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Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Tamil: கங்கைகொண்ட சோழபுரம்) was erected as the capital of the Cholas by Rajendra Chola I, the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola, the great Chola who conquered a large area in South India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Sumatra, Kadaram (Kedah in Malaysia), Cambodia and others at the beginning of the 11th century A.D . The great temple of Siva at this place is next only to the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur in its monumental nature and surpasses it in sculptural quality.The Gangaikondaan temple is an architectural and engineering marvel because the shadow of the main tower never falls on the ground throughout the year.
The basement of Srivimana is 100 feet by 100 feet square structure and the foundation is raised 20 feet height for the ShriVimana.The Srivimana is 180 feet tall and has 8 stage.
The Great Chola Temples of southern India are an exceptional testimony to the development of the architecture and the ideology of the Chola Empire and the Tamil civilization in southern India. They represent an outstanding creative achievement in the architectural conception of the pure form of the Dravida type of temple (characterized by a pyramidal tower)
Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Tamil: கங்கைகொண்ட சோழபுரம்) was built during medieval India and was erected as the capital of the Cholas by Rajendra Chola I, the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola, the great Chola who conquered a large area in South India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Sumatra, Kadaram (Kedah in Malaysia), Cambodia and others at the beginning of the 11th century A.D. It occupies an important place in the history of India. As the capital of the Cholas from about 1025 A.D. for about 250 years, the city controlled the affairs of entire southern India, from the Tungabhadra in the north to Ceylon in the south and other south east Asian countries. As of 2014, the ancient city exists as a small forlorn village in the Ariyalur district of Tamil Nadu, India. The great temple of Siva at this place is next only to the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur in its monumental nature and surpasses it in sculptural quality. The Gangaikondaan temple is an architectural and engineering marvel.
CITY
The city was founded by Rajendra Chola to commemorate his victory over the Pala Dynasty. The name means The town of the chola who brought Ganga (water from Ganga) or who defeated (the kings near) Ganga. It is now a small village, its past eminence only remembered by the existence of the great Siva Temple. Rajendra Chola-I (1012-1044 A.D) son of the Great Rajaraja-I, established this temple after his great victorious march to river Ganges on Northern India. He assumed the title of Rajendra during his coronation and continued to rule along with his father Rajaraja-I for a while. He was awarded the supreme title of the Cholas known as Parakesari.
Rajendra-I, a great warrior, assisted his father in numerous expeditions to elevate the Cholas to supreme power. The various expeditions he conducted, were : Gangetic expedition, eastern/Western Chalukyas expedition, war against Cheras/Pandyas, Ceylon expedition, Kataram (currently called as Kedah) expedition.
His empire included the whole of southern India to the river Thungabathra in the north. For administrative and strategic purposes he built another capital and named it Gangaikondacholapuram. The Gangaikondacholapuram temple he constructed consists of 3 stories and was surrounded by a huge fort-like wall, the outer wall largely destroyed during the English rule (1896) to reuse the building material (granite rocks) for constructing the Lower Anicut, the dam built across river Kollidam. He built around 10 temples at various places.
He assumed the title of Gangaikonda Cholan and named his new capital as Gangaikondacholapuram and he also constructed a huge Lake known as Chola Gangam that spreads 22 km mainly used for drinking and irrigation. A statue of Rajendra-I is found in Kolaram temple at Kolar of Karnataka state in India.
C. 1022 C.E. Rajendra undertook an expedition to the Ganges along the east coast of peninsular India. The emperor himself lead the army up to the banks of the Godavari river. The Chola armies conquered all the countries north of Vengi, which included Kalinga, Odda, Southern Kosala, the lower and upper Lada and finally the Vangaladesa (Bengal). The triumphant Chola armies brought back waters from the river Ganges in golden vessels. Around the same time, the Cholas under the illustrious Rajendra Chola I also vanquished the Chalukyas of Manyakheta when the Chola protectorate of Vengi was threatened by Chalukyas Jayasimha II. Rajendra Chola I defeated Jayasimha-II Chalukya at Maski (Muyangi in Chola annals) between Eluru and Visayavadai (modern Vijayawada) and subsequently engaged the Chalukya in Kannada country itself i.e. in the Chalukyas capital of Mannaikadakkam (Manyakheta) "the war in which the Chalukya Jayasimha-II, full of fear, hid like a mouse and fled the battlefield". The Chola armies seized the Chalukya flag, decapitated or slew various generals of the Chalukyas, with the Chalukyan king fleeing the battlefield. The Chalukya King surrendered his wife to the victorious Chola monarch. With the Chola coffers filling up with riches from the Chalukya country, they were able to establish their hold of the region between the Vaigai/Kaveri delta in Tamil country up to the Tungabhadra-Krishna basins in the Maharashtra-Andhra region. To commemorate this celebrated victory, Rajendra assumed the title of Gangaikonda Cholan, "Irattapadi-konda Cholan", "Mannai-kondan" (the king who possessed Irattapadi (erstwhile land of the Rashtrakutas usurped by the Salukkis (Chalukyas) and the king who possessed (the Chalukyan capital) Manyakheta (Mannaikadakkam in Chola annals) and had the Siva Temple Gangakkondacholeswaram built (***). Soon the capital was moved from Thanjavur to Gangaikondacholapuram. The city of Gangaikondacholapuram was probably founded by Rajendra before his 17th year. Most of the Chola kings who succeeded Rajendra were crowned here. They retained it as their capital, reoriented and trained the efficient Chola army.
CHOLA CULTURE
Chola rulers were active patrons of the arts. They flourished in architectures, education, science, arts, ship construction, poetry, drama, music, business trading, dance. The beautiful Nataraja figure was first conceived during the Chola empire.
They constructed enormous stone temple complexes decorated inside and out with painted sculptures. While the stone sculptures and the inner sanctum image empowering the temple remained immovable, changing religious concepts during the 10th century demanded that the deities take part in a variety of public roles similar to those of a human monarch. As a result, large bronze images were created to be carried outside the temple to participate in daily rituals, processions, and temple festivals. The round lugs and holes found on the bases of many of these sculptures are for the poles that were used to carry the heavy images. They were admired for the sensuous depiction of the figure and the detailed treatment of their clothing and jewelry in Chola-period bronzes.
FORTIFICATIONS
Nudging from the available literature and the remains we may conclude that it was an extensive city, carefully planned and laid in accordance with the architectural treatises to suit the needs of a capital.
The city seems to have had two fortifications, one inner and the other outer. The outer was probably wider. The remains of the outer fortification can be seen as a mound running all around the palace.
The outer fortification built of burnt bricks, was about six to eight feet wide. It consisted of two walls, the intervening space (the core) being filled with sand. The bricks are fairly large in size and are made of well-burnt clay. Systematic brick robbing by the local inhabitants has reduced this structure to its current state.
The outer fortification was known as Rajendra Chola Madil and is mentioned in inscriptions. The inner fortification was around the royal palace, probably identical with the Utpadi vittu madil of the inscriptions.
Probably in the reign of Kulothunga Chola I, the fortifications were renewed and the city underwent some alteration and additions. An epigraph refers to the fort wall of Kulothunga Chola (Kulottunga Cholan Thirumadil). The strengthening of the fortification and additions to the city in the reign of Kulothunga I were probably necessitated by the uprising which led to the murder of Chola king Athithakarikal Cholain the sambuvaraya's palace of Melakadambur, Kulothunga's predecessor. By the 13th century, the Chola kingdom had exhausted its resources and was on the decline. It succumbed to an attack by the Hoysalas from the west and the Pandyas from the south. The last king of the Medieval Cholas was Rajendra Chola-III.
THE CHOLA ADMINISTRATION
The Chola administration served as a model for all the other kingdoms of the South. The king had a council of ministers. The kingdom was divided into a number of provinces known as mandalams, The mandalams in turn were divided into valanadu and nadus. The next administrative sub divisions were kurrams and kottams. The special feature of the Chola administration was the Local Self Government or the autonomous administration. The villagers themselves carried out village administration. It was more or less like the modern Panchayat Raj. Each village had a village assembly known as the ur or the sabha. The members of the sabha were elected by lot, known as kudavolai system. There was a committee to look after the specified departments, such as justice, law and order, irrigation etc., which were called as variyams.
ARCHITECTURE
The temple of Gangaikondacholisvara is approached through the eastern entrance from the road. The entrance is called the "Mahaduvar" leads to the inner court. As one steps in, the great Vimana arrests the visitor's sight. The Vimana with its recessed corners and upward movement presents a striking contrast to the straight-sided pyramidal tower of Thanjavur but with octagon shape of Dravidian architecture. As it rises to a height of 55 m and is shorter than the Thanjavur tower with larger plinth, it is often described as the feminine counterpart of the Thanjavur temple. The Vimana is flanked on either side by small temples; the one in the north now housing the Goddess is fairly well preserved. The small shrine of Chandikesvara is near the steps in the north. In the north-east are a shire housing Durga, a well called lion-well (simhakeni) with a lion figure guarding its steps and a late mandapa housing the office. Nandi is in the east facing the main shrine. In the same direction is the ruined gopura, the entrance tower. The main tower surrounded by little shrines truly presents the appearance of a great Chakravarti (emperor) surrounded by chieftains and vassals. The Gangaikondacholapuram Vimana is undoubtedly a devalaya chakravarti, an emperor among temples of South India.
ROYAL PALACE
The royal palace also was built of burnt brick. The ceilings were covered with flat tiles of small size, laid in a number of courses, in fine lime mortar. The pillars were probably made of polished wood, supported on granite bases; a few pillar bases have survived to this day. Iron nails and clamps have been recovered from this palace site. There is an underground tunnel that links the palace and the temple inner 1st pragara (north).
In the reign of Virarajendra Chola, Rajendra's third son, the palace at Gangaikondacholapuram is referred to as Chola-Keralan Thirumaligai (Chola Keralan palace) evidently after one of the titles of Rajendra I. The same inscription mentions a few parts of the palace as adibhumi (the ground floor), Kilaisopana (the eastern portico), and a seat named Mavali vanadhirajan. Evidently the palace was multistoried. In an inscription dated in the 49th year of Kulothunga I (1119 C.E.) reference is made to Gangaikondacholamaligai at this place. It is likely that there were more than one royals building each having their own name.
CATASTROPHE ON GANGAIKONDACHOLAPURAM
As per the available evidences, the last Chola King Rajendra Chozha III’s rule did not end due to any defeat in the war field. But devastations are available underneath, which proves that some major catastrophe happened around Gangaikondacholapuram which brought the Chola’s Rule to an end. After about six/eight decades, the Chola region was taken over by Pallava from whom it was Hoysala and then to Vijaya Nagar Rule. During Vijaya Nagar Rule, lots of settlements by Telugu, Telugu Brahmins, Kannada etc.happened. It is also evident that while the farmers tried to dig wells for farming around Gangaikondacholapuram, it was revealed to the world that the Palace buildings and other constructions are underneath about 50 – 80 feet depth.
EXPEDITION TO THE GANGES
With both the Western and Eastern Chalukya fronts subdued, Rajendra’s armies undertook an extraordinary expedition. 1019 CE Rajendra’s forces continued to march through Kalinga.
