The U.S. entered World War I in April, 1917. By 1918, the infusion of American troops and resources into the western front tipped the scale in the Allies’ favor and Germany signed an armistice agreement on November 11, 1918.

 

The Allied countries – including the United States, Britain, France, Italy and Japan – negotiated a peace treaty at the Palace of Versailles in France from January 1919 to January 2020. The final Treaty of Versailles contained 440 articles, and Germans had no choice but to accept it. Its harshness had a crippling effect on the German economy and caused German resentment. Hitler capitalized on that resentment to gain support, which led to the beginning of World War II.

 

Yeah, I know... I'm a freak with my titles.

 

I'm one of those painfully right-brained writer/photographer types.

I love words and word combinations and word pictures...

 

I love to make people ponder,

If only a little.

Pondering is highly

Underrated.

 

I don't normally 'sell' a story with my images, because it's Art.

Art will speak to each respective viewer exactly as it is supposed to, at that time.

 

In this case, due to a couple of the comments made thus far, I'll make an exception and let you in on my obscure thought process as I shoot. It's, umm... pretty out-there.

Are you sure you're ready for this? *ulp*

 

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A cicatrix is a mark left as a result of a healing process... kind of a scar.

 

This is a portrait of a pre-teen girl whose father is going through a nasty divorce. She hears her mom say diminishing things about her dad, whom she adores and reveres. But she knows the truth in her heart. The embrace shown here of her trust and his strength will be their cicatrix.

 

She and daddy were actually being loving and goofy this day -- yesterday. She was hugging him from behind and trying to jump on his back. He grabbed hold of her hands and took turns gobbling up her forearms. Her hand is on top... the one with the scar.

 

It was a fun shoot, and yet the laughter was such obvious respite from more recent, and common, pain. I was compelled to capture an image that was as powerful as their situation. If not for them... well, then for me.

 

Once upon a time...

On another level...

I was that daughter.

  

"Children's talent to endure stems from their ignorance of alternatives."

~Maya Angelou

 

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I inscribe this piece for everyone, everywhere, who had to grow up with one parent, hearing bitter things about the other. God forbid any of us to become That Parent. A wholesome tongue breathes life and tolerance. But those who breed resentment are perverse... and perverseness is a breach in Spirit.

 

It's Monday, June 27, 2005...

Where is your Spirit?

    

Hi and Welcome back to the Walt Disney World Top 30 Must Sees. The countdown that focuses on the top 30 things that Sarah and I are looking forward to doing on our August trip to Walt Disney World.

 

Over at Disney's Hollywood Studios is our next stop, where we have an attraction with as more laughs than one of Fozzi's shows. This is a visionary attraction that has incredible depth. MuppetVision in 3D, to be precise!

 

MuppetVision 3D is next on the countdown, and Sarah and I cannot wait to experience this again. From its overflow queue (ever seen it?) to the preshow area to the main show itself, MuppetVision has it all! While I generally like the Muppets because I am intriguied both by puppets and by talking cartoon animals, Sarah informs me that the Muppets have a biting comedic wit that is unparalleled. I'm not sure what that means, but I think she's insinuating that they're funny! So to is their attraction. MuppetVision has some excellent depth and gags--and the show building takes "Disney Details" to the next level. Another reason we look forward to the attraction is because it is one of the few things at Disney's Hollywood Studios that doesn't typically have lengthy wait times while we are there. If that isn't enough, the attraction has an orchestra of penguins, and even the Big Cheese himself, Mickey the...Rat...makes an appearance! Its an attraction so undeniably entertaining that even Statler and Waldorf crack a smile! We don't even harbor resentment against Gonzo the Great for lending his voice to annoying Figment (version 3 of the attraction) over in EPCOT.

 

Now if only they would build that Great Muppet Movie Ride...

 

If you want tips for taking better photos at Disney, read this article! In it, I share advice applicable for everyone (from amateurs with iPhones to pros with DSLRS) heading to Disney!

 

View my Disney Photo Gallery for thousands of Disney photos that aren't on Flickr!

 

DisneyTouristBlog | Facebook | Twitter | Photo Gallery | Google+ | ISO 5571 - Podcast

A group of English and Scottish colonists led by a Scotsman named George Grant founded Victoria in 1873 on land he had purchased from the Kansas Pacific Railway. They named the settlement after Queen Victoria. Grant intended for Victoria to be a ranching community and was purportedly responsible for bringing the first Aberdeen Angus cattle to the United States. Most of the colonists, however, were remittance men more interested in sports and dancing than in raising livestock. Their families soon learned of this and reduced the remittances, driving most of the colonists to leave by 1880. Some returned to Britain; others left for South America.

 

In 1876, Volga Germans from villages near Saratov, Russia established the settlement of Herzog one half mile north of Victoria. Herzog's Roman Catholic settlers built a series of churches which culminated in the construction of St. Fidelis Catholic Church, known as "The Cathedral of the Plains," in 1911. Herzog grew rapidly and later absorbed Victoria, eventually adopting the older settlement's name. Herzog was officially renamed Victoria in 1913.

 

In 1942, the U.S. Army built Walker Army Airfield 3 miles northeast of Victoria. During World War II, thousands were stationed at the airfield, most for training in operation of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress bomber aircraft. The military closed the base in 1946.

 

In 1966, construction of Interstate 70 reached Victoria, passing north of the city.

 

......................................................................................................................

 

VICTORIA, Kan. (KSNW) 09/28/2018 - A former archbishop of Washington, D.C., who is accused of sexual misconduct, will reside in Victoria.

 

Cardinal Theodore McCarrick, 88, will reside at the St. Fidelis Friary. The Diocese of Salina made the announcement today.

 

In July, Pope Francis requested that Archbishop Theodore McCarrick withdraw from all public ministry and events.

 

The diocese said in a release that Archbishop McCarrick is excluded from any public appearances and ministry, and McCarrick will live a life of prayer and penance.

 

The Salina Diocese is not incurring any costs during the arrangement.

 

Bishop Gerald L. Vincke, Diocese of Salina, released this statement:

 

Why I said “Yes” By Most Reverend Gerald L. Vincke Bishop, Diocese of Salina

 

The Church needs to be open, honest and transparent. On September 13, 2018, I received a phone call from His Eminence, Cardinal Donald Wuerl of Washington, D.C. After brief pleasantries, he got right to the point. He asked for my permission for Archbishop Theodore McCarrick to reside at the St. Fidelis Capuchin Friary in Victoria, Kansas, to live a life of prayer and penance. Archbishop McCarrick is 88 years old. Cardinal Wuerl already received permission for this arrangement from Father Christopher Popravek, the provincial of the Capuchin Friary in Denver. I said, “yes.” I realize this decision will be offensive and hurtful to many people. Archbishop McCarrick is, in many ways, at the forefront of the recent firestorm in the Church. Many of us are confused and angry by what Archbishop McCarrick is alleged to have done several decades ago. The Holy See stated on July 28 that Pope Francis “accepted his resignation from the cardinalate and has ordered his suspension from the exercise of any public ministry, together with the obligation to remain in a house yet to be indicated to him, for a life of prayer and penance until the accusations made against him are examined in a regular canonical trial.” Please know that I agreed to this arrangement with the understanding that Archbishop McCarrick is excluded from any public appearances and ministry. Our diocese is not incurring any cost in this arrangement. I believe in justice. Recently, the administrative committee of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops stated their support of a full investigation into the allegations surrounding Archbishop McCarrick. The committee has recommended that the investigation be done by lay experts in relevant fields, including law enforcement and social services. Currently, a timeline for that investigation is unknown. I also believe in mercy. In saying “yes,” I had to reconcile my own feelings of disappointment, anger and even resentment toward Archbishop McCarrick. I had to turn to Christ for guidance. Jesus is rich in mercy. He did not come to give us permission to sin, he came to forgive our sins. We know that Christ has compassion and mercy for all who repent of their sins. The cross is a place of love and mercy. It is not a place of retribution. If our actions do not have mercy, then how can it be of the Church? Jesus reminds us to “be merciful, just as our Father is merciful.” Many years ago, I received a relic of Saint Maria Goretti, who was canonized in 1950. When Maria was almost 12 years old, she was attacked by a 19-year-old man named Allesandro Serenilli. After she rebuffed his sexual advances, Allessandro stabbed her 14 times. On her deathbed, Maria’s last words were, “I forgive Alessandro Serenelli … and I want him with me in heaven forever.” She forgave her assailant. Yet, there was also justice. Allesandro spent a number of years in prison. During this time, he had a deep conversion and spent the rest of his life in a monastery. I have the relic of Saint Maria Goretti beside the tabernacle in my chapel with a prayer that I say often. The opening line is “Dear Saint Maria Goretti, your heart was so full of mercy that you gladly forgave your assassin and prayed that he might be saved.” I think Saint Maria Goretti is a saint today because she forgave Allesandro. Sometimes, it can take a long time to forgive. At this time, I would like to take the opportunity to say how deeply sorry I am to all the victims of abuse. My heart aches for you and your families. I am unable to comprehend the extent of your suffering. Sadly, many times the victims did not receive an adequate response from the Church regarding the abuse they endured and the life-long pain and suffering that accompanies such evil.

 

Theodore E. McCarrick, a former cardinal and archbishop of Washington, was expelled from the priesthood after he was found guilty of sexual abuse.

 

Credit Nicholas Kamm/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images

By Elizabeth Dias and Jason Horowitz

Feb. 16, 2019

 

Pope Francis has expelled Theodore E. McCarrick, a former cardinal and archbishop of Washington, from the priesthood, after the church found him guilty of sexually abusing minors and adult seminarians over decades, the Vatican said on Saturday.

 

The move appears to be the first time any cardinal has been defrocked for sexual abuse — marking a critical moment in the Vatican’s handling of a scandal that has gripped the church for nearly two decades. It is also the first time an American cardinal has been removed from the priesthood.

 

In a statement on Saturday, the Vatican said Mr. McCarrick had been dismissed after he was tried and found guilty of several crimes, including soliciting sex during confession and “sins” with minors and with adults, “with the aggravating factor of the abuse of power.”

 

While the Vatican has defrocked hundreds of priests for sexual abuse of minors, few of the church’s leaders have faced severe discipline. The decision to laicize, or defrock, Mr. McCarrick is “almost revolutionary,” said Kurt Martens, a professor of canon law at the Catholic University of America.

 

“Bishops and former cardinals are no longer immune to punishment,” Professor Martens said. “The reverence that was shown in the past to bishops no longer applies.”

 

The expulsion of Mr. McCarrick is the most serious sign to date that Pope Francis is addressing the clerical sex abuse crisis, after facing criticism that he has moved too slowly. In October, the pope laicized two retired Chilean bishops accused of sexually abusing minors. In December, he removed two top cardinals from his powerful advisory council after they were implicated in sexual abuse cases.

 

Since last summer, when allegations against Mr. McCarrick first surfaced, the church has been plunged into a new chapter of the ever-growing scandal. State and federal investigations across the United States are now underway, and each week a new diocese releases names of priests credibly accused of sexual abuse.

 

[He preyed on young men who wanted to be priests. Then he became a cardinal.]

 

The announcement’s timing shows that church leaders hope they can move forward from the scandal before the coming week, when the pope and the presidents of bishops’ conferences around the world are meeting at the Vatican to discuss the sexual abuse crisis.

 

Robert Ciolek, who was abused by Mr. McCarrick in the 1980s, when Mr. Ciolek was a young seminarian and later a priest, said on Saturday that he viewed the defrocking as “as a very positive step.”

 

He added, “It signals that Rome may finally be serious about taking matters like abuse of power very seriously, with grave consequences for those who engage in that conduct.”

 

Mr. McCarrick, now 88, was accused of sexually abusing three minors and harassing adult seminarians and priests. A New York Times investigation last summer detailed settlements paid to men who had complained of abuse when Mr. McCarrick was a bishop in New Jersey in the 1980s, and revealed that some church leaders had long known of the accusations.

 

Pope Francis accepted Mr. McCarrick’s resignation from the College of Cardinals in July and suspended him from all priestly duties. He was first removed from ministry in June, after a church panel substantiated a claim that he had abused an altar boy almost 50 years ago.

 

Mr. McCarrick was long a prominent Catholic voice on international and public policy issues, and a champion for progressive Catholics active in social justice causes.

 

The Archdiocese of Washington said in its own statement, “Our hope and prayer is that this decision serves to help the healing process for survivors of abuse, as well as those who have experienced disappointment or disillusionment because of what former Archbishop McCarrick has done.”

 

James Grein, who told The Times that he was 11 when Mr. McCarrick began a sexually abusive relationship with him, said in a statement on Saturday: “For years I have suffered, as many others have, at the hands of Theodore McCarrick. It is with profound sadness that I have had to participate in the canonical trial of my abuser. Nothing can give me back my childhood.”

 

He added: “With that said, today I am happy that the Pope believed me. I am hopeful now I can pass through my anger for the last time. I hope that Cardinal McCarrick will no longer be able to use the power of Jesus’ Church to manipulate families and sexually abuse children.”

 

Cardinal Daniel N. DiNardo, president of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, said: “The Holy See’s announcement regarding Theodore McCarrick is a clear signal that abuse will not be tolerated. No bishop, no matter how influential, is above the law of the church.”

 

Mr. McCarrick had appealed the Jan. 11 ruling. On Wednesday, the Vatican’s doctrinal watchdog, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, rejected his appeal, and Mr. McCarrick was notified on Friday of its decision. Now that he has been defrocked, Mr. McCarrick loses church-sponsored housing and financial benefits.

 

On Saturday, the Vatican spokesman, Alessandro Gisotti, told reporters that the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith had extended Mr. McCarrick a penal process in which “all his rights were respected” and that his “lawyers played an active role in the course of some of the interrogations.”

 

The Vatican’s news media outlet, the Vatican News, splashed the news of Mr. McCarrick’s dismissal from the clerical state across its website and detailed the history of allegations against him. It noted that after the Archdiocese of New York had reported accusations to the Holy See in September 2017, “Pope Francis ordered an in-depth investigation.”

 

The Vatican News added that ahead of the coming meeting, it was worth recalling the pope’s recent call for a unified response to “this evil that has darkened so many lives.” Mr. Gisotti also reiterated an October statement from the Vatican that “both abuse and its cover-up can no longer be tolerated and a different treatment for bishops who have committed or covered up abuse, in fact, represents a form of clericalism that is no longer acceptable.”

 

Mr. McCarrick’s behavior has figured prominently in extraordinary attacks against Pope Francis, which have accused the pontiff of turning a blind eye to abuse in his midst.

 

In August, Archbishop Carlo Maria Viganò, the former papal ambassador in Washington, wrote a scathing letter arguing that rampant homosexuality in the priesthood had caused the child abuse crisis and that the Vatican hierarchy had covered up accusations that Mr. McCarrick had sexually abused seminarians. The letter claimed that Pope Francis had empowered the American prelate despite knowing about the abuses years before they became public.

 

Those allegations, which the Vatican disputes, remain unproven, and the timing of Mr. McCarrick’s ascent through the hierarchy coincided with the pontificates of Pope Francis’ predecessors, Benedict XVI and Pope John Paul II.

 

The Vatican seemed eager on Saturday to wipe its hands of at least one of those leaders. “On the subject of what McCarrick will do now,” Mr. Gisotti said, “I have no information to give.”

Colonel Durnford was portrayed by Burt Lancaster in the film Zulu Dawn

  

The Defence of Rorke's Drift

 

A fully detailed account written by John Young, Trustee, Anglo-Zulu War Royal Research Trust.

 

Anthony William Durnford was born on 24th May, 1830, in Manor Hamilton, County Leitram, Ireland. The eldest son of Second Lieutenant Edward William Durnford, Royal Engineers, and his wife Elizabeth Rebecca, nee Langley.

  

Initially, Anthony was schooled in Ireland. At the age of twelve he was sent to Germany to pursue his further education.

In September, 1846, at the age of sixteen he entered the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, as a gentleman-cadet. In April, 1847, whilst Anthony was receiving his martial education, his father, who had achieved the rank of captain, was serving as the Executive Engineer in a maritime and land expedition, under the command of Admiral Inglefield and General D'Aguilar, up the Canton River in China. Edward Durnford's skilful assessment of the enemy's fortifications would lead to the capture of eight forts. The Chinese authorities sued for peace after the British force occupied the city of Canton on 25th June, 1847.

 

On completion of his studies, Anthony was commissioned into the Corps of the Royal Engineers with the rank of second lieutenant on 27th June, 1848. He then attended a course of further instruction at the Corps' Headquarters at Chatham, Kent.

 

His first posting was to Scotland, in December, 1849, where he served at Edinburgh Castle and Fort George. His next would be an overseas posting to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in October, 1851. The monotony of this far-flung outpost of the British Empire proved too much for the young officer, in an effort to relieve the boredom he took to gambling.

 

On 17th February, 1854, he was promoted to the rank of first lieutenant. That same year he married Frances Catherine Tranchell, the youngest daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel Trancell, formerly of the Ceylon Rifles, at Saint Stephen's Church, Trincomalee.

 

By 1855 in addition to his military duties Durnford would be appointed as Assistant Commissioner of Roads and Civil Engineer of Ceylon. Elsewhere in the world the British Army was engaged in less pacific duties - a bitter war was raging in the Crimea peninsular. British had allied itself with the French and Sardinian forces in support of the Turkish authorities, against Russian imperial expansion.

 

Durnford yearned to play his part in the campaign and applied for a transfer to the theatre of operations. Permission was not granted until November, 1855, however his departure was delayed by a bout of fever. Eventually he reached the island of Malta in March, 1856.

 

On the 31st of March, a peace treaty was concluded between the warring countries, by the end of April the war was officially over. There would be no chance of glory for Durnford, who had to content himself with the position of adjutant to his father, who commanded the Royal Engineers on Malta.

 

Whilst he serving in the Malta garrison, Frances Durnford gave birth to a* son, sadly the child died in infancy. Durnford was devastated by the loss. In 1857, that loss was softened by the birth of a daughter, Frances.

 

*He was born in Ceylon

 

Durnford returned to Britain in February, 1858. On the 18th of March, 1858, he was promoted to the rank of second captain. He served in Aldershot and at the Corps's Headquarters at Chatham. Whilst at Chatham he made the acquaintance of Captain Gharles George Gordon, who had recently returned from serving on the Turco-Russian Boundary Commission, in the wake of the Crimean War. Gordon was destined for martyrdom at Khartoum in 1885.

  

In 1860, a second child - a daughter would die in infancy. Distort with anger and self-guilt, Durnford and his wife parted company. In an effort to apparently lose himself in his work, Durnford accepted the command of 27th(Field) Company, Royal Engineers, which was stationed in Gibraltar.

 

On 5th January, 1864, he was promoted to the rank of first captain. In August of that year he returned again to Britain. By now Charles Gordon had achieved an international reputation at the head of his "Ever-Victorious Army" in China. Durnford was apparently intent on joining "Chinese" Gordon, and in the latter part of 1864 he sailed for the Orient. Wicked fate again intervened with Durnford's plans, he was taken ill with heat exhaustion and had to be disembarked at Ceylon. So severe was the complaint he remained hospitalised for three months. Durnford's biographer, his brother Edward, alleges that Gordon nursed Anthony back to health.

 

By January, 1865, he was considered fit enough to travel, and he was invalided back to Britain, where he spent the next five years on home postings. During this time that Durnford's father was promoted to the rank of Major-General, with effect from 6th March, 1868.

 

In 1871, Anthony Durnford was ordered to Cape Colony, he arrived at Cape Town on 23rd January, 1872, and from there he boarded another ship, Syria, for Port Elizabeth on the eastern seaboard of the colony. On disembarking he made for King William's Town.

 

Whilst serving in Cape Colony, Durnford became a keen observer of the African people who populated the area, paying particular attention to their habits and culture. On 5th July, 1872, he was promoted to the rank of major, following a revision of the ranking structure within the Corps of the Royal Engineers.

 

In January, 1873, he was ordered to return to Cape Town, and he was stationed at the Cape Castle. In May, 1873, he was posted to Fort Napier, Pietermaritzburg. It was in Pietermaritzburg, that Durnford made the acquaintance of The Right Reverend John William Colenso, D.D., the Bishop of Natal. Colenso was an indefatigable, if somewhat controversial Christian. The Zulus knew of him, they called him Sobantu - the father of the people. Durnford and Colenso appear to form a firm friendship. But the gossips of day inferred that a closer relationship was formed between Durnford and the Bishop's daughter, Frances.

 

In August, 1873, Durnford accompanied Theophilus Shepstone, the Secretary for Native Affairs, into KwaZulu. He was present as the senior British officer at the "coronation" of the new Zulu monarch, King Cetshwayo kaMpande, on 1st September, 1873.

 

Scarcely had Durnford returned KwaZulu when he was ordered to report to Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas Milles, of the 75th (Stirlingshire) Regiment of Foot, the senior officer at Fort Napier. A potentially dangerous situation was developing in the foothills of the Drakensberg Mountains. A local chieftain, Langalibalele, of the amaHlubi, had refused to register a number of firearms, which his people had acquired whilst working in the Diamond Fields, to the local magistrate. The magistrate duly informed the Lieutenant-Governor of Natal, Sir Benjamin Pine of the matter, and Pine issued a summons for Langalibalele to report to Pietermaritzburg. This too went unheeded. Pine was now left with a military option to bring to heel this recalcitrant upstart, who had dared to challenge him.

 

The forces placed at Milles's disposal were:- two companies of the 75th; some one hundred and fifty European local volunteers and at least two thousand 'pressed' African levies. Durnford was appointed Chief of Staff. The whole force moved off to the vicinity of the amaHlubi reserve.

 

Milles, now with the rank of Colonel, planned to block the mountain passes with two mobile forces to prevent Langalibalele escaping into BaSotholand, thus turning the amaHlubi back towards Natal and into the main body of the troops. The conspect of the plan was sound, however knowledge of the terrain on which it was to enacted was somewhat flawed.

 

One of the mobile forces consisted of five hundred of the African levies.

 

Durnford was given command of the other. Durnford's unit was comprised of fifty-five Natal volunteers armed with breech-loading carbines, and twenty-five mounted Africans of baTlokwa people - of whom seventeen men carried a firearm of sorts, whilst the rest were armed with more traditional weapons. To enable Durnford to communicate with the African troops an interpreter was provided, his name was Elijah Kambule, a mission educated African.

 

At last Durnford had a field command, but it was a command marred by incompetence from the outset. Durnford had ordered the senior volunteer officer, Captain Charles Barter, of the Natal Carbineers, to ensure each of the Natal volunteers carried rations for three days and forty rounds of ammunition. Barter however had taken it upon himself to have the rations and the ammunition placed on packhorses. During the night of 2nd/3rd November, 1873, the baggage animals strayed off. Durnford sent off a search party to recover the lost animals, which in turn became detached from the command.

 

In the morning the baTlokwa were forced to share their rations with the white troops. Durnford pressed on towards his objective of the Giant's Castle Pass. The rugged terrain began to exact its toll on the men, some of who fell out with exhaustion.

 

Durnford's horse, 'Chieftain', lost its footing sending Durnford tumbling from the saddle, and onto the rocks. Over and over he fell for some fifty yards, until he landed heavily against a tree limb. His injuries were severe - a dislocated shoulder, two cracked ribs and a badly gashed head. Although racked with pain he was determined to fulfil his mission, to prove his worth, and so he pressed onwards and upwards.

  

As the force halted that night Durnford despatched six of the baTlokwa, to go on ahead to scout for the whereabouts of the amaHlubi.

 

In the early hours of 4th November, Durnford roused his men, their numbers were now depleted to some thirty-odd volunteers and some fifteen of the baTlokwa, they pressed onto the Bushman's River Pass, where they discovered a large body of the fugitive amaHlubi tending their cattle, Durnford recounted what happened next shortly after the event: -

 

Having reached the Bushman's Pass at 6.30 a.m., on the 4th November, with one officer, one sergeant, and thirty-three rank and file of the Carbineers, and a few Basutos, I at once formed them across the mouth of the pass, the natives in charge of cattle already in the mountain flying in every direction. Possibly there may have been one hundred at the outside, about half of whom were armed with shooting weapons.

 

Having posted my party, I went with my interpreter to reassure the natives. Calling for the chief man, I told him to assemble his people, and say that Government required their Chief, Langalibalele, to answer certain charges; that his people who submitted to Government should be safe, with their wives, children, and cattle; that all loyal people should go to Estcourt, where Mr. Shepstone, Minister for Native Affairs, was, and make submission, and they should be safe. My interpreter was recognised as one of Mr. Shepstone's attendants, and the Induna thanked me in the name of the people, saying they would all go down and tell my words to the tribe, who were not aware of the good intentions of Government and were afraid.

 

I told them to take their cattle and go down. The Chief said they would, but begged me to leave them, as he could not answer for the young men, who were excited, and might injure me. I left him exerting himself, so far as I could judge, in carrying out my wishes.

 

Seeing that the natives were getting behind stones commanding the mouth of the pass, I turned their position by sending my small party of Basutos on the one side, I taking half the Carbineers to the other - the other half guarding the mouth of the pass. All were then in such position, that had a shot been fired, I could have swept the natives down the pass. Their gestures were menacing, but no open act of hostility was committed.

 

About this time I was informed that many men were coming up the pass, and, on reaching the spot, found it was the case. On ordering them back, they obeyed sullenly. Matters now looked serious, and I was informed by the senior officer of volunteers present that the Carbineers, many of whom were young men, could not be depended upon.

 

They said they were surrounded, and would be massacred. I have reason to believe that this panic was created by their drill instructor, an old soldier of the late Cape Corps, up to whom they naturally looked. Upon this, as the only chance of safety, and in hopes of saving men's lives, although perfectly aware that it was a fatal line of policy, I drew in my outlaying party, and gave the order to retire. There was nothing else to be done. I had no support. As I was about to retire by alternate divisions, the first shot was fired by the natives, followed by two or three, when, seized with panic, the Carbineers fled, followed by the Basutos.

 

My interpreter and three Volunteers were killed. There were probably two hundred natives present at the time the first shot was fired. The firing was never heavy, and their ammunition soon became exhausted. The orders I received were "not to fire the first shot." I obeyed.

A.W. DURNFORD,

Major Royal Engineers.

 

During the course of the skirmish a spear had pierced Durnford's already injured left arm at the elbow severing the nerve, and a bullet had grazed his cheek. His baptism of fire was hardly an auspicious event, although he had attempted, in vain, to save the life of Elijah Kambule, and had shot two amaHlubi, his command had quit the field in disarray.

 

Nearly a fortnight after the skirmish Durnford led a burial detail to the Bushman's River Pass. The bodies were recovered and buried, the committal service being conducted by the Reverend George Smith, the Vicar of Estcourt and Honorary Chaplain of the Weenen Yeomanry, who would find lasting fame for his part in the Defence of Rorke's Drift.

 

Meanwhile resentment was growing in Pietermaritzburg, Durnford had criticized the mettle of the Carbineers who had been present in the action. He acquired the sobriquet of "Don't Fire" Durnford, and with the hindsight of the events of 1879, the colonial press would refer to the skirmish at Bushman's River Pass as "Durnford's First Disaster".

 

Rough justice was meted out on Langalibalele's adherents, and also exacted on the amaPutini, the indigenous people of the area. Shepstone had falsely accused them of supporting an act of treason. Two hundred amaHlubi were killed, five hundred prisoners were taken and pressed in forced labour for the local European farmers.

 

Langalibalele was betrayed and captured by elements of a Cape Colony force. He was led back to Pietermaritzburg in chains. In January, 1874, he was charged with murder, treason and armed insurrection. The trial turned into a farce and a travesty of justice, the outcome was a forgone conclusion - he was guilty no matter what! John Colenso voiced his concerns but justice as well as being blind, had also become conveniently deaf. Langalibalele was sentenced to life imprisonment on Robben Island.

 

In addition to his military duties Durnford had been given the post of Acting Colonial Engineer, with effect from 1st November, 1873. On 11th December, 1873 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel.

 

The year 1874 would see the implementation of the Confederation Policy, by the Earl of Carnarvon, the Secretary of State of the Colonies. It was a policy of unification of the whole region of southern Africa, which was then composed of fragmented tribal kingdoms and chieftainships, two Boer Republics and the British territories, together under the Union Flag. It was a policy, which would be met with resistance, by both black and ultimately white people.

 

Durnford was in the meantime tasked with blocking the Drakensberg passes, in order to prohibit in order preventing a repetition of the amaHlubi incident, and any possible incursion from the BaSothos on the other side of the mountains. He had an available labour force in the amaPutini men who had unjustly been accused of conspiracy with the amaHlubi. Durnford bargained for the rights of these tribespeople, urging the Colonial Administration to repatriate to their dispossessed lands.

 

Having successfully completed the task of blocking the mountain passes, the amaPutini set to road work, and the reputation of the work gang grow, so much so that Africans were actually volunteering to work for Durnford. Throughout 1874 they tolled.

 

Early in 1875 Sir Benjamin Pine was replaced by Major-General Sir Garnet Wolseley, that "Very model of a Modern Major-General", as he would later be personified by Gilbert and Sullivan.

 

Wolseley was in Natal to ring the changes and hasten the implementation of the confederation plans. His attitudes and bigotry would soon rankle Bishop Colenso; this in turn would have an effect on Durnford, because of his affinity with the bishop, and his alleged liaison with the bishop's daughter, Frances. Wolseley personally reprimanded him for siding with the liberal cleric. He added in a veiled threat unless Durnford conformed he would place his position of Acting Colonial Engineer in jeopardy.

 

Wolseley's machinations were coupled with a media inspired feeling of resentment still held against Durnford over the Bushman's River Pass affair. Neither did little to enhance his career or his prospects.

 

In September of 1875 Wolseley was replaced by Sir Henry Bulwer as Lieutenant-Governor of Natal, but the die was already cast for Durnford to be ousted. On 10th October, 1875 he was officially relieved of his civil appointment by Captain Albert Henry Hime, of the Royal Engineers. Durnford was acutely embarrassed at being relieved by a junior officer of his own corps, especially by one who had only been a captain for eighteen months.

 

In May 1876 he was replaced as Commanding Royal Engineer, Natal, by Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel Edward Thomas Brooke, another subordinate. On 27th May he embarked for Britain, it was his intention to seek specialist opinion on his disabled arm. On advice he "took the waters" at a spa in the Black Forest, Germany, but he found the regime tedious, and hastened to return to army life.

 

His next posting was uninspiring he was tasked with maintaining the three forts, which commanded Queenstown harbour, Ireland. The cold and the frequent Atlantic storms did little to relieve his physical suffering, to, which was added mental torment, as he grow more and more morose. It all proved to be too much and he collapsed with exhaustion. On medical advice he left Ireland.

 

Apparently with the help of the intercession of his old friend, Charles Gordon, he was re-appointed as the C.R.E., Natal. He departed from Southampton on 8th February, 1877 onboard the Danube, the same ship which two years later, almost to the day, the Prince Imperial of France would embark on to meet his destiny in KwaZulu.

 

When Durnford arrived in Pietermaritzburg on 23rd March, 1877, he found the colony in a state of excitement; the now ennobled Sir Theophilus Shepstone had left Natal in late January for Pretoria, the capital of the Boer Republic of the Transvaal. Accompanying him was a small escort of twenty Natal Mounted Police. Shepstone was acting with the full authority of the recently appointed Governor General of the Cape, and High Commissioner for southern Africa, Sir Henry Bartle Edward Frere, who had been directed to advance the Confederation Policy.

 

The Republic was financially weakened and attempt to suppress the warlike ambitions of the baPedi chieftain, Sekhukhune, had ended in defeat for a Boer commando.

 

The day after Durnford's arrival in Pietermaritzburg, five companies of the 1st Battalion, 13th (1st Somersetshire) Prince Albert's Light Infantry arrived at the town of Newcastle, close to the Transvaal border, and twenty-five men of the Natal Mounted Police.

Durnford together with Colonel Charles Knight Pearson, of the 2nd Battalion, 3rd (East Kent - "The Buffs") Regiment of Foot, arrived in Newcastle, on 10th April. It was apparent to all those present that Shepstone intended to annex the Transvaal, under the manifesto of the Confederation Policy.

 

On the following day, fearful for Shepstone's safety, Durnford entered the Boer republic covertly, in the guise of a property speculator. Durnford arrived in Pretoria on 15th April, only to discover that Shepstone had claimed the Transvaal as a British colony on 12th April. Shepstone asked Durnford to have the troops move on Pretoria, for although there had been no show of resistance from the Boers, he was uncomfortable that something might happen. Durnford rode back towards Newcastle, and was met by Pearson who was moving the forces at his disposal on towards the border. Durnford marshalled the remaining forces and supplies at Newcastle, before returning back into the Transvaal.

 

Having assured himself all was going well Durnford returned to Pietermaritzburg on 26th April, 1877. With the annexation of the Transvaal the British inherited a dispute over a strip of border territory between the Transvaal and the independent Kingdom of KwaZulu. Late in 1877 Frere launched an unprecedented propaganda campaign against King Cetshwayo. He labelled the king 'a despot', and his army were branded as 'man-slaying gladiators', Frere was attempting to draw the amaZulu into a war, but it was not the time as the British forces were already embroiled in the Ninth Cape Frontier War, against the amaXhosa in the Transkei.

 

In February, 1878, a boundary commission was formed to unravel the complexities of the claims and counter-claims of the Transvaal/Zulu dispute. Durnford was selected to serve as a member of the commission, together with John Wesley Shepstone, the acting Secretary for Native Affairs and the Natal Attorney-General Michael Gallwey.

 

The first meeting to consider evidence from the respective parties was convened to take place on the Natal side of the Buffalo River, at a former trading post, known to the Zulus as KwaJim, close to a river crossing called Rorke's Drift in early March of 1878. The commission heard the evidence from the respective claimants - Zulu and Boer.

 

The meeting at Rorke's Drift coincided with another event, the arrival in southern Africa of the newly appointed General Officer Commanding Her Majesty's Forces in southern Africa. Lieutenant-General (Local Rank) the Honourable Frederic Augustus Thesiger, replaced Lieutenant-General Arthur Cunynghame, who had been replaced as a consequence of political pressure.

 

For weeks the three commissioners heard and reviewed evidence from both parties, the submissions were finally concluded on 11th April, 1878. Despite differences of opinion between the members of the commission, they completed their report on 20th June, 1878. They found in favour of the Zulu claim of title to the land. Their conclusion was sent via Bulwer to Frere for approval. Frere conveniently shuffled the papers to the bottom of the pile; the findings did not quite gel with his own intentions towards the amaZulu.

 

There had been a change in Whitehall; Sir Michael Hicks Beach had replaced Lord Carnarvon as Colonial Secretary. Despite the change, or maybe because of it, Frere stepped-up his propaganda campaign against the Zulu.

 

In July, 1878, an event occurred that added credence to Frere's crusade. One of the wives of the border chieftain, Sihayo kaXongo, who lived on the Zulu side of the Buffalo River at Rorke's Drift, became pregnant by a lover.

 

The unfaithful woman and her lover fled into Natal. Shortly afterwards another unfaithful wife, also expectant, followed. The first wife took up residence in the kraal of a border guard, Mswaglele. The subsequent incursion into Natal by Methlokazulu kaSihayo and his followers, and the killing of the two women gave Frere the excuse he was looking for. The Natal Government sought reparation for the raid, and the surrender of the ringleaders. Sihayo offered to pay a fine of cattle, which his own monarch, King Cetshwayo, had levied on him, but this was dismissed as too lenient a penalty.

 

Durnford was tasked with completing a feasibility study of bridging the Tugela River, should the prospect conflict with the amaZulu become a reality.

 

Durnford also recommended the formation of an African pioneer corps. Bulwer however had other opinions, and began to frustrate the designs of Durnford and the General Officer Commanding. Bulwer had been instilled with a sense of distrust of armed, organized bodies of Africans by colonists who still harboured a sense of hatred after the Langalibalele affair. Thesiger had no option but to complain to Frere over Bulwer's lack of co-operation. The raising of two companies of Natal Native Pioneers was eventually permitted with the full knowledge of the Commander-in-Chief of the British Army, the Duke of Cambridge.

 

By October, 1878, Bulwer was still reticent to permit the general conscription of the African populace. Frere was aware that Thesiger, (who that same month become the 2nd Baron, Lord Chelmsford) desperately needed the additional manpower. These men were to be deployed as light skirmishers and scouts, as proposed by Durnford. Their local knowledge would be an asset or so it was thought.

 

Eventually after much debate and argument Bulwer permitted the raising of three regiments of a force which would be designated the Natal Native Contingent. Durnford was assigned to the overall command of the three battalions, which would compose the 1st Regiment.

  

It is not the purpose of this article to assess the worth of the N.N.C., merely the role of Durnford in their organisation. I believe it was the man's charisma, which caused many to flock to follow him. Hundreds of amaPutini came, as did the baTlokwa, even Langalibalele's amaHlubi came. Drawn to this man who unlike many did not appear to resent the colour of their skin.

  

A booklet was published for those Europeans who would be entrusted with the command of the

N.N.C. and published as GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF NATIVES, FOR THE GUIDANCE OF OFFICERS APPOINTED TO THE NATAL NATIVE CONTINGENT, AND OTHERS WHO MAY HAVE NATIVES PLACED UNDER THEM.

 

Some of these instructions are worthy of note:-

 

1, The Natal Zulu may be looked upon as an intelligent, precocious boy, with the physical strength of a man. ...

4, Insist on unquestioning obedience, and be careful that your order is carried out. Avoid, however, unreasonable, contradictory and when possible, unnecessary harassing orders....

6, Never use epithets of contempt such as niggers, Kafirs, &c. Call them "abantu"(people), "amadoda" (men), or "amabuti" (soldiers). ...

10, When drilling Zulus avoid all nagging - many of them are often stupid and inattentive, and much practise is required to teach them. ...

17, Esprit de corps is well understood by Zulus, and every use should be made of it. Each battalion should be given a native name, which, no doubt, the men themselves will soon select. ...

 

Sadly some of those tasked with the position of command were hardly worthy of such office. Some were drawn from the lower echelons of colonial manhood, and were no respecters of human life, black or white.

 

In addition to the N.N.C. and the Native Pioneers, mounted well-armed African volunteers were formed into troops of the Natal Native Horse. Numbered amongst these men, were those who had been present at the Bushman's River Pass, and their descendants. Langalibalele's own brother, John Zulu, rode at the head of the troop from the Edendale Mission Station. Such was the personal loyalty and affection to Durnford.

 

On 11th December, 1878, under the branches of a wild fig tree on the Natal side of the Lower Tugela River, an indaba had been called, King Cetshwayo sent his own emissaries to finally receive the findings of the boundary commission. The Zulus listened attentively as the result in their favour was announced. After this followed Frere's haughty ultimatum which was filled with great rhetoric which could only lead to war.

 

Durnford did his utmost to shape his regiment into a cohesive fighting force in the short time he had left. His force started to assemble at Greytown. Dalmaine's Farm, a short distance from Greytown was selected as his headquarters. From this position Durnford's force, now designated as Number 2 Column, could command the Middle Drift of the Tugela.

 

On 1st January, 1879, Durnford received orders from Lord Chelmsford ordering him to remain at the Middle Drift until the invasion, scheduled for the 11th January, was under way. When Durnford would be expected to co-operate between Pearson's Number 1 Column, which was to cross at the Lower Drift, and Colonel Richard Thomas Glyn's Number 3 Column, which was to ford the Buffalo River at Rorke's Drift.

 

On the afternoon of 11th January, Durnford paid a visit on Lord Chelmsford, who had now attached his headquarters to Glyn's force. He acquainted the General with some intelligence gleaned from messengers loyal to the Lutheran Bishop Hans Schreuder, before returning to his designated position.

 

At this time rumours and counter-rumours as to the Zulu dispositions were rife. Schreuder wrote to Durnford warning him of a threat of a Zulu incursion over the Middle Drift. Durnford received the message on 13th January. He hastily wrote a dispatch to Chelmsford apprising him of the supposed threat, and that he intended to meet the enemy on the Zulu side of the Middle Drift.

 

At 2 a.m. on 14th January, Durnford roused his men, and readied them for a forced march at 4 a.m. As Durnford was on the summit of Kranz Kop preparing to descend into the valley leading towards the drift a galloper from Lord Chelmsford met him.

 

The dispatch from Chelmsford was forthright and to the point:

 

Dear Durnford,

Unless you carry out the instructions I give you, it will be my unpleasant duty to remove you from your command, and to substitute another officer for officer for the commander of No. 2 Column. When a column is acting SEPARATELY in an enemy's country I am quite ready to give its commander every latitude, and would certainly expect him to disobey any orders he might receive from me, if information which he obtained showed that it would be injurious to the interests of the column under his command. Your neglecting to obey my instructions in the present instance has no excuse. You have simply received information in a letter from Bishop Schroeder[sic], which may or may not be true and which you have no means of verifying. If movements ordered are to be delayed because report hints at a chance of an invasion of Natal, it will be impossible for me to carry out my plan of campaign. I trust you will understand this plain speaking and not give me any further occasion to write in a style which is distasteful to me.

Chelmsford.

 

The following day Durnford was ordered to the vicinity of Rorke's Drift, with a few companies of his N.N.C., five troops of the N.N.H., and a rocket battery under the command of Brevet Major Francis Broadfoot Russell.

 

On 19th, Durnford received further orders to relocate the force under his immediate command to the Zulu bank of Rorke's Drift. On the 20th Number 3 Column reached Isandlwana.

 

On 21st, Lord Chelmsford sent out a two-pronged reconnaissance to ascertain the whereabouts of any Zulu forces. Elements of the reconnaissance came into contact with Zulu forces late in the afternoon. Messages were passed back to Chelmsford at Isandlwana requesting reinforcements.

 

In the early hours of the morning of Wednesday, 22nd January, 1879, Chelmsford made the decision to divide Number 3 Column, leaving one half at Isandlwana, whilst marching out with the other to meet the Zulu threat.

 

At 3 a.m., Lieutenant Horace Lockwood Smith-Dorrien, of the 95th (Derbyshire) Regiment of Foot, a special service officer detailed to transport duties, was ordered to return to Rorke's Drift. He carried orders for Durnford, instructing him to reinforce the camp at Isandlwana with the forces at his disposal.

 

Durnford received the orders at about 7 a.m. Durnford moved on towards Isandlwana with his mounted troops, having given orders for his infantrymen to follow on.

