einflussreiche ghibellinische Familie Lambertazzi aus der Stadt vertrieben.
Als Bologna 1297 verstärkt gegen die Ghibellinen der mittleren Romagna vorging, fürchtete Venedig das erneute Aufkommen einer konkurrierenden Festlandsmacht. Das betraf vor allem Ravenna. Venedig drohte der Stadt wegen Nichteinhaltung seiner Verträge und Bevorzugung Bolognas. Doch der Streit konnte beigelegt werden. Zu einer erneuten Handelssperre seitens Venedigs (wohl wegen der Ernennung Baiamonte Tiepolos zum Capitano von Bologna) kam es Ende 1326. Bologna hatte sich dem Schutz des Papstes unterstellt, nachdem es 1325 von Modena in der Schlacht von Zappolino vernichtend geschlagen worden war. Im Mai 1327 wurden alle Bologneser aufgefordert, Venedig innerhalb eines Monats zu verlassen. 1328–1332 kam es zu Handelssperren und Repressalien. Ravenna blieb dabei der wichtigste Importhafen der Region, den z. B. Bologna für größere Importe aus Apulien weiterhin nutzte. Zwischen 1325 und 1337 kam es zum Eimerkrieg von Bologna. Während der Pest-Epidemie von 1348 starben etwa 30.000 der Einwohner.
Nach der Regierungszeit Taddeo Pepolis (1337–1347) fiel Bologna an die Visconti Mailands, kehrte aber 1360 auf Betreiben von Kardinal Gil Álvarez Carillo de Albornoz durch Kauf wieder in den Machtbereich des Papstes zurück. Die folgenden Jahre waren bestimmt von einer Reihe republikanischer Regierungen (so z. B. die von 1377, die die Basilica di San Petronio und die Loggia dei Mercanti errichten ließ), wechselnder Zugehörigkeit zum päpstlichen oder Viscontischen Machtbereich und andauernder, verlustreicher Familienfehden.
1402 fiel die Stadt an Gian Galeazzo Visconti, der zum Signore von Bologna avancierte. Nachdem 1433 Bologna und Imola gefallen waren (bis 1435), verhalf Venedig dem Papst 1440/41 endgültig zur Stadtherrschaft. Bei der Gelegenheit nahm Venedig 1441–1509 Ravenna in Besitz.
Um diese Zeit erlangte die Familie der Bentivoglio mit Sante (1445–1462) und Giovanni II. (1462–1506) die Herrschaft in Bologna. Während ihrer Regierungszeit blühte die Stadt auf, angesehene Architekten und Maler gaben Bologna das Gesicht einer klassischen italienischen Renaissance-Stadt, die allerdings ihre Ambitionen auf Eroberung endgültig aufgeben musste.
Neuzeit
Giovannis Herrschaft endete 1506, als die Truppen Papst Julius' II. Bologna belagerten und die Kunstschätze seines Palastes plünderten. Im Anschluss gehörte Bologna bis zum 18. Jahrhundert zum Kirchenstaat und wurde von einem päpstlichen Legaten und einem Senat regiert, der alle zwei Monate einen gonfaloniere (Richter) wählte, der von acht Konsuln unterstützt wurde. Am 24. Februar 1530 wurde Karl V. von Papst Clemens VII. in Bologna zum Kaiser gekrönt. Es war die letzte vom Papst durchgeführte Kaiserkrönung. Der Wohlstand der Stadt dauerte an, doch eine Seuche am Ende des 16. Jahrhunderts verringerte die Zahl der Einwohner von 72.000 auf 59.000, eine weitere 1630 ließ sie auf 47.000 schrumpfen, bevor sie sich wieder auf 60.000 bis 65.000 einpendelte.
1564 wurden die Piazza del Nettuno, der Palazzo dei Banchi und der Archiginnasio erbaut, der Sitz der Universität. Zahlreiche Kirchen und andere religiöse Einrichtungen wurden während der päpstlichen Herrschaft neu errichtet, ältere renoviert – Bolognas 96 Klöster waren italienischer Rekord. Bedeutende Maler wie Annibale Carracci, Domenichino und Guercino, die in dieser Periode in Bologna tätig waren, formten die Bologneser Schule der Malerei.
Im napoleonischen Europa wurde Bologna 1796 – seit dem Ersten Koalitionskrieg vom Kirchenstaat unabhängig – zunächst Hauptstadt der kurzlebigen Cispadanischen Republik und später die nach Mailand bedeutendste Stadt in der Cisalpinischen Republik und des napoleonischen Königreichs Italien. Am 28. Januar 1814 eroberten die Österreicher die Stadt kurzzeitig zurück, mussten am 2. April 1815 dem Einmarsch französischer Truppen weichen, um am 16. April 1815 Bologna endgültig einzunehmen. Nach dem Fall Napoleons schlug der Wiener Kongress 1815 Bologna wieder dem Kirchenstaat zu, worauf dies am 18. Juli 1816 zur Ausführung kam.
Die Bevölkerung rebellierte im Frühjahr 1831 gegen die päpstliche Restauration. Durch eine neuerliche österreichische Besatzung ab dem 21. März 1831 wurde dem ein Ende gemacht. Die Besatzung dauerte mit einer kurzen Unterbrechung (Juli 1831 bis Januar 1832) bis zum 30. November 1838. Die Macht war damit erneut in der Hand des Papstes. Dagegen erhob sich im August 1843 der Aufstand der Moti di Savigno. Erneut kam es 1848/1849 zu Volksaufständen, als es vom 8. August 1848 bis 16. Mai 1849 gelang, die Truppen der österreichischen Garnison zu vertreiben, die danach erneut bis 1860 die Befehlsgewalt über die Stadt innehatten. Nach einem Besuch von Papst Pius IX. 1857 stimmte Bologna am 12. Juni 1859 für seine Annexion durch das Königreich Sardinien, wodurch die Stadt Teil des vereinten Italien wurde.
Zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts wurden die Mauern der Stadt bis auf wenige Reste abgerissen, um der schnell wachsenden Bevölkerung Platz zu schaffen. In den Wahlen am 28. Juni 1914 errang der Sozialist Francesco Zanardi zum ersten Mal das Stadtpräsidium (sindaco) für die Linke. Mit der Unterbrechung des Faschismus wird Bologna seitdem überwiegend von linken Stadtregierungen verwaltet.
1940 zählte Bologna 320.000 Einwohner. Im Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde Bologna in den Kämpfen der untergehenden NS-Diktatur mit amerikanischen, britischen und polnischen Invasionstruppen der Alliierten bombardiert und beschädigt, wobei in der Stadt 2.481 Zivilisten ums Leben kamen. Am 21. April 1945 wurde die Stadt von Einheiten des II. polnischen Korps befreit. Nach dem Krieg erholte sich Bologna schnell und ist heute eine der wohlhabendsten und stadtplanerisch gelungensten Städte Italiens.
Anschlag von Bologna 1980
Am 2. August 1980 verübte eine Gruppe von Rechtsextremisten einen Bombenanschlag auf den Hauptbahnhof der Stadt. 85 Menschen starben, mindestens 200 wurden verletzt. 1995 wurden für diesen Anschlag zwei Mitglieder der faschistischen Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari und Mitarbeiter des italienischen Geheimdienstes zu langjährigen Haftstrafen verurteilt.
Kulinarisches
Bologna ist die Heimat der Tortellini – mit Hackfleisch gefüllte, kleine ringförmige Teigwaren, die in einer Hühnerbrühe (brodo) oder mit Sahnesoße serviert werden. Einer Legende nach sollen die Tortellini den Nabel der römischen Liebesgöttin Venus nachbilden.
Eine weitere klassische Pasta aus Bologna sind Tagliatelle, mit Ei hergestellte Bandnudeln, die traditionell mit Ragù alla bolognese, einer Soße mit Hackfleisch und Tomaten, serviert werden. Von den bolognesischen Tagliatelle al ragù wurden die Spaghetti bolognese inspiriert, die aber nicht zur Küche Bolognas gehören, sondern vermutlich aus Nordamerika stammen.
