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The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757 is a historical novel written by James Fenimore Cooper in 1826.
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The Last of the Mohicans is a historical novel by James Fenimore Cooper, first published in January 1826.It was one of the most popular English-language novels of its time. Its narrative flaws were criticized from the start, and its length and elaborately formal prose style have reduced its appeal to later readers. Regardless, The Last of the Mohicans is widely read in American literature courses. This second book of the Leatherstocking Tales pentalogy is the best known. The Pathfinder, written 14 years later in 1840, is its sequel.
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Oorlog tegen de indianen
16 november 2017
Het beeld dat wij van de indianen hebben is nog altijd dat van James Fenimore Coopers roman De laatste der Mohikanen uit 1826. Deze stichtingsmythe van de VS is hardnekkig gebleken, en werd in 1893 versterkt door Frederick Jackson Turner met zijn ‘these van het grensgebied’ (the frontier): uit de confrontatie tussen Europeanen en oerinwoners zou een uniek Amerikaans menstype voortgekomen zijn. De indiaanse werkelijkheid was een geheel andere.
De kolonisten van puriteinse snit, zij die de Bijbel letterlijk wilden nemen, moesten al snel na aankomst vaststellen dat dit in het nieuwe land niet functioneerde. De centrale boodschap van Coopers ‘lederkous’-serie luidt dat er weinig kans op een lang leven is voor wie zich houdt aan het gebod ‘gij zult niet doden’ of wie Jezus’ aansporing uit de Bergrede om ook de andere wang toe te keren ter harte neemt. Wie er ook grond verwierf aan de frontier – de zachtmoedigen waren het niet.
Beloning voor scalperen
De christelijke kolonisten stonden voor de paradox dat ze hun geloof en beschaving alleen met bruut geweld konden verbreiden. Hierdoor moesten ze echter de pretentie laten varen ‘beter’ te zijn dan de ‘onbeschaafde’ indianen. Het sprekendste voorbeeld daarvan is het scalperen, dat velen als het ultieme bewijs voor de ‘barbaarse’ wreedheid van de indianen beschouwden, maar dat in werkelijkheid gestimuleerd werd door de Engelse regering die een beloning uitloofde voor scalpen van oerinwoners. Opmerkelijk genoeg draagt Coopers indianenpersonage Chingachgook een in Engeland gefabriceerd scalpeermes …
Uitroeiing
‘De laatste der Mohikanen’ is met de nodige dichterlijke vrijheden gesitueerd in de tijd van de Zevenjarige Oorlog. Cooper maakt de Irokezenliga, een verbond van vijf en later zes indianenvolken, tot bondgenoten van de Fransen, hoewel de meeste van deze Six Nations zich neutraal opstelden. Hij verdoezelt de verschillen tussen deze volken, de Huronen, Mohawks en Mingo’s, die hij als één volk lijkt te beschouwen, en tussen de Mohegans (de Mohikanen uit zijn roman) en Delawaren. Zo kan hij zijn ‘goede indiaan’ Uncas tot nazaat van Delaware-opperhoofd Tamanend (ca. 1625-1701) maken, grondlegger van de vreedzame betrekkingen tussen kolonisten en indianen. De historische Uncas was echter een Mohegan, die aan Europese zijde tegen de Pequots streed. Het uitroeien van de Pequots tijdens de slachting aan de Mystic-rivier in 1637 bracht een ommekeer in de betrekkingen tussen kolonisten en indianen. Nadat eerstgenoemden een dorp vol ouderen, vrouwen en kinderen in brand staken en erop toezagen dat niemand dit overleefde, onderwierp een aantal indianenvolken zich om een vergelijkbaar lot te ontgaan.
