Therme Vals, Peter Zumthor's masterpiece in Vals, Switzerland, is made from local quartzite stone and bermed into the slope beneath a hotel that it is connected to.

This red quartzite sarcophagus is decorated with figures of four goddesses, Isis, Nephthys, Neith, and Selket, carved in high relief on the corners, with their wings outspread to protect the body of the Pharaoh King Tut. Inside, three gold anthropoid coffins were placed within each other offering further protection. Inside the final coffin is the mummy of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun whose face was covered by his iconic death mask.

 

Hieroglyphs of religious text, religious scenes and the protective Wadjet eye are also engraved on the sarcophagus.

  

Quartzite in the Precambrian of South Dakota, USA.

 

Extensive outcrops of pinkish, Paleoproterozoic-aged quartzites are present at Falls Park along the Big Sioux River in the city of Sioux Falls, South Dakota. The quartzites here have nicely water-worn, sculpted surfaces. These rocks are part of the Sioux Quartzite, which consists of 1.65 to 1.70 billion year old metamorphosed sandstones. Despite the metamorphism, original sedimentary features such as horizontal stratification, cross-bedding, and ripple marks are still preserved.

 

The Sioux Quartzite is an erosion-resistant unit in America’s midcontinent. It has formed a long-lived paleotopographic high since Precambrian times - the Sioux tectonic core. This high is part of a northeast-to-southwest trending series of paleotopographic highs & depressions known as the Transcontinental Arch, which extends from Arizona to Minnesota (see Carlson, 1999).

 

Quarries of Sioux Quartzite occur in southeastern South Dakota and southwestern Minnesota. The rocks are used as building stone, road gravel, sidewalk and paving gravel, and erosion control material.

 

Stratigraphy: Sioux Quartzite, upper Paleoproterozoic, 1.65-1.70 Ga

 

Locality: Falls Park, near Sioux Falls along the Big Sioux River in the town of Sioux Falls, southeastern South Dakota, USA

------------------

Reference cited:

 

Carlson (1999) - Transcontinental Arch - a pattern formed by rejuvenation of local features across central North America. Tectonophysics 305: 225-233.

 

The colossal quartzite statue of Amenhotep III is an ancient Egyptian sculpture dating from the 18th Dynasty (c.1350 BC). It was found in the massive mortuary temple of the pharaoh Amenhotep III on the West Bank of the River Nile at Thebes (Luxor) in Egypt. Only the head of the broken colossal statue survives. It is part of the British Museum's Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan collection.

 

This brown quartzite statue was one of a series of near-identical statues that flanked the west side of a colonnaded courtyard. When complete, it would have measured more than 8 metres (26 feet) high without its base, and the body would have stood in the classic pose of the deity Osiris with legs together and arms crossed, holding the crook and the flail, which were symbols of Egyptian kingship. The statue would have worn a short royal kilt and the red crown of Lower Egypt. The discovery in 1964 of the head of one other statue and numerous body-fragments of yet more has allowed the reconstruction of the statue's pose. The statues on the other side of the courtyard were similar, but were made of red granite and wore the white crown of Upper Egypt

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossal_quartzite_statue_of_Amenho...

Quartzite from the Precambrian of Wyoming, USA. (3.2 cm across)

 

Quartzite is a coarsely crystalline-textured, quartzose metamorphic rock. It forms by intermediate to high grade metamorphism of sandstone. The greenish coloration is from the presence of fuchsite (= chromian muscovite mica).

 

Stratigraphy: undetermined (transported float), but possibly from the Medicine Peak Quartzite or the Lookout Formation, Paleoproterozoic

 

Locality: loose piece from roadcut on the northern side of Rt. 130 (Snowy Range Road), immediately west of the intersection with Brooklyn Lake Road, eastern flanks of the Medicine Bow Mountains, southeastern Wyoming, USA (41° 21’ 25.95” North latitude, 106° 14’ 09.11” West longitude)

 

Rippled sandstone in the Precambrian of South Australia.

 

Seen here are structurally tilted sandstones in the uppermost Precambrian of the South Australian Outback. This is the Rawnsley Quartzite - the beds are steeply dipping eastward - they are almost vertical. This site is on the western flank of a large syncline.

 

The ridges on the exposed bedding plane are ripple marks - they are evenly-shaped and so are identified as symmetrical ripples. Such ripples form in a two-directional, back-and-forth current in very shallow water by wave action.

 

Stratigraphy: Rawnsley Quartzite, upper Ediacaran (just below the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary, which is a cryptic disconformity here), uppermost Neoproterozoic

 

Locality: Mernmerna section - dry creek cut south of Merna Mora & north-northwest of Hawker, eastern side of the Three Sisters Range, South Australia (vicinity of 31° 34' 22.69" South latitude, 138° 24' 39.64" East longitude)

 

Seen here are structurally tilted sandstones across the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary in the South Australian Outback. The beds are steeply dipping eastward (to the left of the viewer) - they are almost vertical. This site is on the western flank of a large syncline.

 

A prominent bedding plane near the left margin of the lower part of the photo is the top of the Rawnsley Quartzite, an upper Ediacaran shallow-water sandstone. The overlying beds (further to the left) are the basal Parachilna Formation, a burrowed sandstone-siltstone succession and the basal-preserved Cambrian unit in the area. This section was once considered for the Precambrian-Cambrian GSSP (global stratotype section and point). Parachilna burrows mark the first appearance of complex trace fossils in the section. The underlying Precambrian sandstones lack burrows. It turns out that the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary in this section is a cryptic disconformity (missing time). At other sites, another unit called the Uratanna Formation occurs between the Rawnsley and the Parachilna.

 

Stratigraphy: Parachilna Formation (upper Nemakit-Daldynian Stage to lower Tommotian Stage, lower Lower Cambrian) over Rawnsley Quartzite (upper Ediacaran, uppermost Neoproterozoic)

 

Locality: Mernmerna section - dry creek cut south of Merna Mora & north-northwest of Hawker, eastern side of the Three Sisters Range, South Australia (vicinity of 31° 34' 22.69" South latitude, 138° 24' 39.64" East longitude)

 

Contorted Erins quartzite and schist.

Percussion marks in quartzite in the Precambrian of South Dakota, USA.

 

Extensive outcrops of pinkish, Paleoproterozoic-aged quartzites are present at Falls Park along the Big Sioux River in the city of Sioux Falls, South Dakota. The quartzites here have nicely water-worn, sculpted surfaces with good, fluvially abraded polish in places. These rocks are part of the Sioux Quartzite, which consists of 1.65 to 1.70 billion year old metamorphosed sandstones. Despite the metamorphism, original sedimentary features such as horizontal stratification, cross-bedding, and ripple marks are still preserved.

 

The Sioux Quartzite is an erosion-resistant unit in America’s midcontinent. It has formed a long-lived paleotopographic high since Precambrian times - the Sioux tectonic core. This high is part of a northeast-to-southwest trending series of paleotopographic highs & depressions known as the Transcontinental Arch, which extends from Arizona to Minnesota (see Carlson, 1999).

 

Quarries of Sioux Quartzite occur in southeastern South Dakota and southwestern Minnesota. The rocks are used as building stone, road gravel, sidewalk and paving gravel, and erosion control material.

 

The arcuate cracks in the rock seen here are percussion marks (percussion cracks; percussion cones). These features formed as a result of clast impacts during energetic flow in the Big Sioux River.

 

Stratigraphy: Sioux Quartzite, upper Paleoproterozoic, 1.65-1.70 Ga

 

Locality: Falls Park, near Sioux Falls along the Big Sioux River in the town of Sioux Falls, southeastern South Dakota, USA

------------------

Reference cited:

 

Carlson (1999) - Transcontinental Arch - a pattern formed by rejuvenation of local features across central North America. Tectonophysics 305: 225-233.

 

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Seen here are structurally tilted sandstones across the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary in the South Australian Outback. The beds are steeply dipping eastward (toward the viewer) - they are almost vertical. This site is on the western flank of a large syncline.

 

The darkened bedding plane upon which the head of the geology hammer rests is the top of the Rawnsley Quartzite, an upper Ediacaran shallow-water sandstone. The overlying beds (= preserved at left) are the basal Parachilna Formation, a burrowed sandstone-siltstone succession and the basal-preserved Cambrian unit in the area. This section was once considered for the Precambrian-Cambrian GSSP (global stratotype section and point). Parachilna burrows mark the first appearance of complex trace fossils in the section. The underlying Precambrian sandstones lack burrows. It turns out that the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary in this section is a cryptic disconformity (missing time). At other sites, another unit called the Uratanna Formation occurs between the Rawnsley and the Parachilna.

 

Stratigraphy: Parachilna Formation (upper Nemakit-Daldynian Stage to lower Tommotian Stage, lower Lower Cambrian) over Rawnsley Quartzite (upper Ediacaran, uppermost Neoproterozoic)

 

Locality: Mernmerna section - dry creek cut south of Merna Mora & north-northwest of Hawker, eastern side of the Three Sisters Range, South Australia (vicinity of 31° 34' 22.69" South latitude, 138° 24' 39.64" East longitude)

 

Quartzite az

The Old Minnehaha County Courthouse, located at Main Avenue and 6th Street in Sioux Falls, is the former county courthouse of Minnehaha County, South Dakota.

 

The courthouse, which was the seat of county government from 1890 to 1962, is one of the oldest buildings in Sioux Falls. The Richardsonian Romanesque building was designed by local architect Wallace L. Dow and built from locally quarried quartzite, a common building material in Sioux Falls at the time. The three-story building features a tall clock tower over the front entrance. The building's doorways are surrounded by Roman archways; the second- and third-story windows are also arched, while the first-story windows are rectangular. The attic windows have decorative dormers aligned with the front walls.