Eine weitere aus Bologna stammende Spezialität ist die Mortadella, eine Aufschnittwurst vom Schwein, die in hauchdünne Scheiben geschnitten verzehrt wird.
Bologna ist außerdem für seine grüne Lasagne bekannt.
Bildung
Die 1088 gegründete Universität Bologna ist die älteste Institution dieser Art in Europa. Die etwa 80.000 Studenten stellen bei einer Gesamtbevölkerung von um die 400.000 einen bedeutenden Teil der Stadtbevölkerung und prägen die Stadt, vor allem innerhalb der historischen Stadtmauern. Die Stadt ist nicht nur bei Studenten aus allen Teilen Italiens beliebt, sondern auch bei ausländischen Studenten. Neben Erasmus-Studenten sind das vor allem Studenten aus den USA.
Außerdem gibt es in der Stadt die Akademie der Bildenden Künste, an der unter anderem Giorgio Morandi lehrte und Enrico Marconi eine Ausbildung absolvierte. Das SAIS Bologna Center ist eine Außenstelle der School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) der Johns Hopkins University. Bologna war Ort der Bolognaerklärung im Jahr 1999 und Namensgeber des Bologna-Prozesses zur Reformierung und Vereinheitlichung des Europäischen Hochschulraums.
(Wikipedia)
1604/1605. Oli sobre tela. 60,5 x 146 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Gemäldegalerie, Viena. GG_267. Obra no exposada.
Guido Reni
www.dorotheum.com/en/auctions/current-auctions/kataloge/l...
(Bologna 1575–1642)
Fortuna with a purse,
oil on canvas, 152 x 130 cm, framed
Watch the Video where Mark MacDonnell discusses Reni’s masterpiece and other outstanding works
Provenance:
Abbot Giovanni Carlo Gavotti, Bologna circa 1636;
Count Benadduce Benadduci, Tolentino circa 1638;
Thence by descent to Olimpia Benadduci, circa 1750;
Thence by descent to Stefano Gentiloni, Tolentino 1925;
Thence by descent in the Gentiloni family, Palazzo Sivleri-Gentiloni, Tolentino;
Private European Collection
Literature:
C.C. Malvasia, Felsina pittrice, Bologna 1678, ed. Bologna 1841, I, pp. 96-97, II, pp. 24, 31, 320;
F. Baldinucci, Notizie de’ professori del disegno da Cimabue in qua, 1681-1774, V, Florence 1702, pp. 327-328 (ed. Florence 1812, X, pp. 341-342);
G. Benaducci, Cenni Biografici sul Benadduce Benadducie memorie sui dipinti da lui allogati al Guercino ed a Guido Reni, Filefo,Tolentino 1886, pp. 20-21 (as Guido Reni);
G. Garboli and E. Bacceschi, L´opera completa di Guido Reni, Milan 1971, no. 117b 8 (as a copy);
A. Busiri Vici, ´Contributi per “La Fortuna” di Guido Reni´, in Studi di Storia dell´arte in onore di Antonio Morassi, Rome 1971, p. 232;
R. Petrangolini Benedetti Panici, ´La “Fortuna” di Guido Reni` Notizie da Palazzo Albani , X, 1976, no. 2, pp. 56-57, illustrated p. 55 fig. 3;
S.D. Pepper, Guido Reni: a complete catalogue of his works with an introductory text, Oxford, 1984, p. 277, no. 166A.I (as a copy);
S.D. Pepper, Guido Reni, l´opera completa, 1988, p. 287 at note 1, copie, no. 1 (as a copy);
S.D. Pepper and D. Mahon, Guido Reni’s ‘Fortuna with Purse’ rediscovered, in “The Burlington Magazine”, CXLI, 1999, pp. 156-163 (as Guido Reni).
The present painting is an extremely important rediscovery and we are very grateful to Professor Daniele Benati, Professor Erich Schleier and Nicholas Turner for all independently confirming the attribution after examining the painting in the original.
Benati has described the present work as entirely an original autograph work by Guido Reni of superb quality and he believes the painting to be of exceptional importance for the history of art. Schleier confirms that the present work is the unfinished prime original by Guido Reni and Nicholas Turner considers the present painting to be one of the masterpieces of Guido Reni´s late period and, as a work in progress, gives a fascinating insight into Reni´s creativity.
The present work is of extraordinary importance not only for its high pictorial quality, but also for the successful iconographic solution it adopts, which was destined to have great success. It also has a prestigious collection history and until recently was considered lost. Research conducted by Stephen D. Pepper and Sir Denis Mahon clarified some of the provenance as well as reconstructing the genesis of the painting, and thus settling an issue which was further complicated by the presence of a version of the same subject by Guido Reni, in which Fortune is portrayed with a crown in her hand, instead of the purse with coins (see fig.1).
According to Filippo Baldinucci’s Notizie de’ professori del disegno (1702), Guido Reni had first painted the version in which Fortuna is depicted with a purse. This was commissioned by Abbot Giovanni Carlo Gavotti from Bologna, to whom Reni submitted it unfinished, requesting that it not be exhibited. However, Gavotti broke the agreement and not only did he request Girolamo Scarselli to make an etched engraving of the painting (see fig.2), but he also exhibited it in one of the painting exhibitions that aristocratic families used to organise in the porticos of Bologna in order to celebrate the religious festivities of their parish churches, known as ‘decennali eucaristiche’. Incensed at this effrontery, Reni realised a second version of the painting. Following a habit that appears to be typical of him, he relied on a copy started by his Veronese pupil Antonio Giarola, which he completed with the sole variation of the crown that Fortune carries in her right hand instead of the purse with coins. This second painting, which Baldinucci considered “of much higher value than Gavotti’s”, despite being only partly autograph, was spotted in Reni’s studio in 1639 by Luca Assarino (Sensi di umiltà e di stupore intorno la grandezza dell’Eminentissimo Cardinale Sacchetti, e le pitture di Guido Reni, Genoa 1646) and subsequently purchased by Monsignor Jacopo Altoviti of Florence, probably in Bologna to pay a visit to his cousin Cardinal Sacchetti, papal legate in Bologna between 1637 and 1640.
Whilst the version “with the crown”, formerly in Altoviti’s possession, can be identified as the painting in a private US collection, after appearing on the London market in 1987 and 1991 (see S. Pepper, Guido Reni. L’opera completa, Turin 1988, n. 159, pl. XII), further information concerning the first version “with the purse” can be found in Carlo Cesare Malvasia’s Felsina pittrice (1678), according to whom Abbot Gavotti resold it, despite its still being unfinished (“non finita ancora”), and made a profit amounting to twice the price he had paid to Reni, “that is six hundred scudi”. Therefore, the painting still mentioned at Palazzo Gavotti in Genoa as late as the 19th century was a copy that Gavotti had commissioned at the time of his successful sale (F. Alizeri, Guida artistica per la città di Genova, Genoa 1846, II, p. 641). The proof of the compositions fame were, besides the divergent woodcut by Bartolomeo Coriolano and the aforementioned etching by Scarselli (Rossoni, op. cit., pp. 68-69, nn. 29, 31), numerous workshop copies, some of which are still preserved today. Nothing is known of a copy, formerly at the Hercolani collection in Bologna, which may perhaps be attributed to Elisabetta Sirani and which, according to the edition of Felsina pittrice (1841, II, p. 24 note 1), had just been sold in England. As early as 1924 another copy was bequeathed to the Vatican Pinacoteca by the restorer Antonio Castellano. This copy can be identified as the painting from the Sacchetti collection in Rome, which an inventory of 1647-1655 still indicated as likely being a work by Sirani, although later inventories mentioned both Giovanni Francesco Gessi and Reni himself as the author. Prior to the resurfacing of the present painting under discussion, the painting at the Vatican Pinacoteca was considered the autograph original and had been identified as the painting that Reni had executed for Gavotti (see Pepper, op. cit., n. 158, fig. 148).