 

About a quarter of a mile from the camp at Isandlwana, he encountered a fellow Engineer officer moving in the opposite direction, his name was John Rouse Merriott Chard, a lieutenant from 5th (Field) Company. Chard informed Durnford that Zulus had been seen on the hills to the north of the camp. Durnford instructed Chard to inform the two N.N.C. companies to hurry on to Isandlwana.

 

Shortly after 10 a.m. Durnford arrived in the camp. He had with him some two hundred and fifty N.N.H., 'D' Company, 1st Battalion, 1st Regiment, followed on behind escorting Russell's rocket battery. Bringing up the rear was Captain Walter Stafford and his 'E' Company, 1st/1st N.N.C. acting as the baggage guard.

 

An obvious problem was presented with Durnford's arrival, who was in command? Durnford was a substantive Lieutenant-Colonel; it is feasible that he may not have been informed of his brevet promotion to the rank of colonel on 31st December, 1878. Lord Chelmsford had left behind in command of the encampment Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Pulleine of the 1st Battalion, 24th (2nd Warwickshire) Regiment of Foot. Pulleine had distinct orders to defend the camp.

 

Reports were coming in from outlaying piquets and vedettes of increasing Zulu activity. On e report stated that a Zulu column was moving off in the direction that Lord Chelmsford had taken his half column. Fearful that the General's force might be attacked on two fronts Durnford took matters into his own hands. He informed Pulleine that he intended to sweep the area thus drawing out the Zulus. He asked Pulleine for some of his imperial infantry to assist him in the task. Pulleine objected to the request, again stating his task was to defend the camp. Durnford then asked for support should his force encounter difficulties to which acquiesced.

 

Durnford sent two troops of his N.N.H. off on to the Nquthu plateau, under the command of Captain W. Barton. Whilst he himself went out with two troops of N.N.H. along the track the General's half column had taken. Following in the wake of the horsemen came Major Russell and his rocket battery, supported by 'D' Company, 1st/1st N.N.C. under Captain C. Nourse. Durnford had had the foresight to order Lieutenant Richard Wyatt Vause and his No.3 Troop of Sikali's Horse to reinforce the baggage guard.

  

It is not the purpose of this article to discuss the finer points of Isandlwana, and so what follows is only a synopsis of events.

 

Lieutenant Charles Raw commanding No.1 Troop, Sikali's Horse, chanced upon the concealed Zulu impi of some 25,000 warriors in Ngwebeni valley, thereby pre-empting the attack of the Zulus planned for the following day. Battle had commenced.

 

Durnford waged a fighting retreat in an effort to turn the Zulu left horn. He and his men took up a position in a donga on the right front of Isandlwana. Here he was seen exalting his men, and standing on the lip of the donga in total disregard for his personal safety. Lieutenant Alfred Henderson of Hlubi's Troop, N.N.H., was drawn to the conclusion that he had lost his head. Others would recall how Durnford would deftly free the fouled breeches of his men's carbines, with his one good hand.

 

Durnford's men were reinforced by detachments of the Natal Mounted Police, the Newcastle Mounted Rifles, the Buffalo Border Guard and the Natal Carbineers. At this moment in time, members of the corps who in the past had included Durnford's bitterest critics were at his side.

 

Desperately short of ammunition Durnford and his mounted men were compelled to abandon their position, just as Lieutenant Charles Pope, commanding 'G' Company, 2nd/24th, was endeavouring to reinforce him. The left horn crashed into the lines of red soldiers and they were soon swallowed up.

 

Durnford rallied his mounted men in one last desperate stand, but the sheer weight of Zulu numbers told and he died surrounded by the enemy.

   

++++ FROM WIKIPEDIA ++++

 

Hpa-An (Burmese: ဘားအံမြို့; MLCTS: bha: am mrui. [pʰə ʔàɴ mjo̰]; S'gaw Karen: ဖးအါ, also spelled Pa-An) is the capital of Kayin State (also known as Karen State), Myanmar (Burma). The population of Hpa-An as of the 2014 census is 421,575. Most of the people in Hpa-An are of the Karen ethnic group.

 

Climate

Hpa-An has a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen climate classification Am). Temperatures are very warm throughout the year, although maximum temperatures are somewhat depressed in the monsoon season due to heavy cloud and rain. There is a winter dry season (November–April) and a summer wet season (May–October). Torrential rain falls from June to August, with over 1,100 millimetres (43 in) falling in August alone.

 

+++++

 

Myanmar (Burmese pronunciation: [mjəmà]),[nb 1][8] officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a sovereign state in Southeast Asia. Myanmar is bordered by India and Bangladesh to its west, Thailand and Laos to its east and China to its north and northeast. To its south, about one third of Myanmar's total perimeter of 5,876 km (3,651 mi) forms an uninterrupted coastline of 1,930 km (1,200 mi) along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. The country's 2014 census counted the population to be 51 million people.[9] As of 2017, the population is about 54 million.[10] Myanmar is 676,578 square kilometers (261,228 square miles) in size. Its capital city is Naypyidaw, and its largest city and former capital is Yangon (Rangoon).[1] Myanmar has been a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1997.

 

Early civilisations in Myanmar included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Burma and the Mon kingdoms in Lower Burma.[11] In the 9th century, the Bamar people entered the upper Irrawaddy valley and, following the establishment of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese language, culture and Theravada Buddhism slowly became dominant in the country. The Pagan Kingdom fell due to the Mongol invasions and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty, the country was for a brief period the largest empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia.[12] The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur and Assam as well. The British took over the administration of Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the country became a British colony. Myanmar was granted independence in 1948, as a democratic nation. Following a coup d'état in 1962, it became a military dictatorship.

 

For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife and its myriad ethnic groups have been involved in one of the world's longest-running ongoing civil wars. During this time, the United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country.[13] In 2011, the military junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election, and a nominally civilian government was installed. This, along with the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners, has improved the country's human rights record and foreign relations, and has led to the easing of trade and other economic sanctions.[14] There is, however, continuing criticism of the government's treatment of ethnic minorities, its response to the ethnic insurgency, and religious clashes.[15] In the landmark 2015 election, Aung San Suu Kyi's party won a majority in both houses. However, the Burmese military remains a powerful force in politics.

 

Myanmar is a country rich in jade and gems, oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$56.7 billion and its GDP (PPP) at US$221.5 billion.[6] The income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government.[16] As of 2016, Myanmar ranks 145 out of 188 countries in human development, according to the Human Development Index.[7]

Etymology

Main article: Names of Myanmar

 

In 1989, the military government officially changed the English translations of many names dating back to Burma's colonial period or earlier, including that of the country itself: "Burma" became "Myanmar". The renaming remains a contested issue.[17] Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use "Burma" because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country.[18]

 

In April 2016, soon after taking office, Aung San Suu Kyi clarified that foreigners are free to use either name, "because there is nothing in the constitution of our country that says that you must use any term in particular".[19]

 

The country's official full name is the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar" (ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်, Pyidaunzu Thanmăda Myăma Nainngandaw, pronounced [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀]). Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form "Union of Burma" instead.[20]

 

In English, the country is popularly known as either "Burma" or "Myanmar" /ˈmjɑːnˌmɑːr/ (About this sound listen).[8] Both these names are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group. Myanmar is considered to be the literary form of the name of the group, while Burma is derived from "Bamar", the colloquial form of the group's name.[17] Depending on the register used, the pronunciation would be Bama (pronounced [bəmà]) or Myamah (pronounced [mjəmà]).[17] The name Burma has been in use in English since the 18th century.

 

Burma continues to be used in English by the governments of many countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom.[21][22] Official United States policy retains Burma as the country's name, although the State Department's website lists the country as "Burma (Myanmar)" and Barack Obama has referred to the country by both names.[23] The Czech Republic officially uses Myanmar, although its Ministry of Foreign Affairs mentions both Myanmar and Burma on its website.[24] The United Nations uses Myanmar, as do the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Australia,[25] Russia, Germany,[26] China, India, Bangladesh, Norway,[27] Japan[21] and Switzerland.[28]

 

Most English-speaking international news media refer to the country by the name Myanmar, including the BBC,[29] CNN,[30] Al Jazeera,[31] Reuters,[32] RT (Russia Today) and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)/Radio Australia.[33]

 

Myanmar is known with a name deriving from Burma as opposed to Myanmar in Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Greek – Birmania being the local version of Burma in the Spanish language, for example. Myanmar used to be known as "Birmânia" in Portuguese, and as "Birmanie" in French.[34] As in the past, French-language media today consistently use Birmanie.,[35][36]

History

Main article: History of Myanmar

Prehistory

Main articles: Prehistory of Myanmar and Migration period of ancient Burma

Pyu city-states c. 8th century; Pagan is shown for comparison only and is not contemporary.

 

Archaeological evidence shows that Homo erectus lived in the region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more erectus finds after 75,000 years ago.[37] The first evidence of Homo sapiens is dated to about 11,000 BC, in a Stone Age culture called the Anyathian with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar. Evidence of neolithic age domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BC has been discovered in the form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves.[38]

 

The Bronze Age arrived circa 1500 BC when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so.[39] Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered in Monywa District in the Sagaing Division.[40] The Iron Age began around 500 BC with the emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay.[41] Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BC and 200 AD.[42] Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such as India and Thailand, as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials. This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade.[43]

Early city-states

Main articles: Pyu city-states and Mon kingdoms

 

Around the second century BC the first-known city-states emerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan.[44] The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation.[45]

 

By the 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century the Bamar people founded a small settlement at Bagan. It was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century when it grew in authority and grandeur.[46]

Imperial Burma

Main articles: Pagan Kingdom, Taungoo Dynasty, and Konbaung Dynasty

See also: Ava Kingdom, Hanthawaddy Kingdom, Kingdom of Mrauk U, and Shan States

Pagodas and kyaungs in present-day Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom.

 

Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia.[47] The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu, Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century.[48]

 

Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level, although Tantric, Mahayana, Hinduism, and folk religion remained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions (1277–1301) toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287.[48]

Temples at Mrauk U.

 

Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan States came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until the late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom, emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437.

 

Early on, Ava fought wars of unification (1385–1424) but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Having held off Ava, Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava itself, and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555.

 

Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and the Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture. Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged.[49] Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest of the country.[50] Many splendid temples of Mrauk U were built during this period.

Taungoo and colonialism

Bayinnaung's Empire in 1580.

 

Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, due to the efforts of Taungoo, a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious king Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War (1534–41). His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na, Manipur, Mong Mao, the Ayutthaya Kingdom, Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam).

 

The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored a smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Myanmar, Upper Myanmar, Shan states, Lan Na and upper Tenasserim. The Restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features would continue well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley, and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty.

A British 1825 lithograph of Shwedagon Pagoda shows British occupation during the First Anglo-Burmese War.

 

After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War involved one resistance group under Alaungpaya defeating the Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759, he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur, and driven out the French and the British, who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos (1765) and fought and won the Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67) against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese War (1765–69) against Qing China (1765–1769).[51]

 

With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India.[52]

 

The breadth of this empire was short lived. Burma lost Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim to the British in the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. King Mindon Min tried to modernise the kingdom, and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina, annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.

 

Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms, and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).[53] Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.

British Burma (1824–1948)

Main articles: British rule in Burma and Burma Campaign

Burma in British India

The landing of British forces in Mandalay after the last of the Anglo-Burmese Wars, which resulted in the abdication of the last Burmese monarch, King Thibaw Min.

British troops firing a mortar on the Mawchi road, July 1944.

 

The eighteenth century saw Burmese rulers, whose country had not previously been of particular interest to European traders, seek to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next sixty years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises continued until, after three Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1885), Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma.[54] British rule brought social, economic, cultural and administrative changes.

 

With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886. Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore.

 

Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralysed Yangon (Rangoon) on occasion all the way until the 1930s.[55] Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions such as the British refusal to remove shoes when they entered pagodas. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. U Wisara, an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest against a rule that forbade him to wear his Buddhist robes while imprisoned.[56]

Separation of British Burma from British India

 

On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Great Britain and Ba Maw the first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule and he opposed the participation of Great Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II. He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the Second World War, Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan.

 

A major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II. By March 1942, within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Wingate's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines.[57] A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943.[58] Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma. Only 1,700 prisoners were taken.[59]

 

Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army.[60] The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Under Japanese occupation, 170,000 to 250,000 civilians died.[61]

 

Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as a unified state. Aung Zan Wai, Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung, Sir Maung Gyi, Dr. Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historical Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals[62] assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.[63]

Independence (1948–1962)

Main article: Post-independence Burma, 1948–62

British governor Hubert Elvin Rance and Sao Shwe Thaik at the flag raising ceremony on 4 January 1948 (Independence Day of Burma).

 

On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities,[64] and multi-party elections were held in 1951–1952, 1956 and 1960.

 

The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.[65]

 

In 1961, U Thant, then the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations, a position he held for ten years.[66] Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi (daughter of Aung San), who went on to become winner of the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize.

 

When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d’état in 1962. Though incorporated in the 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term ‘federalism’ as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration.[67]

Military rule (1962–2011)

 

On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état, and the government has been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalised or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism,[68] which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning.

 

A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system, with the General and other military officers resigning and ruling through the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP).[69] During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries.[70]

Protesters gathering in central Rangoon, 1988.

 

There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students.[68] In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.[69]

 

In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising. Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.[71] SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989.

 

In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years and the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won 392 out of a total 492 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power[72] and continued to rule the nation as SLORC until 1997, and then as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011.

Protesters in Yangon during the 2007 Saffron Revolution with a banner that reads non-violence: national movement in Burmese. In the background is Shwedagon Pagoda.

 

On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw, meaning "city of the kings".[73]

Cyclone Nargis in southern Myanmar, May 2008.

 

In August 2007, an increase in the price of diesel and petrol led to the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government.[74] The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007. The crackdown was harsh, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmed protesters was widely condemned as part of the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the Burmese Government.

 

In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated, rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division.[75] It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damage totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million left homeless.[76] In the critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's isolationist government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts.[77] Humanitarian aid was requested but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.[78]

 

In early August 2009, a conflict known as the Kokang incident broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the Han Chinese,[79] Wa, and Kachin.[80][81] During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan province in neighbouring China.[80][81][82]

Civil wars

Main articles: Internal conflict in Myanmar, Kachin Conflict, Karen conflict, and 2015 Kokang offensive

 

Civil wars have been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding the ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar's civil wars continue.[83]

 

In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included the Kachin conflict,[84] between the Pro-Christian Kachin Independence Army and the government;[85] a civil war between the Rohingya Muslims, and the government and non-government groups in Rakhine State;[86] and a conflict between the Shan,[87] Lahu, and Karen[88][89] minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country. In addition, al-Qaeda signalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar. In a video released on 3 September 2014, mainly addressed to India, the militant group's leader Ayman al-Zawahiri said al-Qaeda had not forgotten the Muslims of Myanmar and that the group was doing "what they can to rescue you".[90] In response, the military raised its level of alertness, while the Burmese Muslim Association issued a statement saying Muslims would not tolerate any threat to their motherland.[91]

 

Armed conflict between ethnic Chinese rebels and the Myanmar Armed Forces have resulted in the Kokang offensive in February 2015. The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on the Chinese side of the border.[92] During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the ethnic Chinese rebels. Burmese officials have been historically "manipulated" and pressured by the Chinese government throughout Burmese modern history to create closer and binding ties with China, creating a Chinese satellite state in Southeast Asia.[93] However, uncertainties exist as clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups continue.

Democratic reforms

Main article: 2011–12 Burmese political reforms

 

The goal of the Burmese constitutional referendum of 2008, held on 10 May 2008, is the creation of a "discipline-flourishing democracy". As part of the referendum process, the name of the country was changed from the "Union of Myanmar" to the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar", and general elections were held under the new constitution in 2010. Observer accounts of the 2010 election describe the event as mostly peaceful; however, allegations of polling station irregularities were raised, and the United Nations (UN) and a number of Western countries condemned the elections as fraudulent.[94]

U.S. President Barack Obama and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton with Aung San Suu Kyi and her staff at her home in Yangon, 2012

 

The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory in the 2010 elections, stating that it had been favoured by 80 percent of the votes; however, the claim was disputed by numerous pro-democracy opposition groups who asserted that the military regime had engaged in rampant fraud.[95][96] One report documented 77 percent as the official turnout rate of the election.[95] The military junta was dissolved on 30 March 2011.

 

Opinions differ whether the transition to liberal democracy is underway. According to some reports, the military's presence continues as the label "disciplined democracy" suggests. This label asserts that the Burmese military is allowing certain civil liberties while clandestinely institutionalising itself further into Burmese politics. Such an assertion assumes that reforms only occurred when the military was able to safeguard its own interests through the transition—here, "transition" does not refer to a transition to a liberal democracy, but transition to a quasi-military rule.[97]

 

Since the 2010 election, the government has embarked on a series of reforms to direct the country towards liberal democracy, a mixed economy, and reconciliation, although doubts persist about the motives that underpin such reforms. The series of reforms includes the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission, the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permit labour unions and strikes, a relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices.[98]

 

The impact of the post-election reforms has been observed in numerous areas, including ASEAN's approval of Myanmar's bid for the position of ASEAN chair in 2014;[99] the visit by United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in December 2011 for the encouragement of further progress, which was the first visit by a Secretary of State in more than fifty years,[100] during which Clinton met with the Burmese president and former military commander Thein Sein, as well as opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi;[101] and the participation of Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy (NLD) party in the 2012 by-elections, facilitated by the government's abolition of the laws that previously barred the NLD.[102] As of July 2013, about 100[103][104] political prisoners remain imprisoned, while conflict between the Burmese Army and local insurgent groups continues.

Map of Myanmar and its divisions, including Shan State, Kachin State, Rakhine State and Karen State.

 

In 1 April 2012 by-elections, the NLD won 43 of the 45 available seats; previously an illegal organisation, the NLD had not won a single seat under new constitution. The 2012 by-elections were also the first time that international representatives were allowed to monitor the voting process in Myanmar.[105]

2015 general elections

Main article: Myanmar general election, 2015

 

General elections were held on 8 November 2015. These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since 1990. The results gave the National League for Democracy an absolute majority of seats in both chambers of the national parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi is constitutionally barred from the presidency.[106]

 

The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016[107] and, on 15 March 2016, Htin Kyaw was elected as the first non-military president since the military coup of 1962.[108] On 6 April 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi assumed the newly created role of State Counsellor, a role akin to a Prime Minister.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Myanmar

A map of Myanmar

Myanmar map of Köppen climate classification.

 

Myanmar has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (262,000 sq mi). It lies between latitudes 9° and 29°N, and longitudes 92° and 102°E. As of February 2011, Myanmar consisted of 14 states and regions, 67 districts, 330 townships, 64 sub-townships, 377 towns, 2,914 Wards, 14,220 village tracts and 68,290 villages.

 

Myanmar is bordered in the northwest by the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and the Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh states of India. Its north and northeast border is with the Tibet Autonomous Region and Yunnan province for a Sino-Myanmar border total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). It is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Myanmar has 1,930 km (1,200 mi) of contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter.[20]

 

In the north, the Hengduan Mountains form the border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 metres (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Myanmar.[109] Many mountain ranges, such as the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, the Shan Hills and the Tenasserim Hills exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas.[110]

 

The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the Irrawaddy, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittaung rivers.[111] The Irrawaddy River, Myanmar's longest river, nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi) long, flows into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.[110] The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the Irrawaddy valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Myanmar

A clickable map of Burma/Myanmar exhibiting its first-level administrative divisions.

About this image

 

Myanmar is divided into seven states (ပြည်နယ်) and seven regions (တိုင်းဒေသကြီး), formerly called divisions.[112] Regions are predominantly Bamar (that is, mainly inhabited by the dominant ethnic group). States, in essence, are regions that are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into districts, which are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages.

 

Climate

Main article: Climate of Myanmar

The limestone landscape of Mon State.

 

Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (196.9 in) of rain annually. Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (98.4 in), while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone in central Myanmar is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 in). The Northern regions of Myanmar are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of 32 °C (89.6 °F).[111]

Environment

Further information: Deforestation in Myanmar

 

Myanmar continues to perform badly in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 153 out of 180 countries in 2016; among the worst in the South Asian region, only ahead of Bangladesh and Afghanistan. The EPI was established in 2001 by the World Economic Forum as a global gauge to measure how well individual countries perform in implementing the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. The environmental areas where Myanmar performs worst (ie. highest ranking) are air quality (174), health impacts of environmental issues (143) and biodiversity and habitat (142). Myanmar performs best (ie. lowest ranking) in environmental impacts of fisheries (21), but with declining fish stocks. Despite several issues, Myanmar also ranks 64 and scores very good (ie. a high percentage of 93.73%) in environmental effects of the agricultural industry because of an excellent management of the nitrogen cycle.[114][115]

Wildlife

 

Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of the country, including areas of acacia, bamboo, ironwood and Magnolia champaca. Coconut and betel palm and rubber have been introduced. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.[116]

 

Heavy logging since the new 1995 forestry law went into effect has seriously reduced forest acreage and wildlife habitat.[117] The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits and once had large areas of mangroves although much of the protective mangroves have disappeared. In much of central Myanmar (the Dry Zone), vegetation is sparse and stunted.

 

Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers, occur sparsely in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild water buffalo, clouded leopard, wild boars, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber industry. Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, myna, peafowl, red junglefowl, weaverbirds, crows, herons, and barn owl. Among reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.[118] For a list of protected areas, see List of protected areas of Myanmar.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Myanmar

Assembly of the Union (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw)

 

The constitution of Myanmar, its third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and published in September 2008. The country is governed as a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature (with an executive President accountable to the legislature), with 25% of the legislators appointed by the military and the rest elected in general elections.

"Why do dragons hoard gold? Because the things you most need is always to be found where you least want to look."

 

"Why do you think ideological thought is pushed so heavily at the universities? 1/3 laziness, 1/3 ignorance and 1/3 malevolence. Laziness: it's easier to apply a doctrine to everything at once than to think through complex issues; Ignorance: the less you know about a problem the easier you think it is to solve; Malevolence: it's great to find the enemy in others so that you have someone against who to direct your resentment."

 

"The story of Adam and Eve represents the fruit as producing a psychological transformation. So the tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil is an abstraction across trees, and it's trying to say: 'Here's something that's common across trees, it's a fruit that's common across trees.' The fruit that's common across trees is something that you might call food, fair enough. But here's something that's even more cool; food that's stable across the entire domain of food, isn't food, it's information. We use the same bloody circuits in our brain to forage for information that animals use to forage for information. Why is that? Because we figured out knowing where the food is, is more important than having the food... That's why we're information foragers."

 

– Jordan Peterson

 

en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Jordan_Peterson

www.youtube.com/channel/UCL_f53ZEJxp8TtlOkHwMV9Q

'Staying Present' is the best policy to be a happy and lovely being. When we live in 'Now and Here', the life becomes a gift to self and all. It is very easy to live in present, but we can not do mostly for past resentment, future worries, prejudices, and self-projections. We need to love our present time with confidence for the joyful journey of life.

The Vows, before God, made Him essentially THE Lord of these rings..and our home.

23 years, later and, PTL, He still is our central cornerstone.

=====================================================

 

And for those who need so desperately a Restorer, a Comforter..there's hope. The story of Joseph is told by my fav wordsmith, Max Lucado here..read on and rekindle hope.

  

Family Wounds Are Slow to Heal

by Max Lucado, You'll Get Through This

 

Family wounds are slow to heal.

 

I hope your childhood was a happy time when your parents kept everyone fed, safe, and chuckling. I hope your dad came home every day, your mom tucked you in bed every night, and your siblings were your best friends.

 

But if not, you need to know you aren’t alone. The most famous family tree in the Bible suffered from a serious case of blight. Adam accused Eve. Cain killed his little brother. Abraham lied about Sarah. Rebekah favored Jacob. Jacob cheated Esau and then raised a gang of hoodlums.

 

The book of Genesis is a relative disaster.

 

Joseph didn’t deserve to be abandoned by his brothers. True, he wasn’t the easiest guy to live with. He boasted about his dreams and tattled on his siblings. He deserved some of the blame for the family friction. But he certainly didn’t deserve to be dumped into a pit and sold to merchants for pocket change.

 

The perpetrators were his ten older brothers. His brothers were supposed to look out for him. Joseph’s brothers were out of line. And his father? Jacob was out of touch.

 

With all due respect, the patriarch could have used a course on marriage and family life.

 

Mistake number one: he married a woman he didn’t love so he could marry one he did. Mistake number two: the two wives were sisters. (Might as well toss a lit match into a fireworks stand.) The first sister bore him sons. The second sister bore him none. So to expand his clan, he slept with an assortment of handmaidens and concubines until he had a covey of kids. Rachel, his favorite wife, finally gave birth to Joseph, who became his favorite son. She later died giving birth to a second son, Benjamin, leaving Jacob with a contentious household and a broken heart.

 

Jacob coped by checking out. Obstinate sons. Oblivious dad. The brothers needed a father. The father needed a wake-up call. And Joseph needed a protector. But he wasn’t protected; he was neglected. And he landed in a distant, dark place.

 

Initially, Joseph chose not to face his past. By the time he saw his brothers again, Joseph had been prime minister for nearly a decade. The kid from Canaan had come a long way.

 

Joseph could travel anywhere he wanted, yet he chose not to return to Canaan. He knew where to find his family, but he chose not to contact them.

 

He kept family secrets a secret. Untouched and untreated. Joseph was content to leave his past in the past. But God was not.

 

Restoration matters to God. The healing of the heart involves the healing of the past.

 

So God shook things up.

 

All countries came to Joseph in Egypt to get grain, because the famine was severe in all lands. — Genesis 41:57

 

And in the long line of folks appealing for an Egyptian handout, look what the cat dragged in.

 

Joseph heard them before he saw them. He was fielding a question from a servant when he detected the Hebrew chatter. Not just the language of his heart but the dialect of his home. The prince motioned for the servant to stop speaking. He turned and looked. There they stood.

 

The brothers were balder, grayer, rough skinned. They were pale and gaunt with hunger. Sweaty robes clung to their shins, and road dust chalked their cheeks. These Hebrews stuck out in sophisticated Egypt like hillbillies at Times Square.

 

They didn’t recognize him. His beard was shaved, his robe was royal, and the language he spoke was Egyptian. It never occurred to them that they were standing before their baby brother.

 

Thinking the prince couldn’t understand Hebrew, the brothers spoke to him with their eyes and gestures. They pointed at the stalks of grain and then at their mouths. They motioned to the brother who carried the money, and he stumbled forward and spilled the coins on the table.

 

When Joseph saw the silver, his lips curled, and his stomach turned. He had named his son God Made Me Forget, but the money made him remember. The last time he saw coins in the hands of Jacob’s older boys, they were laughing, and he was whimpering. That day at the pit he searched these faces for a friend, but he found none. And now they dared bring silver to him?

 

Joseph called for a Hebrew-speaking servant to translate. Then Joseph scowled at his brothers.

 

He acted as a stranger to them and spoke roughly to them. — Genesis 42:7

 

The brothers fell face-first in the dirt, which brought to Joseph’s mind a childhood dream.

 

“Uh, well, we’re from up the road in Canaan. Maybe you’ve heard of it?”

 

Joseph glared at them. “Nah, I don’t believe you. Guards, put these spies under arrest. They are here to infiltrate our country.”

 

The ten brothers spoke at once. “You’ve got it all wrong, Your High, Holy, and Esteemed Honor. We’re salt of the earth. We belong to the same family. That’s Simeon over there. That’s Judah... Well, there are twelve of us in all. At least there used to be.

 

The youngest is now with our father, and one is no longer living. — Genesis 42:13

 

Joseph gulped at the words. This was the first report on his family he had heard in twenty years. Jacob was alive. Benjamin was alive. And they thought he was dead.

 

“Tell you what,” he snapped. “I’ll let one of you go back and get your brother and bring him here. The rest of you I’ll throw in jail.”

 

With that, Joseph had their hands bound. A nod of his head, and they were marched off to jail. Perhaps the same jail where he had spent at least two years of his life.

 

What a curious series of events. The gruff voice, harsh treatment. The jail sentence. The abrupt dismissal. We’ve seen this sequence before with Joseph and his brothers, only the roles were reversed. On the first occasion they conspired against him. This time he conspired against them. They spoke angrily. He turned the tables. They threw him in the hole and ignored his cries for help. Now it was his turn to give them the cold shoulder.

 

What was going on?

 

I think he was trying to get his bearings. This was the toughest challenge of his life. The famine, by comparison, was easy. Mrs. Potiphar he could resist. Pharaoh’s assignments he could manage. But this mixture of hurt and hate that surged when he saw his flesh and blood? Joseph didn’t know what to do.

 

Maybe you don’t either.

 

Your family failed you. Your early years were hard ones. The people who should have cared for you didn’t. But, like Joseph, you made the best of it. You’ve made a life for yourself. Even started your own family. You are happy to leave Canaan in the rearview mirror. But God isn’t.

 

He gives us more than we request by going deeper than we ask. He wants not only your whole heart; He wants your heart whole. Why? Hurt people hurt people. Think about it. Why do you fly off the handle? Why do you avoid conflict? Why do you seek to please everyone? Might your tendencies have something to do with an unhealed hurt in your heart?

 

God wants to help you for your sake. And for the sake of your posterity.

 

Suppose Joseph had refused his brothers? Summarily dismissed them? Washed his hands of the whole mess? God’s plan for the nation of Israel depended upon the compassion of Joseph. A lot was at stake here.

 

There is a lot at stake with you too. Yes, your family history has some sad chapters. But your history doesn’t have to be your future. The generational garbage can stop here and now. You don’t have to give your kids what your ancestors gave you.

 

Talk to God about the scandals and scoundrels. Invite Him to relive the betrayal with you. Bring it out in the open. Joseph restaged the hurt for a reason.

 

Revealing leads to healing.

 

Let God do His work. The process may take a long time. It may take a lifetime.

 

Family pain is the deepest pain because it was inflicted so early and because it involves people who should have been trustworthy.

 

Let God transform you into a new person by changing the way you think. — Romans 12:2

 

Let Him replace childish thinking with mature truth (1 Corinthians 13:11). You are God’s child. His creation. Destined for heaven. You are a part of His family. Let Him set you on the path to reconciliation.

 

Joseph did. The process would prove to be long and difficult. It occupies four chapters of the Bible and at least a year on the calendar, but Joseph took the first step. After three days Joseph released his brothers from jail. He played the tough guy again. “Go on back. But I want to see this kid brother you talk about. I’ll keep one of you as a guarantee.”

 

They agreed and then, right in front of Joseph, rehashed the day they dry-gulched him:

 

Then they said to one another, ‘We are truly guilty concerning our brother, for we saw the anguish of his soul when he pleaded with us, and we would not hear; therefore this distress has come upon us’. — Genesis 42:21

 

Again, they did not know that the prince understood Hebrew. But he did. And when he heard the words, Joseph turned away so they couldn’t see his eyes fill with tears. He stepped into the shadows and wept. He did this seven more times. He didn’t cry when he was promoted by Potiphar or crowned by Pharaoh, but he blubbered like a baby when he learned that his brothers hadn’t forgotten him after all. When he sent them back to Canaan, he loaded their saddlebags with grain. A moment of grace.

 

With that small act, healing started. If God healed that family, who’s to say He won’t heal yours?

  

Healing of the heart involved healing of the past

 

For Reflection

 

Listed below are several words and phrases that characterize some of the hardships and dysfunction evident in Joseph’s family. Which issues have marked your family?

 

❑ abandonment

 

❑ troubled marriage(s)

 

❑ premature death

 

❑ hatred

 

❑ sibling rivalry

 

❑ favoritism

 

❑ severe grief

 

❑ disregard for others

 

❑ parental abdication

 

❑ guilt

 

❑ deception

 

❑ betrayal

 

❑ infertility

 

❑ resentment

 

❑ abuse

 

❑ extramarital relationships

 

❑ harsh treatment

 

❑ brokenness

 

❑ self-absorption

 

❑ secrecy

 

❑ neglect

 

Part of the healing process includes unearthing the details — the specifics of how you were hurt — and inviting God to relive those experiences with you. What help do you need from God? How do you want to experience His presence, comfort, or guidance?

 

Coming face-to-face with old hurts can be disorienting. When Joseph first encountered his brothers again, he withheld his identity, spoke harshly, made false accusations, jailed them, released them, put conditions on their departure and return, held one of them hostage, concealed powerful emotions, and was secretly generous to them (Genesis 42:6-28). What conflicting thoughts and emotions surface when you consider the possibility of engaging old hurts and the people connected with them?

 

Joseph’s path to reconciliation with his family was long and difficult, but it began with a small act of mercy and grace — he loaded his brothers’ saddlebags with grain and quietly returned the silver they had paid for it. A gift, free and clear.

 

What small act of mercy and grace do you sense God inviting you to extend to someone in your family?

 

from You'll Get Through This by Max Lucado,

The Tower of London, officially His Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London, England. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, which is separated from the eastern edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded toward the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest. The White Tower, which gives the entire castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression, inflicted upon London by the new Norman ruling class. The castle was also used as a prison from 1100 (Ranulf Flambard) until 1952 (Kray twins), although that was not its primary purpose. A grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of several buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under kings Richard I, Henry III, and Edward I in the 12th and 13th centuries. The general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site.

 

The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history. It was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a public record office, and the home of the Crown Jewels of England. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II in the 17th century, a procession would be led from the Tower to Westminster Abbey on the coronation of a monarch. In the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period. In the late 15th century, the Princes in the Tower were housed at the castle when they mysteriously disappeared, presumed murdered. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence, and despite attempts to refortify and repair the castle, its defences lagged behind developments to deal with artillery.

 

The zenith of the castle's use as a prison was the 16th and 17th centuries, when many figures who had fallen into disgrace, such as Elizabeth I before she became queen, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Elizabeth Throckmorton, were held within its walls. This use has led to the phrase "sent to the Tower". Despite its enduring reputation as a place of torture and death, popularised by 16th-century religious propagandists and 19th-century writers, only seven people were executed within the Tower before the world wars of the 20th century. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, with 112 occurring there over a 400-year period. In the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, clearing out many of the vacant post-medieval structures.

 

In the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, and the castle reopened to the public. Today, the Tower of London is one of the country's most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, operated by the Resident Governor of the Tower of London and Keeper of the Jewel House, and guarded by the Yeomen Warders, the property is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site.

 

Architecture

The Tower was oriented with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London, which archaeologist Alan Vince suggests was deliberate. It would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three "wards", or enclosures. The innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle. Encircling it to the north, east, and west is the inner ward, built during the reign of Richard I (1189–1199). Finally, there is the outer ward which encompasses the castle and was built under Edward I. Although there were several phases of expansion after William the Conqueror founded the Tower of London, the general layout has remained the same since Edward I completed his rebuild in 1285.

 

The castle encloses an area of almost 12 acres (4.9 hectares) with a further 6 acres (2.4 ha) around the Tower of London constituting the Tower Liberties – land under the direct influence of the castle and cleared for military reasons. The precursor of the Liberties was laid out in the 13th century when Henry III ordered that a strip of land adjacent to the castle be kept clear. Despite popular fiction, the Tower of London never had a permanent torture chamber, although the basement of the White Tower housed a rack in later periods. Tower Wharf was built on the bank of the Thames under Edward I and was expanded to its current size during the reign of Richard II (1377–1399).

 

White Tower

The White Tower is a keep (also known as a donjon), which was often the strongest structure in a medieval castle, and contained lodgings suitable for the lord – in this case, the king or his representative. According to military historian Allen Brown, "The great tower [White Tower] was also, by virtue of its strength, majesty and lordly accommodation, the donjon par excellence". As one of the largest keeps in the Christian world, the White Tower has been described as "the most complete eleventh-century palace in Europe".

 

The White Tower, not including its projecting corner towers, measures 36 by 32 metres (118 by 105 ft) at the base, and is 27 m (90 ft) high at the southern battlements. The structure was originally three storeys high, comprising a basement floor, an entrance level, and an upper floor. The entrance, as is usual in Norman keeps, was above ground, in this case on the south face, and accessed via a wooden staircase which could be removed in the event of an attack. It was probably during Henry II's reign (1154–1189) that a forebuilding was added to the south side of the tower to provide extra defences to the entrance, but it has not survived. Each floor was divided into three chambers, the largest in the west, a smaller room in the north-east, and the chapel taking up the entrance and upper floors of the south-east. At the western corners of the building are square towers, while to the north-east a round tower houses a spiral staircase. At the south-east corner there is a larger semi-circular projection which accommodates the apse of the chapel. As the building was intended to be a comfortable residence as well as a stronghold, latrines were built into the walls, and four fireplaces provided warmth.

 

The main building material is Kentish ragstone, although some local mudstone was also used. Caen stone was imported from northern France to provide details in the Tower's facing, although little of the original material survives as it was replaced with Portland stone in the 17th and 18th centuries. Reigate stone was also used as ashlar and for carved details. Its location, in the lower courses of the building and at higher levels corresponding to a building break, suggest it was readily available and may have been used when access to Caen stone was restricted. As most of the Tower's windows were enlarged in the 18th century, only two original – albeit restored – examples remain, in the south wall at the gallery level.

 

The tower was terraced into the side of a mound, so the northern side of the basement is partially below ground level. As was typical of most keeps, the bottom floor was an undercroft used for storage. One of the rooms contained a well. Although the layout has remained the same since the tower's construction, the interior of the basement dates mostly from the 18th century when the floor was lowered and the pre-existing timber vaults were replaced with brick counterparts. The basement is lit through small slits.

 

The entrance floor was probably intended for the use of the Constable of the Tower, Lieutenant of the Tower of London and other important officials. The south entrance was blocked during the 17th century, and not reopened until 1973. Those heading to the upper floor had to pass through a smaller chamber to the east, also connected to the entrance floor. The crypt of St John's Chapel occupied the south-east corner and was accessible only from the eastern chamber. There is a recess in the north wall of the crypt; according to Geoffrey Parnell, Keeper of the Tower History at the Royal Armouries, "the windowless form and restricted access, suggest that it was designed as a strong-room for safekeeping of royal treasures and important documents".

 

The upper floor contained a grand hall in the west and residential chamber in the east – both originally open to the roof and surrounded by a gallery built into the wall – and St John's Chapel in the south-east. The top floor was added in the 15th century, along with the present roof. St John's Chapel was not part of the White Tower's original design, as the apsidal projection was built after the basement walls. Due to changes in function and design since the tower's construction, except for the chapel little is left of the original interior.[20] The chapel's current bare and unadorned appearance is reminiscent of how it would have been in the Norman period. In the 13th century, during Henry III's reign, the chapel was decorated with such ornamentation as a gold-painted cross, and stained glass windows that depicted the Virgin Mary and the Holy Trinity.

 

Innermost ward

The innermost ward encloses an area immediately south of the White Tower, stretching to what was once the edge of the River Thames. As was the case at other castles, such as the 11th-century Hen Domen, the innermost ward was probably filled with timber buildings from the Tower's foundation. Exactly when the royal lodgings began to encroach from the White Tower into the innermost ward is uncertain, although it had happened by the 1170s. The lodgings were renovated and elaborated during the 1220s and 1230s, becoming comparable with other palatial residences such as Windsor Castle. Construction of Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers – located at the corners of the innermost ward's wall along the river – began around 1220. They probably served as private residences for the queen and king respectively.

 

The earliest evidence for how the royal chambers were decorated comes from Henry III's reign: the queen's chamber was whitewashed, and painted with flowers and imitation stonework. A great hall existed in the south of the ward, between the two towers. It was similar to, although slightly smaller than, that also built by Henry III at Winchester Castle. Near Wakefield Tower was a postern gate which allowed private access to the king's apartments. The innermost ward was originally surrounded by a protective ditch, which had been filled in by the 1220s. Around this time, a kitchen was built in the ward. Between 1666 and 1676, the innermost ward was transformed and the palace buildings removed. The area around the White Tower was cleared so that anyone approaching would have to cross open ground. The Jewel House was demolished, and the Crown Jewels moved to Martin Tower.

 

Inner ward

The inner ward was created during Richard the Lionheart's reign, when a moat was dug to the west of the innermost ward, effectively doubling the castle's size. Henry III created the ward's east and north walls, and the ward's dimensions remain to this day. Most of Henry's work survives, and only two of the nine towers he constructed have been completely rebuilt. Between the Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers, the innermost ward's wall also serves as a curtain wall for the inner ward. The main entrance to the inner ward would have been through a gatehouse, most likely in the west wall on the site of what is now Beauchamp Tower. The inner ward's western curtain wall was rebuilt by Edward I. The 13th-century Beauchamp Tower marks the first large-scale use of brick as a building material in Britain, since the 5th-century departure of the Romans. The Beauchamp Tower is one of 13 towers that stud the curtain wall. Clockwise from the south-west corner they are: Bell, Beauchamp, Devereux, Flint, Bowyer, Brick, Martin, Constable, Broad Arrow, Salt, Lanthorn, Wakefield, and the Bloody Tower. While these towers provided positions from which flanking fire could be deployed against a potential enemy, they also contained accommodation. As its name suggests, Bell Tower housed a belfry, its purpose to raise the alarm in the event of an attack. The royal bow-maker, responsible for making longbows, crossbows, catapults, and other siege and hand weapons, had a workshop in the Bowyer Tower. A turret at the top of Lanthorn Tower was used as a beacon by traffic approaching the Tower at night.

 

As a result of Henry's expansion, St Peter ad Vincula, a Norman chapel which had previously stood outside the Tower, was incorporated into the castle. Henry decorated the chapel by adding glazed windows, and stalls for himself and his queen. It was rebuilt by Edward I at a cost of over £300[36] and again by Henry VIII in 1519; the current building dates from this period, although the chapel was refurbished in the 19th century. Immediately west of Wakefield Tower, the Bloody Tower was built at the same time as the inner ward's curtain wall, and as a water-gate provided access to the castle from the River Thames. It was a simple structure, protected by a portcullis and gate. The Bloody Tower acquired its name in the 16th century, as it was believed to be the site of the murder of the Princes in the Tower. Between 1339 and 1341, a gatehouse was built into the curtain wall between Bell and Salt Towers. During the Tudor period, a range of buildings for the storage of munitions was built along the inside of the north inner ward. The castle buildings were remodelled during the Stuart period, mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance. In 1663, just over £4,000 was spent building a new storehouse (now known as the New Armouries) in the inner ward. Construction of the Grand Storehouse north of the White Tower began in 1688, on the same site as the dilapidated Tudor range of storehouses; it was destroyed by fire in 1841. The Waterloo Block, a former barracks in the castellated Gothic Revival style with Domestic Tudor details, was built on the site and remains to this day, housing the Crown Jewels on the ground floor.