Kalinga was a kingdom in central-eastern India, which comprised most of the modern state of Orissa, as well as some northern areas of the bordering state of Andhra Pradesh to the river Ganges. The Emperor himself led the advance up to the river Godavari.
The Chola army eventually reach the Pala kingdom of Bengal where they met Mahipala I,considered the second founder of the Pala Empire . Gopala I established the dynastic rule of the Palas in the middle of the 8th century C.E and defeated him.
According to the Tiruvalangadu Plates, the campaign lasted less than two years in which many kingdoms of the north felt the might of the Chola army. The inscriptions further claim that Rajendra defeated the armies of Ranasura and entered the land of Dharmapala and subdued him and thereby he reached the Ganges and caused the river water to be brought back to the Chola country. The new conquests opened up new routes for the Cholas to head for distant lands like Burma by land (through what are now modern Orissa, West Bengal, Assam and Bangladesh).
It is true that Rajendra's army defeated the kings of Sakkarakottam and Dhandabhukti and Mahipala. These territories were initially added to the kingdom, while later they had the status of tribute paying subordinates and trade partners with the Chola Kingdom, an arrangement that lasted till the times of Kulothunga-III and to a limited extent, of Raja Raja-III too. It was undoubtedly an exhibition of the power and might of the Chola empire to the northern kingdoms. But the benevolent leadership of the Cholas treated them in a benevolent manner and did not permanently annexe them to the Chola dominions.
ROADS AND CITY GATES
Besides the names of the palace and fort walls, the names of a few roads and streets are preserved in the epigraphs. The entryways named Thiruvasal, the eastern gate and the Vembugudi gate, evidently the south gate leading to the village Vembugudi situated in that direction are mentioned. Reference is also found to highways named after Rajaraja and Rajendra as Rajarajan Peruvali and Rajendran Peruvali. Other streets mentioned in epigraphs are the ten streets (Pattu teru), the gateway lane (Thiruvasal Narasam) and the Suddhamali lane. The inscription also refers to the highways, Kulottungacholan Thirumadil peruvali, Vilangudaiyan Peruvali and Kulaiyanai pona Peruvali (the highway through which a short elephant passed by).
CITY LAYOUT
The epigraphs also refer to the Madhurantaka Vadavaru, now called the Vadavaru, running about six kilometers east of the ruined capital. Madhurantaka Vedavaru, named after one of the titles of Rajendra I, was a source of irrigation to a vast stretch of land bordering the capital. An irrigation channel called Anaivettuvan is also mentioned.
"Anaivettuvan" - Anai means irrigation (step irrigation) vettuvan means labour or engineer. Hence the above seque is not matching, more over Hindu dharam never allows to kill elephant.Another possible meaning of "AnaiVettuvan" - Anai means Dam, vettuvan means constructor (labour or engineer).
There were both wet and dry lands inside the Fort, used for cultivation and other purposes. The present positions of the existing temples throw some light on the lay out of the city. With the palace as the centre to the city, the great temple, and the other temples in the city seem to have been erected. Towards the northeast (Isanya) of the palace is the great temple of Siva. The Siva temple according to Vastu and traditional texts should be in the northeast of the city or village and should face east. The temple of Vishnu should be in the west.
A number of small tanks and ponds mentioned in inscriptions and a number of wells, supplied drinking water to the residents.
WIKIPEDIA
Built by emperor Rajendra Chola I and completed in 1010 AD,Peruvudaiyaar Temple, also popularly known as the 'Big Temple', turned 1000 years old in 2010. The temple is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the "Great Living Chola Temples"
The temple of Gangai Konda Cholapuram was built by Rajendra Chola son of Great Rajaraja Chola in the 11th century.This UNESCO site is thrived with rich and intricate carvings that are exclusive to Chola style of artistry. The architectural work of Anugraha Sandeswara moorthi and Gnana Saraswathi are master piece of Cholas.This temple is dedicated to Lord Siva.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Tamil: கங்கைகொண்ட சோழபுரம்) was erected as the capital of the Cholas by Rajendra Chola I, the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola, the great Chola who conquered a large area in South India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Sumatra, Kadaram (Kedah in Malaysia), Cambodia and others at the beginning of the 11th century A.D . The great temple of Siva at this place is next only to the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur in its monumental nature and surpasses it in sculptural quality.The Gangaikondaan temple is an architectural and engineering marvel because the shadow of the main tower never falls on the ground throughout the year.
The basement of Srivimana is 100 feet by 100 feet square structure and the foundation is raised 20 feet height for the ShriVimana.The Srivimana is 180 feet tall and has 8 stage.
The Great Chola Temples of southern India are an exceptional testimony to the development of the architecture and the ideology of the Chola Empire and the Tamil civilization in southern India. They represent an outstanding creative achievement in the architectural conception of the pure form of the Dravida type of temple (characterized by a pyramidal tower)
Pazhayarai is historically important since it is closely associated with the names of Great Cholas,Rajaraja ,Rajendra Chola and Kundavi. There is much description in the historic novel, Kalki's classic Ponniyin Selvan (பொன்னியின் செல்வன்) about this place.
Pazhaiyarai Vadathali ( கீழபழையாறை வடதளி) is a Hindu temple dedicated to Someswarar, a form of Shiva. It is located 6 km away from Kumbakonam on the Kumbakonam- Aavoor road, 2 km away from the Thenupuriswarar Temple at Patteeswaram and 3 km away from Darasuram.
The temple is believed to be built during the Chola period and has several inscriptions dating back to the 8-9th century. The presiding deity, Someswarar is revered in the 7th century Tamil Saiva canonical work, the Thevaram, written by Tamil saint poets known as the Nayanmars and classified as Paadal Petra Sthalam.
The city of Pazhayarai was one of the capital towns of the Chola empire. The temple is a part of the series of temples built by Aditya Chola (871-907 CE) along the banks of river Cauvery to commemorate his victory in the Tirupurambiyam battle.This temple is in the centre of the once famous Pazhayarai city, surrounded by Pazhayari Vadathali in the north, Araimetrali in the west and Thenthali in the south. This is the birthplace of Mangayarkarasiyar, a saint amongst the 63 Nayanmars.
The temple has a gopuram (gateway tower) in dilapidated state. Renovation work is in full swing now.
The Chola Empire
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The Chola dynasty (Tamil: சோழர் குலம் [ˈt͡ʃoːɻə]) was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Hindu dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, a northern ruler; the dynasty continued to reign over varying territory until the 13th century AD.
The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more. Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-east Asia. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the celebrated expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the overthrow after an unprecedented naval war of the maritime empire of Srivijaya, as well as by the repeated embassies to China. During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of what is now Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago. The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyas, who ultimately caused their downfall.
The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture.The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity.They pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy.
The Chola Art
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The period of the imperial Cholas (c. 850 CE - 1250 CE) was an age of continuous improvement and refinement of the Dravidian art and architecture. They utilised their prodigious wealth earned through their extensive conquests in building long-lasting stone temples and exquisite bronze sculptures. Most of these still stand proudly articulating those glorious days.
The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. Among the existing specimens in the various museums of the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, Siva saints and many more. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptor worked in great freedom in the eleventh and the twelfth centuries and the sculptures and bronzes show classic grace, grandeur and perfect taste. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.
While the stone sculptures and the inner sanctum image empowering the temple remained immovable, changing religious concepts during the 10th century demanded that the deities take part in a variety of public roles similar to those of a human monarch. As a result, large bronze images were created to be carried outside the temple to participate in daily rituals, processions, and temple festivals. The round lugs and holes found on the bases of many of these sculptures are for the poles that were used to carry the heavy images. Admired for the sensuous depiction of the figure and the detailed treatment of their clothing and jewelry,
Although bronze casting has a long history in south India, a much larger and a much greater number of bronze sculptures were cast during the Chola period than before, further attesting to the importance of bronze sculpture during this period. It should be noted that when in worship, these images are covered in silk cloths, garlands, and jewels, and would not appear as they do outside a religious context. Decorating the bronzes in this way is a tradition at least a thousand years old as such decorations are referred to in 10th-century Chola inscriptions.
Hundreds of Chola bronzes have been smuggled out of India and have found their way into the private museums of art-collectors.
Chola period bronzes were created using the lost wax technique. It is known in artistic terms as "Cire Perdue". The Sanskrit Shilpa texts call it the Madhu Uchchishtta Vidhana.
Beeswax and kungilium (a type of camphor) are mixed with a little oil and kneaded well. The figure is sculpted from this mixture fashioning all the minute details. This is the wax model original.
The entire figure is then coated with clay made from termite hills until the mould is of a necessary thickness. Then the whole thing is dried and fired in an oven with cow-dung cakes. The wax model melts and flows out, while some of it vapourises.
The metal alloy of bronze is melted and poured into the empty clay-mould. This particular bronze alloy is known as Pancha Loham. When the metal has filled all crevices and has settled and hardened and cooled, the mould is broken off. The bronze figure thus obtained is then cleaned, finer details are added, blemishes are removed, smoothened, and polished well. Hence each bronze icon is unique and the mould cannot be used to create copies.
The forms of Chola bronzes are very plastic. They are devoid of intricate ornaments and designs. They are very expressive. There is grace, elegance, beauty, and above all else - life. By means of the facial expressions and gestures or mudras and the pose, we can imagine the surroundings of the figure of the god or goddess; what instrument or weapon he or she is holding; what he or she is leaning on; and what he or she is doing or about to do.
There is a pose called Rishabaandhika pose. We see Siva standing with one leg crossed over to the other side, across the other leg . We see that the way His arm is flexed and raised, it is resting on something. The way that His body is tilted suggests that He is leaning on something. In this scenario, Siva is leaning on his bull-vahana, Nandhi, on whose shoulders He is resting His arm.
The most famous of all the bronze icons is that of Nataraja.The symbolism presents Siva as lord of the cosmic dance of creation and destruction. He is active, yet aloof, like the gods on the Parthenon Frieze. Surrounding Siva, a circle of flames represents the universe, whose fire is held in Shiva's left rear palm. His left front arm crosses his chest, the hand pointing in "elephant trunk" position (gaja hasta) to his upraised left foot, which signifies liberation. His right foot tramples the dwarf Apasmara, who represents ignorance.
Siva's right front hand is raised in the "fear-not" gesture of benediction (abhaya mudra), while his right rear hand holds a drum with which he beats the measure of the dance. The snake, an emblem of Siva, curls around his arm. His hair holds the crescent moon - another emblem - and a small image of Ganges, the river-goddess whose precipitous fall from heaven to earth is broken by Siva's matted locks.
In 1931, Chola frescoes were discovered within the circumambulatory corridor of the Brihadisvara Temple, by S.K.Govindasamy, a professor at the Annamalai University. These are the first Chola paintings discovered. The passage of the corridor is dark and the walls on either side are covered with two layers of paintings from floor to ceiling.
Researchers have discovered the technique used in these frescoes. A smooth batter of limestone mixture is applied over the stones, which took two to three days to set. Within that short span, such large paintings were painted with natural organic pigments.
During the Nayak period, the Chola paintings were painted over. The Chola frescos lying underneath have an ardent spirit of saivism is expressed in them. They probably synchronised with the completion of the temple by Rajaraja Chola.