 

The courthouse was added to the National Register of Historic Places on May 10, 1973.

 

Old Courthouse Museum

The building is now operated as the Old Courthouse Museum by the Siouxland Heritage Museums Alliance. There are three floors of exhibits about area history and culture, including railroads, Native American artistry and culture, life traveling on the prairie, county towns, the American flag and chairs.

 

Sioux Falls is the most populous city in the U.S. state of South Dakota and the 121st-most populous city in the United States. It is the county seat of Minnehaha County and also extends into northern Lincoln County to the south, which continues up to the Iowa state line. The population was 192,517 at the 2020 census, and in 2022, its estimated population was 202,078. According to city officials, the estimated population had grown to 213,891 as of early 2024. The Sioux Falls metro area accounts for more than 30% of the state's population. Chartered in 1856 on the banks of the Big Sioux River, the city is situated in the rolling hills at the junction of interstates 29 and 90.

 

Sioux Falls is the largest city in the U.S. state of South Dakota. Founded in 1856, the city was abandoned, sacked, resettled and later grew to become a city with a 2020 Census population of 192,517 people.

 

The history of Sioux Falls revolves around the cascades of the Big Sioux River. The falls were created about 14,000 years ago when the last glacial ice sheet redirected the flow of the river into the large looping bends of its present course. Fueled by water from the melting ice, the river exposed the underlying Sioux quartzite bedrock, the hard pinkish stone of the falls. The quartzite itself is about a billion and a half years old. It began as sediments deposited on the bottom of an ancient, shallow sea.

 

The lure of the falls has been a powerful influence. A prehistoric people who inhabited the region before 500 B.C. left numerous burial mounds on the high bluffs near the river. These people were followed by an agricultural society that built fortified villages on many of the same sites. Tribes of the Lakota and Dakota, widely ranging nomadic bison hunters, arrived sometime around the 18th century. Early maps indicate they used the falls as a place to rendezvous with French fur trappers, considered the first European visitors at the falls.

 

The falls also drew the attention of early explorers. An August 1804 journal entry of the Lewis and Clark expedition describes the falls of the "Soues River." Famous pathfinder John C. Fremont and French scientist Joseph Nicollet explored the region in 1838 and also wrote a description of the falls. Both are considered second hand accounts rather than evidence of an actual visit.

 

The first documented visit was by Philander Prescott, an explorer, trader, and trapper who camped overnight at the falls in December 1832. Captain James Allen led a military expedition out of Fort Des Moines in 1844. The early descriptions of the falls were published in The States and Territories of the Great West, an 1856 book by Jacob Ferris which inspired townsite developers to seek out the falls.

 

The focus of intense land speculation activity in Minnesota and Iowa during the mid-1850s inevitably turned toward the Big Sioux River valley. Sioux Falls was founded by land speculators who hoped to build great wealth by claiming prime townsites before the arrival of railroads and settlers.

 

Two separate groups, the Dakota Land Company of St. Paul and the Western Town Company of Dubuque, Iowa organized in 1856 to claim the land around the falls, considered a promising townsite for its beauty and water power. The Western Town Company arrived first, and was soon followed by the St. Paul–based company in 1857. Each laid out 320-acre (1.3 km2) claims, but worked together for mutual protection. They built a temporary barricade of turf which they dubbed "Fort Sod," in response to hostilities threatened by native tribes. Seventeen men then spent "the first winter" in Sioux Falls. The following year the population grew to near 40.

 

Although conflicts in Minnehaha County between Native Americans and white settlers were few, the Dakota War of 1862 engulfed nearby southwestern Minnesota. The town was evacuated in August of that year when two local settlers were killed as a result of the conflict. The settlers and soldiers stationed here traveled to Yankton in late August 1862. The abandoned townsite was pillaged and burned.

 

Fort Dakota, a military reservation established in present-day downtown, was established in May 1865. Many former settlers gradually returned and a new wave of settlers arrived in the following years. The population grew to 593 by 1873, and a building boom was underway in that year.

 

The Village of Sioux Falls, consisting of 1,200 acres (4.9 km2), was incorporated in 1876 by the 12th legislative assembly of the Dakota Territory, which convened in the territorial capital of Yankton. The village charter proved to be too restrictive, however, and Sioux Falls petitioned to become a city. The city charter was granted by the Dakota Territorial legislature on March 3, 1883.

 

The arrival of the railroads ushered in the great Dakota Boom decade of the 1880s. The population of Sioux Falls mushroomed from 2,164 in 1880 to 10,167 at the close of the decade. The growth transformed the city. A severe plague of grasshoppers and a national depression halted the boom by the early 1890s. The city grew by only 89 people from 1890 to 1900.

 

Beginning in the 1880s, a 90-day residency law and lax oversight on the part of local judges concerning sworn testimony caused word to spread across the United States that a legal divorce was easily obtained in Dakota Territory. As a result, both Sioux Falls and Fargo (in later North Dakota) became known as "divorce capitals". Thousands of people traveled to the towns seeking a divorce, with the resulting divorce rate in Minnehaha County during this period being nearly three times that of the national average. Although many local residents were unhappy with the notoriety, the surge of "tourists" necessitated the construction of a number of new hotels and restaurants, and the situation brought a level of attention uncommon for towns of a similar size. Divorce laws were tightened after statehood, and the phenomenon had ended by the early 1900s.

 

With the opening of the John Morrell meat-packing plant in 1909, the establishment of an airbase and a military radio and communications training school in 1942, and the completion of the interstate highways in the early 1960s, Sioux Falls grew at a moderate but steady pace in the early and middle years of the 20th century. During this period, the city's economy was largely centered on the stockyards and the meat packing industry. Sioux Falls was home to one of the largest stockyards in the nation at the time, and the John Morrell plant was by far the largest employer in the city.

 

Beginning in the late 20th century, Sioux Falls began growing at a considerably faster pace than during previous decades. The economy became more service-based, and word began to spread about the relatively low levels of unemployment and crime. Annexations of adjacent land in Minnehaha County became common. The first annexation of land south of 57th Street from Lincoln County was in 1969 for a municipal water tower. The next annexations from Lincoln County occurred in 1978 when a couple of new subdivisions were added.

 

Several large shopping malls opened during the 1970s, and the retail and dining industry began to exert a growing influence on the city's economy. In 1981, Citibank transferred its credit card operations from New York to Sioux Falls to take advantage of recently relaxed state anti-usury laws. Several other financial companies also moved to Sioux Falls or expanded its existing business in the city, resulting in a large present-day banking and financial presence in the city. A third factor contributing to recent growth is the expansion of the local healthcare industry. The two largest hospitals in the city, Sanford Health and Avera Health, are also the two largest present-day employers in the city.

 

South Dakota is a landlocked U.S. state in the North Central region of the United States. It is also part of the Great Plains. South Dakota is named after the Dakota Sioux tribe, which comprises a large portion of the population with nine reservations currently in the state and has historically dominated the territory. South Dakota is the 17th largest by area, but the 5th least populous, and the 5th least densely populated of the 50 United States. Pierre is the state capital, and Sioux Falls, with a population of about 213,900, is South Dakota's most populous city. The state is bisected by the Missouri River, dividing South Dakota into two geographically and socially distinct halves, known to residents as "East River" and "West River". South Dakota is bordered by the states of North Dakota (to the north), Minnesota (to the east), Iowa (to the southeast), Nebraska (to the south), Wyoming (to the west), and Montana (to the northwest).

 

Humans have inhabited the area for several millennia, with the Sioux becoming dominant by the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, European-American settlement intensified after a gold rush in the Black Hills and the construction of railroads from the east. Encroaching miners and settlers triggered a number of Indian wars, ending with the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890. As the southern part of the former Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2, 1889, simultaneously with North Dakota. They are the 39th and 40th states admitted to the union; President Benjamin Harrison shuffled the statehood papers before signing them so that no one could tell which became a state first.

 

Key events in the 20th century included the Dust Bowl and Great Depression, increased federal spending during the 1940s and 1950s for agriculture and defense, and an industrialization of agriculture that has reduced family farming. Eastern South Dakota is home to most of the state's population, and the area's fertile soil is used to grow a variety of crops. West of the Missouri River, ranching is the predominant agricultural activity, and the economy is more dependent on tourism and defense spending. Most of the Native American reservations are in West River. The Black Hills, a group of low pine-covered mountains sacred to the Sioux, is in the southwest part of the state. Mount Rushmore, a major tourist destination, is there. South Dakota has a temperate continental climate, with four distinct seasons and precipitation ranging from moderate in the east to semi-arid in the west. The state's ecology features species typical of a North American grassland biome.

 

While several Democrats have represented South Dakota for multiple terms in both chambers of Congress, the state government is largely controlled by the Republican Party, whose nominees have carried South Dakota in each of the last 14 presidential elections. Historically dominated by an agricultural economy and a rural lifestyle, South Dakota has recently sought to diversify its economy in other areas to both attract and retain residents. South Dakota's history and rural character still strongly influence the state's culture.

 

The history of South Dakota describes the history of the U.S. state of South Dakota over the course of several millennia, from its first inhabitants to the recent issues facing the state.

 

Human beings have lived in what is today South Dakota for at least several thousand years. Early hunters are believed to have first entered North America at least 17,000 years ago via the Bering land bridge, which existed during the last ice age and connected Siberia with Alaska. Early settlers in what would become South Dakota were nomadic hunter-gatherers, using primitive Stone Age technology to hunt large prehistoric mammals in the area such as mammoths, sloths, and camels. The Paleolithic culture of these people disappeared around 5000 BC, after the extinction of most of their prey species.