 

Outer ward

A third ward was created during Edward I's extension to the Tower, as the narrow enclosure completely surrounded the castle. At the same time a bastion known as Legge's Mount was built at the castle's northwest corner. Brass Mount, the bastion in the northeast corner, was a later addition. The three rectangular towers along the east wall 15 metres (49 ft) apart were dismantled in 1843. Although the bastions have often been ascribed to the Tudor period, there is no evidence to support this; archaeological investigations suggest that Legge's Mount dates from the reign of Edward I. Blocked battlements (also known as crenellations) in the south side of Legge's Mount are the only surviving medieval battlements at the Tower of London (the rest are Victorian replacements). A new 50-metre (160 ft) moat was dug beyond the castle's new limits; it was originally 4.5 metres (15 ft) deeper in the middle than it is today. With the addition of a new curtain wall, the old main entrance to the Tower of London was obscured and made redundant; a new entrance was created in the southwest corner of the external wall circuit. The complex consisted of an inner and an outer gatehouse and a barbican, which became known as the Lion Tower as it was associated with the animals as part of the Royal Menagerie since at least the 1330s. The Lion Tower itself no longer survives.

 

Edward extended the south side of the Tower of London onto land that had previously been submerged by the River Thames. In this wall, he built St Thomas's Tower between 1275 and 1279; later known as Traitors' Gate, it replaced the Bloody Tower as the castle's water-gate. The building is unique in England, and the closest parallel is the now demolished water-gate at the Louvre in Paris. The dock was covered with arrowslits in case of an attack on the castle from the River; there was also a portcullis at the entrance to control who entered. There were luxurious lodgings on the first floor. Edward also moved the Royal Mint into the Tower; its exact location early on is unknown, although it was probably in either the outer ward or the Lion Tower. By 1560, the Mint was located in a building in the outer ward near Salt Tower. Between 1348 and 1355, a second water-gate, Cradle Tower, was added east of St Thomas's Tower for the king's private use.

 

Foundation and early history

Victorious at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, the invading Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, spent the rest of the year securing his holdings by fortifying key positions. He founded several castles along the way, but took a circuitous route toward London; only when he reached Canterbury did he turn towards England's largest city. As the fortified bridge into London was held by Saxon troops, he decided instead to ravage Southwark before continuing his journey around southern England. A series of Norman victories along the route cut the city's supply lines and in December 1066, isolated and intimidated, its leaders yielded London without a fight. Between 1066 and 1087, William established 36 castles, although references in the Domesday Book indicate that many more were founded by his subordinates. The Normans undertook what has been described as "the most extensive and concentrated programme of castle-building in the whole history of feudal Europe". They were multi-purpose buildings, serving as fortifications (used as a base of operations in enemy territory), centres of administration, and residences.

 

William sent an advance party to prepare the city for his entrance, to celebrate his victory and found a castle; in the words of William's biographer, William of Poitiers, "certain fortifications were completed in the city against the restlessness of the huge and brutal populace. For he [William] realised that it was of the first importance to overawe the Londoners". At the time, London was the largest town in England; the foundation of Westminster Abbey and the old Palace of Westminster under Edward the Confessor had marked it as a centre of governance, and with a prosperous port it was important for the Normans to establish control over the settlement. The other two castles in London – Baynard's Castle and Montfichet's Castle – were established at the same time. The fortification that would later become known as the Tower of London was built onto the south-east corner of the Roman town walls, using them as prefabricated defences, with the River Thames providing additional protection from the south. This earliest phase of the castle would have been enclosed by a ditch and defended by a timber palisade, and probably had accommodation suitable for William.

 

Most of the early Norman castles were built from timber, but by the end of the 11th century a few, including the Tower of London, had been renovated or replaced with stone. Work on the White Tower – which gives the whole castle its name – is usually considered to have begun in 1078, however the exact date is uncertain. William made Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester, responsible for its construction, although it may not have been completed until after William's death in 1087. The White Tower is the earliest stone keep in England, and was the strongest point of the early castle. It also contained grand accommodation for the king. At the latest, it was probably finished by 1100 when Bishop Ranulf Flambard was imprisoned there. Flambard was loathed by the English for exacting harsh taxes. Although he is the first recorded prisoner held in the Tower, he was also the first person to escape from it, using a smuggled rope secreted in a butt of wine. He was held in luxury and permitted servants, but on 2 February 1101 he hosted a banquet for his captors. After plying them with drink, when no one was looking he lowered himself from a secluded chamber, and out of the Tower. The escape came as such a surprise that one contemporary chronicler accused the bishop of witchcraft.

 

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 1097 King William II ordered a wall to be built around the Tower of London; it was probably built from stone and likely replaced the timber palisade that arced around the north and west sides of the castle, between the Roman wall (to the east) and the Thames (to the south). The Norman Conquest of London manifested itself not only with a new ruling class, but in the way the city was structured. Land was confiscated and redistributed amongst the Normans, who also brought over hundreds of Jews, for financial reasons. The Jews arrived under the direct protection of the Crown, as a result of which Jewish communities were often found close to castles. The Jews used the Tower as a retreat, when threatened by anti-Jewish violence.

 

The death in 1135 of Henry I left England with a disputed succession; although the king had persuaded his most powerful barons to swear support for the Empress Matilda, just a few days after Henry's death Stephen of Blois arrived from France to lay claim to the throne. The importance of the city and its Tower is marked by the speed at which he secured London. The castle, which had not been used as a royal residence for some time, was usually left in the charge of a Constable, a post held at this time by Geoffrey de Mandeville. As the Tower was considered an impregnable fortress in a strategically important position, possession was highly valued. Mandeville exploited this, selling his allegiance to Matilda after Stephen was captured in 1141 at the Battle of Lincoln. Once her support waned, the following year he resold his loyalty to Stephen. Through his role as Constable of the Tower, Mandeville became "the richest and most powerful man in England". When he tried the same ploy again, this time holding secret talks with Matilda, Stephen had him arrested, forced him to cede control of his castles, and replaced him with one of his most loyal supporters. Until then the position had been hereditary, originally held by Geoffrey de Mandeville, but the position's authority was such that from then on it remained in the hands of an appointee of the monarch. The position was usually given to someone of great importance, who might not always be at the castle due to other duties. Although the Constable was still responsible for maintaining the castle and its garrison, from an early stage he had a subordinate to help with this duty: the Lieutenant of the Tower.[70] Constables also had civic duties relating to the city. Usually they were given control of the city and were responsible for levying taxes, enforcing the law and maintaining order. The creation in 1191 of the position of Lord Mayor of London removed many of the Constable's civic powers, and at times led to friction between the two.

 

Expansion

The castle probably retained its form as established by 1100 until the reign of Richard I (1189–1199). The castle was extended under William Longchamp, King Richard's Lord Chancellor and the man in charge of England while he was on crusade. The Pipe Rolls record £2,881 1s 10d spent at the Tower of London between 3 December 1189 and 11 November 1190, from an estimated £7,000 spent by Richard on castle building in England. According to the contemporary chronicler Roger of Howden, Longchamp dug a moat around the castle and tried in vain to fill it from the Thames. Longchamp was also Constable of the Tower, and undertook its expansion while preparing for war with King Richard's younger brother, Prince John, who in Richard's absence arrived in England to try to seize power. As Longchamp's main fortress, he made the Tower as strong as possible. The new fortifications were first tested in October 1191, when the Tower was besieged for the first time in its history. Longchamp capitulated to John after just three days, deciding he had more to gain from surrender than prolonging the siege.

 

John succeeded Richard as king in 1199, but his rule proved unpopular with many of his barons, who in response moved against him. In 1214, while the king was at Windsor Castle, Robert Fitzwalter led an army into London and laid siege to the Tower. Although under-garrisoned, the Tower resisted and the siege was lifted once John signed the Magna Carta. The king reneged on his promises of reform, leading to the outbreak of the First Barons' War. Even after the Magna Carta was signed, Fitzwalter maintained his control of London. During the war, the Tower's garrison joined forces with the barons. John was deposed in 1216 and the barons offered the English throne to Prince Louis, the eldest son of the French king. However, after John's death in October 1216, many began to support the claim of his eldest son, Henry III. War continued between the factions supporting Louis and Henry, with Fitzwalter supporting Louis. Fitzwalter was still in control of London and the Tower, both of which held out until it was clear that Henry III's supporters would prevail.

 

In the 13th century, Kings Henry III (1216–1272) and Edward I (1272–1307) extended the castle, essentially creating it as it stands today. Henry was disconnected from his barons, and a mutual lack of understanding led to unrest and resentment towards his rule. As a result, he was eager to ensure the Tower of London was a formidable fortification; at the same time Henry was an aesthete and wished to make the castle a comfortable place to live. From 1216 to 1227 nearly £10,000 was spent on the Tower of London; in this period, only the work at Windsor Castle cost more (£15,000). Most of the work was focused on the palatial buildings of the innermost ward. The tradition of whitewashing the White Tower (from which it derives its name) began in 1240.

 

Beginning around 1238, the castle was expanded to the east, north, and north-west. The work lasted through the reign of Henry III and into that of Edward I, interrupted occasionally by civil unrest. New creations included a new defensive perimeter, studded with towers, while on the west, north, and east sides, where the wall was not defended by the river, a defensive ditch was dug. The eastern extension took the castle beyond the bounds of the old Roman settlement, marked by the city wall which had been incorporated into the castle's defences. The Tower had long been a symbol of oppression, despised by Londoners, and Henry's building programme was unpopular. So when the gatehouse collapsed in 1240, the locals celebrated the setback. The expansion caused disruption locally and £166 was paid to St Katherine's Hospital and the prior of Holy Trinity in compensation.

 

Henry III often held court at the Tower of London, and held parliament there on at least two occasions (1236 and 1261) when he felt that the barons were becoming dangerously unruly. In 1258, the discontented barons, led by Simon de Montfort, forced the King to agree to reforms including the holding of regular parliaments. Relinquishing the Tower of London was among the conditions. Henry III resented losing power and sought permission from the pope to break his oath. With the backing of mercenaries, Henry installed himself in the Tower in 1261. While negotiations continued with the barons, the King ensconced himself in the castle, although no army moved to take it. A truce was agreed with the condition that the King hand over control of the Tower once again. Henry won a significant victory at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, allowing him to regain control of the country and the Tower of London. Cardinal Ottobuon came to England to excommunicate those who were still rebellious; the act was deeply unpopular and the situation was exacerbated when the cardinal was granted custody of the Tower. Gilbert de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford, marched on London in April 1267 and laid siege to the castle, declaring that custody of the Tower was "not a post to be trusted in the hands of a foreigner, much less of an ecclesiastic". Despite a large army and siege engines, Gilbert de Clare was unable to take the castle. The Earl retreated, allowing the King control of the capital, and the Tower experienced peace for the rest of Henry's reign.

 

Although he was rarely in London, Edward I undertook an expensive remodelling of the Tower, costing £21,000 between 1275 and 1285, over double that spent on the castle during the whole of Henry III's reign. Edward I was a seasoned castle builder, and used his experience of siege warfare during the crusades to bring innovations to castle building. His programme of castle building in Wales heralded the introduction of the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern influences. At the Tower of London, Edward filled in the moat dug by Henry III and built a new curtain wall along its line, creating a new enclosure. A new moat was created in front of the new curtain wall. The western part of Henry III's curtain wall was rebuilt, with Beauchamp Tower replacing the castle's old gatehouse. A new entrance was created, with elaborate defences including two gatehouses and a barbican. In an effort to make the castle self-sufficient, Edward I also added two watermills. Six hundred Jews were imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1278, charged with coin clipping. Persecution of the country's Jewish population under Edward began in 1276 and culminated in 1290 when he issued the Edict of Expulsion, forcing the Jews out of the country. In 1279, the country's numerous mints were unified under a single system whereby control was centralised to the mint within the Tower of London, while mints outside of London were reduced, with only a few local and episcopal mints continuing to operate.

 

Later Medieval Period

During Edward II's reign (1307–1327) there was relatively little activity at the Tower of London. However, it was during this period that the Privy Wardrobe was founded. The institution was based at the Tower and responsible for organising the state's arms. In 1321, Margaret de Clare, Baroness Badlesmere became the first woman imprisoned in the Tower of London after she refused Queen Isabella admittance to Leeds Castle and ordered her archers to target Isabella, killing six of the royal escort. Generally reserved for high-ranking inmates, the Tower was the most important royal prison in the country. However it was not necessarily very secure, and throughout its history people bribed the guards to help them escape. In 1323, Roger Mortimer, Baron Mortimer, was aided in his escape from the Tower by the Sub-Lieutenant of the Tower who let Mortimer's men inside. They hacked a hole in his cell wall and Mortimer escaped to a waiting boat. He fled to France where he encountered Edward's Queen. They began an affair and plotted to overthrow the King.

 

One of Mortimer's first acts on entering England in 1326 was to capture the Tower and release the prisoners held there. For four years he ruled while Edward III was too young to do so himself; in 1330, Edward and his supporters captured Mortimer and threw him into the Tower. Under Edward III's rule (1312–1377) England experienced renewed success in warfare after his father's reign had put the realm on the backfoot against the Scots and French. Amongst Edward's successes were the battles of Crécy and Poitiers where King John II of France was taken prisoner, and the capture of the King David II of Scotland at Neville's Cross. During this period, the Tower of London held many noble prisoners of war. Edward II had allowed the Tower of London to fall into a state of disrepair, and by the reign of Edward III the castle was an uncomfortable place. The nobility held captive within its walls were unable to engage in activities such as hunting which were permissible at other royal castles used as prisons, for instance Windsor. Edward III ordered that the castle should be renovated.

 

When Richard II was crowned in 1377, he led a procession from the Tower to Westminster Abbey. This tradition began in at least the early 14th century and lasted until 1660. During the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 the Tower of London was besieged with the King inside. When Richard rode out to meet with Wat Tyler, the rebel leader, a crowd broke into the castle without meeting resistance and looted the Jewel House. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Simon Sudbury, took refuge in St John's Chapel, hoping the mob would respect the sanctuary. However, he was taken away and beheaded on Tower Hill. Six years later there was again civil unrest, and Richard spent Christmas in the security of the Tower rather than Windsor as was more usual. When Henry Bolingbroke returned from exile in 1399, Richard was imprisoned in the White Tower. He abdicated and was replaced on the throne by Bolingbroke, who became King Henry IV. In the 15th century, there was little building work at the Tower of London, yet the castle still remained important as a place of refuge. When supporters of the late Richard II attempted a coup, Henry IV found safety in the Tower of London. During this period, the castle also held many distinguished prisoners. The heir to the Scottish throne, later King James I of Scotland, was kidnapped while journeying to France in 1406 and held in the Tower. The reign of Henry V (1413–1422) renewed England's fortune in the Hundred Years' War against France. As a result of Henry's victories, such as the Battle of Agincourt, many high-status prisoners were held in the Tower of London until they were ransomed.

 

Much of the latter half of the 15th century was occupied by the Wars of the Roses between the claimants to the throne, the houses of Lancaster and York. The castle was once again besieged in 1460, this time by a Yorkist force. The Tower was damaged by artillery fire but only surrendered when Henry VI was captured at the Battle of Northampton. With the help of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick (nicknamed "the Kingmaker") Henry recaptured the throne for a short time in 1470. However, Edward IV soon regained control and Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London, where he was probably murdered. In 1471, during the Siege of London, the Tower's Yorkist garrison exchanged fire with Lancastrians holding Southwark, and sallied from the fortress to take part in a pincer movement to attack Lancastrians who were assaulting Aldgate on London's defensive wall. During the wars, the Tower was fortified to withstand gunfire, and provided with loopholes for cannons and handguns: an enclosure called the Bulwark was created for this purpose to the south of Tower Hill, although it no longer survives.

 

Shortly after the death of Edward IV in 1483, the notorious murder of the Princes in the Tower is traditionally believed to have taken place. The incident is one of the most infamous events associated with the Tower of London. Edward V's uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester was declared Lord Protector while the prince was too young to rule. Traditional accounts have held that the 12-year-old Edward was confined to the Tower of London along with his younger brother Richard. The Duke of Gloucester was proclaimed King Richard III in June. The princes were last seen in public in June 1483;[105] it has traditionally been thought that the most likely reason for their disappearance is that they were murdered late in the summer of 1483. Bones thought to belong to them were discovered in 1674 when the 12th-century forebuilding at the entrance to the White Tower was demolished; however, the reputed level at which the bones were found (10 ft or 3 m) would put the bones at a depth similar to that of the Roman graveyard found, in 2011, 12 ft (4 m) underneath the Minories a few hundred yards to the north. Opposition to Richard escalated until he was defeated at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 by the Lancastrian Henry Tudor, who ascended to the throne as Henry VII. As king, Henry VII built a tower for a library next to the King's Tower.

 

Changing use

The beginning of the Tudor period marked the start of the decline of the Tower of London's use as a royal residence. As 16th-century chronicler Raphael Holinshed said the Tower became used more as "an armouries and house of munition, and thereunto a place for the safekeeping of offenders than a palace roiall for a king or queen to sojourne in". Henry VII visited the Tower on fourteen occasions between 1485 and 1500, usually staying for less than a week at a time. The Yeoman Warders have been the Royal Bodyguard since at least 1509. In 1517 the Tower fired its cannon at City crowds engaged in the xenophobic Evil May Day riots, in which the properties of foreign residents were looted. It is not thought that any rioters were hurt by the gunfire, which was probably meant merely to intimidate the mob.

 

During the reign of Henry VIII, the Tower was assessed as needing considerable work on its defences. In 1532, Thomas Cromwell spent £3,593 on repairs and imported nearly 3,000 tons of Caen stone for the work. Even so, this was not sufficient to bring the castle up to the standard of contemporary military fortifications which were designed to withstand powerful artillery. Although the defences were repaired, the palace buildings were left in a state of neglect after Henry's death. Their condition was so poor that they were virtually uninhabitable. From 1547 onwards, the Tower of London was only used as a royal residence when its political and historic symbolism was considered useful, for instance each of Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I briefly stayed at the Tower before their coronations.

 

In the 16th century, the Tower acquired an enduring reputation as a grim, forbidding prison. This had not always been the case. As a royal castle, it was used by the monarch to imprison people for various reasons, however these were usually high-status individuals for short periods rather than common citizenry as there were plenty of prisons elsewhere for such people. Contrary to the popular image of the Tower, prisoners were able to make their life easier by purchasing amenities such as better food or tapestries through the Lieutenant of the Tower. As holding prisoners was originally an incidental role of the Tower – as would have been the case for any castle – there was no purpose-built accommodation for prisoners until 1687 when a brick shed, a "Prison for Soldiers", was built to the north-west of the White Tower. The Tower's reputation for torture and imprisonment derives largely from 16th-century religious propagandists and 19th-century romanticists. Although much of the Tower's reputation is exaggerated, the 16th and 17th centuries marked the castle's zenith as a prison, with many religious and political undesirables locked away. The Privy Council had to sanction the use of torture, so it was not often used; between 1540 and 1640, the peak of imprisonment at the Tower, there were 48 recorded cases of the use of torture. The three most common forms used were the infamous rack, the Scavenger's daughter, and manacles. The rack was introduced to England in 1447 by the Duke of Exeter, the Constable of the Tower; consequentially it was also known as the Duke of Exeter's daughter. One of those tortured at the Tower was Guy Fawkes, who was brought there on 6 November 1605; after torture he signed a full confession to the Gunpowder Plot.

 

Among those held and executed at the Tower was Anne Boleyn. Although the Yeoman Warders were once the Royal Bodyguard, by the 16th and 17th centuries their main duty had become to look after the prisoners. The Tower was often a safer place than other prisons in London such as the Fleet, where disease was rife. High-status prisoners could live in conditions comparable to those they might expect outside; one such example was that while Walter Raleigh was held in the Tower his rooms were altered to accommodate his family, including his son who was born there in 1605. Executions were usually carried out on Tower Hill rather than in the Tower of London itself, and 112 people were executed on the hill over 400 years.[119] Before the 20th century, there had been seven executions within the castle on Tower Green; as was the case with Lady Jane Grey, this was reserved for prisoners for whom public execution was considered dangerous. After Lady Jane Grey's execution on 12 February 1554, Queen Mary I imprisoned her sister Elizabeth, later Queen Elizabeth I, in the Tower under suspicion of causing rebellion as Sir Thomas Wyatt had led a revolt against Mary in Elizabeth's name.

 

The Office of Ordnance and Armoury Office were founded in the 15th century, taking over the Privy Wardrobe's duties of looking after the monarch's arsenal and valuables. As there was no standing army before 1661, the importance of the royal armoury at the Tower of London was that it provided a professional basis for procuring supplies and equipment in times of war. The two bodies were resident at the Tower from at least 1454, and by the 16th century they had moved to a position in the inner ward. The Board of Ordnance (successor to these Offices) had its headquarters in the White Tower and used surrounding buildings for storage. In 1855 the Board was abolished; its successor (the Military Store Department of the War Office) was also based there until 1869, after which its headquarters staff were relocated to the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich (where the recently closed Woolwich Dockyard was converted into a vast ordnance store).

 

Political tensions between Charles I and Parliament in the second quarter of the 17th century led to an attempt by forces loyal to the King to secure the Tower and its valuable contents, including money and munitions. London's Trained Bands, a militia force, were moved into the castle in 1640. Plans for defence were drawn up and gun platforms were built, readying the Tower for war. The preparations were never put to the test. In 1642, Charles I attempted to arrest five members of parliament. When this failed he fled the city, and Parliament retaliated by removing Sir John Byron, the Lieutenant of the Tower. The Trained Bands had switched sides, and now supported Parliament; together with the London citizenry, they blockaded the Tower. With permission from the King, Byron relinquished control of the Tower. Parliament replaced Byron with a man of their own choosing, Sir John Conyers. By the time the English Civil War broke out in November 1642, the Tower of London was already in Parliament's control.

 

The last monarch to uphold the tradition of taking a procession from the Tower to Westminster to be crowned was Charles II in 1661. At the time, the castle's accommodation was in such poor condition that he did not stay there the night before his coronation. Under the Stuart kings the Tower's buildings were remodelled, mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance. Just over £4,000 was spent in 1663 on building a new storehouse, now known as the New Armouries in the inner ward. In the 17th century there were plans to enhance the Tower's defences in the style of the trace italienne, however they were never acted on. Although the facilities for the garrison were improved with the addition of the first purpose-built quarters for soldiers (the "Irish Barracks") in 1670, the general accommodations were still in poor condition.

 

When the Hanoverian dynasty ascended the throne, their situation was uncertain and with a possible Scottish rebellion in mind, the Tower of London was repaired. Most of the work in this period (1750 to 1770) was done by the King's Master Mason, John Deval. Gun platforms added under the Stuarts had decayed. The number of guns at the Tower was reduced from 118 to 45, and one contemporary commentator noted that the castle "would not hold out four and twenty hours against an army prepared for a siege". For the most part, the 18th-century work on the defences was spasmodic and piecemeal, although a new gateway in the southern curtain wall permitting access from the wharf to the outer ward was added in 1774. The moat surrounding the castle had become silted over the centuries since it was created despite attempts at clearing it. It was still an integral part of the castle's defences, so in 1830 the Constable of the Tower, the Duke of Wellington, ordered a large-scale clearance of several feet of silt. However this did not prevent an outbreak of disease in the garrison in 1841 caused by poor water supply, resulting in several deaths. To prevent the festering ditch posing further health problems, it was ordered that the moat should be drained and filled with earth. The work began in 1843 and was mostly complete two years later. The construction of the Waterloo Barracks in the inner ward began in 1845, when the Duke of Wellington laid the foundation stone. The building could accommodate 1,000 men; at the same time, separate quarters for the officers were built to the north-east of the White Tower. The building is now the headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers. The popularity of the Chartist movement between 1828 and 1858 led to a desire to refortify the Tower of London in the event of civil unrest. It was the last major programme of fortification at the castle. Most of the surviving installations for the use of artillery and firearms date from this period.

 

During the First World War, eleven men were tried in private and shot by firing squad at the Tower for espionage. During the Second World War, the Tower was once again used to hold prisoners of war. One such person was Rudolf Hess, Adolf Hitler's deputy, albeit just for four days in 1941. He was the last state prisoner to be held at the castle. The last person to be executed at the Tower was German spy Josef Jakobs who was shot on 15 August 1941. The executions for espionage during the wars took place in a prefabricated miniature rifle range which stood in the outer ward and was demolished in 1969. The Second World War also saw the last use of the Tower as a fortification. In the event of a German invasion, the Tower, together with the Royal Mint and nearby warehouses, was to have formed one of three "keeps" or complexes of defended buildings which formed the last-ditch defences of the capital.

 

Restoration and tourism

The Tower of London has become established as one of the most popular tourist attractions in the country. It has been a tourist attraction since at least the Elizabethan period, when it was one of the sights of London that foreign visitors wrote about. Its most popular attractions were the Royal Menagerie and displays of armour. The Crown Jewels also garner much interest, and have been on public display since 1669. The Tower steadily gained popularity with tourists through the 19th century, despite the opposition of the Duke of Wellington to visitors. Numbers became so high that by 1851 a purpose-built ticket office was erected. By the end of the century, over 500,000 were visiting the castle every year.

 

Over the 18th and 19th centuries, the palatial buildings were slowly adapted for other uses and demolished. Only the Wakefield and St Thomas's Towers survived. The 18th century marked an increasing interest in England's medieval past. One of the effects was the emergence of Gothic Revival architecture. In the Tower's architecture, this was manifest when the New Horse Armoury was built in 1825 against the south face of the White Tower. It featured elements of Gothic Revival architecture such as battlements. Other buildings were remodelled to match the style and the Waterloo Barracks were described as "castellated Gothic of the 15th century". Between 1845 and 1885 institutions such as the Mint which had inhabited the castle for centuries moved to other sites; many of the post-medieval structures left vacant were demolished. In 1855, the War Office took over responsibility for manufacture and storage of weapons from the Ordnance Office, which was gradually phased out of the castle. At the same time, there was greater interest in the history of the Tower of London.

 

Public interest was partly fuelled by contemporary writers, of whom the work of William Harrison Ainsworth was particularly influential. In The Tower of London: A Historical Romance he created a vivid image of underground torture chambers and devices for extracting confessions that stuck in the public imagination. Ainsworth also played another role in the Tower's history, as he suggested that Beauchamp Tower should be opened to the public so they could see the inscriptions of 16th- and 17th-century prisoners. Working on the suggestion, Anthony Salvin refurbished the tower and led a further programme for a comprehensive restoration at the behest of Prince Albert. Salvin was succeeded in the work by John Taylor. When a feature did not meet his expectations of medieval architecture Taylor would ruthlessly remove it; as a result, several important buildings within the castle were pulled down and in some cases post-medieval internal decoration removed.

 

Although only one bomb fell on the Tower of London in the First World War (it landed harmlessly in the moat), the Second World War left a greater mark. On 23 September 1940, during the Blitz, high-explosive bombs damaged the castle, destroying several buildings and narrowly missing the White Tower. After the war, the damage was repaired and the Tower of London was reopened to the public.

 

A 1974 bombing in the White Tower Mortar Room left one person dead and 41 injured. No one claimed responsibility for the blast, but the police investigated suspicions that the IRA was behind it.

 

In the 21st century, tourism is the Tower's primary role, with the remaining routine military activities, under the Royal Logistic Corps, having wound down in the latter half of the 20th century and moved out of the castle. However, the Tower is still home to the regimental headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, and the museum dedicated to it and its predecessor, the Royal Fusiliers. Also, a detachment of the unit providing the King's Guard at Buckingham Palace still mounts a guard at the Tower, and with the Yeomen Warders, takes part in the Ceremony of the Keys each day. On several occasions through the year gun salutes are fired from the Tower by the Honourable Artillery Company, these consist of 62 rounds for royal occasions, and 41 on other occasions.

 

Since 1990, the Tower of London has been cared for by an independent charity, Historic Royal Palaces, which receives no funding from the Government or the Crown. In 1988, the Tower of London was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites, in recognition of its global importance and to help conserve and protect the site. However, recent developments, such as the construction of skyscrapers nearby, have pushed the Tower towards being added to the United Nations' Heritage in Danger List. The remains of the medieval palace have been open to the public since 2006 where visitors can explore the restored chambers. Although the position of Constable of the Tower remains the highest position held at the Tower, the responsibility of day-to-day administration is delegated to the Resident Governor. The Constable is appointed for a five-year term; this is primarily a ceremonial post today but the Constable is also a trustee of Historic Royal Palaces and of the Royal Armouries. General Sir Gordon Messenger was appointed Constable in 2022.

 

At least six ravens are kept at the Tower at all times, in accordance with the belief that if they are absent, the kingdom will fall. They are under the care of the Ravenmaster, one of the Yeoman Warders. As well as having ceremonial duties, the Yeoman Warders provide guided tours around the Tower.

 

Garrison

The Yeomen Warders provided the permanent garrison of the Tower, but the Constable of the Tower could call upon the men of the Tower Hamlets to supplement them when necessary. The Tower Hamlets, aka Tower Division of Middlesex's Ossulstone Hundred was an area, significantly larger than the modern London Borough of the same name, which owed military service to the Constable in his ex officio role as Lord Lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets.

 

The earliest surviving reference to the inhabitants of the Tower Hamlets having a duty to provide a guard for the Tower of London is from 1554, during the reign of Mary I, but the relationship is thought to go back much further. Some believe the connection goes back to the time of the Conqueror. The duty is likely to have had its origin in the rights and obligations of the Manor of Stepney which covered most or all of the Hamlets area.

 

Crown Jewels

The tradition of housing the Crown Jewels in the Tower of London probably dates from the reign of Henry III (1216–1272). The Jewel House was built specifically to house the royal regalia, including jewels, plate, and symbols of royalty such as the crown, sceptre, and sword. When money needed to be raised, the treasure could be pawned by the monarch. The treasure allowed the monarch independence from the aristocracy and consequently was closely guarded. A new position for "keeper of the jewels, armouries and other things" was created, which was well rewarded; in the reign of Edward III (1327–1377) the holder was paid 12d a day. The position grew to include other duties including purchasing royal jewels, gold, and silver, and appointing royal goldsmiths and jewellers.

 

In 1649, during the English Commonwealth following Charles I's execution, the contents of the Jewel House were disposed of along with other royal properties, as decreed by Cromwell. Metal items were sent to the Mint to be melted down and re-used, and the crowns were "totallie broken and defaced".

 

When the monarchy was restored in 1660, the only surviving items of the coronation regalia were a 12th-century spoon and three ceremonial swords. (Some pieces that had been sold were later returned to the Crown.) Detailed records of old regalia survived, and replacements were made for the coronation of Charles II in 1661 based on drawings from the time of Charles I. For the coronation of Charles II, gems were rented because the treasury could not afford to replace them.

 

In 1669, the Jewel House was demolished and the Crown Jewels moved into Martin Tower (until 1841). They were displayed here for viewing by the paying public. This was exploited two years later when Colonel Thomas Blood attempted to steal them. Blood and his accomplices bound and gagged the Jewel House keeper. Although they laid their hands on the Imperial State Crown, Sceptre and Orb, they were foiled when the keeper's son turned up unexpectedly and raised the alarm.

 

Since 1994, the Crown Jewels have been on display in the Jewel House in the Waterloo Block. Some of the pieces were once regularly used by Queen Elizabeth II. The display includes 23,578 gemstones, the 800-year-old Coronation Spoon, St Edward's Crown (traditionally placed on a monarch's head at the moment of crowning) and the Imperial State Crown.

 

Royal Menagerie

There is evidence that King John (1166–1216) first started keeping wild animals at the Tower. Records of 1210–1212 show payments to lion keepers.

 

The Royal Menagerie is frequently referenced during the reign of Henry III. Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II presented Henry with three leopards, c. 1235, which were kept in the Tower. In 1252, the sheriffs were ordered to pay fourpence a day towards the upkeep of the King's polar bear, a gift from Haakon IV of Norway in the same year; the bear attracted a great deal of attention from Londoners when it went fishing in the Thames while tied to the land by a chain. In 1254 or 1255, Henry III received an African elephant from Louis IX of France depicted by Matthew Paris in his Chronica Majora. A wooden structure was built to house the elephant, 12.2 m (40 ft) long by 6.1 m (20 ft) wide. The animal died in 1258, possibly because it was given red wine, but also perhaps because of the cold climate of England.

 

In 1288, Edward I added a lion and a lynx and appointed the first official Keeper of the animals.[179] Edward III added other types of animals, two lions, a leopard and two wildcats. Under subsequent kings, the number of animals grew to include additional cats of various types, jackals, hyenas, and an old brown bear, Max, gifted to Henry VIII by Emperor Maximilian.[180] In 1436, during the time of Henry VI, all the lions died and the employment of Keeper William Kerby was terminated.

 

Historical records indicate that a semi-circular structure or barbican was built by Edward I in 1277; this area was later named the Lion Tower, to the immediate west of the Middle Tower. Records from 1335 indicate the purchase of a lock and key for the lions and leopards, also suggesting they were located near the western entrance of the Tower. By the 1500s that area was called the Menagerie. Between 1604 and 1606 the Menagerie was extensively refurbished and an exercise yard was created in the moat area beside the Lion Tower. An overhead platform was added for viewing of the lions by the royals, during lion baiting, for example in the time of James I. Reports from 1657 include mention of six lions, increasing to 11 by 1708, in addition to other types of cats, eagles, owls and a jackal.

 

Natural History Museum

By the 18th century, the menagerie was open to the public; admission cost three half-pence or a cat or dog to be fed to the lions. By the end of the century, that had increased to 9 pence. A particularly famous inhabitant was Old Martin, a large grizzly bear given to George III by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1811. An 1800 inventory also listed a tiger, leopards, a hyena, a large baboon, various types of monkeys, wolves, and "other animals". By 1822, however, the collection included only a grizzly bear, an elephant, and some birds. Additional animals were then introduced. In 1828, there were over 280 representing at least 60 species as the new keeper Alfred Copps was actively acquiring animals.

 

After the death of George IV in 1830, a decision was made to close down the Menagerie on the orders of the Duke of Wellington. In 1831, most of the stock was moved to the London Zoo which had opened in 1828. This decision was made after an incident, although sources vary as to the specifics: either a lion was accused of biting a soldier, or Ensign Seymour had been bitten by a monkey. The last of the animals left in 1835, relocated to Regent's Park. The Menagerie buildings were removed in 1852 but the Keeper of the Royal Menagerie was entitled to use the Lion Tower as a house for life. Consequently, even though the animals had long since left the building, the tower was not demolished until the death of Copps, the last keeper, in 1853.

 

In 1999, physical evidence of lion cages was found, one being 2x3 metres (6.5x10 feet) in size, very small for a lion that can grow to be 2.5 meters (approximately 8 feet) long. In 2008, the skulls of two male Barbary lions (now extinct in the wild) from northwest Africa were found in the moat area of the Tower. Radiocarbon tests dated them from 1280 to 1385 and 1420–1480. In 2011, an exhibition was hosted at the Tower with fine wire sculptures by Kendra Haste.

 

In folklore

The Tower of London has been represented in popular culture in many ways. As a result of 16th and 19th century writers, the Tower has a reputation as a grim fortress, a place of torture and execution.

 

One of the earliest traditions associated with the Tower was that it was built by Julius Caesar; the story was popular amongst writers and antiquaries. The earliest recorded attribution of the Tower to the Roman ruler dates to the mid-14th century in a poem by Sir Thomas Gray. The origin of the myth is uncertain, although it may be related to the fact that the Tower was built in the corner of London's Roman walls. Another possibility is that someone misread a passage from Gervase of Tilbury in which he says Caesar built a tower at Odnea in France. Gervase wrote Odnea as Dodres, which is close to the French for London, Londres. Today, the story survives in William Shakespeare's Richard II and Richard III, and as late as the 18th century some still regarded the Tower as built by Caesar.

 

Anne Boleyn was beheaded in 1536 for treason against Henry VIII; her ghost supposedly haunts the Church of St Peter ad Vincula in the Tower, where she is buried, and has been said to walk around the White Tower carrying her head under her arm. This haunting is commemorated in the 1934 comic song "With Her Head Tucked Underneath Her Arm". Other reported ghosts include Henry VI, Lady Jane Grey, Margaret Pole, and the Princes in the Tower. In January 1816, a sentry on guard outside the Jewel House claimed to have witnessed an apparition of a bear advancing towards him, and reportedly died of fright a few days later. In October 1817, a tubular, glowing apparition was claimed to have been seen in the Jewel House by the Keeper of the Crown Jewels, Edmund Lenthal Swifte. He said that the apparition hovered over the shoulder of his wife, leading her to exclaim: "Oh, Christ! It has seized me!" Other nameless and formless terrors have been reported, more recently, by night staff at the Tower.

Wat Pho, also spelled Wat Po, is a Buddhist temple complex in the Phra Nakhon District, Bangkok, Thailand. It is on Rattanakosin Island, directly south of the Grand Palace. Known also as the Temple of the Reclining Buddha, its official name is Wat Phra Chetuphon Wimon Mangkhalaram Rajwaramahawihan. The more commonly known name, Wat Pho, is a contraction of its older name, Wat Photaram

 

The temple is first on the list of six temples in Thailand classed as the highest grade of the first-class royal temples. It is associated with King Rama I who rebuilt the temple complex on an earlier temple site. It became his main temple and is where some of his ashes are enshrined. The temple was later expanded and extensively renovated by Rama III. The temple complex houses the largest collection of Buddha images in Thailand, including a 46 m long reclining Buddha. The temple is considered the earliest centre for public education in Thailand, and the marble illustrations and inscriptions placed in the temple for public instructions has been recognised by UNESCO in its Memory of the World Programme. It houses a school of Thai medicine, and is also known as the birthplace of traditional Thai massage which is still taught and practiced at the temple.

 

Wat Pho is one of Bangkok's oldest temples. It existed before Bangkok was established as the capital by King Rama I. It was originally named Wat Photaram or Podharam, from which the name Wat Pho is derived. The name refers to the monastery of the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India where Buddha is believed to have attained enlightenment. The date of the construction of the old temple and its founder are unknown, but it is thought to have been built or expanded during the reign of King Phetracha (1688–1703). The southern section of Wat Pho used to be occupied by part of a French Star fort that was demolished by King Phetracha after the 1688 Siege of Bangkok.

 

After the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767 to the Burmese, King Taksin moved the capital to Thonburi where he located his palace beside Wat Arun on the opposite side of the Chao Phraya River from Wat Pho. The proximity of Wat Pho to this royal palace elevated it to the status of a wat luang ('royal monastery').

 

In 1782, King Rama I moved the capital from Thonburi across the river to Bangkok and built the Grand Palace adjacent to Wat Pho. In 1788, he ordered the construction and renovation at the old temple site of Wat Pho, which had by then become dilapidated. The site, which was marshy and uneven, was drained and filled in before construction began. During its construction, Rama I also initiated a project to remove Buddha images from abandoned temples in Ayutthaya, Sukhothai, as well other sites in Thailand, and many of these retrieved Buddha images were kept at Wat Pho. These include the remnants of an enormous Buddha image from Ayuthaya's Wat Phra Si Sanphet destroyed by the Burmese in 1767, and these were incorporated into a chedi in the complex. The rebuilding took over seven years to complete. In 1801, twelve years after work began, the new temple complex was renamed Phra Chetuphon Vimolmangklavas in reference to the vihara of Jetavana, and it became the main temple for Rama I.

 

The complex underwent significant changes over the next 260 years, particularly during the reign of Rama III (1824-1851). In 1832, King Rama III began renovating and enlarging the temple complex, a process that took 16 years and seven months to complete. The ground of the temple complex was expanded to 56 rai (9.0 ha; 22 acres), and most of the structures now present in Wat Pho were either built or rebuilt during this period, including the Chapel of the Reclining Buddha. He also turned the temple complex into a public center of learning by decorating the walls of the buildings with diagrams and inscriptions on various subjects.: 90  The inscriptions were written by about 50 people from the court of Rama III and learned monks led by Supreme Patriarch Prince Paramanuchitchinorot (1790-1853), the abbot of Wat Pho, a Buddhist scholar, historian and poet. On 21 February 2008, these marble illustrations and inscriptions was registered in the Memory of the World Programme launched by UNESCO to promote, preserve and propagate the wisdom of the world heritage. Wat Pho is regarded as Thailand's first university and a center for traditional Thai massage. It served as a medical teaching center in the mid-19th century before the advent of modern medicine, and the temple remains a center for traditional medicine today where a private school for Thai medicine founded in 1957 still operates.

 

The name of the complex was changed again to Wat Phra Chetuphon Vimolmangklararm during the reign of King Rama IV. Apart from the construction of a fourth great chedi and minor modifications by Rama IV, there had been no significant changes to Wat Pho since. Repair work, however, is a continuing process, often funded by devotees of the temple. The temple was restored again in 1982 before the Bangkok Bicentennial Celebration.

 

Wat Pho is one of the largest and oldest wats in Bangkok covering an area of 50 rai or 80,000 square metres. It is home to more than one thousand Buddha images, as well as one of the largest single Buddha images at 46 metres (151 ft) in length. The Wat Pho complex consists of two walled compounds bisected by Chetuphon Road running in the east–west direction. The larger northern walled compound, the phutthawat, is open to visitors and contains the finest buildings dedicated to the Buddha, including the bot with its four directional viharn, and the temple housing the reclining Buddha. The southern compound, the sankhawat, contains the residential quarters of the monks and a school. The perimeter wall of the main temple complex has sixteen gates, two of which serve as entrances for the public (one on Chetuphon Road, the other near the northwest corner).

 

The temple grounds contain four great chedis, 91 small chedis, two belfries, a bot (central shrine), a number of viharas (halls) and various buildings such as pavilions, as well as gardens and a small temple museum. Architecturally the chedis and buildings in the complex are different in style and sizes. A number of large Chinese statues, some of which depict Europeans, are also found in the complex guarding the gates of the perimeter walls as well as other gates in the compound. These stone statues were originally imported as ballast on ships trading with China.

 

Wat Pho was also intended to serve as a place of education for the general public. To this end a pictorial encyclopedia was engraved on granite slabs covering eight subject areas: history, medicine, health, custom, literature, proverbs, lexicography, and the Buddhist religion. These plaques, inscribed with texts and illustrations on medicine, Thai traditional massage, and other subjects, are placed around the temple, for example, within the Sala Rai or satellite open pavilions. Dotted around the complex are 24 small rock gardens (khao mor) illustrating rock formations of Thailand, and one, called the Contorting Hermit Hill, contains some statues showing methods of massage and yoga positions. There are also drawings of constellations on the wall of the library, inscriptions on local administration, as well as paintings of folk tales and animal husbandry.

