youtu.be/KcPcJ9ycEu4?t=2m22s Full Feature

 

Paving for the way for later occult classics like Rosemary’s Baby and The Wicker Man, Night of the Demon is a spooky tale of witchcraft in modern Britain. With Jacques Tourneur’s film opening the BFI’s Monster Weekend, curator Vic Pratt explains why it’s a masterpiece of fright.

Vic Pratt

Wednesday, 21 August 2013

Night of the Demon (1957)

Night of the Demon screens on 29 August as part of the BFI’s Monster Weekend at the British Museum.

Gothic: The Dark Heart of Film is a major four-month film season at BFI Southbank and across the UK from October 2013 to January 2014.

I’ve loved Night of the Demon (1957) since I first watched it on telly many moons ago with my Dad. I was just a kid at the time, and yes, it may have been past my bedtime, so the thrill of staying up late to see it might have meant I enjoyed it all the more. But ever since then, it’s been a firm favourite of mine.

Looking back at it with an adult eye, you can see that it’s a film that belongs on any decent foundation course in cinematic horror. Beautifully constructed and ingeniously fashioned by master film-craftsmen, it remains a haunting, chillingly plausible tale of witchcraft and the occult, and the conflict between rationality and superstition.

But back when I was a fresh-faced child, I didn’t care about that. I was far more interested in the creepy demon of the title. That writhing, nasty-faced, woodcut-like creature – his arrival heralded by strange squealing strains, unsettling jangling noises, smoky footprints, and bizarre star-spangled puffs of smoke – captured my youthful imagination.

I didn’t know it at the time, but the film was directed by a master of spooky, suspenseful, atmospheric cinema, the great Jacques Tourneur. I found out about him later on, as a teenager. Tourneur’s shadowy, moody films – which seemed to mix Gothic themes with film noir-ish imagery – had an immediate appeal.

 

French born, but later active in the USA, he shot a string of low-budget classics in the 1940s for Val Lewton’s B-picture unit at RKO. If that had been that, and he’d packed it in then, his reputation would already have been assured. The man who’d made Cat People (1942) and I Walked with a Zombie (1943) certainly had nothing to prove. But Tourneur was not a man to rest on his laurels. He carried on, moved into bigger budget productions, and, some years later, shot a Gothic chiller about modern-day witchcraft in England. It was called Night of the Demon. And it might even be the best of the bunch.

The film was adapted from M.R. James’s short story ‘Casting the Runes’ by Hitchcock collaborator Charles Bennett, and it grips from the very beginning. Dana Andrews, playing sceptical American psychologist Holden, scoffs when he’s passed a cursed piece of parchment in the British Museum reading room by genial occultist Dr Karswell (masterfully played by Niall MacGinnis). It means that he’s scheduled to die at the demon’s hand within four days. Holden doesn’t believe it. But – having spotted that monster in the first reel – we viewers know better than the sometimes irritatingly sure-of-himself scientist. And so Holden is dragged ever further into a web of devilry, while perceptive Joanna (the wonderful Peggy Cummins) races against time to convince him that it’s not all just flim-flam.

But you can see why Holden takes some convincing. While Karswell really is the possessor of strange powers, he acts like a show-off schoolboy conjuror spoiling the summer fete. A petulant, overgrown rich-kid know-all who lives with his mother, occasionally dabbling as a children’s entertainer, he’s a modern-day sorcerer who really doesn’t understand the seriousness of the dark forces at his command – and doesn’t much care either.

In one splendid scene, set at his grand country house, merely to demonstrate his powers to the resolutely sceptical Holden, Karswell conjures up a whirlwind out of nowhere, and smiles smugly as terrified children – whom he entertained, dressed as a clown, moments earlier – run screaming across the grounds of his stately pile. “A medieval witch’s speciality: a wind storm,” he gloats. He’s ruined their party.

Shot in broad daylight, this eerie, darkly humorous scene demonstrates that good Gothic doesn’t need to take place at night, or even in a creepy castle; and that Tourneur is a master of mood, whatever the setting. And something tells me our old friend Alfred Hitchcock watched it closely: it foreshadows a somewhat similar silly-sinister sequence in The Birds (1963) where a flap of feathered beasts suddenly dive bomb the children to spoil yet another tea-party on the lawn.

 

A disrupted children’s party was a million miles away from the censor-shocking, blood-spattered Hammer horrors that were poised to take the world by storm at the end of the 1950s; but this film, though perhaps harking back to an earlier era, was no less brilliant than those.

Despite the monster, Night of the Demon is a cerebral piece: it chills viewers intelligently, slowly, and fills them with an ominous sense of impending dread and looming, inevitable disaster, leavened with dark, dry dashes of humour and irony – tactics that, once again, bring to mind a certain Mr Hitchcock. And what’s more, it makes witchcraft creepily contemporary. Modern-day malevolence of this kind would be the centrepiece of numerous films still to come, such as Night of the Eagle (1962), Rosemary’s Baby (1968) and The Wicker Man (1973), to name but a few.

 

Night of the Demon has now been remastered by the BFI National Archive, and the full-length British version now stands ready to be unleashed on cinema screens once more. If you haven’t seen it before, you should. And while that old demon lurking in the shadows at the centre of it all has had some bad press over the years – many critics think we meet him too early, or even that we shouldn’t meet him at all – my childhood self would beg to differ. He had quite an effect on me in my formative years, and my adult self will hear nothing bad said about him. He belongs exactly where he is, forever swirling malevolently in the smoke, at the heart of Night of the Demon.

  

Curse of the Demon / Night of the Demon

Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment

1957/58 / B&W / 1:78 anamorphic 16:9 / 82, 95 min. / Street Date August 13, 2002 / $24.95

Starring Dana Andrews, Peggy Cummins, Niall MacGinnis, Maurice Denham, Athene Seyler

Cinematography Ted Scaife

Production Designer Ken Adam

Special Effects George Blackwell, S.D. Onions, Wally Veevers

Film Editor Michael Gordon

Original Music Clifton Parker

Written by Charles Bennett and Hal E. Chester from the story Casting the Runes by Montague R. James

Produced by Frank Bevis, Hal E. Chester

Directed by Jacques Tourneur

  

Reviewed by Glenn Erickson

 

Savant champions a lot of genre movies but only infrequently does one appear like Jacques Tourneur's superlative Curse of the Demon. It's simply better than the rest -- an intelligent horror film with some very good scares. It occupies a stylistic space that sums up what's best in ghost stories and can hold its own with most any supernatural film ever made. Oh, it's also a great entertainment that never fails to put audiences at the edge of their seats.

What's more, Columbia TriStar has shown uncommon respect for their genre output by including both versions of Curse of the Demon on one disc. Savant has full coverage on the versions and their restoration below, following his thorough and analytical (read: long-winded and anal) coverage of the film itself.

 

Synopsis:

  

Dr. John Holden (Dana Andrews), a scientist and professional debunker of superstitious charlatans, arrives in England to help Professor Henry Harrington (Maurice Denham) assault the phony cult surrounding Dr. Julian Karswell (Niall McGinnis). But Harrington has mysteriously died and Holden becomes involved with his niece Joanna (Peggy Cummins), who thinks Karswell had something to do with it. Karswell's 'tricks' confuse the skeptical Holden, but he stubbornly holds on to his conviction that he's " ... not a sucker, like 90% of the human race." That is, until the evidence mounts that Harrington was indeed killed by a demon summoned from Hell, and that Holden is the next intended victim!

  

The majority of horror films are fantasies in which we accept supernatural ghosts, demons and monsters as part of a deal we've made with the authors: they dress the fantasy in an attractive guise and arrange the variables into an interesting pattern, and we agree to play along for the sake of enjoyment. When it works the movies can resonate with personal meaning. Even though Dracula and Frankenstein are unreal, they are relevant because they're aligned with ideas and themes in our subconscious.

Horror films that seriously confront the no-man's land between rational reality and supernatural belief have a tough time of it. Everyone who believes in God knows that the tug o' war between rationality and faith in our culture has become so clogged with insane belief systems it's considered impolite to dismiss people who believe in flying saucers or the powers of crystals or little glass pyramids. One of Dana Andrews' key lines in Curse of the Demon, defending his dogged skepticism against those urging him to have an open mind, is his retort, "If the world is a dark place ruled by Devils and Demons, we all might as well give up right now." Curse of the Demon balances itself between skepticism and belief with polite English manners, letting us have our fun as it lays its trap. We watch Andrews roll his eyes and scoff at the feeble séance hucksters and the dire warnings of a foolish-looking necromancer. Meanwhile, a whole dark world of horror sneaks up on him. The film's intelligent is such that we're not offended by its advocacy of dark forces or even its literal, in-your-face demon.

The remarkable Curse of the Demon was made in England for Columbia but is gloriously unaffected by that company's zero-zero track record with horror films. Producer Hal E. Chester would seem an odd choice to make a horror classic after producing Joe Palooka films and acting as a criminal punk in dozens of teen crime movies. The obvious strong cards are writer Charles Bennett, the brains behind several classic English Hitchcock pictures (who 'retired' into meaningless bliss writing for schlockmeister Irwin Allen) and Jacques Tourneur, a master stylist who put Val Lewton on the map with Cat People and I Walked With a Zombie. Tourneur made interesting Westerns (Canyon Passage, Great Day in the Morning) and perhaps the most romantic film noir, Out of the Past. By the late '50s he was on what Andrew Sarris in his American Film called 'a commercial downgrade'. The critic lumped Curse of the Demon with low budget American turkeys like The Fearmakers. 1

Put Tourneur with an intelligent script, a decent cameraman and more than a minimal budget and great things could happen. We're used to watching Corman Poe films, English Hammer films and Italian Bavas and Fredas, all the while making excuses for the shortcomings that keep them in the genre ghetto (where they all do quite well, thank you). There's even a veiled resentment against upscale shockers like The Innocents that have resources (money, time, great actors) denied our favorite toilers in the genre realm. Curse of the Demon is above all those considerations. It has name actors past their prime and reasonable production values. Its own studio (at least in America) released it like a genre quickie, double-billed with dreck like The Night the World Exploded and The Giant Claw. They cut it by 13 minutes, changed its title (to ape The Curse of Frankenstein?) and released a poster featuring a huge, slavering demon monster that some believe was originally meant to be barely glimpsed in the film itself. 2

 

Horror movies can work on more than one level but Curse of the Demon handles several levels and then some. The narrative sets up John Holden as a professional skeptic who raises a smirking eyebrow to the open minds of his colleagues. Unlike most second-banana scientists in horror films, they express divergent points of view. Holden just sees himself as having common sense but his peers are impressed by the consistency of demonological beliefs through history. Maybe they all saw Christensen's Witchcraft through the Ages, which might have served as a primer for author Charles Bennett. Smart dialogue allows Holden to score points by scoffing at the then-current "regression to past lives" scam popularized by the Bridey Murphy craze. 3 While Holden stays firmly rooted to his position, coining smart phrases and sarcastic put-downs of believers, the other scientists are at least willing to consider alternate possibilities. Indian colleague K.T. Kumar (Peter Elliott) keeps his opinion to himself. But when asked, he politely states that he believes entirely in the world of demons! 4

Holden may think he has the truth by the tail but it takes Kindergarten teacher Joanna Harrington (Peggy Cummins of Gun Crazy fame) to show him that being a skeptic doesn't mean ignoring facts in front of one's face. Always ready for a drink (a detail added to tailor the part to Andrews?), Holden spends the first couple of reels as interested in pursuing Miss Harrington, as he is the devil-worshippers. The details and coincidences pile up with alarming speed -- the disappearing ink untraceable by the lab, the visual distortions that might be induced by hypnosis, the pages torn from his date book and the parchment of runic symbols. Holden believes them to be props in a conspiracy to draw him into a vortex of doubt and fear. Is he being set up the way a Voodoo master cons his victim, by being told he will die, with fabricated clues to make it all appear real? Holden even gets a bar of sinister music stuck in his head. It's the title theme -- is this a wicked joke on movie soundtracks?

 

Speak of the Devil...

 

This brings us to the wonderful character of Julian Karswell, the kiddie-clown turned multi-millionaire cult leader. The man who launched Alfred Hitchcock as a maker of sophisticated thrillers here creates one of the most interesting villains ever written, one surely as good as any of Hitchcock's. In the short American cut Karswell is a shrewd games-player who shows Holden too many of his cards and finally outsmarts himself. The longer UK cut retains the full depth of his character.

Karswell has tapped into the secrets of demonology to gain riches and power, yet he tragically recognizes that he is as vulnerable to the forces of Hell as are the cowering minions he controls through fear. Karswell's coven means business. It's an entirely different conception from the aesthetic salon coffee klatch of The Seventh Victim, where nothing really supernatural happens and the only menace comes from a secret society committing new crimes to hide old ones.

Karswell keeps his vast following living in fear, and supporting his extravagant lifestyle under the idea that Evil is Good, and Good Evil. At first the Hobart Farm seems to harbor religious Christian fundamentalists who have turned their backs on their son. Then we find out that they're Karswell followers, living blighted lives on cursed acreage and bled dry by their cultist "leader." Karswell's mum (Athene Seyler) is an inversion of the usual insane Hitchcock mother. She lovingly resists her son's philosophy and actively tries to help the heroes. That's in the Night version, of course. In the shorter American cut she only makes silly attempts to interest Joanna in her available son and arranges for a séance. Concerned by his "negativity", Mother confronts Julian on the stairs. He has no friends, no wife, no family. He may be a mass extortionist but he's still her baby. Karswell explains that by exploiting his occult knowledge, he's immersed himself forever in Evil. "You get nothing for nothing"

 

Karswell is like the Devil on Earth, a force with very limited powers that he can't always control. By definition he cannot trust any of his own minions. They're unreliable, weak and prone to double-cross each other, and they attract publicity that makes a secret society difficult to conceal. He can't just kill Holden, as he hasn't a single henchman on the payroll. He instead summons the demon, a magic trick he's only recently mastered. When Karswell turns Harrington away in the first scene we can sense his loneliness. The only person who can possibly understand is right before him, finally willing to admit his power and perhaps even tolerate him. Karswell has no choice but to surrender Harrington over to the un-recallable Demon. In his dealings with the cult-debunker Holden, Karswell defends his turf but is also attempting to justify himself to a peer, another man who might be a potential equal. It's more than a duel of egos between a James Bond and a Goldfinger, with arrogance and aggression masking a mutual respect; Karswell knows he's taken Lewton's "wrong turning in life," and will have to pay for it eventually.

Karswell eventually earns Holden's respect, especially after the fearful testimony of Rand Hobart. It's taken an extreme demonstration to do it, but Holden budges from his smug position. He may not buy all of the demonology hocus-pocus but it's plain enough that Karswell or his "demon" is going to somehow rub him out. Seeking to sneak the parchment back into Karswell's possession, Holden becomes a worthy hero because he's found the maturity to question his own preconceptions. Armed with his rational, cool head, he's a force that makes Karswell -- without his demon, of course -- a relative weakling. Curse of the Demon ends in a classic ghost story twist, with just desserts dished out and balance recovered. The good characters are less sure of their world than when they started, but they're still able to cope. Evil has been defeated not by love or faith, but by intellect.

 

Curse of the Demon has the Val Lewton sensibility as has often been cited in Tourneur's frequent (and very effective) use of the device called the Lewton "Bus" -- a wholly artificial jolt of fast motion and noise interrupting a tense scene. There's an ultimate "bus" at the end when a train blasts in and sets us up for the end title. It "erases" the embracing actors behind it and I've always thought it had to be an inspiration for the last shot of North by NorthWest. The ever-playful Hitchcock was reportedly a big viewer of fantastic films, from which he seems to have gotten many ideas. He's said to have dined with Lewton on more than one occasion (makes sense, they were at one time both Selznick contractees) and carried on a covert competition with William Castle, of all people.

Visually, Tourneur's film is marvelous, effortlessly conjuring menacing forests lit in the fantastic Mario Bava mode by Ted Scaife, who was not known as a genre stylist. There are more than a few perfunctory sets, with some unflattering mattes used for airport interiors, etc.. Elsewhere we see beautiful designs by Ken Adam in one of his earliest outings. Karswell's ornate floor and central staircase evoke an Escher print, especially when visible/invisible hands appear on the banister. A hypnotic, maze-like set for a hotel corridor is also tainted by Escher and evokes a sense of the uncanny even better than the horrid sounds Holden hears. The build-up of terror is so effective that one rather unconvincing episode (a fight with a Cat People - like transforming cat) does no harm. Other effects, such as the demon footprints appearing in the forest, work beautifully.

In his Encyclopedia of Horror Movies Phil Hardy very rightly relates Curse of the Demon's emphasis on the visual to the then just-beginning Euro-horror subgenre. The works of Bava, Margheriti and Freda would make the photographic texture of the screen the prime element of their films, sometimes above acting and story logic.

 

Columbia TriStar's DVD of Curse of the Demon / Night of the Demon presents both versions of this classic in one package. American viewers saw an effective but abbreviated cut-down. If you've seen Curse of the Demon on cable TV or rented a VHS or a laser anytime after 1987, you're not going to see anything different in the film. In 1987 Columbia happened to pull out the English cut when it went to re-master. When the title came up as Night of the Demon, they just slugged in the Curse main title card and let it go.

From such a happy accident (believe me, nobody in charge at Columbia at the time would have purposely given a film like this a second glance) came a restoration at least as wonderful as the earlier reversion of The Fearless Vampire Killers to its original form. Genre fans were taken by surprise and the Laserdisc became a hot item that often traded for hundreds of dollars. 6

 

Back in film school Savant had been convinced that ever seeing the long, original Night cut was a lost cause. An excellent article in the old Photon magazine in the early '70s 5, before such analytical work was common, accurately laid out the differences between the two versions, something Savant needs to do sometime with The Damned and These Are the Damned. The Photon article very accurately describes the cut scenes and what the film lost without them, and certainly inspired many of the ideas here.

Being able to see the two versions back-to-back shows exactly how they differ. Curse omits some scenes and rearranges others. Gone is some narration from the title sequence, most of the airplane ride, some dialogue on the ground with the newsmen and several scenes with Karswell talking to his mother. Most crucially missing are Karswell's mother showing Joanna the cabalistic book everyone talks so much about and Holden's entire visit to the Hobart farm to secure a release for his examination of Rand Hobart. Of course the cut film still works (we loved the cut Curse at UCLA screenings and there are people who actually think it's better) but it's nowhere near as involving as the complete UK version. Curse also reshuffles some events, moving Holden's phantom encounter in the hallway nearer the beginning, which may have been to get a spooky scene in the middle section or to better disguise the loss of whole scenes later. The chop-job should have been obvious. The newly imposed fades and dissolves look awkward. One cut very sloppily happens right in the middle of a previous dissolve.

Night places both Andrews and Cummins' credits above the title and gives McGinnis an "also starring" credit immediately afterwards. Oddly, Curse sticks Cummins afterwards and relegates McGinnis to the top of the "also with" cast list. Maybe with his role chopped down, some Columbia executive thought he didn't deserve the billing?

Technically, both versions look just fine, very sharp and free of digital funk that would spoil the film's spooky visual texture. Night of the Demon is the version to watch for both content and quality. It's not perfect but has better contrast and less dirt than the American version. Curse has more emulsion scratches and flecking white dandruff in its dark scenes, yet looks fine until one sees the improvement of Night. Both shows are widescreen enhanced (hosanna), framing the action at its original tighter aspect ratio.

It's terrific that Columbia TriStar has brought out this film so thoughtfully, even though some viewers are going to be confused when their "double feature" disc appears to be two copies of the same movie. Let 'em stew. This is Savant's favorite release so far this year.

 

On a scale of Excellent, Good, Fair, and Poor, Curse of the Demon / Night of the Demon rates:

Movie: Excellent

  

Footnotes:

Made very close to Curse of the Demon and starring Dana Andrews, The Fearmakers (great title) was a Savant must-see until he caught up with it in the UA collection at MGM. It's a pitiful no-budgeter that claims Madison Avenue was providing public relations for foreign subversives, and is negligible even in the lists of '50s anti-Commie films.

Return

 

Curse of the Demon's Demon has been the subject of debate ever since the heyday of Famous Monsters of Filmland. From what's on record it's clear that producer Chester added or maximized the shots of the creature, a literal visualization of a fiery, brimstone-smoking classical woodcut demon that some viewers think looks ridiculous. Bennett and Tourneur's original idea was to never show a demon but the producer changed that. Tourneur probably directed most of the shots, only to have Chester over-use them. To Savant's thinking, the demon looks great. It is first perceived as an ominous sound, a less strident version of the disturbing noise made by Them! Then it manifests itself visually as a strange disturbance in the sky (bubbles? sparks? early slit-scan?) followed by a billowing cloud of sulphurous smoke (a dandy effect not exploited again until Close Encounters of the Third Kind). The long-shot demon is sometimes called the bicycle demon because he's a rod puppet with legs that move on a wheel-rig. Smoke belches from all over his scaly body. Close-ups are provided by a wonderfully sculpted head 'n' shoulders demon with articulated eyes and lips, a full decade or so before Carlo Rambaldi started engineering such devices.

Most of the debate centers on how much Demon should have been shown with the general consensus that less would have been better. People who dote on Lewton-esque ambivalence say that the film's slow buildup of rationality-versus demonology is destroyed by the very real Demon's appearance in the first scene, and that's where they'd like it removed or radically reduced. The Demon is so nicely integrated into the cutting (the giant foot in the first scene is a real jolt) that it's likely that Tourneur himself filmed it all, perhaps expecting the shots to be shorter or more obscured. It is also possible that the giant head was a post-Tourneur addition - it doesn't tie in with the other shots as well (especially when it rolls forward rather stiffly) and is rather blunt. Detractors lump it in with the gawd-awful head of The Black Scorpion, which is filmed the same way and almost certainly was an afterthought - and also became a key poster image. This demon head matches the surrounding action a lot better than did the drooling Scorpion.

Savant wouldn't change Curse of the Demon but if you put a gun to my head I'd shorten most of the shots in its first appearance, perhaps eliminating all close-ups except for the final, superb shot of the the giant claw reaching for Harrington / us.

  

Kumar, played (I assume) by an Anglo actor, immediately evokes all those Indian and other Third World characters in Hammer films whose indigenous cultures invariably hold all manner of black magic and insidious horror. When Hammer films are repetitious it's because they take eighty minutes or so to convince the imagination-challenged English heroes to even consider the premise of the film as being real. In Curse of the Demon, Holden's smart-tongued dismissal of outside viewpoints seems much more pigheaded now than it did in 1957, when heroes confidently defended conformist values without being challenged. Kumar is a scientist but also probably a Hindu or a Sikh. He has no difficulty reconciling his faith with his scientific detachment. Holden is far too tactful to call Kumar a crazy third-world guru but that's probably what he's thinking. He instead politely ignores him. Good old Kumar then saves Holden's hide with some timely information. I hope Holden remembered to thank him.

There's an unstated conclusion in Curse of the Demon: Holden's rigid disbelief of the supernatural means he also does not believe in a Christian God with its fundamentally spiritual faith system of Good and Evil, saints and devils, angels and demons. Horror movies that deal directly with religious symbolism and "real faith" can be hypocritical in their exploitation and brutal in their cheap toying with what are for many people sacred personal concepts. I'm thinking of course of The Exorcist here. That movie has all the grace of a reporter who shows a serial killer's atrocity photos to a mother whose child has just been kidnapped. Curse of the Demon hasn't The Exorcist's ruthless commercial instincts but instead has the modesty not to pretend to be profound, or even "real." Yet it expresses our basic human conflict between rationality and faith very nicely.

 

Savant called Jim Wyrnoski, who was associated with Photon, in an effort to find out more about the article, namely who wrote it. It was very well done and I've never forgotten it; I unfortunately loaned my copy out to good old Jim Ursini and it disappeared. Obviously, a lot of the ideas here, I first read there. Perhaps a reader who knows better how to take care of their belongings can help me with the info? Ursini and Alain Silvers' More Things than are Dreamt Of Limelight, 1994, analyzes Curse of the Demon (and many other horror movies) in the context of its source story.

 

This is a true story: Cut to 2000. Columbia goes to re-master Curse of the Demon and finds that the fine-grain original of the English version is missing. The original long version of the movie may be lost forever. A few months later a collector appears who says he bought it from another unnamed collector and offers to trade it for a print copy of the American version, which he prefers. Luckily, an intermediary helps the collector follow up on his offer and the authorities are not contacted about what some would certainly call stolen property. The long version is now once again safe. Studios clearly need to defend their property but many collectors have "items" they personally have acquired legally. More often than you might think, such finds come about because studios throw away important elements. If the studios threaten prosecution, they will find that collectors will never approach them. They'd probably prefer to destroy irreplaceable film to avoid being criminalized.

 

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I think that some of my past abandonment issues along with other problems with opening up to people really stemmed from my parents and their toxic relationship. There was a messy divorce when I was 5 years old, they fought a lot even afterward and that definitely hurt more than it helped us kids. My dad eventually married again and had another family, and although my dad kept in contact through email (early 2000’s) and an occasional phone call our visits grew far and few between. I always wanted to be the light of my dads life, always getting good grades and trying to be the best well mannered kid that ate all of her vegetables and impressed all of the adults. I held out hope that my parents would get back together and I blamed my moms resentful demeanor towards him as the reason why I would never belong to a happy and whole family. In my adolescence though I grew more and more angry at how HE handled things and understood more why she had her outbursts and nights crying in her room. When I finally stood up to him about how he essentially disowned my little sister he cut off contact. I not only grew up thinking I wasn’t worthy of love after my father left but also had no idea of what love looked like. I’ve looked back on a lot of my adult relationships and realized I self sabotage when things start to get really real. I push people away to see if they really care about me.

 

7 years ago I started dating a guy who I was so overwhelmingly into, he was from a good family, he just got out of the Army, and we had a matching sense of humor. Great right?! But I was the one texting/calling him and trying to make plans, only recently did I realize that I was simply seeking his approval (just like I had with my father) and wondering why I wasn’t good enough to be thought of first. We started dating which I was over the moon about because OH MY GOD HE PICKED ME but soon after I noticed he had bouts of rage but I chocked it up to PTSD from Afghanistan. I stuck through it and I got pregnant after the holidays in 2015.

 

I got the news and told him the same day but he was less than thrilled and it actually looked like the blood drained from his face. Thats when the switch flipped. He told me he wanted me to get an abortion and that he didn’t want to have a kid with me or anyone. He was cold and heartless for the whole month before I went to the abortion clinic. The day of my appointment, I was sad. I remember my mom texted me that morning telling me she loved me and I wore my late grandmothers comfy sweater so I would feel like I had some support. My ride had to cancel because it snowed so HE had to drive me. He sat with me in the waiting room but I felt utterly alone, he was even joking with his friend via text saying that he was “at the clinic, where miracles go to die” and showed me it thinking I would laugh. I didn’t, I took the phone and threw it across the room. They have you speak with a psychiatrist before you go in and ask you questions like “are you being pressured into this?” Then I was asked “Why are you doing this?” To which I replied “Because I feel like I have nothing to offer a child” and the response that I got was one I’ll never forget and still brings tears to my eyes “you have yourself to offer”. But to me I wasn’t good enough, or so that’s what I had thought all my life. So, I went into the back room, and I got put under during the procedure. I woke up groggy and already sobbing uncontrollably. I was comforted by the nurses briefly and then carted into a room to “recover” for 30 minutes before I could leave. We drove home and even though it was late in the afternoon I went straight to bed and slept.

 

Two weeks later I found out I had been cheated on for almost my entire relationship. I found out I was pregnant again. I wasn’t sure what to do about my newly ended relationship but I knew I wasn’t going to give up my invitation to motherhood like before. I wasn’t going to let anyone sway my decision, even if that meant raising my child alone. For the whole first trimester of my pregnancy he told me he hoped I had a miscarriage, asked me “if it was still alive” and told me to have another abortion. I didn’t even live with him and he was relentless. I couldn’t sleep, I ate only because I knew I had to, and spent most of my days in my bedroom binging shows or going to the gym. I was depressed and I don’t use that term lightly. I couldn’t keep a job and felt like my world was imploding, I didn’t know what was next but I knew I had hope as long as my child was healthy and I could take care of him.

 

When we found out it was a boy it’s almost like the switch flipped on again and he was excited for his son to be born. I ended up moving back in with my sons father and for the next 4 years I was treated as a guest in his home and told that I was worthless and to kill myself. I tried to seek help and talk about it with his family but the blind eye kept being turned. I felt that because he was so narcissistic that no one bothered to speak up to him. His mother did, with the first pregnancy, and I’ll always be thankful for that. But the years of emotional and verbal abuse afterward took a huge chunk out of me as an individual. My mother spoke up when I told her that he said to kill myself for about the 8th time but that didn’t stop him from getting in my face from time to time and yelling at me to get the fuck out of his house and to leave our son there. He had a heavy drinking problem and one night pissed on the floor in the bathroom because he couldn’t stand straight, as I stood there in disbelief my son who was 3 years old at the time asked me “why is daddy doing that?” And I decided then that we needed to move out.

 

After a while I ended up getting my own place a few towns away and he had already been talking to a woman he met online. That was difficult for me only because she has a son almost the same age as mine and not only had I felt instantly replaced but my son was confused as well, and it didn’t make matters easier when he had them move in a few months later. I was out of control with my anger and resentment and started to see a pattern I had seen in my childhood. I would blow up over the phone, name call, and I tried to control the situation any way I knew how.

 

It wasn’t until mid March of 2020 that I decided I needed to seek real help. I went to my doctor because I had been crying so much and felt like every day was just a blur into the next. I knew that my son deserved better than to see me like that and immediately started therapy and Serotonin inhibitors. My healing process hasn’t been ideal or easy but I guess when you have a major life shift there’s a lot of soul work that needs to be done. I kept up with my therapist and my meds and did a ton of self care. The best advice I can give to anyone is do whatever is self care for you. Take a shower, shave your legs, paint your nails, play with your dog, visit or call friends or family you know love you, sit on the couch and read/write, paint, just do anything that makes you feel even the slightest bit alive because those are the things that kept me going on the hard days. It was really crucial for me that I had a support system, and even when I felt like I didn’t want to talk about something with a loved one I went straight to my therapist or wrote in my journal.

 

I really wanted to share my experiences to help another person who may have gone through something similar. I feel that sharing our downfalls and our failures brings people together more than pretending our lives are hunky-dory. But even if no one gets any insight or clarity from this, it has helped me IMMENSELY to write it down and let that shit go. I still have a long way to go in realizing what is healthy in a relationship, I recently I lost someone who I truly believed to be the love of my life because of my own toxic behavior. It’s all about coming back to yourself and not expecting anyone else to do the work for you. It’s an uphill climb coming out of a dark hole and remembering who YOU are and what YOU love and where YOU came from but as the pieces come back it’s the most beautiful and grounding thing. We’re learning (and unlearning!) as we go and everyone has their own set of traumas and difficulties, but make sure that you’re not building your wall so high that you’re keeping out the good people too. Love and light to anyone whose read this.

Posted in response to a comment by 'Life Stinks'... I promised a better shot of one of these Maidstone Borough Atlanteans.

Shortly after the acquisition of the Stonier's business by Mr & Mrs Berresford, of Berresford Motors, two of these barely 'run in' AN68 Leyland Atlanteans arrived from Maidstone Borough council where they had been ousted by a new free thinking General Manager. Still in their Bus Grant period, they might as well have been spaceships to the Stonier's crews used only to front engined 'deckers. Needless to say, they were an instant hit and did much to smooth the resentment of external influence. Time would go on to tell us that their promise was not fulfilled, as 153 and 154 were seldom concurrently operational, infact I would go so far as to say we got better service out of the ex Bradford PDR1/2s. Acceptable reliability was not really achieved from rear engined DDs until the arrival of the Fleetlines. It is fair to say though that maladies with their Northern Counties panoramic windowed bodywork did also cause some problems.

EKR 153L... the bus on which I took the first part of my PSV driving test, is seen parked on the 'spare ground' above Goldenhill Garage in 1980.

In 1989 I left apartheid South Africa and spent much of the next year travelling Europe. In October I found myself in the outback of Turkey, and the word on the street was that the Berlin Wall was about to fall. With it's fascinating history, cold war angst and strong David Bowie connection, Berlin had always been on my "must visit" list and I accelerated my plans to get there. Unfortunately the wall began crumbling on the evening of November 9, 1989 and continued over the following days and weeks. Nevertheless, I skipped through the Greek islands and caught the ferry from the port of Piraeus in Athens to Brindisi in Italy. I decided to bypass Naples and caught a fast train north to Rome. I think it was either on the ferry or on the train that I met fellow traveller, Serge Bowers from Pennsylvania in the USA. He and I made good companions and has a Chianti-fuelled blast through Rome, Florence, Pisa and Venice (but that's another story).

 

On November 25, Serge and I went our own ways - he headed for Amsterdam, while I spent a couple of days in Milan, visiting the magnificent Il Museo Storico dell’Alfa Romeo in Arese. I then skipped through Switzerland (Lausanne, Bern, Luzern and Lurich) beofre finally making it to Stuttgart in Germany, taking in the Mercedes-Benz Museum and the Porsche Museum. By this time (December 4) I was running low on cash and so resorted to hitch-hiking from Stuttgart to Mannheim, heading for Bonn where I was going to be staying with Prof. Dr. Marcella Rietschel (a Research Fellow at the Institute of Human Genetics, University of Bonn) who I had met in Istanbul in October. It was freezing cold and snowing out on the road, and by the time I reached Mannheim, I had had enough and headed to the Hauptbahnhof. After a cup of steaming coffee, I bought a ticket to Bonn, boarded the milk-train and continued the journey north. As fate would have it, I ended up in Zeppelinheim, close to Frankfurt, and that extraordinary interlude is detailed here.

 

Being on the bones of my financial arse, and with a severe cold snap making hitch-hiking a really bad idea, I now resorted to using the Mitfahrzentrale - an organised hitch-hiking (or "cap pooling") service where a driver can register how many spare seats they have in their car and where they are travelling from, to, and on what date. Potential passengers are provided with contact details and descriptions of the journey including any proposed stops along the way. As all travellers share costs, the savings can be extensive and it also serves as a good way to meet interesting people and to practice your German!

 

Our route to the east The so-called "inner German border" (a.k.a. "Zonengrenze") was the frontier between the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) and the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, West Germany) from 1949 to 1990. The border was a physical manifestation of Winston Churchill's metaphorical Iron Curtain that separated the Soviet and Western blocs during the Cold War. The border could be crossed legally only through a limited number of routes and foreigners were able to traverse East German territory to or from West Berlin via a limited number of road corridors, the most used of which was at Helmstedt-Marienborn on the Hanover–Berlin A2 autobahn. Codenamed Checkpoint Alpha, this was the first of three Allied checkpoints on the road to Berlin. The others were Checkpoint Bravo, where the autobahn crossed from East Germany into West Berlin, and most famous of all, Checkpoint Charlie, the only place where non-Germans could cross from West to East Berlin. Lengthy inspections caused long delays to traffic at the crossing points, and for some the whole experience was very disturbing: "Travelling from west to east through [the inner German border] was like entering a drab and disturbing dream, peopled by all the ogres of totalitarianism, a half-lit world of shabby resentments, where anything could be done to you, I used to feel, without anybody ever hearing of it, and your every step was dogged by watchful eyes and mechanisms." (Jan Morris) Personally, having spent almost three decades of my life under the oppression of the apartheid regime, it felt all too familiar.

 

So, after an uncomfortable 6-8 hour road trip, I was finally there - Berlin! One of my German friends from South Africa (P.A.) had been a regular visitor to Berlin during our high school and university years, before relocating to the city in the mid-80's. In those days it made a lot of sense - getting out of South Africa after studying meant escaping two years military service with the south African Defence Force and moving to Berlin meant avoiding conscription into the German military as well. That is, in order to encourage young people to move to West Berlin, they were lured in with exemptions from national service and good study benefits. It was December 8, 1989 and P.A. was unfortunately not in town. But a mutual friend was - L.M. had left Africa at about the same time as Pierre and was an aspirant artist in Berlin. He offered me a place to stay and we spent a brilliant week together, partying, clubbing and taking in all the delights that this city in change had to offer! I don't remember too much, but have some photos that I am sharing for the first time, a quarter of a century later, to the day.

 

45657-32-ew - the caption on the back of the photo reads:

"A strange busker at the Brandenburg Gate. Berlin, West Germany. Sunday, December 10, 1989."

 

Westminster Cathedral is the mother church of the Catholic Church in England and Wales. It is the largest Catholic church in the UK and the seat of the Archbishop of Westminster.

 

The site on which the cathedral stands in the City of Westminster was purchased by the Diocese of Westminster in 1885, and construction completed in 1903.

 

Designed by John Francis Bentley in neo-Byzantine style, and accordingly made almost entirely of brick, without steel reinforcements, Sir John Betjeman called it "a masterpiece in striped brick and stone" that shows "the good craftsman has no need of steel or concrete".

 

In the late 19th century, the Roman Catholic Church's hierarchy had only recently been restored in England and Wales, and it was in memory of Cardinal Wiseman (who died in 1865, and was the first Archbishop of Westminster from 1850) that the first substantial sum of money was raised for the new cathedral. The land was acquired in 1884 by Wiseman's successor, Cardinal Manning, having previously been occupied by the second Tothill Fields Bridewell prison.

 

After two false starts in 1867 (under architect Henry Clutton) and 1892 (architect Baron von Herstel), construction started in 1895 under Manning's successor, the third archbishop, Cardinal Vaughan, with John Francis Bentley as architect, and built in a style heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture.[6] The cost of the building was anticipated at £150,000 and its area 54,000ft, the cathedral to be 350ft long by 156ft wide by 90ft high.

 

The foundation stone blessing by Cardinal Vaughan took place on a Saturday morning, June 29, 1895, before a "distinguished" gathering. After the "recitation of the Litanies, Cardinal Logue celebrated Low Mass coram episcopo. A procession composed of Benedictines, Franciscans, Jesuits, Passionists, Dominicans, Redemptorists, and secular clergy made the circuit of the grounds. The choir, directed by the Rev. Charles Cox, rendered, among other pieces, Webbe's 'O Roma Felix' and 'O Salutaris'. At the luncheon which followed, the speakers included Cardinal Vaughan, Cardinal Logue, the Duke of Norfolk, Lord Acton, Henry Matthews MP, Lord Edmund Talbot, and Sir Donald Macfarlane."

 

The cathedral opened in 1903, a year after Bentley's death. One of the first public services in the cathedral was Cardinal Vaughan's requiem; the cardinal died on 19 June 1903. For reasons of economy, the decoration of the interior had hardly been started and still much remained to be completed. Under the laws of the Catholic Church at the time, no place of worship could be consecrated unless free from debt and having its fabric completed. The consecration ceremony took place on 28 June 1910, although the interior was never finished.

 

In 1895, the cathedral was dedicated to the Most Precious Blood of Our Lord Jesus Christ. This is indicated by the Latin dedication above the portal arch: Domine Jesus Rex et Redemptor per Sanguinem tuum salva nos (English translation: "Lord Jesus, King and Redeemer, heal us through your blood"). The additional patrons are St Mary, the mother of Jesus, St Joseph, his foster father, and St Peter, his vicar. The cathedral also has numerous secondary patrons: St Augustine and all British saints, St Patrick and all saints of Ireland.[11] The Feast of the Dedication of the Cathedral is celebrated each year on 1 July, which from 1849 until 1969 was the feast of the Most Precious Blood of Our Lord Jesus Christ.

 

In 1977, as part of her Silver Jubilee Celebrations, Queen Elizabeth II visited the cathedral to view a flower show.

 

On 28 May 1982, the first day of his six-day pastoral visit to the United Kingdom, Pope John Paul II celebrated Mass in the cathedral.

 

On St Andrew's Day (30 November) 1995, at the invitation of Basil Cardinal Hume, Queen Elizabeth again visited the cathedral but this time she attended Choral Vespers, the first participation of the Queen in a Roman Catholic church liturgy in Great Britain.

 

On 18 September 2010, on the third day of his four-day state visit to the United Kingdom, Pope Benedict XVI celebrated Mass in the cathedral.

 

In January 2011 the cathedral was the venue for the reception and later ordination of three former Anglican bishops into the newly formed Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of Walsingham.

 

In 2012, the cathedral was the host of two episodes of the BBC Four three-part documentary series named Catholics: the first episode looked at women who attend and/or work at the cathedral and their faith, and the third episode looked at the men training to become priests at Allen Hall seminary, and in the episode was a brief scene of their ordination at the cathedral.

 

Westminster Cathedral is the 50th largest church in the world in terms of interior area (5,017m²), seating up to 3,000 people. It is the 38th largest Catholic church globally in terms of interior area.

 

The whole building, in the neo-Byzantine style, covers a floor area of about 5,017 square metres (54,000 sq ft); the dominating factor of the scheme, apart from the campanile, being a spacious and uninterrupted nave, 18 metres (59 ft) wide and 70 metres (230 ft) long from the narthex to the sanctuary steps, covered with domical vaulting.

 

In planning the nave, a system of supports was adopted not unlike that to be seen in most Gothic cathedrals, where huge, yet narrow, buttresses are projected at intervals, and stiffened by transverse walls, arcading and vaulting. Unlike in a Gothic cathedral, at Westminster they are limited to the interior. The main piers and transverse arches that support the domes divide the nave into three bays, each about 395 square metres (4,250 sq ft). The domes rest on the arches at a height of 27 metres (89 ft) from the floor, the total internal height being 34 metres (112 ft).

 

In selecting the pendentive type of dome, of shallow concavity, for the main roofing, weight and pressure have been reduced to a minimum. The domes and pendentures are formed of concrete, and as extraneous roofs of timber were dispensed with, it was necessary to provide a thin independent outer shell of impervious stone. The concrete flat roofing around the domes is covered with asphalt. The sanctuary is essentially Byzantine in its system of construction. The extensions that open out on all sides make the corona of the dome seem independent of support.

 

The eastern termination of the cathedral suggests the Romanesque, or Lombardic style of Northern Italy. The crypt with openings into the sanctuary, thus closely following the Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio, Milan, the open colonnade under the eaves, the timber roof following the curve of the apex, are all familiar features. The large buttresses resist the pressure of a vault 14.5-metre (48 ft) in span. Although the cruciform plan is not very noticeable inside the building, it is emphasised outside by the boldly projecting transepts. These with their twin gables, slated roofs, and square turrets with pyramidal stone cappings suggest a Norman prototype in striking contrast to the rest of the design.

 

The main structural parts of the building are of brick and concrete, the latter material being used for the vaulting and domes of graduated thickness and complicated curve. Following Byzantine tradition, the interior was designed with a view to the application of marble and mosaic. Throughout the exterior, the lavish introduction of white stone bands in connection with the red brickwork (itself quite common in the immediate area) produces an impression quite foreign to the British eye. The bricks were hand-moulded and delivered by Faversham Brickfields at Faversham in Kent and Thomas Lawrence Brickworks in Bracknell. The main entrance façade owes its composition, in a measure, to accident rather than design. The most prominent feature of the façade is the deeply recessed arch over the central entrance, flanked by tribunes, and stairway turrets. The elevation on the north, with a length of nearly 91.5 metres (300 ft) contrasted with the vertical lines of the campanile and the transepts, is most impressive. It rests on a continuous and plain basement of granite, and only above the flat roofing of the chapels does the structure assume a varied outline.

 

Marble columns, with capitals of Byzantine type, support the galleries and other subsidiary parts of the building. The marble selected for the columns was, in some instances, obtained from formations quarried by the ancient Romans, chiefly in Greece.

 

High altar

The central feature of the decoration in the cathedral is the baldacchino over the high altar. This is one of the largest structures of its kind, the total width being 9.5 metres (31 ft), and the height 11.5 metres (38 ft). The upper part of white marble is richly inlaid with coloured marbles, lapis lazuli, pearl, and gold. Eight columns of yellow marble, from Verona, support the baldacchino over the high altar, and others, white and pink, from Norway, support the organ galleries.

 

Behind the baldacchino the crypt emerges above the floor of the sanctuary, and the podium thus formed is broken in the middle by the steps that lead up to the retro-choir. The curved wall of the crypt is lined with narrow slabs of green carystran marble. Opening out of this crypt is a smaller chamber, directly under the high altar. Here are laid the remains of the first two Archbishops of Westminster, Cardinal Wiseman and Cardinal Manning. The altar and relics of Saint Edmund of Canterbury occupy a recess on the south side of the chamber. The little chapel of Saint Thomas of Canterbury, entered from the north transept, is used as a chantry for Cardinal Vaughan. A large Byzantine style crucifix, suspended from the sanctuary arch, dominates the nave.

 

Chapels

The chapel of the Blessed Sacrament, on the north side of the sanctuary, and the Lady Chapel on the south, are entered from the transepts; they are 6.7 m (22 ft) wide, lofty, with open arcades, barrel vaulting, and apsidal ends. Over the altar of the Blessed Sacrament chapel a small baldacchino is suspended from the vault, and the chapel is enclosed with bronze grilles and gates through which people may enter. In the Lady Chapel the walls are clad in marble and the altar reredos is a mosaic of the Virgin and Child, surrounded by a white marble frame. The conches of the chapel contain predominantly blue mosaics of the Old Testament prophets Daniel, Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Unlike the Blessed Sacrament chapel, the chapel dedicated to the Blessed Mother is completely open. The building of the Lady Chapel was funded by Baroness Weld in memory of her second husband.

 

Those chapels which may be entered from the aisles of the nave are also 6.7 metres (22 ft) wide, and roofed with simple barrel vaulting. The chapel of Saints Gregory and Augustine, next to the baptistery, from which it is separated by an open screen of marble, was the first to have its decoration completed. The marble lining of the piers rises to the springing level of the vaulting and this level has determined the height of the altar reredos, and of the screen opposite. On the side wall, under the windows, the marble dado rises to but little more than half this height. From the cornices the mosaic decoration begins on the walls and vault. This general arrangement applies to all the chapels yet each has its own distinct artistic character. Thus, in sharp contrast to the chapel dedicated to St. Gregory and St. Augustine which contains vibrant mosaics, the chapel of the Holy Souls employs a more subdued, almost funereal style, decoration with late Victorian on a background of silver.

 

As in many Catholic churches, there are the Stations of the Cross to be found along the outer aisles. The ones at Westminster Cathedral are by the sculptor Eric Gill, and are considered to be amongst the finest examples of his work.

 

Mosaics

When the cathedral's architect John Bentley died, there were no completed mosaics in the cathedral and Bentley left behind precious little in terms of sketches and designs. Consequently, the subject and styles of the mosaics were influenced by donors as well as designers, overseen by a cathedral committee established for this purpose. Indeed, Bentley's influence is, in reality, only seen in the chapel dedicated to the Holy Souls. Due to the prevailing absence of any real designs by Bentley, there was no real agreement as to how the mosaics should look, and in one instance, works already installed (in the Sacred Heart shrine) were removed after the death of the artist, George Bridge.

 

Mosaics installed during the period 1912–1916 were mostly done by devotees of the Arts and Crafts Movement. Those in the Lady Chapel were installed by the experienced mosaicist Gertrude Martin (who had worked with George Bridge), in 1912–1913. The work was supervised by Anning Bell and Marshall, who later designed the mosaic of Christ enthroned which is above the entrance to the cathedral. The Tympanum of the portal shows in a Byzantine mosaic technique from left to right the kneeling St Peter with the Keys of Heaven, the Virgin Mary, Jesus Christ as Pantocrator on the throne, St Joseph, the Nursing Father of Jesus with a lily in his right hand, and in a kneeling position the canonized English King Edward the Confessor in royal regalia. As Jesus Christ blesses the viewer with his right hand, he holds in his left hand the Book of Life. The Latin inscription of the opened book pages reads: Ego sum ostium per me si quis introierit salvabitur (I am the gate; whoever enters through me will be saved; Gospel of John 10,9).

 

The mosaics in the chapel dedicated to Saint Andrew, paid for by The 4th Marquess of Bute, also belong to work of the Arts and Craft Movement.

 

The five-year period 1930 to 1935 saw a tremendous amount of work done, with mosaics placed in the Lady Chapel, in the alcoves above the confessionals, in the crypt dedicated to Saint Peter, and on the sanctuary arch.

 

No new mosaics were installed until 1950 when one depicting St Thérèse of Lisieux (later replaced by a bronze) was placed in the south transept and another, in 1952, in memory of those in the Royal Army Medical Corps who died in World War II, in the chapel of Saint George. From 1960 to 1962, the Blessed Sacrament Chapel was decorated in a traditional, early Christian style, with the mosaics being predominantly pale pink in order to afford a sense of light and space. The designer, Boris Anrep, chose various Eucharistic themes such as the sacrifice of Abel, the hospitality of Abraham and the gathering of the manna in the wilderness, as well as the Feeding the multitude and the Wedding Feast at Cana. In his old age, Anrep also acted as adviser and principal sketch artist for the mosaics installed in the chapel of Saint Paul (1964–1965). These mosaics depict various moments in the life of Paul; his occupation as a tent-maker, his conversion to Christ, the shipwreck on Malta and his eventual execution in Rome.

 

It was not until the visit of Pope John Paul II in 1982 that the next mosaic was installed above the north-west entrance. Rather than a scene, this mosaic is an inscription: Porta sis ostium pacificum par eum qui se ostium appellavit, Jesus Christum (May this door be the gate of peace through Him who called Himself the gate, Jesus Christ). In 1999, the mosaic of Saint Patrick, holding a shamrock and a pastoral staff as well as trampling on a snake, was installed at the entrance to the chapel in his honour. In 2001, a striking mosaic of Saint Alban, strongly influenced by the style of early Byzantine iconography, was installed by the designer, Christopher Hobbs. Due to the very favourable reception of the work, Hobbs was commissioned for further mosaics: the chapel to Saint Joseph which contains mosaics of the Holy Family (2003) and men working on Westminster Cathedral (2006). Hobbs also did the chapel in honour of Saint Thomas Becket illustrating the saint standing in front of the old Canterbury Cathedral on the chapel's east wall and the murder of Thomas on the west wall. The vault is decorated with a design of flowers, tendrils and roundels (2006). As of 2011, there were plans for further mosaics, including depictions of Saint Francis of Assisi and Saint Anthony in the narthex.

 

Music

Despite its relatively short history compared to other English cathedrals, Westminster has a distinguished choral tradition. It has its origin in the shared vision of Cardinal Vaughan, the cathedral's founder, and Sir Richard Runciman Terry, its inaugural Master of Music. Terry prepared his choristers for a year before their first sung service in public. For the remainder of his tenure (until 1924) he pursued a celebrated revival of great quantities of Latin repertoire from the English Renaissance, most of which had lain unsung ever since the Reformation. Students at the Royal College of Music who would become household names were introduced to their heritage when Charles Villiers Stanford sent them to the cathedral to hear "polyphony for a penny" (the bus fare). This programme also required honing the boys' sight-reading ability to a then-unprecedented standard.

 

The choir has commissioned many works from distinguished composers, many of whom are better known for their contribution to Anglican music, such as Benjamin Britten and Ralph Vaughan Williams. However, the choir is particularly renowned for its performance of Gregorian chant and polyphony of the Renaissance.

 

Unlike most other English cathedrals, Westminster does not have a separate quire; instead, the choir are hidden from view in the apse behind the high altar. This, with the excellent acoustic of the cathedral building, contributes to its distinctive sound.

 

Located in the west gallery, the Grand Organ of four manuals and 81 stops occupies a more commanding position than many British cathedral organs enjoy. Built by Henry Willis III from 1922 to 1932, it remains one of the most successful and admired. One of Louis Vierne's best-known organ pieces, "Carillon de Westminster", the final movement from Suite no. 3 (op. 54) of Pièces de Fantaisie, was originally improvised on it in 1924, and the subsequent 1927 published version is dedicated to Willis.

 

The apse organ of fifteen stops was built in 1910 by Lewis & Co. Although the Grand Organ has its own attached console, a console in the apse can play both instruments.

 

On 3 May 1902, some 3,000 people attended a concert of sacred music in the cathedral, organised to raise money for the Choir School and to test the acoustics in the building. The music was provided by an orchestra of a hundred and a choir of two hundred, including the Cathedral Choir, directed by Richard Terry. The programme included music by Wagner, Purcell, Beethoven, Palestrina, Byrd and Tallis. The acoustics proved to be excellent. One year later, on 6 June 1903, the first performance in London of The Dream of Gerontius, a poem by Cardinal John Henry Newman, set to music by Edward Elgar, took place in the cathedral. The composer himself conducted, with Richard Terry at the organ. Once again, the proceeds went to support the Cathedral Choir School.

 

John Tavener's The Beautiful Names, a setting of the 99 names of Allah found in the Qur'an, premièred in the cathedral on 19 June 2007, in a performance by the BBC Symphony Orchestra and Chorus in the presence of Charles, Prince of Wales.

 

Choir

The founder of Westminster Cathedral, Cardinal Herbert Vaughan laid great emphasis on the beauty and integrity of the cathedral's liturgy. Initially, he determined there should be a community of Benedictine monks at the new cathedral, performing the liturgies and singing the daily Office. This caused great resentment amongst the secular clergy of the diocese, who felt they were being snubbed. In the end, negotiations with both the English Benedictines and the community of French Benedictines at Farnborough failed and a 'traditional' choir of men and boys was set up instead. Despite great financial problems, the Choir School opened on 5 October 1901 with eleven boy choristers, in the building originally intended for the monks. Cardinal Vaughan received the boys with the words "You are the foundation stones". The Cathedral Choir was officially instituted three months later in January 1902. Sung Masses and Offices were immediately established when the cathedral opened for worship in 1903, and have continued without interruption ever since.