Research conducted by Pepper and Mahon has shown that the present painting belonged to the important collection of the noble Benadduci family of Tolentino, which boasted a large number of Bolognese works (Reni, Guercino). In 1925 a scion of the family, Stefano Gentiloni, offered it for sale to the Vatican Pinacoteca to no avail. In 1886, while still at Palazzo Benadduci in Tolentino, the work was heavily repainted and it was only thanks to a restoration solicited by Pepper and Mahon that the extraordinary freshness of the original could re-emerge, revealing its ‘unfinished’ nature as mentioned in the sources: besides the sky’s blue, that lacks the final velatura, considerable pentimenti are visible, such as the pink cloth wrapped around the goddess, the position of her left leg and the clouds. A direct comparison with the specimen bequeathed to the Vatican Pinacoteca in 1924 has also revealed a much freer technique, capable of that soft rendering of complexion that is characteristic of Guido Reni’s work of around 1636-37, i.e. in the years from which we can date the execution of the work on the basis of the documentary evidence mentioned above.
Since the core of the Benadduci collection results from the purchases undertaken by Count Benadduce Benadduci (d. 1643), who held the office of Uditore del Torrone in Bologna from 1638 onwards, it is very likely that he directly purchased the painting from Gavotti. As in similar other cases, the location of the collection, which was far from the centres known to international connoisseurs, precipitated this beautiful canvas’s fall into oblivion – until its recent rediscovery gave us back one of the most brilliant and once celebrated masterpieces from the late period of Guido Reni´s oeuvre.
The composition depicts Fortuna, the goddess of fortune and personification of luck, covered only by a floating pink cloth and flying over the globe, holding a palm and a sceptre in her left hand and dropping coins and jewels from a small purse in her right hand. A flying putto symbolising Chance (Kairòs in Greek, Occasio in Latin) restrains her by pulling on her loose hair. The representation of Fortune, which took form from the Middle Ages onwards, initially depicted her on a wheel as an allusion to the cyclical nature of her action. Subsequently, it was enriched by the contrasting intervention of Chance, which renders her influence on human life even more unstable and precarious (E. Rossoni, in Dea Fortuna. Iconografia di un mito, ed. by M. Rossi, exhibition catalogue, Carpi 2010, p. 18).
We are extremely grateful to Professor Daniele Benati for his help in cataloguing this lot.
GUIDO RENI´S CRITICAL ACCLAIM
Guido Reni is one of the most celebrated and successful painters of 17th century Italy. Amongst the major painters of the period only Caravaggio can rival Reni for his artistic influence, however Caravaggio´s real critical acclaim was to come later. As Professor Richard Spear has explained (see R.E. Spear The Divine Guido: Religion, Sex, Money and Art in the World of Guido Reni, 1997) the demand for Reni´s work was far greater, as was the dissemination of copies after it. The status of Reni´s patrons and the prices they paid for his work, together with the critical response of the time testify to his importance. To also take consideration of his influence on other artists is clear that Reni was a 17th Century artistic luminary.
Reni’s greatest impact was naturally in his home city of Bologna, where he was unquestionable the leading artist after the death of Ludovico Carracci in 1619. His influence lasted for generations through the paintings and graphic art of those who worked directly with him, such as Gessi, Cantarini, Giovanni Andrea Sirani and Guido Cagnacci; or through those artists who perpetuated his style secondhand, from Elisabetta Sirani, Domenico Maria Canuti, Carlo Cignani, Lorenzo Pasinelli, Giovanni Gioseffo dal Sole and Francesco Franceschini to Donato Creti and the Gandolfi in the 18th century, who constituted Reni’s second- and third-generation progeny.
In Rome, Reni’s figural grace and conception of ecstasy were especially admired and studied by major artists, among them Domenichino, Andrea Sacchi, Giovanni Francesco Romanelli, Alessandro Algardi, Bernini, Carlo Maratti, Pompeo Batoni and Anton Raphael Mengs. Milanese artists such as Francesco Cairo and Carlo Francesco Nuvolone and the Florentine Francesco Furini are further indications of Reni’s widespread impact on regional schools. Reni also attracted foreign residents, too, including Anthony van Dyck. Even in ‘Caravaggesque’ Naples, his painting had a strong effect on Jusepe de Ribera and Massimo Stanzione, who in turn were the two most influential teachers in the city. Their work and that of their students, together with the rich holdings of Reni’s paintings in Spain, had a significant impact on the development of various Spanish artists, notably Murillo.
The French theoretician Roger de Piles aptly characterized the source of Reni’s appeal when he wrote that Reni ‘arrived at a manner that could please everyone’ because it was simultaneously ‘grande’, ‘facile’ and ‘gracieuse’. In France, Reni’s work was greatly admired for its elegance. It is telling that, of the approximately 400 Italian pictures carried off to Paris as Napoleonic booty, 18 were by Reni. Stendhal, comparing the frescoes by Reni and Domenichino at San Gregorio Magno in Rome, judged Reni’s to be much superior and concluded that the artist must have possessed a French soul. Stendhal’s conviction seems to have been confirmed in the work of Simon Vouet, Eustache Le Sueur, Pierre Mignard, Charles Le Brun, Charles-Joseph Natoire, Joseph-Marie Vien, Louis and Jean-Jacques Lagrenée, Jean-Baptiste Greuze and Ingres, among many others, who absorbed the influence of the Italian artist.
Reni’s historical place was exalted from the 17th century onwards. Early biographers wrote extended, complimentary accounts of his work. From writings as early as 1614 onwards, there was a tendency to isolate three characteristics in Reni’s art: its angelic forms, compositional grace and beautiful brushwork, and to equate their maker with the greatest painter of antiquity, Apelles.
Gian Lorenzo Bernini’s 17th-century viewpoint was that Reni painted ‘pictures of Paradise’. Reni’s refined and graceful images were seen as visions of other-worldly beauty that could offer the faithful a foretaste of heaven.
additional pictures
Guido Reni, Fortuna mit Krone, Öl auf Leinwand, 163,8 x 131 cm, Privatsammlung USA
Girolamo Scarselli nach Guido Reni, Radierung, Harvard Art Museum, William M. Prichard Fund, S1.71.2 Allan Macintyre © President and Fellows of Harvard College
Specialist: Mark MacDonnell
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Guido_Reni_-_Fortuna_with...
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Annibale Carracci (1560-1609), actif à Bologne et Rome
Christ et la Samaritaine au puits, autour de 1604-1605
Lors de son voyage à travers la Samarie fatigué le Christ s'avaient installés au puits de Jacob. Bien que les Juifs et les Samaritains avaient l'habitude d'éviter l'autre, le Christ avait demandé une femme qui venait chercher de l'eau un verre d'eau. Il lui se fit connaître comme le Messie et parla prometteur: «Celui qui boira de l'eau que je lui donnerai, il n'aura plus soif pour l'éternité." Le contenu conciliatrice de la scène correspond à l'ambiance paisible de la vaste paysage classique.
Annibale Carracci (1560-1609), tätig in Bologna und Rom
Christus und die Samariterin am Brunnen, um 1604-1605
Auf seiner Wanderung durch Samaria hatte sich Christus müde am Jakobsbrunnen niedergelassen. Obwohl Juden und Samariter einander zu meiden pflegten, bat Christus eine zum Wasserholen gekommene Frau um einen Trunk. Er gab sich ihr als der Messias zu erkennen und sprach verheißungsvoll: "Wer von dem Wasser trinkt, das ich ihm geben, dem wir es in Ewigkeit nicht mehr dürsten." Dem versöhnlichen Gehalt der Szene entspricht die friedliche Stimmung der weiten, klassischen Landschaft.