 

Between AD 500 and 800, much of eastern South Dakota was inhabited by a people known as the 'Mound Builders'. The Mound Builders were hunters who lived in temporary villages and were named for the low earthen burial mounds they constructed, many of which still exist. Their settlement seems to have been concentrated around the watershed of the Big Sioux River and Big Stone Lake, although other sites have been excavated throughout eastern South Dakota. Either assimilation or warfare led to the demise of the Mound Builders by the year 800. Between 1250 and 1400 an agricultural people, likely the ancestors of the modern Mandan of North Dakota, arrived from the east and settled in the central part of the state. In 1325, what has become known as the Crow Creek Massacre occurred near Chamberlain. An archeological excavation of the site has discovered 486 bodies buried in a mass grave within a type of fortification; many of the skeletal remains show evidence of scalping and decapitation.

 

The Arikara, also known as the Ree, began arriving from the south in the 16th century. They spoke a Caddoan language similar to that of the Pawnee, and probably originated in what is now Kansas and Nebraska. Although they would at times travel to hunt or trade, the Arikara were far less nomadic than many of their neighbors, and lived for the most part in permanent villages. These villages usually consisted of a stockade enclosing a number of circular earthen lodges built on bluffs looking over the rivers. Each village had a semi-autonomous political structure, with the Arikara's various subtribes being connected in a loose alliance. In addition to hunting and growing crops such as corn, beans, pumpkin and other squash, the Arikara were also skilled traders, and would often serve as intermediaries between tribes to the north and south It was probably through their trading connections that Spanish horses first reached the region around 1760. The Arikara reached the height of their power in the 17th century, and may have included as many as 32 villages. Due both to disease as well as pressure from other tribes, the number of Arikara villages would decline to only two by the late 18th century, and the Arikara eventually merged entirely with the Mandan to the north.

 

The sister tribe of the Arikaras, the Pawnee, may have also had a small amount of land in the state. Both were Caddoan and were among the only known tribes in the continental U.S. to have committed human sacrifice, via a religious ritual that occurred once a year. It is said that the U.S. government worked hard to halt this practice before their homelands came to be heavily settled, for fear that the general public might react harshly or refuse to move there.

 

The Lakota Oral histories tell of them driving the Algonquian ancestors of the Cheyenne from the Black Hills regions, south of the Platte River, in the 18th century. Before that, the Cheyenne say that they were, in fact, two tribes, which they call the Tsitsistas & Sutaio After their defeat, much of their territory was contained to southeast Wyoming & western Nebraska. While they had been able to hold off the Sioux for quite some time, they were heavily damaged by a smallpox outbreak. They are also responsible for introducing the horse to the Lakota.

 

The Ioway, or Iowa people, also inhabited the region where the modern states of South Dakota, Minnesota & Iowa meet, north of the Missouri River. They also had a sister nation, known as the Otoe who lived south of them. They were Chiwere speaking, a very old variation of Siouan language said to have originated amongst the ancestors of the Ho-Chunk of Wisconsin. They also would have had a fairly similar culture to that of the Dhegihan Sioux tribes of Nebraska & Kansas.

 

By the 17th century, the Sioux, who would later come to dominate much of the state, had settled in what is today central and northern Minnesota. The Sioux spoke a language of the Siouan language family, and were divided into two culture groups – the Dakota & Nakota. By the early 18th century the Sioux would begin to move south and then west into the plains. This migration was due to several factors, including greater food availability to the west, as well as the fact that the rival Ojibwe & other related Algonquians had obtained rifles from the French at a time when the Sioux were still using the bow and arrow. Other tribes were also displaced during some sort of poorly understood conflict that occurred between Siouan & Algonquian peoples in the early 18th century.

 

In moving west into the prairies, the lifestyle of the Sioux would be greatly altered, coming to resemble that of a nomadic northern plains tribe much more so than a largely settled eastern woodlands one. Characteristics of this transformation include a greater dependence on the bison for food, a heavier reliance on the horse for transportation, and the adoption of the tipi for habitation, a dwelling more suited to the frequent movements of a nomadic people than their earlier semi-permanent lodges.

 

Once on the plains, a schism caused the two subgroups of the Sioux to divide into three separate nations—the Lakota, who migrated south, the Asiniboine who migrated back east to Minnesota & the remaining Sioux. It appears to be around this time that the Dakota people became more prominent over the Nakota & the entirety of the people came to call themselves as such.

 

The Lakota, who crossed the Missouri around 1760 and reached the Black Hills by 1776, would come to settle largely in western South Dakota, northwestern Nebraska, and southwestern North Dakota. The Yankton primarily settled in southeastern South Dakota, the Yanktonnais settled in northeastern South Dakota and southeastern North Dakota, and the Santee settled primarily in central and southern Minnesota. Due in large part to the Sioux migrations, a number of tribes would be driven from the area. The tribes in and around the Black Hills, most notably the Cheyenne, would be pushed to the west, the Arikara would move further north along the Missouri, and the Omaha would be driven out of southeastern South Dakota and into northeastern Nebraska.

 

Later, the Lakota & Assiniboine returned to the fold, forming a single confederacy known as the Oceti Sakowin, or Seven council fire. This was divided into four cultural groups—the Lakota, Dakota, Nakota & Nagoda-- & seven distinct tribes, each with their own chief—the Nakota Mdewakan (Note—Older attempts at Lakota language show a mistake in writing the sound 'bl' as 'md', such as summer, Bloketu, misprinted as mdoketu. Therefore, this word should be Blewakan.) & Wahpeton, the Dakota Santee & Sisseton, the Nagoda Yankton & Yanktonai & the Lakota Teton. In this form, they were able to secure from the U.S. government a homeland, commonly referred to as Mni-Sota Makoce, or the Lakotah Republic. However, conflicts increased between Sioux & American citizens in the decades leading up the Civil War & a poorly funded & organized Bureau of Indian Affairs had difficulty keeping peace between groups. This eventually resulted in the United States blaming the Sioux for the atrocities & rendering the treaty which recognized the nation of Lakotah null and void. The U.S., however, later recognized their fault in a Supreme Court case in the 1980s after several decades of failed lawsuits by the Sioux, yet little has been done to smooth the issue over to the best interests of both sides.

 

France was the first European nation to hold any real claim over what would become South Dakota. Its claims covered most of the modern state. However, at most a few French scouting parties may have entered eastern South Dakota. In 1679 Daniel G. Duluth sent explorers west from Lake Mille Lacs, and they may have reached Big Stone Lake and the Coteau des Prairies. Pierre Le Sueur's traders entered the Big Sioux River Valley on multiple occasions. Evidence for these journeys is from a 1701 map by William De L'Isle that shows a trail to below the falls of the Big Sioux River from the Mississippi River.

 

After 1713, France looked west to sustain its fur trade. The first Europeans to enter South Dakota from the north, the Verendrye brothers, began their expedition in 1743. The expedition started at Fort La Reine on Lake Manitoba, and was attempting to locate an all-water route to the Pacific Ocean. They buried a lead plate inscribed near Ft. Pierre; it was rediscovered by schoolchildren in 1913.

 

In 1762, France granted Spain all French territory west of the Mississippi River in the Treaty of Fontainebleau. The agreement, which was signed in secret, was motivated by a French desire to convince Spain to come to terms with Britain and accept defeat in the Seven Years' War. In an attempt to secure Spanish claims in the region against possible encroachment from other European powers, Spain adopted a policy for the upper Missouri which emphasized the development of closer trade relations with local tribes as well as greater exploration of the region, a primary focus of which would be a search for a water route to the Pacific Ocean. Although traders such as Jacques D'Eglise and Juan Munier had been active in the region for several years, these men had been operating independently, and a determined effort to reach the Pacific and solidify Spanish control of the region had never been undertaken. In 1793, a group commonly known as the Missouri Company was formed in St. Louis, with the twin goals of trading and exploring on the upper Missouri. The company sponsored several attempts to reach the Pacific Ocean, none of which made it further than the mouth of the Yellowstone. In 1794, Jean Truteau (also spelled Trudeau) built a cabin near the present-day location of Fort Randall, and in 1795 the Mackay-Evans Expedition traveled up the Missouri as far as present-day North Dakota, where they expelled several British traders who had been active in the area. In 1801, a post known as Fort aux Cedres was constructed by Registre Loisel of St. Louis, on Cedar Island on the Missouri about 35 miles (56 km) southeast of the present location of Pierre. This trading post was the major regional post until its destruction by fire in 1810.[30] In 1800, Spain gave Louisiana back to France in the Treaty of San Ildefonso.

 

In 1803, the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon for $11,000,000. The territory included most of the western half of the Mississippi watershed and covered nearly all of present-day South Dakota, except for a small portion in the northeast corner of the state. The region was still largely unexplored and unsettled, and President Thomas Jefferson organized a group commonly referred to as the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore the newly acquired region over a period of more than two years. The expedition, also known as the Corps of Discovery, was tasked with following the route of the Missouri to its source, continuing on to the Pacific Ocean, establishing diplomatic relations with the various tribes in the area, and taking cartographic, geologic, and botanical surveys of the area. The expedition left St. Louis on May 14, 1804, with 45 men and 15 tons of supplies in three boats (one keelboat and two pirogues). The party progressed slowly against the Missouri's current, reaching what is today South Dakota on August 22. Near present-day Vermillion, the party hiked to the Spirit Mound after hearing local legends of the place being inhabited by "little spirits" (or "devils"). Shortly after this, a peaceful meeting took place with the Yankton Sioux, while an encounter with the Lakota Sioux further north was not as uneventful. The Lakota mistook the party as traders, at one point stealing a horse. Weapons were brandished on both sides after it appeared as though the Lakota were going to further delay or even halt the expedition, but they eventually stood down and allowed the party to continue up the river and out of their territory. In north central South Dakota, the expedition acted as mediators between the warring Arikara and Mandan. After leaving the state on October 14, the party wintered with the Mandan in North Dakota before successfully reaching the Pacific Ocean and returning by the same route, safely reaching St. Louis in 1806. On the return trip, the expedition spent only 15 days in South Dakota, traveling more swiftly with the Missouri's current.