Six Nations
Maar de figuur van Uncas was niet de voornaamste reden waarop Cooper de bondgenootschappen in de Zevenjarige Oorlog omkeert. Zijn eigen land was de Irokezen in 1768 afhandig gemaakt met een van de frauduleuze verdragen waarmee de kolonisten hun gebied vergrootten. Door de Irokezenliga als pro-Frans voor te stellen zal hij geprobeerd hebben zijn schuldgevoelens te sussen. Tevens projecteert hij zo een vijand uit de Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog op een eerdere oorlog en trekt een scherpe grens tussen goed en kwaad, winnaars en verliezers van de geschiedenis. Immers, tijdens de Amerikaanse revolutie streden vier van de Six Nations aan Britse zijde en slechts twee aan Amerikaanse. Liever vreemde overheersing vanuit het verre Engeland, dan vanuit eigen land, leken de meesten te denken.
Imperialistische kolonisering
In beide oorlogen was een groot deel van de vijandelijkheden tegen indianen gericht. Wie de machtigste indianenvolken aan zijn zijde kreeg, had een beslissend voordeel. Vandaar dat zowel Engeland als de koloniën probeerden hen over te halen – of te vernietigen, mocht het eerste niet lukken. In het Amerika van nu wint de term ‘genocide’ voor wat er toen gebeurde steeds meer terrein. Historici als Dunbar-Ortiz demystificeren de nationale geschiedenis en schetsen die als een klassiek geval van imperialistische kolonialisering-door-volksplanting, waarbij ondernemingen en regeringen eendrachtig samenwerken in het onteigenen en uitbuiten van de oorspronkelijke bevolking. Ook voor de regering in Washington was de voornaamste inkomstenbron de verkoop van geconfisqueerd land.
Akkers verwoesten
Veel Amerikanen geloven dat hun land een ongerepte wildernis was, waarin kleine, nomadische indianenstammen nauwelijks een spoor achterlieten. In werkelijkheid leefden er op het huidige grondgebied van de VS ongeveer zeven miljoen indianen, hoofdzakelijk van de landbouw. Zij bouwden dorpen en steden, vormden stadstaten en andere politieke organisaties, onderhielden wegen voor handels- en diplomatieke betrekkingen. Honderd jaar na het eerste contact met de Europeanen was hun aantal met negentig procent afgenomen, hoofdzakelijk door gerichte uitroeiing, zoals blijkt uit documenten, waaronder ook brieven van George Washington. Het doden van indianen werd een deel van de Amerikaanse identiteit, een ervaring die onder de eerste generaties van kolonisten een band schiep. Zij die erin uitblonken, werden de eerste nationale helden. Ook de aanduiding ‘ranger’, voor iemand die rondtrekt om indianen op te sporen en te doden, stamt uit dit tijdsgewricht. Krijgskundige John Gernier schrijft hierover: ‘In de eerste tweehonderd jaar van onze militaire geschiedenis bedienden de Amerikanen zich van een tactiek die de beroepssoldaten van tegenwoordig zeggen te verafschuwen: vijandige dorpen met de grond gelijkmaken, akkers verwoesten; vijandelijke vrouwen en kinderen doden; nederzettingen overvallen om de bewoners gevangen te nemen; vijandelijke non-combattanten intimideren en mishandelen; vijandelijke aanvoerders vermoorden.’
Een volk dat zich niet bewust is van zijn mythen, zo waarschuwt historicus Richard Slotkin, zet ze voort. Na het lezen van ‘De laatste der Mohikanen’ stelde de Engelse schrijver D.H. Lawrence vast dat de Amerikaanse ziel ‘hard, eenzelvig, stoïcijns en moorddadig’ was en dat altijd gebleven is. Bestseller-auteur T. C. Boyle koos dit citaat als motto voor zijn nieuwste roman ‘The Harder They Come’. De gewelddadige hoofdpersoon uit dat boek is idolaat van John Coulter, een idianenverachtende houwdegen die een voorname plaats inneemt in de eregalerij van het militante 19de-eeuwse VS-kolonialisme. Het waren figuren als deze Coulter die model stonden voor Fenimore Coopers Lederkous.
(Sabine Anders)
Faded ghost signage on a building in San Francisco, California. This looks like several faded ghost signs painted on top of one another.