 

In September 2020, Cardinal Vincent Nichols responded to a strategic review of sacred music at Westminster Cathedral, asking that "all those who profess to be fervent supporters of this precious inheritance of sacred music to become regular contributors to its financial support. It is, unquestionably, time to look ahead in order to ensure that this tradition of sacred music in Westminster Cathedral...can be put onto a firm footing for years to come."

 

When the question of a musical director was first considered, the choice fell on the singer Sir Charles Santley, who had conducted the choir of the pro-cathedral in Kensington on several occasions. But Santley knew his limitations and refused. Richard Runciman Terry—Director of Music at Downside Abbey School—then became the first director of music of Westminster Cathedral. It proved to be an inspired choice. Terry was both a brilliant choir trainer and a pioneering scholar, one of the first musicologists to revive the great works of the English and other European Renaissance composers. Terry built Westminster Cathedral Choir's reputation on performances of music—by Byrd, Tallis, Taverner, Palestrina and Victoria, among others—that had not been heard since the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and Mass at the cathedral was soon attended by inquisitive musicians as well as the faithful. The performance of great Renaissance Masses and motets in their proper liturgical context remains the cornerstone of the choir's activity.

 

Terry resigned in 1924, and was succeeded by Canon Lancelot Long who had been one of the original eleven choristers in 1901.

 

At the beginning of the Second World War, the boys were at first evacuated to Uckfield in East Sussex, but eventually the choir school was closed altogether for the remainder of the war. The music at the cathedral was performed by a reduced body of professional men singers. During this period, from 1941 to 1947, the Master of Music was William Hyde, who had been the sub-organist under Richard Terry.

 

Hyde was succeeded by George Malcolm, who developed the continental sound of the choir and consolidated its musical reputation—in particular through the now legendary recording of Victoria's Tenebrae responsories. More recent holders of the post have included Francis Cameron, Colin Mawby, Stephen Cleobury, David Hill, James O'Donnell and Martin Baker. In May 2021, Simon Johnson was appointed as the Master of Music.

 

In addition to its performances of Renaissance masterpieces, Westminster Cathedral Choir has given many first performances of music written especially for it by contemporary composers. Terry gave the premières of music by Vaughan Williams (whose Mass in G minor received its liturgical performance at a Mass in the cathedral), Gustav Holst, Herbert Howells and Charles Wood; in 1959 Benjamin Britten wrote his Missa brevis for the choristers; and since 1960 works by Lennox Berkeley, William Mathias, Colin Mawby and Francis Grier have been added to the repertoire. Most recently four new Masses—by Roxanna Panufnik, James MacMillan, Sir Peter Maxwell Davies and Judith Bingham—have received their first performance in the cathedral. In June 2005 the choristers performed the world première of Sir John Tavener's Missa Brevis for boys' voices.

 

Westminster Cathedral Choir made its first recording in 1907. Many more have followed in the Westminster Cathedral Choir discography, most recently the series on the Hyperion label, and many awards have been conferred on the choir's recordings. Of these the most prestigious are the 1998 Gramophone Awards for both Best Choral Recording of the Year and Record of the Year, for the performance of Martin's Mass for Double Choir and Pizzetti's Requiem, conducted by O'Donnell. It is the only cathedral choir to have won in either of these categories.

 

When its duties at the cathedral permit, the choir also gives concert performances both at home and abroad. It has appeared at many important festivals, including Aldeburgh, Cheltenham, Salzburg, Copenhagen, Bremen and Spitalfields. It has appeared in many of the major concert halls of Britain, including the Royal Festival Hall, the Wigmore Hall and the Royal Albert Hall. The cathedral choir also broadcasts frequently on radio and television.

 

Westminster Cathedral Choir has undertaken a number of international tours, including visits to Hungary, Germany and the US. The choristers participated in the 2003 and 2006 International Gregorian chant Festival in Watou, Belgium, and the full choir performed twice at the Oslo International Church Music Festival in March 2006. In April 2005, 2007 and 2008 they performed as part of the "Due Organi in Concerto" festival in Milan. In October 2011, they sang the inaugural concert of the Institute for Sacred Music at Saint John's in Minnesota.

 

The cathedral is frequently referred to as the 'Drome'. This dates from the early 20th century days when the Lay Clerks were represented by Equity—the trade union for actors and variety artists. In the profession, it was jokingly referred to as 'The Westminster Hippodrome'—a nickname which was later shortened to the 'Drome'.

 

Oremus magazine

Westminster Cathedral has published a monthly magazine since 1896, before the building work was completed. The latest in a series of titles is Oremus, which first appeared in 1996. (The Latin word oremus translates into English as "Let us pray".) Oremus is a 32-page colour magazine, which contains features and articles by well-known members of the Catholic community, as well as non-Catholic commentators and leading figures within British society. It is the successor of titles such as the Westminster Cathedral Record, selling at 6d per copy from January 1896, the Westminster Cathedral Chronicle, a monthly, available from January 1907 at 2d a copy or 3/- a year, post paid, and the Westminster Cathedral Bulletin, first published in 1974. Dylan Parry, who edited the magazine between 2012 and August 2016, took the decision to make Oremus a free publication in 2013. The magazine is also available to download via Westminster Cathedral's website.

 

Burials

In order of years of office:

 

Richard Challoner (1691–1781) Vicar Apostolic of the London District (Re-interred in the cathedral 1946)

Nicholas Wiseman (28 September 1850 – 15 February 1865) First Archbishop of Westminster upon the re-establishment of the Catholic hierarchy in England and Wales in 1850. (Re-interred in the cathedral 1907)

Henry Edward Manning (16 May 1865 – 14 January 1892) Archbishop of Westminster. (Re-interred in the cathedral 1907)

Herbert Vaughan (8 April 1832 – 19 June 1903) Archbishop of Westminster. (Re-interred in the cathedral 2005)

Arthur Hinsley (1 April 1935 – 17 March 1943) Archbishop of Westminster

Bernard Griffin (18 December 1943 – 19 August 1956) Archbishop of Westminster

William Godfrey (3 December 1956 – 22 January 1963) Archbishop of Westminster

John Heenan (22 February 1965 – 7 November 1975) Archbishop of Westminster

Basil Hume (9 February 1976 – 17 June 1999) Archbishop of Westminster

Cormac Murphy-O'Connor (15 February 2000 – 3 April 2009) (Died on 1 September 2017) Archbishop of Westminster and first emeritus Archbishop, since the other holders died in office

Also buried in the crypt is Alexander count Benckendorff, the Russian ambassador to the Court of St James's from 1903 until his death in 1917.

 

In popular culture

 

Westminster Cathedral by Brian Whelan

In Monsignor Robert Hugh Benson's apocalyptic science fiction novel Lord of the World, Westminster Cathedral is the only church in London still used for religious purposes. The others have all been confiscated by the state.

The Campanile Bell Tower of Westminster Cathedral was featured prominently in the Alfred Hitchcock film Foreign Correspondent, at which the attempted murder of a journalist played by Joel McCrea took place.

In Shekhar Kapur's Elizabeth: The Golden Age scenes taking place at El Escorial were shot in Westminster Cathedral.

The cathedral has been painted by London-born Irish artist Brian Whelan.

In 1989 I left apartheid South Africa and spent much of the next year travelling Europe. In October I found myself in the outback of Turkey, and the word on the street was that the Berlin Wall was about to fall. With it's fascinating history, cold war angst and strong David Bowie connection, Berlin had always been on my "must visit" list and I accelerated my plans to get there. Unfortunately the wall began crumbling on the evening of November 9, 1989 and continued over the following days and weeks. Nevertheless, I skipped through the Greek islands and caught the ferry from the port of Piraeus in Athens to Brindisi in Italy. I decided to bypass Naples and caught a fast train north to Rome. I think it was either on the ferry or on the train that I met fellow traveller, Serge Bowers from Pennsylvania in the USA. He and I made good companions and has a Chianti-fuelled blast through Rome, Florence, Pisa and Venice (but that's another story).

 

On November 25, Serge and I went our own ways - he headed for Amsterdam, while I spent a couple of days in Milan, visiting the magnificent Il Museo Storico dell’Alfa Romeo in Arese. I then skipped through Switzerland (Lausanne, Bern, Luzern and Lurich) beofre finally making it to Stuttgart in Germany, taking in the Mercedes-Benz Museum and the Porsche Museum. By this time (December 4) I was running low on cash and so resorted to hitch-hiking from Stuttgart to Mannheim, heading for Bonn where I was going to be staying with Prof. Dr. Marcella Rietschel (a Research Fellow at the Institute of Human Genetics, University of Bonn) who I had met in Istanbul in October. It was freezing cold and snowing out on the road, and by the time I reached Mannheim, I had had enough and headed to the Hauptbahnhof. After a cup of steaming coffee, I bought a ticket to Bonn, boarded the milk-train and continued the journey north. As fate would have it, I ended up in Zeppelinheim, close to Frankfurt, and that extraordinary interlude is detailed here.

 

Being on the bones of my financial arse, and with a severe cold snap making hitch-hiking a really bad idea, I now resorted to using the Mitfahrzentrale - an organised hitch-hiking (or "cap pooling") service where a driver can register how many spare seats they have in their car and where they are travelling from, to, and on what date. Potential passengers are provided with contact details and descriptions of the journey including any proposed stops along the way. As all travellers share costs, the savings can be extensive and it also serves as a good way to meet interesting people and to practice your German!

 

Our route to the east The so-called "inner German border" (a.k.a. "Zonengrenze") was the frontier between the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) and the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, West Germany) from 1949 to 1990. The border was a physical manifestation of Winston Churchill's metaphorical Iron Curtain that separated the Soviet and Western blocs during the Cold War. The border could be crossed legally only through a limited number of routes and foreigners were able to traverse East German territory to or from West Berlin via a limited number of road corridors, the most used of which was at Helmstedt-Marienborn on the Hanover–Berlin A2 autobahn. Codenamed Checkpoint Alpha, this was the first of three Allied checkpoints on the road to Berlin. The others were Checkpoint Bravo, where the autobahn crossed from East Germany into West Berlin, and most famous of all, Checkpoint Charlie, the only place where non-Germans could cross from West to East Berlin. Lengthy inspections caused long delays to traffic at the crossing points, and for some the whole experience was very disturbing: "Travelling from west to east through [the inner German border] was like entering a drab and disturbing dream, peopled by all the ogres of totalitarianism, a half-lit world of shabby resentments, where anything could be done to you, I used to feel, without anybody ever hearing of it, and your every step was dogged by watchful eyes and mechanisms." (Jan Morris) Personally, having spent almost three decades of my life under the oppression of the apartheid regime, it felt all too familiar.

 

So, after an uncomfortable 6-8 hour road trip, I was finally there - Berlin! One of my German friends from South Africa (P.A.) had been a regular visitor to Berlin during our high school and university years, before relocating to the city in the mid-80's. In those days it made a lot of sense - getting out of South Africa after studying meant escaping two years military service with the south African Defence Force and moving to Berlin meant avoiding conscription into the German military as well. That is, in order to encourage young people to move to West Berlin, they were lured in with exemptions from national service and good study benefits. It was December 8, 1989 and P.A. was unfortunately not in town. But a mutual friend was - L.M. had left Africa at about the same time as Pierre and was an aspirant artist in Berlin. He offered me a place to stay and we spent a brilliant week together, partying, clubbing and taking in all the delights that this city in change had to offer! I don't remember too much, but have some photos that I am sharing for the first time, a quarter of a century later, to the day.

 

45654-32-ew - the caption on the back of the photo reads:

"Looking over "The Wall" into Communist East Germany. The Brandenburger Tor viewed from an observation platform in West Berlin, West Germany. Saturday, December 9, 1989. Exactly one month after the East Germans opened up the first "hole" in the wall at Leipziger Strasse."

 

I think that some of my past abandonment issues along with other problems with opening up to people really stemmed from my parents and their toxic relationship. There was a messy divorce when I was 5 years old, they fought a lot even afterward and that definitely hurt more than it helped us kids. My dad eventually married again and had another family, and although my dad kept in contact through email (early 2000’s) and an occasional phone call our visits grew far and few between. I always wanted to be the light of my dads life, always getting good grades and trying to be the best well mannered kid that ate all of her vegetables and impressed all of the adults. I held out hope that my parents would get back together and I blamed my moms resentful demeanor towards him as the reason why I would never belong to a happy and whole family. In my adolescence though I grew more and more angry at how HE handled things and understood more why she had her outbursts and nights crying in her room. When I finally stood up to him about how he essentially disowned my little sister he cut off contact. I not only grew up thinking I wasn’t worthy of love after my father left but also had no idea of what love looked like. I’ve looked back on a lot of my adult relationships and realized I self sabotage when things start to get really real. I push people away to see if they really care about me.

 

7 years ago I started dating a guy who I was so overwhelmingly into, he was from a good family, he just got out of the Army, and we had a matching sense of humor. Great right?! But I was the one texting/calling him and trying to make plans, only recently did I realize that I was simply seeking his approval (just like I had with my father) and wondering why I wasn’t good enough to be thought of first. We started dating which I was over the moon about because OH MY GOD HE PICKED ME but soon after I noticed he had bouts of rage but I chocked it up to PTSD from Afghanistan. I stuck through it and I got pregnant after the holidays in 2015.

 

I got the news and told him the same day but he was less than thrilled and it actually looked like the blood drained from his face. Thats when the switch flipped. He told me he wanted me to get an abortion and that he didn’t want to have a kid with me or anyone. He was cold and heartless for the whole month before I went to the abortion clinic. The day of my appointment, I was sad. I remember my mom texted me that morning telling me she loved me and I wore my late grandmothers comfy sweater so I would feel like I had some support. My ride had to cancel because it snowed so HE had to drive me. He sat with me in the waiting room but I felt utterly alone, he was even joking with his friend via text saying that he was “at the clinic, where miracles go to die” and showed me it thinking I would laugh. I didn’t, I took the phone and threw it across the room. They have you speak with a psychiatrist before you go in and ask you questions like “are you being pressured into this?” Then I was asked “Why are you doing this?” To which I replied “Because I feel like I have nothing to offer a child” and the response that I got was one I’ll never forget and still brings tears to my eyes “you have yourself to offer”. But to me I wasn’t good enough, or so that’s what I had thought all my life. So, I went into the back room, and I got put under during the procedure. I woke up groggy and already sobbing uncontrollably. I was comforted by the nurses briefly and then carted into a room to “recover” for 30 minutes before I could leave. We drove home and even though it was late in the afternoon I went straight to bed and slept.

 

Two weeks later I found out I had been cheated on for almost my entire relationship. I found out I was pregnant again. I wasn’t sure what to do about my newly ended relationship but I knew I wasn’t going to give up my invitation to motherhood like before. I wasn’t going to let anyone sway my decision, even if that meant raising my child alone. For the whole first trimester of my pregnancy he told me he hoped I had a miscarriage, asked me “if it was still alive” and told me to have another abortion. I didn’t even live with him and he was relentless. I couldn’t sleep, I ate only because I knew I had to, and spent most of my days in my bedroom binging shows or going to the gym. I was depressed and I don’t use that term lightly. I couldn’t keep a job and felt like my world was imploding, I didn’t know what was next but I knew I had hope as long as my child was healthy and I could take care of him.

 

When we found out it was a boy it’s almost like the switch flipped on again and he was excited for his son to be born. I ended up moving back in with my sons father and for the next 4 years I was treated as a guest in his home and told that I was worthless and to kill myself. I tried to seek help and talk about it with his family but the blind eye kept being turned. I felt that because he was so narcissistic that no one bothered to speak up to him. His mother did, with the first pregnancy, and I’ll always be thankful for that. But the years of emotional and verbal abuse afterward took a huge chunk out of me as an individual. My mother spoke up when I told her that he said to kill myself for about the 8th time but that didn’t stop him from getting in my face from time to time and yelling at me to get the fuck out of his house and to leave our son there. He had a heavy drinking problem and one night pissed on the floor in the bathroom because he couldn’t stand straight, as I stood there in disbelief my son who was 3 years old at the time asked me “why is daddy doing that?” And I decided then that we needed to move out.

 

After a while I ended up getting my own place a few towns away and he had already been talking to a woman he met online. That was difficult for me only because she has a son almost the same age as mine and not only had I felt instantly replaced but my son was confused as well, and it didn’t make matters easier when he had them move in a few months later. I was out of control with my anger and resentment and started to see a pattern I had seen in my childhood. I would blow up over the phone, name call, and I tried to control the situation any way I knew how.

 

It wasn’t until mid March of 2020 that I decided I needed to seek real help. I went to my doctor because I had been crying so much and felt like every day was just a blur into the next. I knew that my son deserved better than to see me like that and immediately started therapy and Serotonin inhibitors. My healing process hasn’t been ideal or easy but I guess when you have a major life shift there’s a lot of soul work that needs to be done. I kept up with my therapist and my meds and did a ton of self care. The best advice I can give to anyone is do whatever is self care for you. Take a shower, shave your legs, paint your nails, play with your dog, visit or call friends or family you know love you, sit on the couch and read/write, paint, just do anything that makes you feel even the slightest bit alive because those are the things that kept me going on the hard days. It was really crucial for me that I had a support system, and even when I felt like I didn’t want to talk about something with a loved one I went straight to my therapist or wrote in my journal.

 

I really wanted to share my experiences to help another person who may have gone through something similar. I feel that sharing our downfalls and our failures brings people together more than pretending our lives are hunky-dory. But even if no one gets any insight or clarity from this, it has helped me IMMENSELY to write it down and let that shit go. I still have a long way to go in realizing what is healthy in a relationship, I recently I lost someone who I truly believed to be the love of my life because of my own toxic behavior. It’s all about coming back to yourself and not expecting anyone else to do the work for you. It’s an uphill climb coming out of a dark hole and remembering who YOU are and what YOU love and where YOU came from but as the pieces come back it’s the most beautiful and grounding thing. We’re learning (and unlearning!) as we go and everyone has their own set of traumas and difficulties, but make sure that you’re not building your wall so high that you’re keeping out the good people too. Love and light to anyone whose read this.

The Liberation Monument ("Russian monument")

(Further pictures you can see by clicking on the link at the end of page!)

Officially, one can find various names: (Russian) Liberation Monument, Russian War Memorial and Monument of the Red Army. The Viennese call the towering monument at the southern end of the Black Mountain Square (Schwarzenbergplatz) usually disparaging "Russian monument (Russendenkmal)".

The monument commemorating the 18,000 in the liberation of Vienna fallen soldiers of the Red Army was designed by Major Intazarin, the sculptures were created by Lieutenant Jakoviev. The overall direction of the yet in April 1945 ordered and as first monument building after the war completed structure had major Ing. Mikhail Scheinfeld. In the construction were temporarily 400 workers involved, 18 tons of bronze and 300 cubic meters of marble were used. The monument was on 19 August 1945 with the assistance of Karl Renner, Leopold Figl and Theodor Körner unveiled on then so designated Stalin Square.

On a in total 20 m high, marble-clad base, the lower part in the form of a five-pointed red star, decorated with flags and guard badges, stands the 12 m tall figure of a Red Army soldier. The soldier is wearing a gold helmet and the famous Russian submachine gun with rotary magazine. With his left hand he has the flag with the right hand he holds a round shield with the Soviet coat of arms. In the background arises a broad, eight meter high balustrade, at its end respectively one group of two fighting men is situated, a prime example of the style of socialist realism, which gradually has become an art-historical rarity.

One of the inscriptions in Russian only in the early 80s have been translated into German and is:

"Eternal glory to the heroes of the Red Army, killed in action against the German-fascist invaders for the freedom and independence of the peoples of Europe (Mikhalkov)".

Until 1956, there were also graves of Soviet soldiers in the area, and a Soviet tank stood before the monument.

The monument is in the custody of the City of Vienna. As is generally known, Austria is according to the detailed provisions of Article 19 of the State Treaty of 15 May 1955 committed war graves and war memorials of the Allied Powers on Austrian soil "to respect, to protect and to preserve".

Between 1945 and 1956 stood in front of the fountain on the former "Stalin Square" a Russian tank, which is now in the Museum of Military History.

=> Marschik/Spital, Vienna The Russians monument, architecture, history, conflicts, Vienna, 2005

=> Hannes Leidinger/Verena Moritz, Russian Vienna, Böhlau, Vienna, 2004, 182 f

Sometimes leads the memory to the bad experiences which have been made by Austrian people with the occupation forces - particularly the Soviet - ​​in the ten years of Allied occupation to open resentment against monuments such as the "Russian monument". Nevertheless - the greater the distance from the war and post-war period is, the more one had to give account about the fact how much innocent blood just the peoples of the former Soviet Union have sacrificed in the fight against Hitler's rule, and how little the Austrian people to its own liberation has contributed. Such thoughts have got to come to one's mind when one takes some time to decipher the Cyrillic letters of gold on a "Russian monument" - whether on that at Vienna Schwarzenberg Square or somewhere out in the vast realms of Lower Austria, where up to the Waldviertel (part of Lower Austria) little Soviet military cemeteries exist.

A survey by the Gallup Institute, published in the "standard" on 11th February 1992 shows that 71% of Viennes people do know the monument. A clear majority (59 %) is for the preservation of the monument. Only 9% of the 1,000 respondents agreed with the opinion that the monument should be eliminated as a remnant of Stalinism. So, have the Austrians made peace with the contemporary history?

Hochstrahlbrunnen

Before the liberation monument arises the to the occasion of the completion of the First Vienna Mountain Spring Pipeline on 24th October 1873 in the presence of the emperor put into operation Hochstrahlbrunnen (high jet fountain), which should have been standing according to the original plans in front of the Votive Church, then opposite the New Town Hall. The builder of the aqueduct and the fountain, Anton Gabrielli, was a friend of astronomy. Accordingly, symbolizes the respective number of the jets of water the days of the year, the months, the days of the month, the days of the week and the hours of the day.

peter-diem.at/Monumente/russen.htm

The Latvian Riflemen Monument

 

Latvian Riflemen Monument located in Latviešu stēlnieku laukums “The Latvian Riflemen Square”.

 

The monument, built in 1970, is to honor the Latvian Red Riflemen, who guarded Lenin during the Russian Revolution of 1917. It is one of the few Communist symbols left in Riga.

 

Some Latvians don't like the statue and would love to see it torn down. They see it as a symbol of the old Communist system. Other people think it is an important and necessary honor to Latvians who fought during the early years of World War I. Whatever your politics, it is an impressive monument.

 

Latvian Riflemen, in Latvian: “Latviešu strēlnieki”, in Russian: “Латышские стрелки” were military formations assembled starting 1915 in Latvia in order to defend Baltic territories against Germans in World War I. Initially the battalions were formed by volunteers and from 1916 by conscription among the Latvian population. A total of about 40,000 troops were drafted into the Latvian Riflemen Division.

 

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Riga, the capital of Latvia, became one of the most industrialized cities in the Russian Empire. 800,000 industrial workers, half of all those in the Baltic provinces, worked there. Despite the policy of Russification which was introduced there, Latvian nationalist sentiments were more directed towards the Baltic-German landowners, who had formed the governing elite in the Baltic territories since the conquest of the Latvian tribes by predominantly German military orders in the 13th century Livonian Order. The Latvian Social Democratic Workers' Party “LSDRP” was well organized and its leading elements were increasingly sympathetic to the Bolsheviks by the time of the 1905 Revolution. When punitive expeditions were mounted by the state following this, armed resistance groups - often affiliated to the LSDRP - were set up to conduct guerilla warfare against the Tsarist regime. Many of these seasoned fighters were subsequently recruited into the Latvian Rifles.

 

At the outbreak of war Indriķis Lediņš, the Latvian chief of police in Vladivostok, had called for the establishment of Latvian Cavalry units.

 

At the outbreak of the First World War, recruitment to the Russian Imperial Army was conducted in a very heavy handed way, in some cases being met by riots. Nevertheless, tens of thousands of Latvians were recruited and they soon constituted 80 % of XX Corps alone. In the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes February 1915 the XX Corps was surrounded in the Augustov forests and nearly destroyed. About 20,000 Latvian soldiers were killed, wounded, or captured.

 

By April 1915, when the German Army was advancing into Latvian territory, some prominent Latvians, led by Jānis Goldmanis used their position in the Duma to call on the Tsar to establish all-Latvian battalions. As Germany was advancing into Latvia, they argued, such units would be particularly effective. At Jelgava two battalions of the Latvian Home Guard had already held back the German advance guard. Following increasing German advances, the Russian Stavka approved the measure and on 19 July 1915 the Tsar approved the formation of the Latvian Rifles.

 

During World War I and from 1915 to 1917, Latvian Riflemen fought in the Russian army against the Germans in positions along the Daugava River. In December 1916 and January 1917, Latvian riflemen suffered heavy casualties in the month-long “Christmas Battles”, which began with a surprise attack on German positions during Christmas. Suffering heavy casualties, Latvian riflemen managed to break the German line of defense but the effort was wasted as the attack was not followed through. The Russian Army lost over 26,000 soldiers in the failed attack. The casualties included 9,000 Latvian riflemen, about a third of the total number at that time. The heavy casualties resulted in a strong resentment against the Russian generals and the Tsar among the riflemen. This resentment led to an increased support for the Bolsheviks, who were advocating an end to the war.

 

Red Latvian Riflemen, in 1917, a large number of Latvian riflemen sided with the Bolsheviks. They became known as Red Latvian Riflemen Latvian: “Latviešu sarkanie strēlnieki”, Russian: “красные латышские стрелки” and actively participated in the Russian Civil War. The Riflemen took an active part in the suppression of anti-Bolshevik uprisings in Moscow and Yaroslavl in 1918. They fought against Denikin, Yudenich, and Wrangel. In 1919 the division received the highest military recognition of that time: the Honorable Red Flag of VTsIK. Jukums Vācietis, formerly a colonel in the Latvian Rifles became the first commander-in-chief of the Red Army.

 

The Latvian Red Riflemen were instrumental in the attempt to establish Soviet rule in Latvia in 1919. They suffered great losses of personnel due to the decreasing popularity of Bolshevik ideas among the Latvian Riflemen and Latvians generally, and the majority was re-deployed to other fronts of the Russian Civil War. The remaining forces of the Red Army in Latvia were defeated by Baltic German volunteers and newly formed Latvian units initially under Colonel Kalpaks and later under Colonel Jānis Balodis, loyal to the Latvian Republic in western Latvia, by the Estonian Army and allied Latvian forces in northern Latvia, and finally by a joint campaign of the Polish and new Latvian army in Latgale, south-eastern Latvia.

 

Following the 1920 peace treaty between Latvia and Bolshevist Russia, 11,395 former Red Riflemen returned to Latvia.

 

Other former Riflemen remained in Soviet Russia and rose to leadership positions in the Red Army, Bolshevik party, and Cheka. Many, however, were later executed or imprisoned “often dying in Gulag camps” during the “Great Purges”, when most "old guard" Bolsheviks and high-ranking military and intelligence officers “as well as many intellectuals” were persecuted by “Stalin” as potential rivals or traitors. Latvian Communists were among the most persecuted groups. When the USSR occupied Latvia in 1940, many of the surviving Red Riflemen returned to Latvia.

 

It should be noted that the most famous pre-World War II Soviet Communist leaders from Latvia were not from the Red Riflemen: Martin Latsis, Yakov Peters, Arvīds Pelše, Jānis Bērziņš, Yan Rudzutak, Pēteris Stučka, and Robert Eikhe. All of them, except for Stučka “who died in 1932” and Pelše, perished in the Great Purges of 1937–1940.

 

White Latvian Riflemen, in 1917, a smaller number of Latvian Riflemen “mainly officers and intellectuals” did not side with the Bolsheviks. Some were very active “Kārlis Goppers, Frīdrichs Briedis, etc.” in trying to prevent Bolshevik ideas from spreading among the Latvian soldiers, but the physical and moral exhaustion after the bloody Christmas and January battles was fruitful ground for Bolshevik ideology. Opponents left, or were forced to leave, military service or joined the White forces. During the last phase of the Civil War, two Latvian regiments were created in the Far East of Russia “Troickas and Imantas”, but they did not take part in military action, and were sent to Latvia, by then already an independent nation.

 

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The arrest of Hus in 1414 caused considerable resentment in Czech lands. The authorities of both countries appealed urgently and repeatedly to King Sigismund to release Jan Hus.

 

When news of his death at the Council of Constance in 1415 arrived, disturbances broke out, directed primarily against the clergy and especially against the monks. Even the Archbishop narrowly escaped from the effects of this popular anger. The treatment of Hus was felt to be a disgrace inflicted upon the whole country and his death was seen as a criminal act. King Wenceslaus, prompted by his grudge against Sigismund, at first gave free vent to his indignation at the course of events in Constance. His wife openly favoured the friends of Hus. Avowed Hussites stood at the head of the government.

 

A league was formed by certain lords,[who?] who pledged themselves to protect the free preaching of the Gospel upon all their possessions and estates and to obey the power of the Bishops only where their orders accorded with the injunctions of the Bible. The university would arbitrate any disputed points. The entire Hussite nobility joined the league. Other than verbal protest of the council's treatment of Hus, there was little evidence of any actions taken by the nobility until 1417. At that point several of the lesser nobility and some barons, signatories of the 1415 protest letter, removed Romanist priests from their parishes, replacing them with priests willing to give communion in both wine and bread. The chalice of wine became the central identifying symbol of the Hussite movement.[3] If the king had joined, its resolutions would have received the sanction of the law; but he refused, and approached the newly formed Roman Catholic League of lords, whose members pledged themselves to support the king, the Catholic Church, and the Council. The prospect of a civil war began to emerge.

 

Pope Martin V as Cardinal Otto of Colonna had attacked Hus with relentless severity. He energetically resumed the battle against Hus's teaching after the enactments of the Council of Constance. He wished to eradicate completely the doctrine of Hus, for which purpose the co-operation of King Wenceslaus had to be obtained.[citation needed] In 1418, Sigismund succeeded in winning his brother over to the standpoint of the council by pointing out the inevitability of a religious war if the heretics in Bohemia found further protection.[citation needed] Hussite statesmen and army leaders had to leave the country and Roman Catholic priests were reinstated. These measures caused a general commotion which hastened the death of King Wenceslaus by a paralytic stroke in 1419.[citation needed] His heir was Sigismund. For much more information, see: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hussites

 

The Old Town Square is undoubtedly the most significant place in the Czech lands; it is a cultural and historical centre of the Old Town as well as all of Prague. Today’s relatively regular square with the area of 15,186 sq m was originally a large uneven space by a lively merchant route to the nearby Vltava fords and in a suitable location between two ancient castles – Vyšehrad and the Prague Castle, where the wealthy concentrated and where there was the greatest demand for goods. Since time immemorial it has been one of the most significant marketplaces of the Prague agglomeration with daily, weekly as well as annual markets. In the place of today’s Little Square fruit was sold, at the mouth of Dlouhá Street it was fish, around what later became the Old Town Hall bakers and furriers concentrated, next to today’s church of St. Nicholas sellers of poultry and drapers used to have their shops. Exotic goods were available from foreign merchants in the enclosed courtyard of Týn or Ungelt, which was under the protection of the king himself. As early as in 1211 there is evidence to the existence of a keeper who collected fees and kept an eye on the maintenance of order. During the 13th century continuous lines of houses grew around the square, which more or less determined the current shape of the square. The importance of the square as the centre of the Old Town heightened even further after the foundation of the Old Town Hall in 1338. The square was called Large at first, in the 13th century it is spoken of as Old, in the 14th century the name Old Town Marketplace or simply Market place is recorded and the above mentioned names have been used throughout the history. The official name of the Old Town Square was adopted in 1895. During the centuries the square witnessed many festivities, jousts and meetings, but also bloody executions of which the execution of the 27 leaders of the rebellion of Czech estates in 1621 is the most famous. There also used to be a pillory on the square and from mid 16th century also an iron cage in which immoral people were shut, sometimes naked and smeared with honey so that insect would bite them.

During the centuries the mercantile activity left the Old Town Square and on the turn of the 20th century the last traditional St. Nicholas market also came to an end. At about the same time the whole northern side fell prey to renovation and historical houses were replaced with new buildings of lucrative rental palaces. Among the lost monuments is the magnificent Krocín’s Well built in the Rudolphinian period and dismantled in 1862, and the Marian Column from 1650, pulled down with the formation of the Czechoslovak Republic as an alleged symbol of catholic subjugation. Today the space is thus decorated mainly by the monumental Art Nouveau memorial of John Huss by L. Šaloun. The inconspicuous Prague meridian is also remarkable; for centuries it was used to measure the midday. www.t.kralovskacesta.cz/en/tour/old-town-i/old-town-i-loc...

Some History of Brisbane.

The first European settlement in Queensland was a small convict colony which was established at Redcliffe, now a northern beach suburb, in 1824. The settlement was soon moved in 1825 to a better location on the Brisbane River in what is now the CBD of Brisbane. John Oxley suggested this change of location and that the town be known as Brisbane after Sir Thomas Brisbane, Governor of NSW who visited this settlement in 1826. Prior to this the settlement was known as the Moreton Bay. By 1831 Moreton Bay had 1,241 people, but 86% were convicts, and almost all the rest were guards and administrators. One of the founding free men to settle in Brisbane was Andrew Petrie, a government clerk, who arrived in the settlement in 1837. His son later became the first mayor of Brisbane.

 

In 1842 (six years after the settlement of SA) Moreton Bay penal settlement was closed and the area opened to free settlers. Half the convicts at Moreton Bay were Irish Catholics which influenced the development of the settlement thereafter as many stayed on. By 1846 Moreton Bay had a population of 4,000 people, considerably less than that of Burra at the time which had over 5,000 people! In 1848 the first immigrants direct from Britain arrived, as did some Chinese. In 1849 three ship loads of Presbyterians arrived in Brisbane, the first ship being the Fortitude- hence the naming of Fortitude Valley. The colony was still far from self sufficient in terms of food production. In the mid 1850s German immigrants also started to arrive in the settlement. The only building still standing built by convict labour is the Old Windmill in Wickham Park.

 

During the late 1840s a few grand houses were built in Brisbane like Newstead House at Hamilton and the city began to take shape. All the central streets were named after members of Queen Victoria’s family- Adelaide, Alice, Ann, Charlotte, Elizabeth, Margaret, Mary for the streets parallel to Queen Street, and Albert, Edward, George and William for the streets perpendicular to Queen Street. In 1859 the population had grown sufficiently, to about 30,000 people, for Queensland to be proclaimed a separate colony from NSW with Brisbane (about 6,000 people) as the capital city. It was now a self governing independent colony. Old Government House was built shortly after this in 1862 followed by numerous colonial government buildings. The French Empire style Parliament House opposite the old Botanical Gardens was erected in 1865 to a design by Charles Tiffin. It had perfect symmetry a mansard roof and an arcaded loggia. It is still one of the most distinctive buildings in Brisbane. Nearby the pastoralists and wealthy built the Queensland Club in Alice Street in 1882 with classical columns but with Italianate style bay windows. The location near parliament house is much like the situation of the Adelaide Club on North Terrace almost adjacent to the SA parliament. The wealthy and pastoralists in both states had immeasurable influence over early colonial politics. One of the other finest colonial buildings of Brisbane is the Old Customs House with the circular copper domed roof on the edge of the Brisbane River. It was erected in 1888.

 

Although Brisbane grew quickly through the following decades it was not incorporated as a city until 1902.Part of the reason for the relatively slow of growth of Brisbane, compared to Adelaide, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney was that it was not the focal point of the state railway network. Queensland always had other major regional centres. The railway from Brisbane reached out to southern Queensland only- Ipswich in 1864, Toowoomba in 1867, and Charleville in 1888. There was no early push to have a railway link between the coastal cities. They were not linked by a railway until 1927 when road transport had already taken over the transport of livestock and freight. The coastal railway to Cairns was always for passenger traffic as much as freight traffic.

 

Unlike the other Australian state capitals, Brisbane City Council governs most of the metropolitan area of Brisbane. In 1925 over twenty shires and municipalities were amalgamated into the City of Brisbane. It was at this time that the landmark Brisbane city Hall was built in Art Deco style. It was opened in 1930. During World War Two, Brisbane had a distinctive history as Prime Minister John Curtin had the “Brisbane Line” as a controversial defense plan, whereby if there was a land invasion of Australia, the northern half of the country would be surrendered at a line just north of Brisbane! Brisbane also became the headquarters for the American campaign in the South Pacific with General Douglas MacArthur based there at times. In 1942 a violent clash erupted between American and Australian service personnel in Brisbane. Between 2,000 and 5,000 men were involved in the riots which spread over two days. One soldier was killed and eight injured by gun fire as well as hundreds injured with black eyes, swollen faces, broken noses etc. On the second night 21 Americans were injured with 11 of them having to be hospitalised. This was The Battle of Brisbane. Yet around 1 million American troops passed through Queensland between December 1941 (just after the bombing of Pearl Harbour) and the end of 1945. They were here to spearhead attacks to take back the Philippines and to prevent the Japanese from taking New Guinea. Black American soldiers were especially unpopular in Brisbane as their landing contravened the “White Australia Policy” of those times. In response to this policy General Douglas MacArthur announced his support for the Australian government’s insistence that no more Black American troops be sent to Brisbane after 1942. The Black American units in Australia were later sent to New Guinea and New Caledonia. Black American troops in New Guinea were not allowed to visit Australia for rest and recreation leave although white American troops were allowed to visit Australia, mainly to Mackay. Resentment between American and Australian troops in Brisbane had to be contained and suppressed. Riots between troops also occurred in Townsville during the War.

External flash pointed to roof. View in large ;)

-------///Come in, Commissioner Gordon, over./////-----

------///This is Gordon. Go ahead./////-----

We got ourselves, a, uuuh, situation here, boss. The vigilante Azrael's been cornered.

Gimme a location. I'll be there ASAP.

Roger that. We're at the...Amusement Mile.

 

Shit.

The Amusement Mile.

The words tumble through Gordon's mind. Can he go back there? Will he break down? The memories this place has...that grinning, motherfucking clown...

No. He knows he'll stay together. He has to. For Gotham. For his men.

For Barbara.

 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------

Right. I'm here. What's the situation, Foley?

We got him cornered in here, sir. Seems to be some kinda storage room. We don't know why he's here, but he is, and we've got him surrounded.

 

Could it be? Could the Joker have escaped to here again?

 

How soon until SWAT gets here?

Uuuh, about three minutes.

Then we're breaching in four.

What the hell is that burning stuff?

Unknown. Looks like some kind of industrial machine.

Don't touch it. Might be booby-trapped.

Azrael hasn't been known to booby-trap things in the past, sir.

The way things have been going for Gotham lately, who knows? He may have changed his M.O. The Joker sure has recently...

You think it's him, sir?

I don't know, Foley. I don't know.

 

Two minutes till SWAT arrives, Commish.

Good. Check weapons, put them in condition one. Be ready in case he bursts out.

Anybody got a megaphone?

. . . the ancient Pu Koh Tong Pagoda is outside Ayuttaya

___________________________

 

The Ayutthaya Historical Park (Thai: อุทยานประวัติศาสตร์พระนครศรีอยุธยา (Pronunciation)) covers the ruins of the old city of Ayutthaya, Thailand. The city of Ayutthaya was founded by King Ramathibodi I in 1350:222 The city was captured by the Burmese in 1569; though not pillaged, it lost "many valuable and artistic objects.":42–43 It was the capital of the country until its destruction by the Burmese army in 1767.

 

In 1969 the Fine Arts Department began with renovations of the ruins, which became more serious after it was declared a historical park in 1976. A part of the park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991. Thirty-five kings ruled the Ayutthaya kingdom during its existence. King Narai (1656-1688) held court not only in Ayutthaya but also from his palace in the nearby city of Lopburi, from where he ruled 8–9 months in the year.

 

PARK SITES

Wat Chaiwatthanaram

Wat Kasatrathiraj

Wat Kudi Dao

Wat Lokayasutharam

Wat Mahathat

Wat Phanan Choeng

Wiharn Phra Mongkhon Bopit

Wat Phra Ram

Wat Phra Sri Sanphet

Wat Ratchaburana, Ayutthaya

Wat Chai Mongkhon

Wat Yai Chai Mongkhon

Phra Chedi Suriyothai

Ayutthaya historical Study Centre

Japanese Settlement

Wat Phu Khao Thong

Elephant Camp

 

UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITE

In 1991, a part of Ayutthaya Historical Park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site under criteria III as an excellent witness to the period of development of a true national Thai art. The inscribed area covered only 289 ha on central and southwest part of Ayutthaya island; as a result, only certain groups of historical sites are under UNESCO protection. The sites including Wat Ratchaburana, Wat Mahathat, Wat Phra Sri Sanphet, Wat Phra Ram and Wiharn Phra Mongkhon Bopit. The sites that are not part of World Heritage Sites are the sites outside Ayutthaya Island; for example, Wat Yai Chai Mongkon, Wat Phanan Choeng, Wat Chaiwatthanaram and Wat Phu Khao Thong.

__________________________

 

AYUTTHAYA

(/ɑːˈjuːtəjə/; Thai: อยุธยา, Thai pronunciation: [ʔajúttʰajaː]; also spelled Ayudhya) was a Siamese kingdom that existed from 1351 to 1767. Ayutthaya was friendly towards foreign traders, including the Chinese, Vietnamese, Indians, Japanese and Persians, and later the Portuguese, Spaniards, Dutch and French, permitting them to set up villages outside the walls of the capital, also called Ayutthaya.

 

In the sixteenth century, it was described by foreign traders as one of the biggest and wealthiest cities in the East. The court of King Narai (1656–88) had strong links with that of King Louis XIV of France, whose ambassadors compared the city in size and wealth to Paris.

 

By 1550, the kingdom's vassals included some city-states in the Malay Peninsula, Sukhothai, and parts of Cambodia.

 

In foreign accounts, Ayutthaya was called Siam, but many sources say the people of Ayutthaya called themselves Tai, and their kingdom Krung Tai "The Tai country" (กรุงไท).

 

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

ORIGINS

According to the most widely accepted version of its origin, the Thai state based at Ayutthaya in the valley of the Chao Phraya River rose from the earlier, nearby Lavo Kingdom (at that time, still under the control of the Khmer Empire) and Suvarnabhumi. One source says that in the mid-fourteenth century, due to the threat of an epidemic, King Uthong moved his court south into the rich floodplain of the Chao Phraya River onto an island surrounded by rivers. The name of the city indicates the influence of Hinduism in the region as it is the Thai pronunciation of the famous Indian city of Ayodhya. It is believed that this city is associated with the Thai national epic, the Ramakien, which is the Thai version of the Ramayana.

 

CONQUESTS AND EXPANSION

Ayutthaya began its hegemony by conquering northern kingdoms and city-states like Sukhothai,:222 Kamphaeng Phet and Phitsanulok. Before the end of the fifteenth century, Ayutthaya launched attacks on Angkor, the classical great power of the region. Angkor's influence eventually faded from the Chao Phraya River Plain while Ayutthaya became a new great power.

 

The emerging Kingdom of Ayutthaya was also growing powerful. Relations between the Ayutthaya and Lan Na had worsened since the Ayutthayan support of Thau Choi's rebellion In 1451, Yuttitthira, a noble of the Kingdom of Sukhothai who had conflicts with Borommatrailokkanat of Ayutthaya, gave himself to Tilokaraj. Yuttitthira urged Borommatrailokkanat to invade Phitsanulok, igniting the Ayutthaya-Lan Na War over the Upper Chao Phraya valley (the Kingdom of Sukhothai). In 1460, the governor of Chaliang surrendered to Tilokaraj. Borommatrailokkanat then used a new strategy and concentrated on the wars with Lanna by moving the capital to Phitsanulok. Lan Na suffered setbacks and Tilokaraj eventually sued for peace in 1475.

 

However, the kingdom of Ayutthaya was not a unified state but rather a patchwork of self-governing principalities and tributary provinces owing allegiance to the king of Ayutthaya under The Circle of Power, or the mandala system, as some scholars suggested. These principalities might be ruled by members of the royal family of Ayutthaya, or by local rulers who had their own independent armies, having a duty to assist the capital when war or invasion occurred. However, it was evident that from time to time local revolts, led by local princes or kings, took place. Ayutthaya had to suppress them.

 

Due to the lack of succession law and a strong concept of meritocracy, whenever the succession was in dispute, princely governors or powerful dignitaries claiming their merit gathered their forces and moved on the capital to press their claims, culminating in several bloody coups.

 

Beginning in the fifteenth century, Ayutthaya showed an interest in the Malay Peninsula, but the great trading ports of the Malacca Sultanate contested its claims to sovereignty. Ayutthaya launched several abortive conquests against Malacca which was diplomatically and economically fortified by the military support of Ming China. In the early fifteenth century the Ming admiral Zheng He had established a base of operation in the port city, making it a strategic position the Chinese could not afford to lose to the Siamese. Under this protection, Malacca flourished, becoming one of Ayutthaya's great foes until the capture of Malacca by the Portuguese.

 

FIRST BURMESE WARS

Starting in the middle of 16th century, the kingdom came under repeated attacks by the Taungoo Dynasty of Burma. The Burmese–Siamese War (1547–49) began with Burmese an invasion and a failed siege of Ayutthaya. A second siege (1563–64) led by King Bayinnaung forced King Maha Chakkraphat to surrender in 1564. The royal family was taken to Bago, Burma, with the king's second son Mahinthrathirat installed as the vassal king. In 1568, Mahinthrathirat revolted when his father managed to return from Bago as a Buddhist monk. The ensuing third siege captured Ayutthaya in 1569 and Bayinnaung made Mahathammarachathirat his vassal king.

 

After Bayinnaung's death in 1581, uparaja Naresuan proclaimed Ayutthaya's independence in 1584. The Thai fought off repeated Burmese invasions (1584–1593), capped by an elephant duel between King Naresuan and Burmese heir-apparent Mingyi Swa in 1593 during the fourth siege of Ayutthaya in which Naresuan famously slew Mingyi Swa (observed 18 January as Royal Thai Armed Forces day). The Burmese–Siamese War (1594–1605) was a Thai attack on Burma, resulting in the capture of the Tanintharyi Region as far as Mottama in 1595 and Lan Na in 1602. Naresuan even invaded mainland Burma as far as Taungoo in 1600, but was driven back.

 

After Naresuan's death in 1605, northern Tanintharyi and Lan Na returned to Burmese control in 1614.

 

The Ayutthaya Kingdom's attempt to take over Lan Na and northern Tanintharyi in 1662–1664 failed.

 

Foreign trade brought Ayutthaya not only luxury items but also new arms and weapons. In the mid-seventeenth century, during King Narai's reign, Ayutthaya became very prosperous. In the eighteenth century, Ayutthaya gradually lost control over its provinces. Provincial governors exerted their power independently, and rebellions against the capital began.

 

SECOND BURMESE WARS

In the mid-eighteenth century, Ayutthaya again became ensnared in wars with the Burmese. The Burmese–Siamese War (1759–60) begun by the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma failed. The Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67) resulted in the sack of the city of Ayutthaya and the end of the kingdom by debellatio in April 1767.

 

KINGSHIP OF AYUTTHAYA KINGDOM

The kings of Ayutthaya were absolute monarchs with semi-religious status. Their authority derived from the ideologies of Hinduism and Buddhism as well as from natural leadership. The king of Sukhothai was the inspiration of Inscription 1 found in Sukhothai, which stated that King Ramkhamhaeng would hear the petition of any subject who rang the bell at the palace gate. The king was thus considered as a father by his people.

 

At Ayutthaya, however, the paternal aspects of kingship disappeared. The king was considered the chakkraphat (Sanskrit chakravartin) who through his adherence to the law made all the world revolve around him. According to Hindu tradition, the king is the avatar of Vishnu, destroyer of demons, who was born to be the defender of the people. The Buddhist belief in the king is as righteous ruler (Sanskrit: dharmaraja), aiming at the well-being of the people and who strictly follows the teaching of Gautama Buddha.

 

The kings' official names were reflections of those religions: Hinduism and Buddhism. They were considered as the incarnation of various Hindu gods: Indra, Shiva or Vishnu (Rama). The coronation ceremony was directed by brahmins as the Hindu god Shiva was "lord of the universe". However, according to the codes, the king had the ultimate duty as protector of the people and the annihilator of evil.

 

According to Buddhism, the king was also believed to be a bodhisattva. One of the most important duties of the king was to build a temple or a Buddha statue as a symbol of prosperity and peace.

 

For locals, another aspect of the kingship was also the analogy of "The Lord of the Land" or "He who Rules the Earth" (Phra Chao Phaendin). According to the court etiquette, a special language, Rachasap (Sanskrit: Rājāśabda, "Royal Language"), was used to communicate with or about royalty. In Ayutthaya, the king was said to grant control over land to his subjects, from nobles to commoners, according to the Sakna or Sakdina system codified by King Borommatrailokkanat (1448–88). The Sakdina system was similar to, but not the same as feudalism, under which the monarch does not own the land. While there is no concrete evidence that this land management system constituted a formal palace economy, the French François-Timoléon de Choisy, who came to Ayutthaya in 1685, wrote, "the king has absolute power. He is truly the god of the Siamese: no-one dares to utter his name." Another 17th-century writer, the Dutchman Jan van Vliet, remarked that the King of Siam was "honoured and worshipped by his subjects second to god." Laws and orders were issued by the king. For sometimes the king himself was also the highest judge who judged and punished important criminals such as traitors or rebels.[

 

In addition to the Sakdina system, another of the numerous institutional innovations of Borommatrailokkanat was to adopt the position of uparaja, translated as "viceroy" or "prince", usually held by the king's senior son or full brother, in an attempt to regularise the succession to the throne - a particularly difficult feat for a polygamous dynasty. In practice, there was inherent conflict between king and uparaja and frequent disputed successions. However, it is evident that the power of the Throne of Ayutthaya had its limit. The hegemony of the Ayutthaya king was always based on his charisma in terms of his age and supporters. Without supporters, bloody coups took place from time to time. The most powerful figures of the capital were always generals, or the Minister of Military Department, Kalahom. During the last century of Ayutthaya, the bloody fighting among princes and generals, aiming at the throne, plagued the court.

 

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

THE REFORMS OF KING

Borommatrailokkanat (r.1448–1488) placed the king of Ayutthaya at the centre of a highly stratified social and political hierarchy that extended throughout the realm. Despite a lack of evidence, it is believed that in the Ayutthaya Kingdom, the basic unit of social organisation was the village community composed of extended family households. Title to land resided with the headman, who held it in the name of the community, although peasant proprietors enjoyed the use of land as long as they cultivated it. The lords gradually became courtiers (อำมาตย์) and tributary rulers of minor cities. The king ultimately came to be recognised as the earthly incarnation of Shiva or Vishnu and became the sacred object of politico-religious cult practices officiated over by royal court brahmans, part of the Buddhist court retinue. In the Buddhist context, the devaraja (divine king) was a bodhisattva. The belief in divine kingship prevailed into the eighteenth century, although by that time its religious implications had limited impact.With ample reserves of land available for cultivation, the realm depended on the acquisition and control of adequate manpower for farm labour and defence. The dramatic rise of Ayutthaya had entailed constant warfare and, as none of the parties in the region possessed a technological advantage, the outcome of battles was usually determined by the size of the armies. After each victorious campaign, Ayutthaya carried away a number of conquered people to its own territory, where they were assimilated and added to the labour force. Ramathibodi II (r.1491–1529) established a corvée system under which every freeman had to be registered as a phrai (servant) with the local lords, Chao Nai (เจ้านาย). When war broke out, male phrai were subject to impressment. Above the phrai was a nai (นาย), who was responsible for military service, corvée labour on public works, and on the land of the official to whom he was assigned. Phrai Suay (ไพร่ส่วย) met labour obligations by paying a tax. If he found the forced labour under his nai repugnant, he could sell himself as a that (ทาส, slave) to a more attractive nai or lord, who then paid a fee in compensation for the loss of corvée labour. As much as one-third of the manpower supply into the nineteenth century was composed of phrai. Wealth, status, and political influence were interrelated. The king allotted rice fields to court officials, provincial governors, military commanders, in payment for their services to the crown, according to the sakdi na system. The size of each official's allotment was determined by the number of commoners or phrai he could command to work it. The amount of manpower a particular headman, or official, could command determined his status relative to others in the hierarchy and his wealth. At the apex of the hierarchy, the king, who was symbolically the realm's largest landholder, theoretically commanded the services of the largest number of phrai, called phrai luang (royal servants), who paid taxes, served in the royal army, and worked on the crown lands.

 

However, the recruitment of the armed forces depended on nai, or mun nai, literally meaning 'lord', officials who commanded their own phrai som, or subjects. These officials had to submit to the king's command when war broke out. Officials thus became the key figures to the kingdom's politics. At least two officials staged coups, taking the throne themselves while bloody struggles between the king and his officials, followed by purges of court officials, were always seen.