Pazhayarai is historically important since it is closely associated with the names of Great Cholas,Rajaraja ,Rajendra Chola and Kundavi. There is much description in the historic novel, Kalki's classic Ponniyin Selvan (பொன்னியின் செல்வன்) about this place.
Pazhaiyarai Vadathali ( கீழபழையாறை வடதளி) is a Hindu temple dedicated to Someswarar, a form of Shiva. It is located 6 km away from Kumbakonam on the Kumbakonam- Aavoor road, 2 km away from the Thenupuriswarar Temple at Patteeswaram and 3 km away from Darasuram.
The temple is believed to be built during the Chola period and has several inscriptions dating back to the 8-9th century. The presiding deity, Someswarar is revered in the 7th century Tamil Saiva canonical work, the Thevaram, written by Tamil saint poets known as the Nayanmars and classified as Paadal Petra Sthalam.
The city of Pazhayarai was one of the capital towns of the Chola empire. The temple is a part of the series of temples built by Aditya Chola (871-907 CE) along the banks of river Cauvery to commemorate his victory in the Tirupurambiyam battle.This temple is in the centre of the once famous Pazhayarai city, surrounded by Pazhayari Vadathali in the north, Araimetrali in the west and Thenthali in the south. This is the birthplace of Mangayarkarasiyar, a saint amongst the 63 Nayanmars.
The temple has a gopuram (gateway tower) in dilapidated state. Renovation work is in full swing now.
a Scene of dance performanceby Nirupama Rajendra & company at Ambedkar Bhavana, Bangalore oragnised by 'Sammbhrama Sourabha'
visit www.sambrama.com/
Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple is an architectural work of genius. Located at Thanjavur (Tanjore) in Tamil Nadu, Gangaikondacholapuram can be reached easily through regular buses that are available from the main towns and cities of Tamil Nadu. In the early 11th century, the temple got built by Rajendra Chola, who was the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola. The voluptuous temple stands next to the famous Brihadisvara temple at Tanjore. Gangaikonda Cholapuram is regarded as the reproduction of Brihadisvara Temple that was built by Rajaraja Chola, father of Rajendra Chola. Gangai Konda Cholapuram was erected to outshine the temple made by the father. The temple is renowned for having the biggest Shivalingam in the Southern part of India. The sanctum sanctorum embraces the four meter high lingam (phallic form) of Lord Shiva. To provide a private worship area for the royal family, the sanctum is encircled with two walls. The stately entrance of the sanctum is adorned by the beautiful image of Goddess Saraswati. The influence of Chalukyas is also reflected from the icons of 'Suryapita' (Sun worship) and 'Navagrahs' (Nine planets). The meticulous accounts of the Cholas are inscribed on the copper plates and temple walls. Preferred place of crowned heads, the exotic structure took approximately nine years to complete. Gangaikondacholapuram has been plundered for several times, but the architectural and sculptural wealth remained alive. The temple was erected to extol the accomplishments of a combatant king. Gangaikondacholapuram is a tribute to the architects and artisans, who created this spectacular testament. History For about 250 years, Chola clan ruled over a large part of South India. In those times, the Chola dynasty was at its apex and conquered many a parts of the northern territory. The wealth was brimming due to the outcome of their booming war operations. On one of the expeditions, Rajendra Chola brought Ganga water in a golden pot and consecrated the reservoir 'Ponneri or Cholaganga'. Consequently, Rajendra was titled as 'Gangaikondan' (the one who brought the Ganges). The king wanted to erect a 'larger than life' temple correspondent to the Brihadeeswara Temple. During 1020 - 29 AD, Gangaikondacholapuram saw its construction. Architecture The superb architecture of the temple boasts of a 9 storey vimanam that extends to the height of 185 feet. Facing the east direction, Gangai Konda Cholapuram embraces incredible sculptures and carvings. Not less than 54.86m in height, the temple structure follows the style of Brihadisvara Temple. The whole temple is thrived with rich and intricate carvings that are exclusive to Chola style of artistry. Known to comprise a little northern style, the structure embraces intricate carvings in the Vimanams. The architecture is a portrayal of complex carvings on the hard granite stones, irrespective of the simple style of Cholas. Mind-blowing sculptures adorn the walls and ceilings of Gangaikondacholapuram. The creativity of sculptors is reflected in the figures of dancing Nataraja and peaceful Saraswati. However, the sculptures erected here are as artistic as found in any other temples of Cholas. The most interesting are of Shiva-Parvati, Ardhanareshwar (the man-woman manifestation of Lord Shiva) and Ganesha. The colossal shrine also addresses several significant bronzes of the Chola age.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Tamil: கங்கைகொண்ட சோழபுரம்) was erected as the capital of the Cholas by Rajendra Chola I, the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola, the great Chola who conquered a large area in South India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Sumatra, Kadaram (Kedah in Malaysia), Cambodia and others at the beginning of the 11th century A.D . The great temple of Siva at this place is next only to the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur in its monumental nature and surpasses it in sculptural quality.The Gangaikondaan temple is an architectural and engineering marvel because the shadow of the main tower never falls on the ground throughout the year.
The basement of Srivimana is 100 feet by 100 feet square structure and the foundation is raised 20 feet height for the ShriVimana.The Srivimana is 180 feet tall and has 8 stage.
The Great Chola Temples of southern India are an exceptional testimony to the development of the architecture and the ideology of the Chola Empire and the Tamil civilization in southern India. They represent an outstanding creative achievement in the architectural conception of the pure form of the Dravida type of temple (characterized by a pyramidal tower)
On the west wall, figures of
Gangadhara, Lingodhbhava,Mahavisnu,Subrahmanya and Vishnu Anugrahamurti are found in lower bottom.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Tamil: கங்கைகொண்ட சோழபுரம்) was erected as the capital of the Cholas by Rajendra Chola I, the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola, the great Chola who conquered a large area in South India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Sumatra, Kadaram (Kedah in Malaysia), Cambodia and others at the beginning of the 11th century A.D . The great temple of Siva at this place is next only to the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur in its monumental nature and surpasses it in sculptural quality.The Gangaikondaan temple is an architectural and engineering marvel because the shadow of the main tower never falls on the ground throughout the year.
The basement of Srivimana is 100 feet by 100 feet square structure and the foundation is raised 20 feet height for the ShriVimana.The Srivimana is 180 feet tall and has 8 stage.
The Great Chola Temples of southern India are an exceptional testimony to the development of the architecture and the ideology of the Chola Empire and the Tamil civilization in southern India. They represent an outstanding creative achievement in the architectural conception of the pure form of the Dravida type of temple (characterized by a pyramidal tower)
We spent a long time trying to get a shot that would work with bangles. We couldn't find any tall enough to make a shot work. Here she is looking down on the bangles and I just rotated the image.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Tamil: கங்கைகொண்ட சோழபுரம்) was erected as the capital of the Cholas by Rajendra Chola I, the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola, the great Chola who conquered a large area in South India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Sumatra, Kadaram (Kedah in Malaysia), Cambodia and others at the beginning of the 11th century A.D . The great temple of Siva at this place is next only to the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur in its monumental nature and surpasses it in sculptural quality.The Gangaikondaan temple is an architectural and engineering marvel because the shadow of the main tower never falls on the ground throughout the year.
The basement of Srivimana is 100 feet by 100 feet square structure and the foundation is raised 20 feet height for the ShriVimana.The Srivimana is 180 feet tall and has 8 stage.
The Great Chola Temples of southern India are an exceptional testimony to the development of the architecture and the ideology of the Chola Empire and the Tamil civilization in southern India. They represent an outstanding creative achievement in the architectural conception of the pure form of the Dravida type of temple (characterized by a pyramidal tower)
GZB WAP-7 #30285 hauled 12309 Rajendra Nagar - New Delhi Patna Rajdhani Express negotiates a curve as it heads towards its destination.
Designer - Tanielle Lobo
Make-up - Rajendra
Hair - Lata
Model - Arushi Virani
Photographer - Anwesha Mandal
Royal Grammar School, High Wycombe. From the April 1960 issue of school magazine (The Wycombiensian)
www.rgs.saund.co.uk/pdfs/viewer.html?file=1960-04-wycombi...
Sculpture of Gnana Saraswati - the Goddess of knowledge . Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Tamilnadu State, India. 11th Century AD.
The person seen above introduced himself as Rajendra. He is a saint. Homeless. Most of time he spends in meditation. I meet him at Narayangong district of Bangladesh on the occasion of annual Hindu ritual namely Mohastomi dip. On the discourse he told it took him eight hours by bus to join the festival. As I approached him to take a picture he agreed and interestingly he let me took as many pictures as I wished. Normally saints prefer solitude and they tend to avoid human gathering and much taking. But he was very friendly. He mentioned that at his age of thirty he left his home and joined some other saints in a local asroma and started his new journey of life. I asked if he ever regretted his decision. He shrugged and told he is on the path of GOD and added why should he regret when he is leading such a peaceful life.
Thanks Rajendra for being part of my project. I know you will never see this and never be able to know how much I enjoyed my time with you. May God bless you!
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(Constructive) Criticism is welcome as usual.
This picture is #3 in my 100 strangers project. Find out more about the project and see pictures taken by other photographers at the 100 Strangers Flickr Group page
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Pazhayarai is historically important since it is closely associated with the names of Great Cholas,Rajaraja ,Rajendra Chola and Kundavi. There is much description in the historic novel, Kalki's classic Ponniyin Selvan (பொன்னியின் செல்வன்) about this place.
Pazhaiyarai Vadathali ( கீழபழையாறை வடதளி) is a Hindu temple dedicated to Someswarar, a form of Shiva. It is located 6 km away from Kumbakonam on the Kumbakonam- Aavoor road, 2 km away from the Thenupuriswarar Temple at Patteeswaram and 3 km away from Darasuram.
The temple is believed to be built during the Chola period and has several inscriptions dating back to the 8-9th century. The presiding deity, Someswarar is revered in the 7th century Tamil Saiva canonical work, the Thevaram, written by Tamil saint poets known as the Nayanmars and classified as Paadal Petra Sthalam.
The city of Pazhayarai was one of the capital towns of the Chola empire. The temple is a part of the series of temples built by Aditya Chola (871-907 CE) along the banks of river Cauvery to commemorate his victory in the Tirupurambiyam battle.This temple is in the centre of the once famous Pazhayarai city, surrounded by Pazhayari Vadathali in the north, Araimetrali in the west and Thenthali in the south. This is the birthplace of Mangayarkarasiyar, a saint amongst the 63 Nayanmars.
The temple has a gopuram (gateway tower) in dilapidated state. Renovation work is in full swing now. Its own glory will be restored.
அப்பர் உண்ணாவிரதமிருந்த இடம். பிற்காலச் சோழர் ஆட்சியில் இத்தலம் இரண்டாவது தலைநகராய் சிறந்து விளங்கியது.
Uttattur , its ancient name was Urrattur about some 35km from Tiruchy.It is an chola tmeple whose deity now called Siddharatnesvarar , in olden days called by the name Togumamani Nayanar; inspite of its antiquity, it is not one of those temples celebrated in song by the Nayanmars ; Appar has , how ever mentioned this temple in his Khestrak Kovai (Stanza 10) and Adaivut-tirut-tandagam as one of the celebrated shiva temples of his time.