 

Pittsburgh lawyer Henry Marie Brackenridge was South Dakota's first recorded tourist. In 1811 he was hosted by fur trader Manuel Lisa.

 

In 1817, an American fur trading post was set up at present-day Fort Pierre, beginning continuous American settlement of the area. During the 1830s, fur trading was the dominant economic activity for the few white people who lived in the area. More than one hundred fur-trading posts were in present-day South Dakota in the first half of the 19th century, and Fort Pierre was the center of activity.[citation needed] General William Henry Ashley, Andrew Henry, and Jedediah Smith of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, and Manuel Lisa and Joshua Pilcher of the St. Louis Fur Company, trapped in that region. Pierre Chouteau Jr. brought the steamship Yellowstone to Fort Tecumseh on the Missouri River in 1831. In 1832 the fort was replaced by Fort Pierre Chouteau Jr.: today's town of Fort Pierre. Pierre bought the Western Department of John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company and renamed it Pratte, Chouteau and Company, and then Pierre Chouteau and Company. It operated in present-day South Dakota from 1834 to 1858. Most trappers and traders left the area after European demand for furs dwindled around 1840.

 

Main articles: Kansas–Nebraska Act, Nebraska Territory, Organic act § List of organic acts, and Dakota Territory

In 1855, the U.S. Army bought Fort Pierre but abandoned it the following year in favor of Fort Randall to the south. Settlement by Americans and Europeans was by this time increasing rapidly, and in 1858 the Yankton Sioux signed the 1858 "Treaty of Washington", ceding most of present-day eastern South Dakota to the United States.

 

Land speculators founded two of eastern South Dakota's largest present-day cities: Sioux Falls in 1856 and Yankton in 1859. The Big Sioux River falls was the spot of an 1856 settlement established by a Dubuque, Iowa, company; that town was quickly removed by native residents. But in the following year, May 1857, the town was resettled and named Sioux Falls. That June, St. Paul, Minnesota's Dakota Land Company came to an adjacent 320 acres (130 ha), calling it Sioux Falls City. In June 1857, Flandreau and Medary, South Dakota, were established by the Dakota Land Company. Along with Yankton in 1859, Bon Homme, Elk Point, and Vermillion were among the new communities along the Missouri River or border with Minnesota. Settlers therein numbered about 5,000 in 1860. In 1861, Dakota Territory was established by the United States government (this initially included North Dakota, South Dakota, and parts of Montana and Wyoming). Settlers from Scandinavia, Germany, Ireland, Czechoslovakia[citation needed] and Russia,[citation needed] as well as elsewhere in Europe and from the eastern U.S. states increased from a trickle to a flood, especially after the completion of an eastern railway link to the territorial capital of Yankton in 1872, and the discovery of gold in the Black Hills in 1874 during a military expedition led by George A. Custer.

 

The Dakota Territory had significant regional tensions between the northern part and the southern part from the beginning, the southern part always being more populated – in the 1880 United States census, the population of the southern part (98,268) was more than two and a half times of the northern part (36,909), and southern Dakotans saw the northern part as bit of disreputable, "controlled by the wild folks, cattle ranchers, fur traders” and too frequently the site of conflict with the indigenous population. Also, the new railroads built connected the northern and southern parts to different hubs – northern part was closer tied to Minneapolis–Saint Paul area; and southern part to Sioux City and from there to Omaha. The last straw was territorial governor Nehemiah G. Ordway moving the territorial capital from Yankton to Bismarck in modern-day North Dakota. As the Southern part had the necessary population for statehood (60,000), they held a separate convention in September 1883 and drafted a constitution. Various bills to divide the Dakota Territory in half ended up stalling, until in 1887, when the Territorial Legislature submitted the question of division to a popular vote at the November general elections, where it was approved by 37,784 votes over 32,913. A bill for statehood for North Dakota and South Dakota (as well as Montana and Washington) titled the Enabling Act of 1889 was passed on February 22, 1889, during the Administration of Grover Cleveland, dividing Dakota along the seventh standard parallel. It was left to his successor, Benjamin Harrison, to sign proclamations formally admitting North and South Dakota to the Union on November 2, 1889. Harrison directed his Secretary of State James G. Blaine to shuffle the papers and obscure from him which he was signing first and the actual order went unrecorded.

 

With statehood South Dakota was now in a position to make decisions on the major issues it confronted: prohibition, women's suffrage, the location of the state capital, the opening of the Sioux lands for settlement, and the cyclical issues of drought (severe in 1889) and low wheat prices (1893–1896). In early 1889 a prohibition bill passed the new state legislature, only to be vetoed by Governor Louis Church. Fierce opposition came from the wet German community, with financing from beer and liquor interests. The Yankee women organized to demand suffrage, as well as prohibition. Neither party supported their cause, and the wet element counter-organized to block women's suffrage. Popular interest reached a peak in the debates over locating the state capital. Prestige, real estate values and government jobs were at stake, as well as the question of access in such a large geographical region with limited railroads. Huron was the temporary site, centrally located Pierre was the best organized contender, and three other towns were in the running. Real estate speculators had money to toss around. Pierre, population 3200, made the most generous case to the voters—its promoters truly believed it would be the next Denver and be the railway hub of the Dakotas. The North Western railroad came through but not the others it expected. In 1938 Pierre counted 4000 people and three small hotels.

 

The national government continued to handle Indian affairs. The Army's 1874 Custer expedition took place despite the fact that the western half of present-day South Dakota had been granted to the Sioux by the Treaty of Fort Laramie as part of the Great Sioux Reservation. The Sioux declined to grant mining rights or land in the Black Hills, and the Great Sioux War of 1876 broke out after the U.S. failed to stop white miners and settlers from entering the region. The Sioux were eventually defeated and settled on reservations within South Dakota and North Dakota.

 

In 1889 Harrison sent general George Crook with a commission to persuade the Sioux to sell half their reservation land to the government. It was believed that the state would not be viable unless more land was made available to settlers. Crook used a number of dubious methods to secure agreement and obtain the land.

 

On December 29, 1890, the Wounded Knee Massacre occurred on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. It was the last major armed conflict between the United States and the Sioux Nation, the massacre resulted in the deaths of 300 Sioux, many of them women and children. In addition 25 U.S. soldiers were also killed in the episode.

 

Railroads played a central role in South Dakota transportation from the late 19th century until the 1930s, when they were surpassed by highways. The Milwaukee Road and the Chicago & North Western were the state's largest railroads, and the Milwaukee's east–west transcontinental line traversed the northern tier of the state. About 4,420 miles (7,110 km) of railroad track were built in South Dakota during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, though only 1,839 miles (2,960 km) were active in 2007.

 

The railroads sold land to prospective farmers at very low rates, expecting to make a profit by shipping farm products out and home goods in. They also set up small towns that would serve as shipping points and commercial centers, and attract businessmen and more farmers. The Minneapolis and St. Louis Railway (M&StL) in 1905, under the leadership of vice president and general manager L. F. Day, added lines from Watertown to LeBeau and from Conde through Aberdeen to Leola. It developed town sites along the new lines and by 1910, the new lines served 35 small communities.

 

Not all of the new towns survived. The M&StL situated LeBeau along the Missouri River on the eastern edge of the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation. The new town was a hub for the cattle and grain industries. Livestock valued at one million dollars were shipped out in 1908, and the rail company planned a bridge across the Missouri River. Allotment of the Cheyenne River Reservation in 1909 promised further growth. By the early 1920s, however, troubles multiplied, with the murder of a local rancher, a fire that destroyed the business district, and drought that ruined ranchers and farmers alike. LeBeau became a ghost town.

 

Most of the traffic was freight, but the main lines also offered passenger service. After the European immigrants settled, there never were many people moving about inside the state. Profits were slim. Automobiles and busses were much more popular, but there was an increase during World War II when gasoline was scarce. All passenger service was ended in the state by 1969.

 

In the rural areas farmers and ranchers depended on local general stores that had a limited stock and slow turnover; they made enough profit to stay in operation by selling at high prices. Prices were not marked on each item; instead the customer negotiated a price. Men did most of the shopping, since the main criterion was credit rather than quality of goods. Indeed, most customers shopped on credit, paying off the bill when crops or cattle were later sold; the owner's ability to judge credit worthiness was vital to his success.

 

In the cities consumers had much more choice, and bought their dry goods and supplies at locally owned department stores. They had a much wider selection of goods than in the country general stores and price tags that gave the actual selling price. The department stores provided a very limited credit, and set up attractive displays and, after 1900, window displays as well. Their clerks—usually men before the 1940s—were experienced salesmen whose knowledge of the products appealed to the better educated middle-class housewives who did most of the shopping. The keys to success were a large variety of high-quality brand-name merchandise, high turnover, reasonable prices, and frequent special sales. The larger stores sent their buyers to Denver, Minneapolis, and Chicago once or twice a year to evaluate the newest trends in merchandising and stock up on the latest fashions. By the 1920s and 1930s, large mail-order houses such as Sears, Roebuck & Co. and Montgomery Ward provided serious competition, making the department stores rely even more on salesmanship and close integration with the community.