 

King Trailok, in the early sixteenth century, established definite allotments of land and phrai for the royal officials at each rung in the hierarchy, thus determining the country's social structure until the introduction of salaries for government officials in the nineteenth century.

 

Outside this system to some extent were the sangha (Buddhist monastic community), which all classes of men could join, and the Overseas Chinese. Wats became centres of Thai education and culture, while during this period the Chinese first began to settle in Thailand and soon began to establish control over the country's economic life.

 

The Chinese were not obliged to register for corvée duty, so they were free to move about the kingdom at will and engage in commerce. By the sixteenth century, the Chinese controlled Ayutthaya's internal trade and had found important places in the civil and military service. Most of these men took Thai wives because few women left China to accompany the men.

 

Uthong was responsible for the compilation of a Dharmaśāstra, a legal code based on Hindu sources and traditional Thai custom. The Dharmaśāstra remained a tool of Thai law until late in the 19th century. A bureaucracy based on a hierarchy of ranked and titled officials was introduced, and society was organised in a related manner. However, the caste system was not adopted.

 

The sixteenth century witnessed the rise of Burma, which had overrun Chiang Mai and Laos and made war on the Thai. In 1569, Burmese forces, joined by Thai rebels, mostly royal family members of Thailand, captured the city of Ayutthaya and carried off the whole royal family to Burma. Dhammaraja (1569–90), a Thai governor who had aided the Burmese, was installed as vassal king at Ayutthaya. Thai independence was restored by his son, King Naresuan (1590–1605), who turned on the Burmese and by 1600 had driven them from the country.

 

Determined to prevent another treason like his father's, Naresuan set about unifying the country's administration directly under the royal court at Ayutthaya. He ended the practice of nominating royal princes to govern Ayutthaya's provinces, assigning instead court officials who were expected to execute policies handed down by the king. Thereafter royal princes were confined to the capital. Their power struggles continued, but at court under the king's watchful eye.

 

To ensure his control over the new class of governors, Naresuan decreed that all freemen subject to phrai service had become phrai luang, bound directly to the king, who distributed the use of their services to his officials. This measure gave the king a theoretical monopoly on all manpower, and the idea developed that since the king owned the services of all the people, he also possessed all the land. Ministerial offices and governorships - and the sakdina that went with them - were usually inherited positions dominated by a few families often connected to the king by marriage. Indeed, marriage was frequently used by Thai kings to cement alliances between themselves and powerful families, a custom prevailing through the nineteenth century. As a result of this policy, the king's wives usually numbered in the dozens.

 

Even with Naresuan's reforms, the effectiveness of the royal government over the next 150 years was unstable. Royal power outside the crown lands - although in theory absolute - was in practice limited by the looseness of the civil administration. The influence of central government and the king was not extensive beyond the capital. When war with the Burmese broke out in late eighteenth century, provinces easily abandoned the capital. As the enforcing troops were not easily rallied to defend the capital, the city of Ayutthaya could not stand against the Burmese aggressors.

 

RELIGION

Ayutthaya's main religion was Theravada Buddhism. However, many of the elements of the political and social system were incorporated from Hindu scriptures and were conducted by Brahmin priests. Many areas of the kingdom also practised Mahayana Buddhism, Islam and, influenced by French Missionaries who arrived through China in the 17th century, some small areas converted to Roman Catholicism. The influence of Mahayana and Tantric prractices also entered Theravada Buddhism, producing a tradition called Tantric Theravada.

 

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The Thais never lacked a rich food supply. Peasants planted rice for their own consumption and to pay taxes. Whatever remained was used to support religious institutions. From the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries, however, a remarkable transformation took place in Thai rice cultivation. In the highlands, where rainfall had to be supplemented by a system of irrigation that controlled the water level in flooded paddies, the Thais sowed the glutinous rice that is still the staple in the geographical regions of the North and Northeast. But in the floodplain of the Chao Phraya, farmers turned to a different variety of rice - the so-called floating rice, a slender, non-glutinous grain introduced from Bengal - that would grow fast enough to keep pace with the rise of the water level in the lowland fields.

 

The new strain grew easily and abundantly, producing a surplus that could be sold cheaply abroad. Ayutthaya, situated at the southern extremity of the floodplain, thus became the hub of economic activity. Under royal patronage, corvée labour dug canals on which rice was brought from the fields to the king's ships for export to China. In the process, the Chao Phraya - mud flats between the sea and firm land hitherto considered unsuitable for habitation - was reclaimed and placed under cultivation. Traditionally the king had a duty to perform a religious ceremony blessing the rice plantation.

 

Although rice was abundant in Ayutthaya, rice export was banned from time to time when famine occurred because of natural calamity or war. Rice was usually bartered for luxury goods and armaments from westerners, but rice cultivation was mainly for the domestic market and rice export was evidently unreliable. Trade with Europeans was lively in the seventeenth century. In fact European merchants traded their goods, mainly modern arms such as rifles and cannons, with local products from the inland jungle such as sapan (lit. bridge) woods, deerskin and rice. Tomé Pires, a Portuguese voyager, mentioned in the sixteenth century that Ayutthaya, or Odia, was rich in good merchandise. Most of the foreign merchants coming to Ayutthaya were European and Chinese, and were taxed by the authorities. The kingdom had an abundance of rice, salt, dried fish, arrack and vegetables.

 

Trade with foreigners, mainly the Dutch, reached its peak in the seventeenth century. Ayutthaya became a main destination for merchants from China and Japan. It was apparent that foreigners began taking part in the kingdom's politics. Ayutthayan kings employed foreign mercenaries who sometimes entered the wars with the kingdom's enemies. However, after the purge of the French in late seventeenth century, the major traders with Ayutthaya were the Chinese. The Dutch from the Dutch East Indies Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC), were still active. Ayutthaya's economy declined rapidly in the eighteenth century, until the Burmese invasion caused the total collapse of Ayutthaya's economy in 1788.

 

CONTACTS WITH THE WEST

In 1511, immediately after having conquered Malacca, the Portuguese sent a diplomatic mission headed by Duarte Fernandes to the court of King Ramathibodi II of Ayutthaya. Having established amicable relations between the kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of Siam, they returned with a Siamese envoy with gifts and letters to the King of Portugal. They were the first Europeans to visit the country. Five years after that initial contact, Ayutthaya and Portugal concluded a treaty granting the Portuguese permission to trade in the kingdom. A similar treaty in 1592 gave the Dutch a privileged position in the rice trade.

 

Foreigners were cordially welcomed at the court of Narai (1657–1688), a ruler with a cosmopolitan outlook who was nonetheless wary of outside influence. Important commercial ties were forged with Japan. Dutch and English trading companies were allowed to establish factories, and Thai diplomatic missions were sent to Paris and The Hague. By maintaining all these ties, the Thai court skilfully played off the Dutch against the English and the French, avoiding the excessive influence of a single power.

 

In 1664, however, the Dutch used force to exact a treaty granting them extraterritorial rights as well as freer access to trade. At the urging of his foreign minister, the Greek adventurer Constantine Phaulkon, Narai turned to France for assistance. French engineers constructed fortifications for the Thais and built a new palace at Lopburi for Narai. In addition, French missionaries engaged in education and medicine and brought the first printing press into the country. Louis XIV's personal interest was aroused by reports from missionaries suggesting that Narai might be converted to Christianity.

 

The French presence encouraged by Phaulkon, however, stirred the resentment and suspicions of the Thai nobles and Buddhist clergy. When word spread that Narai was dying, a general, Phetracha, killed the designated heir, a Christian, and had Phaulkon put to death along with a number of missionaries. The arrival of English warships provoked a massacre of more Europeans. Phetracha (reigned 1688–93) seized the throne and expelled the remaining foreigners. Some studies said that Ayutthaya began a period of alienation from western traders, while welcoming more Chinese merchants. But other recent studies argue that, due to wars and conflicts in Europe in the mid-eighteenth century, European merchants reduced their activities in the East. However, it was apparent that the Dutch East Indies Company or VOC was still doing business in Ayutthaya despite political difficulties.

 

THE FINAL PHASE

After a bloody period of dynastic struggle, Ayutthaya entered into what has been called the golden age, a relatively peaceful episode in the second quarter of the eighteenth century when art, literature, and learning flourished. There were foreign wars. Ayutthaya fought with the Nguyễn Lords (Vietnamese rulers of South Vietnam) for control of Cambodia starting around 1715. But a greater threat came from Burma, where the new Alaungpaya dynasty had subdued the Shan states.

 

The last fifty years of the kingdom witnessed a bloody struggle among the princes. The throne was their prime target. Purges of court officials and able generals followed. The last monarch, Ekathat, originally known as Prince Anurakmontree, forced the king, who was his younger brother, to step down and took the throne himself.

 

According to a French source, Ayutthaya in the eighteenth century comprised these principal cities: Martaban, Ligor or Nakhon Sri Thammarat, Tenasserim, Jungceylon or Phuket Island, Singora or Songkhla. Her tributaries were Patani, Pahang, Perak, Kedah and Malacca.

 

In 1765, a combined 40,000-strong force of Burmese armies invaded the territories of Ayutthaya from the north and west. Major outlying towns quickly capitulated. The only notable example of successful resistance to these forces was found at the village of Bang Rajan. After a 14 months' siege, the city of Ayutthaya capitulated and was burned in April 1767. Ayutthaya's art treasures, the libraries containing its literature, and the archives housing its historic records were almost totally destroyed, and the Burmese brought the Ayutthaya Kingdom to ruin.

 

The Burmese rule lasted a mere few months. The Burmese, who had also been fighting a simultaneous war with the Chinese since 1765, were forced to withdraw in early 1768 when the Chinese forces threatened their own capital.

 

With most Burmese forces having withdrawn, the country was reduced to chaos. All that remained of the old capital were some ruins of the royal palace. Provinces proclaimed independence under generals, rogue monks, and members of the royal family.

 

One general, Phraya Taksin, former governor of Taak, began the reunification effort. He gathered forces and began striking back at the Burmese. He finally established a capital at Thonburi, across the Chao Phraya from the present capital, Bangkok. Taak-Sin ascended the throne, becoming known as King Taak-Sin or Taksin.

 

The ruins of the historic city of Ayutthaya and "associated historic towns" in the Ayutthaya historical park have been listed by the UNESCO as World Heritage Site. The city of Ayutthaya was refounded near the old city, and is now capital of the Ayutthaya province.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The door is forced up and it finally lumbers out from the shadows of the other room. This was Krieger's ultimate creation. That Uber Soldat schematic actually matched the design of this one. The more streamlined look, more armored, even the same kind of helmet the Nazis wear. But just seeing this thing for a few second showed that there was so much the schematic wouldn't prepare me for. This thing seemed bigger than the prototypes we've been fighting. The only sound it makes outside of the machinery on it working are feral growls. And unlike the prototypes, this one had a face. A face of chalk-white skin and massive scarring. It's mouth looked like it was permanently frozen in an angry scowl, and those cold blue eyes had nothing else going for them outside of pure, primal hate. It's enormous, powerful, and full of nothing but complete resentment. An embodiment of all the Nazis have done. An icon of hate. It would easily tower over J just like the prototypes, so I'm probably like a fly to it. The sick freak looks down at me and lets out another inhuman growl, somehow looking even angrier than before. If it's trying to scare me....it's doing a awesome job. Alright, just stay focused. You can do this. You've already killed two prototypes, how hard can it be?...

The Cathedral of Pisa , officially the Primate Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta , in the center of the Piazza del Duomo, also known as Piazza dei Miracoli , is the cathedral of the Archdiocese of Pisa as well as the Primate church .

 

A masterpiece of the Romanesque , in particular of the Pisan Romanesque , it represents the tangible testimony of the prestige and wealth achieved by the maritime republic of Pisa at the moment of its apogee.

 

Its construction began in 1063 ( 1064 according to the Pisan calendar in force at the time) by the architect Buscheto , with the tenth part of the spoils of the Palermo campaign in Sicily against the Muslims ( 1063 ) led by Giovanni Orlandi belonging to the Orlandi family [ 1] . Different stylistic elements blend together: classical, Lombard-Emilian , Byzantine and in particular Islamic, proving the international presence of Pisan merchants in those times. In that same year the reconstruction of the Basilica of San Marco in Venice also began , so it may also be that there was a rivalry between the two maritime republics at the time to create the most beautiful and sumptuous place of worship.

 

The church was built in an area outside the early medieval city walls , to symbolize the power of Pisa which did not require protection. The chosen area was already used in the Lombard era as a necropolis and, already in the early 11th century , an unfinished church was built which was to be dedicated to Santa Maria. The new large church of Buscheto, in fact, was initially called Santa Maria Maggiore until it was finally named after Santa Maria Assunta.

 

In 1092 the church changed from a simple cathedral to being primatial, the title of primate having been conferred on Archbishop Daiberto by Pope Urban II , an honor which today is only formal. The cathedral was consecrated in 1118 by Pope Gelasius II , as recorded by the inscription placed internally on the counter-façade at the top left.

 

In the first half of the 12th century the cathedral was enlarged under the direction of the architect Rainaldo , who lengthened the naves by adding three bays in front of the old facade [2] according to the Buscheto style, widened the transept and designed a new facade, completed by the workers led by the sculptors Guglielmo and Biduino . The date of the start of the works is uncertain: immediately after Buscheto's death around the year 1120 , according to some, around the year 1140 according to others. The end of the works dates back to 1180 , as documented by the date affixed to the bronze doors by Bonanno Pisano on the main door.

 

The current appearance of the complex building is the result of repeated restoration campaigns that took place in different eras. The first radical interventions followed the disastrous fire on the night between 24 and 25 October 1595 [3] , which destroyed many decorative interventions and following which the roof was rebuilt and the three bronze doors of the facade were made, the work of sculptors from the workshop of Giambologna , including Gasparo Mola and Pietro Tacca . Starting from the eighteenth century, the progressive covering of the internal walls began with large paintings on canvas, the "quadroni" with Stories of Pisan blesseds and saints , executed by the main artists of the time thanks to the initiative of some citizens who financed themselves by creating a special business.

 

The Napoleonic spoliations of the Cathedral of Pisa and the Opera del Duomo were significant, many works converged on the Louvre where they are exhibited today, including The Triumph of Saint Thomas Aquinas among the Doctors of the Church by Benozzo Gozzoli , now in the Louvre, Death of San Bernardo dell'Orcagna and San Benedetto , the work of Andrea del Castagno .

 

Among the various noteworthy interventions, it is worth mentioning the dismantling of Giovanni Pisano's pulpit which was reassembled only in 1926 in a different position and with several parts missing, including the staircase, and the dismantling of the monument to Henry VII created by Lupo di Francesco which was located in front of the door of San Ranieri and subsequently replaced by a simplified and symbolic version.

 

The subsequent interventions took place during the nineteenth century and affected both the internal and external decorations, which in many cases, especially the sculptures on the facade, were replaced by copies (the originals are in the Museo dell'Opera del duomo ).

 

The building has a Latin cross shape with a large dome at the intersection of the arms. The longitudinal body, divided into five naves , extends over ten bays . This plan continues in the choir with two more bays and a final apse crowning the central nave alone. The transept has 4 bays on each side (or six if we include the two in common with the longitudinal body) and has three naves with apses ending on both sides. In the center four large pillars delimit the rectangular cross ending at the top with a large elliptical dome.

 

The building, like the bell tower, has sunk perceptibly into the ground, and some defects in the construction are clearly visible, such as the differences in level between Buscheto's nave and the extension by Rainaldo (the bays towards the west and the facade) .

 

The exterior of the cathedral is mainly in white and gray marble although the older stones placed at the lower levels of the longitudinal body are of other poorer material. There is no shortage of valuable materials, especially on the facade, where there are multicolored marble inlays, mosaics and also bronze objects from war booty, including the Griffin used on the top of the roof at the back (east side), perhaps taken from Palermo in 1061 ( today there is a copy on the roof, the original is in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo ).

 

The longitudinal body, transept and choir have a rich facing punctuated by three orders or floors. On the lower floor, long rows of pilasters supporting blind arches , in turn enclosing lozenges or windows, punctuate the space on all sides of the building with very few interruptions (only the apse of the right transept). The second floor still has pilasters but this time these do not support blind arches and are rather architraved , a motif interrupted only in the apse of the right transept (where blind arches appear again) and in the main apse where two orders of loggias are visible . In addition to the windows and lozenges, inlaid oculi also appear between the pilasters . The third floor has columns or semi-columns which again support blind arches (longitudinal body and choir) or an architrave (transept) with the usual alternation of windows, lozenges and inlaid oculi.

 

The raised round arches on the facade and in the main apse recall elements of Muslim art from Sicily . The blind arches with lozenges recall the similar structures of the churches of Armenia . Even the ellipsoidal dome rebuilt after the fire of 1595, surmounted by a lantern, recalls Islamic architecture.

 

The gray and white marble façade , decorated with colored marble inserts, was built by master Rainaldo in the 12th century and finished by 1180. On the lower floor, the seven blind arches which enclose lozenges, one every two, echo the same motif which spreads over the remaining three sides of the Cathedral. On the façade, however, the ornamentation becomes richer: semi-columns placed against semi-rectangular pillars replace the slender pilaster strips on the sides and are surmounted by Corinthian or figurative capitals. The arches are embellished with a rich texture of vegetal motifs and the lozenges are also larger and inlaid with multicolored marble. The empty spaces between the three portals have marble slabs forming square or rectangular motifs and are embellished with horizontal ornamental bands with plant motifs. The empty spaces between the arches are also filled with marble tablets inlaid with geometric or animal motifs. Noteworthy is the one at the top right of the main portal which depicts a Christian brandishing the cross between two beasts and the writing of Psalm 21 : Salva me ex ore leonis et a cornibus unicornium humilitatem meam (Save me from the mouth of the lion Lord and my humility from the unicorn's horns), the original of which is preserved in the nearby Museo dell'Opera del Duomo .

 

Of the three portals , the central one has larger dimensions and is enclosed by two columns decorated with vegetal motifs which support, above the capitals, two lions to symbolize the two "faces" of Christ the Judge , the one who condemns on the left and the one who rewards and is merciful on the right (note the saved and protected lamb between the legs). All three portals have eighteenth-century mosaics by Giuseppe Modena da Lucca in their lunettes depicting the Assumption of the Virgin (centre), Santa Reparata (left) and Saint John the Baptist (right). The bronze doors were made by various artists of the caliber of Giambologna , after the fire of 1595, replacing the two wooden side doors and the bronze-covered wooden royal door by Bonanno Pisano which bore the date of 1180 (seen and described before the fire) to testify to the completion of the façade in that year. To the left of the north left portal, there is Buscheto's tomb.

 

The four upper floors are characterized by four orders of superimposed loggias, divided by finely sculpted frames, behind which there are single , double and triple lancet windows . Many of the friezes on the arches and frames were redone in the 17th century after the fire of 1595, while the polychrome marble inlays between the arches are original. Even higher up, to crown it, the Madonna and Child by Andrea Pisano and, in the corners, the four evangelists by Giovanni Pisano (early 14th century).

 

Contrary to what one might think, since ancient times the faithful have entered the Cathedral through the door of San Ranieri , located at the back in the transept of the same name, in front of the bell tower. This is because the nobles of the city went to the cathedral coming from via Santa Maria which leads to that transept. This door was cast around 1180 by Bonanno Pisano , and is the only door to escape the fire of 1595 which heavily damaged the church. The door is decorated with twenty-four panels depicting stories from the New Testament. This door is one of the first produced in Italy in the Middle Ages, after the importation of numerous examples from Constantinople , (in Amalfi , in Salerno , in Rome , in Montecassino , in Venice ...) and one admires an entirely Western sensitivity, which breaks away from the Byzantine tradition.

 

The original gràdule of the Duomo, designed by Giovanni Pisano and dating back to the end of the 13th century, were removed in 1865 and replaced by the current churchyard . These gràdule consisted of small walls, decorated with squares carved with figures of animals and heads, close to the external perimeter of the cathedral and served as a base for the numerous sarcophagi of the Roman era which, during the medieval era, were reused for the burials of nobles (among whom Beatrice of Canossa stands out ) and heroes. Currently some fragments are visible in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, while the sarcophagi were all moved within the enclosure of the monumental cemetery .

 

The lower register of the facade is not very rich in figurative sculptural decorations unlike other contemporary Romanesque cathedrals, but it still gives a rich meaning both to its unitary components and a complex allegory in its overall vision. To read the latter you need to start from the left where the outermost capital of the left side portal shows two ferocious lions devouring weak prey and two human figures further behind. The former represent the struggle between good and evil where evil dominates [6] , but behind them the figure of the old man stacking wood and the young man towering over a ram perhaps represent Abraham and Isaac and the sacrificial ram (or two peasants virtuous at work) which show preparation for God's plan of salvation. The arch that starts from the same capital shows a row of dragons that two virtuous human figures in the center are forced to face in the continuous struggle between good and evil. [6]

 

At the level of the central portal we enter the New Testament which concretizes the plan of salvation brought about by God starting from Abraham . It is the portal dedicated to the Virgin of the Assumption and her Son , whose divine judgment is represented by the two lions of justice, the one that condemns on the left and the one that protects and saves on the right with the little lamb protected between its legs, for Divine Mercy or Justice whatever it is. [6] The 42 stylized human figurines present on the decorated arch show the 42 generations that separate, according to the Gospel of Matthew , Abraham from Jesus Christ (the figurines are actually 43 but perhaps due to renovation needs or other reasons for filling the frieze ). This transition from the old to the new is strengthened by the two marble inlays in the intrados of the main arch where a ferocious dragon and a lion facing each other depicting the perennial struggle between the evil forces (left inlay) [6] become two equally ferocious unicorns but in the middle to whom a Christian appears brandishing a cross to defend himself from them (inlay on the right) and where we read in Latin:

 

de ore leonis libera me domine et a cornibus unicorni humilitatem mea ("Save me from the lion's mouth, Lord, and my humility from the unicorn's horns", psalm 21 ).

The last element of this complex narrative is the outermost capital of the right portal, which acts as a pendant to that of the left portal from which we started. We are well beyond the coming of Jesus where the evil lions, previously in the foreground, are relegated to a backward and out of the way position, always ready to strike as shown by the heads turned back and the tongue out, but in a contorted position due to the continuous escapes to which the Savior and the Church forces them to do. [6] In a prominent position there are now two naked human figurines, the souls of those saved by the Savior through the intercession of the Church , which are composed and serene figures with large eyes, well anchored with their arms to the garland of the capital and the feet resting well on the acanthus leaves, symbol of men of faith, victorious over sin and blessed by faith rather than merit.

 

The five- nave interior is covered in black and white marble, with monolithic columns of gray marble and capitals of the Corinthian order . The arches of the ten bays are round arches (those of the central nave) or raised arches in the Moorish style of the time (those of the side naves).

 

The central nave has a seventeenth-century gilded coffered ceiling, in gilded and painted wood, by the Florentines Domenico and Bartolomeo Atticciati ; it bears the Medici coat of arms in gold . Presumably the ancient ceiling had a structure with exposed wooden trusses. The four side naves have a cross-shaped plastered roof. The coffered roof is also present in the choir and in the central nave of the transept, while a plastered barrel roof is present in the side naves of the transept. The coverage of the lateral naves of the transept at the level of the two bays shared with the lateral naves of the longitudinal body is curious: these are cross-shaped (as in the lateral naves of the longitudinal body), but are higher (as in the lateral naves of the transept) . There is also a women's gallery of Byzantine origin that runs along the entire church, including the choir and transept and which has a coffered roof (central body) or wooden beams (transept). Even higher up, thin and deep windows allow the church to be lit.

 

The interior suggests a spatial effect that has some analogy with that of mosques , for the use of raised arches, for the alternation of white and green marble bands, for the unusual elliptical dome , of oriental inspiration, and for the presence of women's galleries with solid monolithic granite columns in the mullioned windows , a clear sign of Byzantine influence. The architect Buscheto had welcomed stimuli from the Islamic Levant and Armenia . [7]

 

Only part of the medieval decorative interventions survived the fire of 1595. Among these is the fresco with the Madonna and Child by the Pisan Master of San Torpè in the triumphal arch (late 13th-early 14th century), and below it the Cosmatesque flooring , of a certain rarity outside the borders of Lazio . It was made of marble inlays with geometric "opus alexandrinum" motifs (mid- 12th century ). Other late medieval fresco fragments have survived, among them Saint Jerome on one of the four central pillars and Saint John the Baptist , a Crucifix and Saint Cosimo and Damian on the pillar near the entrance door, partially hidden by the compass .

 

At the meeting point between the transept and the central body the dome rises, the decoration of which represented one of the last interventions carried out after the fire mentioned. Painted with the rare encaustic painting technique [8] (or wax on wall) [9] , the dome represents the Virgin in glory and saints ( 1627 - 1631 ), a masterpiece by the Pisan Orazio Riminaldi , completed after his death. which occurred in 1630 due to the plague, by his brother Girolamo . The decoration underwent a careful restoration which returned it to its original splendor in 2018.

 

The presbytery, ending in a curved apse, presents a great variety of ornaments. Above, in the basin, the large mosaic of Christ enthroned between the Virgin and Saint John is made famous by the face of Saint John, a work by Cimabue from 1302 which miraculously survived the fire of 1595. Precisely that Saint John the Evangelist was the The last work created by Cimabue before his death and the only one for which certified documentation exists. It evokes the mosaics of Byzantine churches and also Norman ones, such as Cefalù and Monreale , in Sicily . The mosaic, largely created by Francesco da Pisa, was finished by Vincino da Pistoia with the depiction of the Madonna on the left side ( 1320 ).

 

The main altar, from the beginning of the twentieth century, features six Angels contemporary with Ludovico Poliaghi , and in the center the bronze Crucifix by Giambologna , of which there are also the two candle-holder Angels at the end of the rich marble transenna, while the third Angel on the column to the left of the altar is by Stoldo Lorenzi .

 

Below, behind the main altar, there is the large decorative complex of the Tribune, composed of 27 paintings depicting episodes from the Old Testament and Christological stories. Begun before the fire with the works of Andrea del Sarto (three canvases, Saint Agnes , Saints Catherine and Margaret and Saints Peter and John the Baptist ) del Sodoma and Domenico Beccafumi ( Stories of Moses and the Evangelists ), it was completed after this calamity with the works of several Tuscan painters, including Orazio Riminaldi .

 

The pulpit , a masterpiece by Giovanni Pisano (1302-1310), survived the fire, but was dismantled during the restoration work and was not reassembled until 1926 . With its articulated architectural structure and complex sculptural decoration, the work is one of the largest narratives in fourteenth-century images that reflects the renewal and religious fervor of the era. The episodes from the Life of Christ are carved in an expressive language on the slightly curved panels . The structure is polygonal, as in the similar previous examples, in the baptistery of Pisa , in the cathedral of Siena and in the church of Sant'Andrea in Pistoia , but for the first time the panels are slightly curved, giving a new idea of ​​circularity in its type. Equally original are: the presence of caryatids , sculpted figures in place of simple columns, which symbolize the Virtues ; the adoption of spiral brackets instead of arches to support the mezzanine floor; the sense of movement, given by the numerous figures that fill every empty space.

 

For these qualities combined with the skilful narrative art of the nine scenes it is generally considered Giovanni's masterpiece and more generally of Italian Gothic sculpture. The pulpit commissioned from Giovanni replaced a previous one , created by Guglielmo ( 1157 - 1162 ), which was sent to the cathedral of Cagliari . Since there is no documentation of what the pulpit looked like before its dismantling, it was rebuilt in a different position from the original one and, certainly, with the parts not in the same order and orientation as had been thought. It is not known whether or not he had a marble staircase.

 

The right transept is occupied by the Chapel of San Ranieri , patron saint of the city, whose relics are preserved in the magnificent shrine on the altar. Also in the chapel, on the left, is preserved part of the fragmentary tomb of Henry VII of Luxembourg , Holy Roman Emperor , who died in 1313 in Buonconvento while besieging Florence in vain . The tomb, also dismantled and reassembled, (it was sculpted by Tino di Camaino in 1313 - 1315 ) and was originally placed in the center of the apse, as a sign of the Ghibelline faith of the city. It was also a much more complex sculptural monument, featuring various statues. Moved several times for political reasons, it was also separated into several parts (some inside the church, some on the facade, some in the Campo Santo). Today we find the sarcophagus in the church with the deceased depicted lying on it, according to the fashion in vogue at that time, and the twelve apostles sculpted in bas-relief. The lunette painted with curtain-holding angels is instead a later addition from the workshop of Domenico Ghirlandaio (end of the 15th century ). The other remains of the monument have been reassembled in the nearby Museo dell'Opera del Duomo . The left transept is occupied by the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament, in the center of which is the large silver tabernacle designed by Giovan Battista Foggini (1678-86).

 

On the numerous side altars there are sixteenth-seventeenth century paintings. Among the paintings housed on the minor altars, we remember the Madonna delle Grazie with saints, by the Florentine mannerist Andrea del Sarto, and the Madonna enthroned with saints in the right transept, by Perin del Vaga , a pupil of Raphael , both finished by Giovanni Antonio Sogliani . The canvas with the Dispute of the Sacrament is in Baroque style, by the Sienese Francesco Vanni , and the Cross with saints by the Genoese Giovanni Battista Paggi . Particularly venerated is the image of the thirteenth-century Madonna and Child , known as the Madonna di sotto gli organi , attributed to the Volterra native Berlinghiero Berlinghieri .

 

Pisa is a city and comune in Tuscany, central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for its leaning tower, the city contains more than twenty other historic churches, several medieval palaces, and bridges across the Arno. Much of the city's architecture was financed from its history as one of the Italian maritime republics.

 

The city is also home to the University of Pisa, which has a history going back to the 12th century, the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, founded by Napoleon in 1810, and its offshoot, the Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies.

 

History

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Pisa.

Ancient times

The most believed hypothesis is that the origin of the name Pisa comes from Etruscan and means 'mouth', as Pisa is at the mouth of the Arno river.

 

Although throughout history there have been several uncertainties about the origin of the city of Pisa, excavations made in the 1980s and 1990s found numerous archaeological remains, including the fifth century BC tomb of an Etruscan prince, proving the Etruscan origin of the city, and its role as a maritime city, showing that it also maintained trade relations with other Mediterranean civilizations.

 

Ancient Roman authors referred to Pisa as an old city. Virgil, in his Aeneid, states that Pisa was already a great center by the times described; and gives the epithet of Alphēae to the city because it was said to have been founded by colonists from Pisa in Elis, near which the Alpheius river flowed. The Virgilian commentator Servius wrote that the Teuti founded the town 13 centuries before the start of the common era.

 

The maritime role of Pisa should have been already prominent if the ancient authorities ascribed to it the invention of the naval ram. Pisa took advantage of being the only port along the western coast between Genoa (then a small village) and Ostia. Pisa served as a base for Roman naval expeditions against Ligurians and Gauls. In 180 BC, it became a Roman colony under Roman law, as Portus Pisanus. In 89 BC, Portus Pisanus became a municipium. Emperor Augustus fortified the colony into an important port and changed the name to Colonia Iulia obsequens.

 

Pisa supposedly was founded on the shore, but due to the alluvial sediments from the Arno and the Serchio, whose mouth lies about 11 km (7 mi) north of the Arno's, the shore moved west. Strabo states that the city was 4.0 km (2.5 mi) away from the coast. Currently, it is located 9.7 km (6 mi) from the coast. However, it was a maritime city, with ships sailing up the Arno. In the 90s AD, a baths complex was built in the city.

 

Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages

During the last years of the Western Roman Empire, Pisa did not decline as much as the other cities of Italy, probably due to the complexity of its river system and its consequent ease of defence. In the seventh century, Pisa helped Pope Gregory I by supplying numerous ships in his military expedition against the Byzantines of Ravenna: Pisa was the sole Byzantine centre of Tuscia to fall peacefully in Lombard hands, through assimilation with the neighbouring region where their trading interests were prevalent. Pisa began in this way its rise to the role of main port of the Upper Tyrrhenian Sea and became the main trading centre between Tuscany and Corsica, Sardinia, and the southern coasts of France and Spain.

 

After Charlemagne had defeated the Lombards under the command of Desiderius in 774, Pisa went through a crisis, but soon recovered. Politically, it became part of the duchy of Lucca. In 860, Pisa was captured by vikings led by Björn Ironside. In 930, Pisa became the county centre (status it maintained until the arrival of Otto I) within the mark of Tuscia. Lucca was the capital but Pisa was the most important city, as in the middle of tenth century Liutprand of Cremona, bishop of Cremona, called Pisa Tusciae provinciae caput ("capital of the province of Tuscia"), and a century later, the marquis of Tuscia was commonly referred to as "marquis of Pisa". In 1003, Pisa was the protagonist of the first communal war in Italy, against Lucca. From the naval point of view, since the ninth century, the emergence of the Saracen pirates urged the city to expand its fleet; in the following years, this fleet gave the town an opportunity for more expansion. In 828, Pisan ships assaulted the coast of North Africa. In 871, they took part in the defence of Salerno from the Saracens. In 970, they gave also strong support to Otto I's expedition, defeating a Byzantine fleet in front of Calabrese coasts.

 

11th century

The power of Pisa as a maritime nation began to grow and reached its apex in the 11th century, when it acquired traditional fame as one of the four main historical maritime republics of Italy (Repubbliche Marinare).

 

At that time, the city was a very important commercial centre and controlled a significant Mediterranean merchant fleet and navy. It expanded its powers in 1005 through the sack of Reggio Calabria in the south of Italy. Pisa was in continuous conflict with some 'Saracens' - a medieval term to refer to Arab Muslims - who had their bases in Corsica, for control of the Mediterranean. In 1017, Sardinian Giudicati were militarily supported by Pisa, in alliance with Genoa, to defeat the Saracen King Mugahid, who had settled a logistic base in the north of Sardinia the year before. This victory gave Pisa supremacy in the Tyrrhenian Sea. When the Pisans subsequently ousted the Genoese from Sardinia, a new conflict and rivalry was born between these major marine republics. Between 1030 and 1035, Pisa went on to defeat several rival towns in Sicily and conquer Carthage in North Africa. In 1051–1052, the admiral Jacopo Ciurini conquered Corsica, provoking more resentment from the Genoese. In 1063, Admiral Giovanni Orlandi, coming to the aid of the Norman Roger I, took Palermo from the Saracen pirates. The gold treasure taken from the Saracens in Palermo allowed the Pisans to start the building of their cathedral and the other monuments which constitute the famous Piazza del Duomo.

 

In 1060, Pisa had to engage in their first battle with Genoa. The Pisan victory helped to consolidate its position in the Mediterranean. Pope Gregory VII recognised in 1077 the new "Laws and customs of the sea" instituted by the Pisans, and emperor Henry IV granted them the right to name their own consuls, advised by a council of elders. This was simply a confirmation of the present situation, because in those years, the marquis had already been excluded from power. In 1092, Pope Urban II awarded Pisa the supremacy over Corsica and Sardinia, and at the same time raising the town to the rank of archbishopric.

 

Pisa sacked the Tunisian city of Mahdia in 1088. Four years later, Pisan and Genoese ships helped Alfonso VI of Castilla to push El Cid out of Valencia. A Pisan fleet of 120 ships also took part in the First Crusade, and the Pisans were instrumental in the taking of Jerusalem in 1099. On their way to the Holy Land, the ships did not miss the occasion to sack some Byzantine islands; the Pisan crusaders were led by their archbishop Daibert, the future patriarch of Jerusalem. Pisa and the other Repubbliche Marinare took advantage of the crusade to establish trading posts and colonies in the Eastern coastal cities of the Levant. In particular, the Pisans founded colonies in Antiochia, Acre, Jaffa, Tripoli, Tyre, Latakia, and Accone. They also had other possessions in Jerusalem and Caesarea, plus smaller colonies (with lesser autonomy) in Cairo, Alexandria, and of course Constantinople, where the Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus granted them special mooring and trading rights. In all these cities, the Pisans were granted privileges and immunity from taxation, but had to contribute to the defence in case of attack. In the 12th century, the Pisan quarter in the eastern part of Constantinople had grown to 1,000 people. For some years of that century, Pisa was the most prominent commercial and military ally of the Byzantine Empire, overcoming Venice itself.

 

12th century

In 1113, Pisa and Pope Paschal II set up, together with the count of Barcelona and other contingents from Provence and Italy (Genoese excluded), a war to free the Balearic Islands from the Moors; the queen and the king of Majorca were brought in chains to Tuscany. Though the Almoravides soon reconquered the island, the booty taken helped the Pisans in their magnificent programme of buildings, especially the cathedral, and Pisa gained a role of pre-eminence in the Western Mediterranean.

 

In the following years, the powerful Pisan fleet, led by archbishop Pietro Moriconi, drove away the Saracens after ferocious battles. Though short-lived, this Pisan success in Spain increased the rivalry with Genoa. Pisa's trade with Languedoc, Provence (Noli, Savona, Fréjus, and Montpellier) were an obstacle to Genoese interests in cities such as Hyères, Fos, Antibes, and Marseille.

 

The war began in 1119 when the Genoese attacked several galleys on their way home to the motherland, and lasted until 1133. The two cities fought each other on land and at sea, but hostilities were limited to raids and pirate-like assaults.

 

In June 1135, Bernard of Clairvaux took a leading part in the Council of Pisa, asserting the claims of Pope Innocent II against those of Pope Anacletus II, who had been elected pope in 1130 with Norman support, but was not recognised outside Rome. Innocent II resolved the conflict with Genoa, establishing Pisan and Genoese spheres of influence. Pisa could then, unhindered by Genoa, participate in the conflict of Innocent II against king Roger II of Sicily. Amalfi, one of the maritime republics (though already declining under Norman rule), was conquered on August 6, 1136; the Pisans destroyed the ships in the port, assaulted the castles in the surrounding areas, and drove back an army sent by Roger from Aversa. This victory brought Pisa to the peak of its power and to a standing equal to Venice. Two years later, its soldiers sacked Salerno.

 

New city walls, erected in 1156 by Consul Cocco Griffi

In the following years, Pisa was one of the staunchest supporters of the Ghibelline party. This was much appreciated by Frederick I. He issued in 1162 and 1165 two important documents, with these grants: Apart from the jurisdiction over the Pisan countryside, the Pisans were granted freedom of trade in the whole empire, the coast from Civitavecchia to Portovenere, a half of Palermo, Messina, Salerno and Naples, the whole of Gaeta, Mazara, and Trapani, and a street with houses for its merchants in every city of the Kingdom of Sicily. Some of these grants were later confirmed by Henry VI, Otto IV, and Frederick II. They marked the apex of Pisa's power, but also spurred the resentment of other cities such as Lucca, Massa, Volterra, and Florence, thwarting their aim to expand towards the sea. The clash with Lucca also concerned the possession of the castle of Montignoso and mainly the control of the Via Francigena, the main trade route between Rome and France. Last, but not least, such a sudden and large increase of power by Pisa could only lead to another war with Genoa.

 

Genoa had acquired a dominant position in the markets of southern France. The war began in 1165 on the Rhône, when an attack on a convoy, directed to some Pisan trade centres on the river, by the Genoese and their ally, the count of Toulouse, failed. Pisa, though, was allied to Provence. The war continued until 1175 without significant victories. Another point of attrition was Sicily, where both the cities had privileges granted by Henry VI. In 1192, Pisa managed to conquer Messina. This episode was followed by a series of battles culminating in the Genoese conquest of Syracuse in 1204. Later, the trading posts in Sicily were lost when the new Pope Innocent III, though removing the excommunication cast over Pisa by his predecessor Celestine III, allied himself with the Guelph League of Tuscany, led by Florence. Soon, he stipulated[clarification needed] a pact with Genoa, too, further weakening the Pisan presence in southern Italy.

 

To counter the Genoese predominance in the southern Tyrrhenian Sea, Pisa strengthened its relationship with its traditional Spanish and French bases (Marseille, Narbonne, Barcelona, etc.) and tried to defy the Venetian rule of the Adriatic Sea. In 1180, the two cities agreed to a nonaggression treaty in the Tyrrhenian and the Adriatic, but the death of Emperor Manuel Comnenus in Constantinople changed the situation. Soon, attacks on Venetian convoys were made. Pisa signed trade and political pacts with Ancona, Pula, Zara, Split, and Brindisi; in 1195, a Pisan fleet reached Pola to defend its independence from Venice, but the Serenissima soon reconquered the rebel sea town.

 

One year later, the two cities signed a peace treaty, which resulted in favourable conditions for Pisa, but in 1199, the Pisans violated it by blockading the port of Brindisi in Apulia. In the following naval battle, they were defeated by the Venetians. The war that followed ended in 1206 with a treaty in which Pisa gave up all its hopes to expand in the Adriatic, though it maintained the trading posts it had established in the area. From that point on, the two cities were united against the rising power of Genoa and sometimes collaborated to increase the trading benefits in Constantinople.

 

13th century

In 1209 in Lerici, two councils for a final resolution of the rivalry with Genoa were held. A 20-year peace treaty was signed, but when in 1220, the emperor Frederick II confirmed his supremacy over the Tyrrhenian coast from Civitavecchia to Portovenere, the Genoese and Tuscan resentment against Pisa grew again. In the following years, Pisa clashed with Lucca in Garfagnana and was defeated by the Florentines at Castel del Bosco. The strong Ghibelline position of Pisa brought this town diametrically against the Pope, who was in a dispute with the Holy Roman Empire, and indeed the pope tried to deprive Pisa of its dominions in northern Sardinia.

 

In 1238, Pope Gregory IX formed an alliance between Genoa and Venice against the empire, and consequently against Pisa, too. One year later, he excommunicated Frederick II and called for an anti-Empire council to be held in Rome in 1241. On May 3, 1241, a combined fleet of Pisan and Sicilian ships, led by the emperor's son Enzo, attacked a Genoese convoy carrying prelates from northern Italy and France, next to the isle of Giglio (Battle of Giglio), in front of Tuscany; the Genoese lost 25 ships, while about a thousand sailors, two cardinals, and one bishop were taken prisoner. After this major victory, the council in Rome failed, but Pisa was excommunicated. This extreme measure was only removed in 1257. Anyway, the Tuscan city tried to take advantage of the favourable situation to conquer the Corsican city of Aleria and even lay siege to Genoa itself in 1243.

 

The Ligurian republic of Genoa, however, recovered fast from this blow and won back Lerici, conquered by the Pisans some years earlier, in 1256.

 

The great expansion in the Mediterranean and the prominence of the merchant class urged a modification in the city's institutes. The system with consuls was abandoned, and in 1230, the new city rulers named a capitano del popolo ("people's chieftain") as civil and military leader. Despite these reforms, the conquered lands and the city itself were harassed by the rivalry between the two families of Della Gherardesca and Visconti. In 1237 the archbishop and the Emperor Frederick II intervened to reconcile the two rivals, but the strains continued. In 1254, the people rebelled and imposed 12 Anziani del Popolo ("People's Elders") as their political representatives in the commune. They also supplemented the legislative councils, formed of noblemen, with new People's Councils, composed by the main guilds and by the chiefs of the People's Companies. These had the power to ratify the laws of the Major General Council and the Senate.

 

Decline

The decline is said to have begun on August 6, 1284, when the numerically superior fleet of Pisa, under the command of Albertino Morosini, was defeated by the brilliant tactics of the Genoese fleet, under the command of Benedetto Zaccaria and Oberto Doria, in the dramatic naval Battle of Meloria. This defeat ended the maritime power of Pisa and the town never fully recovered; in 1290, the Genoese destroyed forever the Porto Pisano (Pisa's port), and covered the land with salt. The region around Pisa did not permit the city to recover from the loss of thousands of sailors from the Meloria, while Liguria guaranteed enough sailors to Genoa. Goods, however, continued to be traded, albeit in reduced quantity, but the end came when the Arno started to change course, preventing the galleys from reaching the city's port up the river. The nearby area also likely became infested with malaria. The true end came in 1324, when Sardinia was entirely lost to the Aragonese.

 

Always Ghibelline, Pisa tried to build up its power in the course of the 14th century, and even managed to defeat Florence in the Battle of Montecatini (1315), under the command of Uguccione della Faggiuola. Eventually, however, after a long siege, Pisa was occupied by Florentines in 1405.[9] Florentines corrupted the capitano del popolo ("people's chieftain"), Giovanni Gambacorta, who at night opened the city gate of San Marco. Pisa was never conquered by an army. In 1409, Pisa was the seat of a council trying to set the question of the Great Schism. In the 15th century, access to the sea became more difficult, as the port was silting up and was cut off from the sea. When in 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded the Italian states to claim the Kingdom of Naples, Pisa reclaimed its independence as the Second Pisan Republic.

 

The new freedom did not last long; 15 years of battles and sieges by the Florentine troops led by Antonio da Filicaja, Averardo Salviati and Niccolò Capponi were made, but they failed to conquer the city. Vitellozzo Vitelli with his brother Paolo were the only ones who actually managed to break the strong defences of Pisa and make a breach in the Stampace bastion in the southern west part of the walls, but he did not enter the city. For that, they were suspected of treachery and Paolo was put to death. However, the resources of Pisa were getting low, and at the end, the city was sold to the Visconti family from Milan and eventually to Florence again. Livorno took over the role of the main port of Tuscany. Pisa acquired a mainly cultural role spurred by the presence of the University of Pisa, created in 1343, and later reinforced by the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa (1810) and Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies (1987).

 

Pisa was the birthplace of the important early physicist Galileo Galilei. It is still the seat of an archbishopric. Besides its educational institutions, it has become a light industrial centre and a railway hub. It suffered repeated destruction during World War II.

 

Since the early 1950s, the US Army has maintained Camp Darby just outside Pisa, which is used by many US military personnel as a base for vacations in the area.

 

Geography

Climate

Pisa has a borderline humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa) and Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa). The city is characterized by cool to mild winters and hot summers. This transitional climate allows Pisa to have summers with moderate rainfall. Rainfall peaks in autumn. Snow is rare. The highest officially recorded temperature was 39.5 °C (103.1 °F) on 22 August 2011 and the lowest was −13.8 °C (7.2 °F) on 12 January 1985.

 

Culture

Gioco del Ponte

In Pisa there was a festival and game fr:Gioco del Ponte (Game of the Bridge) which was celebrated (in some form) in Pisa from perhaps the 1200s down to 1807. From the end of the 1400s the game took the form of a mock battle fought upon Pisa's central bridge (Ponte di Mezzo). The participants wore quilted armor and the only offensive weapon allowed was the targone, a shield-shaped, stout board with precisely specified dimensions. Hitting below the belt was not allowed. Two opposing teams started at opposite ends of the bridge. The object of the two opposing teams was to penetrate, drive back, and disperse the opponents' ranks and to thereby drive them backwards off the bridge. The struggle was limited to forty-five minutes. Victory or defeat was immensely important to the team players and their partisans, but sometimes the game was fought to a draw and both sides celebrated.

 

In 1677 the battle was witnessed by Dutch travelling artist Cornelis de Bruijn. He wrote:

 

"While I stayed in Livorno, I went to Pisa to witness the bridge fight there. The fighters arrived fully armored, wearing helmets, each carrying their banner, which was planted at both ends of the bridge, which is quite wide and long. The battle is fought with certain wooden implements made for this purpose, which they wear over their arms and are attached to them, with which they pummel each other so intensely that I saw several of them carried away with bloody and crushed heads. Victory consists of capturing the bridge, in the same way as the fistfights in Venice between the it:Castellani and the Nicolotti."

 

In 1927 the tradition was revived by college students as an elaborate costume parade. In 1935 Vittorio Emanuele III with the royal family witnessed the first revival of a modern version of the game, which has been pursued in the 20th and 21st centuries with some interruptions and varying degrees of enthusiasm by Pisans and their civic institutions.

 

Festivals and cultural events

Capodanno pisano (folklore, March 25)

Gioco del Ponte (folklore)

Luminara di San Ranieri (folklore, June 16)

Maritime republics regata (folklore)

Premio Nazionale Letterario Pisa

Pisa Book Festival

Metarock (rock music festival)

Internet Festival San Ranieri regata (folklore)

Turn Off Festival (house music festival)

Nessiáh (Jewish cultural Festival, November)

Main sights

 

The Leaning Tower of Pisa.

While the bell tower of the cathedral, known as "the leaning Tower of Pisa", is the most famous image of the city, it is one of many works of art and architecture in the city's Piazza del Duomo, also known, since the 20th century, as Piazza dei Miracoli (Square of Miracles), to the north of the old town center. The Piazza del Duomo also houses the Duomo (the Cathedral), the Baptistry and the Campo Santo (the monumental cemetery). The medieval complex includes the above-mentioned four sacred buildings, the hospital and few palaces. All the complex is kept by the Opera (fabrica ecclesiae) della Primaziale Pisana, an old non profit foundation that has operated since the building of the Cathedral in 1063 to maintain the sacred buildings. The area is framed by medieval walls kept by the municipal administration.

 

Other sights include:

Santo Stefano dei Cavalieri, church sited on Piazza dei Cavalieri, and also designed by Vasari. It had originally a single nave; two more were added in the 17th century. It houses a bust by Donatello, and paintings by Vasari, Jacopo Ligozzi, Alessandro Fei, and Pontormo. It also contains spoils from the many naval battles between the Cavalieri (Knights of St. Stephan) and the Turks between the 16th and 18th centuries, including the Turkish battle pennant hoisted from Ali Pacha's flagship at the 1571 Battle of Lepanto.

St. Sixtus. This small church, consecrated in 1133, is also close to the Piazza dei Cavalieri. It was used as a seat of the most important notarial deeds of the town, also hosting the Council of Elders. It is today one of the best preserved early Romanesque buildings in town.

St. Francis. The church of San Francesco may have been designed by Giovanni di Simone, built after 1276. In 1343 new chapels were added and the church was elevated. It has a single nave and a notable belfry, as well as a 15th-century cloister. It houses works by Jacopo da Empoli, Taddeo Gaddi and Santi di Tito. In the Gherardesca Chapel are buried Ugolino della Gherardesca and his sons.

San Frediano. This church, built by 1061, has a basilica interior with three aisles, with a crucifix from the 12th century. Paintings from the 16th century were added during a restoration, including works by Ventura Salimbeni, Domenico Passignano, Aurelio Lomi, and Rutilio Manetti.

San Nicola. This medieval church built by 1097, was enlarged between 1297 and 1313 by the Augustinians, perhaps by the design of Giovanni Pisano. The octagonal belfry is from the second half of the 13th century. The paintings include the Madonna with Child by Francesco Traini (14th century) and St. Nicholas Saving Pisa from the Plague (15th century). Noteworthy are also the wood sculptures by Giovanni and Nino Pisano, and the Annunciation by Francesco di Valdambrino.

Santa Maria della Spina. A small white marble church alongside the Arno, is attributed to Lupo di Francesco (1230), is another excellent Gothic building.

San Paolo a Ripa d'Arno. The church was founded around 952 and enlarged in the mid-12th century along lines similar to those of the cathedral. It is annexed to the Romanesque Chapel of St. Agatha, with an unusual pyramidal cusp or peak.

San Pietro in Vinculis. Known as San Pierino, it is an 11th-century church with a crypt and a cosmatesque mosaic on the floor of the main nave.

 

Borgo Stretto. This medieval borgo or neighborhood contains strolling arcades and the Lungarno, the avenues along the river Arno. It includes the Gothic-Romanesque church of San Michele in Borgo (990). There are at least two other leaning towers in the city, one at the southern end of central Via Santa Maria, the other halfway through the Piagge riverside promenade.

Medici Palace. The palace was once a possession of the Appiano family, who ruled Pisa in 1392–1398. In 1400 the Medici acquired it, and Lorenzo de' Medici sojourned here.

Orto botanico di Pisa. The botanical garden of the University of Pisa is Europe's oldest university botanical garden.

Palazzo Reale. The ("Royal Palace"), once belonged to the Caetani patrician family. Here Galileo Galilei showed to Grand Duke of Tuscany the planets he had discovered with his telescope. The edifice was erected in 1559 by Baccio Bandinelli for Cosimo I de Medici, and was later enlarged including other palaces. The palace is now a museum.

Palazzo Gambacorti. This palace is a 14th-century Gothic building, and now houses the offices of the municipality. The interior shows frescoes boasting Pisa's sea victories.

Palazzo Agostini. The palace is a Gothic building also known as Palazzo dell'Ussero, with its 15th-century façade and remains of the ancient city walls dating back to before 1155. The name of the building comes from the coffee rooms of Caffè dell'Ussero, historic meeting place founded on September 1, 1775.

Mural Tuttomondo. A modern mural, the last public work by Keith Haring, on the rear wall of the convent of the Church of Sant'Antonio, painted in June 1989.

Museums

Museo dell'Opera del Duomo: exhibiting among others the original sculptures of Nicola Pisano and Giovanni Pisano, the Islamic Pisa Griffin, and the treasures of the cathedral.

Museo delle Sinopie: showing the sinopias from the camposanto, the monumental cemetery. These are red ocher underdrawings for frescoes, made with reddish, greenish or brownish earth colour with water.

Museo Nazionale di San Matteo: exhibiting sculptures and paintings from the 12th to 15th centuries, among them the masterworks of Giovanni and Andrea Pisano, the Master of San Martino, Simone Martini, Nino Pisano and Masaccio.

Museo Nazionale di Palazzo Reale: exhibiting the belongings of the families that lived in the palace: paintings, statues, armors, etc.