The temple comprises the main shrine locally called Andavar temple, a yaga mandapa, a hall known as the Uttamasolan mandapa and two gopuras. To the north of the main shrine is the Amman shrine dedicated to Akhilandesvari.
The presiding deity has undergone considerable changes in its name: starting off as the Mahadevar of Urrattur in the days of Rajaraja-I and Rajendra-I , it is called Urrattur Perumanidgal in the days of Rajadhiraja I ; Togumamani Andar , in the days of later cholas beginning with Vikrama chola ; Togumamani Nayakar or Nayanar in the days of Achuyuta Raya of the Vijayanagara Rulers.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple is an architectural work of genius. Located at Thanjavur (Tanjore) in Tamil Nadu, Gangaikondacholapuram can be reached easily through regular buses that are available from the main towns and cities of Tamil Nadu. In the early 11th century, the temple got built by Rajendra Chola, who was the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola. The voluptuous temple stands next to the famous Brihadisvara temple at Tanjore. Gangaikonda Cholapuram is regarded as the reproduction of Brihadisvara Temple that was built by Rajaraja Chola, father of Rajendra Chola. Gangai Konda Cholapuram was erected to outshine the temple made by the father. The temple is renowned for having the biggest Shivalingam in the Southern part of India. The sanctum sanctorum embraces the four meter high lingam (phallic form) of Lord Shiva. To provide a private worship area for the royal family, the sanctum is encircled with two walls. The stately entrance of the sanctum is adorned by the beautiful image of Goddess Saraswati. The influence of Chalukyas is also reflected from the icons of 'Suryapita' (Sun worship) and 'Navagrahs' (Nine planets). The meticulous accounts of the Cholas are inscribed on the copper plates and temple walls. Preferred place of crowned heads, the exotic structure took approximately nine years to complete. Gangaikondacholapuram has been plundered for several times, but the architectural and sculptural wealth remained alive. The temple was erected to extol the accomplishments of a combatant king. Gangaikondacholapuram is a tribute to the architects and artisans, who created this spectacular testament. History For about 250 years, Chola clan ruled over a large part of South India. In those times, the Chola dynasty was at its apex and conquered many a parts of the northern territory. The wealth was brimming due to the outcome of their booming war operations. On one of the expeditions, Rajendra Chola brought Ganga water in a golden pot and consecrated the reservoir 'Ponneri or Cholaganga'. Consequently, Rajendra was titled as 'Gangaikondan' (the one who brought the Ganges). The king wanted to erect a 'larger than life' temple correspondent to the Brihadeeswara Temple. During 1020 - 29 AD, Gangaikondacholapuram saw its construction. Architecture The superb architecture of the temple boasts of a 9 storey vimanam that extends to the height of 185 feet. Facing the east direction, Gangai Konda Cholapuram embraces incredible sculptures and carvings. Not less than 54.86m in height, the temple structure follows the style of Brihadisvara Temple. The whole temple is thrived with rich and intricate carvings that are exclusive to Chola style of artistry. Known to comprise a little northern style, the structure embraces intricate carvings in the Vimanams. The architecture is a portrayal of complex carvings on the hard granite stones, irrespective of the simple style of Cholas. Mind-blowing sculptures adorn the walls and ceilings of Gangaikondacholapuram. The creativity of sculptors is reflected in the figures of dancing Nataraja and peaceful Saraswati. However, the sculptures erected here are as artistic as found in any other temples of Cholas. The most interesting are of Shiva-Parvati, Ardhanareshwar (the man-woman manifestation of Lord Shiva) and Ganesha. The colossal shrine also addresses several significant bronzes of the Chola age.
Director, IIT,
And Friends
I thank the Ministry of External Affairs and the IIT for giving me the opportunity
to talk of Indian and West Asia – a region in which I spent over a decade of my
career dealing with its complexities and challenges. It is interesting that I speak to
you on West Asia here in Mumbai- I don’t know how many of you are aware that Iraq was administered from the Bombay Presidency during the early part of the British period. You have only to go to the Prince of Wales Museum - Chhatrapati Vastu Sangrahalaya - to see archaeological artefacts from ancient Iraqi sites which were brought to Mumbai then. But even more, Bombay has been, and remains, the first point of contact between the peoples of the Arab world- particularly the Gulf and Iran- and India. For decades we have seen Arabs in their traditional garb walking
and lounging on Marine Drive taking the air in the monsoon season- something
which is a rarity in their land.People who hail from Pune or Bangalore are equally
familiar with Iranians who have settled generations ago. In fact when I was doing my
PhD at Mumbai University Geroge’s Restaurant was a favourite for the Biryanis and
Pullav’s it served!
I do not need to mention to this gathering that contact between the Indian
people with those of West Asia goes back to centuries - even before Islam came to
that region; neither do I need to mention that this intercourse was two-way and
primarily benign. If we gave them the zero and the numeric system, we received
knowledge of navigation and sea-faring; if the tales of the panchatantra reached
them, in the Persian translation, as the stories of kalila wa dimna , then we received
the metre and the rhyme of sufi poetry not to mention its theology. There were
similar exchanges in the field of mathematics, astrology and astronomy, and
medicine as also in craft- skills like carpet-making and brocade weaving ( zardodzi
and kinkhab). The list is long but covers religion, culture, fine arts, sciences, music
and musical instruments, dance, language and literature, and cuisine. But above all
were the travel writings of Arab way-farers like al-Beruni and others who have left us
a wealth of record on India of that time. The essential driver was trade and
commercial exchanges. But for the water that separates us we are neighbours; the
relationship has been both enriching and enduring.
When one looks at the Asian land-mass to our West we see four separate
civilisations facing us- the Persian, the Arab, the Hebrew and the Turkish- all of them
were brought together under the Ottoman Empire which lasted 500 years and had
the widest spread of the then known world. It is interesting that while these four
cultures confronted one another, it was to India that they all aspired- through trade or
conquest or to escape from persecution in their native lands. It is even more
interesting that they do not seamlessly merge into one another at their peripherywhich
may possibly have something to do with the ethnicities and languages that go
with each culture: the Persians (or Iranians) are from Indo –Aryan stock, the Arabs
and Jews are both Semitic peoples and the Turks are themselves with a mixture of
the Mongol. Each of these cultures has had a unique historical relationship with
India.
West Asia not Middle East
It would not be out of place here to digress briefly to the controversy that runs
like a common thread on discussions on the region in India: its nomenclature. Middle
East is what it is commonly called, even though West Asia is its correct geographic
location. It is so pervasive that even the computer dictionary gives you a prompt to
capitalise M and E if you have not done it). We invariably call it West Asia. From
where we are middle east will be Bangkok! So why WEST ASIA?
The term Middle East was first used by US Admiral Mahan in 1902 to
designate his strategic concept for the land bridge connecting Africa, Asia and
Europe. As our Vice President, Hamid Ansari,, another former diplomat, has written,
the term is a misnomer and legacy of an era when points on the globe were
indentified with reference to the location of the seats of power of the European
Empire. Nehru firmly distanced himself from calling it the ‘Middle East’ as Quite apart
from its geographical position, it tended to continue a Euro-centric view of the region
along with the attitudinal baggage that it implied.
Since Independence a lot has changed in the region- especially at the political
and geo-strategic level. The oil crisis of 1974 focused the international community’s
attention on the region as never before. When one super-imposes the monumental
political developments, the world sees the ‘Middle East’ as the fulcrum of future
political and economic stability in the world. The region’s nomenclature as ‘Middle
East’ has gained widespread acceptance and even people of the region see
themselves as from the Middle East first, and then as nationals from the country they
belong. The word Middle East now bundles in it religion, culture, language and
ethnicity. The term is now often used interchangeably with West Asia. .
Defining the Region
The West Asian region breaks down conveniently into concentric circles of proximity
:
• The innermost circle comprises Afghanistan, the Gulf Cooperation
Council countries, Iran, Iraq and Yemen.
• In the next circle are the countries of the Mashreq ( West Asia)–(
Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon) - to our west and those of Central
Asia to our north-west;
• next the circle comprising Turkey, countries of the Maghreb(
Mediterranean sea-board)- Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco- and
the countries in the Horn of Africa -Djibouti, Sudan and Somalia.
It is amazing that when one surveys the Asia continent from Istanbul – its
western most extremity - one is struck by how much India has received from, and
given to, each of the cultures we encounter in between- the Arab, the Persian and
the Turkish. With each the intensity and thrust of our bilateral relations has been
different.
Contours of India’s Policy
At Independence the first three decisions on India’s foreign policy concerned
West Asia:
• our active support to the Khilafat Movement;
• India’s stand in the UN Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) in
1947 when in a dissenting note we advocated the establishment of a
federal Palestine with internal autonomy for the Jewish population;
• and the decision on how we were going to deal with the state of Israel
when it became independent in 1948.
These decisions were conditioned by India’s Partition which had left a
traumatised, yet larger, Muslim community within India than went to Pakistan. The
importance of the region, particularly Mecca and Medina in fulfilling the spiritual and
religious needs of India’s Muslim population could not be under-estimated. These
early decisions by the Government of India illustrate the counter pressures which
have always led India to search for a middle ground in its policy towards the region.
They also illustrate the considerations which come into play even today in India’s
policy towards the region.
From an early concentration on looking at the region through the Islamic
prism, Indian policy considerations have evolved in the last sixty years. The prism
has shown other dimensions of the relationship: the oil-rich countries of the Gulf,
particularly Iran and Iraq, became increasingly important for India in the 1960s and
1970s and remain so for our energy security. From the 1980s the region became a
source of employment for Indian workers, who today number 5 million and
correspondingly a source for huge remittances of about $ 20 billion annually. The
history and current status of India’s Diaspora in the Gulf is unique in that it has
become the driving force of those economies. The considerations which have guided
our policy in these years remain valid today despite the change in the political,
economic and social matrix:
• Friendly relations with the people of the region on the basis of shared
history and culture;
• equidistance in intra-regional conflicts;
• support to the Palestinian cause;
• Desire to play an effective role in the region, even as a possible
intermediary;
• in this context, management of the relations with Israel;
• oppose both exclusivist religious ideologies and religious fanaticism;
• Develop economic, trade and investment ties;
• Energy security
As Prof. Girijesh Pant has written ‘for India, West Asia is the region to
augment its power rather than to display or assert its power.’ The thrust of India’s
West Asia policy and diplomacy thus has to be geared towards mobilizing resources
- political, strategic, economic and cultural - from the region to contribute in its
emergence as global power. .while India’s recent economic success has made this
possible at the political level, Indian policy makers need to recognize that West
Asian sensitivities have been offended and hurt by aggressive US intervention
in the region. Indian policy has to be shaped in consonance with regional concerns.
This does not mean that Indian policy has to be hostage to West Asian expectations
but to underline that rise of India as a global player critically hinges upon its clout in
its immediate and extended neighbourhood. In defining India’s role we need to do so
within the geo-politics of a rising Asia.