 

Many entrepreneurs built stores, shops, and offices along Main Street. The most handsome ones used pre-formed, sheet iron facades, especially those manufactured by the Mesker Brothers of St. Louis. These neoclassical, stylized facades added sophistication to brick or wood-frame buildings throughout the state.

 

During the 1930s, several economic and climatic conditions combined with disastrous results for South Dakota. A lack of rainfall, extremely high temperatures and over-cultivation of farmland produced what was known as the Dust Bowl in South Dakota and several other plains states. Fertile topsoil was blown away in massive dust storms, and several harvests were completely ruined. The experiences of the Dust Bowl, coupled with local bank foreclosures and the general economic effects of the Great Depression resulted in many South Dakotans leaving the state. The population of South Dakota declined by more than seven percent between 1930 and 1940.

 

Prosperity returned with the U.S. entry into World War II in 1941, when demand for the state's agricultural and industrial products grew as the nation mobilized for war. Over 68,000 South Dakotans served in the armed forces during the war, of which over 2,200 were killed.

 

In 1944, the Pick-Sloan Plan was passed as part of the Flood Control Act of 1944 by the U.S. Congress, resulting in the construction of six large dams on the Missouri River, four of which are at least partially located in South Dakota.[83] Flood control, hydroelectricity and recreational opportunities such as boating and fishing are provided by the dams and their reservoirs.

 

On the night of June 9–10, 1972, heavy rainfall in the eastern Black Hills caused the Canyon Lake Dam on Rapid Creek to fail. The failure of the dam, combined with heavy runoff from the storm, turned the usually small creek into a massive torrent that washed through central Rapid City. The flood resulted in 238 deaths and destroyed 1,335 homes and around 5,000 automobiles.[84] Damage from the flood totaled $160 million (the equivalent of $664 million today).

 

On April 19, 1993, Governor George S. Mickelson was killed in a plane crash in Iowa while returning from a business meeting in Cincinnati. Several other state officials were also killed in the crash. Mickelson, who was in the middle of his second term as governor, was succeeded by Walter Dale Miller.

 

In recent decades, South Dakota has transformed from a state dominated by agriculture to one with a more diversified economy. The tourism industry has grown considerably since the completion of the interstate system in the 1960s, with the Black Hills being especially impacted. The financial service industry began to grow in the state as well, with Citibank moving its credit card operations from New York to Sioux Falls in 1981, a move that has since been followed by several other financial companies. In 2007, the site of the recently closed Homestake gold mine near Lead was chosen as the location of a new underground research facility. Despite a growing state population and recent economic development, many rural areas have been struggling over the past 50 years with locally declining populations and the emigration of educated young adults to larger South Dakota cities, such as Rapid City or Sioux Falls, or to other states. The Cattleman's Blizzard of October 2013 killed tens of thousands of livestock in western South Dakota, and was one of the worst blizzards in the state's history.

Quartzite from the Precambrian of Australia. (~10.0 centimeters across at its widest)

 

Quartzite is a crystalline-textured, quartzose rock. They form by intermediate- to high-grade metamorphism of quartzose sandstones or siltstones. The term "quartzite" has also been applied to very hard, very well-cemented quartzose sandstones that have not undergone metamorphism. Metamorphic quartzite is sometimes called "metaquartzite" to prevent confusion.

 

The quartzite shown above is a very well-cemented sandstone from the near-uppermost Precambrian of South Australia. This is a lithologic sample from the famous Ediacara Sandstone Member, from which many bizarre, soft-bodied fossils have been collected (e.g., Dickinsonia and Tribrachidium).

 

Stratigraphy: Ediacara Sandstone Member, Rawnsley Quartzite, upper Ediacaran, upper Neoproterozoic

 

Locality: loose piece from the southern side of Hookina Creek-cut gorge walls at Mayo Gorge (= day 5, locality 2 of Jago & Wang, 2006, South Australia 2006, XI International Conference of the Cambrian Stage Subdivision Working Group Field guide, pp. 28-29), southern Elder Range, just southeast of Mt. Little, just north of Mayo Hut, ~north of the town of Hawker, South Flinders Ranges, South Australian Outback, southern Australia (GPS: 31° 44.062' South latitude, 138° 24.320' East longitude)

 

■ Arquitectura Negra's (Black Architecture's) rural stone house at Campillo de Ranas, a small village in Guadalajara (Castile-La Mancha, Spain) near mount Ocejon. It was built using mainly slate and assorted quartzites.

 

Taken handheld using a Panasonic Lumix TZ7 (ZS3) in available light at sunset.

  

■ Casa rural de piedra de estilo Arquitectura Negra en Campillo de Ranas, un pequeño pueblo de Guadalajara al pie del monte Ocejon. Fue construida utilizando principalmente pizarra y cuarcitas diversas.

 

Tomada a pulso con una Panasonic Lumix TZ7 (ZS3) en luz ambiente a la puesta de sol.

  

Red quartzite block statue of Teti, Viceroy of Kush: the statue is finely carved, and the features of the squatting body and the plinth are modelled, in contrast with more schematically modelled styles of block statue.

Teti is dressed in a leopard skin, whose tail falls over the plinth beside his right foot, and wears sandals. Around his neck he wears a pendant formed of the 'ankh' sign and the hetep ('peace') sign. On his upper arm is inscribed the cartouche of his sovereign, Tuthmosis III; this does not represent a tattoo, but is a graphic declaration of loyalty first attested in this period. He holds a lotus flower in his left hand.

Emblematic hieroglyphs are inscribed on his hands: on the left hand are signs showing the red crown of Lower Egypt and the moon, and on the right hand signs showing the white crown of Upper Egypt and the sun. Two horizontal lines and nine vertical lines of Middle Egyptian hieroglyphic text are carved at the front, and one horizontal line and three vertical lines on the back pillar; all read right to left.

 

As the genealogy on this statue makes clear, in this period the title 'King's Son' was awarded to people who were not children of the king. The statue was placed in a chapel in the temple enclosure at Karnak.

 

Height: 60 centimetres

Width: 29 centimetres

Depth: 39,5 centimetres

Weight: 82 kilograms

 

1475BC (circa). 18th Dynasty.

  

Photographed at the Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, Maryland.

12 Island Ave, Peaks Island (in Casco Bay), Maine USA • My ever-changing rock sculptures on the deck; all from quartz and quartzite. Here's another attempt at a miniature Inukshuk.

 

∞ Civil War era Fort Gorges (1865) is seen center right.

 

• Fort Gorges is a military fort built on Hog Island Ledge in Casco Bay, Maine. Casco Bay is an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean on the southern coast of Maine. • Following the War of 1812, the United States Army Corps of Engineers proposed that a fort be built on Hog Island Ledge, in Casco Bay at the entrance to the harbor at Portland, Maine. Named for the colonial proprietor of Maine, Sir Ferdinando Gorges, it was constructed to support existing forts, including Fort Preble in South Portland and Fort Scammel built on nearby House Island in 1808. Congress, however, did not fund construction of Fort Gorges until 1857. The walls of the fort were begun the next year, and when the United States Civil War broke out in 1861, work quickly advanced.

 

The fort was designed by Colonel Reuben Staples Smart. The chief architect in charge of construction was Thomas Lincoln Casey, who later became Chief of Engineers. It is similar in size and construction to Fort Sumter, but is built of granite instead of brick.

 

The fort was completed in 1865 as the war ended. Modern explosives made the fort obsolete by the time it was completed. A modernization plan was begun in 1869, but funding was cut off in 1876, with the third level of the fort still unfinished.

 

The fort was last used by the military during World War II, when it was used to store submarine mines. It was acquired by the City of Portland in 1960 … . – From the Nation Master Encyclopedia.

 

☞ On August 28, 1973, the National Park Service added this structure and site to the National Register of Historic Places (#73000114).

 

∆ GeoHack: 43°39′47″N 70°13′17″W.

Skolithos linearis (Haldeman, 1840) - vertical burrows in the Silurian of Tennessee, USA. (cross-section view)

 

Trace fossils are any indirect evidence of ancient life. They refer to features in rocks that do not represent parts of the body of a once-living organism. Traces include footprints, tracks, trails, burrows, borings, and bitemarks. Body fossils provide information about the morphology of ancient organisms, while trace fossils provide information about the behavior of ancient life forms. Interpreting trace fossils and determination of the identity of a trace maker can be straightforward (for example, a dinosaur footprint represents walking behavior) or not. Sediments that have trace fossils are said to be bioturbated. Burrowed textures in sedimentary rocks are referred to as bioturbation. Trace fossils have scientific names assigned to them, in the same style & manner as living organisms or body fossils.

 

Many shallow-water quartzose sandstones have conspicuous, long, vertical burrows called Skolithos linearis. Geologists traditionally consider Skolithos as a burrow of a filter-feeding vermiform organism in a shallow-water, high-energy lithofacies. Most Skolithos occurrences in the geologic record may be safely interpreted as such, but some demonstrably terrestrial examples constructed by other organisms have been discovered (e.g., see Martin, 2006).

 

The rock with Skolithos trace fossils shown here is often called "piperock". The host rock itself is frequently referred to as "quartzite", even though it's not metamorphic. Very hard, extremely well-cemented quartzose sandstones such as this do mimic true metamorphic quartzites in their physical characteristics.