"The contemporary semioscape is populated with ghost signs and talking walls: neglected and weathered, yet strangely permanent, vestiges of spaces and places, industries and individuals; richly layered evocations of a past that refuses to die. These urban palimpsests speak volumes about history, identity, cultural memory, desire, nostalgia, and erasure."
Sydney J. Shep "Urban palimpsests and contending signs"
Pijlstaartrog.
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The whiptail stingrays are a family, the Dasyatidae, of rays in the order Myliobatiformes. They are found worldwide in tropical to temperate marine waters, and a number of species have also penetrated into fresh water in Africa, Asia, and Australia. Members of this family have flattened pectoral fin discs that range from oval to diamond-like in shape. Their common name comes from their whip-like tails, which are much longer than the disc and lack dorsal and caudal fins. All whiptail stingrays, except the porcupine ray (Urogymnus asperrimus), have one or more venomous stings near the base of the tail, which is used in defense. In order to sting their victims, they jerk their tails as the stinger falls off and stays in the wound that they have created. The stinger of a whiptail stingray is pointy, sharp with jagged edges. They range in size from 0.18 to 2.0 m (0.59 to 6.56 ft) or more across in the case of the smalleye stingray and giant freshwater stingray.
The largest waterfall on the New River, Sandstone Falls spans the river where it is 1500 feet wide. Divided by a series of islands, the river drops 10 to 25 feet.
Sandstone Falls marks the transition zone of the New River from a broad river of large bottomlands, to a narrow mountain river roaring through a deep boulder strewn V- shaped gorge. The falls form the dramatic starting line for the New Rivers final rush trough the New River Gorge to its confluence with the Gauley river to form the Kanawha River.
Your journey to view the falls will require some driving time, but it will take you along two of the park's most scenic roads, Route 20 from I-64 at the community of Sandstone, ten miles upstream to the town of Hinton, then downstream eight miles along River Road, the park's only scenic riverside drive. Both these routes offer several overlooks, historic sites, natural areas, trails, and river access points.
Most visitors will find the best starting point for their journey to Sandstone Falls at the Sandstone Visitor Center at the Sandstone exit 139 on I-64. The Visitor Center has excellent exhibits on the New River watershed, water resources, and natural and cultural history of the upper New River Gorge, plus park maps and information.
As you drive south, high above the river on Route 20 to Hinton you will pass two park vistas. The Sandstone Falls Overlook provides an aerial view of the falls from 600 feet above the river. Brooks Overlook looks down on the mile-long Brooks Island, a perennial bald eagle nesting site.
Hinton is the southern gateway to New River Gorge National Park and Preserve. A once booming railroad center, the town has a large historic district, railroad museum, antique shops, and restaurants.
After crossing the bridge at Hinton you will begin driving alongside the New River down River Road. There are great riverside vistas, several river access points, a trail, picnic area and small boardwalk view at Brooks Falls, a powerful Class III rapid. The journey ends at the Sandstone Falls day use area, where you begin your walk along the boardwalk and bridges that span the two islands below the falls.
The walk begins by crossing a short bridge that spans a manmade channel that once diverted water for a water powered gristmill used for grinding the local farmers corn and wheat. The first island offers a view of the lower falls, the one half mile Island Loop Trail, and one of the most unique botanical ecosystems in West Virginia, the Appalachian riverside flat rock plant community. This community is found in only five areas in the state and consists of several southern plant species that have migrated along the north flowing New River and have adapted to the thin rock strewn soil and occasional scouring floods on this elevated island below the falls.
The second bridge, a mini arch cor-ten steel structure, crosses a wide, naturally formed channel bringing you onto a low-lying island covered with a floodplain forest community and views of the impressive main falls.
Sandstone Falls was created by the powerful flow of the New river eroding the soft conglomerate rock layer that lies below the hard sandstone layer from which the falls gets its name. Through eons of time as the river washed away the conglomerate beneath the harder sandstone, the precipice of the falls and the great boulders below were created. The falls are still a dynamic geological environment as slowly but surely the falls, through time are advancing upstream.
A journey to Sandstone Falls provides a rare riverside scenic drive, the beautiful falls, and the dramatic interface of the New River's transformation from a broad mountain stream into a raging whitewater gorge in its final descent through the Appalachian Mountains.