Museo Nazionale degli Strumenti per il Calcolo: exhibiting a collection of instruments used in science, between a pneumatic machine of Van Musschenbroek and a compass which probably belonged to Galileo Galilei.

Museo di storia naturale dell'Università di Pisa (Natural History Museum of the University of Pisa), located in the Certosa di Calci, outside the city. It houses one of the largest cetacean skeletons collection in Europe.

Palazzo Blu: temporary exhibitions and cultural activities center, located in the Lungarno, in the heart of the old town, the palace is easy recognizable because it is the only blue building.

Cantiere delle Navi di Pisa - The Pisa's Ancient Ships Archaeological Area: A museum of 10,650 square meters – 3,500 archaeological excavation, 1,700 laboratories and one restoration center – that visitors can visit with a guided tour.[19] The Museum opened in June 2019 and has been located inside to the 16th-century Medicean Arsenals in Lungarno Ranieri Simonelli, restored under the supervision of the Tuscany Soprintendenza. It hosts a remarkable collection of ceramics and amphoras dated back from the 8th century BCE to the 2nd century BC, and also 32 ships dated back from the second century BCE and the seventh century BC. Four of them are integrally preserved and the best one is the so-called Barca C, also named Alkedo (written in the ancient Greek characters). The first boat was accidentally discovered in 1998 near the Pisa San Rossore railway station and the archeological excavations were completed 20 years later.

 

Churches

St. Francis' Church

San Francesco

San Frediano

San Giorgio ai Tedeschi

San Michele in Borgo

San Nicola

San Paolo a Ripa d'Arno

San Paolo all'Orto

San Piero a Grado

San Pietro in Vinculis

San Sisto

San Tommaso delle Convertite

San Zeno

Santa Caterina

Santa Cristina

Santa Maria della Spina

Santo Sepolcro

 

Palaces, towers and villas

Palazzo della Carovana or dei Cavalieri.

Pisa by Oldypak lp photo

Pisa

Palazzo del Collegio Puteano

Palazzo della Carovana

Palazzo delle Vedove

Torre dei Gualandi

Villa di Corliano

Leaning Tower of Pisa

 

Sports

Football is the main sport in Pisa; the local team, A.C. Pisa, currently plays in the Serie B (the second highest football division in Italy), and has had a top flight history throughout the 1980s and the 1990s, featuring several world-class players such as Diego Simeone, Christian Vieri and Dunga during this time. The club play at the Arena Garibaldi – Stadio Romeo Anconetani, opened in 1919 and with a capacity of 25,000.

 

Notable people

For people born in Pisa, see People from the Province of Pisa; among notable non-natives long resident in the city:

 

Giuliano Amato (born 1938), politician, former Premier and Minister of Interior Affairs

Alessandro d'Ancona (1835–1914), critic and writer.

Silvano Arieti (1914–1981), psychiatrist

Gaetano Bardini (1926–2017), tenor

Andrea Bocelli (born 1958), tenor and multi-instrumentalist.

Giosuè Carducci (1835–1907), poet and 1906 Nobel Prize in Literature winner.

Massimo Carmassi (born 1943), architect

Carlo Azeglio Ciampi (1920–2016), politician, former President of the Republic of Italy

Maria Luisa Cicci (1760–1794), poet

Giovanni Carlo Maria Clari (1677–1754), a musical composer and maestro di cappella at Pistoia.

Alessio Corti (born 1965), mathematician

Rustichello da Pisa (born 13th century), writer

Giovanni Battista Donati (1826–1873), an Italian astronomer.

Leonardo Fibonacci (1170–1250), mathematician.

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), physicist.

Giovanni Gentile (1875–1944), philosopher and politician

Orazio Gentileschi (1563–1639), painter.

Count Ugolino della Gherardesca (1214–1289), noble (see also Dante Alighieri).

Giovanni Gronchi (1887–1978), politician, former President of the Republic of Italy

Giacomo Leopardi [1798–1837), poet and philosopher.

Enrico Letta (born 1966), politician, former Prime Minister of Italy

Marco Malvaldi (born 1974), mystery novelist

Leonardo Ortolani (born 1967), comic writer

Antonio Pacinotti (1841–1912), physicist, inventor of the dynamo

Andrea Pisano (1290–1348), a sculptor and architect.

Afro Poli (1902–1988), an operatic baritone

Bruno Pontecorvo (1913–1993), nuclear physicist

Gillo Pontecorvo (1919–2006), filmmaker

Ippolito Rosellini (1800–1843), an Egyptologist.

Paolo Savi (1798–1871), geologist and ornithologist.

Antonio Tabucchi (1943–2012), writer and academic

Sport

Jason Acuña (born 1973), Stunt performer

Sergio Bertoni (1915–1995), footballer

Giorgio Chiellini (born 1984), footballer

Camila Giorgi (born 1991), tennis player

Poor coconut tree... Well, here are a number of poems, mostly based on the general theme of impermanence, to hopefully console you. If they end up making you feel worse, at least I tried.

 

POETRY FIRE SALE

 

PAGO RAIN

 

The letter I sent you got some

Pago rain on it on my way to the

Mailbox. I remember you used

To love the rain; even when it

Soaked you, you’d say it was

Better than too long in the sun.

You may never see Pago again,

But when you hold the envelope

You’ll briefly be close one more

Time to what used to mean so

Much to you. Funny how things

We love often find a way back

To us, even if we barely notice.

 

OLD ROSES

 

Old roses, never delivered because

Of your about-face. I’ve tried just

Cutting you out of my mind and

Heart, like I’ve tried trashing these

Old roses, but that seems like an

Act of hate that would leave me

No better than when I started

And probably worse. It isn’t the

Symbol’s fault. These roses could

Go to no one else – they were

Chosen with you in mind. I keep

Them as a reminder of how it

Felt when I still thought you

Might enjoy them. Beauty needs

Its chance to bloom, and at least

These old roses hadtheirs.

 

MADMAN RANT

 

Let the madman rant, it

Doesn’t matter. He knows

Better than to use sticks

And stones, and if words

Help him get something

Off his chest, that’s not

Against the law just yet.

In his madness, he thinks

He finds some kind of

Answer – only problem

Is, it’s just for him. May

He find the one who his

Ranting makes perfect

Sense to – then maybe

He’ll finally shut up.

 

BAGPIPES

 

Why did the Scots drag their

Bagpipes into battle with them?

To psych out the enemy with

Melody? My tastes may be

Strange in many ways, but the

Bagpipes never sounded to me

Like impending doom. They

Sound like the eternal longing

For a home far away, for people

Long gone, for a love never

Answered. Were the Scots

Appealing to their enemy’s

Sentimental side? Hey, don’t

Knock it if you haven’t tried it.

 

MOMZU (1920-1992)

 

Mom, as much as I miss you,

I’m glad you weren’t around

To watch me never grow up

In some ways and grow old

Before my time in others.

Mom, the better part of me

Comes from you. As for the

Rest, well… Kids just take it

All in before they can truly

Discern.

 

USELESS ARTIST

 

Artists sometimes appear useless,

All talk and unrealistic dreaming,

No plan of action, thought for the

Future, no security, no visible

Means of survival, never mind

Success. Everything to excess,

Poster children for laziness, deaf

To any mention of responsibility,

Just plain sloppy, and all for no

Apparent reason other than ego.

Listen, artistic fulfillment better

Pay the bills, pal, or else you’ll

Follow your inspiration all the

Way into the gutter. Thanks for

The lecture, responds the artist,

Dusting off his besmirched self-

Worth. I take this risk knowing

Any inspiration can be dangerous,

But does anything feel worse than

To turn away from your own gift?

 

GUEST

 

Feast before the food gets cold.

The guest of honor can’t make it

On time again, maybe can’t make

It at all, but he’d want us to enjoy

All that we’ve prepared. Besides,

There’s nothing like eating for the

Right reason. If you sing, dance

And celebrate each other, even

If the guest of honor isn’t present

In the flesh, he’s here in spirit.

 

DEATH BY COMPLICATION

 

There’s a misguided notion that

Death by complication is somehow

More humane than death by lethal

Injection. I beg to differ on that

Point. Death by complication is

Just like strangulation by vines,

A sign of indifference and neglect.

When complications start growing

All over your life, it’s useful to know

How to cut through the nonsense –

Complications only grow because

We feed them. We need instead

To nurture what’s simple, basic

And true, saving our sunshine for

What’s most important to us.

 

THE LOVERS

 

The lovers are discovered in my

Driveway. Oh Christ! Can’t they

Take it someplace where it’s dark,

Like a schoolhouse after hours?

The boy puts on a show of defiance,

Like I’m the trespasser on my own

Property, or a threat to his precious

Guinnevere, but no, I just need to

Remind them they’re in someone’s

Yard, not the public park. He says

They’ll move on, I leave them be.

I reflect that the psychology of

Love has to do with leaving home,

Just as I too so long ago stole my

First kiss somewhere mom and

Dad weren't watching.

 

IMMIGRATION

 

Connection getting warmer,

Components of joy making

Themselves known. Feels

Like home, all anticipation.

Why the delay, immigration?

Check me, review me, clear

Me for entry into your country

That’s part of me too. Open

My baggage, see what I carry

Around. Does my package

Contain a bomb? Are you

Joking? Care to shake it? In

A manner of speaking, yes.

Let me in, immigration, you

Won’t regret it.

 

CAGED

 

Wounded lion, caged for all our

Safety, musn’t let it escape. It’s

Shown it’s got a mind of its own,

Especially when hungry. This lion,

He’s a cunning one, charms the

Naïve with fun and laughter before

Chewing on their heads. Caged

Lion, nursing his resentment at a

Fate he feels he doesn’t deserve.

We all eat, my diet’s just different.

Why can’t we just kill it? That sad

Look he gives us, like all I ever

Wanted was to be alive and free,

A feeling even a captor must in

Some way understand full well.

Take that one last dignity away

From me and you know you’re

Really taking if from yourself.

 

INTERMISSION

 

Intermission from the sadness

So you all can go to the snack

Bar for popcorn and soda.

Nothing sad for 15 minutes.

Isn’t it a nice day? Bright but

Just enough clouds to make it

Comfortable outside. Hey, I

Got some good news and I’m

Still buzzing from it. The long

Persistence when all seemed

Hopeless wasn’t in vain – faith

Pays off given time. It’s mostly

The truth in the news lately.

People complain as usual, but

At least they’ve got a sense of

Humor too. You can get off that

Bad path anytime you like - as

Nancy Reagan said, just say no.

The car’s got problems, but at

Least it’s moving. Life isn’t all

Sadness, no way… Ok, our 15

Minutes are up, please return

To your seats and we’ll resume

Our regular program of gloom.

 

LOVE’S ARMY

 

Those of us in love’s army, we’re

Blessed with needy weaponry.

Like knights on a crusade we

Invade bringing salvation, not

Just destruction. Burning with

Holy fire, we scour sacred ground

So sacred life can rise anew. We

Give you ground zero, now build

A glorious future, the one you

Envisioned when you petitioned

The heavens for change. Having

Tried peaceful means, you know

This is really what was needed.

Best to believe it’s all for the

Good, as you put out the flames

And mop up the blood. Should

You reward our heroism with

Haughty ideals of pacifism, what

An insult to us risking our lives

Just so you can continue to live

And love at your liberty, long as

You’re on the winning side.

 

POOR DUMB BUGGER

 

Poor dumb bugger, won’t get

To act like a loser on the corner

At night for awhile. Poor dumb

Bugger, mind fully focused on a

Hollywood sex icon, dreaming

Of fingers on skin. Man, it’s sweet

In the middle of the street till he

Wakes up in an ambulance cause

He hadn’t noticed the bus he was

Walking into. Lust-blinded bugger,

Deaf too, never heard the BAM

Like the Babe hit a home run as

He spun through time and space

And landed in a ditch, all the

While immersed in his crimson

Visions of Pamela Anderson’s

Unattainable Hollywood tongue.

Poor dumb bugger, flying on pain

Killers now, mumbling in the

Ambulance, man, if this is what

It’s like just thinking of Pamela

Anderson, I’m afraid real romance

Might be too intense for me.

 

CIGARETTE BUTT

 

I was in the smokers’ corner,

Looking at all the cigarette

Butts that won’t decompose,

Thinking, whoa, too bad love

Can’t be like that, this used

Dirty thing that just won’t

Come apart, even in a crisis,

Even in a hurricane, unlike

Your expertly laid plans,

Homes and marriages. Even

In a flood, the butt just floats

Out to sea. In the belly of a

Whale, it gets barfed out in

Some far distant land. Have

Commitment, will travel.

A few moments’ enjoyment

Produces such an enduring

Symbol. I look at the butt

And wonder what we let go

Up in smoke. Hey wait, isn’t

That your shade of lipstick?

 

VULTURE

 

Vulture is untroubled by a long

Wait, follows no schedule. He

Knows there are weak as sure

As there are strong, and the

Strong always feed first while

The weak eventually fall prey

To themselves. Could be ill

Fate, maybe pride instead of

Common sense – nothing new

Under the sun - but in the end

There’s just a mess he helps

Nature clean up. Cannibals

Might take it personally, but

Not the airborne refuse truck.

It’s just community service,

A civic duty to save you paying

A mortuary. Vulture circling,

Singing aloha oe.

 

TRAVELING

 

Kona to Oakland direct, culture

Shock like changing channels.

California, home to the dream

Industry, the locals take it so

Seriously. My first meal on the

Mainland might prove my last

Supper in Mel’s. You say you

Taught school in this section

Of Oakland for twenty years,

And you’re remembered but

Not very fondly. Unbelievably

Flawed education system for

Such an affluent state, and

You’re still that system’s public

Face. Too many cops yawning,

Sipping coffee, eating burgers

In Mel’s for your old pupils to

Shoot us when we enter, but

We’ll get shot, you’re certain,

As soon as we walk out – by

The cops. Or by that waitress,

Unless our tip lives up to her

Expectations – see how she

Labors to be nice – can’t be

Easy with a customer entirely

Convinced they’re in for a

Bullet any minute. In view of

All this, I think I’ll let you pay.

Not especially classy of me,

Can’t argue, but kindly chalk

It up to culture shock.

 

TIBURON

 

Clearly, everyone loves Robin, but

It’s Tiburon they all despise. Rich

Gated community by the sea in

Marin County. Home to walking

Stereotypes of excess wealth off

Mediocrity, America’s appalling

Collective tastes – what was Robin

Doing there anyway? Surely such

A dear person full of heart, soul

And love would have been just as

Discomforted by Tiburon as the

Rest of us (who can’t get in). So

Robin’s suicide must have been

His one last comic masterstroke –

Want to be on the map, Tiburon?

Ok, I’ll put you there, pal. You’re

The poster community for deeply

Seated celebrity dysfunction –

Beware collective America, even

The seemingly most solid among

Us can carry demons that slowly

Eat away at us from inside. Honor

Robin’s memory – make someone

Smile or laugh.

 

EYE FOR AN EYE

 

Eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth,

Heart for a heart, life for a life.

You hurt me and you’ll regret it.

Eye for an eye in the streets

Of Missouri, where the attitude

Of the cops has finally caught

Up with them. Eye for an eye

Is a taste of your own medicine,

And I’ll bet you don’t like it

At all. Eye for an eye in Israel,

Both sides feeling grievously

Offended, violated, vengeful.

Eye for an eye is the playground

Of the devil. It was designed

To end conflict to a by restoring

Balance, but these days we don’t

Just take what we need (or think

We need), we take everything.

So keep your eye, I will not be

Satisfied with less than your

Head. You hurt me and you’ll

Regret it. There is a solution,

One clearly indicated by those

Deeply held beliefs you so

Loudly trumpet, but if you still

Don’t want it, insist it doesn’t

Apply, what’s the point of even

Giving you a choice?

 

MR. MAGIC

 

Who’s the new Mr. Magic?

The one who’ll solve all your

Problems, ease all your

Worries with his warm smile,

Reassuring words, gentle

Probing touch, etc? Then

He’ll pull the magic trick

Of disappearing after he’s

Gotten what he wants. You

Must find particular delight

In magic shows. Can you still

Count how many Mr. Magics

Have made you fall for their

Illusions?

 

PLAN

 

Trying to plan my life with the

Precision of a military campaign,

Like the Nazis looking at weak,

Tired old Europe and thinking,

Now is the time we consolidate.

Nice try, guys, thank God the

USA came to the rescue. Trying

To dictate that my heart follow

Rules, like math and science do,

Serve more as a review board

Than a living, breathing part of

Life in all its flaws, confusions,

Contradictions, losses and gains.

Looks good on paper, but pen

And ink can’t preserve what’s

Fleeting, what’s changing even

As you read this. What remains

Constant is as much a mystery

As what won’t stay – both quite

Impossible to control. We’re

All gamblers analyzing our bets,

Surfers looking at big waves,

Nomads risking a desert crossing,

Singers trying to find someone

We have a harmony with. Never

A guarantee, but always the

Freedom to do it our way.

 

TALES

 

The only tales worth telling end

Happily, otherwise our literary

Canon would be an endless

Chronicle of life’s thousands of

Defeats. By all accounts, the tale

Between you and me concluded

In quiet disaster, consisting of

Nothing either of us would care

To repeat. Seen differently, the

Tale could simply have reached

Its crossroads and could go

Either way – nowhere at all or

Towards unexpected resolving

Of the conflicts, the return of

Something good that was there

All along but first had to go

Through the fire. Good, after all,

Has more faces than the ones

We immediately recognize, and

What is heroism if not hard

Earned self-realization? I will

Never see myself as anyone’s

Hero, but I’d still like to survive

To see however and whoever

With my tale ends happily.

 

THROW ME IN THE CARGO HOLD

 

When I die, just throw me in the

Cargo hold on the flight to Samoa.

Put me in with the mail and the

Suitcases. If I make the plane too

Overweight, leave behind some

Standbys who are too heavy. They

Can come later but for now make

Me your highest priority. Hawaiian

Air, put me on k-fare, k as in kill

You if you can't get me home. I'll

Become a ghost, living in your

Restroom mirrors, scaring small

Children looking out the window,

Who'll see the very angry face of

A Samoan you couldn't find room

For, even in the cargo hold. Just

Get me back home to my village

And faalavelave and faifeau and

Faipule, to all my aiga crying as

Much as they eat, and on every

Samoa flight my soul will be right

Beside you, flying shotgun to

Protect you from bad spirits in

The air who can't fly to Heaven

Even on standby. I'll make all

Your passengers so happy and

Loving of Hawaiian Air, even

With your small seats and tiny

Joke meals. That's an eternity

Of service in return for you

Just finding enough room for

Me to come home in your cargo

Hold with the mail and suitcases.

 

CIRCULAR

 

I wish I could say something

Positive, but the most positive

Thing I can say is I wish I could

Say something positive. I wish

I could make a difference, but

The only thing I can think of

That might make a difference

Is to say I wish I could. Other

Than that, I don’t know what

To think or what to say. One

Day, when things have come

Full circle, you’ll understand.

 

HURT

 

Kind of useless to hurt if there’s

No possibility the hurt will turn

To joy. That’s like going into

Battle indifferent about winning.

This is not to imply you pick and

Choose how and when you hurt.

Usually it’s just there, indicating

The persistence of something

That seems impossible. Who’s

Making it impossible? We are.

Our reasons take precedence.

Maybe the hurt doesn’t want

Subjugation, revenge, or even

Joy as compensation earned.

It simply insists it deserves an

Answer, all the while knowing

It may never get one.

 

ELVIS TESTAMENT

 

What would Elvis do? He advised

Us, don’t be cruel. By implication

(Even if I’m stretching it), he meant

Watch out what you identify with,

be careful who you let in your life,

Have respect for all things and all

People, even the people who’ve

Made you feel disposable. Relax,

Hang loose, rock a little. Cool is

The rule, cold gets old fast, and

When you’re hot, you’re hot. And

Above all else, remember, unless

It’s necessary beyond the shadow

Of a doubt, don’t be cruel.

 

SONGBIRD

 

Songbird, do you know that

Song about reading the signs?

I read them carefully, perhaps

Too carefully, and I wish I could

Take them only as seriously as

A songbird would. But I move

Responsibly through road, sea

And sky, or try to, and I know

That one ignores the signs

At one’s own peril. The peril

Of openness is that someone

Can make you feel like nothing,

While the peril of closedness

Is going numb and not feeling

Much of anything anymore.

Your life must have its own

Complications, songbird, but

I like how you’re singing away

Again for no better reason than

Another morning.

 

THE HEALING SEA

 

Flow with the healing sea

Where life began, where life

Sustains. Her tides carry

Life, even to the land. We

Started from the sea, it’s

Always inside us. Dive into

The healing sea, let its

Waves wash away the ages

Make you new, alive again.

Protect the healing sea as

It holds the sky at bay,

Shields us from the sun.

Help the healing sea keep

A fragile planet in balance.

 

THE NEW DINOSAURS

 

Overdrawn on credit from the

Generous bank of nature, take

More than you can pay for and

There's going to be forclosure.

Hide trash under the carpet

Of the planet’s furthest corners -

No wonder you live in a dump

Grown foul and ever warmer.

Blow smoke in the sky’s face,

Run a sewer into the sea, choke

The land on fast food bones,

And cut down all the trees. It’s

Like we’re the new dinosaurs,

Just thinking of ourselves, and

Nature needs to stop us turning

Heaven into hell. We’ll hire a

Team of scientists to save us

All some shade, but here comes

The economist saying profits

Must be made. What good’s a

Corporation when your credit’s

Turned to crud, and what good’s

A Mercedes when it has to run

On blood? Nothing in the kitchen

Now, except the kitchen sink.

It’s like we’re the new dinosaurs,

We soon will be extinct.

 

DISRUPT

 

Seriously unserious, sincerely

Insincere – oh for something

Definite like granite, dauntless,

Definition in a world of ambiguity.

I’m breathing, that’s clear enough,

And in my dreams I have wings

But when I wake I have aches,

And not just in the body. How

Many of us just sleepwalk through

Our day, the better part of us

Unformed, unfinished, unspoken?

What a shame to break off

The engagement of our senses.

Would you mind if I disrupt

Your structured existence

Without even trying?

 

TRASH

 

Trash shows where you’re at.

Among the upsides, manifest

Both here and stateside, one

Downside of this Polynesian/

Caucasian conflation is trash.

Trash signifies affluence, as in

We’ve got money to spend on

Candy, chips, soda, and saimin -

All this shit, ironically, makes

You constipated. Even if these

Indicators of our first world

Tastes make our movements

Somewhat less freer than

Previously, we’re still at liberty

Under the stars and stripes to

Sully our streets with rubbish

Like thoughtless dogs just

Pooping wherever. I ask you,

What kind of progress is this?

 

RHAPSODY IN PUPPETRY

 

I wish you knew me better as a

Person than as an idea. It’s nice

To be thought about, but I’d

Rather be talked to. As an idea,

I’m little more than a reflection

Of your own hopes and fears,

More projection than human.

Impressions are one thing, but

Is it right or fair to think you

Understand someone based

Solely on how you’ve created

Them in your head? When it

Comes to ideas, we’re puppet

Masters of our thoughts. Still,

When you think you can just

Pull the right strings to make

Something happen, and instead

The puppet rebels like a bronco

Sending a cowboy flying, your

Ideas have just hit a proverbial

Fan. So no, I can’t be anyone’s

Puppet, powerless without

Considerate direction, but if

You’d just ease your grip on

What you think are my strings,

I’d wager I could be something

You’d like even better.

 

DEPOSITION TANGO

 

Postcard from the road

Saying lawyers are a load

Unto themselves, but if it

Takes a judge's gavel to

Bring this family back

Together, that's better

Than nothing. He said,

She said, deposition

Tango, not so much

A song as an excuse

For a solo.

 

BEFORE ME, BEHIND ME

 

I remember so much of my

Past, it jus seems so long ago,

And seeing it up close again

The impression is how little

Any of it's changed. I was

Right about it the first time -

I connect with it in a different

Way now. It was my launching

Pad to somewhere very, very

Different. But I never would

Have gotten there had I not

Started from here. I am the

Continuity between the two.

Not sure how to handle that -

It'll have to just handle itself.

 

SHOOT

 

Religion, thank God, is not

Mexican politics - simply a

Matter of who's got the

Weapons. If you need to

Establish an Islamic state,

I have no objection - it's

Shooting people I object

To. If you can't convince

Me with the hope your

Religion will bring to the

World, with its solutions

For mankind, you might

As well just save your

Breath and shoot me

Before I shoot you.

 

PARTNER

 

Partner with whom compromise

Is no cause for resentment by

Either of us. Partner who’s been

Around the block, but is still well

Aware of how life is meant to be

More than just going around the

Block endlessly. Partner who

Understands why partnership

Should not be just an end unto

Itself, but also knows the value

Of getting it right. Partner who

Wants to get it right. Partner

Who wants to be my partner,

End of discussion. That’s the

Only kind of partner I’d give up

My freedom for. These may be

My famous last words, but I’ve

Learned the hard way they’re

The right ones, at least for me.

 

TWO CLOWNS

 

Looking at our story like it’s

A drama I’m not even part of,

Like something on TV or in a

Book. You can see with better

Accuracy given distance from

Personal involvement, your

Personal need to identify or

Deny. Look dispassionately,

See the two clowns bungling

It over and over, incapable of

Anything but farce. In a sense,

They’re quite a brilliant pair,

Reliable for incredible laughs

If you’re not the one it’s

Happening to. Clowning, an

Exaggeration of our human

Condition – how can you not

Sympathize when they want

So badly to get something

Right that without fail they

Always get it wrong? Isn’t

That every one of us, every

Day, only without makeup?

 

MUD

 

Not very graceful, and no matter

What I do, it’ll look dirty, down

In the mud again. Mud is a mood,

Gets you stuck regardless of how

Hard you spin your wheels – mud

Goes flying, gets anyone too close

Soiled too, while you just get mired

Ever deeper. Mud, unholy marriage

Between water and earth, natural

Fluidity and practicality fused in

Hell’s Laboratory of Unhappiness

To be neither practical nor fluid.

Actually, mud can in fact be very

Practical for impeding a pursuer,

A fluid solution to being caught

Up with. If you’d rather not be

Understood, mud’s the answer.

Roll in it enough and it’s sure to

Obscure as much about yourself

That you’d prefer not to face as

You’d care to bury. You can never

Tell another’s true colors when

They’re all covered in mud. Even

If mud hasn’t compromised your

Sight for so long that now every

Single thing you see looks in

Some way or other soiled.

 

MOTH

 

Call me moth, a foolish

Human trying time and

And time again to touch

The light with nothing to

Shield me. That’s why

Sometimes I look like

Toast and feel like crumbs,

But for some reason or

Other, I’m still here talking

To you. Maybe I’m here

Just for you to compare -

So try these comparisons…

You’re my light and I want

To become one with you,

But the sacrifice of a moth

Brings the light no honor -

What honor is destructive

Desire? A moth’s one

Chance at fulfillment is

To discover his own light.

Only with a light of his own

Is there any possibility he

And his love can shine as

One. Sadly, your average

Moth just goes for the

Most obvious, and would

Not be here talking to you.

 

TWIST

 

Endless ways to twist the tale,

For even when it seems like

They’ve come to an abrupt

Conclusion, tales continue

To evolve, often in ways

You’d never have imagined.

In its simplest beginnings,

Our tale starts with someone

Doing the reaching out and

Someone doing the shutting

Out. And that was that, or so

It seemed, but like many tales

With something more to it

Still struggling to resolve, this

One just continues to twist.

 

ARCHAEOLOGY

 

Heart pieces, broken shards,

Long buried in shifting sands.

Unmistakable, unmistakably

Incomplete, only part of the

Picture. Hinting at a grander

Construction if you’re handy

Enough with the glue. If you

Take the time to understand

What goes where, matching

The heart pieces around the

Gaps that remain, patching

The cracks. They won’t hold

Water, but at least it’s a start.

As Etta James sings “At Last,”

Little heart pieces chime in,

”Archaeology has arrived

To save us.”

 

BEATLEMANIA

 

Mark once looked in the mirror

And saw John, the guy millions

Of girls screamed for. John proved you

Don’t need muscle or movie

Star looks to conquer with talent

And wit, attitude, a vision

Of a swingin’ new world where

Even guys with hair like girls

Could rule. Now Mark looks in the

Mirror and sees Holden Cufield,

Who intuits the truth about

Everything, and has opinions

About putting phonies in their

Place – imposters who peddle

Baloney, then could care less

About ruining the illusion,

Opening the door to dreams

And then shutting it again

Playing house husband instead of

Making millions of girls want to

Twist and shout with you? Let

Me take you down before I

Go there too. What will it take

To reunite the Beatles?

Three more bullets.

 

(Note: Read about John Lennon, Mark David Chapman, and "The Catcher In The Rye" on Wikipedia.)

 

T’S MADNESS

 

It’s madness from the typical

Viewpoint, like knocking on a

Door where you’ve already

Been told go away. It meets

Einstein’s criteria of madness,

Like hoping a situation that’s

Always gone badly will

Somehow still end happily.

It’s madness to endlessly

Revisit the scene of a loss

Like a dog beside the grave

Of its master. It’s madness

A jury might not accept as

An excuse, the solution

Being so obvious. It may be

Madness, but within that

Madness a promise, kept

When together, kept when

Apart. It’s madness from

The typical viewpoint, but

From another, the only way

To preserve one’s sanity.

 

IMPRESSIONS

 

Can you see how I might

Have gotten the impression

I don’t mean anything to

You? Can you see what this

Hesitation has always been

About? Am I supposed to

Just embrace everything

You’ve done as if it’s all ok

Or it never happened? In

Truth, I would once again

Put all my misgivings aside

And try to accept you as

You are if I knew this was

What you want. But can

You see how I might have

Gotten the impression

That what you want is

Something else entirely

That has nothing to do

With me?

 

I’D TRADE

 

With a real artist you know

There’s always something

More than just entertainment

Going on. I don’t claim to be

An artist – in fact I’m lucky if

I can even entertain you for

A few minutes. It’s no longer

About trying to impress. I just

Keep howling because when

A dog doesn’t know what else

To do, that’s its message to

The moon and stars. Feeling

Every bit as foolish as I must

Look, I just keep sending out

This SOS long after the ship

Has gone down because I

Simply can’t bring myself to

Send out for pizza. Thanks

To disaster befalling my dear

Good ship, I’ve found a voice

To make it sound probably

Far grander than it ever

Really was, but in truth I’d

Still trade this new voice for

My old ship anytime.

 

CRICKET

 

Cricket, land on my page and

Make yourself at home. I don’t

Need to squash you to assert

My superiority, and as long as

You don’t bite me, we can have

A little party. I say little because

All I’ve got’s a little ink for us

To play around with. Shall we

Make tattoos? Your skin looks

Too thin for me to sketch on,

And you’re too tiny to try your

Artistry on me, but we can

Always write a poem. Great!

I can blame this one on you.

 

ENERGY

 

Energy, your waywardness

Brings me sadness. It’s not

That you can’t control

Yourself, it’s that you’re

Too easily led. You jump

At every opportunity like

A trained seal or monkey.

Energy, you’ve gone so

Wrong for so long it’s

Making me curious what

It would be like if you went

Right for once in your life.

 

SIMPLICITY

 

We are simply humans, but

We want to be glorious like

We see in magazines and

Movies. We imagine that’s

Us up there on the screen.

Deep down we know it’s

All illusion, and that glory

Won’t’ keep you warm at

Night, but in our shallow

End we’ll take the glitz

Over the shits, and our

Innate simplicity can go

Simplify itself elsewhere.

 

CRICKET 2

 

You must have odd DNA

To be crawling around my

Page, and not be home

Asleep like other crickets.

Flying into my light,

Burning your feet.

Watching me write as if

I’m the most interesting

Thing in your cricket

World tonight. Weirdo,

I’m not sure you’ll get to

Reproduce, or if you’d

Even want to. Neither

You nor I need the

Crickets of tomorrow

Crawling on my page

Like you, unless they

Intend to memorize

My verses for future

Generations of crickets.

 

LOST DAY

 

I took a day to myself, gave

Responsibility a break, and

Slept through most of it.

Tried to do some things

Outside, but it rained, so I

Ended up doing not much

Of anything except a lot of

Thinking. Now it feels like

A lost day. I could have

Done something that

Needs to be done, said

Something that needs to

Be said, clarified what’s

Still unclear, maybe

Reassured someone in

Doubt, maybe fixed

Something broken. So

Many ways to make at

Least a small difference.

But occasionally we all

Need a day when we do

Nothing except sit still

And see what the day

Does for us.

 

SHIFTING

 

Rainfall is flushing out the

Gutters, ferrying garbage

From here to the sea. Let

The dolphins deal with it.

Let turtles savor its taste.

Water doesn’t solve our

Garbage problem, only

Shifts it. Shifting is a skill,

Substituting, re-arranging

To create the appearance

Everything’s clean, it’s all

Legit. Just cause nature

Does it for us sometimes

Doesn’t make it any less

Of a deception. Shifting

Problems aside won’t

Solve them –they will

Appear again, whether

It be elsewhere, or in a

Mask, or in your children,

Or in your confession, or

Right in your face saying

Honey, I’m home to roost.

 

THE POINT

 

There must be a point to

All of this, it’s just slow in

Revealing itself, and for

Our part we have to go

Through some changes,

Perhaps many changes

Before we can even

Catch a glimpse of the

Point, like Alice saw the

Rabbit when she least

Expected it. When all

Seems pointless, I tell

Myself Heaven does

Not make cruel jokes,

Therefore there must

Be a point to all of this.

 

EXILE

 

Unwelcome, barely tolerated,

Familiar intruder, overstayer

Of the heart. The truth must

Be faced, and if eyes were

A firing squad, I’d be pushing

Up daises. How did I earn my

Exile to these cold corners?

I might have made something

Loving sound hateful, made

Something extraordinary

Sound worthless, made a

Gift from God sound like an

Albatross. I say it was pain

Speaking, but given a voice,

Pain can so easily let out

Something nasty. The world

Is nasty enough already –

Anyone who makes it more

So deserves to be exiled.

 

PHOENIX

 

Myth of the Phoenix that rises

From its own ashes. It takes

Some presumptuousness for

Me to compare myself to an

Immortal bird, I know, so

Let’s say instead I’m simply

Inspired by it. Most males

Would take a football player,

Soldier, singer or president

As a role model, I know, so

Forgive for being a freak,

But I choose the Phoenix.

Its story speaks of loss and

Rising above it. I’ve done

My share of going down in

Flames, often as a result of

Believing some myth about

Love. It’s not love’s fault

Humans create myths

About it. Humans make up

Myths about all kinds of

Things, including each other.

I don’t mind you making up

Myths about me, as long as

They’re the kind that inspire

Someone in a good way, but

If you really want to help me

Rse up, try and see the truth

And understand it. First stop,

My dear, is the mirror.

 

FAIR

 

A lot of things in life are

Not quite fair. Fairness

Can be like water - it

Finds its own depth,

Finds its own form.

We suit the character

Of fairness to the

Situation, to ourselves.

Something unfair can

Continue for a long

Time, but have you

Ever seen an

Imbalanced plane

Achieve takeoff or

Land safely?

 

SHOP

 

Shop around, there’s always

A better deal elsewhere,

And the sensible approach

Is never fix anything, just

Replace it. Purchases exist

To serve and please, not to

Feel or think on their own,

And if they don’t work,

Plenty more where they

Came from. Shop around,

Even if all that’s on sale is

Crap with no warranty.

Oh, and since you’ll be

Shopping around the rest

Of your life, better be

Careful with your credit.

 

SONG AND DANCE

 

I’m really crap at dancing but

Maybe there’s a little song I

Can do to make someone

Feel good a few moments.

My preoccupations sometime

Prove useful and other times

Prove fatal. I try to make

Everything sound like the

Truth, which is sometimes

Needed and other times

Desperately avoided. Do I

Sound like I really know the

Truth? Do I look like I have

A third eye? But as long as

It sounds right, who’s any

Wiser? I just do my usual

Song and dance because

I’m too impatient to wait

Until Christmas for gifts

To be given and received.

 

BOSS

 

Ok, you be boss since

I’m just a fuckup who

Can’t get anything right

To save his life. Wait,

I take that back, I get

Lots of things right,

Just never with you.

So you be boss, you

Be in charge. I’m liberal

And progressive to a

Sufficient extent that

My ego won’t get all

Bent out of shape.

Hey, whatever works.

Don’t tell me you can’t

Handle being boss –

Haven’t you heard of

Equal opportunity?

 

SELF-PITY

 

Oh woe is me, poor confused

Me, poor neglected me, poor

Heartbroken me, poor offended

Me, poor disgusted me, poor

Horrified me, poor naïve me,

Poor weak me, poor discarded

Me, poor unsatisfying me, poor

Unchosen me, poor substandard

Me, poor stubborn me, poor

Indulgent me, poor morally-

Suspect me, poor controversial

Me, poor conceited me, poor

Remembered-unfondly me,

Poor unfairly judged me, poor

Dishonorably treated me,

Poor lousy-poetry me, poor

Medicare-beckoning me, poor

One-big-soft-spot me, poor

Can’t-keep-the-bitch-in-line

Me, poor passive-aggressive

Me – Jeez, it just goes on

And on until you finally

Have to admit it sure takes

A lot of gas to get nowhere.

 

ISIS

 

Baw baw black sheep,

That’s me. I never felt

Denied by the world,

I felt denied by those

Who want it all for

Themselves, those

Who feel they know

This world so well

They can tell who or

What doesn’t belong.

Are they emissaries

Of the one who made

Our world, or is their

So-called holiness

Really just an excuse

To claim more than

They’ve been given?

 

CLEAN UP DAY

 

I got a degree! I got a degree!

Now I’m picking up rubbish

For ASCC. PhDs and janitors

Are equal today, thanks ASG.

PhDs get a taste of ladder-

Bottom labor, just to instill

A better appreciation of such

Vital services, although you

Know they’re quite familiar

With dirtywork of a different

Sort already. But hey, it’s a

Democracy, so let’s get all

Democratic and clean the

Campus. And since we’re all

Switching professions like

Malas switch gender, what

I’d really like to see is the

Janitors run this college and

Our admins go clean toilets.

I have faith the janitors can

Do a better job setting policy,

And if WASC is shocked by

This and shouts ‘sanction’ or

Farts out some other knee-

Jerk reaction, hey, we don’t

Dictate their janitorial flow

Chart so would they kindly

Keep their nose out of ours.

 

VALENTINES DAY

 

On Valentines Day while the

Lovers get up to whatever

They please, I propose a toast

To the unloved and alone.

The lovers have it covered,

Forget them. It’s the ones

Who’ll spend the day without

Someone special that we

Should remember. In your

Prayers, ask the one whose

Love endures for always to

Smile on those who, for

Whatever reason, live as if

Love just isn’t an option.

There’s an underside to the

Romance of Valentines Day –

Alone with no hope in sight.

Drink a toast to them, even

If they can’t see or hear it,

Ask that somehow, some

Way, their stories can still

End happily. We haven’t

Any God-given right to find

Someone we naturally want

To take care of, who’ll take

Care of us in return, but if

You’re lucky enough to be

With someone such as this

On Valentines Day, is there

Any further proof of God’s

Grace you could ask for?

 

GOOD MORNING 2015

 

So much for my best laid

Plans to put the yard in

Order before I take off

For Hawaii. Raining with

No sign of it letting up.

I can take the rain but

I doubt the lawnmower

Is in a Gene Kelley mood.

The yard may have to wait,

May look like a jungle by

The time I get to it, may

Feel neglected and I

Can’t blame it. Yard, I’m

Sorry I don’t give you the

Attention you deserve.

If I had my way, I’d take

Care of you 24/7. So

Just celebrate, get

Drunk on the rain and

Later I’ll bring you some

Asprin along with my

Machete.

 

OSTRICH

 

Look away, look down, look

Within - and look and look and

Look within. I can really be

Kind of an ostrich. That which

Isn't acknowledged doesn't

Exist, at least for the moment.

But if it matters enough in the

First place for its head to be

In the sand, the ostrich isn't

Fooling anyone - something's

Up. Something's wrong. The

Outside world remains the

Same but his inner world is

Losing its gravity - nothing

Will stay in place. Ostrich

Thinks, at least I can anchor

My head, before I too fly off

The earth into the void, or

Heaven, or other planets, or

Wherever living beings go

When severed from the ties

They hold dear. Is this really

Happening, or does thinking

It so make it so? No way to tell

When you can't risk a look.

 

SHADOWS

 

It's always cause to smile when

Shadows of the mind vanish in

The sunlight. Far preferable to

Suspicions being confirmed.

When you're not sure what to

Assume, shadows of the mind

Take many shapes, some more

Benign than others. While I'm

Not cruel, sometimes it seems

Like something very cruel has

Taken root, made possible

Partially by uncertainty and

Partially by shadows posed in

Worst case scenarios. Shadows

Have minds of their own, and

Fear they haven't got enough

Substance, enough form, to

Survive in the sunlight. So they

Take the worst of what's real

And dress it in the scandalous

Colors of what isn't. Get to

Know the shadows and the

Sunlight - you'll live with both

Till that happy day when you

Have it made in the shade.

 

CIRCUS

 

The circus is some kind of

Haven for those who prefer

The freak show to the

Corporation. Did the circus

Say it was thinking of

Staying in your town for

Another season? Year of

The Horse, it might have

Happened. Year of the

Sheep, forget it, no way.

Selfishness has its own

Shadow, self-protection

From the wolves out there,

Stampeding elephants,

Tigers who won't take no

For an answer. Stay put

Too long and they begin

To question the novelty -

Move on or lose your

Mystery. One last smile

From your own dedicated

Fool, the clown famous

For taking the ridiculous

To another level. Will the

Circus ever return? Wiser

To assume never, that way

It can forever surprise.

 

AT THE END OF THE DAY

 

I will think this, I will think

That. I will feel this, I will

Feel that. I will regret this,

I won't regret that. At the

End of the day it's about

Doing the right thing. I try

To do the right thing when

I have a clue what the right

Thing is. It's not the worst

News, it's not the best

News. It's about what's

Still there, good or bad,

Right or wrong, at the

End of the day. Trying to

Do the right thing, and

Hoping I'm not mIstaken.

 

PLAYER

 

Player, I wish you’d give me

Something I can trust, but

You give me the opposite.

Player, they’re holding you

Up as some kind of symbol

Of what’s good and right –

What an irony. Player, if

Sincerity is really spoken for

By deed, then what do your

Own deeds say about you?

Simply that you consider

Some more worthy of your

Sincerity than others.

 

CALLING SOCIAL SERVICES

 

Does expressing sadness pave

The way for happiness? If we

All sing the blues, do we feel

Better knowing none of us is

Really alone, feeling solidarity

In suffering with all the other

Badly screwed up hearts to our

Community? Social services,

You must rescue me, it’s my tax

Dollars paying your salary. A

Noted authority has diagnosed

Me with possessive rejection

Syndrome, a decreasingly rare

Condition that renders grown

Men helpless as useless infants

Desperate for an emotional tit

To satiate a deficient sense of

Legitimacy. I say there’s nothing

I can do knowing full well the

Difference between what I can

Do and what I’m willing to do.

Don’t ask me to swallow my

Pride - my digestive allergies

Would process that more as

Explosion than nutrition.

 

POTHOLES

 

Our social rules are sometimes

More felt than clearly defined.

We could be completely moral,

Like something out of the Bible,

Or island blunt, as in, whatever

Works till something that works

Better comes along. Our salad

Combines improvisation with

Age old wisdom and select

Interpretation, mixed to taste.

We are many things from one

Moment to another. This may

Be natural harmony, or pure

Self-indulgence, or scheming

Animosity, or saintly self-

Denial depending on our

Mood and the surf conditions.

I’m not unpredictable, just

Ready for anything. You can

Usually predict I like feeling

I’m on the road to something

Right, but you know how

Potholes spring up overnight.

 

WITHOUT IT SOUNDING

 

How do you express that you

Can live with the flaws in life

Without it sound like you’re

Endorsing the flaws in life?

How do you say it’s ok to

Make mistakes without it

Sounding like you’re making

A mistake by saying that?

How do you say you could

Forgive without it sounding

Like you’re the one who

Needs to be forgiven? How

Dare you usurp the work of

You-Know-Who?

 

ANCIENT ROME

 

Ancient Rome wasn’t all

Buggery, slavery, gladiators

And senseless conquest.

No, Ancient Rome was also

The fountainhead of modern

Philosophy, ideas about the

Self and society that still

Resonate today. Ancient

Rome was brutal, but

Produced beautiful art

When it wasn't feeding

Christians to its lions.

Ancient Rome was raped

By Barbarians after falling

Prey to corruption and

Decadence, its leaders

Too drunk, its heroes too

Stymied by STDs to do

Anything. Nero played

Fiddle while half his city

Burned to the ground,

Why are all our human

Pinnacles followed by

Parties where we tear

Down what we worked

So hard to build?

 

POTHOLES IN ANCIENT ROME

 

Potholes in ancient Rome when

The tax collection got lax. Fried

Rice in ancient China. Baked

Bananas in old Samoa to fuel

Our choo-hoos. Subterfuge in

Medival Europre, always that

King vs. commoner thing, the

Final flowering of which was

The Mafia. Scrawlings on

Rocks and in caves from a

Millienia ago - the beginnings

Of art and literature. Random

As things seem, seen in the

Long run there's always a

Certain consistency. If you

Feel I lack consistency, take

A historical perspective.

 

DISAGREE

 

There you are, all over my past

But still we’re no closer than we

Were seven years ago. Seven

Years is a long time to not get

Along – our disagreements

Must run deep. What was it

Again that we disagee on? Is

It an honor thing? Feel you

Weren’t treated honorably in

Accordance with your own

Spotlessly honorable way of

Treating others? It’s up to you

If you want to cast me as one

Of the villians in your tale –

By now you’ve had enough

Experience with villains to

Know one when you see one.

 

CRIPPLED

 

So easy to be crippled emotionally

And not even know it. Can’t fathom

Anymore how certain connections

Are forged. Everyone’s a potential

Threat – the potential joy a painful

Carrot dangled on a string in front

Of an ass. Youth are so full of life

They’re entitled to indiscretions,

But once you mature you have no

Excuse for not acting your age. Or

Has convention simply become a

Crutch - holding up who – holding

Up what? If you find you’re feeling

Ageless and could care less what

Society thinks, is this not so much

Degeneration as regeneration?

 

WALLS

 

Everyone needs their walls

Nowadays – too many thieves.

Everyone is a potential thief,

And just to prove you’re not

A robber can take forever.

Thieves disguise themselves

As nice people, so not even

The nicest of persons can

Pass freely through the wall.

Walls are like stopping pirates

By draining the sea. What if

Your deamboat comes in and

Just finds a wall? You can’t

Just leave yourself wide open,

True, but if you build a wall

Make sure you haven’t just

Walled yourself into a trap

Of your own design.

 

HELD TO RANSOM

 

We are held to ransom by Hawaiian

Air – highway robbery with aloha.

Is it fuel prices that force your fares

Through the roof? All those lives

Lost and ruined when we invaded

Iraq, and gas prices go up. Islam

Could easily take over the world

Now just by starting an airline and

Offering better fares. Fighting for

Freedom and democracy makes

Convenient campaign rhetoric, but

If the real battle is for the economy

You just handed a victory to our

Enemy on a silver platter. If we’re

Tired of being gouged by airlines

Like Hawaiian, and Allah Airways

Says, how undemocratic, compare

Our prices please, it doesn’t take

Rocket science to work out where

Consumer loyalty is going to go.

 

PONY EXPRESS

 

What will the ponies do now

That we don’t need them to

Send messages to each other?

Maybe they can become

Counselors for people who

Are having trouble talking.

What will the express riders

Do now that computers have

Displaced them as carriers of

News and conveyors of more

Private communication? I can

See them in Congress, symbols

Of something dear to us that

Nevertheless was never gong

To last. As the pony express

Rides off into memory, those

Close to it can treasure a

Certain reverence that only

Comes with redundancy.

 

GROUNDHOG DAY

 

On Groundhog Day I’ll pop

My head above my hole and

Let it be known I’ll address

Any question posed with

Appropriate politeness. Yes,

I do. No, I don’t. Yes, I am.

No, I’m not. Yes, I like this.

No, I don’t like that. Yes, I

Would. No, I wouldn’t. Well,

Maybe I might were you to

Convince me you’re serious.

Of course you can. Are you

Kidding? This information

Isn’t public domain, but I

Think it’s a shame I can’t be

Open with you if you want

To be open with me. Or else

We can maintain a public

Face of indifference, even

While knowing our hearts

Still care enough to hurt in

Private. If sharing this way

Isn’t appropriate even on

Groundhog Day, then I

Guess we’ll just have to

Wait until Judgment Day.

 

ALIENS

 

I think I know how aliens

Must feel – desperate not

To be noticed – knowing

That even if you’re strong

You’re still outnumbered –

Trying to appear more

Normal than normal,

Boring, harmless,

Innocuous. The nail that

Sticks up will be pounded

Back down, especially an

Unfriendly reminder like

Me that creation doesn’t

Reflect their image alone.

Negotiating with these

Aliens makes fighting off

The Tongans and Fijians

Seem like mere child’s

Play by comparison.

 

FOUNDATION

 

Foundation, below the surface,

Not out in the open. Strong

Bottom can outlast a weak top.

Shall we judge this house by its

Ugly, messy, broken, dangerous

Outer appearance or by its rock-

Solid foundation? As faded as

It looks, the house refueses

To fall, refuses to move. Mocks

Your departure by staying right

Where you left it, just how you

Left it. Fires, storms, robbers,

Lawyers, squatters – nothing

Changes at the foundation.

The house simply accepts the

Ebb and flow of life. You could

Take a bulldozer and dynamite

To prove you refuse to be

Affixed to your past, but the

Foundation has the last laugh,

For when the outside world

Batters you so badly that you

Need a foundation to return to,

Where will you go?

 

IMITATION

 

Machines make things so

Easy for us, but does easy

Really mean better or

Happy? Machines give us

An advantage over the

Few remaining cavemen

Who don’t know how to

Use them, but would we

Know how to hunt our

Own food if we had to?

We hunt for information,

For connections our

Machines enable. We

Make machines as an

Imitation of us. I hope

They’re not making us

An imitation of them.

 

IMITATION 2

 

This is not the truth, this is

A reflection of the truth,

A meditation on the truth

As it appeared to me when

I was holding the pen. This

Is my calligraphy conveyed

Through a keyboard. This

Isn’t my voice, but you can

Imagine it’s my voice or

Donald Duck’s voice or

Whoever’s voice. These

Are my instructions to

Your soul, my wisdom

In sum total, a tiny yellow

Post-it note on eternity’s

Bulletin board. Very sorry

I missed you. I wanted to

Be with you, but this is as

Close as I could get.

 

SAMOA IS THE NEW TEXAS

 

Cash machines not working,

Koko Bean lunch counter

Exploding, no imports of

Eggs, local chickens not

Cooperating, inscrutable

Chinese rationing my

Marlbro Reds. Impending

Signs of our economy

Collapsing, with social

Anarchy soon to follow

When they run out of

Beer. And it’s all the fault

Of the Samoan prates in

Their paopaos, menacing

Container ships with rocks

And pelus. Winning back

Samoa from western

Influence. You’d really

Have to love Samoa to

Stay after McDonalds has

Gone down like the Alamo.

 

SILENCE AND LANGUAGE

 

I’d trying to bend the language

To my will, but it’s resisting.

Language has gone on strike,

Seeking more equitable terms

For the work I expect it to do.

Language, I may have been

Hard, but I hope I stopped

Short of cruel. I know I ask

You to do the most unusual

Things, and you always play

Along like a good sport. But

Now I can’t get you to flow.

Have the real or imagined

Conflicts and incompatible

Beliefs I’ve been trying to

Capture made you retreat

Into a silence harder than

Stone, as if to warn me, the

Words may sound clever, but

If I use them I’ll regret it?

Silence is a killer, and power

Over death is impressive, but

Silence needs language to fill

Its emptiness. Language, let

Me leave at least a trace for

Someone who’s trying to find

The trail – flow for me again.

 

SPIRIT

 

Spirit, you can’t see it but it’s

There. Spirit distills ideals, the

Purity of intent to inform but

Never command action. Spirit

Is an angel on your shoulder,

But never a deciding factor.

Spirit, closely embraced, can

Make you wonder if you’re

Believing an illusion. Where

Wishing meets knowing, in

A twilight where something

Inside us is trying to decide

To be or not to be, spirits

Whisper to us in dreams.

Which spirit do we listen to?

You can’t see it, but it’s there.

 

ORIGINS

 

Saw a science fiction movie

Once about a planet where

It never stops raining. Made

Me wonder why most of the

Time I feel like it’s raining

Inside. That feeling of nature

Itself running interference.

Rain makes us grateful for

Shelter, reminds us we’re

Not fish even though it feels

Like we’re living in water a

Lot of the time. Water can

Cleanse, refresh, let us start

Again clean. Water falls from

The sky or flows from within

The earth like a hidden truth

That refuses to stay hidden.

Water means well but needs

To know when to stop lest

It drown us. Rain inside could

Go on until it floods our inner

World, taking us back to our

Origins as fish, each a tiny

Consciousness dreaming

The land back into being.