 

Stratigraphy: Clinch Formation ("Clinch Quartzite"), Lower Silurian

 

Locality: large erosion control block on slope, northern side of Rt. 25E, southern side of Clinch Mountain, WNW of the town of Bean Station, northeastern Grainger County, northeastern Tennessee, USA (36° 21' 34.12" North, 83° 21' 05.77" West)

--------------

References:

 

Haldeman (1840) - Supplement to Number One of “A Monograph of the Limniades, or Freshwater Univalve Shells of North America,” Containing Descriptions of Apparently New Animals in Different Classes, and the Names and Characters of the Subgenera in Paludina and Anculosa. Philadelphia. 3 pp. [= “Miscellaneous Pamphlets on Natural History 14”]

 

Martin (2006) - Trace Fossils of San Salvador. San Salvador, Bahamas. Gerace Research Center. 80 pp.

 

Quartzite (metaquartzite) is a quartzose, crystalline-textured, metamorphic rock. It forms by intermediate- to high-grade metamorphism of quartzose sandstones and siltstones.

 

This is a cut & polished surface of fuchsitic quartzite quarried as a decorative stones. The gray material is quartz. The green is fuchsite, a chromian muscovite mica. The rock shows hints of foliation, due to the presence of small sheets of fuchsite mica.

 

Winged quartzite pectoral with face of the Olmec rain god. Olmec, 900 BC - 400 BC. Maya incised portrait of king with glyph inscription naming the Maya ruler. Maya, 100 BC - 200 AD. Southern Lowlands, Mexico. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC, USA. Special Exhibit, Golden Kingdoms: Luxury and Legacy in the Ancient Americas. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, New York, USA. Copyright 2018, James A. Glazier.

Abbandoned quartzite mine in perifeirc zone of Pirenópolis/BR.

Week 12: L is for Lucky

On this evening we endeavoured to find the illusive Teardrop Lake nestled on top of a peak on Killarney ridge. This time we tried to mostly follow along the shore of O.S.A. Lake, though from our elevated location on the ridge. This made for some incredible views of the quartzite hills and the lake.

 

I love the movement that can be created by combining the swirling quartzite and the jack pines.

 

We made it quite close to Teardrop lake, only to find ourselves separated from it by a rather sheer cliff face. Facing the setting of the sun that evening, we decided we'd rather not make the treacherous hike back in the dark and headed home.

 

DATE:

August 4th, 2008

 

LOCATION:

Killarney Ridge over O.S.A, Killarney Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada

■ Arquitectura Negra's (Black Architecture's) rural stone pub ("Pub Contrabajo") at Majaelrayo, a small village in Guadalajara (Castile-La Mancha, Spain) near mount Ocejon. It was built using mainly slate and assorted quartzites. And, by the way, the lady in charge of the bar was extremely kind and attentive and told us a lot about the village and everyday's life there. Many thanks to her.

 

Taken handheld with my Panasonic Lumix TZ7 (ZS3) in strong available backlight in the afternoon ( 25 mm, F3.5, 1/100 sec., ISO 80, EV -2/3 ).

.

 

■ Pub rural de piedra ("Pub Contrabajo") de estilo Arquitectura Negra en Majaelrayo, un pequeño pueblo de Guadalajara al pie del monte Ocejon. Fue construida utilizando principalmente pizarra y cuarcitas diversas. Y, a proposito, la señora a cargo de la barra fue extremadamente amable y atenta y nos contó mucho acerca del pueblo y de la vida cotidiana en él. Le damos las gracias..

 

Tomada a pulso con una Panasonic Lumix TZ7 (ZS3) en abundante contraluz ambiente al atardecer ( 25 mm, F3.5, 1/100 sec., ISO 80, EV -2/3 ).

Quartzite figure of baboon

Eighteenth Dynasty, about 1400 BC

 

The crouching baboon was a common manifestation of Thoth, the god of wisdom and writing. His main cult-centre was at Hermopolis Magna in Middle Egypt, where several colossal baboon-statues, also of quartzite, were erected by Amenophis III, whose names are incised on the pedestal of this small figure.

 

EA 38

Skolithos linearis (Haldeman, 1840) - burrows in the Silurian of Tennessee, USA. (bedding plane view; camera lens cap for scale)

 

Trace fossils are any indirect evidence of ancient life. They refer to features in rocks that do not represent parts of the body of a once-living organism. Traces include footprints, tracks, trails, burrows, borings, and bitemarks. Body fossils provide information about the morphology of ancient organisms, while trace fossils provide information about the behavior of ancient life forms. Interpreting trace fossils and determination of the identity of a trace maker can be straightforward (for example, a dinosaur footprint represents walking behavior) or not. Sediments that have trace fossils are said to be bioturbated. Burrowed textures in sedimentary rocks are referred to as bioturbation. Trace fossils have scientific names assigned to them, in the same style & manner as living organisms or body fossils.

 

Many shallow-water quartzose sandstones have conspicuous, long, vertical burrows called Skolithos linearis. Geologists traditionally consider Skolithos as a burrow of a filter-feeding vermiform organism in a shallow-water, high-energy lithofacies. Most Skolithos occurrences in the geologic record may be safely interpreted as such, but some demonstrably terrestrial examples constructed by other organisms have been discovered (e.g., see Martin, 2006).

 

The rock with Skolithos trace fossils shown here is often called "piperock". The host rock itself is frequently referred to as "quartzite", even though it's not metamorphic. Very hard, extremely well-cemented quartzose sandstones such as this do mimic true metamorphic quartzites in their physical characteristics.

 

Stratigraphy: Clinch Formation ("Clinch Quartzite"), Lower Silurian

 

Locality: large erosion control block on slope, northern side of Rt. 25E, southern side of Clinch Mountain, WNW of the town of Bean Station, northeastern Grainger County, northeastern Tennessee, USA (36° 21' 34.12" North, 83° 21' 05.77" West)

--------------

References:

 

Haldeman (1840) - Supplement to Number One of “A Monograph of the Limniades, or Freshwater Univalve Shells of North America,” Containing Descriptions of Apparently New Animals in Different Classes, and the Names and Characters of the Subgenera in Paludina and Anculosa. Philadelphia. 3 pp. [= “Miscellaneous Pamphlets on Natural History 14”]

 

Martin (2006) - Trace Fossils of San Salvador. San Salvador, Bahamas. Gerace Research Center. 80 pp.

 

Dickinsonia costata Sprigg, 1947 in quartzose sandstone from the Precambrian of Australia. (SAM P13750/P40679, South Australian Museum, Adelaide, Australia) (~7.7 centimeters long)

 

Soft-bodied macroscopic fossils have long been known from upper Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran) rocks, but they continue to generate much excitement among geologists. Biologic interpretations of Ediacaran organisms have been all over the map. Many Ediacaran fossils appear to be animals, but some paleontologists have interpreted them as lichens or giant protists or members of an extinct kingdom.

 

One of the quintessential examples of an Ediacaran fossil is Dickinsonia. Prima facie, it appears bilaterally symmetrical, but it does have subtle asymmetry. It has the general appearance of a flattened worm with a stretched pancake body. This Dickinsonia specimen is from the Flinders Ranges of South Australia, one of the world’s classic localities for Ediacaran fossils. As do most Ediacarans, Dickinsonia displays soft-part preservation in a matrix of clean, quartzose sandstone.

 

Stratigraphy: Ediacara Member, Rawnsley Quartzite, near-uppermost Neoproterozoic

 

Locality: Flinders Ranges, South Australia

 

Liesegang banding in quartzite in the Precambrian of Wisconsin, USA.

 

The Baraboo Ranges of southern Wisconsin are dominated by a hard, erosion-resistant Precambrian metamorphic unit called the Baraboo Quartzite. These rocks were originally marine sandstones and have been subjected to metamorphism and structural folding. Original sedimentary structures are preserved, such as cross-bedding and ripple marks. Baraboo Quartzites vary in color from pinkish to dark reddish to grayish. During metamorphism, quartz overgrowths formed over the original quartz sand grains. Long-term, modern weathering can result in original sand grains being released.

 

This unit has economic significance - it has been quarried historically and in modern times. The quartzite is broken down into gravel-sized pieces for use as railroad ballast and erosion-control rip-rap.

 

The lines, or "layers", in the quartzite shown above do not represent sedimentary bedding or lamination or any other sedimentary structures. This thin, closely-spaced banding is called "Liesegang banding". It usually occurs as irregular, reddish or brownish or orangish-brown iron oxide banding in porous rocks, particularly sandstones and pebbly sandstones. These features are almost universally referred to as “Liesegang banding”, representing precipitation lines of iron-rich minerals (e.g., hematite, limonite, goethite, etc.) at & along groundwater chemical interfaces. However, according to Neil Wells of Kent State University, the original concept of Liesegang banding (Liesegang, 1896) does not match up with what is seen in the rock record (see Wells et al., 2003).

 

True Liesegang banding refers to parallel bands of precipitate formed by diffusion along a single chemical gradient during one event. What's seen in the rock record often consists of sets of irregularly concentric iron bands, with different sets of bands quite frequently oriented in different directions, and showing cross-cutting and dissolution of older sets. Iron oxide banding in the rock record is clearly the result of numerous precipitation events over long periods of time by moving groundwater (Wells et al., 2003). Iron oxide mineralization along these bands appears to be induced by the presence of either a redox interface (change from reducing to oxidizing conditions in the groundwater) or a pH interface (change in acidity).

 

Because Neil Wells is the first (apparently) to point out that what geologists have been calling Liesegang banding really isn’t, a renaming seems to be in order. It was jokingly suggested in 2003 that the iron banding discussed above be called “Wells Banding”. I’m all for that.