Austria Kunsthistorisches Museum
Federal Museum
Logo KHM
Regulatory authority (ies)/organs to the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Culture
Founded 17 October 1891
Headquartered Castle Ring (Burgring), Vienna 1, Austria
Management Sabine Haag
www.khm.at website
Main building of the Kunsthistorisches Museum at Maria-Theresa-Square
The Kunsthistorisches Museum (KHM abbreviated) is an art museum in Vienna. It is one of the largest and most important museums in the world. It was opened in 1891 and 2012 visited of 1.351.940 million people.
The museum
The Kunsthistorisches Museum is with its opposite sister building, the Natural History Museum (Naturhistorisches Museum), the most important historicist large buildings of the Ringstrasse time. Together they stand around the Maria Theresa square, on which also the Maria Theresa monument stands. This course spans the former glacis between today's ring road and 2-line, and is forming a historical landmark that also belongs to World Heritage Site Historic Centre of Vienna.
History
Archduke Leopold Wilhelm in his Gallery
The Museum came from the collections of the Habsburgs, especially from the portrait and armor collections of Ferdinand of Tyrol, the collection of Emperor Rudolf II (most of which, however scattered) and the art collection of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm into existence. Already In 1833 asked Joseph Arneth, curator (and later director) of the Imperial Coins and Antiquities Cabinet, bringing together all the imperial collections in a single building .
Architectural History
The contract to build the museum in the city had been given in 1858 by Emperor Franz Joseph. Subsequently, many designs were submitted for the ring road zone. Plans by August Sicard von Sicardsburg and Eduard van der Null planned to build two museum buildings in the immediate aftermath of the Imperial Palace on the left and right of the Heroes' Square (Heldenplatz). The architect Ludwig Förster planned museum buildings between the Schwarzenberg Square and the City Park, Martin Ritter von Kink favored buildings at the corner Währingerstraße/ Scots ring (Schottenring), Peter Joseph, the area Bellariastraße, Moritz von Loehr the south side of the opera ring, and Ludwig Zettl the southeast side of the grain market (Getreidemarkt).
From 1867, a competition was announced for the museums, and thereby set their current position - at the request of the Emperor, the museum should not be too close to the Imperial Palace, but arise beyond the ring road. The architect Carl von Hasenauer participated in this competition and was able the at that time in Zürich operating Gottfried Semper to encourage to work together. The two museum buildings should be built here in the sense of the style of the Italian Renaissance. The plans got the benevolence of the imperial family. In April 1869, there was an audience with of Joseph Semper at the Emperor Franz Joseph and an oral contract was concluded, in July 1870 was issued the written order to Semper and Hasenauer.
Crucial for the success of Semper and Hasenauer against the projects of other architects were among others Semper's vision of a large building complex called "Imperial Forum", in which the museums would have been a part of. Not least by the death of Semper in 1879 came the Imperial Forum not as planned for execution, the two museums were built, however.
Construction of the two museums began without ceremony on 27 November 1871 instead. Semper moved to Vienna in the sequence. From the beginning, there were considerable personal differences between him and Hasenauer, who finally in 1877 took over sole construction management. 1874, the scaffolds were placed up to the attic and the first floor completed, built in 1878, the first windows installed in 1879, the Attica and the balustrade from 1880 to 1881 and built the dome and the Tabernacle. The dome is topped with a bronze statue of Pallas Athena by Johannes Benk.
The lighting and air conditioning concept with double glazing of the ceilings made the renunciation of artificial light (especially at that time, as gas light) possible, but this resulted due to seasonal variations depending on daylight to different opening times .
Kuppelhalle
Entrance (by clicking the link at the end of the side you can see all the pictures here indicated!)
Grand staircase
Hall
Empire
The Kunsthistorisches Museum was on 17 October 1891 officially opened by Emperor Franz Joseph I. Since 22 October 1891 , the museum is accessible to the public. Two years earlier, on 3 November 1889, the collection of arms, Arms and Armour today, had their doors open. On 1 January 1890 the library service resumed its operations. The merger and listing of other collections of the Highest Imperial Family from the Upper and Lower Belvedere, the Hofburg Palace and Ambras in Tyrol will need another two years.
189, the farm museum was organized in seven collections with three directorates:
Directorate of coins, medals and antiquities collection
The Egyptian Collection
The Antique Collection
The coins and medals collection
Management of the collection of weapons, art and industrial objects
Weapons collection
Collection of industrial art objects
Directorate of Art Gallery and Restaurieranstalt (Restoration Office)
Collection of watercolors, drawings, sketches, etc.
Restoration Office
Library
Very soon the room the Court Museum (Hofmuseum) for the imperial collections was offering became too narrow. To provide temporary help, an exhibition of ancient artifacts from Ephesus in the Theseus Temple was designed. However, additional space had to be rented in the Lower Belvedere.
1914, after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne, his " Estonian Forensic Collection " passed to the administration of the Court Museum. This collection, which emerged from the art collection of the house of d' Este and world travel collection of Franz Ferdinand, was placed in the New Imperial Palace since 1908. For these stocks, the present collection of old musical instruments and the Museum of Ethnology emerged.
The First World War went by, apart from the oppressive economic situation without loss. The farm museum remained during the five years of war regularly open to the public.
Until 1919 the K.K. Art Historical Court Museum was under the authority of the Oberstkämmereramt (head chamberlain office) and belonged to the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. The officials and employees were part of the royal household.
First Republic
The transition from monarchy to republic, in the museum took place in complete tranquility. On 19 November 1918 the two imperial museums on Maria Theresa Square were placed under the state protection of the young Republic of German Austria. Threatening to the stocks of the museum were the claims raised in the following weeks and months of the "successor states" of the monarchy as well as Italy and Belgium on Austrian art collection. In fact, it came on 12th February 1919 to the violent removal of 62 paintings by armed Italian units. This "art theft" left a long time trauma among curators and art historians.
It was not until the Treaty of Saint-Germain of 10 September 1919, providing in Article 195 and 196 the settlement of rights in the cultural field by negotiations. The claims of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Italy again could mostly being averted in this way. Only Hungary, which presented the greatest demands by far, was met by more than ten years of negotiation in 147 cases.
On 3 April 1919 was the expropriation of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine by law and the acquisition of its property, including the "Collections of the Imperial House" , by the Republic. Of 18 June 1920 the then provisional administration of the former imperial museums and collections of Este and the secular and clergy treasury passed to the State Office of Internal Affairs and Education, since 10 November 1920, the Federal Ministry of the Interior and Education. A few days later it was renamed the Art History Court Museum in the "Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna State", 1921 "Kunsthistorisches Museum" . Of 1st January 1921 the employees of the museum staff passed to the state of the Republic.
Through the acquisition of the former imperial collections owned by the state, the museum found itself in a complete new situation. In order to meet the changed circumstances in the museum area, designed Hans Tietze in 1919 the "Vienna Museum program". It provided a close cooperation between the individual museums to focus at different houses on main collections. So dominated exchange, sales and equalizing the acquisition policy in the interwar period. Thus resulting until today still valid collection trends. Also pointing the way was the relocation of the weapons collection from 1934 in its present premises in the New Castle, where since 1916 the collection of ancient musical instruments was placed.
With the change of the imperial collections in the ownership of the Republic the reorganization of the internal organization went hand in hand, too. Thus the museum was divided in 1919 into the
Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection (with the Oriental coins)
Collection of Classical Antiquities
Collection of ancient coins
Collection of modern coins and medals
Weapons collection
Collection of sculptures and crafts with the Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments
Picture Gallery
The Museum 1938-1945
Count Philipp Ludwig Wenzel Sinzendorf according to Rigaud. Clarisse 1948 by Baroness de Rothschildt "dedicated" to the memory of Baron Alphonse de Rothschildt; restituted to the Rothschilds in 1999, and in 1999 donated by Bettina Looram Rothschild, the last Austrian heiress.