 

Phra Ubosot (Phra Uposatha) or bot is the ordination hall, the main hall used for performing Buddhist rituals, and the most sacred building of the complex. It was constructed by King Rama I in the Ayuthaya-style, and later enlarged and reconstructed in the Rattanakosin-style by Rama III. The bot was dedicated in 1791, before the rebuilding of Wat Pho was completed. This building is raised on a marble platform, and the ubosot lies in the center of courtyard enclosed by a double cloister (Phra Rabiang).

 

Inside the ubosot is a gold and crystal three-tiered pedestal topped with a gilded Buddha made of a gold-copper alloy, and over the statue is a nine-tiered umbrella representing the authority of Thailand. The Buddha image, known as Phra Buddha Theva Patimakorn and thought to be from the Ayutthaya period, was moved here by Rama I from Wat Sala Si Na (now called Wat Khuhasawan) in Thonburi. Rama IV later placed some ashes of Rama I under the pedestal of the Buddha image so that the public may pay homage to both Rama I and the Buddha at the same time. There are also ten images of Buddha's disciples in the hall: Moggalana is to the left of Buddha and Sariputta to the right, with eight Arahants below.

 

The exterior balustrade surrounding the main hall has around 150 depictions in stone of the epic, Ramakien, the ultimate message of which is transcendence from secular to spiritual dimensions. The stone panels were recovered from a temple in Ayuthaya. The ubosot is enclosed by a low wall called kamphaeng kaew, which is punctuated by gateways guarded by mythological lions, as well as eight structures that house bai sema, stone markers that delineate the sacred space of the bot.

 

Phra Rabiang - This double cloister contains around 400 images of Buddha from northern Thailand selected out of the 1,200 originally brought by King Rama I. Of these Buddha images, 150 are on the inner side of the double cloister, another 244 images are on the outer side. These Buddha figures, some standing and some seated, are evenly mounted on matching gilded pedestals. These images are from different periods in Siamese history, such as the Chiangsaen, Sukhothai, U-Thong, and Ayutthaya eras, but they were renovated by Rama I and covered with stucco and gold leaves to make them look similar.

 

The Phra Rabiang is intersected by four viharns. The viharn in the east contains an eight metre tall standing Buddha, the Buddha Lokanatha, originally from Ayutthaya. In its antechamber is Buddha Maravichai, sitting under a bodhi tree, originally from Sawankhalok of the late-Sukhothai period. The one on the west has a seated Buddha sheltered by a naga, the Buddha Chinnasri, while the Buddha on the south, the Buddha Chinnaraja, has five disciples seated in front listening to his first sermon. Both Buddhas in the south and west viharns were brought from Sukhothai by Rama I. The Buddha in the north viharn, called Buddha Palilai, was cast in the reign of Rama I. The viharn on the west contains a small museum.

 

Phra Prang - There are four towers, or phra prang, at each corner of the courtyard around the bot. Each of the towers is tiled with marble and contains four Khmer-style statues which are the guardian divinities of the Four Cardinal Points.

 

This is a group of four large stupas, each 42 metres high. These four chedis are dedicated to the first four Chakri kings. The first, in green mosaic tiles, was constructed by Rama I to house the remnants of the great Buddha from Ayuthaya, which was scorched to remove its gold covering by the Burmese. Two more were built by Rama III, one in white tiles to hold the ashes of his father Rama II, another in yellow for himself. A fourth in blue was built by Rama IV who then enclosed the four chedis leaving no space for more to be built.

 

The viharn or wihan contains the reclining Buddha and was constructed in the reign of Rama III emulating the Ayutthaya style. The interior is decorated with panels of mural.

 

Adjacent to this building is a small raised garden (Missakawan Park) with a Chinese-style pavilion; the centre piece of the garden is a bodhi tree which was propagated from the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree in Sri Lanka that is believed to have originally came from a tree in India where Buddha sat while awaiting enlightenment.

 

Phra Mondop or the ho trai is the Scripture Hall containing a small library of Buddhist scriptures. The building is not generally open to the public as the scriptures, which are inscribed on palm leaves, need to be kept in a controlled environment for preservation. The library was built by King Rama III. Guarding its entrance are figures called Yak Wat Pho ('Wat Pho's Giants') placed in niches beside the gates. Around Phra Mondop are three pavilions with mural paintings of the beginning of Ramayana.

 

Phra Chedi Rai - Outside the Phra Rabiang cloisters are dotted many smaller chedis, called Phra Chedi Rai. Seventy-one of these small chedis were built by Rama III, each five metres in height. There are also four groups of five chedis that shared a single base built by Rama I, one on each corner outside the cloister. The 71 chedis of smaller size contain the ashes of the royal family, and 20 slightly larger ones clustered in groups of five contain the relics of Buddha.

 

Sala Karn Parien - This hall is next to the Phra Mondop at the southwest corner of the compound, and is thought to date from the Ayutthaya period. It serves as a learning and meditation hall. The building contains the original Buddha image from the bot which was moved here to make way for the Buddha image currently in the bot. Next to it is a garden called The Crocodile Pond.

Sala Rai - There are 16 satellite pavilions, most of them placed around the edge of the compound, and murals depicting the life of Buddha may be found in some of these. Two of these are the medical pavilions between Phra Maha Chedi Si Ratchakarn and the main chapel. The north medicine pavilion contains Thai traditional massage inscriptions with 32 drawings of massage positions on the walls while the one to the south has a collection of inscriptions on guardian angel that protects the newborn.

Phra Viharn Kod - This is the gallery which consists of four viharas, one on each corner outside the Phra Rabiang.

Tamnak Wasukri - Also called the poet's house, this is the former residence of Prince Patriarch Paramanuchitchinorot, a scholar, historian and poet. The house was a gift from his nephew Rama III. This building is in the living quarters of the monks in the southern compound and is open once a year on his birthday.

 

The wat and the reclining Buddha (Phra Buddhasaiyas, Thai: พระพุทธไสยาสน์) were built by Rama III in 1832. The image of the reclining Buddha represents the entry of Buddha into Nirvana and the end of all reincarnations. The posture of the image is referred to as sihasaiyas, the posture of a sleeping or reclining lion. The figure is 15 m high and 46 m long, and it is one of the largest Buddha statues in Thailand.

 

The figure has a brick core, which was modelled and shaped with plaster, then gilded. The right arm of the Buddha supports the head with tight curls, which rests on two box-pillows encrusted with glass mosaics. The soles of the feet of the Buddha are 3 m high and 4.5 m long, and inlaid with mother-of-pearl. They are each divided into 108 arranged panels, displaying the auspicious symbols by which Buddha can be identified, such as flowers, dancers, white elephants, tigers, and altar accessories. At the center of each foot is a circle representing a chakra or 'energy point'. There are 108 bronze bowls in the corridor representing the 108 auspicious characters of Buddha. Visitors may drop coins in these bowls as it is believed to bring good fortune, and it also helps the monks to maintain the wat.

 

Although the reclining Buddha is not a pilgrimage destination, it remains an object of popular piety. An annual celebration for the reclining Buddha is held around the time of the Siamese Songkran or New Year in April, which also helps raise funds for the upkeep of Wat Pho.

 

The temple is considered the first public university of Thailand, teaching students in the fields of religion, science, and literature through murals and sculptures. A school for traditional medicine and massage was established at the temple in 1955, and now offers four courses in Thai medicine: Thai pharmacy, Thai medical practice, Thai midwifery, and Thai massage. This, the Wat Pho Thai Traditional Medical and Massage School, is the first school of Thai medicine approved by the Thai Ministry of Education, and one of the earliest massage schools. It remains the national headquarters and the center of education of traditional Thai medicine and massage to this day. Courses on Thai massage are held in Wat Pho, and these may last a few weeks to a year. Two pavilions at the eastern edge of the Wat Pho compound are used as classrooms for practising Thai traditional massage and herbal massage, and visitors can received massage treatment here for a fee. The Thai massage or Nuad Thai taught at Wat Pho has been included in UNESCO's list of Intangible Cultural Heritage, and Wat Pho has trained more than 200,000 massage therapists who practice in 145 countries.

 

There are many medical inscriptions and illustrations placed in various buildings around the temple complex, some of which serve as instructions for Thai massage therapists, particularly those in the north medical pavilion. They were inscribed by scholars during the reign of King Rama III. Among these are 60 inscribed plaques, 30 each for the front and back of human body, showing pressure points used in traditional Thai massage. These therapeutic points and energy pathways, known as sen, with explanations given on the walls next to the plaques.

 

Bangkok, officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies 1,568.7 square kilometres (605.7 sq mi) in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estimated population of 10.539 million as of 2020, 15.3 percent of the country's population. Over 14 million people (22.2 percent) lived within the surrounding Bangkok Metropolitan Region at the 2010 census, making Bangkok an extreme primate city, dwarfing Thailand's other urban centres in both size and importance to the national economy.

 

Bangkok traces its roots to a small trading post during the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 15th century, which eventually grew and became the site of two capital cities, Thonburi in 1768 and Rattanakosin in 1782. Bangkok was at the heart of the modernization of Siam, later renamed Thailand, during the late-19th century, as the country faced pressures from the West. The city was at the centre of Thailand's political struggles throughout the 20th century, as the country abolished absolute monarchy, adopted constitutional rule, and underwent numerous coups and several uprisings. The city, incorporated as a special administrative area under the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration in 1972, grew rapidly during the 1960s through the 1980s and now exerts a significant impact on Thailand's politics, economy, education, media and modern society.

 

The Asian investment boom in the 1980s and 1990s led many multinational corporations to locate their regional headquarters in Bangkok. The city is now a regional force in finance and business. It is an international hub for transport and health care, and has emerged as a centre for the arts, fashion, and entertainment. The city is known for its street life and cultural landmarks, as well as its red-light districts. The Grand Palace and Buddhist temples including Wat Arun and Wat Pho stand in contrast with other tourist attractions such as the nightlife scenes of Khaosan Road and Patpong. Bangkok is among the world's top tourist destinations, and has been named the world's most visited city consistently in several international rankings.

 

Bangkok's rapid growth coupled with little urban planning has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure. Despite an extensive expressway network, an inadequate road network and substantial private car usage have led to chronic and crippling traffic congestion, which caused severe air pollution in the 1990s. The city has since turned to public transport in an attempt to solve the problem, operating eight urban rail lines and building other public transit, but congestion still remains a prevalent issue. The city faces long-term environmental threats such as sea level rise due to climate change.

 

The history of Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, dates at least to the early 15th century, when it was under the rule of Ayutthaya. Due to its strategic location near the mouth of the Chao Phraya River, the town gradually increased in importance, and after the fall of Ayutthaya King Taksin established his new capital of Thonburi there, on the river's west bank. King Phutthayotfa Chulalok, who succeeded Taksin, moved the capital to the eastern bank in 1782, to which the city dates its foundation under its current Thai name, "Krung Thep Maha Nakhon". Bangkok has since undergone tremendous changes, growing rapidly, especially in the second half of the 20th century, to become the primate city of Thailand. It was the centre of Siam's modernization in the late 19th century, subjected to Allied bombing during the Second World War, and has long been the modern nation's central political stage, with numerous uprisings and coups d'état having taken place on its streets throughout the years.

 

It is not known exactly when the area which is now Bangkok was first settled. It probably originated as a small farming and trading community, situated in a meander of the Chao Phraya River within the mandala of Ayutthaya's influence. The town had become an important customs outpost by as early as the 15th century; the title of its customs official is given as Nai Phra Khanon Thonburi (Thai: นายพระขนอนทณบุรี) in a document from the reign of Ayutthayan king Chao Sam Phraya (1424–1448). The name also appears in the 1805 revised code of laws known as the Law of Three Seals.

 

At the time, the Chao Phraya flowed through what are now the Bangkok Noi and Bangkok Yai canals, forming a large loop in which lay the town. In the reign of King Chairacha (either in 1538 or 1542), a waterway was excavated, bypassing the loop and shortening the route for ships sailing up to Ayutthaya. The flow of the river has since changed to follow the new waterway, dividing the town and making the western part an island. This geographical feature may have given the town the name Bang Ko (บางเกาะ), meaning 'island village', which later became Bangkok (บางกอก, pronounced in Thai as [bāːŋ kɔ̀ːk]). Another theory regarding the origin of the name speculates that it is shortened from Bang Makok (บางมะกอก), makok being the name of Spondias pinnata, a plant bearing olive-like fruit. This is supported by the fact that Wat Arun, a historic temple in the area, used to be named Wat Makok. Specific mention of the town was first made in the royal chronicles from the reign of King Maha Chakkraphat (1548–1568), giving its name as Thonburi Si Mahasamut (ธนบุรีศรีมหาสมุทร). Bangkok was probably a colloquial name, albeit one widely adopted by foreign visitors.

 

The importance of Bangkok/Thonburi increased with the amount of Ayutthaya's maritime trade. Dutch records noted that ships passing through Bangkok were required to declare their goods and number of passengers, as well as pay customs duties. Ships' cannons would be confiscated and held there before they were allowed to proceed upriver to Ayutthaya. An early English language account is that of Adam Denton, who arrived aboard the Globe, an East India Company merchantman bearing a letter from King James I, which arrived in "the Road of Syam" (Pak Nam) on 15 August 1612, where the port officer of Bangkok attended to the ship. Denton's account mentions that he and his companions journeyed "up the river some twenty miles to a town called Bancope, where we were well received, and further 100 miles to the city...."

 

Ayutthaya's maritime trade was at its height during the reign of King Narai (1656–1688). Recognition of the city's strategic location guarding the water passage to Ayutthaya lead to expansion of the military presence there. A fort of Western design was constructed on the east side of the river around 1685–1687 under the supervision of French engineer de la Mare, probably replacing an earlier structure, while plans to rebuild the fort on the west bank were also made. De la Mare had arrived with the French embassy of Chevalier de Chaumont, and remained in Siam along with Chevalier de Forbin, who had been appointed governor of Bangkok. The Bangkok garrison under Forbin consisted of Siamese, Portuguese, and French reportedly totalling about one thousand men.

 

French control over the city was further consolidated when the French General Desfarges, who had arrived with the second French embassy in 1687, secured the king's permission to board troops there. This, however, lead to resentment among Siamese nobles, led by Phetracha, ultimately resulting in the Siamese revolution of 1688, in which King Narai was overthrown and 40,000 Siamese troops besieged Bangkok's eastern fort for four months before an agreement was reached and the French were allowed to withdraw. The revolution resulted in Siam's ties with the West being virtually severed, steering its trade towards China and Japan. The eastern fort was subsequently demolished on Phetracha's orders.

 

Ayutthaya was razed by the Burmese in 1767. In the following months, multiple factions competed for control of the kingdom's lands. Of these, Phraya Tak, governor of Tak and a general fighting in Ayutthaya's defence prior to its fall, emerged as the strongest. After succeeding in reclaiming the cities of Ayutthaya and Bangkok, Phraya Tak declared himself king (popularly known as King Taksin) in 1768 and established Thonburi as his capital. Reasons given for this change include the totality of Ayutthaya's destruction and Thonburi's strategic location. Being a fortified town with a sizeable population meant that not much would need to be reconstructed. The existence of an old Chinese trading settlement on the eastern bank allowed Taksin to use his Chinese connections to import rice and revive trade.

 

King Taksin had the city area extended northwards to border the Bangkok Noi Canal. A moat was dug to protect the city's western border, on which new city walls and fortifications were built. Moats and walls were also constructed on the eastern bank, encircling the city together with the canals on the western side. The king's palace (Thonburi Palace) was built within the old city walls, including the temples of Wat Chaeng (Wat Arun) and Wat Thai Talat (Wat Molilokkayaram) within the palace grounds. Outlying orchards were re-landscaped for rice farming.

 

Much of Taksin's reign was spent in military campaigns to consolidate the Thonburi Kingdom's hold over Siamese lands. His kingdom, however, would last only until 1782 when a coup was mounted against him, and the general Chao Phraya Chakri established himself as king, later to be known as Phutthayotfa Chulalok or Rama I.

 

Rama I re-established the capital on the more strategic east bank of the river, relocating the Chinese already settled there to the area between Wat Sam Pluem and Wat Sampheng (which developed into Bangkok's Chinatown). Fortifications were rebuilt, and another series of moats was created, encircling the city in an area known as Rattanakosin Island.

 

The erection of the city pillar on 21 April 1782 is regarded as the formal date of the city's establishment. (The year would later mark the start of the Rattanakosin Era after calendar reforms by King Rama V in 1888.) Rama I named the new city Krung Rattanakosin In Ayothaya (กรุงรัตนโกสินทร์อินท์อโยธยา). This was later modified by King Nangklao to be: Krungthepmahanakhon Bowonrattanakosin Mahintha-ayutthaya. While settlements on both banks were commonly called Bangkok, both the Burney Treaty of 1826 and the Roberts Treaty of 1833 refer to the capital as the City of Sia-Yut'hia. King Mongkut (Rama IV) would later give the city its full ceremonial name:

 

Rama I modelled his city after the former capital of Ayutthaya, with the Grand Palace, Front Palace and royal temples by the river, next to the royal field (now Sanam Luang). Continuing outwards were the royal court of justice, royal stables and military prison. Government offices were located within the Grand Palace, while residences of nobles were concentrated south of the palace walls. Settlements spread outwards from the city centre.

 

The new capital is referred to in Thai sources as Rattanakosin, a name shared by the Siamese kingdom of this historical period. The name Krung Thep and Krung Thep Maha Nakhon, both shortened forms of the full ceremonial name, began to be used near the end of the 19th century. Foreigners, however, continued to refer to the city by the name Bangkok, which has seen continued use until this day.

 

Most of Rama I's reign was also marked by continued military campaigns, though the Burmese threat gradually declined afterwards. His successors consistently saw to the renovation of old temples, palaces, and monuments in the city. New canals were also built, gradually expanding the fledgling city as areas available for agriculture increased and new transport networks were created.

 

At the time of the city's foundation, most of the population lived by the river or the canals, often in floating houses on the water. Waterways served as the main method of transportation, and farming communities depended on them for irrigation. Outside the city walls, settlements sprawled along both river banks. Forced settlers, mostly captives of war, also formed several ethnic communities outside the city walls.

 

Large numbers of Chinese immigrants continued to settle in Bangkok, especially during the early 19th century. Such was their prominence that Europeans visiting in the 1820s estimated that they formed over half of the city population. The Chinese excelled in trade, and led the development of a market economy. The Chinese settlement at Sampheng had become a bustling market by 1835. 

 

By the mid-19th century, the West had become an increasingly powerful presence. Missionaries, envoys and merchants began re-visiting Bangkok and Siam, bringing with them both modern innovations and the threat of colonialism. King Mongkut (Rama IV, reigned 1851–1868) was open to Western ideas and knowledge, but was also forced to acknowledge their powers, with the signing of the Bowring Treaty in 1855. During his reign, industrialization began taking place in Bangkok, which saw the introduction of the steam engine, modern shipbuilding and the printing press. Influenced by the Western community, Charoen Krung Road, the city's first paved street, was constructed in 1862–1864. This was followed by Bamrung Mueang, Fueang Nakhon, Trong (now Rama IV) and Si Lom Roads. Land transport would later surpass the canals in importance, shifting people's homes from floating dwellings toward permanent buildings. The limits of the city proper were also expanded during his reign, extending to the Phadung Krung Kasem Canal, dug in 1851.

 

King Mongkut's son Chulalongkorn (r. 1868–1910) was set upon modernizing the country. He engaged in wide-ranging reforms, abolishing slavery, corvée (unfree labour) and the feudal system, and creating a centralized bureaucracy and a professional army. The Western concept of nationhood was adopted, and national borders demarcated against British and French territories. Disputes with the French resulted in the Paknam Incident in 1893, when the French sent gunboats up the Chao Phraya to blockade Bangkok, resulting in Siam's concession of territory to France.

 

With Chulalongkorn's reforms, governance of the capital and the surrounding areas, established as Monthon Krung Thep Phra Mahanakhon (มณฑลกรุงเทพพระมหานคร), came under the Ministry of Urban Affairs (Nakhonban). During his reign many more canals and roads were built, expanding the urban reaches of the capital. Infrastructure was developed, with the introduction of railway and telegraph services between Bangkok and Samut Prakan and then expanding countrywide. Electricity was introduced, first to palaces and government offices, then to serve electric trams in the capital and later the general public. The King's fascination with the West was reflected in the royal adoption of Western dress and fashions, but most noticeably in architecture. He commissioned the construction of the neoclassical Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall at the new Dusit Palace, which was linked to the historic city centre by the grand Ratchadamnoen Avenue, inspired by the Champs-Élysées in Paris. Examples of Western influence in architecture became visible throughout the city.

 

By 1900, rural market zones in Bangkok began developing into residential districts. Rama VI (1910–1925) continued his predecessor's program of the development of public works by establishing Chulalongkorn University in 1916, and commissioned a system of locks to control waterway levels surrounding the developing city, he also provided the city's first and largest recreational area, Lumphini Park. The Memorial Bridge was constructed in 1932 to connect Thonburi to Bangkok, which was believed to promote economic growth and modernization in a period when infrastructure was developing considerably. Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between the military and political elite as the country abolished absolute monarchy in 1932. It was subject to Japanese occupation and Allied bombing during World War II. With the war over in 1945, British and Indian troops landed in September, and during their brief occupation of the city disarmed the Japanese troops. A significant event following the return of the young king, Ananda Mahidol, to Thailand, intended to defuse post-war tensions lingering between Bangkok's ethnic Chinese and Thai people, was his visit to Bangkok's Chinatown Sam Peng Lane (ซอยสำเพ็ง), on 3 June 1946.

 

As a result of pro-Western bloc treaties Bangkok rapidly grew in the post-war period as a result of United States developmental aid and government-sponsored investment. Infrastructure, including the Don Mueang International Airport and highways, was built and expanded.  Bangkok's role as an American military R&R destination launched its tourism industry as well as sex trade.  Disproportionate urban development led to increasing income inequalities and unprecedented migration from rural areas into Bangkok; its population surged from 1.8 to 3 million in the 1960s. Following the United States' withdrawal from Vietnam, Japanese businesses took over as leaders in investment, and the expansion of export-oriented manufacturing led to growth of the financial market in Bangkok.  Rapid growth of the city continued through the 1980s and early 1990s, until it was stalled by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. By then, many public and social issues had emerged, among them the strain on infrastructure reflected in the city's notorious traffic jams. Bangkok's role as the nation's political stage continues to be seen in strings of popular protests, from the student uprisings in 1973 and 1976, anti-military demonstrations in 1992, and successive anti-government protests by the "Yellow Shirt" and "Red Shirt" movements from 2008 on.

 

Administratively, eastern Bangkok and Thonburi had been established as separate provinces in 1915. (The province east of the river was named Phra Nakhon (พระนคร.) A series of decrees in 1971–1972 resulted in the merger of these provinces and its local administrations, forming the current city of Bangkok which is officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon. The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) was created in 1975 to govern the city, and its governor has been elected since 1985.

I liked the architecture more when I thought it was an office building, but unfortunately it is a rectory.

 

A cleric lives taxfree in a pleasure palace on prime real estate in the middle of downtown! Imagine his dirty grin when he thinks of our resentment of that.

 

-----------------------

 

In downtown Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on July 11th, 2020, the rectory of the St. Mary of Mercy Roman Catholic Church (built 1936) at the northeast corner of the Boulevard of the Allies and Stanwix Street.

 

-----------------------

 

Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names terms:

• Allegheny (county) (7013272)

• Pittsburgh (7013927)

 

Art & Architecture Thesaurus terms:

• architectural ornament (300378995)

• brick (clay material) (300010463)

• brick red (color) (300311462)

• central business districts (300000868)

• evening (300343633)

• rectories (300005649)

• Roman Catholicism (300073730)

 

Wikidata items:

• 11 July 2020 (Q57396812)

• 1930s in architecture (Q16482516)

• 1936 in architecture (Q2811656)

• Boulevard of the Allies (Q4949680)

• Downtown Pittsburgh (Q11331506)

• July 11 (Q2701)

• July 2020 (Q55281154)

• Roman Catholic Diocese of Pittsburgh (Q599335)

• Stanwix Street (Q7600322)

• streetcorner (Q17106091)

• Treaty of Fort Stanwix (Q246501)

• Western Pennsylvania (Q7988152)

 

Transportation Research Thesaurus terms:

• Barricades (Qtpsb)

 

Library of Congress Subject Headings:

• Buildings—Pennsylvania (sh85017803)

Like with many hobbies and interests, I often feel like my doll collection is very misunderstood. Some of the first questions I am typically asked in regards to my dolls are, "How much are your dolls worth?" and, "When are you going to sell them?" This perspective and attitude towards my dolls really disheartens me. While there are plenty of people in the world who collect things for monetary gain, I feel like it's only validated to others if I'm profiting from my dolls in some sort of way. For me, dolls have never been about their "worth," or at least not in terms of dollars. There are so many things in life that are so much more valuable than money. When I look at my dolls, I don't think of the money I spent, or what other people would pay for them, I see something much deeper and more meaningful, that I really wanted to share with the world.

 

The best way I can describe my doll collection is as a "scrapbook" of my life. Each doll and collection has been part of a chapter in my personal history, that has made me who I am today. There are so many dolls that freeze a single moment in time for me, one that otherwise may have been forgotten, and for that I am grateful. So many people who are dear to me have in some way contributed to and shaped not only myself, but also my doll collection. So it's only natural that there are many of my dolls that remind me of the people I have cared most about in life. There are the ones that were given to me as gifts, or the ones I found while in the company of others. There are even doll related projects I worked on with my family. I think most of all, my dolls remind me of the two most important people in my life--my father and my older sister. My mom passed away when I was eleven, so it was just the three of us until I was almost twenty one. In those years, my doll collection blossomed. If you read the descriptions for my pictures in the "My Story" series, you'll get a better idea of the specific dolls and circumstances I'm referring to. But to summarize, it was in that time that my sister and I turned to our dolls for comfort and a sense of normalcy in a world that had otherwise been turned upside down by Mom's death. I can still recall with great detail the Friday nights we spent at KB Toys and Papa Ginos with Dad, and the Sundays we spent scouring the local flea markets for great deals. Even though I took a several year hiatus from dolls as a teenager, they once again resurfaced at time when I needed them most. My dad was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer when I was eighteen, and I had just graduated from high school. It was the during the last year my father was alive that I started collecting dolls again, and I think it was this chapter of my life that most defined me as a person and as a collector. My dolls, especially my Bratz, bring me back to those days, and they make me feel closer to my dad even though he's been gone for about three years.

 

My dolls have taught me so much about myself and life, especially these past few years. Maybe that sounds materialistic to some, but I strongly believe that the smallest things can be teach you something important. For a large part of my life, I was filled with self doubt, self loathing, resentment, and general negativity and apathy towards the world. I think most of this stemmed from the loss of my mom at such a young age. The truth is, I wanted to be happy, but I just didn't know how to be. It was an inner conflict I struggled with for years, but I feel that my dolls have helped me get through it. I never saw myself as interesting or unique, so I was always forcing myself to fit into a mold that I thought I should be instead. That's actually why I stopped collecting dolls in the first place--I thought I had to "grow up." During those doll-less years, I think I was the most unhappy and out of touch with myself I had ever been. But when dolls made their comeback into my life when I was nineteen, I feel like my identity and confidence returned with them. I didn't care if people thought I was "weird" for collecting them, because I realized how silly I had been to let them go in the first place. Dolls taught me that you don't have limit yourself to satisfy other people's expectations. Life is just to short to waste trying to make other people happy. Realizing this made me see that everyone, including myself is special and unique in their own way, without even having to try, just like every doll is. I have always been a hard core perfectionist which always made me nitpick at everything, including my dolls. But as time progressed, I learned to accept that life is constantly changing, and that nothing is, nor ever will be, truly "perfect." I can really thank my dolls for this lesson, especially my Bratz. I was unnerved when they were made taller in 2013, especially since Dad had passed away so recently, and Bratz were always a special bond between the two of us. But when I let go of that resentment, and I actually allowed myself to love and enjoy the "new" Bratz, it's almost as if my entire attitude towards life changed with it. Bratz made me see that every doll is beautiful, special, and worthy in her/his own way, and that rather than feel sour when they change, I should see the best in them. That mindset has carried over into my every day life, which is why I feel so strongly about the quote, "Being happy doesn't mean everything is perfect. It means you have decided to see beyond the imperfections." I used to be the first person to complain about something, to see the worst in another person, a doll, or a situation. But that girl is long gone now, and I have my dolls to thank for that. I don't like to fixate on the things I don't like about my dolls, myself, or life, because I feel that it is a waste of my energy. Life is what you make it, and happiness can be a choice, but it's not always the easiest one.

 

I have written and rewritten this passage several times now, but I feel that no matter what I say, words can't fully convey just how fulfilling and inspiring my dolls have been for me. They have come to mean so much to me over the years, and as time passes, I find that my love and passion for dolls only continues to grow. In a strange way, I feel that they have brought out the best in me as a person, and have made me see all the wonderful things life has to offer. Whenever I've felt lost, depressed, or confused, they have given me something to look forward and they have kept me occupied. When I think about my collection, I do get very emotional. Nearly every story or memory I have shared on this account has brought me to tears or made me laugh out loud. They keep the memory of my father, my mother, and anyone who has touched my life in some way, alive. Even though they are technically just plastic toys, they remind me everyday of how grateful I am for everything and everyone in my life. I really wanted to convey this message through my pictures and stories that I share with all of you. It's almost like society has conditioned us to complain and think the worst these days, and sometimes I feel that it's easy to get sucked into the void of negativity. For myself, I have chosen to only contribute positivity to this world, and I can honestly say it's been the best decision of my life--one that my dolls helped me make. I hope that in some small way, my dolls can resonate with you and maybe make you smile. While I love uploading doll identification information, my main purpose is actually to inspire other people to find happiness, even if it's in the smallest way, through dolls. I accept that some people may never grasp the true meaning behind my doll collection, and what my dolls mean to me, but it still bothers me whenever I get asked what they are "worth." I could never put a price on something that has fulfilled and inspired me the way my dolls have--because who can really "value" happiness itself?

A prayer for peace, and will it come?

The people of the region live in constant tension. In situations of war or terror, there is no real comfort.

And can war bring or force peace to come? Or can it bring, anger, hatred, resentment, enmity not necessarily a solution to complex problems, a small part of which may be solved, a temporary solution. War is a kind of defense against an enemy, a temporary prevention.

When the dream is permanent and eternal peace.

Music and art, in which I find temporary comfort, relief and may herald peace and love,

at different moments of life,

that's how I see it anyway.

I am not a political person, a known fact to part of the population, when peace is of paramount importance.

I am deeply saddened by an international debate regarding Israeli representation in the Eurovision Song Contest.

I remember well, an international political involvement, in a musical singing program.

In my opinion, politics should not mix with music and art, even if in terms of creativity it can be political.

A musical competition must be neutral, and can temporarily relieve tension from its viewers.

I do not like provocations or propaganda, certainly not any kind of boycotts on principles.

As an Israeli, with my baggage, I am proud of the supporters of Israel and really feel sorry for the others.

During my stay on the Internet, I have gained international support from many citizens of the world.

Others who, for reasons of political hypocrisy, have tried to argue, I stay away from any debate... and I certainly do not make the fateful decisions of the State of Israel.

Is it right or wrong?

The one who is able to create peace through music and art and not distance it through petitions, or dangerous anti-Semitism is right.

Music and art must bring tolerance closer between peoples and not support war or terrorism.

The reason why a great musician or artist would support terrorism is clear, in my opinion, due to his fear, and not necessarily logical support.

I asked myself, a musician who does not support Israel, sometimes with an offensive emphasis, would I continue to listen to his music? When I also turn in my thinking to my own emotion for the music.

And I answered myself, since I have no small-mindedness, if the musical content is good in my eyes... I can listen, while ignoring the small-mindedness of an offensive opinion.

In other words, I can enjoy the music itself, with reservations about its creator.

Since I am not a boycotter, I would not boycott music that is not offensive.

Love for music does not require love for the artist who creates it.

Music must not encourage boycotts, terrorism, or dangerous situations such as anti-Semitism, due to the significant danger inherent in this.

Great sorrow in my heart about what is happening in the world, from an Israeli perspective.

To punish an entire nation, due to politics, seems to me to be a serious mistake in conduct, or diplomatic influence out of fear, while giving backing to dangerous forces, which could lead to international disasters. Incidentally, a disaster can also come to the supporter of terrorism.

After all, those boycotters in the world, or those who sign petitions, do they really think about the citizens of the entire State of Israel, are they even able to understand what we are going through here in the parable of the decades of the existence of the State of Israel and before...

In my assessment, they see a partial picture and are biased, and also act out of their fear.

Thank you to all those who supported me during all my creative years on the Internet in times of peace and war. And even more to those who will continue to support me.

Peace and love, prayers for a much healthier and better world.

Copyrights (c) Nira Dabush.

 

Hungarian pink

Dianthus pontederae

Magyar szegfű

 

SMC Takumar 50mm 1.4

 

Press 'L' for large view

Robert Little, Crown Solicitor for Moreton Bay, and later, the Colony of Queensland, bought almost fourteen acres here in April 1875. Almost immediately he commissioned this large brick double-storey residence on a site with commanding views. In October Little married for a second time. His new wife Eliza Bramston, was the sister of State Attorney-General, Sir John Bramston.

 

Whytecliffe was designed prominent architect Francis Drummond Greville Stanley in 1875 - 1876. Scottish trained Stanley migrated to Queensland in 1861, and in 1863 was appointed Clerk of Works to the Colonial Architect Charles Tiffin. By 1873 Stanley had been appointed Colonial Architect, already responsible for a body of work incorporating significant public buildings as well as numerous design competition wins. As early as 1869 Stanley's success in winning competition and private commission was causing a deal of resentment in the private sector. Eventually, in April 1876, in response to complaints from architects James Cowlishaw, John Hall and Richard Gailey, Stanley was directed to limit his private work to competition entries only. He had a number of private commissions underway at the time as he sought permission to complete his private work at hand. These jobs included Whytecliffe, as well as the Fortitude Valley Holy Trinity Church, Toowoomba School of Arts and the Bowen Park Exhibition Building. Despite the problems caused by his mixing private commissions with his public employment, Stanley was highly esteemed by his professional peers, and is the best known of Queensland's architects due to the quality, diversity and extent of his work.

 

Whytecliffe was constructed by builder John Petrie. Given the proximity of Petrie's brickyards just to the south, it seems likely that the bricks for the house were locally made. Petrie excavated large water tanks to supply the house and stables, and also blasted cellars into the solid rock under the kitchen wing.

 

The successful completion of the Ipswich-Brisbane rail line in 1876 encouraged those desiring a rail link to Sandgate to press their claims. After consideration of several alternative routes, the government in 1880 approved a line running from Roma Street, through Albion, and northeast terminating at Sandgate. The contract was awarded to George Bashford & Co. and the line was formally opened on the 10th of May 1882. Regular services began the next day.

 

During the 1880s mass migration brought about a massive increase in Brisbane's population. The northern commuter rail line between Roma Street and Sandgate was at least partly responsible for the increase in popularity of inner northern suburbs such as Albion. During the 1890s the number of people travelling to the city from Albion, Mayne, Wooloowin, Eagle Junction, Clayfiel, and Hendra more than doubled. By the turn of the century tram services linked Albion with Clayfield and the City (via Breakfast Creek and Newstead).

 

By the time Robert Little died in 1890 Albion and surroundings were well-populated, residential suburbs. However, the Whytecliffe Estate, stretching down to Frodsham Street (then called Alice Street) remained intact for another two decades. Little's widow moved out of Whytecliffe and the house was then let to a succession of tenants. The Brisbane High School for Girls (later Somerville House) used the house as a boarder's residence from around 1899 until 1903; and in 1906 the house was converted into a boarding house by lessee Mrs Genevera Hartley Rosendorf.

 

In 1911 Little's son, Robert Vincent Boyle Little, began to subdivide the large land holding, over the next seven years selling off almost forty blocks ranging in size from sixteen perches up to almost half an acre. Mrs Rosendorf subsequently added several cottages and garages to the grounds. The house continued to offer accommodation until the outbreak of the Second World War.

 

Post-war, the house continued as a boarding house, as well as offering reception and catering services. In 1959 Archbishop Duhig bought Whytecliffe and made a personal gift of the house to the Christian Brothers. The house was then renovated to be used as a monastery for the Brothers.

 

At the end of 1996 the Albion campus of St. Columban’s was closed, the school reopening at Caboolture in 1997. Forest Place Ltd acquired the entire school site in 1999 for development of a retirement village. School buildings erected by the College during the three decades following the Second World War were removed, O’Driscoll Hall adapted for use as a community facility in 2001 and several new buildings constructed.

 

Source: Brisbane City Council Heritage Register.

Robert Little, Crown Solicitor for Moreton Bay, and later, the Colony of Queensland, bought almost fourteen acres here in April 1875. Almost immediately he commissioned this large brick double-storey residence on a site with commanding views. In October Little married for a second time. His new wife Eliza Bramston, was the sister of State Attorney-General, Sir John Bramston.

 

Whytecliffe was designed prominent architect Francis Drummond Greville Stanley in 1875 - 1876. Scottish trained Stanley migrated to Queensland in 1861, and in 1863 was appointed Clerk of Works to the Colonial Architect Charles Tiffin. By 1873 Stanley had been appointed Colonial Architect, already responsible for a body of work incorporating significant public buildings as well as numerous design competition wins. As early as 1869 Stanley's success in winning competition and private commission was causing a deal of resentment in the private sector. Eventually, in April 1876, in response to complaints from architects James Cowlishaw, John Hall and Richard Gailey, Stanley was directed to limit his private work to competition entries only. He had a number of private commissions underway at the time as he sought permission to complete his private work at hand. These jobs included Whytecliffe, as well as the Fortitude Valley Holy Trinity Church, Toowoomba School of Arts and the Bowen Park Exhibition Building. Despite the problems caused by his mixing private commissions with his public employment, Stanley was highly esteemed by his professional peers, and is the best known of Queensland's architects due to the quality, diversity and extent of his work.

 

Whytecliffe was constructed by builder John Petrie. Given the proximity of Petrie's brickyards just to the south, it seems likely that the bricks for the house were locally made. Petrie excavated large water tanks to supply the house and stables, and also blasted cellars into the solid rock under the kitchen wing.

 

The successful completion of the Ipswich-Brisbane rail line in 1876 encouraged those desiring a rail link to Sandgate to press their claims. After consideration of several alternative routes, the government in 1880 approved a line running from Roma Street, through Albion, and northeast terminating at Sandgate. The contract was awarded to George Bashford & Co. and the line was formally opened on the 10th of May 1882. Regular services began the next day.

 

During the 1880s mass migration brought about a massive increase in Brisbane's population. The northern commuter rail line between Roma Street and Sandgate was at least partly responsible for the increase in popularity of inner northern suburbs such as Albion. During the 1890s the number of people travelling to the city from Albion, Mayne, Wooloowin, Eagle Junction, Clayfiel, and Hendra more than doubled. By the turn of the century tram services linked Albion with Clayfield and the City (via Breakfast Creek and Newstead).

 

By the time Robert Little died in 1890 Albion and surroundings were well-populated, residential suburbs. However, the Whytecliffe Estate, stretching down to Frodsham Street (then called Alice Street) remained intact for another two decades. Little's widow moved out of Whytecliffe and the house was then let to a succession of tenants. The Brisbane High School for Girls (later Somerville House) used the house as a boarder's residence from around 1899 until 1903; and in 1906 the house was converted into a boarding house by lessee Mrs Genevera Hartley Rosendorf.

 

In 1911 Little's son, Robert Vincent Boyle Little, began to subdivide the large land holding, over the next seven years selling off almost forty blocks ranging in size from sixteen perches up to almost half an acre. Mrs Rosendorf subsequently added several cottages and garages to the grounds. The house continued to offer accommodation until the outbreak of the Second World War.

 

Post-war, the house continued as a boarding house, as well as offering reception and catering services. In 1959 Archbishop Duhig bought Whytecliffe and made a personal gift of the house to the Christian Brothers. The house was then renovated to be used as a monastery for the Brothers.

 

At the end of 1996 the Albion campus of St. Columban’s was closed, the school reopening at Caboolture in 1997. Forest Place Ltd acquired the entire school site in 1999 for development of a retirement village. School buildings erected by the College during the three decades following the Second World War were removed, O’Driscoll Hall adapted for use as a community facility in 2001 and several new buildings constructed.

 

Source: Brisbane City Council Heritage Register.

The Ruby

115 Studs in length

 

After the defeat of the Wicked Witch of the West, the Good Witch of the North helped Dorothy Gale return home to Kansas. The Land of Oz was left, by the Wizard, in the capable hands of the Scarecrow, the Tin Man and the Lion. Although they lead the people of Oz with grace and wisdom, the lands were so large that even they could not keep everything in check. Oz began to fall to ruin...

 

The Winkies, once slaves to the Wicked Witch’s whims, attempted to rebuild their society, but were hampered by the prejudice they faced from other citizens of Oz. The Munchkins could not relate to them given their history with the Wicked Witch of the East; the citizens of the Emerald City looked down on them as gullible puppets; even the Gillikins of the North, under the guidance of Glinda, held on to their resentment. The Tin Man tried to teach his people compassion, but their hearts could not be changed.

 

The three leaders decided that Dorothy was needed in Oz once more. Through her leadership, they would work to restore Oz to not only what it once was, but what it could truly be. The Scarecrow devised a way to contact her, and she agreed to return to them. Once back in the Emerald City, she took on the title of General, and began working on a plan to unite the people of Oz. Dorothy first went to the Munchkins, who welcomed her back as the hero she once was. The Munchkin people, she had heard, had moved on from their agricultural roots and had been delving into engineering and technologies. She requested of them a vehicle capable to her task.

 

The Munchkins constructed the MK-78, which Dorothy nicknamed The Ruby. This craft would allow General Gale and her team to travel across the Land of Oz, finding refugee Winkies and teaching tolerance to the other citizens. Two removable containers (one communication, one a mobile garage) could remain in an area while the ship continued searching for those in need. If difficulty occurs, the ship is equipped with a small fighter dubbed the ”Flying Monkey” to protect both it and those they are trying to help, while the bridge-module also serves as a shuttle. Three Munchkin engineers travel with the ship to keep it operational.