It is important is to note that throughout this early period the India-West Asia
relationship remained one-sided. It was always India and Indians who were
dependant on the region and not so much in the reverse sense. It is only since this
Millennium that the relationship between India and West Asia has become twodimensional
on which more later, it is akin to a re-discovery of India by the countries
of West Asia.:
The Region in Crisis
Developments since 2000, the most provocative act being the 9/11 attack on
the World Trade Centre, changed the face of the region. The last ten years have
been described as ‘a bad decade’ by noted Lebanese journalist Rami. G. Khoury ..
Paradoxically, events and developments in the region had a profound influence on
the world and the way it thought of itself, yet the region could not itself rise above the
forces it unleashed.
The crisis in West Asia today can be traced to the long-term unresolved issue
of bringing about a secure and viable Palestinian state, and the short-term issue of
invasion and continuing presence of foreign forces. It has put pressure on national
sovereignty, national security and the authority of State. Yet unlike in Europe, after
fall of the Berlin Wall, centripetal rather than centrifugal forces have prevented the
region from imploding or the re-drawing of national boundaries and creation of new
states. The region presents the following challenges:
• Waning of the belief in Arab solidarity, unity and socialism which had blurred
,if not eliminated, differences of sects, beliefs and region and tribe; Change in
the social structure and mores in the region in favour of sect, tribe and
tradition; and a conscious desire to get away from western values. The
growing tension between the Sunni and Shia Muslims radiating westward
from Pakistan from which India has remained immune so far;
• The emergence of a ‘back-to-roots thinking which gives primacy to religious
belief in political matters; ;the sway of Al Qaeda and the Taliban;
• The consolidation of the state of Israel in the region, and internationally;
the unwritten edict which makes it taboo to mention Israeli nuclear
weapons while giving no quarter to Iran ( and Iraq earlier) on the
presumption that they either possess or seek to build them.
• the impotence of major players to find a way to establish an secure,
independent and viable Palestinian state causing a running sore on the
psyche of its peoples ; the dilemma of not having an honest broker to solve
the Palestinian issue coupled with growing disenchantment with US power
and ability to perform this role;
• The presence of foreign troops, in ever larger numbers, both on land
and sea- we now have US troops in bases in Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Qatar,
UAE and Western navies patrolling the Gulf, in particular the Hormuz
straits
• The passing of Arab leadership from Egypt, Syria, Libya , Iraq and Tunisia in
the post-colonial period to the growing clout of non-Arab players –Iran, US,
Turkey and Israel, – in the post-secular period;
• Iran is today the biggest beneficiary of US intervention in Iraq as well as the
policies of Israel and earlier US Administrations. With its ascendency its
neighbours, many with significant Shia minorities, are concerned, particularly
Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. Iran has now proxies in Lebanon, Gaza, Syria and
Palestine;
• The importance of energy resources of West Asia as the driver of political
and economic developments in a globalizing world: differences on their
security and their ownership;
• The coming into their own of the Gulf Sheikdoms on the back of high returns
from energy , growing stash of foreign exchange reserves and low population
bases leading leveraging these resources for internal and external
investments;
• Consolidation of authoritarian governments and suppression of dissent within
the trappings of democracy; the inability and unwillingness to hand political
power to Islamic- oriented parties; at the same time, an increasing recourse to
confessional type of governance- Lebanon no longer the exception but the
model;
• The increasing desire on the part of major Arab countries-Iraq, Saudi Arabia
and Egypt to seek nuclear and missile weapon capacity both to create
equities against Israel but to offset other regional players like Iran , all within
professed adherence to the NPT straitjacket;
• The use of Terror as an instrument of political negotiation :Internationalization
of the scourge of terrorism and terrorist groups after 9/11 ; by implication a
change from opposition of such groups to their placation through co-option
and clandestine support to achieve larger goals of religion or political
dominance;
• popular frustration at the inability to change systems and promote
participative governance;
• The passing by of West Asia by the most significant development of the 21st
century- the knowledge economy; West Asia is at most a recipient, but
neither an innovator, nor a provider;
• Moribund nature of Arab and Islamic institutions – Arab League and the OIC;
while the former is regarded by Egypt as an instrument f its foreign policy,
Saudi Arabia takes a similar view of the latter. Suffice it to say that in the face
of the tremendous pressure that Islam and Arabs have been under since 9/11
the two organisations have failed to take up the challenge to project the
universality of the Arab and the benign face of Islam.
From India’s point of view India’s Gulf Security rests on three pillars: Iran, Iraq
and Saudi Arabia. These pillars have never looked as much in flux as during the last
decade. The strategic importance of the region will continue to lie in its geography
and it’s much demanded natural resource petroleum and natural gas even though
according to one estimate global dependence on West Asian oil is declining – as of
2007 the region produced fewer than 30 per cent of the world’s crude oil compared
to 40 per cent in 1974-75.
India and the Region
India has always believed that its relations with the West Asian region are sui
generis and immune from the effects of relations of other regional and global powers.
This accounts for our relative unconcern with the role of other major and regional
powers in the region. We have tended to believe that our role does not compete with
any of the great powers, and to a large extent it does not. In the last decade this
sanguine belief has received a rude shock. Issues like terrorism, money-laundering
and safety of oil lanes have imposed new imperatives. With our energy requirements
expected to grow exponentially we will come into conflict with China and the US for
the oil and gas resources of the region.
The developments which have defined the shape of the region in the recent
past have necessarily centred on US policy particularly since 2000. It is the
articulation of US policy towards Palestine, Israel, Iraq, Iran, Syria and Saudi Arabia
which has set the agenda for the region in the forthcoming decades. The period has
equally seen US- India relations getting closer and diverse with the beginnings of a
global strategic partnership. It has been both an asset and a liability.
How much was India influenced by the developments in the region and did it
play any role in them? What has been India’s position on the seminal events of the
decade? How is India perceived in the region as we start the second decade of the
21st century?
The answer to some of these questions will decide whether India’s West Asia
policy has adapted with the times or suffered from cognitive disability. It is axiomatic
that ties dating from antiquity of culture and religion, commerce and economics,
politics and security, oil and gas and people-to-people bind us and make it
incumbent to maintain forward-looking relations with the countries of the region.
While Mahatma Gandhi articulated it early on, since Independence India, as
the leader of the nonaligned movement, has always been counted on for its
steadfast support of the Palestinian cause. The political capital that Jawaharlal
Nehru built for us in the region nurtures our relations to this day. People of the region
rarely forget India’s support on a host of causes dear to the people of the region.
I will illustrate this with a personal reminiscence. Soon after the fall of
Baghdad to US forces on 8 April 2003 I visited Iraq incognito to make an assessment
on the vexed question of sending Indian troops to Northern Iraq to help the US and
coalition forces . We were under relentless pressure from George Bush and Donald
Rumsfeld. I vividly recall meeting Jalal Talabani (now President of Iraq) in his
northern redoubt of Dhokan and Massoud Barzani (now President of of Iraqi
Kurdistan) in his lair in salubrious Salahaddin to get their views.. Their opening
remarks to me were identical: both quoted verbatim Nehru on the Kurdish cause in
his Glimpses of World History. A cause which subsequent Indian governments could
do nothing about. It evocatively brought out how much we had achieved in the
opening years of our nation and how much we had distanced ourselves from our
core causes. The question which arises: have we built on this legacy, adapted it or
squandered it?
With 9/11 we found that finally our continuous 20-year old refrain on crossborder
terrorism finally found a receptive audience: but it became the global war on
terror and by the end of the decade we found that the perpetrators- Pakistan- had
assumed the mantle of victims. Nevertheless our view Pakistan is the epicentre of
terrorism has become conventional wisdom today although, and once again, no one
–not even the US –was interested to bell the cat. The country remains far too
important to fighting the war against Al Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan, never
mind the terror groups it continues to nurture to continue its proxy war with us..
9/11 provoked a re-think on the Islamic ideology in much of the West Asian
region, above all, in Saudi Arabia which saw the terrorism sponsored through its
inspiration come home to roost. We found an increased willingness for the first time
on the part of the Gulf Sheikdoms to co-operate with us on counter-terrorism,
restricting flow of funds to institutions with dual agendas and defence co-operation.
The lead was given by UAE which fully assisted us in the deportation of Aftab Ansari,
the perpetrator of the attack on the American Centre in Kolkata who like Afzal Guru
and Murugan remains on death row..
In the last decade the character of our relations with the Arab world became
genuinely two-way. Till then our relations were unidirectional: it was India which
needed their political support on Kashmir and their oil and gas; and Indians who
found jobs boosting the economy with large remittances and spiritual sustenance
from the Two Holy Cities and other places of pilgrimage. As an economy moving at
the much reviled ‘Hindu rate of growth’ there was precious little that India could
fundamentally contribute to the region. The shoe was always on the other foot
notwithstanding the salience of the political factor.
If one surveys our relations with the region they fall into two broad categories:
• With West Asia and North Africa, the thrust remains primarily political
based on India’s status as a leader of the Nonaligned crowned by our
consistent support to the Palestinians. It was only in the latter half of
the decade that the economic content of our relations with Morocco,
Algeria, Tunisia, Libya became more significant ;
• With the Gulf, the thrust is mainly economic engendered by our
consistently high rates of growth since 1997. Talk of ‘strategic
economic partnerships’ became current and an FTA between the GCC
and India was gone through. The increasing realisation in these
countries that their hydrocarbon resources needed to be up valued
through long-term and stable returns made India a natural partner with
its growing market, its thirst for hydrocarbons and its highly skilled
professionals. The last decade has spurred inward investment and
resource-based projects both in situ and in India. The lead given by the
Gulf countries was taken up by Syria, Jordan, Morocco and others.
India’s economic success was the driver of this change. It was greatly
assisted by two major developments:
• India’s growing relationship with the US made India attractive as a
partner to others also, and
• secondly, the growing tension in relations between the West and West
Asia exacerbated by the impasse in the Arab-Israeli situation had a
positive influence on its relations with India. The need to tie up viable
economic and investment projects catering to the Indian market or to
Indians became the over-riding concern;.
We saw a significant improvement in the ambient tenor of our relations with
the countries of the region although Gulf Security became even more complicated.
The spawning of terror outfits which received inspiration, sanctuary and funds from
the region became a matter of major concern with the rise of terror attacks in India
culminating with the Mumbai attack of 26/11.
For India, increased attention by the major countries in West Asia was an
interesting development and took place at a time when the country was trying
to cope with the growing terrorist threat and its inability to deal with it. India’s
focus on developing beneficial economic and investment projects was only
marginally successful and foundered on the perception of an absence of
reciprocity in the relationship, particularly high-level visits. It is no surprise that
the goodwill engendered by the factors noted above was almost dissipated
given the repeated postponements of PM’s visits to region, especially to Saudi
Arabia which finally took place in March 2010.
On the whole the tenor of our relations with each of the countries in the
region was positive and there appeared less of an incentive on their part to
flog the issues of Kashmir. To some extent this was helped by two factors:
first, India decided to embark on a Dialogue relationship with the Arab League
based in Cairo which helped to clear the air on India’s nuclear policy, relations
with Israel and related issues; second, for the first time there was a move by
some OIC countries to take a more positive view of India and the success of
its secular model with the second largest Muslim community in the world.