With the "Anschluss" of Austria to the German Reich all Jewish art collections such as the Rothschilds were forcibly "Aryanised". Collections were either "paid" or simply distributed by the Gestapo at the museums. This resulted in a significant increase in stocks. But the KHM was not the only museum that benefited from the linearization. Systematically looted Jewish property was sold to museums, collections or in pawnshops throughout the empire.
After the war, the museum struggled to reimburse the "Aryanised" art to the owners or their heirs. They forced the Rothschild family to leave the most important part of their own collection to the museum and called this "dedications", or "donations". As a reason, was the export law stated, which does not allow owners to perform certain works of art out of the country. Similar methods were used with other former owners. Only on the basis of international diplomatic and media pressure, to a large extent from the United States, the Austrian government decided to make a change in the law (Art Restitution Act of 1998, the so-called Lex Rothschild). The art objects were the Rothschild family refunded only in the 1990s.
The Kunsthistorisches Museum operates on the basis of the federal law on the restitution of art objects from the 4th December 1998 (Federal Law Gazette I, 181 /1998) extensive provenance research. Even before this decree was carried out in-house provenance research at the initiative of the then archive director Herbert Haupt. This was submitted in 1998 by him in collaboration with Lydia Grobl a comprehensive presentation of the facts about the changes in the inventory levels of the Kunsthistorisches Museum during the Nazi era and in the years leading up to the State Treaty of 1955, an important basis for further research provenance.
The two historians Susanne Hehenberger and Monika Löscher are since 1st April 2009 as provenance researchers at the Kunsthistorisches Museum on behalf of the Commission for Provenance Research operating and they deal with the investigation period from 1933 to the recent past.
The museum today
Today the museum is as a federal museum, with 1st January 1999 released to the full legal capacity - it was thus the first of the state museums of Austria, implementing the far-reaching self-financing. It is by far the most visited museum in Austria with 1.3 million visitors (2007).
The Kunsthistorisches Museum is under the name Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum with company number 182081t since 11 June 1999 as a research institution under public law of the Federal virtue of the Federal Museums Act, Federal Law Gazette I/115/1998 and the Museum of Procedure of the Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum, 3 January 2001, BGBl II 2/ 2001, in force since 1 January 2001, registered.
In fiscal 2008, the turnover was 37.185 million EUR and total assets amounted to EUR 22.204 million. In 2008 an average of 410 workers were employed.
Management
1919-1923: Gustav Glück as the first chairman of the College of science officials
1924-1933: Hermann Julius Hermann 1924-1925 as the first chairman of the College of the scientific officers in 1925 as first director
1933: Arpad Weixlgärtner first director
1934-1938: Alfred Stix first director
1938-1945: Fritz Dworschak 1938 as acting head, from 1938 as a chief in 1941 as first director
1945-1949: August von Loehr 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections in 1949 as general director of the historical collections of the Federation
1945-1949: Alfred Stix 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections in 1949 as general director of art historical collections of the Federation
1949-1950: Hans Demel as administrative director
1950: Karl Wisoko-Meytsky as general director of art and historical collections of the Federation
1951-1952: Fritz Eichler as administrative director
1953-1954: Ernst H. Buschbeck as administrative director
1955-1966: Vincent Oberhammer 1955-1959 as administrative director, from 1959 as first director
1967: Edward Holzmair as managing director
1968-1972: Erwin Auer first director
1973-1981: Friderike Klauner first director
1982-1990: Hermann Fillitz first director
1990: George Kugler as interim first director
1990-2008: Wilfried Seipel as general director
Since 2009: Sabine Haag as general director
Collections
To the Kunsthistorisches Museum are also belonging the collections of the New Castle, the Austrian Theatre Museum in Palais Lobkowitz, the Museum of Ethnology and the Wagenburg (wagon fortress) in an outbuilding of Schönbrunn Palace. A branch office is also Ambras in Innsbruck.
Kunsthistorisches Museum (main building)
Picture Gallery
Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection
Collection of Classical Antiquities
Vienna Chamber of Art
Numismatic Collection
Library
New Castle
Ephesus Museum
Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments
Arms and Armour
Archive
Hofburg
The imperial crown in the Treasury
Imperial Treasury of Vienna
Insignia of the Austrian Hereditary Homage
Insignia of imperial Austria
Insignia of the Holy Roman Empire
Burgundian Inheritance and the Order of the Golden Fleece
Habsburg-Lorraine Household Treasure
Ecclesiastical Treasury
Schönbrunn Palace
Imperial Carriage Museum Vienna
Armory in Ambras Castle
Ambras Castle
Collections of Ambras Castle
Major exhibits
Among the most important exhibits of the Art Gallery rank inter alia:
Jan van Eyck: Cardinal Niccolò Albergati, 1438
Martin Schongauer: Holy Family, 1475-80
Albrecht Dürer : Trinity Altar, 1509-16
Portrait Johann Kleeberger, 1526
Parmigianino: Self Portrait in Convex Mirror, 1523/24
Giuseppe Arcimboldo: Summer 1563
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary 1606/ 07
Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary (1606-1607)
Titian: Nymph and Shepherd to 1570-75
Portrait of Jacopo de Strada, 1567/68
Raffaello Santi: Madonna of the Meadow, 1505 /06
Lorenzo Lotto: Portrait of a young man against white curtain, 1508
Peter Paul Rubens: The altar of St. Ildefonso, 1630-32
The Little Fur, about 1638
Jan Vermeer: The Art of Painting, 1665/66
Pieter Bruegel the Elder: Fight between Carnival and Lent, 1559
Kids, 1560
Tower of Babel, 1563
Christ Carrying the Cross, 1564
Gloomy Day (Early Spring), 1565
Return of the Herd (Autumn), 1565
Hunters in the Snow (Winter) 1565
Bauer and bird thief, 1568
Peasant Wedding, 1568/69
Peasant Dance, 1568/69
Paul's conversion (Conversion of St Paul), 1567
Cabinet of Curiosities:
Saliera from Benvenuto Cellini 1539-1543
Egyptian-Oriental Collection:
Mastaba of Ka Ni Nisut
Collection of Classical Antiquities:
Gemma Augustea
Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós
Gallery: Major exhibits
Annibale Carracci, Landscape with the Flight into Egypt, c. 1604, oil on canvas, 122 x 230 cm (Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome)
Annibale Carracci, Landscape with the Flight into Egypt, c. 1604, oil on canvas, 122 x 230 cm (Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome)
Captured in Congress Park, Saratoga Springs, NY. This fountain is commonly referred to as the Triton Pool, and features two statues locally known as Spit and Spat. The Triton seen here is said to represent the son of Poseidon.
“In Greek mythology, Triton was the son of Poseidon (Roman name, Neptune) the god of the sea. Triton was half dolphin and half man. He created winds and waves at Poseidon’s bidding by coming to the surface of the sea and blowing through a conch shell.
The representations here are probably based upon a painting by Annibale Carracci, an early Baroque artist who resided in Bologna, Italy. It is believed that they illustrate a story told in Virgil’s Aeneid in which Triton was challenged to a contest by Misenus, the Trojan trumpeter for Aeneas. Triton promptly tossed Misenus into the sea for his arrogance.
The statues were carved from Carrara marble by an unknown Italian artist. The quarry in Italy that produces this marble has been used since Roman times.”
Reference Note: The above quotation was taken from the actual sign in Congress Park, and is courtesy of the Saratoga Springs History Museum, and Skidmore College Department of Classics.
This is an HDR image constructed from 3 bracketed shots, with a 2-stop differential between each. I processed those RAW files using Photomatix, and finished the image in Photoshop (which includes the use of several Topaz Labs filters as well to remove noise, sharpen features, etc.).