 

Through her work, Dorothy has been able to bring the Winkies together with the Quadlings, the Rlys and the Hilanders who helped shelter them and guide them on the path to a functional society. Dorothy remains at the helm of The Ruby, bringing the people of Oz together, one brick at a time.

 

The Focus Of Our Message

 

"I did not come to bring peace but a sword." Matthew 10:34

 

Never be sympathetic with a person whose situation causes you to conclude that God is dealing harshly with him. God can be more tender than we can conceive, and every once in a while He gives us the opportunity to deal firmly with someone so that He may be viewed as the tender One. If a person cannot go to God, it is because he has something secret which he does not intend to give up— he may admit his sin, but would no more give up that thing than he could fly under his own power. It is impossible to deal sympathetically with people like that. We must reach down deep in their lives to the root of the problem, which will cause hostility and resentment toward the message. People want the blessing of God, but they can’t stand something that pierces right through to the heart of the matter. If you are sensitive to God’s way, your message as His servant will be merciless and insistent, cutting to the very root. Otherwise, there will be no healing. We must drive the message home so forcefully that a person cannot possibly hide, but must apply its truth. Deal with people where they are, until they begin to realize their true need. Then hold high the standard of Jesus for their lives. Their response may be, “We can never be that.” Then drive it home with, “Jesus Christ says you must.” “But how can we be?” “You can’t, unless you have a new Spirit” (see Luke 11:13). There must be a sense of need created before your message is of any use. Thousands of people in this world profess to be happy without God. But if we could be truly happy and moral without Jesus, then why did He come? He came because that kind of happiness and peace is only superficial. Jesus Christ came to “bring…a sword” through every kind of peace that is not based on a personal relationship with Himself.

_____

Oswald Chambers, My Utmost For His Highest

There is still a ton of local resentment against a modern art museum in one of the most out-of-the-way rural corners of rust-belt New England. Back in the late 90's when it was opened, residents of Adams & North Adams were rightly suspicious and expressed prescient concern about affluent Williams College alums starting this thing, the gentrification that might ensue, and precisely who would reap the local economic benefit of an art museum that catered predominantly to cultural elites in New York and Boston on their way up to their vacation homes in Vermont. Nearly 2 decades later, there's bustling upscale businesses within the museum complex- it's doubling its exhibition space, too... but there are precious few jobs in town (all the ones at MassMOCA go to Williams college and MCLA interns, graduates, or people from afar), its hospital closed (one of the few that served the region. Closest small one is now 40 minutes away. Closest large one over an hour in any direction), and there are still boarded up storefronts on the main drag. To say the housing market is depressed is an understatement... if you want a ridiculously cheap house (with a lot of work), this is your town. But unless you're telecommuting you got yourself at least 3 hours in your car every day.

 

And yet, damn, the place is gorgeous... appeals to my city-bred youth, and, sometimes, has some f*cking amazing art.

Abby's resentment of her uncle had something to do with the excessive and unreciprocated household work she accomplished for him and how this related to her fears about her future. Her aunt had offered to move Abby to her house so that Abby could go to school. Abby was suspicious of her aunt's motives. She thought that she wanted her only for housework because Abby had proven herself to be such a good domestic worker in her uncle's house.

 

Abby's drawing shows all of the work she accomplished around her uncle's house--sweeping and shining the floors, straightening the bedroom, and washing dishes. I am unsure why she wrote "fail" on the bottom right side. It might have related to her concerns about her schooling. She was still out of school and worried about what this meant for her future. See Abby's comments about her schooling on pages 40 to 42 in the book.

  

**This drawing is part of the Children as Caregivers art gallery.

Learn more about the Children as Caregivers project in Jean Hunleth's book, Children as Caregivers: The Global Fight against Tuberculosis and HIV in Zambia.

Explored oct 27

(The photo on canvas: Ironical interpretation of a Self-Saint-Sebastian-Martyrdom)

 

Individuals with Martyr Syndrome routinely sacrifice their needs and wants for those of others. But then they complain, feel taken advantage of, and remind everyone of how much they have sacrificed.

 

They have a strong desire to be praised and needed, and what others offer in those two areas is seldom enough. Their need for sympathy and recognition of their sacrifice is unhealthy and alienates others.

 

A typical Martyr Syndrome remark is, “After all I’ve done for you, this is the thanks I get.” Or “I’ve never asked for anything for myself. I’ve always put your needs first.”

 

Another one is, “You take the best piece of toast. It doesn’t matter to me if I have the burnt piece.” The implication is, of course, that the other person’s needs are important, and the martyr’s needs are not.

 

On the surface, the self-sacrificing martyr sounds sincere when he or she encourages you to go ahead with your plans and not to worry about anything. But if you fall for this, you’ll regret it later when the martyr’s real feelings emerge with the resulting anger, resentment, bitterness, and negativity. It’s what I call “crazy-making behavior” because it’s so convoluted and aggravating for those dealing with the martyr.

 

If you are the martyr, work to become more self-aware. Pay close attention to when you engage in this destructive behavior. Beginning to recognize and see your own behavior in a new light is the first step toward change.

 

(The photo on canvas: Ironical interpretation of a Self-Saint-Sebastian-Martyrdom)

 

“Our fatigue is often caused not by work, but by worry, frustration and resentment”

~Dale Carnegie

 

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My name is Thea Queen. I was left behind by my own parents, seen only as a mistake. For years, I would live out my life on the streets of the Glades, left to fend for myself. To only trust my inner instincts. Kill, or be killed. Nothing else mattered, but survival. I would do whatever it took to survive. A trail of bodies would soon follow, as I became someone else.. Something else. I go by Red Dart now, and this is my story.

 

January 21st, 1982.. That's the day I was born. That's also the day I was abandoned by my mother. Left in the streets of the Glades, bawling my eyes out. It wasn't long, before I learned the harsh realities of the world. What it truly took, to get by in the Glades. The first few years of my life are mostly a blur, but by some miracle I survived. Getting by on scraps of foods, while living on top of garbage bags in various alleyways. The smell especially rancid. While I was suffering, there they were, on TV.. The Kings, and the Queens of Star City.. Arthur King, and Moira Queen. Who I would later learn, are my birth parents. Flaunting their wealth, without a care in the world. It didn't take long, before my resentment towards them grew. The first two names on my list.

 

In the years that followed, I would branch out into pickpocketing. Nobody really paid any attention to me, which made things a hell of a lot easier. I was lucky to get anything when I first started. But as time went on, I'd get hundreds of dollars over the years, which to me, was a gift. Unfortunately, all good things don't last forever, and soon enough, I got caught.

 

The man, Steven Tucker, was surprisingly calm about the whole thing. There was this glint in his eyes.. Almost like he was proud. At least, that's what I think it was. I don't really have much experience with the emotion. I remember stumbling backwards, until my ass hit the pavement hard. He would raise his arm from his side, and stretch it out towards me.

 

"Are you okay?" He would ask, to which I wouldn't respond. I wasn't sure whether to take his hand, or not. To trust this stranger . It was then, that my stomach would growl.

 

"Looks like someone's a little hungry! C'mon, let's go get you some food." He laughed, quick to help me back up. There was something about him, that made me feel like I could trust him. If it was anyone else that caught me, I would've been killed. But for some reason, he decided to help me, even after I tried to steal from him. He would even decide to take me in. I learned that he was not so different from myself.

 

First off, Steven Tucker, as it turned out, was also a thief. Many years ago, he lost his job as Leapo the clown at the Star City Circus. Finding sustainable work in the Glades is very hard to come by, which led to him becoming a small time thief. He would find that his aim was impeccable. This led to him calling himself Bulls-Eye, taking on more assassination jobs. So I asked him to teach me everything he knows.

 

It was during this time, that I would learn the truth about who my parents truly were. The same people I had seen on TV screens years ago. Billionaires Arthur King, and Moira Queen. I did try to contact Moira Queen once, but I was simply ignored. Treated like I was nothing to her, once again.

 

Bulls-Eye would spend the next several years teaching me various fighting styles, along with just general need to know knowledge. He also taught me the importance of having a signature weapon, so that the world would know its you. So that you would be remembered. I spent months with various types of weapons. Long ranged, short-range, you name the style, I've probably tried it. I've come to realize though, that close ranged weapons just aren't my style. I would gravitate towards this wrist launcher that I use now. Launching darts within seconds. Easy to have pinpoint accuracy with too, especially with Bulls-Eye as my teacher. Also helps that they don't make much sound when fired. Which, in my line of work, is exactly what you want. Get in, get out, no fuss.

 

I would occasionally tag along with Bulls-Eye on jobs, just for that extra experience. Some were easier than others, but we managed to never get caught. Also helped that at the time, there weren't any bigshot heroes roaming around Star City. It was through Steven that I would get my first solo gig as Red Dart, at the age of 17. While other kids my age were worried about graduation, I was worried about how many bodyguards the target had. How much security do they have? I still remember that first kill. His name, was Amin Mustafa.

 

Just another sleazy rich guy that thought it was a good idea to fuck the maid while his wife and children were out of the country visiting family. A spokesman, that my employer wanted out of the picture. I was more than happy to oblige. Scum like him deserve to suffer.

 

Getting into his penthouse was far easier than I ever thought. He had sent the majority of his security team home for the night, which was a big mistake on his part. I was able to take the four of them down with curare laced darts, hitting each of them on the neck, which was exposed skin. It didn't take me long to find them. Sure enough, the maid noticed me enter the room, and was about to speak, but not before I shot her multiple times. Amin looked over, as the maid flopped on top of him. Just for extra measure, I fired a paralysis dart at his shoulder. He managed to get the maid off him, but it was too late, as I fired a barrage of darts moments later, with them hitting him all over, as the paralysis took effect. I decided that wasn't enough though, as I repeatedly punched him in the face. There was no hesitation on my end. I had gotten this sort of rush, from killing such a shitty excuse of a person. This is what I was meant to do.

 

I had a list, of people who needed to suffer. And one by one, I checked names off that list. My reputation would skyrocket with each kill, leading to more jobs. My mentor, Bulls-Eye, would get caught, and sent to prison, during this time. I thought of breaking him out multiple times, but I knew that even with my skills, there's a slim chance of it actually working. So I had to wait. I'd kill dozens more, which included Isaac Stellmoor, Cyrus Vanch, Adam Hunt, and Justin Claybourne. Along with many others of course. While a few of them were associates of the Queens, that didn't satisfy me. I wanted the Queens to suffer as much as I did when I was left in the Glades. So when the opportunity to kill Robert Queen came up, I didn't hesitate. A few shots in the back, and he was dead.

 

That lead to me being hired by Edward Fyers to kill the Hood. Which I'll admit, I was hesitant on taking the job. Some Robin Hood wannabe really isn't worth my time. But the reward was too good to pass up. That, and the Hood seemingly stands by the wealthy elite. So I killed him.. Or so I thought. Turns out he survived. Make no mistake, next time we meet, he's a dead man.

 

La Plata street grid is the master plan of planning engineer Pedro Benoit in 1881.

 

The city has an obelisk commemorating his city plan.

 

The obelisk is made of five pieces of red granite extracted from the Sierra Chica quarries, weighing 22 tons each.

 

The obelisk is 15.10 m high.

 

The Obelisk of La Plata is a was inaugurated 19 November, 1932, on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the city.

 

The obelisk is located in Plaza San Martín at the corner of 6 and 50 and diagonal 80.

 

PEDRO BENOIT:

Pedro Benoit 18 (February, 1836 – 04 April, 1897) was an Argentine architect, engineer, and urbanist best known for designing the layout of the city of La Plata.

 

In 1880 resentment over the apportionment of rapidly growing customs duties from the main port in Buenos Aires led to a failed insurrection in the Province of Buenos Aires against the newly elected administration of President Julio Roca.

 

In 1881 Buenos Aires Provincial voters, elected candidate Dardo Rocha who, despite his disadvantage in belonging to Roca's PAN, articulated a message of political integration with the suddenly prosperous Argentina.

 

Facing ongoing secessionist pressures from his constituency, Governor Rocha proposed the creation of a new provincial capital in replacement of the city of Buenos Aires, federalized as the nation's capital in 1880.

 

The proposal, acceptable to the province's Independence-leaning gentry, was quickly approved by Congress.

 

Governor Rocha commissioned Benoit to plan the new city, which became the renowned urbanist's most ambitious project.

 

Named La Plata after its mention in José Hernández's epic Martín Fierro, the city was planned by Benoit in a regular pattern of diagonals and precisely-placed squares.

 

In 1889 the master plan for the city earned Benoit two gold medals at the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition, where La Plata was honoured as the "City of the Future”.

 

In 1890 Benoit was elected to the La Plata City Council during which he designed his city's great seal.

 

In 1883 Benoit became La Plata’s Mayor and also accepted a post as the Director of the Provincial Mortgage Bank.

 

In 1897 Benoit became the first Dean of the School of Engineering in the newly created University of La Plata.

 

The strain proved too much for Benoit however and he died suddenly 04 April 1897, at age 61.

 

Benoit is buried in La Recoleta Cemetery.

Is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea, referred to as East Sea (Vietnamese: Biển Đông), to the east. With a population of over 86 million, Vietnam is the 13th most populous country in the world.

The people of Vietnam regained independence and broke away from China in AD 938 after their victory at the battle of Bạch Đằng River. Successive dynasties flourished along with geographic and political expansion deeper into Southeast Asia, until it was colonized by the French in the mid-19th century. Efforts to resist the French eventually led to their expulsion from the country in the mid-20th century, leaving a nation divided politically into two countries. Fighting between the two sides continued during the Vietnam War, ending with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975.

Emerging from this prolonged military engagement, the war-ravaged nation was politically isolated. The government’s centrally planned economic decisions hindered post-war reconstruction and its treatment of the losing side engendered more resentment than reconciliation. In 1986, it instituted economic and political reforms and began a path towards international reintegration. By 2000, it had established diplomatic relations with most nations. Its economic growth had been among the highest in the world in the past decade.[vague] These efforts resulted in Vietnam joining the World Trade Organization in 2007.

 

History

Please go to

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Vietnam

 

Geography

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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Vietnam

 

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Flags from cities

 

Oficial Name:

Cộng hòa Xã hội Chủ nghĩa Việt Nam

 

Independence:

Date September 2, 1945 - Recognized 1954

 

Area:

332.501km2

 

Inhabitants:

82.481.000

 

Language :

Akha [ahk] 1,261 in Viet Nam (1995 Institute for Southeast Asian Studies, Hanoi). Quang Binh and Quang Tri Provinces both sides of the Viet Nam-Laos border, northeast of Phuc Trach. Alternate names: Kaw, Ekaw, Ikaw, Aka, Ak'a, Ahka, Ko, Khako, Kha Ko, Khao Ikor, Aini, Yani. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Hani, Ha-Ya

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Arem [aem] 20 in Viet Nam (1996 Ferlus). Population total all countries: 40. Ethnic population: 100 in Viet Nam (1996 Ferlus). Tan Trach and one or two families of Thuong Trach in Bo Trach District, Quang Binh Province. Also spoken in Laos. Alternate names: A-Rem, Chomrau, Chombrau, Umo. Dialects: Other dialects or ethnic names: Tu-vang, Pa-leng, Xo-lang, To-hung, Chà-cu, Tac-cui, Nhà Chút. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Chut Nearly extinct.

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Bahnar [bdq] 158,456 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Gia Lai, Kon Tum, Binh Dinh, Phu Yen provinces, central highlands. Also spoken in USA. Alternate names: Bana. Dialects: Tolo, Golar, Alakong (A-La Cong), Jolong (Gio-Lang, Y-Lang), Bahnar Bonom (Bomam), Kontum, Krem. Other dialects or ethnic names: Roh, Kpang Cong. Closest to Alak 1, Tampuan, and Lamam. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, Central Bahnaric

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Brao [brb] 313 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Kon Tum Province, Cambodia-Laos border area. Alternate names: Brau, Braou, Proue, Brou, Love, Lave, Laveh, Rawe. Dialects: Palau. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, West Bahnaric, Brao-Kravet

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Bru, Eastern [bru] 55,559 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Quang Binh, Quang Tri, and Dac Lac provinces. Alternate names: Bru, Brou, Van Kieu, Quang Tri Bru. Dialects: Mangkong, Tri. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, West Katuic, Brou-So

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Cao Lan [mlc] 147,315 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Population total all countries: 187,315. The San Chay are mainly concentrated in Tuyen Quang, Bac Can, and Thai Nguyen provinces. They are also found scattered in certain areas of Yen Bai, Vinh Phuc, Phu Tho, Bac Giang, and Quang Ninh provinces. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Caolan, San Chay, San Chi, "Man Cao-Lan", Sán-Chi, "Mán", Cao Lan-Sán Chi. Dialects: Maintains some features from Northern Tai. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Central

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Cham, Eastern [cjm] 72,873 in Viet Nam (2002). Binh Thuan, Ninh Thuan, Dong Nai provinces and Ho Chi Minh City. Also spoken in USA. Alternate names: Tjam, Chiem, Chiem Thành, Bhamam. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayic, Achinese-Chamic, Chamic, South, Coastal, Cham-Chru

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Cham, Western [cja] 25,000 in Viet Nam. Population includes 4,000 in Saigon. An Giang and Tay Ninh provinces and Ho Chi Minh City. Alternate names: Cambodian Cham, Tjam, Cham, New Cham, Chiem. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayic, Achinese-Chamic, Chamic, South, Coastal, Cham-Chru

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Chinese, Yue [yue] 862,371 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Soc Trang, Can Tho, Vinh Long, Tra Vinh, Dong Nai, and Kieng Giang provinces and in the cities of Ho Chi Minh, Hanoi, and Haiphong, and along the northern Viet Nam-China border regions. Alternate names: Suòng Phóng, Quang Dong, Hai Nam, Ha Xa Phang, Minh Huong, Chinese Nung, Nung, Lowland Nung, Hoa, Han, Trièu Chau, Phúc Kién, Liem Chau, Samg Phang. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Chinese

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Chrau [crw] 22,567 (1999 census). Few monolinguals. Dòng Nai Province. The Tamun group live in Tayninh and Binhlong provinces. Alternate names: Chauro, Choro, Ro, Tamun. Dialects: Jro, Dor (Doro), Prang, Mro, Voqtwaq, Vajieng, Chalah, Chalun, Tamun. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, South Bahnaric, Stieng-Chrau

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Chru [cje] 14,978 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Lam Dong and Binh Thuan provinces. Also spoken in France, USA. Alternate names: Churu, Choru, Chu Ru, Chu, Cru, Kru, Chrau Hma, Cadoe Loang, Seyu. Dialects: Rai, Noang (La-Dang). Close to Cham. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayic, Achinese-Chamic, Chamic, South, Coastal, Cham-Chru

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Chut [scb] 3,829 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Population total all countries: 4,279. Quang Binh Province, Thuong Hoa, Hoa Son, Dan Hoa communes, near the Laos border at the same latitude as Mu Gia Pass. Also spoken in Laos. Alternate names: Sach, Salang, Ruc, May. Dialects: Sach, May, Ruc ( Kha Mu Gia, Tac Cui). Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Chut

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Côông [cnc] 2,000 (2002 Edmondson). Lai Chau Province, Muong Te District, east of Sila, south of Mang. 4 villages at Ban Nam Luong in Xa Can Ho, Bo Lech in Xa Can Ho, Nam Kha Co area at Ban Bo, Muong Tong at Nam Ke near the Lao border. Alternate names: "Xa Coong", "Xa Xam", Khoong, "Xa Xeng". Dialects: Quite different from Akha, Lahu, and Sila of this location. The northern and southern varieties in Viet Nam are different, but inherently intelligible to speakers. Bisu, Pyen, and Mpi are closely related. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Phunoi

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Cua [cua] 27,766 (1999 census). Quang Ngai and Quang Nam provinces. Alternate names: Bong Miew, Bòng Mieu. Dialects: Kol (Kor, Cor, Co, Col, Dot, Yot), Traw (Tràu, Dong). Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, East, Cua-Kayong

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En [enc] 200 (1998 Edmondson). Cao Bang Province, Noi Thon village, about 20 km directly east on foot from Ho Quang City, Ho Quang District. Alternate names: Nung Ven. Dialects: Lexical similarity less than 50% with Laha, Qabiao (Laqua), Lachi, Gelao, Buyang, Hlai. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Yang-Biao

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Gelao, Green [giq] 300 (2002 Edmondson). Yen Minh District, Pho La and Dong Van. Alternate names: Hoki Gelao, Cape Draping Gelao, Klau, Qau. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Ge-Chi

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Gelao, Red [gir] 20. Yen Minh District. Alternate names: Voa Dê, Vandu Gelao. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Ge-Chi Nearly extinct.

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Gelao, White [giw] 20 (2002 Edmondson). Yen Minh District, Pho La and Dong Van. Alternate names: Tú Du, Telue, Southwestern Gelao. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Ge-Chi Nearly extinct.

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Giáy [pcc] 49,098 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Lao Cai, Hà Giang, and Lai Chau provinces. Alternate names: Bouyei, Bo-Y, Bo-I, Buyi, Pu-I, Puyi, Pui, Chang Chá, Trong Ggia, Tu-Dìn, Nhaang, Nyang, Niang, Yai, Yay, Giai, Giang, Dang, Dioi, Pau Thin, Pú Nà, Pu-Nam, Cùi Chu, Xa Chung Chá, Chung Cha, Sa. Dialects: Tu-Dí, Nhang, Pú Nà. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Northern

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Haiphong Sign Language [haf] Haiphong. Dialects: Related to sign languages in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Laos, and earlier sign languages in Thailand. Classification: Deaf sign language

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Halang [hal] 13,500 in Viet Nam (2000). Population total all countries: 17,500. Kon Tum Province. Also spoken in Laos. Alternate names: Salang, Koyong. Dialects: Close to Jeh. Salang in Laos may be a different but related language. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Jeh-Halang

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Halang Doan [hld] 2,000 in Viet Nam(1981 Wurm and Hattori). Population total all countries: 4,346. Kon Tum Province, between the Sedang and the Cua. Also spoken in Laos. Alternate names: Halang Duan, Duan, Doan. Dialects: May be intelligible with Takua, Kayong, Halang Daksut, or Rengao. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Duan

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Hani [hni] 17,535 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Lai Chau and Lao Cai provinces in northern Viet Nam. One variety is east, one west of Muong Te City. Not in Thailand. Alternate names: Hànhì, Haw, Uni, U Ní, Xauni, Xá U Ní. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Hani, Ha-Ya

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Hanoi Sign Language [hab] Hanoi. Dialects: Related to sign languages in Haiphong, Ho Chi Minh City, Laos, and earlier sign languages in Thailand. Classification: Deaf sign language

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Haroi [hro] 35,000 (1998). Binh Dinh and Phu Yen provinces. Alternate names: Hrway, Hroi, Hroy, Hoi, Aroi, Bahnar Cham. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayic, Achinese-Chamic, Chamic, South, Plateau

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Hmong Daw [mww] All Hmong in Viet Nam: 787,604 (1999 census). Most live in several provinces of northern Viet Nam, now over 10,000 resettled in Dac Lac province in southern Viet Nam. Alternate names: White Meo, Meo Kao, White Lum, Mán Tráng, Bai Miao. Dialects: Hmong Xi (Meo Do). Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian

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Hmong Dô [hmv] Ha Giang Province, Dong Van and Meo Vae districts; Lao Cai Province, Bac Ha District. Dialects: Largely intelligible with Hmong Daw. Lexical similarity 80% with Hmong Daw. Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian

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Hmong Don [hmf] Ha Giang Province, Hua Binh, YenBai, Nghia Lo. Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian

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Hmong Njua [blu] Living in many provinces of northern Viet Nam, probably some in Dac Lac Province in southern Viet Nam. Alternate names: Blue Meo, Green Miao, Tak Meo, Hmong Njwa, Hmong Leng. Dialects: Hmong Hoa. Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian

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Hmong Shua [hmz] 60 (2003). Ha Giang Province, 3 villages. Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian

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Ho Chi Minh City Sign Language [hos] Ho Chi Minh City. Dialects: Related to sign languages in Hanoi, Haiphong, Laos, and earlier sign languages in Thailand. Classification: Deaf sign language

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Hre [hre] 113,111 (1999 census). Quang Ngai and Binh Dinh provinces. Alternate names: Davak, Davach, Moi Da Vach, Moi, Moi Luy, Cham-Re, Chom, Tachom. Dialects: Rabah (Tava), Creq (Kare, Kre), Hre. Closest to Sedang. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Sedang-Todrah, Sedang

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Hung [hnu] 700 in Viet Nam (1996 Ferlus). Pong dialect in Tam Thai commune, Tuong Duong District, Nghe An Province, and Dan Lai and Ly Ha dialects in Mon Son and Luc Da communes, Con Cuong District. Alternate names: Cuói, K'katiam-Pong-Houk. Dialects: Pong (Poong, Phong, Tay Pong, Toum Phong, Khong Kheng, Xa La Vang, Pong 1, Pong 2), Dan Lai, Ly Ha. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Cuoi

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Iu Mien [ium] 350,000 in Viet Nam (1999 H. Purnell). Throughout the highland regions of northern Viet Nam, about 16,000 in Dac Lak Province in the south. Alternate names: Kim Mien, Yu Mien, Mien, "Mán", Yao, Myen, Highland Yao, Dao Do, Red Dao, "Dong", "Trai", "Xá", Dìu, Yao Kimmien, Yao Ogang, Dao Thanh Phan. Dialects: Dao Do, Deo Tien, Dao Lan Tien, Dao Lo Gang, Cham, Quan Chet, Quan Trang. Classification: Hmong-Mien, Mienic, Mian-Jin

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Jarai [jra] 317,557 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Population total all countries: 332,557. Mainly in Gia Lai and Kon Tum Provinces, some in Dac Lac Province. Also spoken in Cambodia, USA. Alternate names: Djarai, Gia-Rai, Jorai, Cho-Rai, Chor, Mthur, Chrai, Gio-Rai. Dialects: Puan, Hodrung (Hdrung), Jhue, Aráp, Habau (Ho-Bau), To-Buan, Sesan, Chuty, Pleikly, Golar. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayic, Achinese-Chamic, Chamic, South, Plateau

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Jeh [jeh] 15,243 in Viet Nam (2002 SIL). Population total all countries: 23,256. Kon Tum and Quang Nam provinces. Also spoken in Laos. Alternate names: Die, Yeh, Gie. Dialects: Jeh Bri La (Bri-La), Jeh Mang Ram. Related to Halang. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Jeh-Halang

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Katu, Eastern [ktv] 50,458 (1999 census). Quang Nam and Thua Thien provinces. Alternate names: High Katu. Dialects: A different language variety and orthography in Laos. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Katu-Pacoh

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Katua [kta] 3,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Gia Lai-Cong Tum Province, around Mang Buk, west of the Kayong language. Alternate names: Ca Tua. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric

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Kayong [kxy] 2,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Remote mountains of Cong Tum Province. Alternate names: Kagiuong, Ca Giong, Katang. Dialects: Close to Takua and Cua. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, East, Cua-Kayong

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Kháng [kjm] 3,921 (1985 F. Proschan). Son La and Lai Chau provinces in northern Viet Nam. Alternate names: Khaang, Tayhay, Tay Hay, Xa, Xá Khao, Xa Xua, Xa Don, Xa Dang, Xa Hoc, Xa Ai, Xa Bung, Quang Lam, Hang, Bren, Ksakautenh, Putenh, Pouteng, Teng, Theng. Dialects: Kháng Clau, Kháng Ai (Xa Khao, Xa Cau, Sakau). Related to Puoc and Phong-Kniang in Laos. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Xinh Mul

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Khao [xao] 10,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Northwest, near the Ma River, north of Pa Ma. Dialects: Related to Bit in Laos and China. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Khao

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Khmer, Central [khm] 1,055,174 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Mainly in Hau Giang, Tra Vinh, Vinh Long, Kien Giang, An Giang, Bac Lieu, Ca Mau, Ba Ria-Vung Tau, Binh Phuoc, and Tay Ninh provinces and Ho Chi Minh City. Alternate names: Cambodian, Kho Me, Cur Cul, Cu Tho, Viet Go Mien, Khome, Krom. Dialects: Central Khmer, Southern Khmer. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Khmer

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Khmu [kjg] 56,542 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Son La, Lai Chau, Nghe An, and Yen Bai provinces. Alternate names: Kmhmu, Khomu, Khamu, Mun Xen, Xa Cau, Kha Cau, Cam Mu. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Khmu'

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Khua [xhv] 3,000 in Viet Nam (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Population total all countries: 5,000. West central; southeast of Giap Tam. Also spoken in Laos. Dialects: Related to Bru, Mangkong, Leun. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, West Katuic, Brou-So

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Kim Mun [mji] 170,000 in Viet Nam (1999 J. Edmondson). Alternate names: Mun, Lanten, Lan Ten, Lantin, "Man Lan-Tien", Lowland Yao, Coc Mun, Jinmen, Dao Quan Trang, Red Trouser Yao, Dao Thanh Y, Dao Ao Dai, Great Tunic Yao, Dao Lam Dinh. Classification: Hmong-Mien, Mienic, Mian-Jin

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Koho [kpm] 128,723 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Lam Dòng, Binh Thuan, Ninh Thuan and Khanh Hoa provinces. Also spoken in USA. Alternate names: Coho, Caho, Kohor. Dialects: Chil (Kil), Tring (Trinh), Sre, Kalop, Sop, Laya, Rion, Nop (Xre Nop, Tu-Lop), Tala (To La), Kodu (Co-Don), Pru, Lac (Lat, Lach). Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, South Bahnaric, Sre-Mnong, Sre

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Lachi [lbt] 7,863 in Viet Nam (1990 census). Population includes 3,990 women, in 1,450 households (1990 Liang Min), including Black Lachi 2,500 in 550 households, Long-Haired Lachi 4,500 in 900 households. 10,765 for all La Chi in Viet Nam (1999 census). Population total all countries: 9,016. Ethnic population: 9,600 (2000 D. Bradley). Hà Giang Province, mostly west of Hà Giang in the upper Clear River valley (Riviere Claire) on the China border: Black Lachi at Manyou, Long-Haired Lachi at Manpeng. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: La Chi, Lachí, Laji, Lati, Tai Lati, Lipulio, Y To, Y Pí, Y Póng, Y Mia, Cù Te, Cu-Tê. Dialects: Liputiõ (Black Lachi), Lipupi (Long-Haired Lachi). Related to Gelo. Long-Haired Lachi of Viet Nam (4,806 speakers) has 80% lexical similarity with Flowery Lachi of China; White Lachi of Viet Nam (1,602) has 30% to 40% similarity with the others, and should be considered a separate language. Lexical similarity 36% with Gelo, 33% with Laqua, 34% with Buyang, 28% with Northern Zhuang, 22% with Dong, 23% with Laka, 25% with Hlai. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Ge-Chi

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Lachi, White [lwh] 1,602 (1990 Liang Min). 300 households. Hà Giang Province, northern Viet Nam south of Maguan in China, Manbang and Manmei. Alternate names: White Lachi, Lipupõ. Dialects: Lexical similarity 30% to 40% with other Lachi. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Ge-Chi

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Laghuu [lgh] 300 (2002 Edmondson). Northwestern Viet Nam. Lao Cai Province, Sa Pa District, Nam Sa village. 15 km south and east of Sa Pa City, in the valley below the highest mountain in Viet Nam, Phan Si Pan (3,198 meters). Alternate names: Laopa, Xá Phó. Dialects: It is not known how this relates to Laopang (Laopa) of Myanmar, also in the Lolo group. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Northern, Yi

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Laha [lha] 5,686 (1999 census). Lao Cai and Son La provinces, along the Red and Black rivers. Alternate names: Xá Khao, Khlá Phlao, Klá Dong, Khlá Don, Khlá Dung, Khlá Liik, La Ha Ung, La Ha, Xá Chien, Xá Lay. Dialects: Close to Qabiao. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Yang-Biao

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Lahu [lhu] 6,874 All Lahu (Yellow, Black, White) in Viet Nam (1999 census). Northwestern border of Viet Nam with Laos. Black Lahu are north of Muong Te City near the China border, at Ban Kiem Tra, Phu Nam Ma, Phu Nam Cau, Phu Nam Ha. White Lahu are in one village just to the east of Nha Ca in Muong Te. Alternate names: Lohei, Lahuna, Launa, Laku, Kaixien, Namen, Mussuh, Muhso, Musso, Mussar, Mooso. Dialects: Na (Black Lahu, Khucong, Musser Dam), Nyi (Red Lahu, Musseh Daeng), Shehleh, Lahu Phung (White Lahu). Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Lahu

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Lahu Shi [kds] 6,874 all Lahu (Yellow, Black, White) in Viet Nam (1999 census). Lai Chau Province, just to the west of Muong Te City on the Son Da (Black River). Alternate names: Kutsung, Kucong, Khutsho, Yellow Lahu, Shi, Kui, Kwi, Ne Thu, La Hu Si. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Lahu

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Lü [khb] 4,964 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Lai Chau Province, northern Viet Nam in the Binh Lu area. Alternate names: Pai-I, Shui-Pai-I, Lue, Tai Lu, Nhuon, Duon. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Northwest

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Maa [cma] 33,338 (1999 census). Lam Dong, Dong Nai provinces, spread over a wide area. Alternate names: Maaq, Ma, Maa', Chauma, Ma Ngan, Che Ma, Ma Xop, Ma To, Ma Krung. Dialects: Sometimes considered a Koho dialect. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, South Bahnaric, Sre-Mnong, Sre

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Maleng [pkt] 200 in Viet Nam (1996 Ferlus). Malieng in Thanh Hoa and Lam Hoa communes, Tuyen Hoa District, dan Hoa in Minh Hoa District, northern Quang Binh Province; Huong Lien commune in Huong Khe District, Ha Tinh Province, 2 or 3 villages bordering Laos, and another to the southeast. Alternate names: Malieng, Malang. Dialects: Malieng (Pa Leng), Kha Phong (Maleng Kari, Maleng Bro, Kha Nam Om). Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Chut

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Mang [zng] 2,663 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Population total all countries: 3,168. Ethnic population: 4,500 (2000 D. Bradley). Lai Chau Province, in villages in a triangle-shaped area between the Song Da (Black River) and the Nam Na at places such as Nam Nghe, Nam Xung, Nam Ban, Ban Nam Voi. Also spoken in China, Thailand. Alternate names: Mang U, Xá Mang, Xá Ó, Nieng Ó, Chaman, Manbu, Ba'e, Xá Lá Vàng. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Mang

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Mantsi [nty] 1,100 (2002 Edmondson). Hà Giang Province at Meo Vac and Dong Van districts. Alternate names: Lolo, Flowery Lolo, Black Lolo, Red Mantsi. Dialects: Called 'Southeast Vernacular' type of Yi. May be related to what is called Southeastern Yi or Guizhou Yi in China. Not intelligible with Sichuan Yi (Nosu). Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Northern, Yi

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Mnong, Central [cmo] 32,451 in Viet Nam (2002 SIL). Population total all countries: 52,451. Southwest of the Rade, mainly in Song Bé and western Dac Lac provinces. Also spoken in Cambodia. Alternate names: Pnong, Budong, Budang, Phanong. Dialects: Préh (Pre), Biat (Bhiét), Bu Nar, Bu Rung, Dih Bri (Di-Pri), Bu Dang. Biat may be a separate language related to Eastern Mnong. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, South Bahnaric, Sre-Mnong, Mnong, Southern-Central Mnong

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Mnong, Eastern [mng] 30,000 in Viet Nam (2002 SIL). Southeast of the Rade in Dac Lac and Lam Dòng provinces. Also spoken in USA. Dialects: Mnong Rolom (Rolom, Rolam, Rlam, Ralam), Mnong Gar (Gar), Mnong Kwanh, Chil. Biat may be closer to Eastern Mnong than to Central Mnong. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, South Bahnaric, Sre-Mnong, Mnong, Eastern Mnong

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Mnong, Southern [mnn] 30,000 (2002). Mostly in Binh Phuoc Province south of the Central Mnong and north of the Stieng. Dialects: Bunong (Nong, Pnong), Prang (Po Rang). Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, South Bahnaric, Sre-Mnong, Mnong, Southern-Central Mnong

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Monom [moo] 5,000 (1973 SIL). Eastern Gia Lai and Kon Tum provinces. Alternate names: Bonom, Menam, Monam. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Sedang-Todrah, Todrah-Monom

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Muong [mtq] 1,137,515 (1999 census). Hoa Bình, Thanh Hóa, Vinh Phú, Yen Bai, Son La, and Ninh Binh provinces, mostly in the mountains of north central Viet Nam. Dialects: Thang, Wang, Mol, Mual, Moi 1, Boi Bi (Moi Bi), Ao Tá (Au Tá). Related to Sach, May, Ruc, Arem, Thavung, Pakatan. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Muong

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Ná-Meo [neo] 1,200 (2002). Northwest part of Lang Son Province, Trang Dinh District, Cao Minh Village and Khuoi Phu Dao Village, Khanh Long Hamlet; Thach An District, Ca Liec Village. Classification: Unclassified

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Nguôn [nuo] 2,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Minh Hoa District, northeastern Quang Binh Province. Alternate names: Ngouan. Dialects: Diffloth (1992) groups Nguon as a separate language close to Vietnamese, but Doi (1996) and Ferlus (1996) group it with Muong. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Muong

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Nung [nut] 856,412 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Mainly in Cao Bang and Lang Son provinces. A number of Nung now live in Ho Chi Minh City, Dong Nai, Lam Dong, and Dac Lac. Also spoken in Australia, Canada, Laos, USA. Alternate names: Nong, Bu-Nong, Highland Nung, Tai Nung, Tay, Tày Nùng. Dialects: Xuòng, Giang, Nùng An, Nùng Phan Slình (Nùng Fan Slihng), Nùng Cháo, Nùng Lòi, Nùng Qúy Rin (Guiren), Khen Lài, Nùng Inh. Close to Tày and Southern Zhuang (Ningming, Longzhou varieties). Dialect cluster with Southern Zhuang in China. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Central

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O'du [tyh] 301 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Population total all countries: 495. Nghe Tinh Province in northern Viet Nam. Also spoken in Laos. Alternate names: O Du, Iduh, 'Iduh, "Tay Hat", Hat, Haat. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Khmu'

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Pa Di [pdi] 300 in Viet Nam. Lao Cai Province, Muong Khuong District. Alternate names: Padi. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern

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Pacoh [pac] 16,000 in Viet Nam (2002). Population total all countries: 29,224. Quang Tri Province. Also spoken in Laos. Alternate names: Paco, Pokoh, Bo River Van Kieu. Dialects: Pahi (Ba-Hi). Related to Phuong. 'Koh' in 'Pacoh' means 'mountain'. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Katu-Pacoh

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Pa-Hng [pha] 5,569 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Tuyên Quang and Hà Giang provinces. Alternate names: Pa Hng, Paheng, Baheng, Bahengmai, Pà Hung, Pà Then. Classification: Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Pa-hng

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Phu Thai [pht] 209,000 in Viet Nam (2002). Northern. Alternate names: Putai, Phutai, Puthay, Puthai. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, Lao-Phutai

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Phula [phh] 9,046 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Population total all countries: 13,246. Ethnic population: 13,246. Lao Cai Province, near Lao Cai City and one village in Xin Mun District of Hà Giang Province, also Lai Chau and Son La provinces. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Phu La, Phu Khla, Phu Kha, Fu Khla. Dialects: Related to Laghuu. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Unclassified

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Phuong [phg] 15,112 (2000 WCD). Quang Nam-Da Nang and Gia Lai-Cong Tum provinces, southeast of the Pacoh language. Alternate names: Phuang, Phuong Catang. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, East Katuic, Katu-Pacoh

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Puoc [puo] 18,018 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Population total all countries: 20,182. Lai Chau and Son La provinces in northern Viet Nam, along the Laos border. Also spoken in Laos. Alternate names: Kha Puhoc, Puhoc, Puok, Pua, Xinh Mul, Xinh-Mun, Xin Mul, Sing Mun, Ksing Mul. Dialects: Related to Khang and Pong 3. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Xinh Mul

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Qabiao [laq] 307 in Viet Nam (2002 Edmondson). Population total all countries: 614. Hà Giang Province, Viet Nam-Yunnan-Kwangsi border, upper Clear River valley, Dunshi, Pugao, Pula, Pubang, Manong; Yên Minh and Mèo Vac districts; Dông Van District, Phô Là and Sung Chang villages. Also spoken in China. Alternate names: Ka Beo, Ka Bao, Ka Biao, Laqua, Pubiao, Pupeo, Pu Péo, Pen Ti Lolo, Bendi Lolo. Dialects: Lexical similarity 38% with Gelo, 33% with Lati, 38% with Buyang, 30% with Northern Zhuang, 29% with Dong, 23% with Laka, 26% with Hlai, 10% with Hmong, 7% with Mien. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kadai, Yang-Biao

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Rade [rad] 270,348 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Dac Lac and part of Phu Yen and Khanh Hoa provinces, centered around Banmethuot. Possibly also Cambodia. Also spoken in USA. Alternate names: Rhade, Raday, Rde, E-De, Edeh, De. Dialects: Bih, Ndhur (Mdhur), Adham (A-Dham), Blo, Kodrao (Kdrao), Krung 1, Rde Kpa (Kpa). Bih (1,000) may be a separate language. The Krung 1 dialect is different from the Bahnaric language Krung 2, in Cambodia. Other names of dialects or ethnic groups: Ktul, Dlie, Rue, E-pan, Dong Kay, Arul, Kah. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayic, Achinese-Chamic, Chamic, South, Plateau

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Rengao [ren] 16,000 (2002). Kon Tum Province, from northwest of Dak To to southeast of Kontum city between Sedang and Bahnar. Alternate names: Ro-Ngao. Dialects: Western Rengao, Sedang-Rengao, Bahnar-Rengao. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Rengao

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Roglai, Cacgia [roc] 3,000 (2002). Ninh Thuan Province, on the coast northeast of Phan Rang. Alternate names: Ra-Glai. Dialects: It is considerably different from other Roglai dialects. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayic, Achinese-Chamic, Chamic, South, Coastal, Roglai

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Roglai, Northern [rog] 52,931 (2002). Ninh Thuan, Binh Thuan, Khanh Hoa and Lam Dong provinces, in the mountains west and south of Nhatrang, and some near Dalat. Alternate names: Radlai, Adlai, Rayglay, Ra-Glai, Rang Glai, Noang, La-Oang. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayic, Achinese-Chamic, Chamic, South, Coastal, Roglai