 

The "Liesegang banding" seen above is unusual in that it is in quartzite, a hard, tight, non-porous metamorphic rock. Before metamorphism, the quartzite was sandstone. The banding was acquired before alteration to quartzite.

 

Stratigraphy: Baraboo Quartzite, upper Paleoproterozoic, ~1.7 Ga

 

Locality: Tumbled Rocks Trail, northwestern margin of Devil's Lake, Devil's Lake State Park, northern part of the South Range of the Baraboo Ranges, southeast of the town of Baraboo, eastern Sauk County, southern Wisconsin, USA (43° 25' 34.34" North, 89° 44' 06.56" West)

-----------

References cited:

 

Liesegang, R.E. 1896. Ueber einige Eigenschaften von Gal-lerten [On some properties of gelatin]. Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift 11: 353-362. (see also: Liesegang, R.E. 1945. Geologische Bänderungen durch Diffusion und Kapillarität [Geologic banding by diffusion and capillarity]. Chemie der Erde, Zeitschrift der Chemischen, Mineralogie, Petrographie, Geologie und Bodenkunde 15: 420-423.)

 

Wells, N.A., D.A. Waugh & A.M. Foos. 2003. Some notes and hypotheses concerning iron and iron remobilization features in the Sharon Formation (Summit County, Ohio). in Pennsylvanian Sharon Formation, past and present: sedimentology, hydrogeology, and historical and environmental significance, a field guide to Gorge Metro Park, Virginia Kendall Ledges in the Cuyahoga Valley National Park, and other sites in northeast Ohio. Ohio Division of Geological Survey Guidebook 18: 33-37.

 

Fuchsitic quartzite in the Precambrian of Wyoming, USA.

 

The quartzite seen here is richly infused with greenish fuchsite (= chromian muscovite mica). This is a small abandoned quarry where flaggy rocks were excavated for use as decorative stones (see Harris, 2003, p. 9).

 

Geologic unit: Elmers Rock Greenstone Belt, Archean, 2.54+ Ga

 

Locality: small abandoned quarry ~0.5 miles north of Tunnel Road, west of Squaw Mountain & south-southeast of Government Peak, eastern flanks of the Laramie Range, far-eastern Albany County, WSW of the town of Wheatland, southeastern Wyoming, USA (vicinity of 41° 55' 00.40" North latitude, 105° 17' 48.53" West longitude)

------------

Reference cited:

 

Harris (2003) - Decorative stones of southern Wyoming. Wyoming State Geological Survey Public Information Circular 42.

 

wmpl

love the light:-))

■ Arquitectura Negra's (Black Architecture's) parish church at Campillo de Ranas, a small village in Guadalajara (Castile-La Mancha, Spain) near mount Ocejon. The church was built using mainly slate and assorted quartzites.

 

Taken handheld with my Panasonic Lumix TZ7 (ZS3) at sunset ( 50 mm, F5, 1/400 sec., ISO 80, EV -2/3 ).

 

■ Iglesia Parroquial de Arquitectura Negra en Campillo de Ranas, un pequeño pueblo de Guadalajara (Castilla-La Mancha) al pie del monte Ocejon. La iglesia fue construida utilizando principalmente pizarra y cuarcitas diversas.

 

Tomada a pulso con una Panasonic Lumix TZ7 (ZS3) a la puesta de sol ( 50 mm, F5, 1/400 seg., ISO 80, EV -2/3 ).

Quartzite gravel train returning to the mine/quarry just west of Sioux Falls city-limits.

(Pink Quartzite is extremely rare)!

It's shipped out all over the country and used on roadways, tombstones, gardening, etc......

Offering Scenes of King Sobekhotep III

Quartzite

Second Intermediate Period, Dynasty XIII, reign of Sobekhotep III (circa 1744-1741 B.C.)

From Sheel, an island near Elephantine Island an Aswan

77,19a-c, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund

 

Sobekhotep III offers vessels to the goddesses Satis (left) and Anukis (right) in eliefs that probably formed part of a naos, or a shrine for a cult image. These scenes represent a basic element of Egyptian temple decoation: the king, who theoretically conducts the cult in every temple every day, offers to deities, who in turn, bless him and--through him--Egypt. Both goddesses tender three "life" hieroglyphs (ankh) to the king, their number indicating plurality and the idea of "all." In order to suggest a timeless and universal religious truth, these scens do not indicate a specific time or setting. Some such scenes may also have been magically empowered to act as that which they represented.

 

These back-to-back scenes seem symmetrical, but deviations from symmetry are noticeable in the inscriptions, the goddesses' crowsn, and the king's faces. If the Egyptians abhorred the chaotic and the random, they also disliked mechanical rigidity. Ma'at is the concept of order or equilibrium with some flexibility. Most Egyptian art is well balanced rather than truly symmetrical.

 

*

 

The Brooklyn Museum, sitting at the border of Prospect Heights and Crown Heights near Prospect Park, is the second largest art museum in New York City. Opened in 1897 under the leadership of Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences president John B. Woodward, the 560,000-square foot, Beaux-Arts building houses a permanent collection including more than one-and-a-half million objects, from ancient Egyptian masterpieces to contemporary art.

 

The Brooklyn Museum was designated a landmark by the New York Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1966.

 

National Historic Register #770009

Dickinsonia costata Sprigg, 1947 in quartzose sandstone from the Precambrian of Australia. (SAM P41125, South Australian Museum, Adelaide, Australia) (~7.2 centimeters long)

 

Soft-bodied macroscopic fossils have long been known from upper Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran) rocks, but they continue to generate much excitement among geologists. Biologic interpretations of Ediacaran organisms have been all over the map. Many Ediacaran fossils appear to be animals, but some paleontologists have interpreted them as lichens or giant protists or members of an extinct kingdom.

 

One of the quintessential examples of an Ediacaran fossil is Dickinsonia. Prima facie, it appears bilaterally symmetrical, but it does have subtle asymmetry. It has the general appearance of a flattened worm with a stretched pancake body. This Dickinsonia specimen is from the Flinders Ranges of South Australia, one of the world’s classic localities for Ediacaran fossils. As do most Ediacarans, Dickinsonia displays soft-part preservation in a matrix of clean, quartzose sandstone.

 

Stratigraphy: Ediacara Member, Rawnsley Quartzite, near-uppermost Neoproterozoic

 

Locality: Flinders Ranges, South Australia

 

Jeffers Petroglyphs, near Sanborn MN

 

The site preserves over 4,000 American Indian images pecked into solid horizontal irregular shaped Sioux quartzite outcrops. The earliest carvings at Jeffers Petroglyphs were created from 7,000 to 9,000 years ago. The most recent were made in the last 150 to 250 years.

Liesegang banding in quartzite in the Precambrian of Wisconsin, USA.

 

The Baraboo Ranges of southern Wisconsin are dominated by a hard, erosion-resistant Precambrian metamorphic unit called the Baraboo Quartzite. These rocks were originally marine sandstones and have been subjected to metamorphism and structural folding. Original sedimentary structures are preserved, such as cross-bedding and ripple marks. Baraboo Quartzites vary in color from pinkish to dark reddish to grayish. During metamorphism, quartz overgrowths formed over the original quartz sand grains. Long-term, modern weathering can result in original sand grains being released.

 

This unit has economic significance - it has been quarried historically and in modern times. The quartzite is broken down into gravel-sized pieces for use as railroad ballast and erosion-control rip-rap.

 

The lines, or "layers", in the quartzite shown above do not represent sedimentary bedding or lamination or any other sedimentary structures. This thin, closely-spaced banding is called "Liesegang banding". It usually occurs as irregular, reddish or brownish or orangish-brown iron oxide banding in porous rocks, particularly sandstones and pebbly sandstones. These features are almost universally referred to as “Liesegang banding”, representing precipitation lines of iron-rich minerals (e.g., hematite, limonite, goethite, etc.) at & along groundwater chemical interfaces. However, according to Neil Wells of Kent State University, the original concept of Liesegang banding (Liesegang, 1896) does not match up with what is seen in the rock record (see Wells et al., 2003).

 

True Liesegang banding refers to parallel bands of precipitate formed by diffusion along a single chemical gradient during one event. What's seen in the rock record often consists of sets of irregularly concentric iron bands, with different sets of bands quite frequently oriented in different directions, and showing cross-cutting and dissolution of older sets. Iron oxide banding in the rock record is clearly the result of numerous precipitation events over long periods of time by moving groundwater (Wells et al., 2003). Iron oxide mineralization along these bands appears to be induced by the presence of either a redox interface (change from reducing to oxidizing conditions in the groundwater) or a pH interface (change in acidity).

 

Because Neil Wells is the first (apparently) to point out that what geologists have been calling Liesegang banding really isn’t, a renaming seems to be in order. It was jokingly suggested in 2003 that the iron banding discussed above be called “Wells Banding”. I’m all for that.

 

The "Liesegang banding" seen above is unusual in that it is in quartzite, a hard, tight, non-porous metamorphic rock. Before metamorphism, the quartzite was sandstone. The banding was acquired before alteration to quartzite.

 

Stratigraphy: Baraboo Quartzite, upper Paleoproterozoic, ~1.7 Ga

 

Locality: Tumbled Rocks Trail, northwestern margin of Devil's Lake, Devil's Lake State Park, northern part of the South Range of the Baraboo Ranges, southeast of the town of Baraboo, eastern Sauk County, southern Wisconsin, USA (43° 25' 34.34" North, 89° 44' 06.56" West)

-----------

References cited:

 

Liesegang, R.E. 1896. Ueber einige Eigenschaften von Gal-lerten [On some properties of gelatin]. Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift 11: 353-362. (see also: Liesegang, R.E. 1945. Geologische Bänderungen durch Diffusion und Kapillarität [Geologic banding by diffusion and capillarity]. Chemie der Erde, Zeitschrift der Chemischen, Mineralogie, Petrographie, Geologie und Bodenkunde 15: 420-423.)