In the summer of 1772 Zoffany set off for Florence with £300, letters of introduction and a commission from the Queen to paint highlights of the Grand Duke of Tuscany’s collection shown within the Tribuna of the Uffizi Palace. The inspiration for the commission could have been the Cabinet of Paintings (Royal Collection, now given to Formentrou), then attributed to Gonzales Coques, which hung in Queen Charlotte’s work-room at Kew. Progress was slow and painful: according to Lord Winchilsea, one of the sitters, the task was:
‘really one of the Most laborious undertakings I ever saw. For he not only Copies a great Many Pictures & Statues & the Room &c. which is a great deal to do, but even the Frames & every the most minute thing Possible the small bronzes, the Table &c. to make it be a compleat & exact representation of the Room.’ (letter to Lady Charlotte Finch, 2 January 1773)
It is clear that Zoffany had planned from the outset to introduce real people, as Horace Mann, was already mentioning ‘small figures (portraits) as spectators’ in August 1772 (Horace Mann letter to Horace Walpole, 25 August 1772). Fairly soon these spectators came to seem inappropriate: Mann wrote to Walpole on 23 August 1774:
‘The one-eyed German, Zoffany [Mann here alludes to the artist’s squint], who was sent by the King to paint a perspective view of the Tribuna in the Gallery, has succeeded amazingly well in many parts of that and in many portraits he has made here. The former is too much crowded with (for the most part) uninteresting portraits of English travellers then here.’
By the time the work was complete in 1777 and brought back to London in 1778 the error in judgement was generally acknowledged: Mann wrote again:
‘I told him often of the impropriety of sticking so many figures in it, and pointed out to him, the Great Duke and Dutchess, one or two of their children, if he thought the variety more pictoresque, and Lord Cowper. . . If what he said is true, that the Queen sent him to Florence to do that picture, and gave him a large sum for his journey, the impropriety of crowding so many unknown figures was still greater.’ (letter to Horace Walpole, 10 December 1779)
The Royal family took the same view: Joseph Farington reported in 1804 that:
‘The King spoke of Zoffany’s picture of the Florentine Gallery painted for him, & expressed wonder at Zoffany having done so improper a thing as to introduce the portraits of Sir Horace Man — Patch, & others. — He sd. The Queen wd. not suffer the picture to be placed in any of her apartments.’ (Diary for 15 December 1804)
Zoffany was certainly paid handsomely for the work and to cover his stay in Florence (though the actual sum is disputed) however he never again worked for the Royal Family. The painting hung briefly at Kew Palace and is recorded, with The Academicians at the Upper Library at Buckingham House in 1819.
A ‘tribune’ (tribuna in Italian) is the semicircular (or semi-polygonal) domed end of a basilican church; the Tribuna is the hexagonal domed room created in 1585-9 by Bernardo Buontalenti (1536-1608) at the Uffizi palace for the display of the masterpieces in the Medici collection. The idea of the space and the name was that the room (which originally had a single entrance) had the character of a chapel and formed a sort of Holy of Holies within the palace: indeed, it has remarkably similar shape and proportions to the much larger Capella dei Principi, Medicean funeral chapel begun in 1602, also with involvement of Buontalenti, next to the church of San Lorenzo in Florence. Both steep-domed hexagons are of course based on Brunelleschi’s cupola of Florence cathedral, completed in 1436. It is perhaps not a coincidence that George III favourite architect, William Chambers, had recently created two octagonal temples to the Muses: the Great Room at the Society of Arts in 1759; and the Octagon, one of the four rooms housing the King’s library at Buckingham House in 1766-7. It is tempting to suggest that Zoffany’s painting was intended for the over-mantel space visible in Stephanoff’s watercolour (Royal Collection), where the match of real and painted architecture would have been perfect.
The Tribuna was presented in this period as Europe’s most precious Wunderkammer, with a profusion of painting, sculpture, pietra dura and decorative arts, set against the already richly decorated surfaces of floor, walls and vault. In the words of Tobias Smollett (1721-71), ‘there is such a profusion of curiosities in this celebrated museum ... that the imagination is bewildered . . . a stranger of a visionary turn would be apt to fancy himself in a palace of the fairies, raised and adorned with the power of enchantment’ (Travels through France and Italy, letter 28, 5 February 1765). A comparison of Zoffany’s view with the contemporary drawings of Giuseppe Magni (Gabinetto dei Disegni, Uffizi, Florence) reveals that Zoffany’s is a substantially accurate record of the arrangement. There are two areas in which Zoffany has distorted or reinterpreted reality: he has adjusted the perspective of the interior; and he has taken liberties with the paintings he has chosen to include, often introducing works from the Pitti Palace or elsewhere in the Uffizi.
Zoffany’s viewpoint is slightly behind the centre of the room: (the central octagon of the floor pattern appears in the foreground). His field of vision includes a little less then three of the eight sections of the octagon, which would mean an angle of around 90 degrees. If he had carried this perspective through to its logical conclusion he would only have caught two of the four major sculptural groups placed in front of each alternate wall, instead of the four visible here. Moreover, almost all the objects and figures within the room, especially those in the foreground, should appear significantly larger than they do here: clearly if he had followed a geometrically literal regime he would never have been able to fit in so much or to have made so many interesting and intelligible groups. Instead, he has treated the ‘floor-show’ differently, adopting a perspective as if set in a cut-away model of the space, like a stage, and viewed from some way back in the auditorium. Evidently this aspect of the painting was also criticised: according again to Horace Mann ‘they found great fault in the perspective which, they say, is all wrong. I know that he was sensible of it himself, and tried to get assistance to correct it; but it was found impossible, and he carried it away as it was’ (letter to Horace Walpole, 10 December 1779).
In order to understand Zoffany’s perspective it is necessary to examine his other source of inspiration: the encyclopaedic paintings of Giovanni Paolo Panini (1692-1765). For example, Panini’s Modern Rome of 1757 (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) has some perspective, of course, but overridden by a clamour of surface of surface detail - a brilliance of colour, light and touch, across the entire canvas. Zoffany achieves exactly this brilliance, this refusal to subordinate, this determination that the spaces between things are as eye-catching as the things themselves. He deliberately creates a world where nothing quite sits quietly behind anything else; everything pushes itself forward. As a result, the painting has the slight unreality of an advent calendar, but also the effect of a jewel cabinet that needs to be explored systematically in order to reveal all its treasures. This effect was, again, not universally appreciated: when the Tribuna was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1780, the Morning Post criticised ‘its want of keeping’, that is, its harmony of colours; the Morning Chronicle wrote that ‘this accurate picture has the same effect on the spectator which the gallery itself has on first entering it; the multitude of excellencies contained in it, dissipate our ideas, and it requires some time to arrange them before we can coolly examine the merit of any individual piece.’
The art displayed here and its arrangement (by Zoffany as well as the custodians of the Uffizi) clearly has the potential to provoke innumerable conversations: Zoffany seems to be more interested in suggesting a multitude of ideas than in providing a coherent programme. The Royal Academy catalogue of 1780 described the work as a ‘room in a gallery of Florence, called the Tribuna, in which the principal part is calculated to show the different styles of the several masters’. Zoffany not only imitates their styles, he arranges them so that the relationships between them can be appreciated. The great tradition of painting is dominated by ‘the divine’ Raphael, his figure of St John the Baptist ‘pointing upwards’ as if to suggest a heavenly source of inspiration. The same tradition is maintained through the reverend Bolognese school of Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) and Guido Reni (1575-1640), and the occasional Flemish artist such as Rubens. Zoffany invites us to play the familiar game of comparing painting and sculpture, ancient and modern: who is the most beautiful woman of all? Clearly Venus, but is it the modern painted Venus of Urbino or the antique sculpted Medici Venus? There is also some nationalism present: the Etruscan remains stress them importance of Tuscany; the Holbein portrait tries to bring England into the story.