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Roglai, Southern [rgs] 41,000 (1999 census). Binh Thuan and Ninh Thuan provinces, southern Viet Nam. Alternate names: Rai. Dialects: Rai. Close to Chru and Northern Roglai. Classification: Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Malayic, Achinese-Chamic, Chamic, South, Coastal, Roglai

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Romam [rmx] 250 (1993 Dang Nghiem Van). On the Viet Nam-Cambodian border. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, Central Bahnaric

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Sedang [sed] 100,648 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Population total all countries: 101,434. Kon Tum, Quang Nam, Quang Ngai provinces. Also spoken in Laos. Alternate names: Hadang, Hdang, Hoteang, Roteang, Rotea, Hotea, Xodang, Xa Dang, Cadong, Tang, Kmrang. Dialects: Central Sedang, Greater Sedang, Dak Sut Sedang, Kotua Sedang, Kon Hring Sedang. Closest to Hre. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Sedang-Todrah, Sedang

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Sila [slt] 840 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Lai Chau Province, Cú Dè Xù, Khá Pé. 3 villages: Ban Xeo Hai in Xa Can Ho, Xi Thao Chai of Pa Ha, Nam Xin of Muong Nhe. Alternate names: Sida. Classification: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Lolo-Burmese, Loloish, Southern, Akha, Hani

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Stieng, Budeh [stt] Southern Stieng area, Binh Phuoc and Tay Ninh provinces. Alternate names: Lower Stieng, Southern Stieng. Dialects: Different enough from Bulo Stieng that intelligibility is not functional. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, South Bahnaric

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Stieng, Bulo [sti] Population total all countries: 6,059. Binh Phuoc, Lam Dong, and Tay Ninh provinces. Also spoken in Cambodia. Alternate names: Xtieng, Xa-Dieng, Budíp, Rangah, Upper Stieng, Northern Stieng. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, South Bahnaric, Stieng-Chrau

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Sui [swi] 120 in Viet Nam (2002 Edmondson). Tuyen Quang, Chiem Hoa. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Kam-Sui

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Tai Daeng [tyr] 140,000 in Viet Nam (2002). Population total all countries: 165,000. North central Viet Nam in the area of Thanh Hoa Province, south of Sam Nuea. Also spoken in Laos, Thailand, USA. Alternate names: Red Tai, Tai Rouge, Thai Do, Thai Dang, Tai Deng, Daeng, Táy-Môc-Châu, Môc-Châu. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Chiang Saeng

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Tai Dam [blt] 699,000 in Viet Nam (2002 SIL). Population total all countries: 763,700. Northern Viet Nam along the Red and Black rivers. Some moved south and are settled in Tung Nghia (Lam Dam),Tho Thanh (Dac Lac), Pleiku (Gia Lai), and elsewhere. Also spoken in Australia, China, France, Laos, Thailand, USA. Alternate names: Tai Noir, Thái Den, Táy-Dam, Black Tai, Tai Do. Dialects: Táy Mu'ò'i (Tai Mueai, Meuay). Close to Song and Tai Dón, but not inherently intelligible with Tai Dón. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Chiang Saeng

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Tai Do [tyj] 300 (2002). Northern Viet Nam. Alternate names: Tay-Jo, Tay Yo, Tay Muoi, Tay Quy Chau. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai

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Tai Dón [twh] 280,000 in Viet Nam (2002). Population total all countries: 490,000. North Viet Nam along the Red and Black rivers. Some are settled in southern Viet Nam, mainly in Tung Nghia (Lam Dong Province). Also spoken in China, France, Laos. Alternate names: Tai Blanc, Thái Tráng, Tai Lai, Tai Kao, Táy Khao, White Tai. Dialects: Not intelligible with Tai Dam. Lao has influenced the speech of some Tai Dón speakers. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Chiang Saeng

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Tai Hang Tong [thc] 10,000 (2002). Northern Viet Nam. Alternate names: Hàng Tong, Tày Muòng. Dialects: Part of the Thái official ethnic community, related to White Thai, Tai Dam, Pu Thay, Tay Thanh, and Tho Da Bac. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Chiang Saeng

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Tai Thanh [tmm] 20,000 (2002). Northern Viet Nam, Thanh Hoa and Nghe An provinces. Alternate names: Táy Thanh, Thanh, Tai Man Thanh. Dialects: Part of the Thái official ethnic community, related to White Thai, Tai Dam, Tai Hang Tong, Pu Thay, and Tho Da Bac. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern

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Takua [tkz] 12,768 (2000 WCD). Quang Nam and Da Nang provinces. Alternate names: Quang Tin Katu, Langya. Dialects: Closest to Cua and Kayong. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, East, Takua

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Ta'oih, Upper [tth] 19,000 in Viet Nam (2002). 70% monolingual. Thua Thien-Hue Province and Quang Tri Province. Alternate names: T-Oy, Tà-Oi, Tau Oi, Ta Hoi, Toi-Oi, Kantua. Dialects: Pasoom, Kamuan', Palee'n, Leem, Ha'aang (Sa'ang). Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Katuic, Central Katuic, Ta'oih

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Tày [tyz] 1,477,514 in Viet Nam (1999 census). Cao Bàng, Lang Son, Hà Giang, Tuye Quang, Bác Thái, Quang Ninh, Hà Bac, and Lam Dòng provinces, central and northeastern Viet Nam near the China border. Some moved south and settled in Tung Nghia and Song Mao. Also possibly in Laos. Also spoken in France, USA. Alternate names: "Thô", Thu Lao, T'o, Tai Tho, Ngan, Phen. Dialects: Central Tày, Eastern Tày, Southern Tày, Northern Tày, Tày Trung Khanh, Thu Lao, Tày Bao Lac. Dialect continuum to Southern Zhuang in China. Close to Nung. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Central

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Tày Sa Pa [tys] 300 (2002 Edmondson). Lao Cai Province, Muong Khuong District. Alternate names: Tai Sa Pa. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern

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Tày Tac [tyt] Northwestern Viet Nam, Muong Tâc District in eastern Son La Province. Alternate names: Tai Tac. Dialects: Related to Tai Dam, Tai Dón, Tai Daeng. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Chiang Saeng

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Tho [tou] 68,394 (1999 census). Northern Nghe An Province, highland areas. Cuoi Cham is in Tan Hop commune, Tan Ky District. Alternate names: Cuoi, Cuoi Cham, Keo, Ho Muong Meridional. Dialects: Cuoi Cham (Uy Lo), Mon. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Cuoi

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Thu Lao [tyl] 200 (2002 Edmondson). Cao Bàng, Lang Son, Hà Giang, Tuye Quang, Bác Thái, Quang Ninh, Hà Bac, and Lam Dòng provinces, central and northeastern Viet Nam near the China border. Some moved south and settled in Tung Nghia and Song Mao. Also possibly in Laos. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Chiang Saeng

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Todrah [tdr] 9,142 (2000 WCD). Kon Tum Province, northeast of Kon Tum City from Kon Hring to Kon Braih. Alternate names: Todrá, Didrah, Didra, Podra, Modra, Kodra. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West, Sedang-Todrah, Todrah-Monom

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Trieng [stg] 15,000 (2002). Mainly in Kon Tum and Quang Nam provinces. Alternate names: Strieng, Gie-Trieng, Tareh, Treng, Ta-Rieng, Talieng, Dgiéh, Giang Ray, Pin. Dialects: May be related to Jeh or Talieng in Laos. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Eastern Mon-Khmer, Bahnaric, North Bahnaric, West

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Ts'ün-Lao [tsl] 10,000 (1993 Dang Nghiem Van). Lai Chau Province, northwestern Viet Nam. Alternate names: Lao. Classification: Tai-Kadai, Kam-Tai, Be-Tai, Tai-Sek, Tai, Central

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Vietnamese [vie] 65,795,718 in VIet Nam (1999 census). Population total all countries: 67,439,139. The entire country. Also spoken in Australia, Cambodia, Canada, China, Côte d'Ivoire, Finland, France, Germany, Laos, Martinique, Netherlands, New Caledonia, Norway, Philippines, Senegal, Thailand, United Kingdom, USA, Vanuatu. Alternate names: Kinh, Gin, Jing, Ching, Viet, Annamese. Dialects: Northern Vietnamese (Tonkinese, Hanoi), Central Vietnamese (Hue), Southern Vietnamese. Numerous dialects. Classification: Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Viet-Muong, Vietnamese

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Extinct languages

Tay Boi [tas] Extinct. Was used in the major ports of French Indo-China. Alternate names: Tay Boy, Annamite French, Vietnamese Pidgin French. Classification: Pidgin, French based

 

Capital city:

Hanoi

 

Meaning country name:

(Cognate of the Chinese: 越南), "Beyond the southern border", as referred to by ancient Chinese, or "South Yue", after the Yue peoples of ancient southeast China.

 

Description Flag:

The flag of Vietnam, officially known as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is also known as "Red flag with Yellow star". This flag was adopted as the National flag of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) on November 30, 1955. It became the national flag of Vietnam following the Vietnam War on July 2, 1976.

The flag has a red background with a yellow five-pointed star in the center. There has been 2 versions of the yellow star's meaning. In the years following 1945, during the independence movement of Vietnam, red represents the struggle for independence, yellow represents the color of Vietnamese people, and the five points of the star were widely believed to represent the 5 traditional classes of people: the scholars(Si 士), the peasants(Nong 農), the craftmen(Cong 工), the merchants(Thuong 商), and the soldiers(Binh 兵). However, after the Communist Party of Vietnam had established complete rule over North Vietnam in 1954 and South Vietnam in 1975, the yellow star was often described in political training sessions as representing the leadership of the Communist Party of Vietnam, and red represents the proletarian revolution.

The flag was designed by Nguyen Huu Tien (Vietnamese: Nguyễn Hữu Tiến), a communist revolutionary of the 1940 Cochinchina Uprising ("Nam Kỳ Khởi nghĩa") against French colonialism, when the flag was seen on the first time. The uprising failed, and he was arrested and executed along with other leaders of the uprising.

The Western heraldic blazon is Gules, a mullet Or.

The flag of North Vietnam in the period of 1945–1955 was similar to the current flag of Vietnam but with a fatter star.

 

Coat of arms:

The coat of arms of Viet Nam is modelled after Communist Party symbols, including the yellow star on a red field. The cog and crops represent the cooperation of agriculture and industrial labor in the Communist model. It is similar to the coat of arms of People's Republic of China, and was adopted as the Coat of Arms of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) on November 30, 1955. It became national following reunification with South Vietnam on July 2, 1976.

 

Motto:

Độc lập - Tự do - Hạnh phúc

"Independence - Freedom - Happiness"

 

National Anthem: Tiến Quân Ca

 

Verse 1

Đoàn quân Việt Nam đi

Chung lòng cứu quốc

Bước chân dồn vang trên đường gập ghềnh xa

Cờ in máu chiến thắng mang hồn nước,

Súng ngoài xa chen khúc quân hành ca.

Đường vinh quang xây xác quân thù,

Thắng gian lao cùng nhau lập chiến khu.

Vì nhân dân chiến đấu không ngừng,

Tiến mau ra sa trường,

Tiến lên, cùng tiến lên.

Nước non Việt Nam ta vững bền.

The sixth line was originally: "Thề phanh thây uống máu quân thù"

 

Verse 2

Đoàn quân Việt Nam đi

Sao vàng phấp phới

Dắt giống nòi quê hương qua nơi lầm than

Cùng chung sức phấn đấu xây đời mới,

Đứng đều lên gông xích ta đập tan.

Từ bao lâu ta nuốt căm hờn,

Quyết hy sinh đời ta tươi thắm hơn.

Vì nhân dân chiến đấu không ngừng,

Tiến mau ra sa trường,

Tiến lên, cùng tiến lên.

Nước non Việt Nam ta vững bền.

 

English translation

Verse 1

Armies of Vietnam, forward!

With the single determination to save the Fatherland,

Our hurried steps resound on the long and arduous road.

Our flag, red with the blood of victory, bears the spirit of the country.

The distant rumbling of the guns mingles with our marching song.

The path to glory passes over the bodies of our foes.

Overcoming all hardships, together we build our resistance bases.

Ceaselessly for the People's cause let us struggle,

Let us hasten to the battlefield!

Forward! All together advancing!

Our Vietnam is strong, eternal.

The sixth line was originally: "We swear to flay the enemies and drink their blood" This was changed to current wordings in 1955 by the Fifth Plenum of the First National Assembly.

 

Verse 2

Soldiers of Vietnam, forward!

The gold star afluttering

Leading the people of our native land out of misery and suffering.

Let us join our efforts in the fight to build a new life.

Arise and break these chains.

For too long have we swallowed our hatred.

Be ready for all sacrifices and life will be radiant.

Ceaselessly for the People's cause, let us struggle,

Let us hasten to the battlefield!

Forward! All together advancing!

Our Vietnam is strong, eternal.

 

Internet Page: www.chinhphu.vn

www.vietnam.com

www.vietnamtourism.com

 

Vietnam in diferent languages

 

eng | ast | cat | ces | cor | dan | dsb | est | eus | fao | fin | fur | glg | hau | hsb | hun | ibo | ina | jav | jnf | nld | nor | oci | roh | ron | rup | scn | slk | slv | sme | spa | srd | swa | swe | tur | vor | wln | zza: Vietnam

crh | gag | kaa | uzb: Vyetnam / Вьетнам

deu | ltz | nds: Vietnam / Vietnam

bre | frp: Viêt Nam

csb | pol: Wietnam

cym | fry: Fietnam

ind | msa: Vietnam / ۏيتنام

ita | lld: Viet Nam; Vietnam

kin | run: Viyetnamu

mol | slo: Vietnam / Виетнам

afr: Viëtnam

arg: Bietnam; Viet Nam

aze: Vyetnam / Вјетнам

bam: Wiyɛtinamu

bos: Vijetnam / Вијетнам

epo: Vjetnamo; Vjetnamio

fra: Viêt Nam; Viet Nam; Vietnam; Viêtnam

gla: Bhiet-Nam; Bhietnam

gle: Vítneam / Vítneam

glv: Yn Vietnam

hat: Vyetnam

hrv: Vijetnam

isl: Víetnam

kmr: Vîêtnam / Виетнам / ڤیێتنام ; Vêtnam / Ветнам / ڤێتنام

kur: Viyetnam / ڤیەتنام

lat: Vietnamia

lav: Vjetnama

lim: Viëtnam; Vietnam

lin: Vietnami; Vietnam

lit: Vietnamas

mlg: Vietnama

mlt: Vjetnam

mri: Whitināmu

nrm: Vyitename

pap: Viètnam

por: Vietname / Vietnã

que: Witnam

rmy: Vyetnam / व्येत्नाम

smg: Vietnams

smo: Viatename

som: Fiyetnaam

sqi: Vietnami

szl: Wjetnam

tet: Vietname

tgl: Byet-Nam; Biyetnam

ton: Vietinemi

tuk: Wýetnam / Вьетнам

vie: Việt Nam

vol: Vietnamän

wol: Wiyetnaam

abq | alt | che | chm | chv | kbd | kir | kjh | kom | krc | kum | mon | oss | rus | tyv | udm: Вьетнам (V'jetnam)

bul | mkd: Виетнам (Vietnam)

bak: Вьетнам / Vyetnam

bel: В’етнам / Vietnam; Віетнам / Vijetnam

kaz: Вьетнам / Vyetnam / ۆيەتنام

srp: Вијетнам / Vijetnam

tat: Вьетнам / Vietnam

tgk: Виетнам / ویتنم / Vietnam

ukr: В’єтнам (V’jetnam)

ara: فييتنام (Fiyītnām); فيتنام (Fiyatnām); الفييتنام (al-Fiyītnām); الفيتنام (al-Fiyatnām)

fas: ویتنام / ویتنام / Viyetnâm

prs: ویتنام (Vētnām)

pus: وېتنام (Wetnām)

uig: ۋيېتنام / Wyétnam / Вьетнам

urd: ویتنام / ویتنام (Viyatnām); ویٹنام (Viyaṫnām)

div: ވިއެޓްނާމް (Vi'eṫnām); ވިއެޓުނާމު (Vi'eṫunāmu)

heb: ויאטנם (Vî'eṭnam); ויאטנאם (Vî'eṭnâm); ויטנם / וייטנם (Vyeṭnam); וייטנאם (Vyeṭnâm)

lad: ב'ייטנאם / Vietnam

yid: װיעטנאַם (Vyetnam)

amh: ቪየትናም (Viyätnam)

ell-dhi: Βιετνάμ (Vietnám)

ell-kat: Βιετνάμ (Vietnám); Βιὲτ-Νάμ (Vièt-Nám)

hye: Վյետնամ (Vyetnam); Վիետնամ (Vietnam)

kat: ვიეტნამი (Vietnami)

hin: वियतनाम (Viyatnām); विअतनाम (Viatnām); वीतनाम (Vītnām)

nep: भियतनाम (Bʰiyatnām)

ben: ভিয়েতনাম (Bʰiyetnām)

pan: ਵੀਅਤਨਾਮ (Vīatnām)

kan: ವಿಯೆಟ್ನಾಮ್ (Viyeṭnām)

mal: വിയറ്റ്നാം (Viyaṟṟnāṁ)

tam: வியட்நாம் (Viyaṭnām)

tel: వియత్నాం (Viyatnāṁ); వియత్నామ్ (Viyatnām)

zho: 越南 (Yuènán)

yue: 越南 (Yuhtnàahm)

jpn: ヴィエトナム (Vietonamu); ベトナム (Betonamu)

kor: 베트남 (Beteunam)

bod: ཝའི་ནམ་ (Wa'i.nam.); ཡོས་ནན་ (Yos.nan.); ཡོ་ནན་ (Yo.nan.)

dzo: བེཊ་ནཱམ་ (Beṭ.nām.)

mya: ဗီယက္နမ္ (Biyeʿnã)

tha: เวียดนาม (Wiyatnām)

lao: ຫວຽດນາມ ([h]Wẏatnām)

khm: វៀតណាម (Vietṇām); យៀកណាម (Yiekṇām)

 

When routine bites hard and ambitions are low

And resentment rides high, but emotions won't grow

And we're changing our ways, taking different roads

Then love, love will tear us apart again

Love, love will tear us apart again

Why is the bedroom so cold? You've turned away on your side

Is my timing that flawed? Our respect runs so dry

Yet there's still this appeal that we've kept through our lives

But love, love will tear us apart again

Love, love will tear us apart again

You cry out in your sleep, all my failings exposed

There's a taste in my mouth as desperation takes hold

Just that something so good, just can't function no more

Then love, love will tear us apart again

Love, love will tear us apart again

Then love, love will tear it apart again

Love, love will tear it apart again Joy Division

Hore Abbey (also Hoare Abbey, sometimes known as St.Mary's) is a ruined Cistercian monastery near the Rock of Cashel, County Tipperary, Republic of Ireland.

 

'Hore' is thought to derive from 'iubhair' – yew tree. The former Benedictine abbey at Hore was given to the Cistercians by Archbishop David MacCearbhaill (in 1270), who later entered the monastery. He endowed the Abbey generously with land, mills and other benefices previously belonging to the town. A story that is much cited by tour-guides is that he evicted the Benedictines after a dream that they were about to kill him. This is unlikely to be true and probably arises from the Archbishop's 'interference' with the commerce of the city of Cashel. His disfavour of the established orders in Cashel certainly caused local resentment. He was resented by some of the towns-people, being considered too much in favour of the Irish by the more Anglicised. This is evident in the objection by the thirty-eight local brewers to the levy of two flagons out of every brewing and in the murder of two monks who were visiting the town.

 

_ Wikipedia

Let go of all your: worries, past, toxic people, anxieties, anger, hate, stress and resentments so you can shine!

used here, here, here, here, here

   

excerpt from the wikipedia entry for Mouse:

 

Although they may live up to two years in the lab, the average mouse in the wild lives only about 3 months, primarily due to heavy predation. Cats, wild dogs, foxes, birds of prey, snakes and even certain kinds of insects have been known to prey heavily upon mice. Nevertheless, due to its incredible adaptability to almost any environment, and its ability to live commensally with humans, the mouse is regarded to be the third most successful mammalian species living on Earth today, after humans and the rat.

 

Mice can be harmful pests, damaging and eating crops and spreading diseases through their parasites and feces. In the Western United States, breathing dust that has come in contact with mouse feces has been linked to the deadly hantavirus. The original motivation for the domestication of cats is thought to have been for their predation of mice and their relatives, the rats.

  

copyright © 2007 sean dreilinger

  

follow me! FB / twitter / G+

view cornered mouse fighting our cat spaceghost - _MG_2971 on a black background.

 

One of three photos of hibiscus blossoms in Honolulu.

 

Thanks for visiting, I will catch up when I return home.

Now all's he needs is a smoking jacket!

++++++ Form Wikipedia +++++

  

Kalaw (Burmese: ကလောမြို့; Shan: ၵလေႃး [ka lɔ]) is a hill town in the Shan State of Myanmar. It is located in Kalaw Township in Taunggyi District.

Kalaw

ကလောမြို့

Kalaw 21.jpg

Kalaw is located in Myanmar

Kalaw

 

Location in Myanmar

Coordinates: 20°38′N 96°34′E

Country Myanmar

Division Shan State

Districts Taunggyi District

Township Kalaw Township

Population (2005)

• Religions Buddhism

Time zone MST (UTC+6.30)

OverviewEdit

 

The town was popular with the British during colonial rule. Kalaw is the main setting of the novel "The Art of Hearing Heartbeats" by Jan-Philipp Sendker.

 

The hill station is located at an elevation of 1320 metres, 50 km from the Inle lake. Kalaw is famous for hiking and trekking.[1]

Kalaw Train station sign altitude.

 

Myanmar (Burmese pronunciation: [mjəmà]),[nb 1][8] officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a sovereign state in Southeast Asia. Myanmar is bordered by India and Bangladesh to its west, Thailand and Laos to its east and China to its north and northeast. To its south, about one third of Myanmar's total perimeter of 5,876 km (3,651 mi) forms an uninterrupted coastline of 1,930 km (1,200 mi) along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. The country's 2014 census counted the population to be 51 million people.[9] As of 2017, the population is about 54 million.[10] Myanmar is 676,578 square kilometers (261,228 square miles) in size. Its capital city is Naypyidaw, and its largest city and former capital is Yangon (Rangoon).[1] Myanmar has been a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1997.

 

Early civilisations in Myanmar included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Burma and the Mon kingdoms in Lower Burma.[11] In the 9th century, the Bamar people entered the upper Irrawaddy valley and, following the establishment of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese language, culture and Theravada Buddhism slowly became dominant in the country. The Pagan Kingdom fell due to the Mongol invasions and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty, the country was for a brief period the largest empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia.[12] The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur and Assam as well. The British took over the administration of Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the country became a British colony. Myanmar was granted independence in 1948, as a democratic nation. Following a coup d'état in 1962, it became a military dictatorship.

 

For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife and its myriad ethnic groups have been involved in one of the world's longest-running ongoing civil wars. During this time, the United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country.[13] In 2011, the military junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election, and a nominally civilian government was installed. This, along with the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners, has improved the country's human rights record and foreign relations, and has led to the easing of trade and other economic sanctions.[14] There is, however, continuing criticism of the government's treatment of ethnic minorities, its response to the ethnic insurgency, and religious clashes.[15] In the landmark 2015 election, Aung San Suu Kyi's party won a majority in both houses. However, the Burmese military remains a powerful force in politics.

 

Myanmar is a country rich in jade and gems, oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$56.7 billion and its GDP (PPP) at US$221.5 billion.[6] The income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government.[16] As of 2016, Myanmar ranks 145 out of 188 countries in human development, according to the Human Development Index.[7]

Etymology

Main article: Names of Myanmar

 

In 1989, the military government officially changed the English translations of many names dating back to Burma's colonial period or earlier, including that of the country itself: "Burma" became "Myanmar". The renaming remains a contested issue.[17] Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use "Burma" because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country.[18]

 

In April 2016, soon after taking office, Aung San Suu Kyi clarified that foreigners are free to use either name, "because there is nothing in the constitution of our country that says that you must use any term in particular".[19]

 

The country's official full name is the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar" (ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်, Pyidaunzu Thanmăda Myăma Nainngandaw, pronounced [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀]). Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form "Union of Burma" instead.[20]

 

In English, the country is popularly known as either "Burma" or "Myanmar" /ˈmjɑːnˌmɑːr/ (About this sound listen).[8] Both these names are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group. Myanmar is considered to be the literary form of the name of the group, while Burma is derived from "Bamar", the colloquial form of the group's name.[17] Depending on the register used, the pronunciation would be Bama (pronounced [bəmà]) or Myamah (pronounced [mjəmà]).[17] The name Burma has been in use in English since the 18th century.

 

Burma continues to be used in English by the governments of many countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom.[21][22] Official United States policy retains Burma as the country's name, although the State Department's website lists the country as "Burma (Myanmar)" and Barack Obama has referred to the country by both names.[23] The Czech Republic officially uses Myanmar, although its Ministry of Foreign Affairs mentions both Myanmar and Burma on its website.[24] The United Nations uses Myanmar, as do the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Australia,[25] Russia, Germany,[26] China, India, Bangladesh, Norway,[27] Japan[21] and Switzerland.[28]

 

Most English-speaking international news media refer to the country by the name Myanmar, including the BBC,[29] CNN,[30] Al Jazeera,[31] Reuters,[32] RT (Russia Today) and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)/Radio Australia.[33]

 

Myanmar is known with a name deriving from Burma as opposed to Myanmar in Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Greek – Birmania being the local version of Burma in the Spanish language, for example. Myanmar used to be known as "Birmânia" in Portuguese, and as "Birmanie" in French.[34] As in the past, French-language media today consistently use Birmanie.,[35][36]

History

Main article: History of Myanmar

Prehistory

Main articles: Prehistory of Myanmar and Migration period of ancient Burma

Pyu city-states c. 8th century; Pagan is shown for comparison only and is not contemporary.

 

Archaeological evidence shows that Homo erectus lived in the region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more erectus finds after 75,000 years ago.[37] The first evidence of Homo sapiens is dated to about 11,000 BC, in a Stone Age culture called the Anyathian with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar. Evidence of neolithic age domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BC has been discovered in the form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves.[38]

 

The Bronze Age arrived circa 1500 BC when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so.[39] Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered in Monywa District in the Sagaing Division.[40] The Iron Age began around 500 BC with the emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay.[41] Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BC and 200 AD.[42] Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such as India and Thailand, as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials. This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade.[43]

Early city-states

Main articles: Pyu city-states and Mon kingdoms

 

Around the second century BC the first-known city-states emerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan.[44] The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation.[45]

 

By the 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century the Bamar people founded a small settlement at Bagan. It was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century when it grew in authority and grandeur.[46]

Imperial Burma

Main articles: Pagan Kingdom, Taungoo Dynasty, and Konbaung Dynasty

See also: Ava Kingdom, Hanthawaddy Kingdom, Kingdom of Mrauk U, and Shan States

Pagodas and kyaungs in present-day Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom.

 

Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia.[47] The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu, Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century.[48]

 

Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level, although Tantric, Mahayana, Hinduism, and folk religion remained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions (1277–1301) toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287.[48]

Temples at Mrauk U.

 

Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan States came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until the late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom, emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437.

 

Early on, Ava fought wars of unification (1385–1424) but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Having held off Ava, Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava itself, and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555.

 

Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and the Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture. Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged.[49] Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest of the country.[50] Many splendid temples of Mrauk U were built during this period.

Taungoo and colonialism

Bayinnaung's Empire in 1580.

 

Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, due to the efforts of Taungoo, a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious king Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War (1534–41). His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na, Manipur, Mong Mao, the Ayutthaya Kingdom, Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam).

 

The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored a smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Myanmar, Upper Myanmar, Shan states, Lan Na and upper Tenasserim. The Restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features would continue well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley, and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty.

A British 1825 lithograph of Shwedagon Pagoda shows British occupation during the First Anglo-Burmese War.

 

After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War involved one resistance group under Alaungpaya defeating the Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759, he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur, and driven out the French and the British, who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos (1765) and fought and won the Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67) against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese War (1765–69) against Qing China (1765–1769).[51]

 

With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India.[52]

 

The breadth of this empire was short lived. Burma lost Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim to the British in the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. King Mindon Min tried to modernise the kingdom, and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina, annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.

 

Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms, and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).[53] Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.

British Burma (1824–1948)

Main articles: British rule in Burma and Burma Campaign

Burma in British India

The landing of British forces in Mandalay after the last of the Anglo-Burmese Wars, which resulted in the abdication of the last Burmese monarch, King Thibaw Min.

British troops firing a mortar on the Mawchi road, July 1944.

 

The eighteenth century saw Burmese rulers, whose country had not previously been of particular interest to European traders, seek to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next sixty years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises continued until, after three Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1885), Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma.[54] British rule brought social, economic, cultural and administrative changes.

 

With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886. Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore.

 

Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralysed Yangon (Rangoon) on occasion all the way until the 1930s.[55] Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions such as the British refusal to remove shoes when they entered pagodas. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. U Wisara, an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest against a rule that forbade him to wear his Buddhist robes while imprisoned.[56]

Separation of British Burma from British India

 

On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Great Britain and Ba Maw the first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule and he opposed the participation of Great Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II. He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the Second World War, Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan.

 

A major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II. By March 1942, within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Wingate's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines.[57] A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943.[58] Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma. Only 1,700 prisoners were taken.[59]

 

Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army.[60] The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Under Japanese occupation, 170,000 to 250,000 civilians died.[61]

 

Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as a unified state. Aung Zan Wai, Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung, Sir Maung Gyi, Dr. Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historical Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals[62] assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.[63]

Independence (1948–1962)

Main article: Post-independence Burma, 1948–62

British governor Hubert Elvin Rance and Sao Shwe Thaik at the flag raising ceremony on 4 January 1948 (Independence Day of Burma).

 

On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities,[64] and multi-party elections were held in 1951–1952, 1956 and 1960.

 

The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.[65]

 

In 1961, U Thant, then the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations, a position he held for ten years.[66] Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi (daughter of Aung San), who went on to become winner of the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize.

 

When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d’état in 1962. Though incorporated in the 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term ‘federalism’ as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration.[67]

Military rule (1962–2011)

 

On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état, and the government has been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalised or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism,[68] which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning.

 

A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system, with the General and other military officers resigning and ruling through the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP).[69] During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries.[70]

Protesters gathering in central Rangoon, 1988.

 

There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students.[68] In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.[69]

 

In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising. Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.[71] SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989.

 

In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years and the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won 392 out of a total 492 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power[72] and continued to rule the nation as SLORC until 1997, and then as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011.

Protesters in Yangon during the 2007 Saffron Revolution with a banner that reads non-violence: national movement in Burmese. In the background is Shwedagon Pagoda.

 

On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw, meaning "city of the kings".[73]

Cyclone Nargis in southern Myanmar, May 2008.

 

In August 2007, an increase in the price of diesel and petrol led to the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government.[74] The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007. The crackdown was harsh, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmed protesters was widely condemned as part of the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the Burmese Government.

 

In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated, rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division.[75] It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damage totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million left homeless.[76] In the critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's isolationist government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts.[77] Humanitarian aid was requested but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.[78]

 

In early August 2009, a conflict known as the Kokang incident broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the Han Chinese,[79] Wa, and Kachin.[80][81] During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan province in neighbouring China.[80][81][82]

Civil wars

Main articles: Internal conflict in Myanmar, Kachin Conflict, Karen conflict, and 2015 Kokang offensive

 

Civil wars have been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding the ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar's civil wars continue.[83]

 

In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included the Kachin conflict,[84] between the Pro-Christian Kachin Independence Army and the government;[85] a civil war between the Rohingya Muslims, and the government and non-government groups in Rakhine State;[86] and a conflict between the Shan,[87] Lahu, and Karen[88][89] minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country. In addition, al-Qaeda signalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar. In a video released on 3 September 2014, mainly addressed to India, the militant group's leader Ayman al-Zawahiri said al-Qaeda had not forgotten the Muslims of Myanmar and that the group was doing "what they can to rescue you".[90] In response, the military raised its level of alertness, while the Burmese Muslim Association issued a statement saying Muslims would not tolerate any threat to their motherland.[91]

 

Armed conflict between ethnic Chinese rebels and the Myanmar Armed Forces have resulted in the Kokang offensive in February 2015. The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on the Chinese side of the border.[92] During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the ethnic Chinese rebels. Burmese officials have been historically "manipulated" and pressured by the Chinese government throughout Burmese modern history to create closer and binding ties with China, creating a Chinese satellite state in Southeast Asia.[93] However, uncertainties exist as clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups continue.

Democratic reforms

Main article: 2011–12 Burmese political reforms

 

The goal of the Burmese constitutional referendum of 2008, held on 10 May 2008, is the creation of a "discipline-flourishing democracy". As part of the referendum process, the name of the country was changed from the "Union of Myanmar" to the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar", and general elections were held under the new constitution in 2010. Observer accounts of the 2010 election describe the event as mostly peaceful; however, allegations of polling station irregularities were raised, and the United Nations (UN) and a number of Western countries condemned the elections as fraudulent.[94]

U.S. President Barack Obama and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton with Aung San Suu Kyi and her staff at her home in Yangon, 2012

 

The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory in the 2010 elections, stating that it had been favoured by 80 percent of the votes; however, the claim was disputed by numerous pro-democracy opposition groups who asserted that the military regime had engaged in rampant fraud.[95][96] One report documented 77 percent as the official turnout rate of the election.[95] The military junta was dissolved on 30 March 2011.

 

Opinions differ whether the transition to liberal democracy is underway. According to some reports, the military's presence continues as the label "disciplined democracy" suggests. This label asserts that the Burmese military is allowing certain civil liberties while clandestinely institutionalising itself further into Burmese politics. Such an assertion assumes that reforms only occurred when the military was able to safeguard its own interests through the transition—here, "transition" does not refer to a transition to a liberal democracy, but transition to a quasi-military rule.[97]

 

Since the 2010 election, the government has embarked on a series of reforms to direct the country towards liberal democracy, a mixed economy, and reconciliation, although doubts persist about the motives that underpin such reforms. The series of reforms includes the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission, the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permit labour unions and strikes, a relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices.[98]

 

The impact of the post-election reforms has been observed in numerous areas, including ASEAN's approval of Myanmar's bid for the position of ASEAN chair in 2014;[99] the visit by United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in December 2011 for the encouragement of further progress, which was the first visit by a Secretary of State in more than fifty years,[100] during which Clinton met with the Burmese president and former military commander Thein Sein, as well as opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi;[101] and the participation of Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy (NLD) party in the 2012 by-elections, facilitated by the government's abolition of the laws that previously barred the NLD.[102] As of July 2013, about 100[103][104] political prisoners remain imprisoned, while conflict between the Burmese Army and local insurgent groups continues.

Map of Myanmar and its divisions, including Shan State, Kachin State, Rakhine State and Karen State.

 

In 1 April 2012 by-elections, the NLD won 43 of the 45 available seats; previously an illegal organisation, the NLD had not won a single seat under new constitution. The 2012 by-elections were also the first time that international representatives were allowed to monitor the voting process in Myanmar.[105]

2015 general elections

Main article: Myanmar general election, 2015

 

General elections were held on 8 November 2015. These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since 1990. The results gave the National League for Democracy an absolute majority of seats in both chambers of the national parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi is constitutionally barred from the presidency.[106]

 

The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016[107] and, on 15 March 2016, Htin Kyaw was elected as the first non-military president since the military coup of 1962.[108] On 6 April 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi assumed the newly created role of State Counsellor, a role akin to a Prime Minister.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Myanmar

A map of Myanmar

Myanmar map of Köppen climate classification.

 

Myanmar has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (262,000 sq mi). It lies between latitudes 9° and 29°N, and longitudes 92° and 102°E. As of February 2011, Myanmar consisted of 14 states and regions, 67 districts, 330 townships, 64 sub-townships, 377 towns, 2,914 Wards, 14,220 village tracts and 68,290 villages.

 

Myanmar is bordered in the northwest by the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and the Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh states of India. Its north and northeast border is with the Tibet Autonomous Region and Yunnan province for a Sino-Myanmar border total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). It is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Myanmar has 1,930 km (1,200 mi) of contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter.[20]

 

In the north, the Hengduan Mountains form the border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 metres (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Myanmar.[109] Many mountain ranges, such as the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, the Shan Hills and the Tenasserim Hills exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas.[110]

 

The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the Irrawaddy, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittaung rivers.[111] The Irrawaddy River, Myanmar's longest river, nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi) long, flows into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.[110] The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the Irrawaddy valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Myanmar

A clickable map of Burma/Myanmar exhibiting its first-level administrative divisions.

About this image

 

Myanmar is divided into seven states (ပြည်နယ်) and seven regions (တိုင်းဒေသကြီး), formerly called divisions.[112] Regions are predominantly Bamar (that is, mainly inhabited by the dominant ethnic group). States, in essence, are regions that are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into districts, which are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages.

 

Climate

Main article: Climate of Myanmar

The limestone landscape of Mon State.

 

Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (196.9 in) of rain annually. Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (98.4 in), while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone in central Myanmar is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 in). The Northern regions of Myanmar are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of 32 °C (89.6 °F).[111]

Environment

Further information: Deforestation in Myanmar

 

Myanmar continues to perform badly in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 153 out of 180 countries in 2016; among the worst in the South Asian region, only ahead of Bangladesh and Afghanistan. The EPI was established in 2001 by the World Economic Forum as a global gauge to measure how well individual countries perform in implementing the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. The environmental areas where Myanmar performs worst (ie. highest ranking) are air quality (174), health impacts of environmental issues (143) and biodiversity and habitat (142). Myanmar performs best (ie. lowest ranking) in environmental impacts of fisheries (21), but with declining fish stocks. Despite several issues, Myanmar also ranks 64 and scores very good (ie. a high percentage of 93.73%) in environmental effects of the agricultural industry because of an excellent management of the nitrogen cycle.[114][115]

Wildlife

 

Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of the country, including areas of acacia, bamboo, ironwood and Magnolia champaca. Coconut and betel palm and rubber have been introduced. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.[116]

 

Heavy logging since the new 1995 forestry law went into effect has seriously reduced forest acreage and wildlife habitat.[117] The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits and once had large areas of mangroves although much of the protective mangroves have disappeared. In much of central Myanmar (the Dry Zone), vegetation is sparse and stunted.

 

Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers, occur sparsely in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild water buffalo, clouded leopard, wild boars, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber industry. Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, myna, peafowl, red junglefowl, weaverbirds, crows, herons, and barn owl. Among reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.[118] For a list of protected areas, see List of protected areas of Myanmar.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Myanmar

Assembly of the Union (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw)

 

The constitution of Myanmar, its third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and published in September 2008. The country is governed as a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature (with an executive President accountable to the legislature), with 25% of the legislators appointed by the military and the rest elected in general elections.

A tribal elder was telling his grandson about the battle the old man was waging within himself.

 

He said, "It is between two wolves, my son. One is an evil wolf: anger, envy, sorrow, greed, self-pity, guilt, resentment, lies, false pride, superiority and ego. The other is the good wolf: joy, peace, love, hope, serenity, humility, empathy, generosity, truth, compassion and faith."

 

The boy took this in for a few minutes and then asked his grandfather, "Which wolf is winning?" The old Cherokee replied simply, "The one I feed."

  

The capture of the southern gate of Tianjin. British troops were positioned on the left, Japanese troops at the centre, French troops on the right.

 

Massacres by the Westerners: After the liberation of legations, the military, settlers, blinded by the presence of mutilated bodies, impaled bodies, heads placed in pyramids, and countless Christian Chinese corpses defiling the water wells, and in a state of decomposition in the ditches, commit the worst atrocities. They kill the people accused of being Boxers by the thousands, loot, rape, and be photographed on the imperial throne.

 

The Boxer Rebellion, Boxer Uprising or Yihetuan Movement was a violent anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and anti-Christian uprising that took place in China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty. It was initiated by the Militia United in Righteousness (Yihetuan), known in English as the "Boxers", for many of their members had been practioners of the martial arts, such as boxing. They were motivated by proto-nationalist sentiments and opposition to Western colonialism and associated Christian missionary activity. The uprising took place against a background of severe drought and the disruption caused by the growth of foreign spheres of influence. After several months of growing violence against both the foreign and Christian presence in Shandong and the North China plain in June 1900, Boxer fighters, convinced they were invulnerable to foreign weapons, converged on Beijing with the slogan "Support the Qing government and exterminate the foreigners." Foreigners and Chinese Christians sought refuge in the Legation Quarter. In response to reports of an armed invasion to lift the siege, the initially hesitant Empress Dowager Cixi supported the Boxers and on June 21 issued an Imperial Decree declaring war on the foreign powers. Diplomats, foreign civilians and soldiers as well as Chinese Christians in the Legation Quarter were placed under siege by the Imperial Army of China and the Boxers for 55 days.