 

Wells, N.A., D.A. Waugh & A.M. Foos. 2003. Some notes and hypotheses concerning iron and iron remobilization features in the Sharon Formation (Summit County, Ohio). in Pennsylvanian Sharon Formation, past and present: sedimentology, hydrogeology, and historical and environmental significance, a field guide to Gorge Metro Park, Virginia Kendall Ledges in the Cuyahoga Valley National Park, and other sites in northeast Ohio. Ohio Division of Geological Survey Guidebook 18: 33-37.

 

Quartz-pebble metaconglomerate from the Precambrian of Australia. (Cranbrook Institute of Science collection, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, USA)

 

Very old rocks are common on the Moon and in the Asteroid Belt. Very old rocks are scarce on Earth - this is the result of erosion by running water and plate tectonic recycling and deformation. The oldest reported Earth rocks are all Canadian - the Acasta Gneiss (Eoarchean, 4.03 Ga), rocks in the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt (Eoarchean, 4.28 Ga), and subsurface Baffin Island rocks (Eoarchean, 4.45 to 4.55 Ga). The latter rocks are the ~same age as Planet Earth (4.55 Ga).

 

The rock shown above is a quartz-pebble metaconglomerate from the famous Jack Hills Quartzite (Jack Hills Formation). Microscopic detrital grains of the mineral zircon (ZrSiO4 - zirconium silicate) extracted from Jack Hills Quartzite rock samples are the oldest directly observable Earth materials. Jack Hills detrital zircons range in age from 3.05 Ga to 4.404 Ga. The latter date is early Eoarchean and very close to the age of the Earth. Many refer to this early time interval as "Hadean", but that term lacks a fixed definition and is rejected here.

 

The depositional age of Jack Hills Quartzite sediments is not well constrained. They were deposited after the youngest known detrital zircons (3.05 Ga) and before low-grade metamorphism of the rocks (2.655 Ga, based on dating of metamorphic monazite crystals).

 

Stratigraphy: Jack Hills Quartzite, Neoarchean to mid-Mesoarchean, ~2.65 to ~3.05 Ga

 

Locality: unrecorded/undislcosed site in the Jack Hills, Western Australia

------------------

Some info. from:

 

Tarduno & Cottrell (2013) - Signals from the ancient geodynamo: a paleomagnetic field test on the Jack Hills metaconglomerate. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 367: 123-132.

 

Skolithos linearis (Haldeman, 1840) - vertical burrows in the Silurian of Tennessee, USA. (cross-section view; camera lens cap for scale)

 

Trace fossils are any indirect evidence of ancient life. They refer to features in rocks that do not represent parts of the body of a once-living organism. Traces include footprints, tracks, trails, burrows, borings, and bitemarks. Body fossils provide information about the morphology of ancient organisms, while trace fossils provide information about the behavior of ancient life forms. Interpreting trace fossils and determination of the identity of a trace maker can be straightforward (for example, a dinosaur footprint represents walking behavior) or not. Sediments that have trace fossils are said to be bioturbated. Burrowed textures in sedimentary rocks are referred to as bioturbation. Trace fossils have scientific names assigned to them, in the same style & manner as living organisms or body fossils.

 

Many shallow-water quartzose sandstones have conspicuous, long, vertical burrows called Skolithos linearis. Geologists traditionally consider Skolithos as a burrow of a filter-feeding vermiform organism in a shallow-water, high-energy lithofacies. Most Skolithos occurrences in the geologic record may be safely interpreted as such, but some demonstrably terrestrial examples constructed by other organisms have been discovered (e.g., see Martin, 2006).

 

The rock with Skolithos trace fossils shown here is often called "piperock". The host rock itself is frequently referred to as "quartzite", even though it's not metamorphic. Very hard, extremely well-cemented quartzose sandstones such as this do mimic true metamorphic quartzites in their physical characteristics.

 

Stratigraphy: Clinch Formation ("Clinch Quartzite"), Lower Silurian

 

Locality: large erosion control block on slope, northern side of Rt. 25E, southern side of Clinch Mountain, WNW of the town of Bean Station, northeastern Grainger County, northeastern Tennessee, USA (36° 21' 34.12" North, 83° 21' 05.77" West)

--------------

References:

 

Haldeman (1840) - Supplement to Number One of “A Monograph of the Limniades, or Freshwater Univalve Shells of North America,” Containing Descriptions of Apparently New Animals in Different Classes, and the Names and Characters of the Subgenera in Paludina and Anculosa. Philadelphia. 3 pp. [= “Miscellaneous Pamphlets on Natural History 14”]

 

Martin (2006) - Trace Fossils of San Salvador. San Salvador, Bahamas. Gerace Research Center. 80 pp.

 

Liesegang banding in quartzite in the Precambrian of Wisconsin, USA.

 

The Baraboo Ranges of southern Wisconsin are dominated by a hard, erosion-resistant Precambrian metamorphic unit called the Baraboo Quartzite. These rocks were originally marine sandstones and have been subjected to metamorphism and structural folding. Original sedimentary structures are preserved, such as cross-bedding and ripple marks. Baraboo Quartzites vary in color from pinkish to dark reddish to grayish. During metamorphism, quartz overgrowths formed over the original quartz sand grains. Long-term, modern weathering can result in original sand grains being released.

 

This unit has economic significance - it has been quarried historically and in modern times. The quartzite is broken down into gravel-sized pieces for use as railroad ballast and erosion-control rip-rap.

 

The lines, or "layers", in the quartzite shown above do not represent sedimentary bedding or lamination or any other sedimentary structures. This thin, closely-spaced banding is called "Liesegang banding". It usually occurs as irregular, reddish or brownish or orangish-brown iron oxide banding in porous rocks, particularly sandstones and pebbly sandstones. These features are almost universally referred to as “Liesegang banding”, representing precipitation lines of iron-rich minerals (e.g., hematite, limonite, goethite, etc.) at & along groundwater chemical interfaces. However, according to Neil Wells of Kent State University, the original concept of Liesegang banding (Liesegang, 1896) does not match up with what is seen in the rock record (see Wells et al., 2003).

 

True Liesegang banding refers to parallel bands of precipitate formed by diffusion along a single chemical gradient during one event. What's seen in the rock record often consists of sets of irregularly concentric iron bands, with different sets of bands quite frequently oriented in different directions, and showing cross-cutting and dissolution of older sets. Iron oxide banding in the rock record is clearly the result of numerous precipitation events over long periods of time by moving groundwater (Wells et al., 2003). Iron oxide mineralization along these bands appears to be induced by the presence of either a redox interface (change from reducing to oxidizing conditions in the groundwater) or a pH interface (change in acidity).

 

Because Neil Wells is the first (apparently) to point out that what geologists have been calling Liesegang banding really isn’t, a renaming seems to be in order. It was jokingly suggested in 2003 that the iron banding discussed above be called “Wells Banding”. I’m all for that.

 

The "Liesegang banding" seen above is unusual in that it is in quartzite, a hard, tight, non-porous metamorphic rock. Before metamorphism, the quartzite was sandstone. The banding was acquired before alteration to quartzite.

 

Stratigraphy: Baraboo Quartzite, upper Paleoproterozoic, ~1.7 Ga

 

Locality: Tumbled Rocks Trail, northwestern margin of Devil's Lake, Devil's Lake State Park, northern part of the South Range of the Baraboo Ranges, southeast of the town of Baraboo, eastern Sauk County, southern Wisconsin, USA (43° 25' 34.34" North, 89° 44' 06.56" West)

-----------

References cited:

 

Liesegang, R.E. 1896. Ueber einige Eigenschaften von Gal-lerten [On some properties of gelatin]. Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift 11: 353-362. (see also: Liesegang, R.E. 1945. Geologische Bänderungen durch Diffusion und Kapillarität [Geologic banding by diffusion and capillarity]. Chemie der Erde, Zeitschrift der Chemischen, Mineralogie, Petrographie, Geologie und Bodenkunde 15: 420-423.)

 

Wells, N.A., D.A. Waugh & A.M. Foos. 2003. Some notes and hypotheses concerning iron and iron remobilization features in the Sharon Formation (Summit County, Ohio). in Pennsylvanian Sharon Formation, past and present: sedimentology, hydrogeology, and historical and environmental significance, a field guide to Gorge Metro Park, Virginia Kendall Ledges in the Cuyahoga Valley National Park, and other sites in northeast Ohio. Ohio Division of Geological Survey Guidebook 18: 33-37.

 

■ Arquitectura Negra's (Black Architecture's) parish church at Campillejo, a small village in Guadalajara (Spain) near mount Ocejon. The church was built using mainly slate and assorted quartzites.

 

Taken handheld using a Panasonic Lumix TZ7 (ZS3) at sunset ( 25 mm, F5, 1/500 sec., ISO 80, EV -2/3 ).

.

 

■ Iglesia Parroquial de Arquitectura Negra en Campillejo, un pequeño pueblo de Guadalajara al pie del monte Ocejon. La iglesia fue construida utilizando principalmente pizarra y cuarcitas diversas.

 

Tomada a pulso con una Panasonic Lumix TZ7 (ZS3) a la puesta de sol ( 25 mm, F5, 1/500 seg., ISO 80, EV -2/3 ).