Denali National Park and Preserve. Photo: Trover
In 1980, momentum continued to favor the name Denali after the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act changed the park's name to Denali National Park and Preserve. But the official name of the mountain remained Mount McKinley.
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Denali (also known as Mount McKinley, its former official name) is the highest mountain peak in North America, with a summit elevation of 20,310 feet (6,190 m) above sea level. With a topographic prominence of 20,194 feet (6,155 m) and a topographic isolation of 4,621.1 miles (7,436.9 km), Denali is the third most prominent and third most isolated peak on Earth, after Mount Everest and Aconcagua. Located in the Alaska Range in the interior of the U.S. state of Alaska, Denali is the centerpiece of Denali National Park and Preserve.
The Koyukon people who inhabit the area around the mountain have referred to the peak as "Denali" for centuries. In 1896, a gold prospector named it "Mount McKinley" in support of then-presidential candidate William McKinley; that name was the official name recognized by the federal government of the United States from 1917 until 2015. In August 2015, 40 years after Alaska had done so, the United States Department of the Interior announced the change of the official name of the mountain to Denali.
In 1903, James Wickersham recorded the first attempt at climbing Denali, which was unsuccessful. In 1906, Frederick Cook claimed the first ascent, but this ascent is unverified and its legitimacy questioned. The first verifiable ascent to Denali's summit was achieved on June 7, 1913, by climbers Hudson Stuck, Harry Karstens, Walter Harper, and Robert Tatum, who went by the South Summit. In 1951, Bradford Washburn pioneered the West Buttress route, considered to be the safest and easiest route, and therefore the most popular currently in use.
On September 2, 2015, the U.S. Geological Survey announced that the mountain is 20,310 feet (6,190 m) high,not 20,320 feet (6,194 m), as measured in 1952 using photogrammetry (Wikipedia).
Susquehanna Museum at the Lock House
817 Conesteo St, Havre de Grace, MD 21078 - United States
Located on the shore of the beautiful Susquehanna River, the Lock House Museum shares the history of the 19th century Susquehanna and Tidewater Canal, the Lock House, which was the home of the Lock Tender and office of the Toll Collector, and life at the time in the City of Havre de Grace, Maryland.
The museum has a working model of the lock, a display of the office and kitchen as they were in the mid to late 1800s, and exhibits on life in Havre de Grace during the late 1800s. Outside is the reconstructed pivot bridge over the lock which is fully operational as well as a 1.5-mile nature trail.
This is our opening day of the season featuring the photography of local artist, Malgorzata Baker exhibiting and selling her work of the area.
Come visit the Lock House Museum to learn about early canal transportation and how the Susquehanna and Tidewater Canal helps shape the City of Havre de Grace. Brand new exhibits upstairs telling the stories of the entire canal from Wrightsville, PA to Havre de Grace, MD.
Lake Guntersville State Park is a publicly owned recreation area located on the far north side of the city of Guntersville in Marshall County, Alabama. The state park occupies 5,909 acres (2,391 ha) on the eastern shore of Guntersville Lake, a 69,000-acre (28,000 ha) impoundment of the Tennessee River. The park features resort facilities and is managed by the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.
The state park had its beginnings in 1947, when the Tennessee Valley Authority transferred 4,000 acres (1,600 ha) on Guntersville Reservoir to the state to create what was first known as Little Mountain State Park. The park opened in 1974.
In 2011, the park suffered severe damage when it was struck twice during the tornado outbreak of April 27. Hundreds of trees in the northern half of the park were destroyed by an EF2 tornado that struck in the early morning. The campgrounds also saw damage done to RV campers and the camp lodge. A second tornado, rated EF1, followed shortly after the first, damaging the park entrance and golf course. Two years later, the campground officially reopened, following a rebuilding and upgrading of facilities and the planting of more than 400 new trees.
In September 2020, Lake Guntersville State Park was one of eleven Alabama State Parks awarded Tripadvisor’s Traveler’s Choice Award, which recognizes businesses and attractions that earn consistently high user reviews.