Chinese officialdom was split between those supporting the Boxers and those favoring conciliation, led by Prince Qing. The supreme commander of the Chinese forces, the Manchu General Ronglu (Junglu), later claimed that he acted to protect the besieged foreigners. The Eight-Nation Alliance, after being initially turned back, brought 20,000 armed troops to China, defeated the Imperial Army, and arrived at Peking on August 14, relieving the siege of the Legations. Uncontrolled plunder of the capital and the surrounding countryside ensued, along with the summary execution of those suspected of being Boxers. The Boxer Protocol of 7 September 1901 provided for the execution of government officials who had supported the Boxers, provisions for foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing, and 450 million taels of silver—approximately $10 billion at 2017 silver prices and more than the government's annual tax revenue—to be paid as indemnity over the course of the next thirty-nine years to the eight nations involved. The Empress Dowager then sponsored a set of institutional and fiscal changes in an attempt to save the Dynasty by reforming it.The Righteous and Harmonious Fists (Yihequan) arose in the inland sections of the northern coastal province of Shandong, long known for social unrest, religious sects, and martial societies. American Christian missionaries were probably the first to refer to the well-trained, athletic young men as "Boxers", because of the martial arts and weapons training they practiced. Their primary practice was a type of spiritual possession which involved the whirling of swords, violent prostrations, and chanting incantations to deities.The opportunities to fight back Western encroachment and colonization were especially attractive to unemployed village men, many of whom were teenagers.[8] The tradition of possession and invulnerability went back several hundred years but took on special meaning against the powerful new weapons of the West.[9] The Boxers, armed with rifles and swords, claimed supernatural invulnerability towards blows of cannon, rifle shots, and knife attacks. Furthermore, the Boxer groups popularly claimed that millions of soldiers of Heaven would descend to assist them in purifying China of foreign oppression.[10] These beliefs are characteristic of millenarian movements of nativist resistance, especially the characteristic magical belief, shared by the Ghost Dancers of North America and the Kartelite Cults of Africa, that the believer could be rendered invulnerable to bullets.In 1895, in spite of ambivalence toward their heterodox practices, Yuxian, a Manchu who was then prefect of Caozhou and would later become provincial governor, used the Big Swords Society in fighting bandits. The Big Swords, emboldened by this official support, also attacked their local Catholic village rivals, who turned to the Church for protection. The Big Swords responded by attacking Catholic churches and burning them. "The line between Christians and bandits", remarks one recent historian, "became increasingly indistinct." As a result of diplomatic pressure in the capital, Yuxian executed several Big Sword leaders, but did not punish anyone else. More martial secret societies started emerging after this. The early years saw a variety of village activities, not a broad movement with a united purpose. Martial folk religious societies such as the Baguadao (Eight Trigrams) prepared the way for the Boxers. Like the Red Boxing school or the Plum Flower Boxers, the Boxers of Shandong were more concerned with traditional social and moral values, such as filial piety, than with foreign influences. One leader, Zhu Hongdeng (Red Lantern Zhu), started as a wandering healer, specializing in skin ulcers, and gained wide respect by refusing payment for his treatments.[13] Zhu claimed descent from Ming dynasty emperors, since his surname was the surname of the Ming imperial family. He announced that his goal was to "Revive the Qing and destroy the foreigners" ("扶清灭洋 fu Qing mie yang"). The combination of extreme weather conditions, Western attempts at colonizing China and growing anti-imperialist sentiment fueled the movement. First, a drought followed by floods in Shandong province in 1897–1898 forced farmers to flee to cities and seek food. As one observer said, "I am convinced that a few days' heavy rainfall to terminate the long-continued drought ... would do more to restore tranquility than any measures which either the Chinese government or foreign governments can take." A French political cartoon depicting China as a pie about to be carved up by Queen Victoria (Britain), Kaiser Wilhelm II (Germany), Tsar Nicholas II (Russia), Marianne (France) and a samurai (Japan), while a Chinese mandarin helplessly looks on.

A major cause of discontent in north China was missionary activity. The Treaty of Tientsin (or Tianjin) and the Convention of Peking, signed in 1860 after the Second Opium War, had granted foreign missionaries the freedom to preach anywhere in China and to buy land on which to build churches.[16] On 1 November 1897, a band of armed men who were perhaps members of the Big Swords Society stormed the residence of a German missionary from the Society of the Divine Word and killed two priests. This attack is known as the Juye Incident. When Kaiser Wilhelm II received news of these murders, he dispatched the German East Asia Squadron to occupy Jiaozhou Bay on the southern coast of the Shandong peninsula. Germany's action triggered a "scramble for concessions" by which Britain, France, Russia and Japan also secured their own sphere of influence in China. In October 1898, a group of Boxers attacked the Christian community of Liyuantun village where a temple to the Jade Emperor had been converted into a Catholic church. Disputes had surrounded the church since 1869, when the temple had been granted to the Christian residents of the village. This incident marked the first time the Boxers used the slogan "Support the Qing, destroy the foreigners" ("扶清灭洋 fu Qing mie yang") that would later characterise them. The "Boxers" called themselves the "Militia United in Righteousness" for the first time one year later, at the Battle of Senluo Temple (October 1899), a clash between Boxers and Qing government troops. By using the word "Militia" rather than "Boxers", they distanced themselves from forbidden martial arts sects, and tried to give their movement the legitimacy of a group that defended orthodoxy.

Aggression toward missionaries and Christians drew the ire of foreign (mainly European) governments. In 1899, the French minister in Beijing helped the missionaries to obtain an edict granting official status to every order in the Roman Catholic hierarchy, enabling local priests to support their people in legal or family disputes and bypass the local officials. After the German government took over Shandong many Chinese feared that the foreign missionaries and quite possibly all Christian activities were imperialist attempts at "carving the melon", i.e., to divide and colonize China piece by piece.[23] A Chinese official expressed the animosity towards foreigners succinctly, "Take away your missionaries and your opium and you will be welcome." The early growth of the Boxer movement coincided with the Hundred Days' Reform (11 June – 21 September 1898). Progressive Chinese officials, with support from Protestant missionaries, persuaded the Guangxu Emperor to institute reforms which alienated many conservative officials by their sweeping nature. Such opposition from conservative officials led Empress Dowager Cixi to intervene and reverse the reforms. The failure of the reform movement disillusioned many educated Chinese and thus further weakened the Qing government. After the reforms ended, the conservative Empress Dowager Cixi seized power and placed the reformist Guangxu Emperor under house arrest.

The national crisis was widely seen as being caused by foreign aggression. Foreign powers had defeated China in several wars, forced a right to promote Christianity and imposed unequal treaties under which foreigners and foreign companies in China were accorded special privileges, extraterritorial rights and immunities from Chinese law, causing resentment among the Chinese. France, Japan, Russia and Germany carved out spheres of influence, so that by 1900 it appeared that China would likely be dismembered, with foreign powers each ruling a part of the country. Thus, by 1900, the Qing dynasty, which had ruled China for more than two centuries, was crumbling and Chinese culture was under assault by powerful and unfamiliar religions and secular cultures. Chinese Muslim troops from Gansu, also known as the Gansu Braves, killed a Japanese diplomat on 11 June 1900. Foreigners called them the "10,000 Islamic rabble." In January 1900, with a majority of conservatives in the imperial court, Empress Dowager Cixi changed her long standing policy of suppressing Boxers, and issued edicts in their defence, causing protests from foreign powers. In spring 1900, the Boxer movement spread rapidly north from Shandong into the countryside near Beijing. Boxers burned Christian churches, killed Chinese Christians and intimidated Chinese officials who stood in their way. American Minister Edwin H. Conger cabled Washington, "the whole country is swarming with hungry, discontented, hopeless idlers." On 30 May the diplomats, led by British Minister Claude Maxwell MacDonald, requested that foreign soldiers come to Beijing to defend the legations. The Chinese government reluctantly acquiesced, and the next day an international force of 435 navy troops from eight countries disembarked from warships and travelled by train from Dagu (Taku) to Beijing. They set up defensive perimeters around their respective missions.On 5 June, the railway line to Tianjin was cut by Boxers in the countryside and Beijing was isolated. On 11 June, at Yongding gate, the secretary of the Japanese legation, Sugiyama Akira, was attacked and killed by the soldiers of general Dong Fuxiang, who were guarding the southern part of the Beijing walled city. Armed with Mauser rifles but wearing traditional uniforms,Dong's troops had threatened the foreign Legations in the fall of 1898 soon after arriving in Beijing, so much that troops from the United States Marine Corps had been called to Beijing to guard the legations. The German Kaiser Wilhelm II was so alarmed by the Chinese Muslim troops that he requested the Caliph Abdul Hamid II of the Ottoman Empire to find a way to stop the Muslim troops from fighting. The Caliph agreed to the Kaiser's request and sent Enver Pasha (not the future Young Turk leader) to China in 1901, but the rebellion was over by that time. Also on 11 June, the first Boxer, dressed in his finery, was seen in the Legation Quarter. The German Minister, Clemens von Ketteler, and German soldiers captured a Boxer boy and inexplicably executed him.[34] In response, thousands of Boxers burst into the walled city of Beijing that afternoon and burned many of the Christian churches and cathedrals in the city, burning some victims alive.[35] American and British missionaries had taken refuge in the Methodist Mission and an attack there was repulsed by American Marines. The soldiers at the British Embassy and German Legations shot and killed several Boxers,[36] alienating the Chinese population of the city and nudging the Qing government toward support of the Boxers. The Muslim Gansu braves and Boxers, along with other Chinese then attacked and killed Chinese Christians around the legations in revenge for foreign attacks on Chinese. Japanese marines who served in the Seymour Expedition. As the situation grew more violent, a second international force of 2,000 sailors and marines under the command of the British Vice-Admiral Edward Seymour, the largest contingent being British, was dispatched from Dagu to Beijing on 10 June 1900. The troops were transported by train from Dagu to Tianjin with the agreement of the Chinese government, but the railway between Tianjin and Beijing had been severed. Seymour resolved to move forward and repair the railway, or progress on foot if necessary, keeping in mind that the distance between Tianjin and Beijing was only 120 km. When Seymour left Tianjin and started toward Beijing, it angered the imperial court. As a result, the pro-Boxer Manchu Prince Duan became leader of the Zongli Yamen (foreign office), replacing Prince Qing. Prince Duan was a member of the imperial Aisin Gioro clan (foreigners called him a "Blood Royal"), and Empress Dowager Cixi had named her son as next in line for the imperial throne. He became the effective leader of the Boxers, and he was extremely anti-foreigner like his friend Dong Fuxiang, and wanted to expel them from China. He soon ordered the Qing imperial army to attack the foreign forces. Confused by conflicting orders from Beijing, General Nie Shicheng let Seymour's army pass by in their trains.Admiral Seymour returning to Tianjin with his wounded men, on 26 June. After leaving Tianjin, the convoy quickly reached Langfang, but found the railway there to be destroyed. Seymour's engineers tried to repair the line, but the allied army found itself surrounded, as the railway both behind and in front of them had been destroyed. They were attacked from all parts by Chinese irregulars and Chinese governmental troops. Five thousand of Dong Fuxiang's "Gansu Braves" and an unknown number of "Boxers" won a costly but major victory over Seymour's troops at the Battle of Langfang on 18 June. As the allied European army retreated from Langfang, they were constantly fired upon by cavalry, and artillery bombarded their positions. It was reported that the Chinese artillery was superior to the European artillery, since the Europeans did not bother to bring along much for the campaign, thinking they could easily sweep through Chinese resistance. The Europeans could not locate the Chinese artillery, which was raining shells upon their positions.Mining, engineering, flooding and simultaneous attacks were employed by Chinese troops. The Chinese also employed pincer movements, ambushes and sniper tactics with some success against the foreigners.Italian mounted infantry near Tientsin in 1900

News arrived on 18 June regarding attacks on foreign legations. Seymour decided to continue advancing, this time along the Beihe river, toward Tongzhou, 25 kilometres (16 mi) from Beijing. By the 19th, they had to abandon their efforts due to progressively stiffening resistance and started to retreat southward along the river with over 200 wounded. Commandeering four civilian Chinese junks along the river, they loaded all their wounded and remaining supplies onto them and pulled them along with ropes from the riverbanks. By this point they were very low on food, ammunition and medical supplies. Unexpectedly they then happened upon the Great Xigu Arsenal, a hidden Qing munitions cache of which the Allied Powers had had no knowledge until then. They immediately captured and occupied it, discovering not only Krupp field guns, but rifles with millions of rounds of ammunition, along with millions of pounds of rice and ample medical supplies. There they dug in and awaited rescue. A Chinese servant was able to infiltrate through the Boxer and Qing lines, informing the Eight Powers of the Seymour troops' predicament. Surrounded and attacked nearly around the clock by Qing troops and Boxers, they were at the point of being overrun. On 25 June, a regiment composed of 1,800 men (900 Russian troops from Port Arthur, 500 British seamen, with an ad hoc mix of other assorted Alliance troops) finally arrived on foot from Tientsin to rescue Seymour. Spiking the mounted field guns and setting fire to any munitions that they could not take (an estimated £3 million worth), Seymour, his force, and the rescue mission marched back to Tientsin, unopposed, on 26 June. Seymour's casualties during the expedition were 62 killed and 228 wounded. Qing imperial soldiers during the Boxer Rebellion Meanwhile, in Beijing, on 16 June, Empress Dowager Cixi summoned the imperial court for a mass audience and addressed the choices between using the Boxers to evict the foreigners from the city or seeking a diplomatic solution. In response to a high official who doubted the efficacy of the Boxers' magic, Cixi replied: Both sides of the debate at the imperial court realised that popular support for the Boxers in the countryside was almost universal and that suppression would be both difficult and unpopular, especially when foreign troops were on the march. Two factions were active during this debate. On one side were anti-foreigners who viewed foreigners as invasive and imperialistic and evoked a nativist populism. They advocated taking advantage of the Boxers to achieve the expulsion of foreign troops and foreign influences. The pro-foreigners on the other hand advanced rapprochement with foreign governments, seeing the Boxers as superstitious and ignorant. The event that tilted the Qing imperial government irrevocably toward support of the Boxers and war with the foreign powers was the attack of foreign navies on the Dagu Forts near Tianjin, on 17 June 1900. Locations of foreign diplomatic legations and front lines in Beijing during the siege On 15 June, Qing imperial forces deployed electric mines in the River Beihe (Peiho) to prevent the Eight-Nation Alliance from sending ships to attack. With a difficult military situation in Tianjin and a total breakdown of communications between Tianjin and Beijing, the allied nations took steps to reinforce their military presence significantly. On 17 June they took the Dagu Forts commanding the approaches to Tianjin, and from there brought increasing numbers of troops on shore. When Cixi received an ultimatum[when?] demanding that China surrender total control over all its military and financial affairs to foreigners, she defiantly stated before the entire Grand Council, "Now they [the Powers] have started the aggression, and the extinction of our nation is imminent. If we just fold our arms and yield to them, I would have no face to see our ancestors after death. If we must perish, why not fight to the death?"It was at this point that Cixi began to blockade the legations with the armies of the Peking Field Force, which began the siege. Cixi stated that "I have always been of the opinion, that the allied armies had been permitted to escape too easily in 1860. Only a united effort was then necessary to have given China the victory. Today, at last, the opportunity for revenge has come", and said that millions of Chinese would join the cause of fighting the foreigners since the Manchus had provided "great benefits" on China. On receipt of the news of the attack on the Dagu Forts on the 19th of June, Empress Dowager Cixi immediately sent an order to the legations that the diplomats and other foreigners depart Beijing under escort of the Chinese army within 24 hours. The next morning, diplomats from the besieged legations met to discuss the Empress's offer. The majority quickly agreed that they could not trust the Chinese army. Fearing that they would be killed, they agreed to refuse the Empress's demand. The German Imperial Envoy, Baron Klemens Freiherr von Ketteler, was infuriated with the actions of the Chinese army troops and determined to take his complaints to the royal court. Against the advice of the fellow foreigners, the baron left the legations with a single aide and a team of porters to carry his sedan chair. On his way to the palace, von Ketteler was killed on the streets of Beijing by a Manchu captain. His aide managed to escape the attack and carried word of the baron's death back to the diplomatic compound. At this news, the other diplomats feared they also would be murdered if they left the legation quarter and they chose to continue to defy the Chinese order to depart Beijing. The legations were hurriedly fortified. Most of the foreign civilians, which included a large number of missionaries and businessmen, took refuge in the British legation, the largest of the diplomatic compounds. Chinese Christians were primarily housed in the adjacent palace (Fu) of Prince Su who was forced to abandon his property by the foreign soldiers.Representative U.S., Indian, French, Italian, British, German, Austrian and Japanese military and naval personnel forming part of the Allied forces On the 21st of June, Empress Dowager Cixi declared war against all foreign powers. Regional governors who commanded substantial modernised armies, such as Li Hongzhang at Canton, Yuan Shikai in Shandong, Zhang Zhidong at Wuhan and Liu Kunyi at Nanjing, refused to join in the imperial court's declaration of war and withheld knowledge of it from the public in the south. Yuan Shikai used his own forces to suppress Boxers in Shandong, and Zhang entered into negotiations with the foreigners in Shanghai to keep his army out of the conflict. The neutrality of these provincial and regional governors left the majority of Chinese out of the conflict. They were called The Mutual Protection of Southeast China. The legations of the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, the United States, Russia and Japan were located in the Beijing Legation Quarter south of the Forbidden City. The Chinese army and Boxer irregulars besieged the Legation Quarter from 20 June to 14 August 1900. A total of 473 foreign civilians, 409 soldiers, marines and sailors from eight countries, and about 3,000 Chinese Christians took refuge there. Under the command of the British minister to China, Claude Maxwell MacDonald, the legation staff and military guards defended the compound with small arms, three machine guns, and one old muzzle-loaded cannon, which was nicknamed the International Gun because the barrel was British, the carriage Italian, the shells Russian and the crew American. Chinese Christians in the legations led the foreigners to the cannon and it proved important in the defence. Also under siege in Beijing was the Northern Cathedral (Beitang) of the Catholic Church. The Beitang was defended by 43 French and Italian soldiers, 33 Catholic foreign priests and nuns, and about 3,200 Chinese Catholics. The defenders suffered heavy casualties especially from lack of food and mines which the Chinese exploded in tunnels dug beneath the compound. [58]The number of Chinese soldiers and Boxers besieging the Legation Quarter and the Beitang is unknown.1900, soldiers burned down the Temple, Shanhaiguan. The destruction of a Chinese temple on the bank of the Pei-Ho, by Amédée Forestier. On the 22nd and 23 June, Chinese soldiers and Boxers set fire to areas north and west of the British Legation, using it as a "frightening tactic" to attack the defenders. The nearby Hanlin Academy, a complex of courtyards and buildings that housed "the quintessence of Chinese scholarship ... the oldest and richest library in the world", caught fire. Each side blamed the other for the destruction of the invaluable books it contained. After the failure to burn out the foreigners, the Chinese army adopted an anaconda-like strategy. The Chinese built barricades surrounding the Legation Quarter and advanced, brick by brick, on the foreign lines, forcing the foreign legation guards to retreat a few feet at a time. This tactic was especially used in the Fu, defended by Japanese and Italian sailors and soldiers, and inhabited by most of the Chinese Christians. Fusillades of bullets, artillery and firecrackers were directed against the Legations almost every night—but did little damage. Sniper fire took its toll among the foreign defenders. Despite their numerical advantage, the Chinese did not attempt a direct assault on the Legation Quarter although in the words of one of the besieged, "it would have been easy by a strong, swift movement on the part of the numerous Chinese troops to have annihilated the whole body of foreigners ... in an hour." American missionary Frank Gamewell and his crew of "fighting parsons" fortified the Legation Quarter, but impressed Chinese Christians to do most of the physical labour of building defences. The Germans and the Americans occupied perhaps the most crucial of all defensive positions: the Tartar Wall. Holding the top of the 45 ft (14 m) tall and 40 ft (12 m) wide wall was vital. The German barricades faced east on top of the wall and 400 yd (370 m) west were the west-facing American positions. The Chinese advanced toward both positions by building barricades even closer. "The men all feel they are in a trap", said the American commander, Capt. John T. Myers, "and simply await the hour of execution."On 30 June, the Chinese forced the Germans off the Wall, leaving the American Marines alone in its defence. At the same time, a Chinese barricade was advanced to within a few feet of the American positions and it became clear that the Americans had to abandon the wall or force the Chinese to retreat. At 2 am on 3 July, 56 British, Russian and American marines and sailors, under the command of Myers, launched an assault against the Chinese barricade on the wall. The attack caught the Chinese sleeping, killed about 20 of them, and expelled the rest of them from the barricades. The Chinese did not attempt to advance their positions on the Tartar Wall for the remainder of the siege. Sir Claude MacDonald said 13 July was the "most harassing day" of the siege. The Japanese and Italians in the Fu were driven back to their last defence line. The Chinese detonated a mine beneath the French Legation pushing the French and Austrians out of most of the French Legation.On 16 July, the most capable British officer was killed and the journalist George Ernest Morrison was wounded. But American Minister Edwin Hurd Conger established contact with the Chinese government and on 17 July, an armistice was declared by the Chinese.[68] More than 40% of the legation guards were dead or wounded. The motivation of the Chinese was probably the realization that an allied force of 20,000 men had landed in China and retribution for the siege was at hand. Han Chinese General Nie Shicheng, who fought both the Boxers and the Allies.

The Manchu General Ronglu concluded that it was futile to fight all of the powers simultaneously, and declined to press home the siege.The Manchu Zaiyi (Prince Duan), an anti-foreign friend of Dong Fuxiang, wanted artillery for Dong's troops to destroy the legations. Ronglu blocked the transfer of artillery to Zaiyi and Dong, preventing them from attacking. Ronglu forced Dong Fuxiang and his troops to pull back from completing the siege and destroying the legations, thereby saving the foreigners and making diplomatic concessions. Ronglu and Prince Qing sent food to the legations, and used their Manchu Bannermen to attack the Muslim Gansu Braves ("Kansu Braves" in the spelling of the time) of Dong Fuxiang and the Boxers who were besieging the foreigners. They issued edicts ordering the foreigners to be protected, but the Gansu warriors ignored it, and fought against Bannermen who tried to force them away from the legations. The Boxers also took commands from Dong Fuxiang.Ronglu also deliberately hid an Imperial Decree from General Nie Shicheng. The Decree ordered him to stop fighting the Boxers because of the foreign invasion, and also because the population was suffering. Due to Ronglu's actions, General Nie continued to fight the Boxers and killed many of them even as the foreign troops were making their way into China. Ronglu also ordered Nie to protect foreigners and save the railway from the Boxers. Because parts of the Railway were saved under Ronglu's orders, the foreign invasion army was able to transport itself into China quickly. General Nie committed thousands of troops against the Boxers instead of against the foreigners. Nie was already outnumbered by the Allies by 4,000 men. General Nie was blamed for attacking the Boxers, as Ronglu let Nie take all the blame. At the Battle of Tianjin (Tientsin), General Nie decided to sacrifice his life by walking into the range of Allied guns.

Xu Jingcheng, who had served as the Qing Envoy to many of the same states under siege in the Legation Quarter, argued that "the evasion of extraterritorial rights and the killing of foreign diplomats are unprecedented in China and abroad." Xu and five other officials urged Empress Dowager Cixi to order the repression of Boxers, the execution of their leaders, and a diplomatic settlement with foreign armies. The Empress Dowager, outraged, sentenced Xu and the five others to death for "willfully and absurdly petitioning the Imperial Court" and "building subversive thought." They were executed on July 28, 1900 and their severed heads placed on display at Caishikou Execution Grounds in Beijing. Han Chinese General Dong Fuxiang was overtly hostile to foreigners and his "Gansu Braves" relentlessly attacked the besieged legations. Reflecting this vacillation, some Chinese soldiers were quite liberally firing at foreigners under siege from its very onset. Cixi did not personally order imperial troops to conduct a siege, and on the contrary had ordered them to protect the foreigners in the legations. Prince Duan led the Boxers to loot his enemies within the imperial court and the foreigners, although imperial authorities expelled Boxer troops after they were let into the city and went on a looting rampage against both the foreign and the Qing imperial forces. Older Boxers were sent outside Beijing to halt the approaching foreign armies, while younger men were absorbed into the Muslim Gansu army. With conflicting allegiances and priorities motivating the various forces inside Beijing, the situation in the city became increasingly confused. The foreign legations continued to be surrounded by both Qing imperial and Gansu forces. While Dong Fuxiang's Gansu army, now swollen by the addition of the Boxers, wished to press the siege, Ronglu's imperial forces seem to have largely attempted to follow Empress Dowager Cixi's decree and protect the legations. However, to satisfy the conservatives in the imperial court, Ronglu's men also fired on the legations and let off firecrackers to give the impression that they, too, were attacking the foreigners. Inside the legations and out of communication with the outside world, the foreigners simply fired on any targets that presented themselves, including messengers from the imperial court, civilians and besiegers of all persuasions. Dong Fuxiang was denied artillery held by Ronglu which stopped him from leveling the legations, and when he complained to Empress Dowager Cixi on June 23, she dismissively said that "Your tail, is becoming too heavy to wag." The Alliance discovered large amounts of unused Chinese Krupp artillery and shells after the siege was lifted.

The armistice, although occasionally broken, endured until 13 August when, with an allied army led by the British Alfred Gaselee approaching Beijing to relieve the siege, the Chinese launched their heaviest fusillade on the Legation Quarter. As the foreign army approached, Chinese forces melted away. The Boxers bombarded Tianjin in June 1900, and Dong Fuxiang's Muslim troops attacked the British Admiral Seymour and his expeditionary force.

Foreign navies started building up their presence along the northern China coast from the end of April 1900. Several international forces were sent to the capital, with varying success, and the Chinese forces were ultimately defeated by the Eight-Nation Alliance of Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States. Independent of the alliance, the Netherlands dispatched three cruisers in July to protect its citizens in Shanghai. British Lieutenant-General Alfred Gaselee acted as the commanding officer of the Eight-Nation Alliance, which eventually numbered 55,000. The main contingent was composed of Japanese (20,840), Russian (13,150), British (12,020), French (3,520), U.S. (3,420), German (900), Italian, Austro-Hungarian and anti-Boxer Chinese troops.[83] The "First Chinese Regiment" (Weihaiwei Regiment) which was praised for its performance, consisted of Chinese collaborators serving in the British military.The international force finally captured Tianjin on 14 July under the command of the Japanese Colonel Kuriya, after a day of fighting. A Group Photograph at Quetta, Baluchistan (Chief Commissioner's Province), British India of some of the Officers of the 26th Baluchistan Regiment of Bombay Infantry of British India – before leaving India to go to China in 1900 to suppress the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901).

Notable events included the seizure of the Dagu Forts commanding the approaches to Tianjin and the boarding and capture of four Chinese destroyers by British Commander Roger Keyes. Among the foreigners besieged in Tianjin was a young American mining engineer named Herbert Hoover, who would go on to become the 31st President of the United States.[85][86]

The march from Tianjin to Beijing of about 120 km included about 20,000 allied troops. On 4 August, there were approximately 70,000 Qing imperial troops and anywhere from 50,000 to 100,000 Boxers along the way. The allies only encountered minor resistance, fighting battles at Beicang and Yangcun. At Yangcun, the 14th Infantry Regiment of the U.S. and British troops led the assault. The weather was a major obstacle. Conditions were extremely humid with temperatures sometimes reaching 42 °C (108 °F). These high temperatures and insects plagued the Allies. Soldiers dehydrated and horses died. Chinese villagers killed Allied troops who searched for wells.

The heat killed Allied soldiers, who foamed at the mouth. The tactics along the way were gruesome on either side. Allied soldiers beheaded already dead Chinese corpses, bayoneted or beheaded live Chinese civilians, and raped Chinese girls and women.[88] Cossacks were reported to have killed Chinese civilians almost automatically and Japanese kicked a Chinese soldier to death.[89] The Chinese responded to the Alliance's atrocities with similar acts of violence and cruelty, especially towards captured Russians.[88] Lieutenant Smedley Butler saw the remains of two Japanese soldiers nailed to a wall, who had their tongues cut off and their eyes gouged.[90] Lieutenant Butler was wounded during the expedition in the leg and chest, later receiving the Brevet Medal in recognition for his actions.

 

Chinese troops wearing modern uniforms in 1900

The international force reached Beijing on 14 August. Following the defeat of Beiyang army in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese government had invested heavily in modernizing the imperial army, which was equipped with modern Mauser repeater rifles and Krupp artillery. Three modernized divisions consisting of Manchu Bannermen protected the Beijing Metropolitan region. Two of them were under the command of the anti-Boxer Prince Qing and Ronglu, while the anti-foreign Prince Duan commanded the ten-thousand-strong Hushenying, or "Tiger Spirit Division", which had joined the Gansu Braves and Boxers in attacking the foreigners. It was a Hushenying captain who had assassinated the German diplomat Ketteler. The Tenacious Army under Nie Shicheng received western style training under German and Russian officers in addition to their modernised weapons and uniforms. They effectively resisted the Alliance at the Battle of Tientsin before retreating and astounded the Alliance forces with the accuracy of their artillery during the siege of the Tianjin concessions (the artillery shells failed to explode upon impact due to corrupt manufacturing). The Gansu Braves under Dong Fuxiang, which some sources described as "ill disciplined", were armed with modern weapons but were not trained according to western drill and wore traditional Chinese uniforms. They led the defeat of the Alliance at Langfang in the Seymour Expedition and were the most ferocious in besieging the Legations in Beijing. Some Banner forces were given modernised weapons and western training, becoming the Metropolitan Banner forces, which were decimated in the fighting. Among the Manchu dead was the father of the writer Lao She.[citation needed]

 

Corporal Titus scaling the walls of Peking

The British won the race among the international forces to be the first to reach the besieged Legation Quarter. The U.S. was able to play a role due to the presence of U.S. ships and troops stationed in Manila since the U.S. conquest of the Philippines during the Spanish–American War and the subsequent Philippine Insurrection. In the U.S. military, the action in the Boxer Rebellion was known as the China Relief Expedition. United States Marines scaling the walls of Beijing is an iconic image of the Boxer Rebellion.

The British Army reached the legation quarter on the afternoon of 14 August and relieved the Legation Quarter. The Beitang was relieved on 16 August, first by Japanese soldiers and then, officially, by the French.

Massacres by the Westerners: After the liberation of legations, the military, settlers, blinded by the presence of mutilated bodies, impaled bodies, heads placed in pyramids, and countless Christian Chinese corpses defiling the water wells, and in a state of decomposition in the ditches, commit the worst atrocities. They kill the people accused of being Boxers by the thousands, loot, rape, and be photographed on the imperial throne.

 

In the early hours of 15 August, just as the Foreign Legations were being relieved, Empress Dowager Cixi, dressed in the padded blue cotton of a farm woman, the Guangxu Emperor, and a small retinue climbed into three wooden ox carts and escaped from the city covered with rough blankets. Legend has it that the Empress Dowager then either ordered that the Guangxu Emperor's favourite concubine, Consort Zhen, be thrown down a well in the Forbidden City or tricked her into drowning herself. The journey was made all the more arduous by the lack of preparation, but the Empress Dowager insisted this was not a retreat, rather a "tour of inspection." After weeks of travel, the party arrived in Xi'an in Shaanxi province, beyond protective mountain passes where the foreigners could not reach, deep in Chinese Muslim territory and protected by the Gansu Braves. The foreigners had no orders to pursue the Empress Dowager, so they decided to stay put.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion

MEN LOVE WAR

(“ I don’t know what weapons men will use in the Third World War ,

but in the Fourth it will be sticks and stones”-Einstein)

  

Men love war. In joyous chorus

They sound the colorful call to arms

For the dubious sport of death.

 

They love it with undisguised love.

They parede it in the streets

Create manuals and schools

Raising flags and lowering coffins

Entoning slogans and burying songs.

 

Men love war. And they don’t love war

Merely with athletic courage

And military pride, but with the pious

Voice of the priest, who before the battle

-serves the Host of Death.

 

It was thus in Crimea and Troy

In Eritrea and Angola

In Algiers and Mongolia

In Siberia and Now.

 

Men love war

And can barely stand peace.

Mem love war and so

There is no danger of peace.

Men love war, profane

Or holy, it’s all the same.

 

Men make war their mistress

Although they’re wedded to peace.

And Lord, what ravenous pastures when they meet!

What pleasures! What screams! What moans!

What sublime pervertions schemed

In the shroud of sheets, soiling

The bed or battlefield.

 

For centuries I thought

War was a detour

And peace was the route. Wrong. They’re paralled

Banks of the same river, hand and glove

Foot and boot. More than twins,

Odd and even, good luck and bad,

they’re sword-swallowers,

tail-in-mouth snake, they’re ouroboros

eternally devouring us.

 

War is no intermezzo.

It is part of the show. And not just a tragedy,

It’s comedy two, royal or plebeian.

War is not cruelly unforeseen.

It is recidivistic vice. A rite

Full of risks. Why

It’s better than the circus:

It’s where the happy acrobat

Dressed like a kamikase

Jumps without a rope or net,

All the plates get smashed

And the contortionist breaks in half

In Death’s own Kamasutra.

 

But war is not the opposite of peace

It is its cradle, its complementary teat.

Horror is not the inverse of beauty

-they’re on a par. Men love the beautiful, but

they like horror in art. Horror

is not darkness, it’s counterpart of light.

Lucifer,light-bringer, is brilliant like Gabriel

And terror attracts. Nothing more attracting

-then Christ dead on the cross.

 

War is not, then, just a mass

That the father says, a science

That hallucinates wise, a sport

That fascinates the strong. War is art.

And so wirth the ardor of vanguardist

We attend the Biennial of Horror

And inaugurate the Bauhaus of Death.

 

But atop the carnage are no buzzards,

Jackals, vultures, hyenas.

Only showy heron of aluminum, serene

In their electronic ballet.

 

Perhaps it was the Dance of Death, pathetic.

Not so. It’s just another lesson in aesthetics.

And thus the modern soldiers

Are like doctor and engineers

And no the minister of war

Would wear a butcher’s gear.

 

War is war!

Said the violent invader

Raping the nun in the convent.

War is war!

Said the statue of the admiral

With his mouth full of cement.

War is war!

We say with our radar

Savoring the enemy

Somewhere north ou our resentment.

 

There is no nead, then, no disguise

The love of war was Patriotic Love

Of Defense of Home. We love both war

And peace-will such bigamy ever cease?

I, a poet of today, eternal Baudelaire,

You and I, mon hypocrite lecteur,

Mon semblable, mon frère.

 

We want battles, planes in flames,

Sinking ships, the spectacles of confrontation.

Tomorrow we’ll open up fish bellies

With a bayonet blade.

And when the trumpet plays “Soupy”

We’ll stick our pigs with knives

And pin exquisite medals on

-the dead men on the table.

 

Clean flesch, if posible, no blood.

Let the missile,launched from afar,

In silence, not splatter our clothes.

But if a “blood bath” it be,

Then , as Terece said:” I am human

And nothing human is alien to me.”

 

Death and war, in any case

Will catch me off guard no more.

I inscribe theeir effigy on the stone

As if the dice of my fate

No longer rolled on their own.

As if I passed from white

To black and back to with again

And was never in the dark.

 

So bring on war. Total.

Atomic trumpet blast, beginning of the end.

With caution as befits the sage

I’ll first cry out against what’s done.

But with voraciousness as befits the race

And seeing then invade my garden space

I’ll fashion from the leaves of the banana

An ideological banner

And fulminate my enemy before he can attack.

 

And should he not shoot back or come,

I’ll take advantage of weakling’s slipe,

Invade his house and sate my millenial cannibal-wise

Roaring behind my human mask.

 

-Poet, your words terrify!

(I hear someone say).

Terrified I wrote them.

Now I feel I’m free.

Death and war

No longer frighten me.

Like Oedipus perplexed

I deciphered them in my bowels

Before I was devoured

By the inscrutable sphinx.

 

Neither cynical nor sad. An animal

Human too, I go marching, dancing, praying

Toward the mighty carnival.

Soldier, penitent, poet,

-peace and war, life and death

await for me

-at the atomic funeral.

 

-Will the human species disappear from Earth?

No. There’ll be some new Adam and Eve

To remake love, and two brothers:

-Cain and Abel

- to reinvent war.

 

(VALE A PENA TRADUZIR, É A MAIS PURA REALIDADE....)

There are a couple of views of Prague that remain with me in the deepest sleep; this would absolutely be one of them. From the castle hill lookout, much of Prague's incredible architecture can be viewed. In this photo. The Manesuv Most bridge takes us over the Vltava River where the Rudolfinum - home of the Czech Philharmonic - meets us. Center stage opens up with the spires of the Tyn church looming over the Old Town Square with all the authority the 14th century church has earned. To the left and rear of the Tyn Church stands the dark, stately Powder Tower which is one of the last remaining structures of the old city gates - separating old town from new. Reaching heights not seen anywhere else in the Czech Republic, the Zizkov Televison Tower stands tall in the back of the frame. Built by the communists to reportedly jam incoming radio and television signals from the West, it is today a tourist attraction. The Czech sculptor David Cerny dressed the tower up a bit after the fall of communism by attaching 10 of his "crawling babies" to the side - hopefully adding some charm and removing some of the local resentment to the eyesore that reminds them communism is in the not too distant past.

 

© LMGFotography 2014; please do not use without permission.

Norton Simon Museum in Pasadena, California

 

From the curation card:

 

Dowd painted his first image of currency in 1962. Although he was occupied with this subject for only a short period of time,from 1962 to 1968, these paintings are the currency for which he has become best known. After receiving substandard treatment for an infection he had contracted while serving in the Marine Corps, he harbored a deep resentment for the government. Here, that cynicism and distrust of authority has led Dowd to cut away text from the dollar bill, as if to attack the dysfunctional bureaucracy that had made him unhappy. Because Half Dollar is exactly that, the painting alludes to the idea of being shortchanged.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Dowd

I first attempted to write about the story behind my Monster High collection in 2014. I had only been collecting my ghoul friends for a little over a year at that point. Time has given me a deeper appreciation and understanding of my Monster High collection, which is why I have chosen to rewrite this. A year didn't give me much time to truly reflect on what my Monster High dolls meant to me. In the almost four years that I've been Monster High obsessed, I've come to realize that these dolls have a much deeper sentiment than I ever could have anticipated. My entire purpose here on the internet has been to share my stories, memories, and life changes through my dolls, in hopes that others can relate or be inspired by what I have to say. That's why it was so very crucial to me to take the time to redo this story, and give my Monster High collection the spotlight it so rightfully deserves.

 

I never once anticipated just how much my little weird looking friends would come to mean to me, and how they would shape not only my collection, but also me as a collector. Monster High dolls have taught me so much, and without them, I don't think I'd be the same. I first encountered Monster High dolls during the fall of 2011. That was the year of my doll resurgence--I had taken a five year hiatus as a teenager. Dad, Colleen, and I were constantly on the hunt for Bratz dolls. Although I had initially denied my passion for them, within a few months of collecting, Disney dolls quickly took the backseat to my Bratz collection. In that sense, my Monster High dolls have a lot in common with the backstory of my Bratz collection. Similarly, I tried to use self restraint when it came to admitting my feelings for Monster High. But when I finally did, I ended up a raging addict, who was on the constant prowl for more dolls. Anyways, that October, Dad and I had found the most amazing listing for Bratz dolls on Craigslist. We drove out that evening to look at the 70 plus dolls, to see if they were worth buying. When we arrived, the seller explained that her daughter wanted to get rid of her Bratz dolls so she could have more money for her new Monster High collection. I spotted a few of the girl's dolls displayed on the mantle of the fireplace. The original Go Team!!! gals were proudly standing on the mantle, with their empty box beside them. At the time, Ghoulia, Draculaura, and Cleo were all unfamiliar faces. But something about those bizarre looking dolls captivated me. Of course my allegiance was pledged to Bratz--I felt sorry that they were being evicted to make more room/funding for these monsters. I never forgot those three dolls--the image is still burned in my memory. After that initial meeting, I became more aware of the Monster High dolls in stores. Back then, I didn't buy many dolls at stores, since I was so new to the 2011 doll world (bear in mind, I hadn't bought a doll in stores since 2005). It was a culture shock--I tried to ignore most of the dolls in the toy aisles, except Barbie and Bratz. But after seeing Monster High dolls up close and personal, I began to take note of them wherever we went. I even made a mental wish list of the dolls that really caught my attention. Deep down inside, I knew that these daringly different dolls would become part of my collection. Despite Dad, Colleen, and my vocal opinions that Monster High dolls were just plain ugly, I had this gut feeling they were to become something more to me.

 

For the next two years, my radar picked up on Monster High dolls. I grew to become familiar with certain names and faces. I recall admiring the Dead Tired ladies, Physical Deaducation Ghoulia, Toralei, Abbey, and several others. Most of all, I was compelled by Deuce Gorgon--the strikingly handsome boy doll with the most awesome mohawk. Just like with my reintroduction to Bratz in 2011, it was the boy dolls that made me crack. Unknowingly to Colleen, I was keeping track of Deuce dolls. I realized after doing some secretive research, that Mr. Gorgon had only been released three times--first edition, Dawn of the Dance, and Scaris. Scaris Deuce was the newest, and the only Deuce I knew I could get my hands on. One day in March of 2013, while hunting for good dolly deals at various stores, I finally confessed to Colleen my need for a Deuce doll. In typical, predictable Colleen form, she initially detested the idea. She thought Monster High dolls were appalling, and did not wish to join the bandwagon with all the other Monster High crazed fans. But at Big Lots, Colleen noticed that many of the Monster High dolls were on sale. They were rather affordable dolls, and there were even a lot of fashion packs for them available at the time. As we went to more and more stores, and saw the hoards of Monster High dolls in stock, she began to warm up to the idea. I remember her saying something along the lines of, "These are nice dolls. They are very affordable." That was the day my Monster High addiction came to fruition. We spent the next two days searching for Scaris Deuce. I believe Colleen even made some phone calls to various stores. I decided that I would not let Deuce's scarcity ruin the fun--I had eyed a few other Monster High dolls on our quest. The next day, we made a special trip out to Benny's, on our way to an antique store, with the exclusive intent of buying "Swim Class" Lagoona. Somehow, Lagoona's counterparts (Draculaura and Venus) made their way to the register. I justified purchasing all three because they were "on sale" (not a very great one I might add). We also found a few Disney dolls at the antique store that afternoon--including Princess Stories Belle, Winter Frost Sleeping Beauty, and Sparkle Eyes Aurora. But to be completely honest, I was most excited about my new ghoul friends. I'll never forget that moment when I first freed Draculaura from her packaging at the dining room table. I was mesmerized by her weight, her smell, and the quality of her clothes. It was very reminiscent of the first time I played with a Bratz doll at the age of eleven. Draculaura may have been purchased on a whim, but she holds the most special place in my heart of the three "Swim Class" dolls I got that day. She was the first Monster High doll I ever held, I ever smelled, and that I ever fell madly in love with.