 

PUZZLE

 

Do you have the missing

Piece to my puzzle? Until

It’s complete, the picture

Will always have a flaw.

Beauty and completeness

Bring together separate

Qualities, each important,

Irreplaceable. The parts

Can stand alone when

Something beautiful is

Broken into pieces, but

Their true nature, true

Value and true meaning

Are only revealed in the

Joining. How curious this

One missing piece tries to

Complete every other

Puzzle besides mine.

 

UNEASY STREET

 

Brothers and sisters who never

Got over how mother apportioned

Her love. Brothers and sisters

Caused each other problems that

Still never have been resolved.

Brothers and sisters all have their

Own stories of what they made

Out of their lives. Their problems

Are now their gifts to their children

To share with their husbands and

Wives.

 

GOOD DOGGIE

 

Review, constant review. No rest

From the watchful eye guiding you

To perfection. Saying it’s for your

Protection. For you are like a child

Who’ll put their hands on the stove

Or a kitten who’ll jump over the

Rail. How will you ever get through

All the danger that awaits you

Unless you wear a leash and wag

Your tail? Good doggie, good

Doggie, here’s a biscuit, now be

Happy you don’t have to search

Through the garbage to survive.

Relax - we’ve got your back and

Everything else.

 

VOLUNTEER

 

To feed all these hungry stomachs,

To feed all these hungry hearts, to

Feed all these hungry minds, to fill

All these empty souls, to resolve

All these simmering conflicts. Help

Wanted, looking for a few good

Men and women. Ask not what

Your world can do for you, but

What you can do for your world.

Warning: the world will eat you,

But at least it’s for a good cause.

 

FILTER

 

There’s about a million filters

Any feeling of mine has to go

Through before I’d even

Dream of expressing it. I’m

Like fish, easily overcooked

But really good raw once you

Acquire my taste. Raw like

Sushi, just as nature made

Me, no fancy recipe to

Compromise my flavor.

Why won’t you let me on

Your menu? Chefs all want

To smother me in sauce

Just cause they can, filter

Out all of my salty ocean

Substance, make my bones

Soft. Wouldn’t you rather

Have my natural nutrients,

Not some diluted deal?

Honestly, all these filters

Mostly make me falter.

.... 84 years ago today .... The Christie Pits Riot occurred on 16 August 1933 at the Christie Pits (Willowvale Park) playground in Toronto, Ontario. The riot can be understood in the context of the Great Depression, anti-semitism, Swastika clubs and parades and resentment of "foreigners" in Toronto, and the rise of Hitler and the Nazis in Germany in 1933 .... The riot occurred six months after Adolf Hitler took power in Germany. The Toronto papers, including the Telegram and the Toronto Star, as well as the Yiddish journal, Der Yiddisher Zhurnal, reported on how Jews were being dismissed as lawyers, professors, teachers, etc. in Germany, as well as incidents of violence against them. Thus to Jews, the swastika represented degradation and physical violence against Jews, and was inflammatory. At that time, the Jewish community in Toronto was predominantly poor and working-class. They were also the subject of discrimination. Some of the locals formed "Swastika Clubs", which openly displayed the Nazi symbol to express their displeasure and make Jews feel unwanted, initially insisting that the swastika had nothing to do with Hitler. The riot .... which lasted six hours .... broke out after a quarter-final baseball game at Christie Pits between two local clubs: Harbord Playground, predominantly Jewish, with some Italians, and St. Peter's, a baseball team sponsored by a Catholic church at Bathurst and Bloor.

The night of the riot was the second game between Harbord and St. Peter's. Two nights earlier, at the first game of the series, a swastika had been displayed. Police were warned in writing that there could be trouble at the second game, but those warnings were ignored. After the final out of the second game, Pit Gang members displayed a blanket with a large swastika painted on it. A number of Jewish boys and young men who had heard about the previous Swastika incident rushed the Swastika sign to destroy it, supporters of both sides (including Italians who supported the Jews) from the surrounding area joined in, and a fight started.

 

The Toronto Daily Star described the event the next day:

 

“ While groups of Jewish and Gentile youths wielded fists and clubs in a series of violent scraps for possession of a white flag bearing a swastika symbol at Willowvale Park last night, a crowd of more than 10,000 citizens, excited by cries of ‘Heil Hitler’ became suddenly a disorderly mob and surged wildly about the park and surrounding streets, trying to gain a view of the actual combatants, which soon developed in violence and intensity of racial feeling into one of the worst free-for-alls ever seen in the city.

Scores were injured, many requiring medical and hospital attention... Heads were opened, eyes blackened and bodies thumped and battered as literally dozens of persons, young or old, many of them non-combatant spectators, were injured more or less seriously by a variety of ugly weapons in the hands of wild-eyed and irresponsible young hoodlums, both Jewish and Gentile"

No one was killed in the riot. There was criticism of the police for not being ready to intervene. After the riot, Mayor Stewart warned against displaying the swastika and there were no further riots.

The riot revealed the xenophobic attitudes toward Jews and other non-Anglo immigrants among some Anglo Canadians. Jews represented the largest minority in Toronto in 1933 and were thus a target of xenophobic residents ....

In support of our Aboriginal Community who have had 1,181 indigenous women and girls, missing or killed across Canada between 1980 and 2012. St. Margaret's Anglican Church rang its bell 1, 181 times, I was honoured to be a part of this event.

 

Here is an excerpt: "God of our Ancestors....Remembering the Children,

We now pledge ourselves to speak the Truth, and with our hearts and our souls

to act upon the Truth we have heard

 

of the injustices lived,

of the sufferings inflicted,

of the tears cried,

of the misguided intentions impose,

and of the power of prejudice and racism

which were allowed to smother the sounds and laughter of the forgotten children"

www.rememberingthechildren.ca/

Taurus - SALMIAH HASSAN

youtu.be/b6xzKeX9gTw

 

The characteristics of taurus are solidity, practicality, extreme determination and strength of will - no one will ever drive them, but they will willingly and loyally follow a leader they trust. They are stable, balanced, conservative good, law-abiding citizens and lovers of peace, possessing all the best qualities of the bourgeoisie. As they have a sense of material values and physical possessions, respect for property and a horror of falling into debt, they will do everything in their power to maintain the security of the status quo and be somewhat hostile to change.

 

Mentally, the caracteristics of taurus are keen-witted and practical more often than intellectual, but apt to become fixed in their opinions through their preference for following accepted and reliable patterns of experience. Taurus character is generally dependable, steadfast, prudent, just, firm and unshaken in the face of difficulties. Their vices arise from their virtues, going to extremes on occasion,such as sometimes being too slavish to the conventions they admire.

 

On rare occasions a Taurus may be obstinately and exasperatingly self-righteous, unoriginal, rigid, ultraconservative, argumentative, querulous bores, stuck in a self-centered rut. They may develop a brooding resentment through nursing a series of injuries received and, whether their characters are positive or negative, they need someone to stroke their egos with a frequent, "Well Done!" Most Taurus people are not this extreme though.

 

They are faithful and generous friends with a great capacity for affection, but rarely make friends with anyone outside their social rank, to which they are ordinarily excessively faithful. In the main, they are gentle, even tempered, good natured, modest and slow to anger, disliking quarreling and avoiding ill-feeling. If they are provoked, however, they can explode into violent outbursts of ferocious anger in which they seem to lose all self-control. Equally unexpected are their occasional sallies into humor and exhibitions of fun.

 

Although their physical appearance may belie it, they have a strong aesthetic taste, enjoying art, for which they may have a talent, beauty (recoiling from anything sordid or ugly) and music. They may have a strong, sometimes unconventional, religious faith. Allied to their taste for all things beautiful is a love for the good things of life pleasure, comfort, luxury and good food and wine and they may have to resist the temptation to over indulgence, leading to drunkenness, gross sensuality, and covetousness.

 

In their work, Taurus are industrious and good craftspeople, and are not afraid of getting their hands dirty. They are reliable, practical, methodical and ambitious, within a framework of obedience to superiors. They are at their best in routine positions of trust and responsibility, where there is little need of urgency and even less risk of change, and a pension at the end. Yet they are creative and good founders of enterprises where the rewards of their productiveness come from their own work and not that of others.

 

They can flourish in many different trades and professions: banking, architecture, building, almost any form of bureaucracy, auctioneering, farming, medicine, chemistry, industry Taurus make good managers and foremen surveying, insurance, education and, perhaps surprisingly, music and sculpture. They make an ideal trustee or guardian, and can attain eminence as a chef. Some Taurus are gifted enough in singing to become opera stars or to excel in more popular types of music.

They are more than averagely amorous and sensually self-conscious, but sexually straightforward and not given to experiment. They make constant, faithful, home loving spouses and thoughtful, kindly parents, demanding too much of neither their spouses nor children. They can be over possessive and may sometimes play the game of engineering family roles for the pleasure of making up the quarrel. If anyone offends their amour proper they can be a determined enemy, though magnanimous in forgiveness if their opponent makes an effort to meet them halfway.

 

No other sign in the zodiac is closer to earth then Taurus. The main objective in leading a Taurean life is primarily (though not entirely) to maintain stability and physical concerns. Your inner spiritual sense longs for earthly harmony and wholesomeness. When you fully understand this, and work toward this end, you will no longer need to blindly reassure yourself with external possessions and comforts. A realization that finding this inner peace will cause all of the above mentioned positive things will overtake you and your life will be very full.

 

Ultimately the Taurean needs to discover their truest, deepest and highest values. When they know what is truly valuable, they are no longer chained to people and to things that have to do with lesser values. The greatest indication of value to a Taurean is beauty, which cannot be owned, only appreciated.

 

Possible Health Concerns For Taurus...

Taurus governs the throat and neck and its subjects need to beware throat infections, goiter and respiratory ailments such as asthma. They are said to be at risk of diseases of the genitals, womb, liver and kidneys, and of abscesses and rheumatism. Because their body type has an inclination to physical laziness, Taureans can be overweight.

   

if you can always be cheerful

if you can sleep without drugs

if you can relax without alcohol

if you can start the day without caffeine

if you can take blame without resentment

if you can resist complaining

if you can eat the same food every day and be grateful for it

if you can understand it if your loved ones are too busy to give you time

AND if you can overlook it when those you love take it out on you when,

through no fault of yours, something goes wrong

THEN my friend you are almost as good as your dog.

 

www.leedspostcards.com

What i need is RE-

REaching a new state of seREnity, REacting, REadjusting, REalism, REalizing what happened, consoliding my inner REalm, REappearing in clubs and parties, a new REason to stay here, REawakening, REbuilding, REcapitulating what i need by the way, REcharging my batteries, a new REcipe for happiness, REciprocating, REcollecting good memories, REconsidering my decisions, REcovering from my wounds, REcreating my universe, RECUPERATING, avoiding bad REcurrences, avoiding REefs could be a good idea as well, REfilling my empty glass, REflection, avoiding bad REflexes, REfraining from being too bitter, REfresh my memories and social life, REfusing mediocrity and sadness REgardless of what happened, REgistering again for japanese classes, not having any REgrets, REjoicing to be alive, RELAX, avoiding any RElapse, REkindling old flames (hhhmmm, maybe not a REal good idea), looking for less roller-coaster-like RElationships, REleasing the good stuffs hidden, being more RElentless, becoming more REliable, stopping doing too much sarcastic REmarks (nah, i cannot help sorry), REmemberance, REmindings and REminiscences of the good things instead of the bad ones, RENAISSANCE, no REnunciations, trying to REplace her (dream on), REpossessing my mind, no REsentment nor REsignation, REsonances of magic moments, REsuming with art and writing, REtrieving the time lost, REVIVAL.

 

Oh, besides that, this photo is the first of series made tonight in dowtown for testing my brand new 50mm f/1.4 G lens (supposedly the end of manual focus, hhmmm, not very convincing yet)

 

Ce dont j'ai besoin c'est de RE-

RÉagir, RÉaliser ce qui s'est passé, RÉalisme, RÉapparaître plus souvent en public, ne plus s'apesantir sur les thèmes REbattus, ne pas devenir con au point de croire qu'on peut REbondir (les humains ne sont pas des balles de ping-pong), m'éloigner de ce REbord dangereux, ne pas trop s'enferrer dans les RÉbus, survivre aux RÉbuffades, RÉcapituler, un coeur de REchange, REcharger mes batteries, REchercher plus d'équilibre, éviter une REchute et tant qu'à faire éviter aussi de nouveaux RÉcifs, RÉelle et constante RÉciprocité, RECOMMENCER, RÉconciliation, RÉCONFORT, REcouvrir les plaies de miel, REconstruire et REcréer mon univers, prendre du RECUL, RÉcupérer, REdevenir créatif et serein, RÉécrire les destins qui me dérangent, RÉfléchir (mais pas trop), lutter contre mes mauvais RÉflexes, RÉfréner toute amertume, me RÉgaler, ne rien REgretter, RÉgularité dans mes RElations chaotiques, me RÉjouir d'être encore en vie, RElativiser et se RElaxer, préserver les RÉminiscences des bonnes choses, REmplir mon verre vide, RENAISSANCE, REdevenir un REnard, REnforcer mon armure, RENOUVEAU, la REmplacer (on peut RÊver), du REpos, RÉsonances des moments magiques, RESPIRER, REtrouver une raison valable de rester ici, me RÉveiller, REvivre quoi, finalement

 

Ah, sinon, cette photo est la première d'une série réalisée en ville ce soir, pour tester mon nouvel objectif 50mm f/1.4 G (fini le focus manuel)... Pas très convaincant, ce premier essai, en fait.

 

Photo by e-chan © 2009 All rights reserved - Downloading and using without permission is illegal.

Fighter

 

Hmm..

After all you put me through,

you'd think I'd despise you.

But in the end, I wanna thank you.

Cuz you made me that much stronger.

 

Well I, thought I knew you

Thinking, that you were true

I guess I, I couldn't trust

Called your bluff

Time is up

'Cause I've had enough

You were, there by my side

ALWAYS DOWN FOR THE RIDE

But your, joy ride just came down in flames

'Cause your greed sold me out of shame, mmhmm

 

After all of the stealing and cheating

You probably think that I hold resentment for you

But, uh uh, oh no, you're wrong

'Cause if it wasn't for all that you tried to do

I wouldn't know .. just how capable

I am to pull through

So I wanna say thank you

 

'Cause it makes me that much stronger

Makes me work a little bit harder

Makes me that much wiser

So thanks for making me a fighter

 

Made me learn a little bit faster

Made my skin a little bit thicker

Makes me that much smarter

So thanks for making me a fighter

 

Oh, Oh, Oh, Oh

 

Never, saw it coming

All of .. your backstabbing

Just so .. you could cash in

On a good thing

before I realized your game

I heard,

you're going around

Playing,

the victim now

But don't .. even begin

Feeling I'm the one to blame

'Cause you dug your own grave

 

After all of the fights and the lies

Yes you're wanting to harm me

but that won't work anymore

No more, uh uh, it's over

'Cause if it wasn't for all of your torture

I wouldn't know how .. to be this way now,

I'll never back down

So I wanna say thank you

 

'Cause it makes me that much stronger

Makes me work a little bit harder

Makes me that much wiser

So thanks for making me a fighter

 

Made me learn a little bit faster

Made my skin a little bit thicker

It makes me that much smarter

So thanks for making me a fighter

 

How could this man I thought I knew

Turn out to be unjust,

So cruel?

Could only see the good in you

Pretended .. not to see the truth

You tried to hide your lies,

Disguise yourself

Through .. living in denial

But in the end you'll see

YOU-WONT-STOP-ME!!

 

I am a fighter

I'm a

I ain't gonna stop

There is no turning back

I've had enough

 

Makes me that much stronger

Makes me work a little bit harder

Makes me that much wiser

So thanks for making me a fighter

 

Made me learn a little bit faster

Made my skin a little bit thicker

Makes me that much smarter

So thanks for making me a fighter

 

You thought i would forget

Lord I, I remember

Oh ohh, Oh ohh

Cause i remember

I remember

 

Makes me that much stronger

Makes me work a little bit harder

Makes me that much wiser

So thanks for making me a FIGHTER

 

Some History of Brisbane.

The first European settlement in Queensland was a small convict colony which was established at Redcliffe, now a northern beach suburb, in 1824. The settlement was soon moved in 1825 to a better location on the Brisbane River in what is now the CBD of Brisbane. John Oxley suggested this change of location and that the town be known as Brisbane after Sir Thomas Brisbane, Governor of NSW who visited this settlement in 1826. Prior to this the settlement was known as the Moreton Bay. By 1831 Moreton Bay had 1,241 people, but 86% were convicts, and almost all the rest were guards and administrators. One of the founding free men to settle in Brisbane was Andrew Petrie, a government clerk, who arrived in the settlement in 1837. His son later became the first mayor of Brisbane.

 

In 1842 (six years after the settlement of SA) Moreton Bay penal settlement was closed and the area opened to free settlers. Half the convicts at Moreton Bay were Irish Catholics which influenced the development of the settlement thereafter as many stayed on. By 1846 Moreton Bay had a population of 4,000 people, considerably less than that of Burra at the time which had over 5,000 people! In 1848 the first immigrants direct from Britain arrived, as did some Chinese. In 1849 three ship loads of Presbyterians arrived in Brisbane, the first ship being the Fortitude- hence the naming of Fortitude Valley. The colony was still far from self-sufficient in terms of food production. In the mid-1850s German immigrants also started to arrive in the settlement. The only building still standing built by convict labour is the Old Windmill in Wickham Park.

 

During the late 1840s a few grand houses were built in Brisbane like Newstead House at Hamilton and the city began to take shape. All the central streets were named after members of Queen Victoria’s family- Adelaide, Alice, Ann, Charlotte, Elizabeth, Margaret, Mary for the streets parallel to Queen Street, and Albert, Edward, George and William for the streets perpendicular to Queen Street. In 1859 the population had grown sufficiently, to about 30,000 people, for Queensland to be proclaimed a separate colony from NSW with Brisbane (about 6,000 people) as the capital city. It was now a self-governing independent colony. Old Government House was built shortly after this in 1862 followed by numerous colonial government buildings. The French Empire style Parliament House opposite the old Botanical Gardens was erected in 1865 to a design by Charles Tiffin. It had perfect symmetry a mansard roof and an arcaded loggia. It is still one of the most distinctive buildings in Brisbane. Nearby the pastoralists and wealthy built the Queensland Club in Alice Street in 1882 with classical columns but with Italianate style bay windows. The location near parliament house is much like the situation of the Adelaide Club on North Terrace almost adjacent to the SA parliament. The wealthy and pastoralists in both states had immeasurable influence over early colonial politics. One of the other finest colonial buildings of Brisbane is the Old Customs House with the circular copper domed roof on the edge of the Brisbane River. It was erected in 1888.

 

Although Brisbane grew quickly through the following decades it was not incorporated as a city until 1902.Part of the reason for the relatively slow of growth of Brisbane, compared to Adelaide, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney was that it was not the focal point of the state railway network. Queensland always had other major regional centres. The railway from Brisbane reached out to southern Queensland only- Ipswich in 1864, Toowoomba in 1867, and Charleville in 1888. There was no early push to have a railway link between the coastal cities. They were not linked by a railway until 1927 when road transport had already taken over the transport of livestock and freight. The coastal railway to Cairns was always for passenger traffic as much as freight traffic.

 

Unlike the other Australian state capitals, Brisbane City Council governs most of the metropolitan area of Brisbane. In 1925 over twenty shires and municipalities were amalgamated into the City of Brisbane. It was at this time that the landmark Brisbane city Hall was built in Art Deco style. It was opened in 1930. During World War Two, Brisbane had a distinctive history as Prime Minister John Curtin had the “Brisbane Line” as a controversial defense plan, whereby if there was a land invasion of Australia, the northern half of the country would be surrendered at a line just north of Brisbane! Brisbane also became the headquarters for the American campaign in the South Pacific with General Douglas MacArthur based there at times. In 1942 a violent clash erupted between American and Australian service personnel in Brisbane. Between 2,000 and 5,000 men were involved in the riots which spread over two days. One soldier was killed and eight injured by gun fire as well as hundreds injured with black eyes, swollen faces, broken noses etc. On the second night 21 Americans were injured with 11 of them having to be hospitalised. This was The Battle of Brisbane. Yet around 1 million American troops passed through Queensland between December 1941 (just after the bombing of Pearl Harbour) and the end of 1945. They were here to spearhead attacks to take back the Philippines and to prevent the Japanese from taking New Guinea. Black American soldiers were especially unpopular in Brisbane as their landing contravened the “White Australia Policy” of those times. In response to this policy General Douglas MacArthur announced his support for the Australian government’s insistence that no more Black American troops be sent to Brisbane after 1942. The Black American units in Australia were later sent to New Guinea and New Caledonia. Black American troops in New Guinea were not allowed to visit Australia for rest and recreation leave although white American troops were allowed to visit Australia, mainly to Mackay. Resentment between American and Australian troops in Brisbane had to be contained and suppressed. Riots between troops also occurred in Townsville during the War. Today Brisbane is a fast growing city that has far outstripped Adelaide in terms of population, growth and infrastructure.

 

In history people who made migrations seldom got the choice of coming home, peoples divided seldom had the opportunity to reunite, but within our generation, we've seen the building and the destruction of the Berlin wall and now we see the beginnings of a reuniting of commerce with Cuba. Perhaps someday Israel, Islam and Christianity will reunite to celebrate their common ground of origin. "It's God's will," can be the rallying cry for good things as well as evil.

 

By MICHAEL JUDGE

 

One of the main attractions of sports is that they’re a welcome escape from the ­politics of the day and the things men do to one ­another in the name of this or that cause. Occasionally, however, the world of sports and politics collide. And when they do, it’s usually without a happy outcome—think of the 1972 Munich Olympics, when 11 Israeli athletes were murdered by Palestinian terrorists; Jimmy Carter’s boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics; and the subsequent Soviet boycott of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics.

 

ESPN

 

Pitching great Luis Tiant, the subject of ESPN’s “The Lost Son of Havana.”

 

It should come as no surprise then, that “The Lost Son of Havana,” an ESPN Films documentary about Red Sox pitching great Luis Tiant’s return to Cuba after 46 years of exile, is not a happy tale (Sunday, 6 p.m.-8 p.m. ET on ESPN Deportes; Monday, 10 p.m. ET on ESPN). It is, rather, the story of a refugee’s rise to major-league stardom and the torment of returning home decades later to visit family on an island gulag.

 

“Things could have been different,” says Mr. Tiant, overcome with emotion at his aunt’s cramped and run-down Havana home. He is, of course, right. The wealth he accumulated in the ­major leagues could have helped lift his entire family out of poverty. But ­Castro’s revolution dashed any hopes he might have had of playing professionally in his country or returning home to help support his family and the community he left behind. In 2007, he was finally allowed back into Cuba as part of a goodwill baseball game ­between American amateurs and ­retired Cuban players.

 

Written and directed by documentary filmmaker Jonathan Hock, “The Lost Son” begins with a shot of the 67-year-old Mr. Tiant puffing on a cigar and examining an old black-and-white photo of his father, Luis Tiant Sr., a baseball great in his own right who pitched in America’s Negro League in the 1930s and ’40s. Luis Sr. didn’t have an overwhelming fastball but was, like his son, an absolute master of the screwball and other off-speed pitches. With his “herky-jerky” windup and off-beat delivery, he dominated the Negro League and twice defeated the Babe Ruth All-Stars in exhibition play, holding the Babe to just one single.

 

There’s no doubt that Luis Tiant Sr. had the stuff to be a star in the majors. But by the time Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in 1947, Luis Sr.’s professional baseball career was over and he was forced to return home to ­Havana.

 

The dream of playing in the major leagues, however, lived on in his son, and in the summer of 1961 Luis Jr. left Havana for a three-month stint in the Mexican league, where he hoped to be discovered by an American scout. He quickly became a sensation and it wasn’t long before the Cleveland Indians signed him to a minor-league contract.

 

“But that was also the summer of the invasion of the Bay of Pigs,” the film’s narrator, actor Chris Cooper, explains over old footage of the failed U.S. invasion. “Cuba and the United States severed relations, and Castro tightened his control over every aspect of Cuban life. Suddenly no Cuban was free to leave the island. Cubans playing baseball overseas received an ultimatum: Come home and play as amateurs in Cuba or never come home again: And so, Luis’s three-month trip became 46 years of exile.”

 

Through interviews with sportswriters, former teammates and footage from scores of games, the film documents the dramatic ups and downs of Mr. Tiant’s 19-year career, including the 1970 injury (a fractured scapula) that nearly ended his playing days; his remarkable climb back to the majors (he taught himself to pitch again, it seems, by imitating his father’s wild windup and off-speed pitches); and his winning starts for the Red Sox in the 1975 World Series, which Boston lost to Cincinnati 3-4.

TV Listings

 

Find television listings at LocateTV .

 

But it is the sounds and images of his return to Cuba that are most poignant, and elevate the film to far more than a sports documentary. Antique cars and dilapidated buildings abound. Ordinary household goods are nearly impossible to come by. Like most ­Cubans, Mr. Tiant’s aunts and cousins receive enough staple goods from the government each month to last about 15 days; they must “improvise” for the rest. Not surprisingly, the black market is thriving and U.S. dollars are the currency of choice. One relative tells Mr. Tiant, holding back tears, “We are living on cigarettes.”

 

Knowing they’re in need, Mr. Tiant brings a suitcase full of gifts and basic supplies such as clothing, toothpaste, sewing kits and medicine. And though we only see him give money to one relative, one suspects he brought a thick wad of greenbacks with him as well.

 

Sadly, there’s an air of resentment among some. When an old neighbor says he was “forgetful” of his family, Mr. Tiant disagrees and explains that he sent gifts, money and supplies but they were always confiscated by the Cuban authorities. Still, his sense of ­regret at not doing enough for his family in Cuba is apparent, even though it was Luis Sr. who told him over and over again never to return, to live the life his father couldn’t.

 

Amazingly, there’s more to the story. In 1975, not long before the World Series, Castro (by all accounts a genuine baseball fan) gave Mr. Tiant’s parents a special visa to travel to America. Sen. George McGovern, as he testifies in the film, hand-delivered a letter from Luis Jr. to Castro asking that he allow his parents to travel to the U.S. to see him play. For whatever reason, Castro granted his request, and Luis’s parents came to America and lived with him until their all-too-early deaths the following year.

 

Nevertheless, a few days after his arrival in Boston, Luis Tiant Sr. was ­invited to throw out the ceremonial first pitch in a game against the California Angels at Fenway Park—a perfect strike. As he and his son stood together on the mound at Fenway, 30,000 adoring fans chanted “Luis! Luis! Luis!”—a glorious, and one hopes for a father and son from Havana, healing moment in baseball history.

—Mr. Judge is a freelance writer in Iowa.

Done in Ai, Finalized in Photoshop.

 

"What remains when fire fails to finish the story?"

 

Essence

Ashwrought are the charred remnants of beings who died bound by broken promises, unkept oaths, or seething vengeance never released. The fire that consumed them did not cleanse — it transformed. Now, these hollow husks stalk the Emberwastes, driven not by thought, but by the magnetic pull of what was left undone.

 

Appearance

 

Skeletal, blackened forms with ember-cracked skin, glowing softly beneath fissures.

 

Trails of ash fall from them as they move, as if they are constantly eroding.

 

Some bear remnants of armor, burned banners, or melted seals of old allegiances.

 

Eyes like forge-coals, dim when still, flaring when they sense broken truth nearby.

 

Behavior

 

Attracted to liars, oathbreakers, and those whose hearts harbor unresolved rage.

 

Often seen wandering in looping patterns, reenacting moments of betrayal.

 

React violently if approached during one of these “memory loops.”

 

Can be calmed — temporarily — by acts of truth, remembrance, or genuine forgiveness.

 

Abilities

 

Vowfire Surge: Erupts in flame when near a spoken lie or vow broken in its presence.

 

Ashbind: Touches a target and brands them with a memory-burn of their greatest betrayal.

 

Smolderwake: Leaves behind trails of cursed ash that ignite under deceit or hidden resentment.

 

Symbolism

 

Embodiments of unresolved endings.

 

The price of words unkept and passions unfulfilled.

 

Fire as consequence, not release.

The Grand Palace is a complex of buildings at the heart of Bangkok, Thailand. The palace has been the official residence of the Kings of Siam (and later Thailand) since 1782. The king, his court, and his royal government were based on the grounds of the palace until 1925. King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX), resided at the Chitralada Royal Villa and his successor King Vajiralongkorn (Rama X) at the Amphorn Sathan Residential Hall, both in the Dusit Palace, but the Grand Palace is still used for official events. Several royal ceremonies and state functions are held within the walls of the palace every year. The palace is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Thailand.

 

Construction of the palace began on 6 May 1782, at the order of King Phutthayotfa Chulalok (Rama I), the founder of the Chakri Dynasty, when he moved the capital city from Thonburi to Bangkok. Throughout successive reigns, many new buildings and structures were added, especially during the reign of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V). By 1925, the king, the Royal Family and the government were no longer permanently settled at the palace, and had moved to other residences. After the abolition of absolute monarchy in 1932, all government agencies completely moved out of the palace.

 

In shape, the palace complex is roughly rectangular and has a combined area of 218,400 square metres (2,351,000 sq ft), surrounded by four walls. It is situated on the banks of the Chao Phraya River at the heart of the Rattanakosin Island, today in the Phra Nakhon District. The Grand Palace is bordered by Sanam Luang and Na Phra Lan Road to the north, Maharaj Road to the west, Sanam Chai Road to the east and Thai Wang Road to the south.

 

Rather than being a single structure, the Grand Palace is made up of numerous buildings, halls, pavilions set around open lawns, gardens and courtyards. Its asymmetry and eclectic styles are due to its organic development, with additions and rebuilding being made by successive reigning kings over 200 years of history. It is divided into several quarters: the Temple of the Emerald Buddha; the Outer Court, with many public buildings; the Middle Court, including the Phra Maha Monthien Buildings, the Phra Maha Prasat Buildings and the Chakri Maha Prasat Buildings; the Inner Court and the Siwalai Gardens quarter. The Grand Palace is currently partially open to the public as a museum, but it remains a working palace, with several royal offices still situated inside.

 

The construction of the Grand Palace began on 6 May 1782, at the order of King Phutthayotfa Chulalok (Rama I). Having seized the crown from King Taksin of Thonburi, King Rama I was intent on building a capital city for his new Chakri dynasty. He moved the seat of power from the city of Thonburi, on the west side of the Chao Phraya River, to the east side at Bangkok. The new capital city was turned into an artificial island when canals were dug along the east side. The island was given the name 'Rattanakosin'. The previous royal residence was the Derm Palace, constructed for King Taksin in 1768. The old royal palace in Thonburi was small and sandwiched between two temples; Wat Arun and Wat Tai Talat, prohibiting further expansion.

 

The new palace was built on a rectangular piece of land on the very west side of the island, between Wat Pho to the south, Wat Mahathat to the north and with the Chao Phraya River on the west. This location was previously occupied by a Chinese community, whom King Rama I ordered to relocate to an area south and outside of the city walls; the area is now Bangkok's Chinatown.

 

Desperate for materials and short on funds, the palace was initially built entirely out of wood, its various structures surrounded by a simple log palisade. On 10 June 1782, the king ceremonially crossed the river from Thonburi to take permanent residence in the new palace. Three days later on 13 June, the king held an abbreviated coronation ceremony, thus becoming the first monarch of the new Rattanakosin Kingdom. Over the next few years the king began replacing wooden structures with masonry, rebuilding the walls, forts, gates, throne halls and royal residences. This rebuilding included the royal chapel, which would come to house the Emerald Buddha.

 

To find more material for these constructions, King Rama I ordered his men to go upstream to the old capital city of Ayutthaya, which was destroyed in 1767 during a war between Burma and Siam. They dismantled structures and removed as many bricks as they could find, while not removing any from the temples. They began by taking materials from the forts and walls of the city. By the end they had completely leveled the old royal palaces. The bricks were ferried down the Chao Phraya by barges, where they were eventually incorporated into the walls of Bangkok and the Grand Palace itself. Most of the initial construction of the Grand Palace during the reign of King Rama I was carried out by conscripted or corvée labour. After the final completion of the ceremonial halls of the palace, the king held a full traditional coronation ceremony in 1785.

 

The layout of the Grand Palace followed that of the Royal Palace at Ayutthaya in location, organization, and in the divisions of separate courts, walls, gates and forts. Both palaces featured a proximity to the river. The location of a pavilion serving as a landing stage for barge processions also corresponded with that of the old palace. To the north of the Grand Palace there is a large field, the Thung Phra Men (now called Sanam Luang), which is used as an open space for royal ceremonies and as a parade ground. There was also a similar field in Ayutthaya, which was used for the same purpose. The road running north leads to the Front Palace, the residence of the Vice King of Siam.

 

The Grand Palace is divided into four main courts, separated by numerous walls and gates: the Outer Court, the Middle Court, the Inner Court and the Temple of the Emerald Buddha. Each of these court's functions and access are clearly defined by laws and traditions. The Outer Court is in the northwestern part of the Grand Palace; within are the royal offices and (formerly) state ministries. To the northeast is the Temple of the Emerald Buddha, the royal chapel, and home of the Emerald Buddha. The Middle Court housed the most important state apartments and ceremonial throne halls of the king. The Inner Court, at the south end of the complex, was reserved only for females, as it housed the king's harem.

 

During the reign of King Phutthaloetla Naphalai (Rama II), the area of the Grand Palace was expanded southwards up to the walls of Wat Pho. Previously this area was home to offices of various palace officials. This expansion increased the area of the palace from 213,674 square metres (2,299,970 sq ft) to 218,400 square metres (2,351,000 sq ft). New walls, forts, and gates were constructed to accommodate the enlarged compound. Since this expansion, the palace has remained within its walls with new construction and changes being made only on the inside.

 

In accordance with tradition, the palace was initially referred to only as the Phra Ratcha Wang Luang (พระราชวังหลวง) or 'Royal Palace', similar to the old palace in Ayutthaya. However, during the reign of King Mongkut (Rama IV) the name Phra Boromma Maha Ratcha Wang or 'Grand Palace' was first used in official documents. This change of name was made during the elevation of Prince Chutamani (the king's younger brother) to the title of Second King Pinklao in 1851. The proclamation of his title described the royal palace as the 'supreme' (บรม; Borom) and 'great' (มหา; Maha) palace. This title was given in order to distinguish the palace from the Second King's palace (the Front Palace), which was described as the Phra Bovorn Ratcha Wang (พระบวรราชวัง) or the 'glorious' (บวร; Bovorn) palace.

 

Throughout the period of absolute monarchy, from 1782 to 1932, the Grand Palace was both the country's administrative and religious centre. As the main residence of the monarch, the palace was also the seat of government, with thousands of inhabitants including guardsmen, servants, concubines, princesses, ministers, and courtiers. The palace's high whitewashed castellated walls and extensive forts and guard posts mirrored those of the walls of Bangkok itself, and thus the Grand Palace was envisioned as a city within a city. For this reason a special set of palace laws were created to govern the inhabitants and to establish hierarchy and order.

 

By the 1920s, a series of new palaces were constructed elsewhere for the king's use; these included the more modern Dusit Palace, constructed in 1903, and Phaya Thai Palace in 1909. These other Bangkok residences began to replace the Grand Palace as the primary place of residence of the monarch and his court. By 1925 this gradual move out of the palace was complete. The growth and centralization of the Siamese state also meant that the various government ministries have grown in size and were finally moved out of the Grand Palace to their own premises. Despite this the Grand Palace remained the official and ceremonial place of residence as well as the stage set for elaborate ancient ceremonies of the monarchy. The end of the absolute monarchy came in 1932, when a revolution overthrew the ancient system of government and replaced it with a constitutional monarchy.

 

Today the Grand Palace is still a centre of ceremony and of the monarchy, and serves as a museum and tourist attraction as well.

 

The Outer Court or Khet Phra Racha Than Chan Nork (เขตพระราชฐานชั้นนอก) of the Grand Palace is situated to the northwest of the palace (the northeast being occupied by the Temple of the Emerald Buddha). Entering through the main Visetchaisri Gate, the Temple of the Emerald Buddha is located to the left, with many public buildings located to the right.

 

These buildings include the headquarters and information centre of the Grand Palace and the Bureau of the Royal Household. Other important buildings inside the court include the Sala Sahathai Samakhom (ศาลาสหทัยสมาคม), used for important receptions and meetings. The Sala Luk Khun Nai (ศาลาลูกขุนใน) is an office building housing various departments of the Royal Household. The main office of the Royal Institute of Thailand was also formerly located here. The Outer Court has a small museum called the Pavilion of Regalia, Royal Decorations and Coins. The Phimanchaisri Gate opens directly unto the Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall and is the main portal from the Outer Court into the Middle Court.

 

Historically this court was referred to as Fai Na (ฝ่ายหน้า, literally In the front), and also served as the seat of the royal government, with various ministerial offices, a theatre, stables for the king's elephants, barracks for the royal guards, the royal mint and an arsenal. By 1925, all government agencies and workers had vacated the site and all of the buildings were converted for use by the Royal Household.

 

Bangkok, officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies 1,568.7 square kilometres (605.7 sq mi) in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estimated population of 10.539 million as of 2020, 15.3 percent of the country's population. Over 14 million people (22.2 percent) lived within the surrounding Bangkok Metropolitan Region at the 2010 census, making Bangkok an extreme primate city, dwarfing Thailand's other urban centres in both size and importance to the national economy.

 

Bangkok traces its roots to a small trading post during the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 15th century, which eventually grew and became the site of two capital cities, Thonburi in 1768 and Rattanakosin in 1782. Bangkok was at the heart of the modernization of Siam, later renamed Thailand, during the late-19th century, as the country faced pressures from the West. The city was at the centre of Thailand's political struggles throughout the 20th century, as the country abolished absolute monarchy, adopted constitutional rule, and underwent numerous coups and several uprisings. The city, incorporated as a special administrative area under the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration in 1972, grew rapidly during the 1960s through the 1980s and now exerts a significant impact on Thailand's politics, economy, education, media and modern society.

 

The Asian investment boom in the 1980s and 1990s led many multinational corporations to locate their regional headquarters in Bangkok. The city is now a regional force in finance and business. It is an international hub for transport and health care, and has emerged as a centre for the arts, fashion, and entertainment. The city is known for its street life and cultural landmarks, as well as its red-light districts. The Grand Palace and Buddhist temples including Wat Arun and Wat Pho stand in contrast with other tourist attractions such as the nightlife scenes of Khaosan Road and Patpong. Bangkok is among the world's top tourist destinations, and has been named the world's most visited city consistently in several international rankings.

 

Bangkok's rapid growth coupled with little urban planning has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure. Despite an extensive expressway network, an inadequate road network and substantial private car usage have led to chronic and crippling traffic congestion, which caused severe air pollution in the 1990s. The city has since turned to public transport in an attempt to solve the problem, operating eight urban rail lines and building other public transit, but congestion still remains a prevalent issue. The city faces long-term environmental threats such as sea level rise due to climate change.

 

The history of Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, dates at least to the early 15th century, when it was under the rule of Ayutthaya. Due to its strategic location near the mouth of the Chao Phraya River, the town gradually increased in importance, and after the fall of Ayutthaya King Taksin established his new capital of Thonburi there, on the river's west bank. King Phutthayotfa Chulalok, who succeeded Taksin, moved the capital to the eastern bank in 1782, to which the city dates its foundation under its current Thai name, "Krung Thep Maha Nakhon". Bangkok has since undergone tremendous changes, growing rapidly, especially in the second half of the 20th century, to become the primate city of Thailand. It was the centre of Siam's modernization in the late 19th century, subjected to Allied bombing during the Second World War, and has long been the modern nation's central political stage, with numerous uprisings and coups d'état having taken place on its streets throughout the years.

 

It is not known exactly when the area which is now Bangkok was first settled. It probably originated as a small farming and trading community, situated in a meander of the Chao Phraya River within the mandala of Ayutthaya's influence. The town had become an important customs outpost by as early as the 15th century; the title of its customs official is given as Nai Phra Khanon Thonburi (Thai: นายพระขนอนทณบุรี) in a document from the reign of Ayutthayan king Chao Sam Phraya (1424–1448). The name also appears in the 1805 revised code of laws known as the Law of Three Seals.

 

At the time, the Chao Phraya flowed through what are now the Bangkok Noi and Bangkok Yai canals, forming a large loop in which lay the town. In the reign of King Chairacha (either in 1538 or 1542), a waterway was excavated, bypassing the loop and shortening the route for ships sailing up to Ayutthaya. The flow of the river has since changed to follow the new waterway, dividing the town and making the western part an island. This geographical feature may have given the town the name Bang Ko (บางเกาะ), meaning 'island village', which later became Bangkok (บางกอก, pronounced in Thai as [bāːŋ kɔ̀ːk]). Another theory regarding the origin of the name speculates that it is shortened from Bang Makok (บางมะกอก), makok being the name of Spondias pinnata, a plant bearing olive-like fruit. This is supported by the fact that Wat Arun, a historic temple in the area, used to be named Wat Makok. Specific mention of the town was first made in the royal chronicles from the reign of King Maha Chakkraphat (1548–1568), giving its name as Thonburi Si Mahasamut (ธนบุรีศรีมหาสมุทร). Bangkok was probably a colloquial name, albeit one widely adopted by foreign visitors.

 

The importance of Bangkok/Thonburi increased with the amount of Ayutthaya's maritime trade. Dutch records noted that ships passing through Bangkok were required to declare their goods and number of passengers, as well as pay customs duties. Ships' cannons would be confiscated and held there before they were allowed to proceed upriver to Ayutthaya. An early English language account is that of Adam Denton, who arrived aboard the Globe, an East India Company merchantman bearing a letter from King James I, which arrived in "the Road of Syam" (Pak Nam) on 15 August 1612, where the port officer of Bangkok attended to the ship. Denton's account mentions that he and his companions journeyed "up the river some twenty miles to a town called Bancope, where we were well received, and further 100 miles to the city...."

 

Ayutthaya's maritime trade was at its height during the reign of King Narai (1656–1688). Recognition of the city's strategic location guarding the water passage to Ayutthaya lead to expansion of the military presence there. A fort of Western design was constructed on the east side of the river around 1685–1687 under the supervision of French engineer de la Mare, probably replacing an earlier structure, while plans to rebuild the fort on the west bank were also made. De la Mare had arrived with the French embassy of Chevalier de Chaumont, and remained in Siam along with Chevalier de Forbin, who had been appointed governor of Bangkok. The Bangkok garrison under Forbin consisted of Siamese, Portuguese, and French reportedly totalling about one thousand men.

 

French control over the city was further consolidated when the French General Desfarges, who had arrived with the second French embassy in 1687, secured the king's permission to board troops there. This, however, lead to resentment among Siamese nobles, led by Phetracha, ultimately resulting in the Siamese revolution of 1688, in which King Narai was overthrown and 40,000 Siamese troops besieged Bangkok's eastern fort for four months before an agreement was reached and the French were allowed to withdraw. The revolution resulted in Siam's ties with the West being virtually severed, steering its trade towards China and Japan. The eastern fort was subsequently demolished on Phetracha's orders.

 

Ayutthaya was razed by the Burmese in 1767. In the following months, multiple factions competed for control of the kingdom's lands. Of these, Phraya Tak, governor of Tak and a general fighting in Ayutthaya's defence prior to its fall, emerged as the strongest. After succeeding in reclaiming the cities of Ayutthaya and Bangkok, Phraya Tak declared himself king (popularly known as King Taksin) in 1768 and established Thonburi as his capital. Reasons given for this change include the totality of Ayutthaya's destruction and Thonburi's strategic location. Being a fortified town with a sizeable population meant that not much would need to be reconstructed. The existence of an old Chinese trading settlement on the eastern bank allowed Taksin to use his Chinese connections to import rice and revive trade.

 

King Taksin had the city area extended northwards to border the Bangkok Noi Canal. A moat was dug to protect the city's western border, on which new city walls and fortifications were built. Moats and walls were also constructed on the eastern bank, encircling the city together with the canals on the western side. The king's palace (Thonburi Palace) was built within the old city walls, including the temples of Wat Chaeng (Wat Arun) and Wat Thai Talat (Wat Molilokkayaram) within the palace grounds. Outlying orchards were re-landscaped for rice farming.

 

Much of Taksin's reign was spent in military campaigns to consolidate the Thonburi Kingdom's hold over Siamese lands. His kingdom, however, would last only until 1782 when a coup was mounted against him, and the general Chao Phraya Chakri established himself as king, later to be known as Phutthayotfa Chulalok or Rama I.

 

Rama I re-established the capital on the more strategic east bank of the river, relocating the Chinese already settled there to the area between Wat Sam Pluem and Wat Sampheng (which developed into Bangkok's Chinatown). Fortifications were rebuilt, and another series of moats was created, encircling the city in an area known as Rattanakosin Island.

 

The erection of the city pillar on 21 April 1782 is regarded as the formal date of the city's establishment. (The year would later mark the start of the Rattanakosin Era after calendar reforms by King Rama V in 1888.) Rama I named the new city Krung Rattanakosin In Ayothaya (กรุงรัตนโกสินทร์อินท์อโยธยา). This was later modified by King Nangklao to be: Krungthepmahanakhon Bowonrattanakosin Mahintha-ayutthaya. While settlements on both banks were commonly called Bangkok, both the Burney Treaty of 1826 and the Roberts Treaty of 1833 refer to the capital as the City of Sia-Yut'hia. King Mongkut (Rama IV) would later give the city its full ceremonial name:

 

Rama I modelled his city after the former capital of Ayutthaya, with the Grand Palace, Front Palace and royal temples by the river, next to the royal field (now Sanam Luang). Continuing outwards were the royal court of justice, royal stables and military prison. Government offices were located within the Grand Palace, while residences of nobles were concentrated south of the palace walls. Settlements spread outwards from the city centre.

 

The new capital is referred to in Thai sources as Rattanakosin, a name shared by the Siamese kingdom of this historical period. The name Krung Thep and Krung Thep Maha Nakhon, both shortened forms of the full ceremonial name, began to be used near the end of the 19th century. Foreigners, however, continued to refer to the city by the name Bangkok, which has seen continued use until this day.

 

Most of Rama I's reign was also marked by continued military campaigns, though the Burmese threat gradually declined afterwards. His successors consistently saw to the renovation of old temples, palaces, and monuments in the city. New canals were also built, gradually expanding the fledgling city as areas available for agriculture increased and new transport networks were created.

 

At the time of the city's foundation, most of the population lived by the river or the canals, often in floating houses on the water. Waterways served as the main method of transportation, and farming communities depended on them for irrigation. Outside the city walls, settlements sprawled along both river banks. Forced settlers, mostly captives of war, also formed several ethnic communities outside the city walls.

 

Large numbers of Chinese immigrants continued to settle in Bangkok, especially during the early 19th century. Such was their prominence that Europeans visiting in the 1820s estimated that they formed over half of the city population. The Chinese excelled in trade, and led the development of a market economy. The Chinese settlement at Sampheng had become a bustling market by 1835. 

 

By the mid-19th century, the West had become an increasingly powerful presence. Missionaries, envoys and merchants began re-visiting Bangkok and Siam, bringing with them both modern innovations and the threat of colonialism. King Mongkut (Rama IV, reigned 1851–1868) was open to Western ideas and knowledge, but was also forced to acknowledge their powers, with the signing of the Bowring Treaty in 1855. During his reign, industrialization began taking place in Bangkok, which saw the introduction of the steam engine, modern shipbuilding and the printing press. Influenced by the Western community, Charoen Krung Road, the city's first paved street, was constructed in 1862–1864. This was followed by Bamrung Mueang, Fueang Nakhon, Trong (now Rama IV) and Si Lom Roads. Land transport would later surpass the canals in importance, shifting people's homes from floating dwellings toward permanent buildings. The limits of the city proper were also expanded during his reign, extending to the Phadung Krung Kasem Canal, dug in 1851.

 

King Mongkut's son Chulalongkorn (r. 1868–1910) was set upon modernizing the country. He engaged in wide-ranging reforms, abolishing slavery, corvée (unfree labour) and the feudal system, and creating a centralized bureaucracy and a professional army. The Western concept of nationhood was adopted, and national borders demarcated against British and French territories. Disputes with the French resulted in the Paknam Incident in 1893, when the French sent gunboats up the Chao Phraya to blockade Bangkok, resulting in Siam's concession of territory to France.

 

With Chulalongkorn's reforms, governance of the capital and the surrounding areas, established as Monthon Krung Thep Phra Mahanakhon (มณฑลกรุงเทพพระมหานคร), came under the Ministry of Urban Affairs (Nakhonban). During his reign many more canals and roads were built, expanding the urban reaches of the capital. Infrastructure was developed, with the introduction of railway and telegraph services between Bangkok and Samut Prakan and then expanding countrywide. Electricity was introduced, first to palaces and government offices, then to serve electric trams in the capital and later the general public. The King's fascination with the West was reflected in the royal adoption of Western dress and fashions, but most noticeably in architecture. He commissioned the construction of the neoclassical Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall at the new Dusit Palace, which was linked to the historic city centre by the grand Ratchadamnoen Avenue, inspired by the Champs-Élysées in Paris. Examples of Western influence in architecture became visible throughout the city.

 

By 1900, rural market zones in Bangkok began developing into residential districts. Rama VI (1910–1925) continued his predecessor's program of the development of public works by establishing Chulalongkorn University in 1916, and commissioned a system of locks to control waterway levels surrounding the developing city, he also provided the city's first and largest recreational area, Lumphini Park. The Memorial Bridge was constructed in 1932 to connect Thonburi to Bangkok, which was believed to promote economic growth and modernization in a period when infrastructure was developing considerably. Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between the military and political elite as the country abolished absolute monarchy in 1932. It was subject to Japanese occupation and Allied bombing during World War II. With the war over in 1945, British and Indian troops landed in September, and during their brief occupation of the city disarmed the Japanese troops. A significant event following the return of the young king, Ananda Mahidol, to Thailand, intended to defuse post-war tensions lingering between Bangkok's ethnic Chinese and Thai people, was his visit to Bangkok's Chinatown Sam Peng Lane (ซอยสำเพ็ง), on 3 June 1946.

 

As a result of pro-Western bloc treaties Bangkok rapidly grew in the post-war period as a result of United States developmental aid and government-sponsored investment. Infrastructure, including the Don Mueang International Airport and highways, was built and expanded.  Bangkok's role as an American military R&R destination launched its tourism industry as well as sex trade.  Disproportionate urban development led to increasing income inequalities and unprecedented migration from rural areas into Bangkok; its population surged from 1.8 to 3 million in the 1960s. Following the United States' withdrawal from Vietnam, Japanese businesses took over as leaders in investment, and the expansion of export-oriented manufacturing led to growth of the financial market in Bangkok.  Rapid growth of the city continued through the 1980s and early 1990s, until it was stalled by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. By then, many public and social issues had emerged, among them the strain on infrastructure reflected in the city's notorious traffic jams. Bangkok's role as the nation's political stage continues to be seen in strings of popular protests, from the student uprisings in 1973 and 1976, anti-military demonstrations in 1992, and successive anti-government protests by the "Yellow Shirt" and "Red Shirt" movements from 2008 on.

 

Administratively, eastern Bangkok and Thonburi had been established as separate provinces in 1915. (The province east of the river was named Phra Nakhon (พระนคร.) A series of decrees in 1971–1972 resulted in the merger of these provinces and its local administrations, forming the current city of Bangkok which is officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon. The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) was created in 1975 to govern the city, and its governor has been elected since 1985.

  

Brief History of Norfolk as a Penal Settlement.

As noted previously Norfolk was settled to provide flax fibre rope, flax sails and tree masts from Norfolk Island pine trees and also because it was uninhabited. It was also an island paradise with rich volcanic soils. Its only major drawback was its isolation and its lack of a good harbour. Its history falls into several phases.

Phase One- 1788-1814. This phase was run along the same lines as the settlement of Sydney. Both men and women convicts were quartered here. The women were to work making flax rope and sails and the men were to do the building, road making, land clearing, agriculture and stone masonry work. Some free settlers came too. The settlement was centred on Kingston (then called Sydney) and nearby Arthur’s Vale (watermill valley.) By 1806 the population had reached over 1,000 people. Then for financial reasons- the cost of sending supply ships from Sydney to Norfolk was too great- the evacuation of the island was ordered. Convicts and other settlers were moved to Van Diemen’s Land- hence the settlements there of New Norfolk and Norfolk Plains (later Longford.)

Phase Two- 1825-1855. This time the island was run as a total penitentiary for the worse offenders. There would be no escape from Norfolk Island. Conditions were harsh, severe and degrading. It was a place of extreme punishment. The worst commandant was Captain Turton. During the period 1840-44 conditions were slightly better. Free settlers were not encouraged to settle during this second phase but a few of the best behaved convicts were allowed to work small farms across the island. Massive government expenditure on the penitentiary meant that fine sandstone Georgian buildings were erected and like Port Arthur in Tasmania many of them still remain. A large prison was built in the 1840s, and the prison required large military barracks, large stores and Commissariat stores, officer headquarters, a large hospital etc and good quality homes for the prison and military officers on the island. Kingston remained the administration and shipping centre of the island.