During his visit to India Saudi King Abdullah proposed that India should be
made an Observer ruffling the placid waters of an organisation which has
primarily moved to Saudi signals. Furthermore, OIC ‘s own fixation on making
itself more relevant against the Western onslaught following repeated Al
Qaeda terror attacks put its Pakistan-inspired India baiting on the back
burner. There was also a realisation at the popular level in the region that
more than political creed, most needed was regimes which would promote
greater prosperity and participatory governance.
Having considered the general trend of our relations with the region it is
useful to focus on some of the critical points in the region in order to
understand how our relations have developed at the micro level.
1. The AFPAK Region
Today the region which encompasses the border between Pakistan and
Afghanistan has become the fulcrum in terms of future security in the
region and indeed internationally. Despite the expenditure of close to US $
31 billion since 2001 and the presence of 130000-140000 foreign, mainly
US troops there is no end in sight for the War In Afghanistan. Even with the
scaling down of US war aims to a single point of defeating Al Qaeda so
that it cannot attack the US homeland again, we see a losing scenario.
While cooperation with Pakistan is crucial for this goal it has blind-sided the
US on Pakistan’s sponsorship of terror against India, its pandering to the
Afghan Taliban to hold a strategic asset in that country, facilitating the regrouping
of the Taliban and its pursuit of nuclear weaponisation.
India has worked within its policy of close friendship and assistance to the
Afghan people. We are working on a project investment of USD 1.3 billion
which will go to the Afghan people. We have persisted in this despite
repeated ISI-sponsored attacks against our projects and Embassy in
Kabul. At the political level we have had to acquiesce with recent USPakistan-
Afghanistan discussions on reconciliation with elements of the
Taliban even though their coming back into government is anathema to us
given our experience of 1996. From our point of view Taliban’s implacable
hostility makes it impossible for us to do business with them.
More important, however, is the fact that its link with ISI makes it a part of
the larger issue of India-Pakistan relations. We have now re-started the
bilateral dialogue accepting that in the face of Pakistan’s terrorist agenda
against India it is still better to keep talking to them. Despite US pressure
Pakistan is not inclined to reduce its anti-Indian rhetoric or agenda.
2. Relations with Israel
The US played a pivotal role in ending Israel’s diplomatic isolation and has
stood by Israel within the UN and outside it. Despite the fact of Israeli
nuclear capability, the United States has kept mum on it and has kept the
distance between India and Pakistan on the one hand and Israel on the other.
Given its dependence on Washington for political support, technological
assistance and economic largesse, Israel’s ability to pursue any major
defence deals with the outside world, including India, depends squarely on
Washington. As Israeli defence exports to India are being conducted under
the watchful eyes of the United States, the ties between India and Israel will
also be constrained by the extent to which the US wants this engagement to
expand.
In this background, India found it relatively easier to manage its relations
with Israel. The acquisition of defence equipment and defence material vital
for the security of India’s one billion people set the bench mark for the
relationship. The relationship has diversified into industry, manufacturing,
agriculture, services and ICT. After almost two decades of diplomatic relations
these relations have acquired a ‘special’ character although it has not stopped
Israel from attempting to open relations with Pakistan. By the same token,
India has ensured that its growing relations with Israel do not dilute its
traditional support to Palestine. For the first time since the Middle East Peace
Process commenced, India was invited to the US sponsored Anaheim
Summit. Yet Israel’s penetration in India has not been without costs: first,
continuing sentiment in the Arab world that India had abandoned its strong
support of the Palestinians although the latter have themselves remained
divided; second, Mumbai 26/11 demonstrated the danger of allowing new
Jewish places of worship in India given that Shabad House was a target. The
issue for India now remains the management of this mutually beneficial
relationship.
3. Relations with Palestine
India’s support to Palestine has been stead-fast since our Independence.
We were the first to recognise the State of Palestine declared by Yassir Arafat and
have continually given the movement financial and political assistance. Our not
having relations with Israel till 1992 was in their eyes a positive factor. It was only
after the Us – sponsored Madrid Middle East Peace Process started in 1991 that we
decided to open relations with Israel. It was our contention that since the Arabs and
the Jews were talking to each other –also under the Oslo framework- there was no
reason for India to hold out. While we had stipulated that our relations will be
calibrated with progress in the Arab-Israeli process , in fact the relations have moved
regardless.
We were invited by the US to be part of the US-sponsored Peace Process at the
Anaheim Conference in 2007 which failed to give the process a major impetus. On
the other had the division in Palestine itself- between the Hamas led Gaza
administration and the Mahmood Abbas led Palestine Authority in Ramallah has not
been helpful. Gaza remains under Israeli siege and there is no headway to meeting
the concerns of Hamas. India has excellent relations with the PA and only
intermittent contact with Hamas in Gaza.
Given the current scenario it is difficult to visualise a break-through on the Arab-
Israeli front: even the balanced policy which President Obama enunciated has not
seen the light of day yet. Meanwhile Israeli settlement activity continues as also its
hard policy against the Palestinians in Gaza.
4. Relations with Iran
Iran enjoys a rare political consensus in India and since the early 1990s
every Indian Government has placed a high priority on strengthening its ties with
Tehran. India is unlikely to share Israeli apprehensions over neither Iranian
radicalism nor Israel of India’s concern over China. A number of factors such as
India’s need to counter Pakistan’s influence in the Islamic world, the increasing geopolitical
importance of Central Asia, and the need to strengthen economic and
commercial ties have led to a growing convergence in India-Iran interests in the postcold
war period.
The Iranian puzzle also brings in the American dimension that has both
positive and negative implications after four sets of US/UN sanctions the last in May
2010. India and Iran have differences of perceptions on the issue of nuclear
proliferation, gas pipelines and relations with Israel. India is keen that Iran follows its
NPT obligations and opposes its nuclear ambitions. This is true of Russia, China,
Europe and others also. At the same time we have no problem if Iran wants to assert
itself in the region. Over the past five years it is Iran which has benefited the most
from the actions of extra-regional and regional powers. Their cooperation will be
crucial in successfully tackling the problems of the region. During EAM Krishna’s visit
to Tehran in May 2010 we discussed the developments in the AfPak region in which
both have major interest. We also agreed that terror was the common challenge for
both countries.
5. Relations with Turkey
India’s relations with Turkey have again been historic with the Mughals-
Turko-Mongols - coming to India for conquest. During the Independence struggle
Mahatma Gandhi launched a campaign to support the Caliphate in Istanbul which
was under the threat of extinction under Mustafa Kamal Attaturk- the Khilafat
Movement. Funds were collected for this purpose and sent to Istanbul; but they
reached only when the Caliphate had been abolished. Ataturk, in his wisdom, used
the funds for the construction of the first building of the Turkish Parliament.
After Independence with Turkey’s membership of NATO and CENTO it
became close top Pakistan- which still remains if in no other way than sentiment.
With Turkey’s aspiration for joining the European Union it has come closer to India in
its views on terrorism and bilateralism in discussions with neighbours.
Turkey is today undergoing a transition from the secular ethos which was a
hall mark of Kemalism to a more religiously oriented polity with the ascendance of
the AKP- a moderate Islamic political party. In a way the wheel has come a full circle.
India’s relations with Turkey remain good with a strong injection of the
economic component. Turkey is today the transit for the BTC oil pipeline which
delivers Azerbaijani crude on the Mediterranean sea. Indian companies have been
involved in construction of the pipeline and Turkish companies have been looking at
infra projects in India.
Turkey has an important role in Afghanistan and provides a strong contingent as
part of NATO. It has, apart from Pakistan, the oldest links with that country.
6. Relations with Saudi Arabia
The visit to India of Saudi King Abdullah in January 2006, fifty years after the last,
signalled an important change in that country’s way of looking at India.It was
noteworthy that out of his 4-country visit to India, Pakistan, Malaysia and China, he
spent the longest in India and the shortest in Pakistan, its traditional friend. The visit
sent a powerful message to the Arab World and led to visit of other Arab leaders
from Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Syria, Egypt and others.
India, unlike China, was not able to effectively convert the opening provided by
the Saudi visit in 2006 into major projects based on their energy and other mineral
resources and on strong political support. There is no gainsaying the fact that
support from Saudi Arabia remains crucial to our concerns on Pakistan’s
machinations on Kashmir and in the OIC. Saudi support becomes even more
important as and when the US withdraws its troops from Afghanistan given the
former’s support of the Taliban; and because it our largest supplier of crude from the
Gulf. The visit this March of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh gives us an opportunity
to pick up these threads.
Under the wise King Abdullah Saudi Arabia has tried to maintain its leadership of the
Arab world despite charges of being the inspiration, if not the inspirator, of Islamicoriented
terror which eventually hit the country internally also. Whether on the
Palestine-Israeli issue, or the OIC or new openings the Saudi King has steadfastly
moved ahead. Yet the intensification of Shia -Sunni conflict in Iraq, the presence of
US troops and bases in the region and growing internal pressure on the US
Administration to make an honourable exit from Afghanistan by doing a deal with the
Afghan Taliban, Saudi Arabia’s capacity to determine the flow of events will only
increase.
Looking Ahead
It will be seen that the last decade was eventful for West Asia and the Gulf
insofar as much of what came out of there drove the reactions and policies of the
rest of the world. The US invasion of Iraq disturbed the settled relationships of the
earlier era and brought ethnic and religious conflict fore-ground bringing new players
in the region other than the US- Turkey and Iran. Yet in the larger movement of
technology, finance, innovation and enterprise the world passed it by. While the last
decade brought a degree of respite from the highly political content of its
relationship, India did not keep up the flow of interaction at high political levels.
India’s increasing acceptance as an emerging global power was seen as
compensation enough possibly to the detriment of our long term interests. India’s
initiatives in the region were more bilateral aimed at enhancing our energy security
and the security of our borders. International concerns besetting the region had a
relatively lower salience in our policy and we remained content to watch
developments from the sidelines.
India still has considerable political capital in West Asia built up over the Nehru
years. The re-defining of this capital would be challenge of our West Asian policy in
the years to come. In defining an Indian role in West Asia a number of
considerations not directly in the realm of foreign policy come into play. The
immutable considerations - all domestic - that have weighed heavily on our policy are
the presence of the second largest Muslim community in the world; the dependence
of our country on West Asia’s energy resources (60 per cent of our hydrocarbon
needs); and the remittances from the Indian Diaspora in the Gulf. These will continue
to determine the parameters of our policy in the future also. To this have to be added
new determinants: India’s economic success which has created a growing market for
energy and other natural resources from West Asia and a secure destination for its
investment; India’s role in a rejuvenated group of developing countries alike IBSA
and BRIC; India as a paradigm for democratic and cultural pluralism; and India’s firm
opposition to terrorism in any form.
The future looks equally uncertain for the region in the background of
projected withdrawal of US and Western forces from Iraq and Afghanistan. The
reconstruction of these devastated countries, and the region itself, will have both
challenges and opportunities. India still has the best credentials in the region not
having been identified with the negative developments of the last decade. Despite
last year’s global financial crisis our economy looks poised to maintain its growth
trajectory at a time when the Gulf and West Asia is still reeling. The moment is
opportune for a new opening to the region. Prime Minister’s visit to Saudi Arabia sent
a positive message in the region on which we need to capitalise.