 

The next few months went by in a blur. I was so excited about my new found love for Monster High dolls. I remember sharing tons of pictures of them on my old Flickr account. Colleen and I had so much fun making little storyboards with our gals. We also went out several times a week to buy Monster High dolls. My little collection of three became huge within the span of a few months. I was constantly yearning for more fashion packs and more dolls to add to my collection. The dolls that once fit on top of the white drawers in my art room, spilled over onto my sewing table within a week or so. Within the next few weeks, they could no longer fit there, which meant I had to buy little cubes to display them in. My earliest Monster High dolls included Scaris Rochelle, Skull Shores Ghoulia, Scaris Abbey, Scaris Lagoona, Scaris Cleo, the Go Team!!! 3 pack (with the werecats), and many others. And of course let's not forget about Deuce...I ended up with two Scaris Deuce dolls. I was so frenzied about Monster High, that I resorted to stalking Mr. Gorgon on eBay, only to find one at Kmart the day he was supposed to arrive in the mail (of course I got the Kmart guy who later became one of my favorites). It was the best and worst of times to get into collecting Monster High. The benefits of this time frame were the abundance of dolls. Kmart literally was so over stocked with Monster High dolls, that they spilled into other aisles, even the book aisle. Barnes and Noble also carried tons of Monster High dollies. They were at every store, even little ones like the Family Dollar. But sadly, there was a dark side to this time. Scalpers took advantage of the line's popularity, and bought entire stocks of "rare" and "desirable" dolls before any collector or child had the chance to get them. Online prices were out of this world, and to have certain dolls meant paying huge money. Even at the flea market, Monster High dolls were overpriced and scarce (due to the fact that the line was still so new). But most of all, the online community of collectors was fiercely competitive. I recall the rude and passive aggressive comments my Monster High photos received. Instead of banding together and enjoying the fad in all it's glory, collectors were divided. So many people wanted to believe that their dolls were superior. What was supposed to be a fun hobby became a nasty competition. Collectors also were constantly pitting Bratz and Monster High dolls against one another--it was almost as if you had to choose whether you were "Team Bratz" or "Team Monster High." It all left a bitter taste in my mouth. I was repulsed and shocked by this sort of behavior. Things were only made worse by the constant delusion that Monster High dolls were "rare" and "worth loads of money." I couldn't even go into stores without other people telling me which dolls to buy, or witnessing the blatant scalping. I'll admit, this ugly side of the Monster High community dimmed the love I felt for my dolls at the time. It was also a huge part of the reason I deleted my old Flickr, disappeared from the internet, and swore off being part of the doll community for the next year.

 

I can't say that the dark side of Monster High collecting was all due to other collectors, the internet, or the fad itself. My collection started off with the most innocent of intentions, but I soon found myself battling one of my greatest inner demons. I have always been terrible with money. I remember being six years old and compulsively needing to spend my allowance money on the first doll I saw. Dad always told me that, "money burns a hole in our pockets." My inability to save money definitely came from Dad. But that impulsive need to shop became something much darker after my mom passed away in 2002. My life was turned upside down. Not only did I no longer have a mother, but the rest of my family was left in the aftermath. My grandmother was always at odds with Colleen and me--Dad often came home to our raging arguments (which only dissipated once Memeré moved out in 2003). Once Memeré moved out, our house became a sty--it really looked like hoarder's house. Dad was never the most responsible parent--he often forgot to pay bills, and unlike Mom, he didn't keep up with our school stuff. Dad avoided being at home at all costs--there were many nights he'd be out until 2 or 3 in the morning. When he was home, his sadness and loneliness made him have a worse temper than usual. The smallest thing like a dirty dish could send him into a yelling fit. Part of me always felt that not only had Mom passed away, but also Dad, and my childhood. Even though Dad did his best despite the unfair circumstances, I still felt like he could be emotionally unavailable, and that oftentimes, I had to be the responsible "adult." That's when my interest in dolls really shifted. They became my comfort, and they were the last part of my childhood I was desperately clinging onto. Dad knew he had his faults, and his way of making it up to Colleen and me was to buy us whatever we wanted. In an attempt to avoid being at home, he'd take us out every weekend to the toy store and to flea markets. For that fleeting moment Dad was buying me a new doll, I felt whole again. I felt like a little girl, and I felt like I had my dad back. Seeing Dad's warm smile as he gazed down at me and handed me a new doll made all the darkness and pain go away. But I became addicted to that feeling. I constantly needed a new doll to fill that void. In time, I was letting Dad buy me any random doll, even if I didn't really "want" her. I desperately craved to feel that happiness and wholeness. But it always ended the same way--within a few short hours, the depression and resentment would come creeping back. On top of that, I was surrounded by a bunch of dolls I didn't play with or appreciate. While I did love them all, I had gotten them for the wrong reasons. It's easy to think that being spoiled rotten with tons of toys is the perfect childhood, but in reality it doesn't make one the least bit happier. Instead I was left feeling even more empty, guilty, and even resentful towards some of my dolls. When I first got back into dolls in 2011, I think I tried to be more reserved about buying dolls in an attempt to deal with this inner demon. But when Monster High dolls entered my life, I found that the ugly skeleton I had buried came lurking out of the closet.

 

Dad had passed away the year before in 2012. But it was that second year which proved to be the hardest and took it's greatest toll on me. Monster High dolls entered my life right around the time when things were at their worst. In the same way that Barbies and Bratz had been my comfort as an eleven year old, Monster High dolls became my "therapy" at the age of 21. I felt that same sort of glow each time Colleen offered to make a phone call about a Monster High doll, and each time we went to the store and I couldn't pick which doll I wanted, and Colleen said I could get both. It was ten years later, but I was right back where I had been. I didn't see or understand my frenzy for what it was at the time. I didn't know why I felt this constant urge/pressure to buy more dolls, even when I had just gotten brand new ones the week before. I also didn't know why I felt this emptiness and guilt whenever I had just bought dolls. But at some point I made the vague connection that my shopping habits were unhealthy, so I vowed to slow down. By that fall of 2013, I forbade myself from buying dolls in the stores, unless they were on a great sale, or unless I had been really "well behaved." It didn't work out exactly as planned--I definitely had my moments of compulsive shopping. But in time, that urge and constant desire to have more went away. Within a few years, I was able to resist buying dolls 90 percent of the time I was in stores. I was even able to hold out for better deals on dolls I REALLY wanted. I no longer panicked about dolls selling out, or missing my opportunity to get them. For the first time in over a decade, I was able to enjoy the ride, and I spent more time enjoying the dolls I already had. When the fires from my shopping demon had been put out, and all the smoke cleared, I was able to see my Monster High collection with clarity for the first time. I realized that they had been a cry for help--my form of self medication. I learned to accept my dark past, and to let go of the resentment I felt towards my collection. I realized that it wasn't my dolls' fault for what I had done, and that I really did love them all (even if I had bought many of them as a coping mechanism). I was able to loosen the reigns a bit, and I allowed myself to buy more Monster High dolls. I found that they were still very addictive, but not for the same reasons. I also was able to feel the love from my dolls as I recalled all the fun times Colleen and I had searching for them. In the way that Bratz will always be my special thing with Dad, Monster High shares that same deep bond with my sister. I'll never forget the phone calls she made, or the smile on her face when I got a new doll.

 

Despite the dark beginnings of my Monster High collection, my dolls mean the world to me. In fact, those dark hours made my collection even more meaningful. How could that be you might ask? When it finally occurred to me that I had been rampant for Monster High dolls as a way to cope with losing Dad, I was able to confront my inner demon. By finally acknowledging that I had a problem, and what the source of the issue was, I was able to deal with it. Deep down inside, I think my ugly shopping demon always held me back from fully enjoying my doll collection, because I felt this unexplained guilt and shame. But by addressing my problem and working towards a solution, all those negative feelings went away. Not only that, but I realized when all the dust had settled, that I didn't love and buy Monster High dolls solely to cope. In fact, I saw that the dolls truly resounded with me in a way that only a few doll types ever had. I know had Monster High dolls been available when I was growing up, I would have been just as fanatical about them as I am nowadays. My Monster High dolls really helped me see that what's done is done. I could never go back and undo my mistakes or handle my feelings in a more healthy, less self destructive way. But that wasn't necessarily a bad thing. Coming from such a dark place, I am more in tune with why I buy dolls, and why I collect them in the first place. I've realized that there is no reason to hold grudges against my dolls or to be forever angry with myself for making mistakes. Instead, I learned to let all those negative feelings go and to move on--or as Linkin Park puts it, "Remember all the sadness and frustration, and let it go." Not only that, but Monster High dolls made me see what I really wanted to put out there into the world. My first online experience had been messy and oftentimes left me with little faith or positivity in the doll community. My Monster High dolls had been a major source of the tension and negative attention I received in the past. When I really took the time to think about how other people treated me, and when I reflected on my own behavior and presentation back then, I came to see that somehow I had missed the very point of why I was sharing my doll collection with the world. It wasn't about flaunting what new dolls I had. It wasn't about being a "know it all" and constantly needing to be right about everything. It wasn't about comparing myself to other collectors or judging other people for the way they chose to collect. It wasn't about numbers, views, or attention. And it wasn't about which dolls were superior and which ones were inferior. My negative online experience with Monster High dolls made me see that I collected dolls to make me happy, to connect me with memories, and because they inspired me to be a more creative, better person. For the first time, I saw with clarity what it was I hoped to achieve by sharing my dolls with others. I wanted to share my memories, stories, and life lessons that my dolls brought to my life. It's because of my Monster High dolls that I wanted to wear my heart out on my sleeve and reach deep down and share the most intimate of memories and experiences, whether they were beautiful or ugly. Most of all, I learned what I wanted people to take away from my posts: that there is no right or wrong way of collecting--there are no rules. You don't have to be a certain age, gender, or ethnicity to love dolls. You don't have to have oodles of money or dolls to be a collector. You don't have to be over opinionated and find negative attributes in all dolls, and you certainly don't have to pit dolls against one another to be a true collector. My Monster High dolls made me see that collecting dolls should be a positive, stress free experience, and that is defined by our own attitudes towards the hobby. There will always be negative people who try to tear you down and tell who you should and shouldn't be, and what they think of your collection, but at the end of the day what's really important is how YOU feel about your dolls and what they bring to YOUR life. Without Monster High dolls, I don't know who I would be--they made me a stronger, more positive, more open minded person, and they set my collection free...and nothing in the world can compare to that.

by Yoko Ono, 1971

 

1) Make sure that your mind is not clogged with

heavy burdens such as: resentment, anger, secrets

and the past. They can be heavy.

 

2) Make sure that your body is not clogged with

excess fat and excrements.

 

3) Make sure that your wings are light and free.

This is the most difficult proposition. Your

wings cannot be free unless the whole world is

free, because you are part of the world. However,

there is a way for the whole world to be free.

Just like your body, all it needs is to be

unclogged and have good circulation. Circulation

is the secret to freedom and the key to fly.

 

5) When the whole world is in good circulation

we will all fly together.

 

6) Meanwhile, give wings to things around you

so they will circulate.

 

There's no ownership in beauty.

 

y.o.

 

++++++ Form Wikipedia +++++

  

Kalaw (Burmese: ကလောမြို့; Shan: ၵလေႃး [ka lɔ]) is a hill town in the Shan State of Myanmar. It is located in Kalaw Township in Taunggyi District.

Kalaw

ကလောမြို့

Kalaw 21.jpg

Kalaw is located in Myanmar

Kalaw

 

Location in Myanmar

Coordinates: 20°38′N 96°34′E

Country Myanmar

Division Shan State

Districts Taunggyi District

Township Kalaw Township

Population (2005)

• Religions Buddhism

Time zone MST (UTC+6.30)

OverviewEdit

 

The town was popular with the British during colonial rule. Kalaw is the main setting of the novel "The Art of Hearing Heartbeats" by Jan-Philipp Sendker.

 

The hill station is located at an elevation of 1320 metres, 50 km from the Inle lake. Kalaw is famous for hiking and trekking.[1]

Kalaw Train station sign altitude.

 

Myanmar (Burmese pronunciation: [mjəmà]),[nb 1][8] officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a sovereign state in Southeast Asia. Myanmar is bordered by India and Bangladesh to its west, Thailand and Laos to its east and China to its north and northeast. To its south, about one third of Myanmar's total perimeter of 5,876 km (3,651 mi) forms an uninterrupted coastline of 1,930 km (1,200 mi) along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. The country's 2014 census counted the population to be 51 million people.[9] As of 2017, the population is about 54 million.[10] Myanmar is 676,578 square kilometers (261,228 square miles) in size. Its capital city is Naypyidaw, and its largest city and former capital is Yangon (Rangoon).[1] Myanmar has been a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1997.

 

Early civilisations in Myanmar included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Burma and the Mon kingdoms in Lower Burma.[11] In the 9th century, the Bamar people entered the upper Irrawaddy valley and, following the establishment of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese language, culture and Theravada Buddhism slowly became dominant in the country. The Pagan Kingdom fell due to the Mongol invasions and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty, the country was for a brief period the largest empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia.[12] The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur and Assam as well. The British took over the administration of Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the country became a British colony. Myanmar was granted independence in 1948, as a democratic nation. Following a coup d'état in 1962, it became a military dictatorship.

 

For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife and its myriad ethnic groups have been involved in one of the world's longest-running ongoing civil wars. During this time, the United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country.[13] In 2011, the military junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election, and a nominally civilian government was installed. This, along with the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners, has improved the country's human rights record and foreign relations, and has led to the easing of trade and other economic sanctions.[14] There is, however, continuing criticism of the government's treatment of ethnic minorities, its response to the ethnic insurgency, and religious clashes.[15] In the landmark 2015 election, Aung San Suu Kyi's party won a majority in both houses. However, the Burmese military remains a powerful force in politics.

 

Myanmar is a country rich in jade and gems, oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$56.7 billion and its GDP (PPP) at US$221.5 billion.[6] The income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government.[16] As of 2016, Myanmar ranks 145 out of 188 countries in human development, according to the Human Development Index.[7]

Etymology

Main article: Names of Myanmar

 

In 1989, the military government officially changed the English translations of many names dating back to Burma's colonial period or earlier, including that of the country itself: "Burma" became "Myanmar". The renaming remains a contested issue.[17] Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use "Burma" because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country.[18]

 

In April 2016, soon after taking office, Aung San Suu Kyi clarified that foreigners are free to use either name, "because there is nothing in the constitution of our country that says that you must use any term in particular".[19]

 

The country's official full name is the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar" (ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်, Pyidaunzu Thanmăda Myăma Nainngandaw, pronounced [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀]). Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form "Union of Burma" instead.[20]

 

In English, the country is popularly known as either "Burma" or "Myanmar" /ˈmjɑːnˌmɑːr/ (About this sound listen).[8] Both these names are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group. Myanmar is considered to be the literary form of the name of the group, while Burma is derived from "Bamar", the colloquial form of the group's name.[17] Depending on the register used, the pronunciation would be Bama (pronounced [bəmà]) or Myamah (pronounced [mjəmà]).[17] The name Burma has been in use in English since the 18th century.

 

Burma continues to be used in English by the governments of many countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom.[21][22] Official United States policy retains Burma as the country's name, although the State Department's website lists the country as "Burma (Myanmar)" and Barack Obama has referred to the country by both names.[23] The Czech Republic officially uses Myanmar, although its Ministry of Foreign Affairs mentions both Myanmar and Burma on its website.[24] The United Nations uses Myanmar, as do the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Australia,[25] Russia, Germany,[26] China, India, Bangladesh, Norway,[27] Japan[21] and Switzerland.[28]

 

Most English-speaking international news media refer to the country by the name Myanmar, including the BBC,[29] CNN,[30] Al Jazeera,[31] Reuters,[32] RT (Russia Today) and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)/Radio Australia.[33]

 

Myanmar is known with a name deriving from Burma as opposed to Myanmar in Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Greek – Birmania being the local version of Burma in the Spanish language, for example. Myanmar used to be known as "Birmânia" in Portuguese, and as "Birmanie" in French.[34] As in the past, French-language media today consistently use Birmanie.,[35][36]

History

Main article: History of Myanmar

Prehistory

Main articles: Prehistory of Myanmar and Migration period of ancient Burma

Pyu city-states c. 8th century; Pagan is shown for comparison only and is not contemporary.

 

Archaeological evidence shows that Homo erectus lived in the region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more erectus finds after 75,000 years ago.[37] The first evidence of Homo sapiens is dated to about 11,000 BC, in a Stone Age culture called the Anyathian with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar. Evidence of neolithic age domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BC has been discovered in the form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves.[38]

 

The Bronze Age arrived circa 1500 BC when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so.[39] Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered in Monywa District in the Sagaing Division.[40] The Iron Age began around 500 BC with the emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay.[41] Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BC and 200 AD.[42] Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such as India and Thailand, as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials. This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade.[43]

Early city-states

Main articles: Pyu city-states and Mon kingdoms

 

Around the second century BC the first-known city-states emerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan.[44] The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation.[45]

 

By the 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century the Bamar people founded a small settlement at Bagan. It was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century when it grew in authority and grandeur.[46]

Imperial Burma

Main articles: Pagan Kingdom, Taungoo Dynasty, and Konbaung Dynasty

See also: Ava Kingdom, Hanthawaddy Kingdom, Kingdom of Mrauk U, and Shan States

Pagodas and kyaungs in present-day Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom.

 

Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia.[47] The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu, Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century.[48]

 

Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level, although Tantric, Mahayana, Hinduism, and folk religion remained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions (1277–1301) toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287.[48]

Temples at Mrauk U.

 

Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan States came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until the late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom, emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437.

 

Early on, Ava fought wars of unification (1385–1424) but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Having held off Ava, Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava itself, and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555.

 

Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and the Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture. Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged.[49] Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest of the country.[50] Many splendid temples of Mrauk U were built during this period.

Taungoo and colonialism

Bayinnaung's Empire in 1580.

 

Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, due to the efforts of Taungoo, a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious king Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War (1534–41). His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na, Manipur, Mong Mao, the Ayutthaya Kingdom, Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam).

 

The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored a smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Myanmar, Upper Myanmar, Shan states, Lan Na and upper Tenasserim. The Restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features would continue well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley, and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty.

A British 1825 lithograph of Shwedagon Pagoda shows British occupation during the First Anglo-Burmese War.

 

After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War involved one resistance group under Alaungpaya defeating the Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759, he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur, and driven out the French and the British, who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos (1765) and fought and won the Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67) against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese War (1765–69) against Qing China (1765–1769).[51]

 

With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India.[52]

 

The breadth of this empire was short lived. Burma lost Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim to the British in the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. King Mindon Min tried to modernise the kingdom, and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina, annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.

 

Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms, and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).[53] Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.

British Burma (1824–1948)

Main articles: British rule in Burma and Burma Campaign

Burma in British India

The landing of British forces in Mandalay after the last of the Anglo-Burmese Wars, which resulted in the abdication of the last Burmese monarch, King Thibaw Min.

British troops firing a mortar on the Mawchi road, July 1944.

 

The eighteenth century saw Burmese rulers, whose country had not previously been of particular interest to European traders, seek to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next sixty years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises continued until, after three Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1885), Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma.[54] British rule brought social, economic, cultural and administrative changes.

 

With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886. Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore.

 

Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralysed Yangon (Rangoon) on occasion all the way until the 1930s.[55] Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions such as the British refusal to remove shoes when they entered pagodas. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. U Wisara, an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest against a rule that forbade him to wear his Buddhist robes while imprisoned.[56]

Separation of British Burma from British India

 

On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Great Britain and Ba Maw the first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule and he opposed the participation of Great Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II. He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the Second World War, Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan.

 

A major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II. By March 1942, within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Wingate's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines.[57] A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943.[58] Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma. Only 1,700 prisoners were taken.[59]

 

Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army.[60] The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Under Japanese occupation, 170,000 to 250,000 civilians died.[61]

 

Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as a unified state. Aung Zan Wai, Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung, Sir Maung Gyi, Dr. Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historical Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals[62] assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.[63]

Independence (1948–1962)

Main article: Post-independence Burma, 1948–62

British governor Hubert Elvin Rance and Sao Shwe Thaik at the flag raising ceremony on 4 January 1948 (Independence Day of Burma).

 

On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities,[64] and multi-party elections were held in 1951–1952, 1956 and 1960.

 

The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.[65]

 

In 1961, U Thant, then the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations, a position he held for ten years.[66] Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi (daughter of Aung San), who went on to become winner of the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize.

 

When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d’état in 1962. Though incorporated in the 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term ‘federalism’ as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration.[67]

Military rule (1962–2011)

 

On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état, and the government has been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalised or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism,[68] which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning.

 

A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system, with the General and other military officers resigning and ruling through the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP).[69] During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries.[70]

Protesters gathering in central Rangoon, 1988.

 

There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students.[68] In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.[69]

 

In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising. Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.[71] SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989.

 

In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years and the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won 392 out of a total 492 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power[72] and continued to rule the nation as SLORC until 1997, and then as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011.

Protesters in Yangon during the 2007 Saffron Revolution with a banner that reads non-violence: national movement in Burmese. In the background is Shwedagon Pagoda.

 

On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw, meaning "city of the kings".[73]

Cyclone Nargis in southern Myanmar, May 2008.

 

In August 2007, an increase in the price of diesel and petrol led to the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government.[74] The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007. The crackdown was harsh, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmed protesters was widely condemned as part of the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the Burmese Government.

 

In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated, rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division.[75] It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damage totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million left homeless.[76] In the critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's isolationist government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts.[77] Humanitarian aid was requested but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.[78]

 

In early August 2009, a conflict known as the Kokang incident broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the Han Chinese,[79] Wa, and Kachin.[80][81] During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan province in neighbouring China.[80][81][82]

Civil wars

Main articles: Internal conflict in Myanmar, Kachin Conflict, Karen conflict, and 2015 Kokang offensive

 

Civil wars have been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding the ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar's civil wars continue.[83]

 

In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included the Kachin conflict,[84] between the Pro-Christian Kachin Independence Army and the government;[85] a civil war between the Rohingya Muslims, and the government and non-government groups in Rakhine State;[86] and a conflict between the Shan,[87] Lahu, and Karen[88][89] minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country. In addition, al-Qaeda signalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar. In a video released on 3 September 2014, mainly addressed to India, the militant group's leader Ayman al-Zawahiri said al-Qaeda had not forgotten the Muslims of Myanmar and that the group was doing "what they can to rescue you".[90] In response, the military raised its level of alertness, while the Burmese Muslim Association issued a statement saying Muslims would not tolerate any threat to their motherland.[91]

 

Armed conflict between ethnic Chinese rebels and the Myanmar Armed Forces have resulted in the Kokang offensive in February 2015. The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on the Chinese side of the border.[92] During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the ethnic Chinese rebels. Burmese officials have been historically "manipulated" and pressured by the Chinese government throughout Burmese modern history to create closer and binding ties with China, creating a Chinese satellite state in Southeast Asia.[93] However, uncertainties exist as clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups continue.

Democratic reforms

Main article: 2011–12 Burmese political reforms

 

The goal of the Burmese constitutional referendum of 2008, held on 10 May 2008, is the creation of a "discipline-flourishing democracy". As part of the referendum process, the name of the country was changed from the "Union of Myanmar" to the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar", and general elections were held under the new constitution in 2010. Observer accounts of the 2010 election describe the event as mostly peaceful; however, allegations of polling station irregularities were raised, and the United Nations (UN) and a number of Western countries condemned the elections as fraudulent.[94]

U.S. President Barack Obama and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton with Aung San Suu Kyi and her staff at her home in Yangon, 2012

 

The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory in the 2010 elections, stating that it had been favoured by 80 percent of the votes; however, the claim was disputed by numerous pro-democracy opposition groups who asserted that the military regime had engaged in rampant fraud.[95][96] One report documented 77 percent as the official turnout rate of the election.[95] The military junta was dissolved on 30 March 2011.

 

Opinions differ whether the transition to liberal democracy is underway. According to some reports, the military's presence continues as the label "disciplined democracy" suggests. This label asserts that the Burmese military is allowing certain civil liberties while clandestinely institutionalising itself further into Burmese politics. Such an assertion assumes that reforms only occurred when the military was able to safeguard its own interests through the transition—here, "transition" does not refer to a transition to a liberal democracy, but transition to a quasi-military rule.[97]

 

Since the 2010 election, the government has embarked on a series of reforms to direct the country towards liberal democracy, a mixed economy, and reconciliation, although doubts persist about the motives that underpin such reforms. The series of reforms includes the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission, the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permit labour unions and strikes, a relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices.[98]

 

The impact of the post-election reforms has been observed in numerous areas, including ASEAN's approval of Myanmar's bid for the position of ASEAN chair in 2014;[99] the visit by United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in December 2011 for the encouragement of further progress, which was the first visit by a Secretary of State in more than fifty years,[100] during which Clinton met with the Burmese president and former military commander Thein Sein, as well as opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi;[101] and the participation of Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy (NLD) party in the 2012 by-elections, facilitated by the government's abolition of the laws that previously barred the NLD.[102] As of July 2013, about 100[103][104] political prisoners remain imprisoned, while conflict between the Burmese Army and local insurgent groups continues.

Map of Myanmar and its divisions, including Shan State, Kachin State, Rakhine State and Karen State.

 

In 1 April 2012 by-elections, the NLD won 43 of the 45 available seats; previously an illegal organisation, the NLD had not won a single seat under new constitution. The 2012 by-elections were also the first time that international representatives were allowed to monitor the voting process in Myanmar.[105]

2015 general elections

Main article: Myanmar general election, 2015

 

General elections were held on 8 November 2015. These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since 1990. The results gave the National League for Democracy an absolute majority of seats in both chambers of the national parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi is constitutionally barred from the presidency.[106]

 

The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016[107] and, on 15 March 2016, Htin Kyaw was elected as the first non-military president since the military coup of 1962.[108] On 6 April 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi assumed the newly created role of State Counsellor, a role akin to a Prime Minister.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Myanmar

A map of Myanmar

Myanmar map of Köppen climate classification.

 

Myanmar has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (262,000 sq mi). It lies between latitudes 9° and 29°N, and longitudes 92° and 102°E. As of February 2011, Myanmar consisted of 14 states and regions, 67 districts, 330 townships, 64 sub-townships, 377 towns, 2,914 Wards, 14,220 village tracts and 68,290 villages.

 

Myanmar is bordered in the northwest by the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and the Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh states of India. Its north and northeast border is with the Tibet Autonomous Region and Yunnan province for a Sino-Myanmar border total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). It is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Myanmar has 1,930 km (1,200 mi) of contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter.[20]

 

In the north, the Hengduan Mountains form the border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 metres (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Myanmar.[109] Many mountain ranges, such as the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, the Shan Hills and the Tenasserim Hills exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas.[110]

 

The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the Irrawaddy, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittaung rivers.[111] The Irrawaddy River, Myanmar's longest river, nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi) long, flows into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.[110] The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the Irrawaddy valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Myanmar

A clickable map of Burma/Myanmar exhibiting its first-level administrative divisions.

About this image

 

Myanmar is divided into seven states (ပြည်နယ်) and seven regions (တိုင်းဒေသကြီး), formerly called divisions.[112] Regions are predominantly Bamar (that is, mainly inhabited by the dominant ethnic group). States, in essence, are regions that are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into districts, which are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages.

 

Climate

Main article: Climate of Myanmar

The limestone landscape of Mon State.

 

Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (196.9 in) of rain annually. Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (98.4 in), while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone in central Myanmar is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 in). The Northern regions of Myanmar are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of 32 °C (89.6 °F).[111]

Environment

Further information: Deforestation in Myanmar

 

Myanmar continues to perform badly in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 153 out of 180 countries in 2016; among the worst in the South Asian region, only ahead of Bangladesh and Afghanistan. The EPI was established in 2001 by the World Economic Forum as a global gauge to measure how well individual countries perform in implementing the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. The environmental areas where Myanmar performs worst (ie. highest ranking) are air quality (174), health impacts of environmental issues (143) and biodiversity and habitat (142). Myanmar performs best (ie. lowest ranking) in environmental impacts of fisheries (21), but with declining fish stocks. Despite several issues, Myanmar also ranks 64 and scores very good (ie. a high percentage of 93.73%) in environmental effects of the agricultural industry because of an excellent management of the nitrogen cycle.[114][115]

Wildlife

 

Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of the country, including areas of acacia, bamboo, ironwood and Magnolia champaca. Coconut and betel palm and rubber have been introduced. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.[116]

 

Heavy logging since the new 1995 forestry law went into effect has seriously reduced forest acreage and wildlife habitat.[117] The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits and once had large areas of mangroves although much of the protective mangroves have disappeared. In much of central Myanmar (the Dry Zone), vegetation is sparse and stunted.

 

Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers, occur sparsely in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild water buffalo, clouded leopard, wild boars, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber industry. Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, myna, peafowl, red junglefowl, weaverbirds, crows, herons, and barn owl. Among reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.[118] For a list of protected areas, see List of protected areas of Myanmar.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Myanmar

Assembly of the Union (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw)

 

The constitution of Myanmar, its third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and published in September 2008. The country is governed as a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature (with an executive President accountable to the legislature), with 25% of the legislators appointed by the military and the rest elected in general elections.

I opened my eyes and let out a groan. I pushed up and found a beam had pinned my legs to the ground. I tried to sit up, but it hurt too much. Miraculously, I wasn’t dead. I looked around the damaged room coated in dust and gravel and rubble; through the grit I could see Roy propped up against a wall and a figure standing beside him.

 

Was that…

 

“Yin?” I asked. He looked back and ran over, his face frozen in a fearful expression.

 

“Connor. I-I’m so sorry.”

 

“Yin, what’s going on? John said this was a trap.” He met my eyes.

 

“It was, and I knew.”

 

“Woah, woah, woah… wait a minute. How? What do you mean you knew it was a trap?”

 

“Connor…” We head a creaking above us. Yin’s head snapped up, scanning the rubble above us, and he called Roy over. They began pulling at the beam.

 

“We don’t have much time. The komodo is coming.” He looked at me. “The truth is, I didn’t survive the explosion. But the League used a pit to bring me back… the Lazarus Pit. When I came back, they told me I could join them, and-and the thought of comradery after all those years alone on the island before Oliver…” Tears fell from his eyes.

 

“I loved him like a brother. But I resented him, too. For never bothering to follow up, find out what happened…”

 

“He thought you were dead! Why would he check up on you?” I white hot anger flashed through behind my eyes. This guy betrays us, then has the audacity to question my father’s honour?

 

“You betrayed, us, you lying son of a-”

 

“Connor.” Roy shot me a look, strangely calm. “Like it or not, he’s our only hope if we’re going to get out of here.” Yin glanced back at him, then at me.

 

“Your friend is wise. For years I harboured resentment against your father, and when they asked me to infiltrate your life, I was eager. But upon actually being here and meeting you, I-I started to have second thoughts. I couldn’t do it. He already had a long painful battle with cancer, and I began to see reason. He’s already suffered; and I couldn’t blame you for the sins of your father, for something you had no idea about.”

 

I nodded grimly. “Thanks.”

 

Roy cleared his throat. “You said something about a-a League?”

 

They pulled the beam off me and I sighed in relief. Roy bent down to help.

 

“Can you walk?”

 

“A-a little. I did something to my ankle.” I put my arm over his and Yin’s shoulders and they helped me get to my feet. Yin continued his explanation.

 

“The League of Assassins are an international band of mercenaries. Their influence ranges worldwide and as far back as the Ancient Romans. We have been manipulating the balance of power, exerting our force for as long as anyone can remember. We’ve been responsible for empires rising, and empires falling. And now they have their sights set on Star City.”

 

I grunted as we began walking away. “Why? There’s nothing here-”

 

“Yes there is. Underneath-” he was cut off by a CRASH. We looked behind us and saw a menacing, hulking figure approaching, wearing armour and night vision goggles and wielding two swords. Yin swore and let Roy take me. He turned around.

 

“Komodo. You must leave, or he will kill you.”

 

“But-”

 

“Go! I’ll hold him off.”

 

Roy and I looked at each other. As angry as I was at him for betraying us, he had saved us. And he was a link to my father’s past.

 

“Go!” Yin shouted. Connor and I began walking away as fast was we could, and Yin kicked a support beam out, causing an avalanche of rubble to separate us from him. We were safe; at least for now.

 

Here's a little canal in Brigus.

 

- -- --- ---- -----

 

It's been a stressful past few weeks for me, mainly due to the demands of work. Assignments with conflicting demands on my time keep piling on, and I'm building resentments, despite the knowledge that resentments is what they are. Being a counsellor and working with other counsellors helps me to validate these feelings and understand that the situation is only temporary. But I haven't been keeping up with self-care to nearly the same extent as I had last year, when I had a more consistent schedule. And given that I'm still relatively young, I'm not sure if this is an unreasonable workload, or if this is just "what full-time work is supposed to look like". I don't have much of a frame of reference, but given that the full-timers are complaining about it too, that points to it being less of a problem with my interpretation and more of a problem of insufficient staffing, or perhaps a little too much ambition for the amount of staff we have available. There's nothing wrong with admitting that you've bitten off more than you can chew. Not everybody is a Type A personality, and that would be a horrible world to live in, anyway.

 

_____________

IMG_1019800ps

  

Brief History of Norfolk as a Penal Settlement.

As noted previously Norfolk was settled to provide flax fibre rope, flax sails and tree masts from Norfolk Island pine trees and also because it was uninhabited. It was also an island paradise with rich volcanic soils. Its only major drawback was its isolation and its lack of a good harbour. Its history falls into several phases.

Phase One- 1788-1814. This phase was run along the same lines as the settlement of Sydney. Both men and women convicts were quartered here. The women were to work making flax rope and sails and the men were to do the building, road making, land clearing, agriculture and stone masonry work. Some free settlers came too. The settlement was centred on Kingston (then called Sydney) and nearby Arthur’s Vale (watermill valley.) By 1806 the population had reached over 1,000 people. Then for financial reasons- the cost of sending supply ships from Sydney to Norfolk was too great- the evacuation of the island was ordered. Convicts and other settlers were moved to Van Diemen’s Land- hence the settlements there of New Norfolk and Norfolk Plains (later Longford.)

Phase Two- 1825-1855. This time the island was run as a total penitentiary for the worse offenders. There would be no escape from Norfolk Island. Conditions were harsh, severe and degrading. It was a place of extreme punishment. The worst commandant was Captain Turton. During the period 1840-44 conditions were slightly better. Free settlers were not encouraged to settle during this second phase but a few of the best behaved convicts were allowed to work small farms across the island. Massive government expenditure on the penitentiary meant that fine sandstone Georgian buildings were erected and like Port Arthur in Tasmania many of them still remain. A large prison was built in the 1840s, and the prison required large military barracks, large stores and Commissariat stores, officer headquarters, a large hospital etc and good quality homes for the prison and military officers on the island. Kingston remained the administration and shipping centre of the island.

Phase Three – 1856-. In the third phase some of the original stone buildings were dismantled or left to go to ruins. Some were burnt down or the stone re-used for other structures. But the major feature of this period was the introduction of 194 Pitcairn Islanders in 1856. Norfolk remained isolated and largely forgotten. At one stage the Governor of NSW (the British Crown representative in charge of the island) ordered that the Pitcairn Islanders could no longer reside in the former penal settlement buildings in Kingston. This was in 1908 just before the Commonwealth government took charge. The resentment of this change led to fires and some beautiful buildings being destroyed. In 1893 Norfolk got a telegraph office and an underwater cable link to the world via Canada. Soon it had a cable link to New Zealand and a cable station opened at Anson Bay in 1902. Once it became a territory of the new Australian federal government conditions improved a little. Shipping came irregularly but during World War Two the Australian government built an airstrip for defence reasons. Flights continued after the War and now the main linkage between Norfolk and Australia is by air. The federal government has also put more money into other facilities on the island including the Botanic Gardens, and all the restoration work at Kingston etc.

Norfolk Island – an introduction.

By lunch time we will be settled into our accommodation on Norfolk Island. Norfolk Island is just five by eight kilometres and it was first discovered in 1774 by Captain James Cook on his second South Pacific voyage of exploration. Today the island is a territory of Australia, part of the Commonwealth but with a large degree of independence and self government. It is one of Australia’s eleven territories (Northern Territory; ACT; Jervis Bay; Christmas Island; Cocos Islands; Ashmore Islands; Coral Sea Islands; Antarctic Territories; Heard Island and Indian Ocean Islands.) Norfolk’s residents are not represented in the Australian parliament. It has its own stamps, flag governing body etc. The census of August 2011 recorded a population of 2,302 people. It has a constant influx of tourists as well with the island receiving about 12,000 visitors a year mainly from Australia.

 

The main population centres are in the middle of the island at Burnt Pine and Middlegate. The old convict settlement is on the coast at Kingston. The highest point is Mt Bates at 319 metres or 1,045 feet. Nearby by is Mt Pitt at just over 1,000 feet high and it is an old volcanic cone indicating the origins of Norfolk Island. Cook named it after the British Prime Minister William Pitt, Earl of Chatham and PM during the 1750s and again 1766-68. Norfolk Island is one of a series of volcanic islands on the top of the Lord Howe seamount or ridge which stretches from New Zealand to New Caledonia. The volcanic islands that emerge from the sea are New Zealand, Norfolk, Lord Howe and New Caledonia extending along a zone more than 1,600 kms in length. Near Norfolk the submarine trench is around 33,000 feet deep. Norfolk Island territory has two nearby uninhabited islands named Phillip and Nepean Islands and both are visible from Kingston. Approximately 10% of the island is a National Park centred round Mt Pitt and Mt Bates. There are 178 species of native plants on the island and 40 of these are unique to Norfolk. Norfolk Island Pine (Araucaria heterophylla) is still abundant. It can reach a height of over 150 feet. It constitutes the emblem on the Norfolk Island flag. The other endemic tree, now widely grown as an ornamental in Australia is the Norfolk Island Hibiscus (Lagunaria patersonii). The island also grows the Norfolk Island palm, many ferns, and a native passionfruit. The island has no mammals or amphibians, and only a couple of reptiles - a skink and a gecko. The coral formations around the island teem with marine life and are home to many tropical fish, eels, octopus, starfish etc. The island provides a good habitat for many local and migratory birds including the wedge-tailed shearwater, (Puffinus pacificus) whose moaning calls echo around the island at night!

 

Norfolk Island was the second settlement of the Australian region following the arrival of the British and their convicts at Sydney Cove. Just six weeks after arrival at Sydney Cove in 1788 some 23 free settlers, 15 convicts, and commandant Lieutenant Phillip Parker King landed on Norfolk. Several hundred more convicts and settlers were sent from Sydney to Norfolk in 1790. It was 14 years later that the third Australian settlement was made in Van Diemen’s Land (1804) at Hobart. Norfolk started out as part of NSW and later became part of Van Diemen’s Land. But after the closure of the convict settlement by the British government in 1855 on Norfolk they set the island aside for the people from Pitcairn Island and many Norfolk residents still dispute Australia’s control of Norfolk Island as an Australian territory. Britain has never regarded Norfolk Island as a separate British colony.

 

The old school text book explanation for the settlement of Norfolk Island is largely true. The British government wanted to access the New Zealand flax plants growing on the island ( Phormium tenax.) The NZ flax was not native but archaeologists believe Polynesians, probably Maoris, introduced flax to Norfolk Island about 600 to 800 years ago. (They introduced the common rat at the same time!) As a naval empire Britain needed supplies of flax rope and flax sails for its sailing fleets. At the time of the settlement of Norfolk Island (1788) Britain obtained its wooden masts from Nova Scotia and its hemp and flax from Russia. Britain wanted new supplies of both masts and rope and sails as they feared the relationship with Russia would be terminated. Because of these concerns Norfolk Island was settled early in 1788 and many female convicts were sent to Norfolk Island so that they could weave and sew the flax and rope. When the second lot of convicts went to Norfolk in 1790 there were 150 females aboard the ship but only 30 male convicts. But by the early 1800s the authorities realised that the convict women would not be able to produce much rope or cloth. Only one ship ever left Norfolk with locally produced sails. Additionally, the tall, straight Norfolk Island pines proved unsuitable for ship masts as the wood was too soft and lacked strength. Thus the commercial justifications for settling Norfolk as a penal settlement diminished. But the origins of Norfolk are fascinating. One of the 1790 ships taking convicts to Norfolk, the former flagship of the First Fleet to Botany Bay was shipwrecked near Kingston whilst unloading supplies. Hundreds of artifacts have been retrieved from the wreck of the Sirius, including three anchors and two carronades which are displayed in the Norfolk Island Museum. The loss of the Sirius left Sydney settlement with just one supply ship normally used to obtain flour from Cape Town.

 

TF:DR (Too French, didn’t read) version below...

 

L’œuvre « Jardin d’addiction », réalisée entre 2009 et 2011 au CIRVA à Marseille par les artistes français Christophe Berdaguer et Marie Péjus est présentée au mudac.

 

Avec cette œuvre, les créateurs questionnent les mécanismes du fonctionnement cérébral humain liés aux dépendances. En effet, à chaque extrémité des tiges -synapses- se trouve un bulbe en verre contenant l’odeur d’une substance addictive telle que le café, le tabac, le vin, le whisky, les champignons, l’opium, l’herbe, la cocaïne ou encore l’héroïne. Ces fragrances ont été conçues en collaboration avec les parfumeurs Christophe Laudamiel et Christoph Hornetz (Les Christophs). L’enchevêtrement des fines racines au sein du jardin fait référence au réseau complexe des connexions neuronales du cerveau. La fragilité du verre et l’impossibilité de manipuler les bouchons permettant de sentir les odeurs nous renvoient à notre propre ressentiment face à ces addictions.

mudac.ch/expositions/jardin-daddiction/

 

This installation symbolizes the effects of addictive substances on the brain. The different liquids are perfumes imitating substances such as Coffee, wine, whiskey, opium, heroine, cocaine... The fragility of the glass and the fact that we can’t smell the substances evokes our resentment of these addictions.

Alias: Anchor

Real Name: Calvin Shaw

Gender: Male

Alignment: Villain

Powers: Suit allows him to breathe underwater, and gives him enhanced strength.

Weapons: Wields an anchor type weapon, thanks to his enhanced strength.

Backstory: Calvin grew up in Sunrise City, with a loving family. However, his best friend at the time, Hobbes, died due to drowning. For years, Calvin would blame himself. This was no accident however. Years later, he would learn of Atlantis' existence. The Atlanteans had killed Hobbes, to have one of them take his place on the surface. Calvin was so frustrated, he did his best to research them. But since there's little to no resources on the surface in regards to these people, he'd eventually give up. He'd even go as far as to start his own family, with his girlfriend at the time, Calah. The Atlantean invasion of Sunrise City would take place several years later. Even though the heroes of the city managed to thwart the invasion, the damage was already done. His wife, and newborn child, were slaughtered. His tiger cat, that he had named after his best friend, was also found dead. His home, and workplace? Both destroyed. From this point on, Calvin's mind snapped. Calah was his anchor, keeping him stable. With her gone, his resentment towards Atlantis grew. He'd create a suit that could withstand the conditions of Atlantis. This led to him joining the Bottom Feeders, a gang under the leadership of Megala Don, with the purpose of destabilizing Atlantis. While he doesn't like working with the Atlantean gang, he sees them as a means to an end. To rid the surface world of the scum that ruined his life. Especially the Riptide organization, that fronted the assault on Sunrise City.