Phase Three – 1856-. In the third phase some of the original stone buildings were dismantled or left to go to ruins. Some were burnt down or the stone re-used for other structures. But the major feature of this period was the introduction of 194 Pitcairn Islanders in 1856. Norfolk remained isolated and largely forgotten. At one stage the Governor of NSW (the British Crown representative in charge of the island) ordered that the Pitcairn Islanders could no longer reside in the former penal settlement buildings in Kingston. This was in 1908 just before the Commonwealth government took charge. The resentment of this change led to fires and some beautiful buildings being destroyed. In 1893 Norfolk got a telegraph office and an underwater cable link to the world via Canada. Soon it had a cable link to New Zealand and a cable station opened at Anson Bay in 1902. Once it became a territory of the new Australian federal government conditions improved a little. Shipping came irregularly but during World War Two the Australian government built an airstrip for defence reasons. Flights continued after the War and now the main linkage between Norfolk and Australia is by air. The federal government has also put more money into other facilities on the island including the Botanic Gardens, and all the restoration work at Kingston etc.

Norfolk Island – an introduction.

By lunch time we will be settled into our accommodation on Norfolk Island. Norfolk Island is just five by eight kilometres and it was first discovered in 1774 by Captain James Cook on his second South Pacific voyage of exploration. Today the island is a territory of Australia, part of the Commonwealth but with a large degree of independence and self government. It is one of Australia’s eleven territories (Northern Territory; ACT; Jervis Bay; Christmas Island; Cocos Islands; Ashmore Islands; Coral Sea Islands; Antarctic Territories; Heard Island and Indian Ocean Islands.) Norfolk’s residents are not represented in the Australian parliament. It has its own stamps, flag governing body etc. The census of August 2011 recorded a population of 2,302 people. It has a constant influx of tourists as well with the island receiving about 12,000 visitors a year mainly from Australia.

 

The main population centres are in the middle of the island at Burnt Pine and Middlegate. The old convict settlement is on the coast at Kingston. The highest point is Mt Bates at 319 metres or 1,045 feet. Nearby by is Mt Pitt at just over 1,000 feet high and it is an old volcanic cone indicating the origins of Norfolk Island. Cook named it after the British Prime Minister William Pitt, Earl of Chatham and PM during the 1750s and again 1766-68. Norfolk Island is one of a series of volcanic islands on the top of the Lord Howe seamount or ridge which stretches from New Zealand to New Caledonia. The volcanic islands that emerge from the sea are New Zealand, Norfolk, Lord Howe and New Caledonia extending along a zone more than 1,600 kms in length. Near Norfolk the submarine trench is around 33,000 feet deep. Norfolk Island territory has two nearby uninhabited islands named Phillip and Nepean Islands and both are visible from Kingston. Approximately 10% of the island is a National Park centred round Mt Pitt and Mt Bates. There are 178 species of native plants on the island and 40 of these are unique to Norfolk. Norfolk Island Pine (Araucaria heterophylla) is still abundant. It can reach a height of over 150 feet. It constitutes the emblem on the Norfolk Island flag. The other endemic tree, now widely grown as an ornamental in Australia is the Norfolk Island Hibiscus (Lagunaria patersonii). The island also grows the Norfolk Island palm, many ferns, and a native passionfruit. The island has no mammals or amphibians, and only a couple of reptiles - a skink and a gecko. The coral formations around the island teem with marine life and are home to many tropical fish, eels, octopus, starfish etc. The island provides a good habitat for many local and migratory birds including the wedge-tailed shearwater, (Puffinus pacificus) whose moaning calls echo around the island at night!

 

Norfolk Island was the second settlement of the Australian region following the arrival of the British and their convicts at Sydney Cove. Just six weeks after arrival at Sydney Cove in 1788 some 23 free settlers, 15 convicts, and commandant Lieutenant Phillip Parker King landed on Norfolk. Several hundred more convicts and settlers were sent from Sydney to Norfolk in 1790. It was 14 years later that the third Australian settlement was made in Van Diemen’s Land (1804) at Hobart. Norfolk started out as part of NSW and later became part of Van Diemen’s Land. But after the closure of the convict settlement by the British government in 1855 on Norfolk they set the island aside for the people from Pitcairn Island and many Norfolk residents still dispute Australia’s control of Norfolk Island as an Australian territory. Britain has never regarded Norfolk Island as a separate British colony.

 

The old school text book explanation for the settlement of Norfolk Island is largely true. The British government wanted to access the New Zealand flax plants growing on the island ( Phormium tenax.) The NZ flax was not native but archaeologists believe Polynesians, probably Maoris, introduced flax to Norfolk Island about 600 to 800 years ago. (They introduced the common rat at the same time!) As a naval empire Britain needed supplies of flax rope and flax sails for its sailing fleets. At the time of the settlement of Norfolk Island (1788) Britain obtained its wooden masts from Nova Scotia and its hemp and flax from Russia. Britain wanted new supplies of both masts and rope and sails as they feared the relationship with Russia would be terminated. Because of these concerns Norfolk Island was settled early in 1788 and many female convicts were sent to Norfolk Island so that they could weave and sew the flax and rope. When the second lot of convicts went to Norfolk in 1790 there were 150 females aboard the ship but only 30 male convicts. But by the early 1800s the authorities realised that the convict women would not be able to produce much rope or cloth. Only one ship ever left Norfolk with locally produced sails. Additionally, the tall, straight Norfolk Island pines proved unsuitable for ship masts as the wood was too soft and lacked strength. Thus the commercial justifications for settling Norfolk as a penal settlement diminished. But the origins of Norfolk are fascinating. One of the 1790 ships taking convicts to Norfolk, the former flagship of the First Fleet to Botany Bay was shipwrecked near Kingston whilst unloading supplies. Hundreds of artifacts have been retrieved from the wreck of the Sirius, including three anchors and two carronades which are displayed in the Norfolk Island Museum. The loss of the Sirius left Sydney settlement with just one supply ship normally used to obtain flour from Cape Town.

 

Ever heard of ‘The Penge Society of Awkward Walkers’? Apparently they have an annual moseying competition where points are awarded for style, grace and speed. If I’m to believe the other half of id-iom he clinched it from the standing champion, a one Mr Fiac Cain, in this year’s final.

 

I used to do a bit of professional moseying myself back in the day and couldn’t really take this kind of thing lying down so set up a match with the other half and finangled Fiac Cain as referee. Two birds with one stone and all that. My winning mosey was a graceful mashup of my interpretation of a swan in flight and Natalie Imbruglia’s ‘Torn’. Nothing else came close.

 

As per the Ancient Rules of id-iom I demanded a piece of art showcasing how the loser felt for my prize. What I got in return was this piece titled ‘Memento Mori’. I’m interpreting the skull as his, not mine…

 

‘Memento Mori’ is A3 in size and made using imagination, a little resentment, acrylic paint and smoke from a magic candle. If you’d like to give it a new home just get in touch.

 

Love

 

id-iom

 

Description: Engraving by Hugo Steiner-Prag for Heinrich Heine’s romantic poem “Almansor” published in a limited edition of Heine’s work “ Spanische Romanzen” (1921). In the poem the baptized Muslim protagonist Almansor expresses his resentment about Cordova's famous desecrated mosque, now a cathedral, and dreams of seeing it crash vengefully down upon the Spanish congregants below. The poem is closely related to Heine’s tragedy "Almansor" which was published in the 1820s. The tragedy is placed in Spain when Christians forced Muslims to convert. As one Muslim character reports in horror of a Koran being burned in the marketplace, another Muslim makes the immortal quote, "That was but a prelude; where they burn books, they will ultimately burn people as well” Heine was referring to the cruelties of the Spanish Inquisition, but he also intended his audience to draw a more modern parallel, with the exhibitionist book-burning and xenophobia of many German "Romantics."

 

Read the entire book

 

Creator: Steiner-Prag, Hugo, 1880-1945

 

Creator: Heine, Heinrich, 1797-1856

 

Object Origin: Berlin 1921

 

Persistent URL: digital.cjh.org/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=1019236

 

Repository: Leo Baeck Institute, 15 West 16th Street, New York, NY 10011

 

Call Number: r (f) PT 2303 A3 S8

 

Rights Information: No known copyright restrictions; may be subject to third party rights. For more copyright information, click here.

 

See more information about this image and others at CJH Digital Collections.

 

Digital images created by the Gruss Lipper Digital Laboratory at the Center for Jewish History

Buildings to Watch Out for in Brisbane.

•Parliament House in the French Empire style. The architect Charles Tiffin was inspired by the Louvre Art gallery in Paris! It is open for free public inspection but only when parliament is not sitting (QLD parliament is meant to rise on 6 August). It was built in 1868. It is located on the corner of George and Alice Streets, opposite the Old Botanical Gardens. This

Photograph shows the 2 side pavilions or wings making it Palladian in style.

•Old Government House. This is now part of the QUT (Queensland University of Technology). It has recently been extensively restored and re-opened to the public over the Queens birthday long weekend in June. It too has free entry with the upstairs devoted to the art of William Robinson a gifted Queensland painter. Old Government House was built in 1862 and is one of the older buildings in Brisbane. It is a grand two storey house with arcaded loggias, classical facades and features, and two semi-circular balconies. The interior has a grand staircase. The complex is in the Old Botanical Gardens and has a café too.

•The Old Customs House. (399 Queen Street.) Pictured below with its green copper dome, classical balustrades, Corinthian columns and pilasters and triangular roof pediment etc. It is now a commercial building with a café on the river front.

 

•Brisbane City Hall. This Art Deco building built between 1920 and 1930 with classical features is dominated by the 92 metre high clock tower. The building and the clock tower are open free for public inspection during office hours. Note the tympanum frieze decoration in the triangular pediment across the façade.

 

•Albert St Uniting Church. This distinctive brick, gothic style church is across the plaza from the Town Hall. It is open on Fridays till 4 pm. The most prominent feature of the external design is the spire rising to a height of 42 metres from the street. It is capped with a handsome wrought iron final. The original organ was imported from England, and built by George Benson of Manchester. The front pipes are coloured and gilded with gold leaf.

 

•ANZAC Square War Memorial is uniquely and ideally set in peaceful surrounds and worth a visit. The Shrine of Remembrance, with its Eternal Flame, forms the focal point for the radial patterned pathways, pools and lawns. From here you get a view down to the Old Post Office which was built of local sandstone in 1872 by Mr Petrie.

 

A Very brief History of Brisbane.

Australia’s third largest city is named after Sir Thomas Brisbane, Scotsman who was governor of NSW from 1821 to 1825. The first European settlement in Queensland was a small convict colony which was established at Redcliffe in 1824. Redcliffe is a northern beach suburb of Brisbane. The settlement was soon moved in 1825 to better location on the Brisbane River in what is now the CBD of Brisbane. John Oxley suggested this change of location and also that the town be known as Brisbane after Sir Thomas Brisbane who visited the settlement in 1826. The settlement area was known as the Moreton Bay. By 1831 Moreton Bay had 1,241 people, but 86% were convicts, and almost all the rest were guards and administrators. One of the founding pioneers to settle in Brisbane was Andrew Petrie, a government clerk, who arrived in the settlement in 1837. His son later became the first mayor of Brisbane.

 

In 1842 (six years after the settlement of SA) Moreton Bay penal establishment was closed and the area opened to free settlers. Half the convicts at Moreton Bay were Irish Catholics which influenced the development of the settlement thereafter. By 1846 Moreton Bay had a population of 4,000 people, considerably less than that of Burra at the time which had over 5,000 people! In 1848 the first immigrants direct from Britain arrived, as did some Chinese. In 1849 three ship loads of Presbyterians arrived in Brisbane, the first ship being the Fortitude- hence the naming of Fortitude Valley. The colony was still far from self sufficient in terms of food production. In the mid 1850s German immigrants also started to arrive in the settlement. The only building still standing built by convict labour is the Old Windmill in Wickham Park. Most of the other convict built buildings were in the CBD and gradually demolished during phases of growth in the 19th century.

 

During the late 1840s a few grand houses were built in Brisbane like Newstead House at Hamilton, and the city began to take shape. All the central streets were named after members of Queen Victoria’s family- Adelaide, Alice, Ann, Charlotte, Elizabeth, Margaret, Mary for the streets parallel to Queen Street, and Albert, Edward, George and William for the streets perpendicular to Queen Street. In 1859 the population had grown sufficiently, to about 30,000 people for Queensland to be proclaimed a separate colony from NSW with Brisbane (about 6,000 people) as its capital city. It was now a self governing independent colony. Old Government House was built shortly after this in 1862 followed by numerous colonial government buildings. The French Empire style Parliament House opposite the old Botanical Gardens was erected in 1865 to a design by Charles Tiffin. It had perfect symmetry, mansard roof lien with dormer windows, triangular pediments above some windows, and an arcaded loggia. It is still one of the most pleasing and distinctive buildings in Brisbane. Nearby the pastoralists and wealthy built the Queensland Club in Alice Street in 1882 with classical columns, roof line pediment, balustrade and perfect symmetry, but with Italianate style bay windows. The location near parliament house is much like the situation of the Adelaide Club on North Terrace almost adjacent to the SA parliament. The wealthy and pastoralists in both states had immeasurable influence over early colonial politics. One of the other finest colonial buildings of Brisbane is the Old Customs House with the circular copper domed roof on the edge of the Brisbane River. It was erected in 1888.

 

Although Brisbane grew quickly through the following decades it was not incorporated as a city until 1902.Part of the reason for the relatively slow of growth of Brisbane, compared to Adelaide, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney was that it was not the focal point of the state railway network. Queensland always had other major regional centres. The railway from Brisbane reached out to southern Queensland only- Ipswich in 1864, Toowoomba in 1867, and Charleville by 1888. There was no early push to have a railway link with the coast cities and their hinterlands. The coastal cities of Queensland were not linked by a railway until 1927 when road transport had already taken over the transport of livestock and freight. The coastal railway in Queensland was always for passenger traffic as much as freight traffic.

 

Unlike the other Australian state capitals, Brisbane City Council governs most of the metropolitan area of Brisbane. In 1925 over twenty shires and municipalities were amalgamated into the City of Brisbane. It was at this time that the landmark Brisbane city Hall was built in Art Deco style. It was opened in 1930 and members of the public can enter and walk around the inside of the building.

 

During World War Two, Brisbane had a distinctive history as Prime Minister John Curtin had the “Brisbane Line” as a controversial defense plan, whereby if there was a land invasion of Australia, the northern half of the country would be surrendered at a line just north of Brisbane! Brisbane also became the headquarters for the Americans campaign in the South Pacific with General Douglas MacArthur based there at times. In 1942 a violent clash erupted between American and Australian service personnel in Brisbane. Between 2,000 and 5,000 men were involved in the riots which spread over two days. One soldier was killed and eight injured by gun fire as well as 100s injured with black eyes, swollen faces, broken noses etc. On the second night 21 Americans were injured with 11 of them having to be hospitalised. It was locally known as The Battle of Brisbane.

 

Yet around 1 million American troops passed through Queensland between December 1941 (just after the bombing of Pearl harbour) and the end of 1945. They were here to spearhead attacks to take back the Philippines, and to prevent the Japanese from taking New Guinea.

Black American soldiers were especially unpopular in Brisbane as their landing contravened the “White Australia Policy” of the times. In response to this policy General Douglas MacArthur announced his support for the Australian government’s insistence that no more Black American troops be sent to Brisbane after 1942. The Black American units in Australia were later sent to New Guinea and New Caledonia. Black American troops in New Guinea were not allowed to visit Australia for rest and recreation leave although white American troops were allowed to visit Australia, mainly to Mackay. Resentment between American and Australian troops in Brisbane had to be contained and suppressed. Riots between troops also occurred in Townsville during the War.

 

Buildings to Watch Out for in Brisbane.

•Parliament House in the French Empire style. The architect Charles Tiffin was inspired by the Louvre Art gallery in Paris! It is open for free public inspection but only when parliament is not sitting (QLD parliament is meant to rise on 6 August). It was built in 1868. It is located on the corner of George and Alice Streets, opposite the Old Botanical Gardens. This

Photograph shows the 2 side pavilions or wings making it Palladian in style.

•Old Government House. This is now part of the QUT (Queensland University of Technology). It has recently been extensively restored and re-opened to the public over the Queens birthday long weekend in June. It too has free entry with the upstairs devoted to the art of William Robinson a gifted Queensland painter. Old Government House was built in 1862 and is one of the older buildings in Brisbane. It is a grand two storey house with arcaded loggias, classical facades and features, and two semi-circular balconies. The interior has a grand staircase. The complex is in the Old Botanical Gardens and has a café too.

•The Old Customs House. (399 Queen Street.) Pictured below with its green copper dome, classical balustrades, Corinthian columns and pilasters and triangular roof pediment etc. It is now a commercial building with a café on the river front.

 

•Brisbane City Hall. This Art Deco building built between 1920 and 1930 with classical features is dominated by the 92 metre high clock tower. The building and the clock tower are open free for public inspection during office hours. Note the tympanum frieze decoration in the triangular pediment across the façade.

 

•Albert St Uniting Church. This distinctive brick, gothic style church is across the plaza from the Town Hall. It is open on Fridays till 4 pm. The most prominent feature of the external design is the spire rising to a height of 42 metres from the street. It is capped with a handsome wrought iron final. The original organ was imported from England, and built by George Benson of Manchester. The front pipes are coloured and gilded with gold leaf.

 

•ANZAC Square War Memorial is uniquely and ideally set in peaceful surrounds and worth a visit. The Shrine of Remembrance, with its Eternal Flame, forms the focal point for the radial patterned pathways, pools and lawns. From here you get a view down to the Old Post Office which was built of local sandstone in 1872 by Mr Petrie.

 

A Very brief History of Brisbane.

Australia’s third largest city is named after Sir Thomas Brisbane, Scotsman who was governor of NSW from 1821 to 1825. The first European settlement in Queensland was a small convict colony which was established at Redcliffe in 1824. Redcliffe is a northern beach suburb of Brisbane. The settlement was soon moved in 1825 to better location on the Brisbane River in what is now the CBD of Brisbane. John Oxley suggested this change of location and also that the town be known as Brisbane after Sir Thomas Brisbane who visited the settlement in 1826. The settlement area was known as the Moreton Bay. By 1831 Moreton Bay had 1,241 people, but 86% were convicts, and almost all the rest were guards and administrators. One of the founding pioneers to settle in Brisbane was Andrew Petrie, a government clerk, who arrived in the settlement in 1837. His son later became the first mayor of Brisbane.

 

In 1842 (six years after the settlement of SA) Moreton Bay penal establishment was closed and the area opened to free settlers. Half the convicts at Moreton Bay were Irish Catholics which influenced the development of the settlement thereafter. By 1846 Moreton Bay had a population of 4,000 people, considerably less than that of Burra at the time which had over 5,000 people! In 1848 the first immigrants direct from Britain arrived, as did some Chinese. In 1849 three ship loads of Presbyterians arrived in Brisbane, the first ship being the Fortitude- hence the naming of Fortitude Valley. The colony was still far from self sufficient in terms of food production. In the mid 1850s German immigrants also started to arrive in the settlement. The only building still standing built by convict labour is the Old Windmill in Wickham Park. Most of the other convict built buildings were in the CBD and gradually demolished during phases of growth in the 19th century.

 

During the late 1840s a few grand houses were built in Brisbane like Newstead House at Hamilton, and the city began to take shape. All the central streets were named after members of Queen Victoria’s family- Adelaide, Alice, Ann, Charlotte, Elizabeth, Margaret, Mary for the streets parallel to Queen Street, and Albert, Edward, George and William for the streets perpendicular to Queen Street. In 1859 the population had grown sufficiently, to about 30,000 people for Queensland to be proclaimed a separate colony from NSW with Brisbane (about 6,000 people) as its capital city. It was now a self governing independent colony. Old Government House was built shortly after this in 1862 followed by numerous colonial government buildings. The French Empire style Parliament House opposite the old Botanical Gardens was erected in 1865 to a design by Charles Tiffin. It had perfect symmetry, mansard roof lien with dormer windows, triangular pediments above some windows, and an arcaded loggia. It is still one of the most pleasing and distinctive buildings in Brisbane. Nearby the pastoralists and wealthy built the Queensland Club in Alice Street in 1882 with classical columns, roof line pediment, balustrade and perfect symmetry, but with Italianate style bay windows. The location near parliament house is much like the situation of the Adelaide Club on North Terrace almost adjacent to the SA parliament. The wealthy and pastoralists in both states had immeasurable influence over early colonial politics. One of the other finest colonial buildings of Brisbane is the Old Customs House with the circular copper domed roof on the edge of the Brisbane River. It was erected in 1888.

 

Although Brisbane grew quickly through the following decades it was not incorporated as a city until 1902.Part of the reason for the relatively slow of growth of Brisbane, compared to Adelaide, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney was that it was not the focal point of the state railway network. Queensland always had other major regional centres. The railway from Brisbane reached out to southern Queensland only- Ipswich in 1864, Toowoomba in 1867, and Charleville by 1888. There was no early push to have a railway link with the coast cities and their hinterlands. The coastal cities of Queensland were not linked by a railway until 1927 when road transport had already taken over the transport of livestock and freight. The coastal railway in Queensland was always for passenger traffic as much as freight traffic.

 

Unlike the other Australian state capitals, Brisbane City Council governs most of the metropolitan area of Brisbane. In 1925 over twenty shires and municipalities were amalgamated into the City of Brisbane. It was at this time that the landmark Brisbane city Hall was built in Art Deco style. It was opened in 1930 and members of the public can enter and walk around the inside of the building.

 

During World War Two, Brisbane had a distinctive history as Prime Minister John Curtin had the “Brisbane Line” as a controversial defense plan, whereby if there was a land invasion of Australia, the northern half of the country would be surrendered at a line just north of Brisbane! Brisbane also became the headquarters for the Americans campaign in the South Pacific with General Douglas MacArthur based there at times. In 1942 a violent clash erupted between American and Australian service personnel in Brisbane. Between 2,000 and 5,000 men were involved in the riots which spread over two days. One soldier was killed and eight injured by gun fire as well as 100s injured with black eyes, swollen faces, broken noses etc. On the second night 21 Americans were injured with 11 of them having to be hospitalised. It was locally known as The Battle of Brisbane.

 

Yet around 1 million American troops passed through Queensland between December 1941 (just after the bombing of Pearl harbour) and the end of 1945. They were here to spearhead attacks to take back the Philippines, and to prevent the Japanese from taking New Guinea.

Black American soldiers were especially unpopular in Brisbane as their landing contravened the “White Australia Policy” of the times. In response to this policy General Douglas MacArthur announced his support for the Australian government’s insistence that no more Black American troops be sent to Brisbane after 1942. The Black American units in Australia were later sent to New Guinea and New Caledonia. Black American troops in New Guinea were not allowed to visit Australia for rest and recreation leave although white American troops were allowed to visit Australia, mainly to Mackay. Resentment between American and Australian troops in Brisbane had to be contained and suppressed. Riots between troops also occurred in Townsville during the War.

 

"Forgiveness means different things to different people. Generally, however, it involves a decision to let go of resentment and thoughts of revenge. The act that hurt or offended you might always be with you, but forgiveness can lessen its grip on you and help free you from the control of the person who harmed you."

 

"Practicing forgiveness can have powerful health benefits. Observational studies, and even some randomized trials, suggest that forgiveness is associated with lower levels of depression, anxiety, and hostility; reduced substance abuse; higher self-esteem; and greater life satisfaction."

Sanctification - (The Death Side)

 

"..This is the will of God, your sanctification.." [1 Thessalonians 4:3]

 

In sanctification God has to deal with us on the death side as well as on the life side. Sanctification requires our coming to the place of death, but many of us spend so much time there that we become morbid. There is always a tremendous battle before sanctification is realized— something within us pushing with resentment against the demands of Christ. When the Holy Spirit begins to show us what sanctification means, the struggle starts immediately. Jesus said, “If anyone comes to Me and does not hate…his own life…he cannot be My disciple” (Luk.14:26). In the process of sanctification, the Spirit of God will strip me down until there is nothing left but myself, and that is the place of death. Am I willing to be myself and nothing more? Am I willing to have no friends, no father, no brother, and no self-interest— simply to be ready for death? That is the condition required for sanctification. No wonder Jesus said, “I did not come to bring peace but a sword” (Mat.10:34). This is where the battle comes, and where so many of us falter. We refuse to be identified with the death of Jesus Christ on this point. We say, “But this is so strict. Surely He does not require that of me.” Our Lord is strict, and He does require that of us. Am I willing to reduce myself down to simply “me”? Am I determined enough to strip myself of all that my friends think of me, and all that I think of myself? Am I willing and determined to hand over my simple naked self to God? Once I am, He will immediately sanctify me completely, and my life will be free from being determined and persistent toward anything except God (see 1Th.5:23-24). When I pray, “Lord, show me what sanctification means for me,” He will show me. It means being made one with Jesus. Sanctification is not something Jesus puts in me— it is Himself in me (see 1Co.1:30).

_____

My Utmost - Oswald Chambers

Wat Pho, also spelled Wat Po, is a Buddhist temple complex in the Phra Nakhon District, Bangkok, Thailand. It is on Rattanakosin Island, directly south of the Grand Palace. Known also as the Temple of the Reclining Buddha, its official name is Wat Phra Chetuphon Wimon Mangkhalaram Rajwaramahawihan. The more commonly known name, Wat Pho, is a contraction of its older name, Wat Photaram

 

The temple is first on the list of six temples in Thailand classed as the highest grade of the first-class royal temples. It is associated with King Rama I who rebuilt the temple complex on an earlier temple site. It became his main temple and is where some of his ashes are enshrined. The temple was later expanded and extensively renovated by Rama III. The temple complex houses the largest collection of Buddha images in Thailand, including a 46 m long reclining Buddha. The temple is considered the earliest centre for public education in Thailand, and the marble illustrations and inscriptions placed in the temple for public instructions has been recognised by UNESCO in its Memory of the World Programme. It houses a school of Thai medicine, and is also known as the birthplace of traditional Thai massage which is still taught and practiced at the temple.

 

Wat Pho is one of Bangkok's oldest temples. It existed before Bangkok was established as the capital by King Rama I. It was originally named Wat Photaram or Podharam, from which the name Wat Pho is derived. The name refers to the monastery of the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India where Buddha is believed to have attained enlightenment. The date of the construction of the old temple and its founder are unknown, but it is thought to have been built or expanded during the reign of King Phetracha (1688–1703). The southern section of Wat Pho used to be occupied by part of a French Star fort that was demolished by King Phetracha after the 1688 Siege of Bangkok.

 

After the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767 to the Burmese, King Taksin moved the capital to Thonburi where he located his palace beside Wat Arun on the opposite side of the Chao Phraya River from Wat Pho. The proximity of Wat Pho to this royal palace elevated it to the status of a wat luang ('royal monastery').

 

In 1782, King Rama I moved the capital from Thonburi across the river to Bangkok and built the Grand Palace adjacent to Wat Pho. In 1788, he ordered the construction and renovation at the old temple site of Wat Pho, which had by then become dilapidated. The site, which was marshy and uneven, was drained and filled in before construction began. During its construction, Rama I also initiated a project to remove Buddha images from abandoned temples in Ayutthaya, Sukhothai, as well other sites in Thailand, and many of these retrieved Buddha images were kept at Wat Pho. These include the remnants of an enormous Buddha image from Ayuthaya's Wat Phra Si Sanphet destroyed by the Burmese in 1767, and these were incorporated into a chedi in the complex. The rebuilding took over seven years to complete. In 1801, twelve years after work began, the new temple complex was renamed Phra Chetuphon Vimolmangklavas in reference to the vihara of Jetavana, and it became the main temple for Rama I.

 

The complex underwent significant changes over the next 260 years, particularly during the reign of Rama III (1824-1851). In 1832, King Rama III began renovating and enlarging the temple complex, a process that took 16 years and seven months to complete. The ground of the temple complex was expanded to 56 rai (9.0 ha; 22 acres), and most of the structures now present in Wat Pho were either built or rebuilt during this period, including the Chapel of the Reclining Buddha. He also turned the temple complex into a public center of learning by decorating the walls of the buildings with diagrams and inscriptions on various subjects.: 90  The inscriptions were written by about 50 people from the court of Rama III and learned monks led by Supreme Patriarch Prince Paramanuchitchinorot (1790-1853), the abbot of Wat Pho, a Buddhist scholar, historian and poet. On 21 February 2008, these marble illustrations and inscriptions was registered in the Memory of the World Programme launched by UNESCO to promote, preserve and propagate the wisdom of the world heritage. Wat Pho is regarded as Thailand's first university and a center for traditional Thai massage. It served as a medical teaching center in the mid-19th century before the advent of modern medicine, and the temple remains a center for traditional medicine today where a private school for Thai medicine founded in 1957 still operates.

 

The name of the complex was changed again to Wat Phra Chetuphon Vimolmangklararm during the reign of King Rama IV. Apart from the construction of a fourth great chedi and minor modifications by Rama IV, there had been no significant changes to Wat Pho since. Repair work, however, is a continuing process, often funded by devotees of the temple. The temple was restored again in 1982 before the Bangkok Bicentennial Celebration.

 

Wat Pho is one of the largest and oldest wats in Bangkok covering an area of 50 rai or 80,000 square metres. It is home to more than one thousand Buddha images, as well as one of the largest single Buddha images at 46 metres (151 ft) in length. The Wat Pho complex consists of two walled compounds bisected by Chetuphon Road running in the east–west direction. The larger northern walled compound, the phutthawat, is open to visitors and contains the finest buildings dedicated to the Buddha, including the bot with its four directional viharn, and the temple housing the reclining Buddha. The southern compound, the sankhawat, contains the residential quarters of the monks and a school. The perimeter wall of the main temple complex has sixteen gates, two of which serve as entrances for the public (one on Chetuphon Road, the other near the northwest corner).

 

The temple grounds contain four great chedis, 91 small chedis, two belfries, a bot (central shrine), a number of viharas (halls) and various buildings such as pavilions, as well as gardens and a small temple museum. Architecturally the chedis and buildings in the complex are different in style and sizes. A number of large Chinese statues, some of which depict Europeans, are also found in the complex guarding the gates of the perimeter walls as well as other gates in the compound. These stone statues were originally imported as ballast on ships trading with China.

 

Wat Pho was also intended to serve as a place of education for the general public. To this end a pictorial encyclopedia was engraved on granite slabs covering eight subject areas: history, medicine, health, custom, literature, proverbs, lexicography, and the Buddhist religion. These plaques, inscribed with texts and illustrations on medicine, Thai traditional massage, and other subjects, are placed around the temple, for example, within the Sala Rai or satellite open pavilions. Dotted around the complex are 24 small rock gardens (khao mor) illustrating rock formations of Thailand, and one, called the Contorting Hermit Hill, contains some statues showing methods of massage and yoga positions. There are also drawings of constellations on the wall of the library, inscriptions on local administration, as well as paintings of folk tales and animal husbandry.

 

Phra Ubosot (Phra Uposatha) or bot is the ordination hall, the main hall used for performing Buddhist rituals, and the most sacred building of the complex. It was constructed by King Rama I in the Ayuthaya-style, and later enlarged and reconstructed in the Rattanakosin-style by Rama III. The bot was dedicated in 1791, before the rebuilding of Wat Pho was completed. This building is raised on a marble platform, and the ubosot lies in the center of courtyard enclosed by a double cloister (Phra Rabiang).

 

Inside the ubosot is a gold and crystal three-tiered pedestal topped with a gilded Buddha made of a gold-copper alloy, and over the statue is a nine-tiered umbrella representing the authority of Thailand. The Buddha image, known as Phra Buddha Theva Patimakorn and thought to be from the Ayutthaya period, was moved here by Rama I from Wat Sala Si Na (now called Wat Khuhasawan) in Thonburi. Rama IV later placed some ashes of Rama I under the pedestal of the Buddha image so that the public may pay homage to both Rama I and the Buddha at the same time. There are also ten images of Buddha's disciples in the hall: Moggalana is to the left of Buddha and Sariputta to the right, with eight Arahants below.

 

The exterior balustrade surrounding the main hall has around 150 depictions in stone of the epic, Ramakien, the ultimate message of which is transcendence from secular to spiritual dimensions. The stone panels were recovered from a temple in Ayuthaya. The ubosot is enclosed by a low wall called kamphaeng kaew, which is punctuated by gateways guarded by mythological lions, as well as eight structures that house bai sema, stone markers that delineate the sacred space of the bot.

 

Phra Rabiang - This double cloister contains around 400 images of Buddha from northern Thailand selected out of the 1,200 originally brought by King Rama I. Of these Buddha images, 150 are on the inner side of the double cloister, another 244 images are on the outer side. These Buddha figures, some standing and some seated, are evenly mounted on matching gilded pedestals. These images are from different periods in Siamese history, such as the Chiangsaen, Sukhothai, U-Thong, and Ayutthaya eras, but they were renovated by Rama I and covered with stucco and gold leaves to make them look similar.

 

The Phra Rabiang is intersected by four viharns. The viharn in the east contains an eight metre tall standing Buddha, the Buddha Lokanatha, originally from Ayutthaya. In its antechamber is Buddha Maravichai, sitting under a bodhi tree, originally from Sawankhalok of the late-Sukhothai period. The one on the west has a seated Buddha sheltered by a naga, the Buddha Chinnasri, while the Buddha on the south, the Buddha Chinnaraja, has five disciples seated in front listening to his first sermon. Both Buddhas in the south and west viharns were brought from Sukhothai by Rama I. The Buddha in the north viharn, called Buddha Palilai, was cast in the reign of Rama I. The viharn on the west contains a small museum.

 

Phra Prang - There are four towers, or phra prang, at each corner of the courtyard around the bot. Each of the towers is tiled with marble and contains four Khmer-style statues which are the guardian divinities of the Four Cardinal Points.

 

This is a group of four large stupas, each 42 metres high. These four chedis are dedicated to the first four Chakri kings. The first, in green mosaic tiles, was constructed by Rama I to house the remnants of the great Buddha from Ayuthaya, which was scorched to remove its gold covering by the Burmese. Two more were built by Rama III, one in white tiles to hold the ashes of his father Rama II, another in yellow for himself. A fourth in blue was built by Rama IV who then enclosed the four chedis leaving no space for more to be built.

 

The viharn or wihan contains the reclining Buddha and was constructed in the reign of Rama III emulating the Ayutthaya style. The interior is decorated with panels of mural.

 

Adjacent to this building is a small raised garden (Missakawan Park) with a Chinese-style pavilion; the centre piece of the garden is a bodhi tree which was propagated from the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree in Sri Lanka that is believed to have originally came from a tree in India where Buddha sat while awaiting enlightenment.

 

Phra Mondop or the ho trai is the Scripture Hall containing a small library of Buddhist scriptures. The building is not generally open to the public as the scriptures, which are inscribed on palm leaves, need to be kept in a controlled environment for preservation. The library was built by King Rama III. Guarding its entrance are figures called Yak Wat Pho ('Wat Pho's Giants') placed in niches beside the gates. Around Phra Mondop are three pavilions with mural paintings of the beginning of Ramayana.

 

Phra Chedi Rai - Outside the Phra Rabiang cloisters are dotted many smaller chedis, called Phra Chedi Rai. Seventy-one of these small chedis were built by Rama III, each five metres in height. There are also four groups of five chedis that shared a single base built by Rama I, one on each corner outside the cloister. The 71 chedis of smaller size contain the ashes of the royal family, and 20 slightly larger ones clustered in groups of five contain the relics of Buddha.

 

Sala Karn Parien - This hall is next to the Phra Mondop at the southwest corner of the compound, and is thought to date from the Ayutthaya period. It serves as a learning and meditation hall. The building contains the original Buddha image from the bot which was moved here to make way for the Buddha image currently in the bot. Next to it is a garden called The Crocodile Pond.

Sala Rai - There are 16 satellite pavilions, most of them placed around the edge of the compound, and murals depicting the life of Buddha may be found in some of these. Two of these are the medical pavilions between Phra Maha Chedi Si Ratchakarn and the main chapel. The north medicine pavilion contains Thai traditional massage inscriptions with 32 drawings of massage positions on the walls while the one to the south has a collection of inscriptions on guardian angel that protects the newborn.

Phra Viharn Kod - This is the gallery which consists of four viharas, one on each corner outside the Phra Rabiang.

Tamnak Wasukri - Also called the poet's house, this is the former residence of Prince Patriarch Paramanuchitchinorot, a scholar, historian and poet. The house was a gift from his nephew Rama III. This building is in the living quarters of the monks in the southern compound and is open once a year on his birthday.

 

The wat and the reclining Buddha (Phra Buddhasaiyas, Thai: พระพุทธไสยาสน์) were built by Rama III in 1832. The image of the reclining Buddha represents the entry of Buddha into Nirvana and the end of all reincarnations. The posture of the image is referred to as sihasaiyas, the posture of a sleeping or reclining lion. The figure is 15 m high and 46 m long, and it is one of the largest Buddha statues in Thailand.

 

The figure has a brick core, which was modelled and shaped with plaster, then gilded. The right arm of the Buddha supports the head with tight curls, which rests on two box-pillows encrusted with glass mosaics. The soles of the feet of the Buddha are 3 m high and 4.5 m long, and inlaid with mother-of-pearl. They are each divided into 108 arranged panels, displaying the auspicious symbols by which Buddha can be identified, such as flowers, dancers, white elephants, tigers, and altar accessories. At the center of each foot is a circle representing a chakra or 'energy point'. There are 108 bronze bowls in the corridor representing the 108 auspicious characters of Buddha. Visitors may drop coins in these bowls as it is believed to bring good fortune, and it also helps the monks to maintain the wat.

 

Although the reclining Buddha is not a pilgrimage destination, it remains an object of popular piety. An annual celebration for the reclining Buddha is held around the time of the Siamese Songkran or New Year in April, which also helps raise funds for the upkeep of Wat Pho.

 

The temple is considered the first public university of Thailand, teaching students in the fields of religion, science, and literature through murals and sculptures. A school for traditional medicine and massage was established at the temple in 1955, and now offers four courses in Thai medicine: Thai pharmacy, Thai medical practice, Thai midwifery, and Thai massage. This, the Wat Pho Thai Traditional Medical and Massage School, is the first school of Thai medicine approved by the Thai Ministry of Education, and one of the earliest massage schools. It remains the national headquarters and the center of education of traditional Thai medicine and massage to this day. Courses on Thai massage are held in Wat Pho, and these may last a few weeks to a year. Two pavilions at the eastern edge of the Wat Pho compound are used as classrooms for practising Thai traditional massage and herbal massage, and visitors can received massage treatment here for a fee. The Thai massage or Nuad Thai taught at Wat Pho has been included in UNESCO's list of Intangible Cultural Heritage, and Wat Pho has trained more than 200,000 massage therapists who practice in 145 countries.

 

There are many medical inscriptions and illustrations placed in various buildings around the temple complex, some of which serve as instructions for Thai massage therapists, particularly those in the north medical pavilion. They were inscribed by scholars during the reign of King Rama III. Among these are 60 inscribed plaques, 30 each for the front and back of human body, showing pressure points used in traditional Thai massage. These therapeutic points and energy pathways, known as sen, with explanations given on the walls next to the plaques.

 

Bangkok, officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies 1,568.7 square kilometres (605.7 sq mi) in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estimated population of 10.539 million as of 2020, 15.3 percent of the country's population. Over 14 million people (22.2 percent) lived within the surrounding Bangkok Metropolitan Region at the 2010 census, making Bangkok an extreme primate city, dwarfing Thailand's other urban centres in both size and importance to the national economy.

 

Bangkok traces its roots to a small trading post during the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 15th century, which eventually grew and became the site of two capital cities, Thonburi in 1768 and Rattanakosin in 1782. Bangkok was at the heart of the modernization of Siam, later renamed Thailand, during the late-19th century, as the country faced pressures from the West. The city was at the centre of Thailand's political struggles throughout the 20th century, as the country abolished absolute monarchy, adopted constitutional rule, and underwent numerous coups and several uprisings. The city, incorporated as a special administrative area under the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration in 1972, grew rapidly during the 1960s through the 1980s and now exerts a significant impact on Thailand's politics, economy, education, media and modern society.

 

The Asian investment boom in the 1980s and 1990s led many multinational corporations to locate their regional headquarters in Bangkok. The city is now a regional force in finance and business. It is an international hub for transport and health care, and has emerged as a centre for the arts, fashion, and entertainment. The city is known for its street life and cultural landmarks, as well as its red-light districts. The Grand Palace and Buddhist temples including Wat Arun and Wat Pho stand in contrast with other tourist attractions such as the nightlife scenes of Khaosan Road and Patpong. Bangkok is among the world's top tourist destinations, and has been named the world's most visited city consistently in several international rankings.

 

Bangkok's rapid growth coupled with little urban planning has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure. Despite an extensive expressway network, an inadequate road network and substantial private car usage have led to chronic and crippling traffic congestion, which caused severe air pollution in the 1990s. The city has since turned to public transport in an attempt to solve the problem, operating eight urban rail lines and building other public transit, but congestion still remains a prevalent issue. The city faces long-term environmental threats such as sea level rise due to climate change.

 

The history of Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, dates at least to the early 15th century, when it was under the rule of Ayutthaya. Due to its strategic location near the mouth of the Chao Phraya River, the town gradually increased in importance, and after the fall of Ayutthaya King Taksin established his new capital of Thonburi there, on the river's west bank. King Phutthayotfa Chulalok, who succeeded Taksin, moved the capital to the eastern bank in 1782, to which the city dates its foundation under its current Thai name, "Krung Thep Maha Nakhon". Bangkok has since undergone tremendous changes, growing rapidly, especially in the second half of the 20th century, to become the primate city of Thailand. It was the centre of Siam's modernization in the late 19th century, subjected to Allied bombing during the Second World War, and has long been the modern nation's central political stage, with numerous uprisings and coups d'état having taken place on its streets throughout the years.

 

It is not known exactly when the area which is now Bangkok was first settled. It probably originated as a small farming and trading community, situated in a meander of the Chao Phraya River within the mandala of Ayutthaya's influence. The town had become an important customs outpost by as early as the 15th century; the title of its customs official is given as Nai Phra Khanon Thonburi (Thai: นายพระขนอนทณบุรี) in a document from the reign of Ayutthayan king Chao Sam Phraya (1424–1448). The name also appears in the 1805 revised code of laws known as the Law of Three Seals.

 

At the time, the Chao Phraya flowed through what are now the Bangkok Noi and Bangkok Yai canals, forming a large loop in which lay the town. In the reign of King Chairacha (either in 1538 or 1542), a waterway was excavated, bypassing the loop and shortening the route for ships sailing up to Ayutthaya. The flow of the river has since changed to follow the new waterway, dividing the town and making the western part an island. This geographical feature may have given the town the name Bang Ko (บางเกาะ), meaning 'island village', which later became Bangkok (บางกอก, pronounced in Thai as [bāːŋ kɔ̀ːk]). Another theory regarding the origin of the name speculates that it is shortened from Bang Makok (บางมะกอก), makok being the name of Spondias pinnata, a plant bearing olive-like fruit. This is supported by the fact that Wat Arun, a historic temple in the area, used to be named Wat Makok. Specific mention of the town was first made in the royal chronicles from the reign of King Maha Chakkraphat (1548–1568), giving its name as Thonburi Si Mahasamut (ธนบุรีศรีมหาสมุทร). Bangkok was probably a colloquial name, albeit one widely adopted by foreign visitors.

 

The importance of Bangkok/Thonburi increased with the amount of Ayutthaya's maritime trade. Dutch records noted that ships passing through Bangkok were required to declare their goods and number of passengers, as well as pay customs duties. Ships' cannons would be confiscated and held there before they were allowed to proceed upriver to Ayutthaya. An early English language account is that of Adam Denton, who arrived aboard the Globe, an East India Company merchantman bearing a letter from King James I, which arrived in "the Road of Syam" (Pak Nam) on 15 August 1612, where the port officer of Bangkok attended to the ship. Denton's account mentions that he and his companions journeyed "up the river some twenty miles to a town called Bancope, where we were well received, and further 100 miles to the city...."

 

Ayutthaya's maritime trade was at its height during the reign of King Narai (1656–1688). Recognition of the city's strategic location guarding the water passage to Ayutthaya lead to expansion of the military presence there. A fort of Western design was constructed on the east side of the river around 1685–1687 under the supervision of French engineer de la Mare, probably replacing an earlier structure, while plans to rebuild the fort on the west bank were also made. De la Mare had arrived with the French embassy of Chevalier de Chaumont, and remained in Siam along with Chevalier de Forbin, who had been appointed governor of Bangkok. The Bangkok garrison under Forbin consisted of Siamese, Portuguese, and French reportedly totalling about one thousand men.

 

French control over the city was further consolidated when the French General Desfarges, who had arrived with the second French embassy in 1687, secured the king's permission to board troops there. This, however, lead to resentment among Siamese nobles, led by Phetracha, ultimately resulting in the Siamese revolution of 1688, in which King Narai was overthrown and 40,000 Siamese troops besieged Bangkok's eastern fort for four months before an agreement was reached and the French were allowed to withdraw. The revolution resulted in Siam's ties with the West being virtually severed, steering its trade towards China and Japan. The eastern fort was subsequently demolished on Phetracha's orders.

 

Ayutthaya was razed by the Burmese in 1767. In the following months, multiple factions competed for control of the kingdom's lands. Of these, Phraya Tak, governor of Tak and a general fighting in Ayutthaya's defence prior to its fall, emerged as the strongest. After succeeding in reclaiming the cities of Ayutthaya and Bangkok, Phraya Tak declared himself king (popularly known as King Taksin) in 1768 and established Thonburi as his capital. Reasons given for this change include the totality of Ayutthaya's destruction and Thonburi's strategic location. Being a fortified town with a sizeable population meant that not much would need to be reconstructed. The existence of an old Chinese trading settlement on the eastern bank allowed Taksin to use his Chinese connections to import rice and revive trade.

 

King Taksin had the city area extended northwards to border the Bangkok Noi Canal. A moat was dug to protect the city's western border, on which new city walls and fortifications were built. Moats and walls were also constructed on the eastern bank, encircling the city together with the canals on the western side. The king's palace (Thonburi Palace) was built within the old city walls, including the temples of Wat Chaeng (Wat Arun) and Wat Thai Talat (Wat Molilokkayaram) within the palace grounds. Outlying orchards were re-landscaped for rice farming.

 

Much of Taksin's reign was spent in military campaigns to consolidate the Thonburi Kingdom's hold over Siamese lands. His kingdom, however, would last only until 1782 when a coup was mounted against him, and the general Chao Phraya Chakri established himself as king, later to be known as Phutthayotfa Chulalok or Rama I.

 

Rama I re-established the capital on the more strategic east bank of the river, relocating the Chinese already settled there to the area between Wat Sam Pluem and Wat Sampheng (which developed into Bangkok's Chinatown). Fortifications were rebuilt, and another series of moats was created, encircling the city in an area known as Rattanakosin Island.

 

The erection of the city pillar on 21 April 1782 is regarded as the formal date of the city's establishment. (The year would later mark the start of the Rattanakosin Era after calendar reforms by King Rama V in 1888.) Rama I named the new city Krung Rattanakosin In Ayothaya (กรุงรัตนโกสินทร์อินท์อโยธยา). This was later modified by King Nangklao to be: Krungthepmahanakhon Bowonrattanakosin Mahintha-ayutthaya. While settlements on both banks were commonly called Bangkok, both the Burney Treaty of 1826 and the Roberts Treaty of 1833 refer to the capital as the City of Sia-Yut'hia. King Mongkut (Rama IV) would later give the city its full ceremonial name:

 

Rama I modelled his city after the former capital of Ayutthaya, with the Grand Palace, Front Palace and royal temples by the river, next to the royal field (now Sanam Luang). Continuing outwards were the royal court of justice, royal stables and military prison. Government offices were located within the Grand Palace, while residences of nobles were concentrated south of the palace walls. Settlements spread outwards from the city centre.

 

The new capital is referred to in Thai sources as Rattanakosin, a name shared by the Siamese kingdom of this historical period. The name Krung Thep and Krung Thep Maha Nakhon, both shortened forms of the full ceremonial name, began to be used near the end of the 19th century. Foreigners, however, continued to refer to the city by the name Bangkok, which has seen continued use until this day.

 

Most of Rama I's reign was also marked by continued military campaigns, though the Burmese threat gradually declined afterwards. His successors consistently saw to the renovation of old temples, palaces, and monuments in the city. New canals were also built, gradually expanding the fledgling city as areas available for agriculture increased and new transport networks were created.

 

At the time of the city's foundation, most of the population lived by the river or the canals, often in floating houses on the water. Waterways served as the main method of transportation, and farming communities depended on them for irrigation. Outside the city walls, settlements sprawled along both river banks. Forced settlers, mostly captives of war, also formed several ethnic communities outside the city walls.

 

Large numbers of Chinese immigrants continued to settle in Bangkok, especially during the early 19th century. Such was their prominence that Europeans visiting in the 1820s estimated that they formed over half of the city population. The Chinese excelled in trade, and led the development of a market economy. The Chinese settlement at Sampheng had become a bustling market by 1835. 

 

By the mid-19th century, the West had become an increasingly powerful presence. Missionaries, envoys and merchants began re-visiting Bangkok and Siam, bringing with them both modern innovations and the threat of colonialism. King Mongkut (Rama IV, reigned 1851–1868) was open to Western ideas and knowledge, but was also forced to acknowledge their powers, with the signing of the Bowring Treaty in 1855. During his reign, industrialization began taking place in Bangkok, which saw the introduction of the steam engine, modern shipbuilding and the printing press. Influenced by the Western community, Charoen Krung Road, the city's first paved street, was constructed in 1862–1864. This was followed by Bamrung Mueang, Fueang Nakhon, Trong (now Rama IV) and Si Lom Roads. Land transport would later surpass the canals in importance, shifting people's homes from floating dwellings toward permanent buildings. The limits of the city proper were also expanded during his reign, extending to the Phadung Krung Kasem Canal, dug in 1851.

 

King Mongkut's son Chulalongkorn (r. 1868–1910) was set upon modernizing the country. He engaged in wide-ranging reforms, abolishing slavery, corvée (unfree labour) and the feudal system, and creating a centralized bureaucracy and a professional army. The Western concept of nationhood was adopted, and national borders demarcated against British and French territories. Disputes with the French resulted in the Paknam Incident in 1893, when the French sent gunboats up the Chao Phraya to blockade Bangkok, resulting in Siam's concession of territory to France.

 

With Chulalongkorn's reforms, governance of the capital and the surrounding areas, established as Monthon Krung Thep Phra Mahanakhon (มณฑลกรุงเทพพระมหานคร), came under the Ministry of Urban Affairs (Nakhonban). During his reign many more canals and roads were built, expanding the urban reaches of the capital. Infrastructure was developed, with the introduction of railway and telegraph services between Bangkok and Samut Prakan and then expanding countrywide. Electricity was introduced, first to palaces and government offices, then to serve electric trams in the capital and later the general public. The King's fascination with the West was reflected in the royal adoption of Western dress and fashions, but most noticeably in architecture. He commissioned the construction of the neoclassical Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall at the new Dusit Palace, which was linked to the historic city centre by the grand Ratchadamnoen Avenue, inspired by the Champs-Élysées in Paris. Examples of Western influence in architecture became visible throughout the city.

 

By 1900, rural market zones in Bangkok began developing into residential districts. Rama VI (1910–1925) continued his predecessor's program of the development of public works by establishing Chulalongkorn University in 1916, and commissioned a system of locks to control waterway levels surrounding the developing city, he also provided the city's first and largest recreational area, Lumphini Park. The Memorial Bridge was constructed in 1932 to connect Thonburi to Bangkok, which was believed to promote economic growth and modernization in a period when infrastructure was developing considerably. Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between the military and political elite as the country abolished absolute monarchy in 1932. It was subject to Japanese occupation and Allied bombing during World War II. With the war over in 1945, British and Indian troops landed in September, and during their brief occupation of the city disarmed the Japanese troops. A significant event following the return of the young king, Ananda Mahidol, to Thailand, intended to defuse post-war tensions lingering between Bangkok's ethnic Chinese and Thai people, was his visit to Bangkok's Chinatown Sam Peng Lane (ซอยสำเพ็ง), on 3 June 1946.

 

As a result of pro-Western bloc treaties Bangkok rapidly grew in the post-war period as a result of United States developmental aid and government-sponsored investment. Infrastructure, including the Don Mueang International Airport and highways, was built and expanded.  Bangkok's role as an American military R&R destination launched its tourism industry as well as sex trade.  Disproportionate urban development led to increasing income inequalities and unprecedented migration from rural areas into Bangkok; its population surged from 1.8 to 3 million in the 1960s. Following the United States' withdrawal from Vietnam, Japanese businesses took over as leaders in investment, and the expansion of export-oriented manufacturing led to growth of the financial market in Bangkok.  Rapid growth of the city continued through the 1980s and early 1990s, until it was stalled by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. By then, many public and social issues had emerged, among them the strain on infrastructure reflected in the city's notorious traffic jams. Bangkok's role as the nation's political stage continues to be seen in strings of popular protests, from the student uprisings in 1973 and 1976, anti-military demonstrations in 1992, and successive anti-government protests by the "Yellow Shirt" and "Red Shirt" movements from 2008 on.