For the last two hundred years Zoffany’s Tribuna has been hung near to his Academicians (Royal Collection), and there is evidence that they were originally conceived as a pair. They make a very effective contrast between creating and appreciating art; between back and front of house; the former with the dark, thinly painted character of a work-in-progress, the latter with the highest and more precious finish. Only two vignettes within the Tribuna tell of the labour of art: the easel, palette, knife, brushes and maul-stick at the right margin and the hammer, pliers and pile of nails in the centre. Zoffany evidently feels that all these grand tourists should learn how to stretch a canvas.
Nell'abside vera e propria, al di sopra del colossale arco trionfale, due angeli reggono lo stemma di papa Gregorio XV. La cappella maggiore appare riccamente decorata: nella crociera e negli arconi l'Eterno Padre, affresco di Prospero Fontana del 1579, e nel lunettone di fondo sotto la volta, l'Annunciazione di Maria dipinta da Ludovico Carracci nell'ultimo anno della sua vita, il 1619.
In the apse, above the colossal triumphal arch, two angels hold the coat of arms of Pope Gregory XV. The main chapel appears richly decorated: in the cruise and in the arches the Eternal Father, fresco by Prospero Fontana (1579), and in the lunette below the vault, the Annunciation of Mary painted by Ludovico Carracci in the last year of his life, 1619.
National Trust. Kedleston Hall. Derbyshire. Drawing Room
The Drawing Room, showing the painting 'Orlando delivering Olympia from the Sea-monster' attributed to Lodovico Carracci, over the fireplace. This room was planned by the architect James Paine before he was superseded by Robert Adam. It was one of the first rooms to be completed in the recent restoration project. You can see the Waterford crystal chandelier and the Exeter carpet.
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No Group Banners, thanks.
Hay un largo día de finales de mayo en el que el todavía bachiller vislumbra ese futuro que le hace señas. Cae la tarde, y puede que identifique a ese porvenir, en el que todavía se abren todos los caminos, con ese panorama que se atalaya desde su terraza o altana. Estamos, en fin, en Andalucía y los campos aún conserva su verdor y los calmos y sinuosos ríos su caudal.
Si el escolar ha estudiado con aprovechamiento recordará composiciones dedicadas a esta revelación, a esta línea de sombra por el Tiziano, el Veronés, Annibale Carracci, Benjamin West, Emilio Magistretti, Arthur Kampf, László Hegedűs, David Ligare…
Pero no es el momento de componer elencos interminables, sino de comprender, sintetizar, dominar temarios, comentarios y ejercicios prácticos. Y de aprender a apreciar la celeste belleza que se oculta en todas las ramas del Saber. Roguemos a ese Ángel, que acaba de hacerse visible, que ayude a atravesar el vado de las prueba y que abra las puertas de los campos de la Tierra Prometida.
El cuadro que se reproduce parcialmente es «El Compañero Celeste» («Die Himmlische Begleiter») del artista alemán Arthur Kampf
Esta obra es un óleo sobre lienzo que mide 125 x 144 cm.
La imagen procede del siguiente blog:
homodesiribus.blogspot.com.es/2012/04/arthur-kampf-1864-1...
John Cecil, 5th earl of Exeter (1648-1700), and his wife Anne, remodelled part of their sixteenth-century house, Burghley, in Lincolnshire in the last decades of the seventeenth century. Antonio Verrio (c.1636-1707) was employed between 1686 and 1697 to decorate a series of State Rooms along the south front, known as the George Rooms. The Second George Room has a ceiling by Verrio with an allegory of the rewards of virtue. The frieze has fictive bronze medallions with episodes from the story of Romulus at the corners of the room, supported by fictive bronze figures of nude youths (ignudi). In this case the medallion shows Romulus making a sacrifice. The decorative scheme broadly follows the famous example of Annibale Carracci's ceiling in the Galleria Farnese, Rome (1597-1602), although Annibale - following Michelangelo's Sistine Ceiling - showed the youths as flesh and blood. The frieze contains openings to a blue sky in the space beyond the vault, echoing the illusion at the corners of Annibale's Roman ceiling.
Nel catino dell'abside Cristo che consegna le simboliche chiavi a S. Pietro affrescato da Cesare Fiorini e Cesare Aretusi a cavallo tra il 1500 e il 1600, e nel lunettone di fondo sotto la volta, l'Annunciazione di Maria dipinta da Ludovico Carracci nell'ultimo anno della sua vita, il 1619. L'altare maggiore in marmi policromi è opera di Alfonso Torreggiani ed è sormontato da una pregevole Crocifissione romanica in legno di cedro del XII secolo, costituita dalle statue di Gesù sulla croce, della Maddalena e di San Giovanni Evangelista.
In the apse basin Christ who hands the symbolic keys to S. Peter frescoed by Cesare Fiorini and Cesare Aretusi at the turn of the century between 1500 and 1600, and in the lunette below the vault, the Annunciation of Mary painted by Ludovico Carracci last year of his life, 1619. The high altar in polychrome marble is the work of Alfonso Torreggiani and is surmounted by a cedar wood Romanesque Crucifixion of the XII century, consisting of the statues of Jesus on the cross, of Magdalene and St. John the Evangelist.
Annibale Carracci -
Landscape with the Flight into Egypt [~ 1604] -
Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome -
Original photo by courtesy of Steven Zucker, smarthistory
Iniziato nel 1122 sulle fondamenta della preesistente cattedrale di S.Giustina, fu terminato nel 1233. La facciata è divisa in due contrafforti, in marmo rosa nella parte inferiore e in arenaria nella parte superiore. I tre ingressi sono sormontati da piccoli portici a due colonne. Capolavori di arte romanica sono le figure che reggono i protiri, prodotto di una scuola cantiere piacentina che segue i modelli di Wiligelmo e Nicolò. La torre e la cupola sono del trecento; sulla guglia, opera di un anonimo artigiano del Trecento, rappresenta un punto di riferimento per i piacentini lontani dalla propria terra. L'interno presenta una significativa testimonianza dell' arte barocca con affreschi di Carracci, Procaccini per il presbiterio e Guercino, Morazzone per quanto riguarda la cupola. Di notevole importanza anche le formelle dei paratici sulle colonne e sopratutto la vasca battesimale paleocristiana, documento in pietra che collega la chiesa piacentina alle sue origini. La devozione popolare, agli inizi del Seicento, ha dedicato una particolare attenzione alla Madonna del Popolo (transetto di sinistra); nella parte opposta, la tomba del Beato Giovanni Battista Scalabrini. Molto interessante anche la cripta, con i resti di S.Giustina. Di uguale importanza l'archivio capitolare.
Started in 1122 on the foundations of the existing cathedral of St. Giustina, was completed in 1233. The facade is divided into two buttresses, pink marble in the lower part and in sandstone in the upper part. The three inputs are surmounted by small porches with two columns. Masterpieces of Romanesque art are the figures that hold the porches, the product of a school yard Piacenza following models Wiligelmo and Nicholas. The tower and the dome of the fourteenth century, the spire, the work of an anonymous craftsman of the fourteenth century, is a point of reference for Piacenza away from their land. The interior has a significant evidence of 'baroque art with frescoes by Carracci, Guercino and Procaccini for the presbytery, Moray for the dome. Of great importance also the panels of the Guild on the columns and above the baptismal font early Christian document in stone that connects the church Piacenza to its origins. The popular devotion at the beginning of the seventeenth century, has paid particular attention to the Madonna del Popolo (left transept) on the opposite side, the tomb of Blessed John Baptist Scalabrini. Very interesting is the crypt with the remains of St. Giustina. Of equal importance is the archive capitulate.