Let me list some cardinal points which could determine India’s policy on West
Asia
• India will always support secular, democratic and plural societies in West
Asia while finding a modus vivendi to do business with the parties in power in
order to maintain its traditional friendship with the countries of the region. Its
continuing interest in the Palestine issue must be translated into constructive
engagement.
• India’s primary goal has to be the safeguarding of the security in the Gulf, and
to this end, enhancing its relations with Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Iran in a nonzero
sum approach. It would mean developing cooperative maritime security
and counter-terror arrangements with all the Gulf countries. It would also
require close contact with these countries in combating terrorism and the
linked nexus of arms smuggling, money laundering and drugs.
• India’s relations with Israel have acquired a depth and diversity which cannot
be rolled back. This has happened because Israel has been able to meet
crucial Indian needs in the field of defence, agriculture and technology. The
relation has to be seen in the context of the imperative of any Indian
government to assure the security of one billion people. Our experience has
shown, as in Kargil that despite usurious costs Israel has shown itself to be a
reliable partner. India does not need to be defensive on this score especially
since the importance of this relationship cuts across party lines. It is a
situation which needs advocacy both within the country and the region.
• India by the weight of its historical relations with and its current economic
success has to carve a role leveraging its growing market and talent pool and
the natural and financial resources of the region. While the Gulf countries,
including Iraq and Iran are the most susceptible to this approach, it is equally
possible with countries like Egypt and the other countries in the Maghreb like
Libya and Morocco. Maximising economic and trade interaction will provide
the ballast for closer and more balanced overall relations .As stated above
the rise of India hinges on its clout in its proximate neighbourhood.
• India’s goal will be to develop a two-dimensional relation with the countries of
the region. Recent indications of West Asian countries ‘looking East’ towards
India need to be capitalized upon. India’s future lies in its increasing
recognition as a rising Asian economic power.
• India’s model of a secular and democratic polity and its commitment to
ensuring minority rights has a great attraction in today’s West Asia where
religious and cultural differences amongst the diverse ethnicities have been
exposed. In this context, India needs to develop a new channel of interaction
through civil society organizations as a means to foster exchange of views on
common social and economic problems. Some trends in this direction with
Saudi Arabia and Iran are already noticeable. Development of cultural
relations will have to be a major plank of India’s policy towards West Asia.
• India will have to carefully calibrate its relations with the region in such a way
that its policy parameters remain inviolable amidst pressures of its growing
relations with the Great Powers particularly the US. A regular dialogue with
the US and EU on developments in West Asia would provide a tool to
understand the parameters on both sides.
• A number of minorities in the region like the Kurds who have found a voice, in
the churning that the region has undergone, hold India in high esteem. A
subsidiary goal of Indian policy in the region has to be to encourage these
communities within the framework of the constitutional structure in the
countries in which they live.
Foreign policy decisions in the coming years will have consequences for
peace and harmony in our multi-cultural, multi-religious country. . We should do what
we can to strength the forces of stability and moderation in the region.
Let me end on a lighter note by coming back to our cultural links- in particular
cuisine. Much of the cuisine of the Arab world has its roots in the Ottoman cuisine
considering they were part of that empire for 500 years. Different parts of the Arab
world specialised in different components of Turkish cuisine – while the Lebanese
excelled in salads, the Syrians became the masters of filo-pastry and desserts, and
the Iraqis of grills, the couzi whole lamb pullav is universal to the Arab world. A lot of
this cuisine also travelled to India with the Turko-Mongols. Next time you order a
Shami Kebab remind yourself that it comes from Damascus, which in Arabic is called
balad as-sham; but strangely they don’t make this dish in Syria. They instead make a
dish called kebab hindi which is nothing like the shami kebab!
Thank You
i
Rajendra Abhyankar is Chairman Kunzru Centre for Defence Study and Research, Pune. A former diplomat he
was Indian Ambassador in Syria, Turkey and Azerbaijan and was Secretary (East) in MEA. From 2006 to 2008 he
was Director, Centre for West Asian Studies, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi.
We sing Qawwali in honour of Baba - Rajendra Prasad Jaiswal | Nafees Ahmed of Sikandar Shad Qawwal | Baba Haji Ali Dargah | Humans of Mumbai
We are here in the Dargah to pay respect to Baba and we sing Qawwali in His honor and respect. We come here 5 days a week, from Monday to Friday. We sing Qawwali in honour of Baba From 3 pm to 8 pm. We are under the guidance of Sikandar Shah Qawwal, who is the permanent Qawwal over here.
We have been singing continuously from the past 10 years, whether it rains or storms. We come here and pay our respect to "Sarkar". For some reason if we are unable to sing, then we just pay our tribute to Baba by giving our salaam and return back.
हम यहाँ बाबा की दरगाह पर उनकी शान और अदब मैं क़वाली पेश करते है |
हम १० साल से लगातार क़वाली गा रहे है बाबा की शान मैं|
यहाँ के जो क़ायम के कवाल सिकंदर शाद क़वाल है हम सब उनके छत्र छाया मैं है और पीर से जुमा तक हर शाम ३ बजे से लेकर रात ८ बजे तक कवाली गाते है|
चाहे तूफ़ान आये या जोर्रो की बारिश हो हम यहाँ ज़रूर आते है, अगर किसी वजह से क़वाली नहीं गा पाये तो हम सरकार को हाज़री देते है और सलाम करके चलें जाते है|
Rajaraja I, born Arulmoli Varman, often described as Rajaraja the Great, was a Chola emperor (reigned c. 985–1014) and was the most powerful king in south at his time chiefly remembered for reinstating the Chola power and ensuring its supremacy in south India and Indian Ocean.
His extensive empire included the Pandya country (southern Tamil Nadu), the Chera country (central Kerala and western Tamil Nadu) and northern Sri Lanka. He also acquired the Lakshadweep and Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean. Campaigns against the Western Gangas (southern Karnataka) and Chalukyas extended the Chola influence as far as the Tungabhadra River. On the eastern coast he battled with the Chalukyas for the possession of Vengi (the Godavari districts).
Rajaraja, an able administrator, also built the great Brihadisvara Temple at the Chola capital Thanjavur. The temple is regarded as the foremost of all temples in the medieval south Indian architectural style. During his reign, the texts of the Tamil poets Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar were collected and edited into one compilation called Thirumurai. He initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganisation of the country into individual units known as valanadus. Rajaraja died in 1014 CE and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I.
EARLY LIFE
According to the Thiruvalangadu copper-plate inscription, Rajaraja's original name was Arulmoḷi (also transliterated as Arulmozhi) Varman, literally "blessed tongued". He was born around 947 CE in the Aipassi month, on the day of Sadhayam star. He was a son of the Chola king Parantaka II (alias Sundara) and queen Vanavan Mahadevi. He had an elder brother - Aditya II, and an elder sister - Kundavai.
Rajaraja's ascension ended a period of rival claims to the throne, following the death of his grandfather Parantaka I. After Parantaka I, his son Gandaraditya ascended the throne. When Gandaraditya died, his son Uttama was a minor, so the throne passed on to Parantaka I's younger son Arinjaya. Arinjaya died soon, and was succeeded by his son Parantaka II. It was decided that the throne would pass on to Uttama after Parantaka II: this decision was most probably that of Parantaka II, although the Thiruvalangadu inscription of Rajaraja's son Rajendra I claims that it was made by Rajaraja.
Rajaraja's elder brother died before him, and after the death of Uttama, Rajaraja ascended the throne in June–July 985. Known as Arumoḷi Varman until this point, he adopted the name Rajaraja, which literally means "King among Kings". He also called himself Shivapada Shekhara (IAST: Śivapada Śekhara), literally, "the one who places his crown at the feet of Shiva".
MILITARY CONQUESTS
Rajaraja inherited a kingdom whose boundaries were limited to the traditional Chola territory centred around Thanjavur-Tiruchirappalli region. At the time of his ascension, the Chola kingdom was relatively small, and was still recovering from the Rashtrakuta invasions in the preceding years. Rajaraja turned it into an efficiently-administered empire which possessed a powerful army and a strong navy. During his reign, the northern kingdom of Vengi became a Chola protectorate, and the Chola influence on the eastern coast extended as far as Kalinga in the north.
A number of regiments are mentioned in the Thanjavur inscriptions. These regiments were divided into elephant troops, cavalry and infantry and each of these regiments had its own autonomy and was free to endow benefactions or build temples.
AGAINST KANDALUR SALAI
It is known that Rajaraja celebrated a major victory at Kandalur Salai (present-day south Kerala) in c. 988 CE. This battle is remembered with the famous phrase "Kandalur Salai Kalam-arutta". The engagement seemed to be an effort of the Chola navy or a combined effort of the navy and the army. The salai originally belonged to the Ay chief, a vassal of the Pandya king at Madurai. Involvement of either Chera or Pandya warriors in this battle remain uncertain. The conquest of Vizhinjam by the general of Rajaraja (mentioned in the Thiruvalangadu Copper Plates) is sometimes equated with this battle.
CONQUEST OF KERALA AND THE PANDYAS
Rajaraja's inscriptions start to appear in Kanyakumari district in the 990s and in Trivandrum district in early 1000s. The Chola subjugation of Kerala can be dated to the early years of the 11th century. The Senur inscription (1005 CE) of Rajaraja states that he destroyed the Pandya capital Madurai; conquered the "haughty kings" of Kollam (Venad), Kolla-desham (Mushika), and Kodungallur (the Chera Perumal). Some of these victories in Malainadu were perhaps won by prince Rajendra Chola for his father.
After defeating the Pandyas, Rajaraja adopted the title Pandya Kulashani ("Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas"), and the Pandya country came to be known as "Rajaraja Mandalam" or "Rajaraja Pandinadu". While describing the Rajaraja's campaign in trisanku kastha (the south), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I states that he seized certain royal Amarabhujanga. Identification of this prince (either a Pandya prince or a general of the Pandya king or a Kongu Chera prince) remains unresolved. Kongu Desa Rajakkal, a chronicle of the Kongu Nadu region, suggests that this general later shifted his allegiance to Rajaraja, and performed the Chola king's kanakabhisheka ceremony.
After consolidating his rule in the south, Rajaraja assumed the title Mummudi Chola ("the Chola who Wears Three Crowns"), a reference to his control over the three ancient Tamil countries of the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras.
CONQUEST OF SRI LANKA
In 993, Rajaraja invaded Sri Lanka, which is called Ila-mandalam in the Chola records. This invasion most probably happened during the reign of Mahinda V of Anuradhapura, who according to the Chulavamsa chronicle, had fled to Rohana (Ruhuna) in south-eastern Sri Lanka because of a military uprising. The Chola army sacked Anuradhapura, and captured the northern half of Sri Lanka. The Cholas established a provincial capital at the military outpost of Polonnaruwa, naming it Jananatha Mangalam after a title of Rajaraja. The Chola official Tali Kumaran erected a Shiva temple called Rajarajeshvara ("Lord of Rajaraja") in the town of Mahatittha (modern Mantota), which was renamed Rajaraja-pura.