 

Administratively, eastern Bangkok and Thonburi had been established as separate provinces in 1915. (The province east of the river was named Phra Nakhon (พระนคร.) A series of decrees in 1971–1972 resulted in the merger of these provinces and its local administrations, forming the current city of Bangkok which is officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon. The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) was created in 1975 to govern the city, and its governor has been elected since 1985.

Here is the history of this fascinating place.

 

633: St Sigebert, a younger son of King Raedwald (of Sutton Hoo fame), the first Christian king of the East Angles and the first English king to be baptised, founded a monastery here in the days when the town was called Beodericsworth (meaning house of Beodric, a previous lord of the manor). Sigebert retired to the monastery (the first English king to do so) and left the throne to his son, Egric. Then, King Penda, the pagan king of Mercia, invaded East Anglia in the early 640s and St Sigebert was called upon to defend his people (and his son). Reluctantly, he went onto the battlefield but refused to bear arms and only carried a rod; his army was defeated and he was killed.

 

902: King Edward the Elder (son of Alfred the Great) won a battle against his cousin Aethelwald (who was challenging his right to rule). The battle took place in the Fornham St Genevieve and Fornham All Saints area.

 

9th-11th Centuries: St Edmund was born about 841 AD, possibly in Nuremberg, Germany, possibly the son of King Alcmund of Saxony, possibly arriving in England at Hunstanton (Norfolk) in about 865 AD. He became King of East Anglia on Christmas Day 845 AD when he was crowned at Bures, aged about 14. He was killed by the Danes on 20th November 869 at a place generally thought to be Hoxne, Suffolk: when he refused to renounce his Christian faith, the Danes tied him to a tree, whipped him, shot his body full of arrows and then decapitated him and flung his head into the woods. According to legend, his head was later discovered being guarded by a she-wolf and calling “here, here, here”! His reunited head and body were originally housed in a small chapel near Hoxne but, 33 years later in 903, his body was brought to Bury – it was miraculously undecayed, it had healed itself of all arrow wounds and his head and neck were now joined together (the sure sign of a miracle). He was initially interred in a wooden church in the town; in 1095 it was re-interred in a stone church.

 

1010-1014: King Edmund is now revered as a saint, but his ghost has a decidedly vindictive and unchristian history!

 

In 1010, when the shrine’s guardian (Alwyne) took his remains to London to safeguard them from rampaging Vikings, an Essex priest who refused to help them on the journey had his house burnt to the ground.

 

In London, a Viking who mocked Edmund’s saint credentials was struck blind.

 

Then, when Alwnye took his remains back to Bury and those vicious Vikings besieged the town, St Edmund’s ghost – perhaps forgivably – intervened again and killed Sweyn Forkbeard, the King of Denmark. Sweyn was no great loss, mind you: he was notably ruthless and vicious, even for those times. In 1014, he surrounded the town and threatened to destroy both church and clergy unless the hated Danegeld was paid – he apparently also foolishly said some unwise words about St Edmund as well. Suddenly, Sweyn had a crystal clear and terrifying vision: St Edmund was on a ghostly horse and aiming a ghostly lance at his heart. In front of all of his men, he screamed for help against the terrifying ghost and then was struck dead (a heart attack? convulsions?) on the siege field.

 

For many centuries, belief in St Edmund’s avenging ghost protected the abbey and its treasures.

 

For example, in the 12th century, the Barons of the Exchequer did not dare take the shrine’s gold and jewels to contribute to Richard I’s ransom.

 

In the 13th century, King Edward I wanted to tax the abbey’s property and the abbot cleverly said that he “would place this matter between Edmund the martyr and yourself”: that night King Edmund dreamt of Sweyn Forkbeard and then backtracked on his proposal!

 

1014-32: Sweyn’s son, King Canute, had been present at the siege when St Edmund’s ghost had killed his ruthless father. Whilst he went on to conquer all of England, he treated Bury St Edmunds with kid gloves. In 1032, he established a Benedictine abbey with 20 monks to replace Sigebert’s small monastery, laid his crown upon King Edmund’s shrine and then exempted the townsfolk from paying the hated Danegeld – on condition that they paid taxes to the abbey. This made the abbey the wealthiest in England for many years.

 

1020-65: More unchristian ghostly revenge takes place.

 

A sheriff was driven insane when he tried to arrest a woman who had taken refuge within the shrine.

 

A warrior was also driven mad for the “crime” of wearing a sword inside the sacred shrine.

 

Then the second abbot, Leofstan, was foolish enough – and disrespectful enough – to lift the coffin lid to see if the body was still, indeed, miraculously preserved. Worse, he had the cheek to lay his hand upon the saint’s head to see if it was truly still attached to the body. St Edmund – dead or not – was having none of that. The flesh instantly withered from Leofstan’s hands and Leofstan was left in crippling agony – so much so that King Edmund the Confessor sent his own physician (Baldwin) to try to assist him.

 

1042-66: King Edmund the Confessor visited the abbey and granted the abbot jurisdiction over most of West Suffolk. He also granted it a charter to have its own mint.

 

10th-11th century: due to the many miracles attributed to St Edmund (he wasn’t always a vengeful, unholy ghost), the town changed its name from Beodericsworth to St Edmund’s Bury. Note that “bury” is from the Germanic/Norse word for a fortress – and does NOT refer to the “burial” of St Edmund!

 

No-one knows where St Edmund now lies. See Prince Louis and St Edmund below. Note that is possible that the saint’s bones were accidentally cremated in a fierce fire in 1465. Certainly, when Henry VIII’s officers arrived to plunder the abbey during the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the saint’s bones were no longer in the shrine.

 

The town’s motto is “Shrine of king; Cradle of the law“. The king concerned is King Edmund.

Norman Nuggets – The Death of a Prince

 

During Norman times, King William the Conqueror increased the number of monks from 20 to 80.

 

11th century: Abbot Baldwin (the physician that Edward the Confessor had sent to heal Leofstan’s withered hands) liked Bury so much that he stayed and became Abbot. He was of French origins and was trusted to be a physician to King William the Conqueror. Perhaps because he was a fellow Norman, the Normans did not build a castle to enforce domination at Bury and Baldwin was left to rule in peace.

 

1070-72: Bishop Herfast of Elmham tried to establish the See of East Anglia at Bury (with himself in charge). This did not suit Abbot Baldwin at all. Instead of considering it an honour for the town, he was concerned that this would bring him under the rule of Bishop Elmham (a loss of his own personal authority!) and he appealed to Pope Alexander II. His appeal was successful, the Pope took the monks of Bury under the personal protection of the Holy see and the see was moved from Thetford to Norwich.

 

1093: Alan Rufus, a companion of William the Conqueror who is thought by some to have commanded the Bretons at the Battle of Hastings, was buried outside the south door of the abbey. He was later reburied inside the abbey after a petition by his family and the abbey monks.

 

1132: Henry I visited the abbey.

 

In 1153, Eustace de Blois – the only legitimate son of King Stephen – died at Bury St Edmunds after a confrontation with the abbey monks. 17 year-old Eustace was furious that the Truce of Wallingford had effectively stripped him of the right to rule after his father’s death and so refused the monks’ hospitality and plundered the abbey’s possessions. One story says that, as soon as he sat down to eat, he choked to death on his food (divine retribution?) whilst another has him dying of natural causes. Eustace’s death at Bury caused his rival for the throne – the future Henry II – to like the abbey!

Angevin Times – the Battle of Fornham St Genevieve, the Taming of King John (the Famous Magna Carta!) and the – Alleged – Theft of St Edmund’s Remains

 

1157: St Edmund’s ghost makes his presence felt again! Henry of Essex, an abbey knight who was less than generous to the abbey, annoyed the saint enough for his armoured body to appear, floating in mid-air, scowling and making threatening gestures whilst he was struggling to win a duel. Not surprisingly, Henry lost the duel and suffered severe injuries.

 

1173-1202: Jocelyn of Brakelond, one of the Benedictine monks at Bury, wrote a chronicle detailing life at the abbey.

 

1173: the army of King Henry II met the army of Earl Bigod (from Framlingham), the Earl of Leicester and Flemish mercenaries at the Battle of Fornham St Genevieve on the banks of the Lark on the 17th or 27th October. The Bigod/Leiceester alliance were en-route to relieve a siege of Leicester Castle having just (viciously) won a battle at Haughley Castle. They were intercepted at Fornham St Genevieve by royal troops under command of the Constable of England, Humphrey de Bohun. The abbey rallied to the king and the royal troops attacked raising the banner of St Edmund. Local peasants also joined in on the side of king and country – after all, Bigod’s mercenaries had caused local hatred by looting and pillaging their way through the county. No peasant likes his crops stolen, his livestock butchered and then stolen, his home plundered and his lands trampled upon; Suffolk peasants were no exception. It was a massacre and the royal forces (viciously) were victorious. Earl Hugh Bigod fled to Bungay Castle but the Earl and Countess of Leicester were captured, their Norman followers were taken prisoner. Many of the Flemish mercenaries were drowned trying to escape across the Lark or else impaled by local peasants upon a pitch fork or flail. It is said that 10,000 of the rebel forces were killed in this battle and that the blood stained the fields for miles around. Mounds still exist today where the slaughtered were buried.

 

1174 and 1181: King Henry II visited the abbey.

 

1181: St Robert of Bury was a young choirboy from the abbey who was found murdered (crucified), it is said on Good Friday. His death was blamed on the town’s Jewish community – maybe because the Jewish community were money lenders (and therefore unpopular). Rumours began to circulate that the Jews had gained their wealth through sacrificial murders. Robert was buried in the Abbey church and Jocelyn of Brakelond states that miracles were attributed to him. He became the focus of much anti-Jewish feeling.

 

1182: Abbot Samson walked all the way to Rome with only his staff for protection. He was protesting against King Henry II’s misappropriation of the tithes from Woolpit church (these tithes had been used to pay for the Abbey infirmary). He won his cause, got a papal letter and the king was forced to return the money!

 

1188: King Henry II visited Bury on November 20th to pray for the success of his own upcoming Crusade.

 

20 November 1189: King Richard I visits Bury to celebrate St Edmund’s death prior to his own crusade and Abbot Samson of Tottington gave him 1000 marks for the crusade (a large sum in those days). When Richard I was captured and imprisoned by Duke Leopold of Austria at Durnstein in 1192, Prince John tried to stir up trouble. Abbot Samson and all of the Bury monks excommunicated the trouble makers and then Abbot Samson raised money for his ransom in 1193 and is said to have travelled to Germany (Richard I was then being held by Emperor Henry VI) to take gifts to the imprisoned king. Whilst some say that Bury contributed to the ransom, all historians agree that Samson refused to allow the shrine of St Edmund to be despoiled – indeed, Jocelin of Brackland records that when the Barons of the Exchequer tried to force Abbot Samson to comply and give them the priceless gold and jewels on St Edmund’s shrine, he opened the church doors and told them to take what they dared. They were so frightened of the powers of St Edmund’s avenging ghost that they refused!

 

1190: at a time of rising anti-Semitism, Bury St Edmunds became the first town in England to expel a Jew. This is thought to have been triggered, in part, by the death of St Robert of Bury in 1181. Nine years later, on Palm Sunday 1190, 57 Jews were killed in a very-unchristian massacre. Abbot Samson – who just so happened to be in debt to Jewish money-lenders – petitioned the King Richard I for permission to expel the Jews on the grounds that everything that was in St Edmund’s town belonged to the saint and therefore the Jews should be St Edmund’s men or should be banished. The remaining Jews were marched out of town – a low point in our town’s history.

 

1194: One of Richard I’s first acts upon returning to England from captivity was to pay a visit of thanksgiving to the abbey.

 

1198: St Edmund’s avenging ghost was learning some tolerance. After a fire damaged the shrine, Abbot Samson opened the coffin and found his remains to be still miraculously intact and without decay. Equally miraculously, Abbot Samson was not punished – maybe because he showed more respect than his predecessor Leofstan? This is the last recorded opening of the coffin.

 

1199: Soon after his coronation, King John – who had not appreciated Abbot Samson’s support for Richard I – visited the abbey but, in place of the customary gifts (visiting monarchs often donated a manor house or two to offset the considerable cost of feeding, entertaining and housing a royal’s retinue of courtiers and friends), he presented Abbot Samson with 1 shilling and a silk scarf taken from the Sacrist!

 

1203: King John again visited the abbey and again caused massive resentment when he reclaimed the jewels that his mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, had given.

 

1214: King John visited the abbey in November. The town is known as “cradle of the law” because the Archbishop of Canterbury (Stephen Langton) and 25 barons met here in secret under cover of attending the Feast of St Edmund on 20th November 1214. At the time, the town was in the middle of fenland to the north and forests and marshes to the south and so was ideal for sheltering them from the prying eyes of the king’s agents. King John himself was away fighting in France (a common hobby at the time) and there was no abbot at the abbey to keep order. The barons met in the abbey’s great hall, then took mass in the church and then, one by one, beginning with the highest rank, they swore on the great altar that they would make the hugely unpopular King John agree to the proclamations of King Henry I at his coronation over 100 years before. (Whilst Henry I conveniently shelved this charter once he was on the throne and never implemented it, a royal charter gave their rebellion a veneer of legality and respectability.) They swore that, if the king failed to do so, then they would withdraw allegiance and make war on him. This led to King John – reluctantly – signing Magna Carta at Runnymede in 1215.

 

Note that when, in 1776, the USA fashioned its constitution, it based it upon the principles of Magna Carta.

 

Note: the town’s motto is “shrine of a king; cradle of the law“. Bury is called cradle of the law because of its Magna Carta connections.

 

1215-16: Civil war broke out between King John and the barons when King John tried to revoke Magna Carta, claiming (perhaps understandably) that it had been signed under duress. In 1216, Prince Louis of France invaded at the request of the barons and allegedly – marched from Orford to Bury and took the saint’s remains from the abbey and took them to Toulouse, France. (The abbey records do not record this event.)

 

Note that, in the early 20th century, these bones were returned to England, analysed, and it was discovered that they belonged to several different people. They were not, therefore, buried at Westminster Cathedral as planned.

Plantagenets – Kings Visit and People Riot

 

1267: King Henry III came to the town on February 6th to put down rebellions in the Fens after fugitives known as “the Disinherited” seized Ely and also attacked King’s Lynn. Papal legate, Ottobuono, arrived on the 7th and threatened to excommunicate the Disinherited. This sparked further arrest and King Henry III marched with his army to Cambridge and then on to Ely.

 

1272: King Henry III arrived back in Bury on 1st September whilst en-route to punish a large uprising at Norwich. He held a parliament at the abbey before leaving on the 15th.

 

1275: King Edward I and his wife, Eleanor of Castille, came to Bury on a pilgrimage after a vow made whilst on Crusade; in 1285 they returned with three daughters after a vow he had made whilst campaigning in Wales. (Owing to St Edmund’s reputation as a worker of miracles, kings often prayed to him to invoke his protection before battle.) King Edward returned again in 1289, 1292, 1294, 1296 (when he held a parliament there), 1298, 1299, 1300 and 1301. In total, this devout king visited the abbey 15 times.

 

1326: King Edward II spent Christmas at Bury St Edmunds abbey.

 

January 1327: an angry mob of 3000 attacked the abbey during the Great Riot. As well as being at the time of Edward II’s abdication crisis, this was at a time when other monastic towns were winning some degree of independence from the abbeys, whilst the monks at Bury were retaining control of rights (for example, the right to elect Aldermen and to appoint the gatekeepers) and money (for example, the tronage or duty charged on wool). It was also a time when the morality of the monks had declined to such an extent that prostitutes paraded the cloisters and mass was skipped and the townsfolk had lost all respect for the monks.

 

For some years, discontent had been rumbling on with minor skirmishes. For example, in 1315, the townspeople fought the Abbot’s bailiffs, caught and flogged a few monks and threw stones at workmen repairing the roof. They were somewhat annoyed to be fined £200 by King Edward II! More fuel to their grievances with the abbey.

 

Then, in January 1327, some London trouble-makers met a few leading men from the town; the next day, the Toll House bell summoned everyone to the Great Market and it is said that some 3000 people forced the abbey gates, beating up everyone they found. They ransacked the archives (which contained the abbey’s charters and registers – the foundations of its power), stole the abbey’s treasures and sent the Prior and 13 monks off to jail. A charismatic tailor, John Berton, established himself as leader and on 28th January, he demanded that Abbot Richard (who had just returned from London) sign a Charter of Liberties which effectively gave up all of the abbey’s power over the town. To help the poor abbot make up his mind, they placed a headsman’s chopping block and nice, sharp axe in his view. The abbot promised to try to get the new king to sign this but, on gaining the security of London, he backtracked and claimed (with some justification) that he had only signed under coercion. Somewhat annoyed, John Berton got the local serfs on-board with the rebellion by promising them freedom – the serfs promptly joined in the looting.

 

By October, the monks were tired of waiting for outside help that did not come (the king merely issued a royal mandate banning armed assemblies) and so they made an armed raid into St James’ church trying to arrest any they could find – unfortunately for them, the bells on the Norman Gate and the Toll House alerted an angry mob and a massacre occurred, many buildings were set alight and the abbey gates were set atop a bonfire. Finally, a sheriff arrived with troops. Leaders were hung (or outlawed if they had scarpered) and 30 cartloads of lesser rioters were sent to Norwich jail.

 

Outlawing the leaders and not hunting them down proved to be a mistake. When Abbot Richard eventually ventured back from London, he was kidnapped and smuggled to Babrant in Belgium.

 

The abbey claimed for malicious damage against the townsfolk and a jury awarded it £14,000 (about £8 million in today’s money). A decade later, the disgruntled townsfolk had still not repaid this money and so Edward III proposed that the townsfolk repay £67 per year over 20 years and that the abbey would write off the £12,000 balance; to sweeten the deal, he gave the abbey the rights to numerous East Anglian rabbit warrens. (Abbot Richard – released by his captors once the demand for £14,000 was dropped – described this as the “most expensive supply of rabbit stew in history”!)

 

1338: Thomas of Brotherton, son of King Edward I, 1st Earl of Norfolk and Earl Marshal of England, was buried in the abbey choir after dying at Framlingham. The abbey would most likely have benefited financially from this royal burial – useful income after the riots of the previous decade.

 

1381: During The Peasants’ Revolt, the Angels of Satan under the leadership of John Wrawe, a former Essex chaplain, reached the Southgate from Sudbury on June 13th armed with the slogan “Brounfield for Abbot and Freedom for Bury”. (Edmund Brounfield had been nominated by Pope Urban VI as Abbot and many of the townsfolk had been bribed and flattered into supporting him but their wishes were ignored by the monks and John Tymworth had been elected as a – less than popular – abbot.) The townsfolk let them in to do their dirty work for them and the Angels of Satan ransacked many houses, including that of Sir John Cavendish (the Chief Justice and the Chancellor of Cambridge University) and John de Cambridge (the unpopular Prior who had been left to run the abbey whilst Tymworth was away and the people’s choice of abbot, Edmund Brounfield, languished in prison).

 

Sir John Cavendish and John de Cambridge initially tried to take sanctuary in the abbey. A mistake. The monks – frightened of yet more mob attacks – handed their guests over or forced them out. Their treachery didn’t protect them, however – old resentments resurfaced, and the abbey got looted yet again.

 

Somehow, the two men escaped. (For a while.) The Friar fled to the house of a servant at Mildenhall monastery but, when he tried to leave for Ely, he was betrayed by his guide and hunted like an animal through woods near Newmarket; after a farce of a trial, he was beheaded and his head was planted on a tall pole in the Great Market. When Sir John Cavendish was captured trying to get to the ferry at Brandon, he was also beheaded and his head was arranged on a second pole. As the two men had been friends, the mob amused themselves by arranging the heads so that they seemed to be whispering (at times) or kissing (at other times). Another monk (John de Lakenheath who had been tasked with collecting the poll tax and was therefore hugely unpopular) was also beheaded (with eight blows!) John Wrawe tried to use Bury as his base for spreading unrest – for example, he threatened to burn Sudbury unless the mayor found large sums of gold.

 

By June 23rd, however, The Peasants’ Revolt was over in Bury – 5000 troops charged into the town and John Wrawe and his Angels fled. When Parliament declared a national amnesty, Bury St Edmunds was the only town in England to be specifically excluded and its people were fined £1300 for their “outrageous and horrible misdeeds, long continued”.

 

1383: King Richard II and his wife Anne of Bohemia visited the abbey for 10 days en-route to a pilgrimage at Walsingham in Norfolk. King Richard adopted St Edmund as one of his personal patron saints.

Lancastrians and Yorkists: the Murder of the Heir to the Throne

 

1426: Thomas Beaufort, Earl of Exeter, illegitimate son of John of Gaunt, died at Greenwich but was buried in the Chapel of St Mary in the abbey of Bury St Edmunds. he was interred next to his wife.

 

1433-4: the 12 year old King Henry VI came to Bury with his uncle Duke Humphrey on Christmas Eve; they spent four months in the town and left on St George’s Day. He returned in 1436 and then held a parliament at Bury in 1446.

 

1447, the heir to the throne, Humphrey Duke of Gloucester, died in suspicious circumstances at St Saviour’s Hospital. He was the uncle of King Henry VI and one of the most powerful men in the kingdom. Henry VI had summoned parliament to attend him at the Great Refectory Hall in the abbey and Duke Humphrey arrived without protection. He was charged with treason, put under house arrest at St Saviour’s Hospital and 12 days later, on the 24th February, he was dead. His doctor claimed that he died of a stroke due to the stress of being charged with treason and his body was put on public display to try to squash rumours of murder, but suspicion remained. Rumours ran rife.

 

One person who was suspected was the Duke of Gloucester’s enemy: William, Duke of Suffolk. Suffolk was later banished from the country. In “Henry VI, Part II”, Shakespeare portrays this as murder instigated by the Duke of Suffolk.

 

Another suspect was a young nun called Maude Carew. Maude was a nun at Fornham Priory. Showing a complete disregard for her nun’s vows, she was said to be obsessed with her lover, Father Bernard, a monk at the abbey. Father Bernard was to be called as a prosecution witness against the Duke of Gloucester and Maude was said to be worried for the safety of her lover should Gloucester (as seemed likely) win his trial. She was apparently approached by Queen Margaret of Anjou (wife of King Henry VI) to do the deadly deed. The story goes that she used an underground tunnel to enter the room of the “Good Duke Humphrey” and dropped poison onto his lips as he slept before using the remaining poison to commit suicide in the arms of her lover. Showing no gratitude whatsoever, and a very un-monkly attitude, Father Bernard cursed her to wander as a spirit forever more. She is now said to be the Grey Lady who reputedly haunts the abbey and parts of Bury; perhaps due to some degree of conscience, Father Bernard is said to be the Brown Monk who also haunts parts of the town. The 24th February, the anniversary of the death/murder of the “Good Duke Humphrey”, is said to be a favourite time to see these unhappy spirits.

 

1448, Henry VI again holds parliament at Bury.

 

1448 and 1449: Henry VI visits Our Lady of Woolpit – a statue of the Virgin Mary at Woolpit church that was once an object of pilgrimage in the 15th and 16th centuries.

 

1469: King Edward IV visited the abbey.

Tudor Times – a Royal Divorce, a King’s Sister and Lady Jane Grey

 

1486: King Henry VII visited the abbey shortly after his victory at Bosworth Field.

 

1528: When King Henry VIII tasked Cardinal Wolsey of Ipswich to secure his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, Stephen Gardiner of Bury St Edmunds was the private secretary whom Cardinal Wolsey sent to Rome to secure an annulment from Pope Clement VII. As the Pope was currently the prisoner of Catherine’s nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Gardiner was fighting a losing battle! Unlike Wolsey, however, who was later charged with High Treason for failing to secure an annulment, Gardiner was made Bishop of Winchester and then secretary to the king and escaped the fatal wrath of King Henry.

 

16th century: Lady Jane Gray‘s grandmother was Mary Tudor – the sister of Henry VIII and widow of King Louis XII of France. Mary Tudor was re-buried in St Mary’s church six years after her death (she was originally buried at the abbey in 1533 but her body was moved after the Dissolution of the Monasteries.) She married Charles Brandon (a commoner from nearby Brandon) in secret when Henry VIII sent him to escort her back to England after the death of King Louis; Henry VIII was initially furious as he had planned to make another politically-enriching marriage for her but relented when the sent him jewels and pleading letters. Henry VIII created them Duke and Duchess of Suffolk and they lived at Westhorpe Hall. Mary Tudor died at Westhorpe on 25 June 1533.

 

1555-85: Religious martyrs are tried and/or executed at Bury.

 

1555: Rowland Taylor, the rector of Hadleigh who was burnt at the stake by Bloody Mary after supporting Lady Jane Grey and refusing to renounce his wife and children, was Archdeacon of Bury St Edmunds and had preached his views here.

 

1553-8: at least 19 Protestant martyrs were burnt at the stake at Thingoe Hill outside Bury during the (thankfully) brief reign of Bloody Mary. Martyrs included a wheelwright, two weavers, a labourer, a husbandsman and, of course, churchmen.

 

1585: Elizabeth 1 was no more tolerant of independent religious thought than Bloody Mary had been. On the 4th and 5th of June 1585, Elias Thacker and John Copping were hanged for preaching against the official Protestant teachings – including denying the supremacy of Elizabeth I in ecclesiastical matters. A memorial to these two Elizabethan martyrs is in Whiting Street.

 

1578: Elizabeth I visited Thomas Kytson the younger at Hengrave Hall en-route to Norwich; she knighted him for his hospitality.

The Stuarts – Gunpowder, Treason and Witch Trials

 

1605: one of the chief financers of the failed Gunpowder Plot was Ambrose Rookwood from Stanningfield. As well as financing the gunpowder and weapons, his stable of fast horses (he was a horse-breeder) was considered essential for the uprising that the plotters planned to follow the total destruction of the State Opening of Parliament on the 5th November. Unfortunately for Rookwood, the plot was discovered and – even though he initially escaped using a relay of his best horses – he was eventually captured. Not surprisingly given the charge of high treason, his pleas for mercy were ignored and he was hung, drawn and quartered on 31st January 1606 at the Old Palace Yard, Westminster. On the scaffold, he prayed that God would turn King James I into a good Catholic.

 

1599-1694: The Bury St Edmunds Witch Trials were yet another dark stain on our town’s history. As Bury was then the largest town in Suffolk, and the seat of the county court, important trials from throughout the county were heard in the town.

 

1645: on 27th August, 18 “witches” were hanged on a single day at Bury because of “trials” overseen by the notorious Witchfinder General, Matthew Hopkins. Victims included an 80 year old vicar of Brandeston.

 

1662: One famous case that was to have far-reaching repercussions was the trial, at the Court of County Assizes in Bury, of Amy Denny and Rose Cullender from Lowestoft. These two unfortunate elderly widows were accused of causing a toad to fall out of a child’s blanket and then vanish with a hiss in the fire. Once suspicion of witchraft began, they were then accused of making Samuel Pacey’s children vomit pins and nails after he refused to sell them herrings; they were also “credited” with infesting another man with lice, causing a cart to collapse and a chimney to fall down, not to mention causing the deaths of local pigs, cattle and horses. Basically, whatever misfortunes the good people of Lowestoft suffered, these two helpless ladies were said to be to blame. They were found guilty and hanged at Thingoe Hill on 17th March 1662.

 

What caused the trial to be so significant was that it was presided over by Sir Mathew Hale, Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer, and an eminent and respected judge. Sir Thomas Browne, an equally eminent physician, also gave evidence of a similar trial in Denmark. Together, the two men gave the hysteria-based, pig-ignorant trial a sense of learned, impartial respectability. This had terrible consequences 30 years later in Salem, Massachusetts, where the proceedings became a model for the Salem Witch Trials where 122 people were imprisoned for witchcraft and 20 were executed.

 

1611: King James I created the hereditary Order of Baronets in England on 22nd May. 16 men were initially honoured; one of these men was Sir Nicholas Bacon of Culford Hall. he became Baronet Bacon of Redgrave.

 

1647: Just to prove that the good people of Bury were up for a riot even after the abbey’s powers had long since been lost with the Dissolution of the Monasteries, in 1647 the town saw the Maypole Riots. Masterminded by Colonel Blague, a staunch Royalist from Horringer, the townspeople rebelled against the Puritan’s forbidding them to dance around the maypole. Maybe because they valued their ancient tradition, maybe because they were Royalists, the townsfolk erected their maypole and prepared to dance in defiance of the Puritans. A riot erupted when orders were given (by the town elders) to take down the maypole and Cromwell’s Roundhead Model Army had to be called in.

 

1658-85: During the second English Civil War, the exiled Charles II sent William Crofts of Little Saxham to Lithuania and Poland to raise money for the Royalists. He rewarded him by making him Baron Crofts of Saxham in 1658. He was also made guardian of Charles’ eldest, but illegitimate, son – James. James took the surname of his guardian and became James Crofts. He was then created Duke of Monmouth when he was 14 and, handsome and charming, was and spoilt and showered with other honours. When Charles II died in 1685 with no legitimate heir, the throne went to Charles’s brother, another James – King James II .When Protestant Parliamentarians rallied to his support, James Duke of Monmouth declared himself the true king with a “legitimate and legal” right to the crown; after a few battles, he was captured and beheaded for treason in 1685 for attempting to depose his uncle King James II.

 

Note that James Duke of Monmouth was the son of Charles II’s romance with Lucy Walter when he was exiled on the Continent after the arrest and execution of Charles I; Lucy claimed they were married in secret, her detractors claimed there had been no marriage and that James Duke of Monmouth was therefore illegitimate. James II obviously played upon supposed the illegitimacy of his nephew!

 

1668: Charles II visited Lord Cornwallis at Culford Hall. According to the diarist Samuel Pepys, a scandal ensued when the amorous monarch persuaded Lord Cornwallis to procure the parson’s daughter for his pleasure. She flung herself out of an upstairs window and died – whether as suicide or a desperate escape bid, it is not known.

The Hanoverians – a Forgotten Anti-Slavery Campaigner and the Infamous Murder in the Red Barn

 

Sir James Reynolds, Junior, who was MP for Bury St Edmunds and was buried at St Edmundsbury Cathedral on his death in 1739, was one of 12 barristers called to determine whether King George I should have sole decision-making power over the educational and other aspects of his grandchildren’s upbringing or whether his son (the future George II) should be allowed parental control. Sir Reynolds argued in favour of the father (the future King George II) but was defeated by a vote of 10-2.

 

1781-1802: Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquis Cornwallis, was a major political and military figure. After marrying Jemima Tullekin Jones, the couple settled at Culford Hall and their children were born there.

 

1781: Cornwallis commanded the British force in Yorktown, Virginia, during the American War of Independence. Outnumbered by almost two to one, he surrendered his 8000 soldiers and seamen to the 14,000 American and French soldiers under the command of George Washington on 19th October 1781. (In actual fact, he pleaded illness and left his deputy to surrender his sword whilst the British band played “And the World Turned Upside Down”, but the effect was the same.) There were some skirmishes after this, especially at sea, but this defeat effectively marked the end of the war in America and peace negotiations began the following year.

 

1798-1801: He served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and Commander-in-Chief of Ireland. As the holder of both the highest civilian and the highest military post in Ireland, he dealt with the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and was instrumental in securing the 1800 Act of Union between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland.

 

1802: Charles Cornwallis and Joseph Bonaparte signed the Treaty of Amiens on 25th March 1802. This was a peace treaty between Britain and France and Cornwallis signed on behalf of Britain. peace lasted for just one year.

 

18th and 19th centuries: Thomas Clarkson, who was a leading figure in the abolition of the slave trade, married Catherine Buck from Bury at St Mary’s Church on 21st January 1796. Catherine was the daughter of yarn maker William Buck who founded the Green King Brewery. The Clarkson’s lived in St Mary’s Square, Bury, from 1805 (some sources say 1806) until their move to Playford, Ipswich, in 1816. It was Clarkson and another man (Granville Sharp) who formed the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade in 1787; whilst they recruited William Wilberforce as their spokesperson, it was Clarkson who collected the evidence that led to the 1807 Abolition of the Slave Trade Act.

 

1827: In May 1827, Maria Martin, the daughter of a Polstead mole-catcher disappeared and was later found buried in the Red Barn at Polstead. Maria’s lover, William Corder, was found guilty of her murder and thrown into Bury gaol before being executed in the town on 11th August 1832. The Murder in the Red Barn became infamous in its day and his hanging drew an estimated 70,000 spectators from all over the country. After the hanging, his body was placed on public view in Shire Hall. Then it was cut open for the titillation of the spectators and an account of the murder was bound in leather made from his own skin. His death mask can still be seen at Moyses Hall Museum.

 

1836: The town benefitted from a charter signed by King William IV giving the borough the right to hold Quarter Sessions of the Peace.

  

Video of wild camp:

 

youtu.be/B4yhay4uCVw

 

Winter had been , well sporadic to say the least this year, and when February was only a few weeks old, any remnants of snow were soon to be vanquished as spring /summer like conditions took hold over the UK.

 

12 months prior and a weather pattern saw the UK blasted by cold easterly winds for a number of weeks , finally becoming known as the 2018 Beast from the East! This year and the balance was re addressed with the winds being stuck from the Azores and Africa. Scotland (and the UK) posted record high temperatures for February an the dust on my ice axes showed no sign of being re homed 

 

I was starting to feel resentment at the weather, but eventually decided to take a different outlook. So winter had gone AWOL for a few weeks and spring had well and truly peeked her head above the wall. Instead of pitying the decline of winter, I embraced this early blast of summer and got my camping gear out and headed for a summit camp!

 

I didn’t have too much time so scoured the maps for a nearby location and decided on a hill within a 30 minute drive from my front door.

 

Leaving the car , the temperature was recorded at 16.5!! The last time I had been here, it was mid August and I reckon the temperature was under half this! The wind and driving rain certainly didn’t help on the last trip! Tis time the skies were blue and winds light and I set about getting on the top to try and find a suitable pitch before darkness descended. The weather was summery , but the hours of daylight can’t be altered and I was soon pitching the tent in time for a lovely sunset. Water collected and tea warmed up, I settled back into the tent for a few hours to allow the last rays of sun and light to fade, before venturing out to do a bit of star gazing.

 

Not only had it been unseasonably mild, it had also been super dry! I spent around 2 hours gazing upwards (much of this was lying on my back in my socks gazing a the stars and satellites as they crossed the sky.) No moon at this time so the sky was alight with stars and the milky way was visible stretching across the dome above me.

Having taken a few star shots I eventually hit the hay, and unusually, had a great nights sleep before waking to catch a lovely dawn and sunrise. The tent came down and I was soon heading the short distance back to the car , and civilisation for the weekend  A fine adventure

   

Kazakhstan (also spelled Kazakstan, Kazakh: Қазақстан Qazaqstan,قازاقستان, pronounced [qɑzɑqstɑ́n]; Russian: Казахстан [kəzɐxˈstan]), officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a country in Eurasia ranked as the ninth largest country in the world. It is also the world's largest landlocked country. Its territory of 2,727,300 km² is greater than Western Europe. It is neighbored clockwise from the north by Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and also borders on a significant part of the Caspian Sea. The capital moved in 1997 to Astana from Almaty, Kazakhstan's largest city.

Vast in size, the terrain of Kazakhstan ranges from flatlands, steppes, taigas, rock-canyons, hills, deltas, and snow-capped mountains to deserts. With 16.0 million people (2009 census), Kazakhstan has the 62nd largest population in the world, though its population density is less than 6 people per square kilometre (15 per sq. mi.).

For most of its history the territory of modern-day Kazakhstan has been inhabited by nomadic tribes. By the 16th century the Kazakhs emerged as a distinct group, divided into three hordes. The Russians began advancing into the Kazakh steppe in the 18th century, and by the mid-19th century all of Kazakhstan was part of the Russian Empire. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, and subsequent civil war, the territory of Kazakhstan was reorganised several times before becoming the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936, a part of the USSR. During the 20th century, Kazakhstan was the site of major Soviet projects, including Khrushchev's Virgin Lands campaign, the Baikonur Cosmodrome, and the Semipalatinsk "Polygon", the USSR's primary nuclear weapon testing site.

Kazakhstan declared itself an independent country on December 16, 1991, the last Soviet republic to do so. Its communist-era leader, Nursultan Nazarbayev, became the country's new president. Since independence, Kazakhstan has pursued a balanced foreign policy and worked to develop its economy, especially its hydrocarbon industry. While the country's economic outlook is improving, President Nazarbayev maintains strict control over the country's politics. Nevertheless, Kazakhstan's international prestige is building. It is now considered to be the dominant state in Central Asia. The country is a member of many international organizations, including the United Nations, NATO's Partnership for Peace, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. In 2010, Kazakhstan is chairing the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.

Kazakhstan is ethnically and culturally diverse, in part due to mass deportations of many ethnic groups to the country during Stalin's rule. Kazakhs are the largest group. Kazakhstan has 131 nationalities including Kazakh, Russian, Ukrainian, Uzbek and Tatar. It has a population of 16.0 million, of whom around 63% percent are Kazakhs

Kazakhstan allows freedom of religion, and many different beliefs are represented in the country. Islam is the primary religion. The Kazakh language is the state language, while Russian is also officially used as an "equal" language (to Kazakh) in Kazakhstan's institutions.

 

History

Kazakh Khanate

Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the Stone Age: the region's climate and terrain are best suited for nomads practicing pastoralism. Historians believe that humans first domesticated the horse in the region's vast steppes. While ancient cities Taraz (Aulie-Ata) and Hazrat-e Turkestan had long served as important way-stations along the Silk Road connecting East and West, real political consolidation only began with the Mongol invasion of the early 13th century. Under the Mongol Empire, administrative districts were established, and these eventually came under the emergent Kazakh Khanate.

Throughout this period traditionally nomadic life and a livestock-based economy continued to dominate the steppe. In the 15th century, a distinct Kazakh identity began to emerge among the Turkic tribes, a process which was consolidated by the mid-16th century with the appearance of a distinctive Kazakh language, culture, and economy.

Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh emirs and the neighbouring Persian-speaking peoples to the south. By the early 17th century, the Kazakh Khanate was struggling with the impact of tribal rivalries, which has effectively divided the population into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) Hordes (jüz). Political disunion, tribal rivalries, and the diminishing importance of overland trade routes between East and West weakened the Kazakh Khanate.

During the 17th century Kazakhs fought Oirats, a federation of western Mongol tribes, among which the Dzungars were particularly aggressive. The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. During this period the Little Horde participated in the 1723–1730 war against the Dzungars, following their "Great Disaster" invasion of Kazakh territories. Under leadership Abul Khair Khan the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungar at the Bulanty River, in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729. Ablai Khan participated in the most significant battles against the Dzungars from the 1720s to the 1750s, for which he was declared a "batyr" ("hero") by the people. Kazakhs were also a victims of constant raids carried out by the Volga Kalmyks.

 

Russian Empire

In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand, and spread into Central Asia. The "Great Game" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. The tsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.

The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" between it and the British Empire. The first Russian outpost, Orsk, was built in 1735. Russia enforced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organisations. Russian efforts to impose its system aroused the extreme resentment by the Kazakh people, and by the 1860s, most Kazakhs resisted Russia's annexation largely because of the disruption it wrought upon the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy, and the associated hunger which was rapidly wiping out some Kazakh tribes. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 1800s, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle them.

From the 1890s onwards ever-larger numbers of settlers from Russian Empire began colonising the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, in particular the province of Semirechye. The number of settlers rose still further once the Trans-Aral Railway from Orenburg to Tashkent was completed in 1906, and the movement was overseen and encouraged by a specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in St. Petersburg. During the 19th century about 400,000 Russians immigrated to Kazakhstan, and about one million Slavs, Germans, Jews, and others immigrated to the region during the first third of the 20th century.

The competition for land and water which ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of Tsarist Russia, with the most serious uprising, the Central Asian Revolt, occurring in 1916. The Kazakhs attacked Russian and Cossack settlers and military garrisons. The revolt resulted in a series of clashes and in brutal massacres committed by both sides. The Russians' revenge was merciless. A military force drove 300,000 Kazakhs to flee into the mountains or to China. When approximately 80,000 of them returned the next year, many of them were slaughtered by Tsarist forces. During the 1921–22 famine, another million Kazakhs died from starvation.

 

Kazakh SSR

Although there was a brief period of autonomy (Alash Autonomy) during the tumultuous period following the collapse of the Russian Empire, many uprisings were brutally suppressed, and the Kazakhs eventually succumbed to Soviet rule. In 1920, the area of present-day Kazakhstan became an autonomous republic within the Soviet Union.

Soviet repression of the traditional elite, along with forced collectivization in late 1920s–1930s, brought mass hunger and led to unrest (See also: Soviet famine of 1932–1933). Between 1926 and 1939, the Kazakh population declined by 22%, due to starvation, violence and mass emigration. Today, the estimates suggest that the population of Kazakhstan would be closer to 20 million if there had been no starvation or massacre of Kazakhs. During the 1930s, many renowned Kazakh writers, thinkers, poets, politicians and historians were slaughtered on Stalin's orders, both as part of the repression and as a methodical pattern of suppressing Kazakh identity and culture. Soviet rule took hold, and a Communist apparatus steadily worked to fully integrate Kazakhstan into the Soviet system. In 1936 Kazakhstan became a Soviet republic. Kazakhstan experienced population inflows of millions exiled from other parts of the Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s; many of the deportation victims were deported to Siberia or Kazakhstan merely due to their ethnic heritage or beliefs, and were in many cases interned in some of the biggest Soviet labour camps, including ALZHIR camp outside Astana, which was reserved for the wives of men considered "enemies of the people". (See also: Population transfer in the Soviet Union, Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union.)

The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic contributed five national divisions to the Soviet Union's World War II effort. In 1947, two years after the end of the war, the Semipalatinsk Test Site, the USSR's main nuclear weapon test site was founded near the city of Semey.

The period of World War II marked an increase in industrialisation and increased mineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's death, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural-based economy. In 1953, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated the ambitious "Virgin Lands" programme to turn the traditional pasture lands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results. However, along with later modernizations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. By 1959, Kazakhs made up 30% of the population. Ethnic Russians accounted for 43%.

Growing tensions within Soviet society led to a demand for political and economic reforms, which came to a head in the 1980s. A factor that has contributed to this immensely was Lavrentii Beria's decision to test a nuclear bomb on the territory of Kazakh SSR in Semey in 1949. This had a catastrophic ecological and biological effect which was felt generations later, and Kazakh anger toward the Soviet system has escalated.

In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called Jeltoqsan riot, took place in Almaty to protest the replacement of the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR Dinmukhamed Konayev with Gennady Kolbin from the Russian SFSR. Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed and many demonstrators were jailed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and find expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost

 

Independence

Caught up in the groundswell of Soviet republics seeking greater autonomy, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a republic within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in October 1990. Following the August 1991 aborted coup attempt in Moscow and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared independence on December 16, 1991. It was the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence.

The years following independence have been marked by significant reforms to the Soviet-style economy and political monopoly on power. Under Nursultan Nazarbayev, who initially came to power in 1989 as the head of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan and was eventually elected President in 1991, Kazakhstan has made significant progress toward developing a market economy. The country has enjoyed significant economic growth since 2000, partly due to its large oil, gas, and mineral reserves.

Democracy, however, has not gained much ground since 1991. In 2007, Kazakhstan's parliament passed a law granting President Nursultan Nazarbayev lifetime powers and privileges, immunity from criminal prosecution, and influence over domestic and foreign policy. Critics say he has become a de facto "president for life."

Over the course of his ten years in power, Nazarbayev has repeatedly censored the press through arbitrary use of "privacy" laws, and refused demands that the governors of Kazakhstan's 14 provinces be elected, rather than appointed by the president.

 

Geography

With an area of 2.7 million square kilometers (1.05 million sq. mi), Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest country and the largest landlocked country in the world. It is equivalent to the size of Western Europe. It shares borders of 6,846 kilometers (4,254 mi) with Russia, 2,203 kilometers (1,369 mi) with Uzbekistan, 1,533 kilometers (953 mi) with China, 1,051 kilometers (653 mi) with Kyrgyzstan, and 379 kilometers (235 mi) with Turkmenistan. Major cities include Astana, Almaty, Karagandy, Shymkent, Atyrau and Oskemen. While located primarily in Asia, a small portion of Kazakhstan is also located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.

The terrain extends west to east from the Caspian Sea to the Altay Mountains and north to south from the plains of Western Siberia to the oases and deserts of Central Asia. The Kazakh Steppe (plain), with an area of around 804,500 square kilometres (310,600 sq. mi), occupies one-third of the country and is the world's largest dry steppe region. The steppe is characterized by large areas of grasslands and sandy regions. Important rivers and lakes include: the Aral Sea, Ili River, Irtysh River, Ishim River, Ural River, Syr Darya, Charyn River and gorge, Lake Balkhash and Lake Zaysan.

The climate is continental, with warm summers and colder winters. Precipitation varies between arid and semi-arid conditions.

 

Other info

 

Oficial names:

 

Republic of Kazakhstan

Қазақстан Республикасы

Qazaqstan Respwblïkası

قازاقستان رهسپۋبلٸكاسى

Республика Казахстан

Respublika Kazakhstan

  

Independence:

1st Khanate 1361 as White Horde

- 2nd Khanate 1428 as Uzbek Horde

- 3rd Khanate 1465 as Kazakh Khanate

- Declared December 16, 1991

- Finalized December 25, 1991

 

Area:

2.726.908

 

Inhabitants:

17.456.400

 

Language:

Dungan [dng] Dialects: Shaanxi. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese

More information.

 

German, Standard [deu] 958,000 in Kazakhstan. Population excludes Plautdietsch. Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, German, Middle German, East Middle German

More information.

 

Ili Turki [ili] Ili Valley near Kuldja, Xinjiang, China. There may be none in Kazakhstan. Alternate names: T'urk, Tuerke. Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Eastern

More information.

 

Kazakh [kaz] 5,293,400 in Kazakhstan (1979 census). Population total all countries: 8,178,879. Kazakhstan, northern Soviet Middle Asia and into western Siberia. Also spoken in Afghanistan, China, Germany, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Russia (Asia), Tajikistan, Turkey (Asia), Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan. Alternate names: Kazak, Kaisak, Kosach, Qazaq. Dialects: Northeastern Kazakh, Southern Kazakh, Western Kazakh. Minor dialect differences. Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Western, Aralo-Caspian

More information.

 

Plautdietsch [pdt] 100,000 in Russia and Kazakhstan (1986). Various locations including Alma Ata near the China border, beyond Tashkent, and Kazakhstan. Alternate names: Low German. Classification: Indo-European, Germanic, West, Low Saxon-Low Franconian, Low Saxon

More information.

 

Romani, Sinte [rmo] Kazakhstan (formerly Volga area until 1941). Alternate names: Sinti, Tsigane, Manuche, Manouche. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Romani, Northern

More information.

 

Uyghur [uig] 300,000 in Kazakhstan (1993). Taranchi dialect in Kazakhstan, Kashgar-Yarkand dialect in Uzbekistan. Alternate names: Uighur, Uiguir, Uygur, Novouygur. Dialects: Taranchi (Kulja), Kashgar-Yarkand. Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Eastern

 

Capital city:

Astana

 

Meaning of the country name:

Means "land of the Kazakhs". The word "Kazakh" does not have a straightforward exact English translation, but it means something along the lines of "independent/rebellious/wanderer/brave/free". The Russian term kazak (казак) - "cossack" in English - offers a cognate word. -stan as a Persian suffix means "land".

 

Description Flag:

The current flag of Kazakhstan was adopted on June 4, 1992, replacing the flag of the Kazakh SSR.It consists of a sky-blue background, with a steppe eagle beneath a golden sun with 32 rays in the centre, and a web-like pattern running down the left-hand side

The pattern represents the art and cultural traditions of the old khanate and the Kazakh people. The light blue background stands for the various Turkic peoples that make up the present-day population of the country, including the Tatars, Mongols, Uyghurs and others. Among these peoples blue has a religious significance, representing the sky God Gök-Tanry, "the eternal wide blue sky"; a more modern interpretation is that the sky blue background stands for Kazakhstan's broad skies, and for freedom.

The golden eagle is associated with the empire of Genghis Khan, who ruled Kazakhstan under a blue banner with such an eagle on it; thus, it is a reminder of the proud history of the people who form the modern nation of Kazakhstan

 

Coat of arms:

The coat of arms of Kazakhstan was adopted following the dissolving of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991.

The coat of arms has a circular form and carries the colors blue and yellow. Blue represents the blue sky and yellow is the symbol of the agriculture which blossomed in the Soviet era. To the left and right of the coat of arms, two unicorns with wings look away from each other.

Like other post-Soviet republics whose arms do not predate the October Revolution, the current arms retains some components of the Soviet one. In the upper part of the coat of arms, there is a star; the rays behind the yurt smokehole also bespeak the Soviet arms.

The name of the country in Kazakh is in the lower part of the coat of arms is stated: "ҚA3AҚCTAH."

In the middle there is a shangrak (Kazakh: Шаңырақ, shangyraq; Russian: Шанырак, shanyrak), the crown of the Kazakh yurt. The shangrak symbolizes both wealth of heritage and a hopeful future.

 

National Anthem: My Kazakhstan , Kazakh: Менің Қазақстаным

 

Kazakh

 

Алтын күн аспаны,

Алтын дән даласы,

Ерліктің дастаны -

Еліме қарашы!

 

Ежелден ер деген,

Даңқымыз шықты ғой,

Намысын бермеген,

Қазағым мықты ғой!

 

Қайырмасы:

Менің елім, менің елім,

Гүлің болып егілемін,

Жырың болып төгілемін, елім!

Туған жерім менің — Қазақстаным!

 

Ұрпаққа жол ашқан,

Кең байтақ жерім бар.

Бірлігі жарасқан,

Тәуелсіз елім бар.

 

Қарсы алған уақытты,

Мәңгілік досындай.

Біздің ел бақытты,

Біздің ел осындай!

Қайырмасы:

 

Transliteration

 

Altın kün aspanı,

Altın dän dalası,

Erliktiñ dastanı -

Elime qaraşı!

Ejelden er degen,

Dañqımız şıqtı ğoy,

Namısın bermegen,

Qazağım mıqtı ğoy!

Chorus:

Meniñ elim, meniñ elim,

Güliñ bolıp egilemin,

Jırıñ bolıp tögilemin, elim!

Twğan jerim meniñ — Qazaqstanım!

 

Urpaqqa jol aşqan,

Keñ baytaq jerim bar.

Birligi jarasqan,

Täwelsiz elim bar.

Qarsı alğan waqıttı,

Mäñgilik dosınday.

Bizdiñ el baqıttı,

Bizdiñ el osınday!

 

Chorus

 

English

Sky of golden sun,

Steppe of golden seed,

Legend of courage -

Take a look at my country.

From the antiquity

Our heroic glory emerged,

They did not give up their pride

My Kazakh people are strong!

Chorus:

My country, my country,

As your flower I will be planted,

As your song I will stream, my country!

My native land — My Kazakhstan!

The way was opened to the posterity

I have a vast land.

It's unity is proper,

I have an independent country.

It welcomed the time

Like an eternal friend,

Our country is happy,

Such is our country.