Guido Reni, Bologna 1575 – 1642
Himmelfahrt Mariens - Assumption of Mary - Assunzione di Maria (ca, 1598/99)
Städel, Frankfurt
Painted on copper, the ‘Assumption of the Virgin’ is one of the very few surviving early works by Guido Reni, an artist of key significance for the development of Baroque painting in Bologna and Rome, and whose works continue to shape our image of the Italian Baroque to this day. In 1595, after training with Denys Calvaert in Bologna, Reni entered the academy of the Carracci.
Two large altarpieces by Annibale and Agostino Carracci served him as a point of departure for this extremely well-conceived composition, supplying him with motivic inspiration for the figure of the Virgin, shown seated on the throne of clouds with outspread arms, and the two angels accompanying her. At the same time, however, Reni’s conception of the theme is not only entirely different, but so novel for its time as to be revolutionary. Whereas the Carracci depicted Mary’s dramatic ascension with typically High Renaissance pathos, Reni has translated the event into a wholly different mood – a gentle-upward floating accompanied by the music of the spheres and full of poetic harmony.
Source: Städel
c. 1603. Oli sobre coure. 41,3 x 60,7 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Gemäldegalerie, Viena. GG_230. Obra exposada: Kabinett 11.
s273 8819 Weltgeschichte VII. Band Agostino Carracci (1558 - 1601) - Portrait of Tiziano Vecellio. 1587 "ILL .mo and R. mo D. Dno Henrico Caetano S. R. E. Card. Ampl. mo Bon. ae Legato / Exiguum hoc munus imaginis Titiani pict. cuius nomen orbis continere non valet submisse dicat sacratque / humill. s dedit. s. q. servuus August. Carratius. 1587 " Grotesche Allgemeine Weltgeschichte, Geschichte der Neueren Zeit, Theodor Flathe, Gustav Friedrich Hertzberg, Ferdinand Justi, Hans Prutz, Julius Harttung, VII. Band, Erster Teil, Die Neuere zeit von Dr. Martin Philippson Berlin anno 1886.
Tizian Tiziano Vecellio 1488 bis 1490 Pieve di Cadore - 1576 Venedig.
Tizian wurde ca. 1488 bis 1490 in Pieve di Cadore geboren
Tizian gilt als einer der Hauptmeister der italienischen Hochrenaissance und als der bedeutendste Vertreter der Venezianischen Maleri des 16. Jahrhunderts
Literatur über diesen großartigen Künstler ist sehr vielfältig
Tizian starb am 27.8. 1576 in Venedig.
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This print is perhaps the most famous by Agostino Carracci in the 18th century issue and shows the high degree of technical perfection achieved after the trip to Venice. Contrary to what Gori Gandellini believed, or that it derives from a drawing of the artist himself, it reproduces a self-portrait of Titian preserved in the Staatliche Museen in Berlin The engraving and the painting portray Titian at the same age, but in the two works he he is dressed differently. The date of the engraving, 1587, is temporally placed in a moment of great turning point in the engraving art of Augustine, both from the point of view of the invention and from the technical one. In these years the artist reaches full maturity in the use of the burin, characterized by a spacious and wide hatch that widens more in the center of each sign, in such a way to graphically translate the luminism and colorism of Venetian painting and reproduce any type of material: from fur to brocades to different skin tones.
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Tiziano Vecelli or Vecellio ( 1488/90– 27 August 1576), known in English as Titian, was an Italian (Venetian) painter during the Renaissance, considered the most important member of the 16th-century Venetian school. He was born in Pieve di Cadore, near Belluno. During his lifetime he was often called da Cadore, 'from Cadore', taken from his native region.
Recognized by his contemporaries as "The Sun Amidst Small Stars" (recalling the final line of Dante's Paradiso), Titian was one of the most versatile of Italian painters, equally adept with portraits, landscape backgrounds, and mythological and religious subjects. His painting methods, particularly in the application and use of colour, exercised a profound influence not only on painters of the late Italian Renaissance, but on future generations of Western art.
His career was successful from the start, and he became sought after by patrons, initially from Venice and its possessions, then joined by the north Italian princes, and finally the Habsburgs and papacy. Along with Giorgione, he is considered a founder of the Venetian School of Italian Renaissance painting.
During the course of his long life, Titian's artistic manner changed drastically, but he retained a lifelong interest in colour. Although his mature works may not contain the vivid, luminous tints of his early pieces, their loose brushwork and subtlety of tone were without precedent in the history of Western painting.
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Tiziano Vecelli ili Tiziano Vecellio (Pieve di Cadore, kraj Belluna (Veneto), 1490. - Venecija, 27. kolovoza, 1576.), bio je vođa škole venecijanske renesanse u 16. stoljeću. Tizian je bio jedan od najsvestranijih slikara, podjednako vješt u portretima kao i u pejzažima (dva motiva koja su ga proslavila), mitološkim i vjerskim temama. Najvažniji je i najutjecajniji umjetnik na prijelazu iz renesanse u barok.
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Chapel of St. Sebastian
Tomb of St John Paul II
Altarpiece painting by Domenichino, 1628-31
Welcome
The chapel contains the altar of St. Sebastian, an early Christian martyr from the Late Roman Empire. Under the altar are the remains of Pope St John Paul II, which were moved to the chapel in 2011.
The mosiac above the altar was made by Pietro Paolo Christofari, a Baroque artist who was Director of the Vatican Mosaic Studio from 1743-1755. This was a copy of Domenichino's original work, which was painted between 1625 and 1631, in oil on a stucco ground.
On June 2, 1672, the remains of Sts Innocent, Victor, Candidus and Laureatus were placed in the altar.
Flanking he chapel are statutes of two 20th century popes, Pius XI and XII.
Originally, the altarpiece was supposed to feature a painting portraying the life of St. Peter. Domenichino, the artist employed by the Congregation, was instructed to paint a picture of an episode of Peter's life. Domenichino came from the city of Bologna and was of the Bolognese School, a group of artists that also included Lanfranco and Ludovico Carracci. The topic originally chosen was taken from the book of Acts, in which Peter converts a Gentile to Christianity, one of the first such conversions. However, two groups had say over the decoration of the altar: The Congregation and the Chapter. The Congregation of the Fabricca of St. Peters, a group of cardinals and high-ranking churchmen, oversaw the construction of the new basilica. The Chapter of St. Peters were the group of priests who performed the sacraments and said mass in the basilica. The Chapter eventually proposed artwork illustrating the martyrdom of St Sebastian, believing that he was important enough to warrant a major chapel. The altar of St. Sebastian was painted by Domenichino between his commission in 1625 and 1631, when he left Rome for Naples. Domenichino's work took place under Pope Urban VIII, who reigned from 1623-44. Pope Urban VIII and his family, the Barberini, were known to have a personal connection to St. Sebastian, having patronized all three sites in Rome associated with him. In fact, the Barberini family chapel was built on the site where St. Sebastian's body was dragged from the Cloaca Maxima.
The painting represents St. Sebastian's martyrdom under the Roman Emperor Diocletian, usually dated in the year 288. Sebastian was a member of the Praetorian Guard, and fell victim to the emperor's persecution of Christians. Diocletian's was the largest persecution of Christians in the Roman period, and also the last before Constantine's adoption of Christianity. Sebastian fell victim to the persecution twice; the first time he was shot with arrows, but nursed back to health by St. Irene. After this, he criticized Diocletian to his face, condemning him for his treatment of Christians. For his efforts, he was beaten and thrown into the Roman sewer, the Cloaca Maxima. It should be noted that Domenichino was a painter and not a historian, as his painting combines elements of both events.
St. Sebastian was known as a plague saint, thought to have the power to ward off disease. According to legend, the erection of an altar in his name was enough to ward off a plague that ravaged Italy in the seventh century. As the Renaissance period was rife with plagues which often devastated whole communities, he was quite popular among Christians of that time. Specifically, in the 1620s, Rome lived in fear of a plague that was spreading throughout the Italian Peninsula. 10,000 people died in Florence alone, and veneration of St. Sebastian was sought in order to protect the Eternal City.