Comparing Rajaraja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama, the Thiruvalangadu Plates states:
"Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka by means of sharp edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka."
— Thiruvalangadu Copper Plates
In 1017, Rajaraja's son Rajendra I completed the Chola conquest of Sri Lanka. The Cholas controlled Sri Lanka until 1070, when Vijayabahu I defeated and expelled them.
CHALUKYAN CONFLICT
In 998 CE, Rajaraja captured the regions of Gangapadi, Nolambapadi and Tadigaipadi (present day Karnataka). Raja Chola extinguished the Nolambas, who were the feudatories of Ganga while conquering and annexing Nolambapadi. The conquered provinces were originally feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. In 973 CE, the Rashtrakutas were defeated by the Western Chalukyas leading to direct conflict with Cholas. An inscription of Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar describes him as a vassal of the Western Chalukyas and acknowledges the Chola onslaught. In the same inscription, he accuses Rajendra of having arrived with a force of 955,000 and of having gone on rampage in Donuwara thereby blurring the moralities of war as laid out in the Dharmasastras. Historians like James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn conclude that this confrontation displayed the degree of animosity on a personal level between the rulers of the Chola and the Chalukya kingdoms drawing a parallel between the enmity between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi.
By 1004 AD, the Gangavadi province was conquered by Rajaraja. The Changalvas who ruled over the western part of the Gangavadi province and the Kongalvas who ruled over Kodagu were turned into vassals. The Chola general Panchavan Maraya who defeated the Changalvas in the battle of Ponnasoge and distinguished himself in this affair was rewarded with Arkalgud Yelusuvira-7000 territory and the title Kshatriyasikhamani. The Kongalvas, for the heroism of Manya, were rewarded with the estate of Malambi (Coorg) and the title Kshatriyasikhamani. There were encounters between the Cholas and the Hoysalas, who were vassals of the Western Chalukyas. An inscription from the Gopalakrishna temple at Narasipur dated to 1006 records that Rajaraja's general Aprameya killed minister Naganna and other generals of the Hoysalas. A similar inscription in Channapatna also describes Rajaraja defeating the Hoysalas. Vengi kingdom was ruled by Jata Choda Bhima of the Eastern Chalukyas dynasty. Jata Choda Bhima was defeated by Rajaraja and Saktivarman was placed on the throne of Vengi as a viceroy of the Chola Dynasty. After the withdrawal of the Chola army, Bhima captured Kanchi in 1001 CE. Rajaraja expelled and killed the Andhra king called Bhima before re-establishing Saktivarman I on the throne of Vengi again. Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to his next viceroy of Vengi Vimaladitya which brought about the union of the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya Kingdom and which also ensured that the descendants of Rajaraja would rule the Eastern Chalukya kingdom in the future.
KALINGA CONQUEST
The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi.
CONQUEST OF KUDA-MALAI-NADU
There are multiple references to the conquest of "Kuda-malai-nadu" by king Rajaraja (from c. 1000 CEonwards). The term Kudagu-malai-nadu is substituted in place of Kuda-malai-nadu in some of the inscriptions found in Karnataka and this region has been generally identified with Coorg (Kudagu).
It is said that the king conquered Malainadu for the sake of messengers in one day after crossing 18 mountain passes (Vikrama Chola Ula). Kulottunga Chola Ula makes reference to Rajaraja cutting off 18 heads and setting fire to Udagai. Kalingathupparani mentions the institution of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the capture of Udagai, and the plunder of several elephants from there. Tiruppalanam inscription (999 CE) mentions the gift of an idol by king from the booty obtained in Malainadu.
NAVAL EXPEDITION
"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."
— Romila Thapar, "Encyclopaedia Britannica"
One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the islands of Maldives ("the Ancient Islands of the Sea Numbering 1200"). The naval campaign was a demonstration of the Chola naval power in the Indian Ocean.
The Cholas controlled the area around of Bay of Bengal with Nagapattinam as the main port. The Chola Navy also had played a major role in the invasion of Sri Lanka. The success of Rajaraja allowed his son Rajendra Chola to lead the Chola invasion of Srivijaya, carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupying Kadaram.
PERSONAL LIFE
Rajaraja married a number of women, some of whom were Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Vanavan Madevi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi. He had at least three daughters. He had a son Rajendra with Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār. He had his first daughter Kundavai with Ulaga Madeviyar. Kundavai married Chalukya prince Vimaladithan. He had two other daughters named Mathevadigal and Ģangamādevi or Arumozhi Chandramalli. Rajaraja died in 1014 CE in the Tamil month of Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I.
ADMINISTRATION
Before the reign of Rajaraja I, parts of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers. Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganization of the empire into units known as valanadus. From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133 CE, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials. This led to the king exercising a closer control over the different parts of the empire. Rajaraja strengthened the local self-government and installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy. To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission to China.
His elder sister Kundavai assisted him in administration and management of temples.
OFFICIALS
Rajendra Chola I was made a co-regent during the last years of Rajaraja's rule. He was the supreme commander of the northern and north-western dominions. During the reign of Raja Chola, there was an expansion of the administrative structure leading to the increase in the number of offices and officials in the Chola records than during earlier periods. Villavan Muvendavelan, one of the top officials of Rajaraja figures in many of his inscriptions. The other names of officials found in the inscriptions are the Bana prince Narasimhavarman, a general Senapathi Krishnan Raman, the Samanta chief Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys.
RELIGIOUS POLICY
Rajaraja was a follower of Shaivism but he was tolerant towards other faiths and had several temples for Vishnu constructed and encouraged the construction of the Buddhist Chudamani Vihara at the request of the Srivijaya king Sri Maravijayatungavarman. Rajaraja dedicated the proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara.
ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE
Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts of Thevaram in his court. He sought the help of Nambi Andar Nambi. It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram. The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram. Rajaraja thus became known as Tirumurai Kanda Cholan meaning one who saved the Tirumurai. In his work Nambiyandar Nambi Puranam alias Tirumurai Kanda Puranam, Nambi identifies his patron as Rasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan, that is king Rajaraja, the best of the race of Abhaya. Thus far Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple. Nambi arranged the hymns of three saint poets Sambandar, Appar and Sundarar as the first seven books, Manickavasagar's Tirukovayar and Tiruvacakam as the 8th book, the 28 hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book, the Tirumandiram of Tirumular as the 10th book, 40 hymns by 12 other poets as the 10th book, Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi - the sacred anthathi of the labours of the 63 nayanar saints and added his own hymns as the 11th book. The first seven books were later called as Tevaram, and the whole Saiva canon, to which was added, as the 12th book, Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135) is wholly known as Tirumurai, the holy book. Thus Saiva literature which covers about 600 years of religious, philosophical and literary development.
BRIHADISVARA TEMPLE
In 1010 CE, Rajaraja built the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple and the capital acted as a center of both religious and economic activity. It is also known as Periya Kovil, RajaRajeswara Temple and Rajarajeswaram. It is one of the largest temples in India and is an example of Dravidian architecture during the Chola period. The temple turned 1000 years old in 2010. The temple is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the "Great Living Chola Temples", with the other two being the Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Airavatesvara temple.
The vimanam (temple tower) is 66 m high and is the tallest in the world. The Kumbam (the apex or the bulbous structure on the top) of the temple is carved out of a single rock and weighs around 80 tons. There is a big statue of Nandi (sacred bull), carved out of a single rock measuring about 16 feet long and 13 feet high at the entrance. The entire temple structure is made out of granite, the nearest sources of which are about 60 km to the west of temple. The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions in Tamil Nadu.
COINS
Before the reign of Rajaraja the Chola coins had on the obverse the tiger emblem and the fish and bow emblems of the Pandya and Chera Dynasties and on the reverse the name of the King. But during the reign of Rajaraja appeared a new type of coins. The new coins had on the obverse the figure of the standing king and on the reverse the seated goddess. The coins spread over a great part of South India and were also copied by the kings of Sri Lanka.
INSCRIPTIONS
Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stones. An inscription in Tamil from Mulbagal in Karnataka shows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such a Meikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows:Hail Prosperity! In the 21st year of (the reign of) the illustrious Ko Raja Rajakesari Varma, alias the illustrious Rajaraja Deva, who, while both the goddess of fortune and the great goddess of the earth, who had become his exclusive property, gave him pleasure, was pleased to destroy the kalam at Kandalur and conquered by his army, which was victorious in great battles, Vengai-nadu, Ganga-padi, Nulamba-padi, Tadigai-padi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ira-mandalam, which is famed in the eight directions; who, while his beauty was increasing, and while he was resplendent (to such an extent) that he was always worthy to be worshipped, deprived the Seriyas of their splendour, and (in words) in the twenty-first year of Chola Arumoli, who possesses the river Ponni, whose waters are full of waves.
Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished.
Another inscription from Gramardhanathesvara temple in South Arcot district dated in the seventh year of the king refers to the fifteenth year of his predecessor that is Uttama Choladeva described therein as the son of Sembiyan-Madeviyar.
IN POPULAR CULTURE
- Rajaraja Cholan, a 1973 Tamil film starring Sivaji Ganesan
- Ponniyin Selvan by Kalki revolves around the life of Rajaraja, the mysteries surrounding the assassination of Aditya Karikalan and the subsequent accession of Uttama to the Chola throne
- Nandipurathu Nayagi by Vembu Vikiraman revolves around the ascension of Uttama Chola to the throne and Rajaraja's naval expedition
- Rajaraja Cholan by Kathal Ramanathan
- Kandalur Vasantha Kumaran Kathai by Sujatha which deal with the situations leading Rajaraja to invade Kandalur
- Rajakesari and Cherar Kottai by Gokul Seshadri deal with the Kandalur invasion and its after-effects
- Bharat Ek Khoj, a 1988 historical drama in its episodes 22 and 23 portrays Raj Raja Chola.
- Kaviri Mainthan, a 2007 novel by Anusha Venkatesh
WIKIPEDIA
Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Tamil: கங்கைகொண்ட சோழபுரம்) was erected as the capital of the Cholas by Rajendra Chola I, the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola, the great Chola who conquered a large area in South India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Sumatra, Kadaram (Kedah in Malaysia), Cambodia and others at the beginning of the 11th century A.D . The great temple of Siva at this place is next only to the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur in its monumental nature and surpasses it in sculptural quality.The Gangaikondaan temple is an architectural and engineering marvel because the shadow of the main tower never falls on the ground throughout the year.
The basement of Srivimana is 100 feet by 100 feet square structure and the foundation is raised 20 feet height for the ShriVimana.The Srivimana is 180 feet tall and has 8 stage.
The Great Chola Temples of southern India are an exceptional testimony to the development of the architecture and the ideology of the Chola Empire and the Tamil civilization in southern India. They represent an outstanding creative achievement in the architectural conception of the pure form of the Dravida type of temple (characterized by a pyramidal tower)
Airavatesvara Temple, Darasuram, Kumbakonam, TN, India.
Recognised by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, it was built in 12th century by Rajendra Chola of Chola Dynasty. It is known for greatest sculptures of that time that stands testimony to the art of rock sculpting even now.
Anand Govi Photography