Chorus

 

Internet Page: www.government.kz

www.akorda.kz

www.aboutkazakhstan.com

www.tourkz.com

 

Kazakhstan in diferent laguages

 

eng | cat | dan | eus | fra | jav | jnf | swa: Kazakhstan

csb | dsb | hsb | lim | nld | pol | slk | szl: Kazachstan

fin | fry | hat | ibo | swe: Kazakstan

deu | ltz | nds: Kasachstan / Kaſachſtan

fao | isl | sme: Kasakstan

hrv | ron | slv: Kazahstan

bos | gag: Kazahstan / Казахстан

cym | roh: Casachstan

ind | msa: Kazakhstan / كازاخستان

ita | lld: Kazakistan

kin | run: Kazakstani

afr: Kasakstan; Kazakstan

arg: Kasajstán; Kasajistán; Kazajstán

ast: Kazahistán; Kazakhistán

aze: Qazaxıstan / Газахыстан

bam: Kazakisitan

bre: Kazac’hstan

ces: Kazachstán

cor: Pow Kasagh

crh: Qazahistan / Къазахистан

epo: Kazaĥstano; Kazaĥio

est: Kasahstan

frp: Kazacstan

fur: Cosachistan

gla: Casachstan; Casagstan

gle: An Chasacstáin / An Ċasacstáin

glg: Casaquistán

glv: Yn Chassaghstaan

hun: Kazahsztán

ina: Kazakhstan; Kazakstan

kaa: Qazaqstan / Қазақстан

kal: Kasakhstani

kmr: Qazaẍistan / Qазаг’ьстан / قازاغستان

kur: Qazaxistan / قازاخستان

lat: Cazastania; Kazakistania; Casachia

lav: Kazahstāna

lin: Kazakstáni

lit: Kazachstanas

mlg: Kazakistana

mlt: Każakstan; Każakistan

mol: Kazahstan / Казахстан

nor: Kasakhstan

nrm: Cazaqùie

oci: Cazacstan

por: Cazaquistão; Casaquistão

que: Qasaqsuyu

rmy: Kazaxstan / काज़ाख़्स्तान

rup: Cazahstan

scn: Kazakstàn

slo: Kazahia / Казахиа; Kazahzem / Казахзем

smg: Kazakstans

smo: Kasakisitani

som: Kasaakhistaan

spa: Kazajstán; Kazajistán

sqi: Kazakistani

srd: Kazakhstàn

tet: Kazakistaun

tgl: Kasakstan; Kasahstan

ton: Kasākisitani

tuk: Gazagystan / Газагыстан

tur: Kazakistan; Kazakeli

uzb: Qozogʻiston / Қозоғистон

vie: Ka-dắc-xtan

vol: Kasakän

vor: Kasakstan; Kasastan

wln: Kazaxhtan

wol: Kaasakestaan

zza: Qazaxıstan

abq | alt | bul | chm | chv | kbd | kjh | kom | rus | tyv | udm | ukr | xal: Казахстан (Kazaĥstan)

krc | kum: Къазахстан (Qazaĥstan)

lbe | lez: Къазахсттан (Q̱azaḫsttan)

bak: Ҡаҙағстан / Ķaźağstan

bel: Казахстан / Kazachstan

che: Казахстан (Kazaḫstan)

kaz: Қазақстан / Qazaqstan / قازاقستان

kir: Казакстан (Kazakstan)

mkd: Казахстан (Kazahstan)

mon: Казакстан (Kazakstan); Казахстан (Kazaĥstan)

oss: Хъазахстан (Qazaĥstan)

srp: Казахстан / Kazahstan; Казакстан / Kazakstan

tab: Къазакъистан (Q̱azaq̄istan)

tat: Казакстан / Qazaqstan

tgk: Қазоқистон / قزاقستان / Qazoqiston

ara: كازاخستان (Kāzāḫistān); قازاقستان (Qāzāqistān); كازخستان (Kāzaḫistān)

fas: قزاقستان / Qazâqestân; کازاخستان / Kâzâxestân

prs: قزاقستان (Qazāqestān)

pus: قزاقستان (Qazāqistān); قازاقستان (Qāzāqistān)

uig: قازاقىستان / Qazaqistan / Қазақистан

urd: قزاقستان (Qazāqistān); قازقستان (Qāzaqistān)

div: ކަޒަކިސްތާން (Każakistān)

heb: קזחסטן (Qazaḥsṭan); קזחסטאן (Qazaḥsṭân); קאזאחסטאן (Qâzâḥsṭân)

lad: קאזאכסטאן / Kazaxstan

yid: קאַזאַכסטאַן (Kazaḫstan); קאַזאַקסטאַן (Kazakstan)

amh: ካዛክስታን (Kazakstan); ካዛኽስታን (Kazaĥstan)

ell: Καζακστάν (Kazakstán); Καζαχστάν (Kazaĥstán)

hye: Ղազախստան (Ġazaĥstan)

kat: ყაზახეთი (Qazaĥeṭi)

hin: कज़ाख़स्तान (Kazāĥstān); कज़ाख़िस्तान (Kazāĥistān); कज़ाकिस्तान (Kazākistān)

ben: কাজাখস্তান (Kājākʰstān); কাজাকস্তান (Kājākstān); কাজাকিস্তান (Kājākistān)

pan: ਕਜ਼ਾਕਸਤਾਨ (Kazākstān)

kan: ಕಜಾಕಸ್ತಾನ್ (Kajākastān)

mal: കസാഖ്സ്ഥാന് (Kasākʰstʰān); കസാഖിസ്ഥാന് (Kasākʰistʰān)

tam: கஸாக்ஸ்தான் (Kasākstāṉ); கஜகஸ்தான் (Kajakastāṉ)

tel: కజకిస్తాన్ (Kajakistān); కజకస్తాన్ (Kajakastān)

zho: 哈薩克斯坦/哈萨克斯坦 (Hāsàkèsītǎn)

jpn: カザフスタン (Kazafusutan)

kor: 카자흐스탄 (Kajaheuseutan)

mya: ကာဇက္စတန္ (Kazeʿsátã)

tha: คาซัคสถาน (Kʰāsâksatʰān)

lao: ກາຊ້ກສະຖານ (Kāsáksatʰān)

khm: កាហ្សាក់ស្តង់ (Kāhsakstăṅ)

 

The Charyn Canyon is 150–300 metres deep and 80 kilometres long, cutting through the red sandstone plateau and stretching along the Charyn River gorge in northern Tian Shan ("Heavenly Mountains", 200 km east of Almaty) at 43°21′1.16″N 79°4′49.28″E / 43.3503222°N 79.0803556°E / 43.3503222; 79.0803556. The steep canyon slopes, columns and arches rise to heights of 150–300 m. The inaccessibility of the canyon provided a safe haven for a rare ash tree that survived the Ice Age and is now also grown in some other areas. Bigach crater is a Pliocene or Miocene asteroid impact crater, 8 kilometres (5 mi) in diameter and estimated at 5 ±3 million years old at 48°30′N 82°00′E / 48.5°N 82°E / 48.5; 82.

 

Used at www.platform505.com/her-success-is-her-survival-women-wit..., www.brainphysics.com/lifestyle/ocd/what-it-s-like-to-have..., and suburbanturmoil.com/a-stepmom-is-not-a-mom-and-thats-okay..., and www.meetmindful.com/resentment-regret-and-rejection/#

more photos

 

"Anger, resentment and jealousy don't change the heart of others, they only change yours." /Shannon L.Adler/

Buildings to Watch Out for in Brisbane.

•Parliament House in the French Empire style. The architect Charles Tiffin was inspired by the Louvre Art gallery in Paris! It is open for free public inspection but only when parliament is not sitting (QLD parliament is meant to rise on 6 August). It was built in 1868. It is located on the corner of George and Alice Streets, opposite the Old Botanical Gardens. This

Photograph shows the 2 side pavilions or wings making it Palladian in style.

•Old Government House. This is now part of the QUT (Queensland University of Technology). It has recently been extensively restored and re-opened to the public over the Queens birthday long weekend in June. It too has free entry with the upstairs devoted to the art of William Robinson a gifted Queensland painter. Old Government House was built in 1862 and is one of the older buildings in Brisbane. It is a grand two storey house with arcaded loggias, classical facades and features, and two semi-circular balconies. The interior has a grand staircase. The complex is in the Old Botanical Gardens and has a café too.

•The Old Customs House. (399 Queen Street.) Pictured below with its green copper dome, classical balustrades, Corinthian columns and pilasters and triangular roof pediment etc. It is now a commercial building with a café on the river front.

 

•Brisbane City Hall. This Art Deco building built between 1920 and 1930 with classical features is dominated by the 92 metre high clock tower. The building and the clock tower are open free for public inspection during office hours. Note the tympanum frieze decoration in the triangular pediment across the façade.

 

•Albert St Uniting Church. This distinctive brick, gothic style church is across the plaza from the Town Hall. It is open on Fridays till 4 pm. The most prominent feature of the external design is the spire rising to a height of 42 metres from the street. It is capped with a handsome wrought iron final. The original organ was imported from England, and built by George Benson of Manchester. The front pipes are coloured and gilded with gold leaf.

 

•ANZAC Square War Memorial is uniquely and ideally set in peaceful surrounds and worth a visit. The Shrine of Remembrance, with its Eternal Flame, forms the focal point for the radial patterned pathways, pools and lawns. From here you get a view down to the Old Post Office which was built of local sandstone in 1872 by Mr Petrie.

 

A Very brief History of Brisbane.

Australia’s third largest city is named after Sir Thomas Brisbane, Scotsman who was governor of NSW from 1821 to 1825. The first European settlement in Queensland was a small convict colony which was established at Redcliffe in 1824. Redcliffe is a northern beach suburb of Brisbane. The settlement was soon moved in 1825 to better location on the Brisbane River in what is now the CBD of Brisbane. John Oxley suggested this change of location and also that the town be known as Brisbane after Sir Thomas Brisbane who visited the settlement in 1826. The settlement area was known as the Moreton Bay. By 1831 Moreton Bay had 1,241 people, but 86% were convicts, and almost all the rest were guards and administrators. One of the founding pioneers to settle in Brisbane was Andrew Petrie, a government clerk, who arrived in the settlement in 1837. His son later became the first mayor of Brisbane.

 

In 1842 (six years after the settlement of SA) Moreton Bay penal establishment was closed and the area opened to free settlers. Half the convicts at Moreton Bay were Irish Catholics which influenced the development of the settlement thereafter. By 1846 Moreton Bay had a population of 4,000 people, considerably less than that of Burra at the time which had over 5,000 people! In 1848 the first immigrants direct from Britain arrived, as did some Chinese. In 1849 three ship loads of Presbyterians arrived in Brisbane, the first ship being the Fortitude- hence the naming of Fortitude Valley. The colony was still far from self sufficient in terms of food production. In the mid 1850s German immigrants also started to arrive in the settlement. The only building still standing built by convict labour is the Old Windmill in Wickham Park. Most of the other convict built buildings were in the CBD and gradually demolished during phases of growth in the 19th century.

 

During the late 1840s a few grand houses were built in Brisbane like Newstead House at Hamilton, and the city began to take shape. All the central streets were named after members of Queen Victoria’s family- Adelaide, Alice, Ann, Charlotte, Elizabeth, Margaret, Mary for the streets parallel to Queen Street, and Albert, Edward, George and William for the streets perpendicular to Queen Street. In 1859 the population had grown sufficiently, to about 30,000 people for Queensland to be proclaimed a separate colony from NSW with Brisbane (about 6,000 people) as its capital city. It was now a self governing independent colony. Old Government House was built shortly after this in 1862 followed by numerous colonial government buildings. The French Empire style Parliament House opposite the old Botanical Gardens was erected in 1865 to a design by Charles Tiffin. It had perfect symmetry, mansard roof lien with dormer windows, triangular pediments above some windows, and an arcaded loggia. It is still one of the most pleasing and distinctive buildings in Brisbane. Nearby the pastoralists and wealthy built the Queensland Club in Alice Street in 1882 with classical columns, roof line pediment, balustrade and perfect symmetry, but with Italianate style bay windows. The location near parliament house is much like the situation of the Adelaide Club on North Terrace almost adjacent to the SA parliament. The wealthy and pastoralists in both states had immeasurable influence over early colonial politics. One of the other finest colonial buildings of Brisbane is the Old Customs House with the circular copper domed roof on the edge of the Brisbane River. It was erected in 1888.

 

Although Brisbane grew quickly through the following decades it was not incorporated as a city until 1902.Part of the reason for the relatively slow of growth of Brisbane, compared to Adelaide, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney was that it was not the focal point of the state railway network. Queensland always had other major regional centres. The railway from Brisbane reached out to southern Queensland only- Ipswich in 1864, Toowoomba in 1867, and Charleville by 1888. There was no early push to have a railway link with the coast cities and their hinterlands. The coastal cities of Queensland were not linked by a railway until 1927 when road transport had already taken over the transport of livestock and freight. The coastal railway in Queensland was always for passenger traffic as much as freight traffic.

 

Unlike the other Australian state capitals, Brisbane City Council governs most of the metropolitan area of Brisbane. In 1925 over twenty shires and municipalities were amalgamated into the City of Brisbane. It was at this time that the landmark Brisbane city Hall was built in Art Deco style. It was opened in 1930 and members of the public can enter and walk around the inside of the building.

 

During World War Two, Brisbane had a distinctive history as Prime Minister John Curtin had the “Brisbane Line” as a controversial defense plan, whereby if there was a land invasion of Australia, the northern half of the country would be surrendered at a line just north of Brisbane! Brisbane also became the headquarters for the Americans campaign in the South Pacific with General Douglas MacArthur based there at times. In 1942 a violent clash erupted between American and Australian service personnel in Brisbane. Between 2,000 and 5,000 men were involved in the riots which spread over two days. One soldier was killed and eight injured by gun fire as well as 100s injured with black eyes, swollen faces, broken noses etc. On the second night 21 Americans were injured with 11 of them having to be hospitalised. It was locally known as The Battle of Brisbane.

 

Yet around 1 million American troops passed through Queensland between December 1941 (just after the bombing of Pearl harbour) and the end of 1945. They were here to spearhead attacks to take back the Philippines, and to prevent the Japanese from taking New Guinea.

Black American soldiers were especially unpopular in Brisbane as their landing contravened the “White Australia Policy” of the times. In response to this policy General Douglas MacArthur announced his support for the Australian government’s insistence that no more Black American troops be sent to Brisbane after 1942. The Black American units in Australia were later sent to New Guinea and New Caledonia. Black American troops in New Guinea were not allowed to visit Australia for rest and recreation leave although white American troops were allowed to visit Australia, mainly to Mackay. Resentment between American and Australian troops in Brisbane had to be contained and suppressed. Riots between troops also occurred in Townsville during the War.

 

One evening an old Cherokee told his grandson about a battle that goes on inside people. He said, "My son, the battle is between two "wolves" inside us all.

  

One is Evil. It is anger, envy, jealousy, doubt, sorrow, regret, greed, arrogance, self-pity, guilt, resentment, inferiority, lies, false pride, superiority, and ego.

  

The other is Good. It is joy, peace, love, hope, serenity, humility, kindness, benevolence,empathy, generosity, forgiveness, truth, compassion and faith."

  

The grandson thought about it for a minute and then asked his grandfather: "Which wolf wins?"

  

The old Cherokee simply replied, "The one you feed."

my mamma, my brothers and i circa 1968

 

As i did a similar meme just recently, this will be a list of silly, embarrassing or funny facts about me....

 

1.I have a pot belly

2.I was so wasted once, that i fell off a barstool

3.I am obsessed with washing products smelling of savon de marseille

4.I have no sense of orientation

5.I sing aloud (really loud) when i cook

6.I have a fetish for stationery and art supplies

7.I am as curious as a cat

8.I bite my nails to the point of bleeding

9.I was born on the same day as Courtney love

10.I am horribly grumpy when i am tired

11.I can’t resist red and white gingham and polka dots

12.I love liquorice and eat it until it makes me sick

13.i have recurrent nightmares and scream in my sleep

14.i have planted 88 rose plants in my allotment garden within 3 years

15.i can forgive my worst enemies, even if I’d rather not.... resentment is too much hassle

16.i get tears in my eyes when i listen to ‘total eclipse of the heart’ by bonnie tyler

17.i have no control over my tongue once it starts saying the wrong thing (it does it a lot!)

18.riding my bicycle gives me a high (perhaps because it is an electric bike)

19.i don’t watch tv because i know i can’t stop

20.i drink earl grey tea all day long

21.i start too many projects at once and always feel guilty for not finishing them faster

22.proverbs, clichés and life wisdoms are my oracle

23.i really don’t care what people think of me, but it bothers me to be judged for who i am not

24.i love to meet new people but am overwhelmed because i know too many

25.i have the memory of an elephant ...my head is so overfilled with insignificant events and trivial facts that i fear it might burst

 

AND NOW I WANT TO READ 25 SILLY THINGS ABOUT YOU!!!!! YOU ARE TAGGED

No words are exchanged just a rifle case and a folded piece of paper with a single name printed on it. Zarana knows her brother has confidence in his daughter. But the fact is she just doesn't like the little bitch. But with every hit Zanya accomplishes she grows on her. So as the sun begins to break over the run down factories in Detroit so does the tension and resentment between these two.

th3bourgeoisie.wordpress.com/2016/11/26/conflicted/

Bangkok, officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies 1,568.7 square kilometres (605.7 sq mi) in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estimated population of 10.539 million as of 2020, 15.3 percent of the country's population. Over 14 million people (22.2 percent) lived within the surrounding Bangkok Metropolitan Region at the 2010 census, making Bangkok an extreme primate city, dwarfing Thailand's other urban centres in both size and importance to the national economy.

 

Bangkok traces its roots to a small trading post during the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 15th century, which eventually grew and became the site of two capital cities, Thonburi in 1768 and Rattanakosin in 1782. Bangkok was at the heart of the modernization of Siam, later renamed Thailand, during the late-19th century, as the country faced pressures from the West. The city was at the centre of Thailand's political struggles throughout the 20th century, as the country abolished absolute monarchy, adopted constitutional rule, and underwent numerous coups and several uprisings. The city, incorporated as a special administrative area under the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration in 1972, grew rapidly during the 1960s through the 1980s and now exerts a significant impact on Thailand's politics, economy, education, media and modern society.

 

The Asian investment boom in the 1980s and 1990s led many multinational corporations to locate their regional headquarters in Bangkok. The city is now a regional force in finance and business. It is an international hub for transport and health care, and has emerged as a centre for the arts, fashion, and entertainment. The city is known for its street life and cultural landmarks, as well as its red-light districts. The Grand Palace and Buddhist temples including Wat Arun and Wat Pho stand in contrast with other tourist attractions such as the nightlife scenes of Khaosan Road and Patpong. Bangkok is among the world's top tourist destinations, and has been named the world's most visited city consistently in several international rankings.

 

Bangkok's rapid growth coupled with little urban planning has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure. Despite an extensive expressway network, an inadequate road network and substantial private car usage have led to chronic and crippling traffic congestion, which caused severe air pollution in the 1990s. The city has since turned to public transport in an attempt to solve the problem, operating eight urban rail lines and building other public transit, but congestion still remains a prevalent issue. The city faces long-term environmental threats such as sea level rise due to climate change.

 

The history of Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, dates at least to the early 15th century, when it was under the rule of Ayutthaya. Due to its strategic location near the mouth of the Chao Phraya River, the town gradually increased in importance, and after the fall of Ayutthaya King Taksin established his new capital of Thonburi there, on the river's west bank. King Phutthayotfa Chulalok, who succeeded Taksin, moved the capital to the eastern bank in 1782, to which the city dates its foundation under its current Thai name, "Krung Thep Maha Nakhon". Bangkok has since undergone tremendous changes, growing rapidly, especially in the second half of the 20th century, to become the primate city of Thailand. It was the centre of Siam's modernization in the late 19th century, subjected to Allied bombing during the Second World War, and has long been the modern nation's central political stage, with numerous uprisings and coups d'état having taken place on its streets throughout the years.

 

It is not known exactly when the area which is now Bangkok was first settled. It probably originated as a small farming and trading community, situated in a meander of the Chao Phraya River within the mandala of Ayutthaya's influence. The town had become an important customs outpost by as early as the 15th century; the title of its customs official is given as Nai Phra Khanon Thonburi (Thai: นายพระขนอนทณบุรี) in a document from the reign of Ayutthayan king Chao Sam Phraya (1424–1448). The name also appears in the 1805 revised code of laws known as the Law of Three Seals.

 

At the time, the Chao Phraya flowed through what are now the Bangkok Noi and Bangkok Yai canals, forming a large loop in which lay the town. In the reign of King Chairacha (either in 1538 or 1542), a waterway was excavated, bypassing the loop and shortening the route for ships sailing up to Ayutthaya. The flow of the river has since changed to follow the new waterway, dividing the town and making the western part an island. This geographical feature may have given the town the name Bang Ko (บางเกาะ), meaning 'island village', which later became Bangkok (บางกอก, pronounced in Thai as [bāːŋ kɔ̀ːk]). Another theory regarding the origin of the name speculates that it is shortened from Bang Makok (บางมะกอก), makok being the name of Spondias pinnata, a plant bearing olive-like fruit. This is supported by the fact that Wat Arun, a historic temple in the area, used to be named Wat Makok. Specific mention of the town was first made in the royal chronicles from the reign of King Maha Chakkraphat (1548–1568), giving its name as Thonburi Si Mahasamut (ธนบุรีศรีมหาสมุทร). Bangkok was probably a colloquial name, albeit one widely adopted by foreign visitors.

 

The importance of Bangkok/Thonburi increased with the amount of Ayutthaya's maritime trade. Dutch records noted that ships passing through Bangkok were required to declare their goods and number of passengers, as well as pay customs duties. Ships' cannons would be confiscated and held there before they were allowed to proceed upriver to Ayutthaya. An early English language account is that of Adam Denton, who arrived aboard the Globe, an East India Company merchantman bearing a letter from King James I, which arrived in "the Road of Syam" (Pak Nam) on 15 August 1612, where the port officer of Bangkok attended to the ship. Denton's account mentions that he and his companions journeyed "up the river some twenty miles to a town called Bancope, where we were well received, and further 100 miles to the city...."

 

Ayutthaya's maritime trade was at its height during the reign of King Narai (1656–1688). Recognition of the city's strategic location guarding the water passage to Ayutthaya lead to expansion of the military presence there. A fort of Western design was constructed on the east side of the river around 1685–1687 under the supervision of French engineer de la Mare, probably replacing an earlier structure, while plans to rebuild the fort on the west bank were also made. De la Mare had arrived with the French embassy of Chevalier de Chaumont, and remained in Siam along with Chevalier de Forbin, who had been appointed governor of Bangkok. The Bangkok garrison under Forbin consisted of Siamese, Portuguese, and French reportedly totalling about one thousand men.

 

French control over the city was further consolidated when the French General Desfarges, who had arrived with the second French embassy in 1687, secured the king's permission to board troops there. This, however, lead to resentment among Siamese nobles, led by Phetracha, ultimately resulting in the Siamese revolution of 1688, in which King Narai was overthrown and 40,000 Siamese troops besieged Bangkok's eastern fort for four months before an agreement was reached and the French were allowed to withdraw. The revolution resulted in Siam's ties with the West being virtually severed, steering its trade towards China and Japan. The eastern fort was subsequently demolished on Phetracha's orders.

 

Ayutthaya was razed by the Burmese in 1767. In the following months, multiple factions competed for control of the kingdom's lands. Of these, Phraya Tak, governor of Tak and a general fighting in Ayutthaya's defence prior to its fall, emerged as the strongest. After succeeding in reclaiming the cities of Ayutthaya and Bangkok, Phraya Tak declared himself king (popularly known as King Taksin) in 1768 and established Thonburi as his capital. Reasons given for this change include the totality of Ayutthaya's destruction and Thonburi's strategic location. Being a fortified town with a sizeable population meant that not much would need to be reconstructed. The existence of an old Chinese trading settlement on the eastern bank allowed Taksin to use his Chinese connections to import rice and revive trade.

 

King Taksin had the city area extended northwards to border the Bangkok Noi Canal. A moat was dug to protect the city's western border, on which new city walls and fortifications were built. Moats and walls were also constructed on the eastern bank, encircling the city together with the canals on the western side. The king's palace (Thonburi Palace) was built within the old city walls, including the temples of Wat Chaeng (Wat Arun) and Wat Thai Talat (Wat Molilokkayaram) within the palace grounds. Outlying orchards were re-landscaped for rice farming.

 

Much of Taksin's reign was spent in military campaigns to consolidate the Thonburi Kingdom's hold over Siamese lands. His kingdom, however, would last only until 1782 when a coup was mounted against him, and the general Chao Phraya Chakri established himself as king, later to be known as Phutthayotfa Chulalok or Rama I.

 

Rama I re-established the capital on the more strategic east bank of the river, relocating the Chinese already settled there to the area between Wat Sam Pluem and Wat Sampheng (which developed into Bangkok's Chinatown). Fortifications were rebuilt, and another series of moats was created, encircling the city in an area known as Rattanakosin Island.

 

The erection of the city pillar on 21 April 1782 is regarded as the formal date of the city's establishment. (The year would later mark the start of the Rattanakosin Era after calendar reforms by King Rama V in 1888.) Rama I named the new city Krung Rattanakosin In Ayothaya (กรุงรัตนโกสินทร์อินท์อโยธยา). This was later modified by King Nangklao to be: Krungthepmahanakhon Bowonrattanakosin Mahintha-ayutthaya. While settlements on both banks were commonly called Bangkok, both the Burney Treaty of 1826 and the Roberts Treaty of 1833 refer to the capital as the City of Sia-Yut'hia. King Mongkut (Rama IV) would later give the city its full ceremonial name:

 

Rama I modelled his city after the former capital of Ayutthaya, with the Grand Palace, Front Palace and royal temples by the river, next to the royal field (now Sanam Luang). Continuing outwards were the royal court of justice, royal stables and military prison. Government offices were located within the Grand Palace, while residences of nobles were concentrated south of the palace walls. Settlements spread outwards from the city centre.

 

The new capital is referred to in Thai sources as Rattanakosin, a name shared by the Siamese kingdom of this historical period. The name Krung Thep and Krung Thep Maha Nakhon, both shortened forms of the full ceremonial name, began to be used near the end of the 19th century. Foreigners, however, continued to refer to the city by the name Bangkok, which has seen continued use until this day.

 

Most of Rama I's reign was also marked by continued military campaigns, though the Burmese threat gradually declined afterwards. His successors consistently saw to the renovation of old temples, palaces, and monuments in the city. New canals were also built, gradually expanding the fledgling city as areas available for agriculture increased and new transport networks were created.

 

At the time of the city's foundation, most of the population lived by the river or the canals, often in floating houses on the water. Waterways served as the main method of transportation, and farming communities depended on them for irrigation. Outside the city walls, settlements sprawled along both river banks. Forced settlers, mostly captives of war, also formed several ethnic communities outside the city walls.

 

Large numbers of Chinese immigrants continued to settle in Bangkok, especially during the early 19th century. Such was their prominence that Europeans visiting in the 1820s estimated that they formed over half of the city population. The Chinese excelled in trade, and led the development of a market economy. The Chinese settlement at Sampheng had become a bustling market by 1835. 

 

By the mid-19th century, the West had become an increasingly powerful presence. Missionaries, envoys and merchants began re-visiting Bangkok and Siam, bringing with them both modern innovations and the threat of colonialism. King Mongkut (Rama IV, reigned 1851–1868) was open to Western ideas and knowledge, but was also forced to acknowledge their powers, with the signing of the Bowring Treaty in 1855. During his reign, industrialization began taking place in Bangkok, which saw the introduction of the steam engine, modern shipbuilding and the printing press. Influenced by the Western community, Charoen Krung Road, the city's first paved street, was constructed in 1862–1864. This was followed by Bamrung Mueang, Fueang Nakhon, Trong (now Rama IV) and Si Lom Roads. Land transport would later surpass the canals in importance, shifting people's homes from floating dwellings toward permanent buildings. The limits of the city proper were also expanded during his reign, extending to the Phadung Krung Kasem Canal, dug in 1851.

 

King Mongkut's son Chulalongkorn (r. 1868–1910) was set upon modernizing the country. He engaged in wide-ranging reforms, abolishing slavery, corvée (unfree labour) and the feudal system, and creating a centralized bureaucracy and a professional army. The Western concept of nationhood was adopted, and national borders demarcated against British and French territories. Disputes with the French resulted in the Paknam Incident in 1893, when the French sent gunboats up the Chao Phraya to blockade Bangkok, resulting in Siam's concession of territory to France.

 

With Chulalongkorn's reforms, governance of the capital and the surrounding areas, established as Monthon Krung Thep Phra Mahanakhon (มณฑลกรุงเทพพระมหานคร), came under the Ministry of Urban Affairs (Nakhonban). During his reign many more canals and roads were built, expanding the urban reaches of the capital. Infrastructure was developed, with the introduction of railway and telegraph services between Bangkok and Samut Prakan and then expanding countrywide. Electricity was introduced, first to palaces and government offices, then to serve electric trams in the capital and later the general public. The King's fascination with the West was reflected in the royal adoption of Western dress and fashions, but most noticeably in architecture. He commissioned the construction of the neoclassical Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall at the new Dusit Palace, which was linked to the historic city centre by the grand Ratchadamnoen Avenue, inspired by the Champs-Élysées in Paris. Examples of Western influence in architecture became visible throughout the city.

 

By 1900, rural market zones in Bangkok began developing into residential districts. Rama VI (1910–1925) continued his predecessor's program of the development of public works by establishing Chulalongkorn University in 1916, and commissioned a system of locks to control waterway levels surrounding the developing city, he also provided the city's first and largest recreational area, Lumphini Park. The Memorial Bridge was constructed in 1932 to connect Thonburi to Bangkok, which was believed to promote economic growth and modernization in a period when infrastructure was developing considerably. Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between the military and political elite as the country abolished absolute monarchy in 1932. It was subject to Japanese occupation and Allied bombing during World War II. With the war over in 1945, British and Indian troops landed in September, and during their brief occupation of the city disarmed the Japanese troops. A significant event following the return of the young king, Ananda Mahidol, to Thailand, intended to defuse post-war tensions lingering between Bangkok's ethnic Chinese and Thai people, was his visit to Bangkok's Chinatown Sam Peng Lane (ซอยสำเพ็ง), on 3 June 1946.

 

As a result of pro-Western bloc treaties Bangkok rapidly grew in the post-war period as a result of United States developmental aid and government-sponsored investment. Infrastructure, including the Don Mueang International Airport and highways, was built and expanded.  Bangkok's role as an American military R&R destination launched its tourism industry as well as sex trade.  Disproportionate urban development led to increasing income inequalities and unprecedented migration from rural areas into Bangkok; its population surged from 1.8 to 3 million in the 1960s. Following the United States' withdrawal from Vietnam, Japanese businesses took over as leaders in investment, and the expansion of export-oriented manufacturing led to growth of the financial market in Bangkok.  Rapid growth of the city continued through the 1980s and early 1990s, until it was stalled by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. By then, many public and social issues had emerged, among them the strain on infrastructure reflected in the city's notorious traffic jams. Bangkok's role as the nation's political stage continues to be seen in strings of popular protests, from the student uprisings in 1973 and 1976, anti-military demonstrations in 1992, and successive anti-government protests by the "Yellow Shirt" and "Red Shirt" movements from 2008 on.

 

Administratively, eastern Bangkok and Thonburi had been established as separate provinces in 1915. (The province east of the river was named Phra Nakhon (พระนคร.) A series of decrees in 1971–1972 resulted in the merger of these provinces and its local administrations, forming the current city of Bangkok which is officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon. The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) was created in 1975 to govern the city, and its governor has been elected since 1985.

"If we're only ever looking back

We will drive ourselves insane

As the friendship goes resentment grows

We will walk our different ways" Bastille

 

I feel old...

The Grand Palace is a complex of buildings at the heart of Bangkok, Thailand. The palace has been the official residence of the Kings of Siam (and later Thailand) since 1782. The king, his court, and his royal government were based on the grounds of the palace until 1925. King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX), resided at the Chitralada Royal Villa and his successor King Vajiralongkorn (Rama X) at the Amphorn Sathan Residential Hall, both in the Dusit Palace, but the Grand Palace is still used for official events. Several royal ceremonies and state functions are held within the walls of the palace every year. The palace is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Thailand.

 

Construction of the palace began on 6 May 1782, at the order of King Phutthayotfa Chulalok (Rama I), the founder of the Chakri Dynasty, when he moved the capital city from Thonburi to Bangkok. Throughout successive reigns, many new buildings and structures were added, especially during the reign of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V). By 1925, the king, the Royal Family and the government were no longer permanently settled at the palace, and had moved to other residences. After the abolition of absolute monarchy in 1932, all government agencies completely moved out of the palace.

 

In shape, the palace complex is roughly rectangular and has a combined area of 218,400 square metres (2,351,000 sq ft), surrounded by four walls. It is situated on the banks of the Chao Phraya River at the heart of the Rattanakosin Island, today in the Phra Nakhon District. The Grand Palace is bordered by Sanam Luang and Na Phra Lan Road to the north, Maharaj Road to the west, Sanam Chai Road to the east and Thai Wang Road to the south.

 

Rather than being a single structure, the Grand Palace is made up of numerous buildings, halls, pavilions set around open lawns, gardens and courtyards. Its asymmetry and eclectic styles are due to its organic development, with additions and rebuilding being made by successive reigning kings over 200 years of history. It is divided into several quarters: the Temple of the Emerald Buddha; the Outer Court, with many public buildings; the Middle Court, including the Phra Maha Monthien Buildings, the Phra Maha Prasat Buildings and the Chakri Maha Prasat Buildings; the Inner Court and the Siwalai Gardens quarter. The Grand Palace is currently partially open to the public as a museum, but it remains a working palace, with several royal offices still situated inside.

 

The construction of the Grand Palace began on 6 May 1782, at the order of King Phutthayotfa Chulalok (Rama I). Having seized the crown from King Taksin of Thonburi, King Rama I was intent on building a capital city for his new Chakri dynasty. He moved the seat of power from the city of Thonburi, on the west side of the Chao Phraya River, to the east side at Bangkok. The new capital city was turned into an artificial island when canals were dug along the east side. The island was given the name 'Rattanakosin'. The previous royal residence was the Derm Palace, constructed for King Taksin in 1768. The old royal palace in Thonburi was small and sandwiched between two temples; Wat Arun and Wat Tai Talat, prohibiting further expansion.

 

The new palace was built on a rectangular piece of land on the very west side of the island, between Wat Pho to the south, Wat Mahathat to the north and with the Chao Phraya River on the west. This location was previously occupied by a Chinese community, whom King Rama I ordered to relocate to an area south and outside of the city walls; the area is now Bangkok's Chinatown.

 

Desperate for materials and short on funds, the palace was initially built entirely out of wood, its various structures surrounded by a simple log palisade. On 10 June 1782, the king ceremonially crossed the river from Thonburi to take permanent residence in the new palace. Three days later on 13 June, the king held an abbreviated coronation ceremony, thus becoming the first monarch of the new Rattanakosin Kingdom. Over the next few years the king began replacing wooden structures with masonry, rebuilding the walls, forts, gates, throne halls and royal residences. This rebuilding included the royal chapel, which would come to house the Emerald Buddha.

 

To find more material for these constructions, King Rama I ordered his men to go upstream to the old capital city of Ayutthaya, which was destroyed in 1767 during a war between Burma and Siam. They dismantled structures and removed as many bricks as they could find, while not removing any from the temples. They began by taking materials from the forts and walls of the city. By the end they had completely leveled the old royal palaces. The bricks were ferried down the Chao Phraya by barges, where they were eventually incorporated into the walls of Bangkok and the Grand Palace itself. Most of the initial construction of the Grand Palace during the reign of King Rama I was carried out by conscripted or corvée labour. After the final completion of the ceremonial halls of the palace, the king held a full traditional coronation ceremony in 1785.

 

The layout of the Grand Palace followed that of the Royal Palace at Ayutthaya in location, organization, and in the divisions of separate courts, walls, gates and forts. Both palaces featured a proximity to the river. The location of a pavilion serving as a landing stage for barge processions also corresponded with that of the old palace. To the north of the Grand Palace there is a large field, the Thung Phra Men (now called Sanam Luang), which is used as an open space for royal ceremonies and as a parade ground. There was also a similar field in Ayutthaya, which was used for the same purpose. The road running north leads to the Front Palace, the residence of the Vice King of Siam.

 

The Grand Palace is divided into four main courts, separated by numerous walls and gates: the Outer Court, the Middle Court, the Inner Court and the Temple of the Emerald Buddha. Each of these court's functions and access are clearly defined by laws and traditions. The Outer Court is in the northwestern part of the Grand Palace; within are the royal offices and (formerly) state ministries. To the northeast is the Temple of the Emerald Buddha, the royal chapel, and home of the Emerald Buddha. The Middle Court housed the most important state apartments and ceremonial throne halls of the king. The Inner Court, at the south end of the complex, was reserved only for females, as it housed the king's harem.

 

During the reign of King Phutthaloetla Naphalai (Rama II), the area of the Grand Palace was expanded southwards up to the walls of Wat Pho. Previously this area was home to offices of various palace officials. This expansion increased the area of the palace from 213,674 square metres (2,299,970 sq ft) to 218,400 square metres (2,351,000 sq ft). New walls, forts, and gates were constructed to accommodate the enlarged compound. Since this expansion, the palace has remained within its walls with new construction and changes being made only on the inside.

 

In accordance with tradition, the palace was initially referred to only as the Phra Ratcha Wang Luang (พระราชวังหลวง) or 'Royal Palace', similar to the old palace in Ayutthaya. However, during the reign of King Mongkut (Rama IV) the name Phra Boromma Maha Ratcha Wang or 'Grand Palace' was first used in official documents. This change of name was made during the elevation of Prince Chutamani (the king's younger brother) to the title of Second King Pinklao in 1851. The proclamation of his title described the royal palace as the 'supreme' (บรม; Borom) and 'great' (มหา; Maha) palace. This title was given in order to distinguish the palace from the Second King's palace (the Front Palace), which was described as the Phra Bovorn Ratcha Wang (พระบวรราชวัง) or the 'glorious' (บวร; Bovorn) palace.

 

Throughout the period of absolute monarchy, from 1782 to 1932, the Grand Palace was both the country's administrative and religious centre. As the main residence of the monarch, the palace was also the seat of government, with thousands of inhabitants including guardsmen, servants, concubines, princesses, ministers, and courtiers. The palace's high whitewashed castellated walls and extensive forts and guard posts mirrored those of the walls of Bangkok itself, and thus the Grand Palace was envisioned as a city within a city. For this reason a special set of palace laws were created to govern the inhabitants and to establish hierarchy and order.

 

By the 1920s, a series of new palaces were constructed elsewhere for the king's use; these included the more modern Dusit Palace, constructed in 1903, and Phaya Thai Palace in 1909. These other Bangkok residences began to replace the Grand Palace as the primary place of residence of the monarch and his court. By 1925 this gradual move out of the palace was complete. The growth and centralization of the Siamese state also meant that the various government ministries have grown in size and were finally moved out of the Grand Palace to their own premises. Despite this the Grand Palace remained the official and ceremonial place of residence as well as the stage set for elaborate ancient ceremonies of the monarchy. The end of the absolute monarchy came in 1932, when a revolution overthrew the ancient system of government and replaced it with a constitutional monarchy.

 

Today the Grand Palace is still a centre of ceremony and of the monarchy, and serves as a museum and tourist attraction as well.

 

The Outer Court or Khet Phra Racha Than Chan Nork (เขตพระราชฐานชั้นนอก) of the Grand Palace is situated to the northwest of the palace (the northeast being occupied by the Temple of the Emerald Buddha). Entering through the main Visetchaisri Gate, the Temple of the Emerald Buddha is located to the left, with many public buildings located to the right.

 

These buildings include the headquarters and information centre of the Grand Palace and the Bureau of the Royal Household. Other important buildings inside the court include the Sala Sahathai Samakhom (ศาลาสหทัยสมาคม), used for important receptions and meetings. The Sala Luk Khun Nai (ศาลาลูกขุนใน) is an office building housing various departments of the Royal Household. The main office of the Royal Institute of Thailand was also formerly located here. The Outer Court has a small museum called the Pavilion of Regalia, Royal Decorations and Coins. The Phimanchaisri Gate opens directly unto the Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall and is the main portal from the Outer Court into the Middle Court.

 

Historically this court was referred to as Fai Na (ฝ่ายหน้า, literally In the front), and also served as the seat of the royal government, with various ministerial offices, a theatre, stables for the king's elephants, barracks for the royal guards, the royal mint and an arsenal. By 1925, all government agencies and workers had vacated the site and all of the buildings were converted for use by the Royal Household.

 

Bangkok, officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies 1,568.7 square kilometres (605.7 sq mi) in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estimated population of 10.539 million as of 2020, 15.3 percent of the country's population. Over 14 million people (22.2 percent) lived within the surrounding Bangkok Metropolitan Region at the 2010 census, making Bangkok an extreme primate city, dwarfing Thailand's other urban centres in both size and importance to the national economy.

 

Bangkok traces its roots to a small trading post during the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 15th century, which eventually grew and became the site of two capital cities, Thonburi in 1768 and Rattanakosin in 1782. Bangkok was at the heart of the modernization of Siam, later renamed Thailand, during the late-19th century, as the country faced pressures from the West. The city was at the centre of Thailand's political struggles throughout the 20th century, as the country abolished absolute monarchy, adopted constitutional rule, and underwent numerous coups and several uprisings. The city, incorporated as a special administrative area under the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration in 1972, grew rapidly during the 1960s through the 1980s and now exerts a significant impact on Thailand's politics, economy, education, media and modern society.

 

The Asian investment boom in the 1980s and 1990s led many multinational corporations to locate their regional headquarters in Bangkok. The city is now a regional force in finance and business. It is an international hub for transport and health care, and has emerged as a centre for the arts, fashion, and entertainment. The city is known for its street life and cultural landmarks, as well as its red-light districts. The Grand Palace and Buddhist temples including Wat Arun and Wat Pho stand in contrast with other tourist attractions such as the nightlife scenes of Khaosan Road and Patpong. Bangkok is among the world's top tourist destinations, and has been named the world's most visited city consistently in several international rankings.

 

Bangkok's rapid growth coupled with little urban planning has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure. Despite an extensive expressway network, an inadequate road network and substantial private car usage have led to chronic and crippling traffic congestion, which caused severe air pollution in the 1990s. The city has since turned to public transport in an attempt to solve the problem, operating eight urban rail lines and building other public transit, but congestion still remains a prevalent issue. The city faces long-term environmental threats such as sea level rise due to climate change.

 

The history of Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, dates at least to the early 15th century, when it was under the rule of Ayutthaya. Due to its strategic location near the mouth of the Chao Phraya River, the town gradually increased in importance, and after the fall of Ayutthaya King Taksin established his new capital of Thonburi there, on the river's west bank. King Phutthayotfa Chulalok, who succeeded Taksin, moved the capital to the eastern bank in 1782, to which the city dates its foundation under its current Thai name, "Krung Thep Maha Nakhon". Bangkok has since undergone tremendous changes, growing rapidly, especially in the second half of the 20th century, to become the primate city of Thailand. It was the centre of Siam's modernization in the late 19th century, subjected to Allied bombing during the Second World War, and has long been the modern nation's central political stage, with numerous uprisings and coups d'état having taken place on its streets throughout the years.

 

It is not known exactly when the area which is now Bangkok was first settled. It probably originated as a small farming and trading community, situated in a meander of the Chao Phraya River within the mandala of Ayutthaya's influence. The town had become an important customs outpost by as early as the 15th century; the title of its customs official is given as Nai Phra Khanon Thonburi (Thai: นายพระขนอนทณบุรี) in a document from the reign of Ayutthayan king Chao Sam Phraya (1424–1448). The name also appears in the 1805 revised code of laws known as the Law of Three Seals.

 

At the time, the Chao Phraya flowed through what are now the Bangkok Noi and Bangkok Yai canals, forming a large loop in which lay the town. In the reign of King Chairacha (either in 1538 or 1542), a waterway was excavated, bypassing the loop and shortening the route for ships sailing up to Ayutthaya. The flow of the river has since changed to follow the new waterway, dividing the town and making the western part an island. This geographical feature may have given the town the name Bang Ko (บางเกาะ), meaning 'island village', which later became Bangkok (บางกอก, pronounced in Thai as [bāːŋ kɔ̀ːk]). Another theory regarding the origin of the name speculates that it is shortened from Bang Makok (บางมะกอก), makok being the name of Spondias pinnata, a plant bearing olive-like fruit. This is supported by the fact that Wat Arun, a historic temple in the area, used to be named Wat Makok. Specific mention of the town was first made in the royal chronicles from the reign of King Maha Chakkraphat (1548–1568), giving its name as Thonburi Si Mahasamut (ธนบุรีศรีมหาสมุทร). Bangkok was probably a colloquial name, albeit one widely adopted by foreign visitors.

 

The importance of Bangkok/Thonburi increased with the amount of Ayutthaya's maritime trade. Dutch records noted that ships passing through Bangkok were required to declare their goods and number of passengers, as well as pay customs duties. Ships' cannons would be confiscated and held there before they were allowed to proceed upriver to Ayutthaya. An early English language account is that of Adam Denton, who arrived aboard the Globe, an East India Company merchantman bearing a letter from King James I, which arrived in "the Road of Syam" (Pak Nam) on 15 August 1612, where the port officer of Bangkok attended to the ship. Denton's account mentions that he and his companions journeyed "up the river some twenty miles to a town called Bancope, where we were well received, and further 100 miles to the city...."

 

Ayutthaya's maritime trade was at its height during the reign of King Narai (1656–1688). Recognition of the city's strategic location guarding the water passage to Ayutthaya lead to expansion of the military presence there. A fort of Western design was constructed on the east side of the river around 1685–1687 under the supervision of French engineer de la Mare, probably replacing an earlier structure, while plans to rebuild the fort on the west bank were also made. De la Mare had arrived with the French embassy of Chevalier de Chaumont, and remained in Siam along with Chevalier de Forbin, who had been appointed governor of Bangkok. The Bangkok garrison under Forbin consisted of Siamese, Portuguese, and French reportedly totalling about one thousand men.

 

French control over the city was further consolidated when the French General Desfarges, who had arrived with the second French embassy in 1687, secured the king's permission to board troops there. This, however, lead to resentment among Siamese nobles, led by Phetracha, ultimately resulting in the Siamese revolution of 1688, in which King Narai was overthrown and 40,000 Siamese troops besieged Bangkok's eastern fort for four months before an agreement was reached and the French were allowed to withdraw. The revolution resulted in Siam's ties with the West being virtually severed, steering its trade towards China and Japan. The eastern fort was subsequently demolished on Phetracha's orders.

 

Ayutthaya was razed by the Burmese in 1767. In the following months, multiple factions competed for control of the kingdom's lands. Of these, Phraya Tak, governor of Tak and a general fighting in Ayutthaya's defence prior to its fall, emerged as the strongest. After succeeding in reclaiming the cities of Ayutthaya and Bangkok, Phraya Tak declared himself king (popularly known as King Taksin) in 1768 and established Thonburi as his capital. Reasons given for this change include the totality of Ayutthaya's destruction and Thonburi's strategic location. Being a fortified town with a sizeable population meant that not much would need to be reconstructed. The existence of an old Chinese trading settlement on the eastern bank allowed Taksin to use his Chinese connections to import rice and revive trade.

 

King Taksin had the city area extended northwards to border the Bangkok Noi Canal. A moat was dug to protect the city's western border, on which new city walls and fortifications were built. Moats and walls were also constructed on the eastern bank, encircling the city together with the canals on the western side. The king's palace (Thonburi Palace) was built within the old city walls, including the temples of Wat Chaeng (Wat Arun) and Wat Thai Talat (Wat Molilokkayaram) within the palace grounds. Outlying orchards were re-landscaped for rice farming.

 

Much of Taksin's reign was spent in military campaigns to consolidate the Thonburi Kingdom's hold over Siamese lands. His kingdom, however, would last only until 1782 when a coup was mounted against him, and the general Chao Phraya Chakri established himself as king, later to be known as Phutthayotfa Chulalok or Rama I.

 

Rama I re-established the capital on the more strategic east bank of the river, relocating the Chinese already settled there to the area between Wat Sam Pluem and Wat Sampheng (which developed into Bangkok's Chinatown). Fortifications were rebuilt, and another series of moats was created, encircling the city in an area known as Rattanakosin Island.

 

The erection of the city pillar on 21 April 1782 is regarded as the formal date of the city's establishment. (The year would later mark the start of the Rattanakosin Era after calendar reforms by King Rama V in 1888.) Rama I named the new city Krung Rattanakosin In Ayothaya (กรุงรัตนโกสินทร์อินท์อโยธยา). This was later modified by King Nangklao to be: Krungthepmahanakhon Bowonrattanakosin Mahintha-ayutthaya. While settlements on both banks were commonly called Bangkok, both the Burney Treaty of 1826 and the Roberts Treaty of 1833 refer to the capital as the City of Sia-Yut'hia. King Mongkut (Rama IV) would later give the city its full ceremonial name:

 

Rama I modelled his city after the former capital of Ayutthaya, with the Grand Palace, Front Palace and royal temples by the river, next to the royal field (now Sanam Luang). Continuing outwards were the royal court of justice, royal stables and military prison. Government offices were located within the Grand Palace, while residences of nobles were concentrated south of the palace walls. Settlements spread outwards from the city centre.

 

The new capital is referred to in Thai sources as Rattanakosin, a name shared by the Siamese kingdom of this historical period. The name Krung Thep and Krung Thep Maha Nakhon, both shortened forms of the full ceremonial name, began to be used near the end of the 19th century. Foreigners, however, continued to refer to the city by the name Bangkok, which has seen continued use until this day.

 

Most of Rama I's reign was also marked by continued military campaigns, though the Burmese threat gradually declined afterwards. His successors consistently saw to the renovation of old temples, palaces, and monuments in the city. New canals were also built, gradually expanding the fledgling city as areas available for agriculture increased and new transport networks were created.

 

At the time of the city's foundation, most of the population lived by the river or the canals, often in floating houses on the water. Waterways served as the main method of transportation, and farming communities depended on them for irrigation. Outside the city walls, settlements sprawled along both river banks. Forced settlers, mostly captives of war, also formed several ethnic communities outside the city walls.

 

Large numbers of Chinese immigrants continued to settle in Bangkok, especially during the early 19th century. Such was their prominence that Europeans visiting in the 1820s estimated that they formed over half of the city population. The Chinese excelled in trade, and led the development of a market economy. The Chinese settlement at Sampheng had become a bustling market by 1835. 

 

By the mid-19th century, the West had become an increasingly powerful presence. Missionaries, envoys and merchants began re-visiting Bangkok and Siam, bringing with them both modern innovations and the threat of colonialism. King Mongkut (Rama IV, reigned 1851–1868) was open to Western ideas and knowledge, but was also forced to acknowledge their powers, with the signing of the Bowring Treaty in 1855. During his reign, industrialization began taking place in Bangkok, which saw the introduction of the steam engine, modern shipbuilding and the printing press. Influenced by the Western community, Charoen Krung Road, the city's first paved street, was constructed in 1862–1864. This was followed by Bamrung Mueang, Fueang Nakhon, Trong (now Rama IV) and Si Lom Roads. Land transport would later surpass the canals in importance, shifting people's homes from floating dwellings toward permanent buildings. The limits of the city proper were also expanded during his reign, extending to the Phadung Krung Kasem Canal, dug in 1851.

 

King Mongkut's son Chulalongkorn (r. 1868–1910) was set upon modernizing the country. He engaged in wide-ranging reforms, abolishing slavery, corvée (unfree labour) and the feudal system, and creating a centralized bureaucracy and a professional army. The Western concept of nationhood was adopted, and national borders demarcated against British and French territories. Disputes with the French resulted in the Paknam Incident in 1893, when the French sent gunboats up the Chao Phraya to blockade Bangkok, resulting in Siam's concession of territory to France.

 

With Chulalongkorn's reforms, governance of the capital and the surrounding areas, established as Monthon Krung Thep Phra Mahanakhon (มณฑลกรุงเทพพระมหานคร), came under the Ministry of Urban Affairs (Nakhonban). During his reign many more canals and roads were built, expanding the urban reaches of the capital. Infrastructure was developed, with the introduction of railway and telegraph services between Bangkok and Samut Prakan and then expanding countrywide. Electricity was introduced, first to palaces and government offices, then to serve electric trams in the capital and later the general public. The King's fascination with the West was reflected in the royal adoption of Western dress and fashions, but most noticeably in architecture. He commissioned the construction of the neoclassical Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall at the new Dusit Palace, which was linked to the historic city centre by the grand Ratchadamnoen Avenue, inspired by the Champs-Élysées in Paris. Examples of Western influence in architecture became visible throughout the city.

 

By 1900, rural market zones in Bangkok began developing into residential districts. Rama VI (1910–1925) continued his predecessor's program of the development of public works by establishing Chulalongkorn University in 1916, and commissioned a system of locks to control waterway levels surrounding the developing city, he also provided the city's first and largest recreational area, Lumphini Park. The Memorial Bridge was constructed in 1932 to connect Thonburi to Bangkok, which was believed to promote economic growth and modernization in a period when infrastructure was developing considerably. Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between the military and political elite as the country abolished absolute monarchy in 1932. It was subject to Japanese occupation and Allied bombing during World War II. With the war over in 1945, British and Indian troops landed in September, and during their brief occupation of the city disarmed the Japanese troops. A significant event following the return of the young king, Ananda Mahidol, to Thailand, intended to defuse post-war tensions lingering between Bangkok's ethnic Chinese and Thai people, was his visit to Bangkok's Chinatown Sam Peng Lane (ซอยสำเพ็ง), on 3 June 1946.

 

As a result of pro-Western bloc treaties Bangkok rapidly grew in the post-war period as a result of United States developmental aid and government-sponsored investment. Infrastructure, including the Don Mueang International Airport and highways, was built and expanded.  Bangkok's role as an American military R&R destination launched its tourism industry as well as sex trade.  Disproportionate urban development led to increasing income inequalities and unprecedented migration from rural areas into Bangkok; its population surged from 1.8 to 3 million in the 1960s. Following the United States' withdrawal from Vietnam, Japanese businesses took over as leaders in investment, and the expansion of export-oriented manufacturing led to growth of the financial market in Bangkok.  Rapid growth of the city continued through the 1980s and early 1990s, until it was stalled by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. By then, many public and social issues had emerged, among them the strain on infrastructure reflected in the city's notorious traffic jams. Bangkok's role as the nation's political stage continues to be seen in strings of popular protests, from the student uprisings in 1973 and 1976, anti-military demonstrations in 1992, and successive anti-government protests by the "Yellow Shirt" and "Red Shirt" movements from 2008 on.

 

Administratively, eastern Bangkok and Thonburi had been established as separate provinces in 1915. (The province east of the river was named Phra Nakhon (พระนคร.) A series of decrees in 1971–1972 resulted in the merger of these provinces and its local administrations, forming the current city of Bangkok which is officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon. The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) was created in 1975 to govern the city, and its governor has been elected since 1985.