The park features a resort inn, restaurant and convention complex on Taylor Mountain, 18-hole golf course, fishing center, beach complex, lakeview cottages, lakeside campground, and 36 miles (58 km) of National Recreation Trail-designated trails for hiking, mountain biking and horseback riding.
Peintre, sculpteur, graveur et dessinateur, Julien Marinetti est un artiste qui s’est fait connaître en fusionnant la sculpture et la peinture, qu'il appelle "syncrétisme de l'art". Ses sculptures en terre, comme les bouledogues, pandas, pingouins et crânes, ont été ensuite transformées en bronze. Depuis 15 ans, son oeuvre phare, Doggy John, est devenue une icône et est exposée dans des villes prestigieuses à travers le monde, comme Paris, New York, Londres et Singapour, pour le plus grand plaisir des spectateurs.
L’auteur de cette ménagerie déjantée se révèle être l’artiste contemporain Julien Marinetti, à la fois sculpteur et peintre, qui signe ici une collaboration avec L’auteur de cette ménagerie déjantée se révèle être l’artiste contemporain Julien Marinetti, à la fois sculpteur et peintre, qui signe ici une collaboration avec Mendelsohn Gallery. Si l’influence cubiste de Picasso se ressent dans son travail, puisqu’il représente une de ses inspirations majeures, Marinetti mélange les styles pour un résultat unique, particulièrement palpable dans ses sculptures d’animaux géantes et colorées. Chat, chien, panda, et même Casimir, ces drôles de bêtes à l’apparence arc-en-ciel portent un nom tout aussi singulier, les Juliengoths, comme une sorte de descendance imaginaire de Julien Marinetti.
À l’angle des Champs-Elysées, alors que Yayoi Kusama attire déjà l’œil sur la façade de Louis Vuitton, s’installent jusqu’au 16 mars 2023, les sculptures géantes de Julien Marinetti contemporain. Tout le long de l’avenue George V, une dizaine de sculptures animales vous attendent.
Originaux et insolites, ces sculptures détonnent dans ce quartier chic de la capitale. En effet, c’est devant Vuitton, Hermès, le Prince de Galles ou encore le George V, que ces animaux et personnages posent de façon magistrale
DOGGY JOHN – Nous retrouvons la pièce iconique de l’artiste, sphinx des temps modernes contemplant le monde. Sous la forme d’un bouledogue français, représentant amour, protection et loyauté à son maître, se cache un regard acerbe et sans concession sur ses contemporains. C’est en 1998 que l’artiste imagine son célèbre Doggy John, en huile sur toile d’abord avant de s’affranchir des dimensions de la peinture pour prendre les formes rondes que lui offre la sculpture. Julien Marinetti donnera naissance à ce qu’il appellera ensuite le « syncrétisme de l’Art » à la fois peinture, gravure et sculpture. « Le chien est le catalyseur de mon syncrétisme de l’art, c’est-à-dire de sa totalité. Ce que je fais est bien du syncrétisme puisqu’il y a bien de la peinture, de la sculpture et de la gravure. Il y a aussi des vernis, des laques : je touche à pas mal de choses qui n’ont normalement rien à voir les unes avec les autres. » Julien Marinetti aime à penser aux moines copistes du Moyen Age, dont les palimpsestes nécessitaient eux aussi qu’ils reconditionnent le support original en grattant d’anciens parchemins.
ein herrliches palimpsest in ostbelgistan.
28 rue d'esneux, poulseur (comblain-au-pont), belgien.
GARAGE ed. LEJEUNE
RUE ST. VERONIQUE
LIÈGE
CHENARD & WALCKER
LOCATION
REPARATIONS
AUTOS-TRACTEURS
What Was the Golden Calf? - by Shlomo Chaim Kesselman
The story of the golden calf is widely regarded as one of the most disgraceful moments in Jewish history. In Exodus, chapters 31-32, the mere 40 days after receiving the Torah, the Jewish people created an idol Torah tells how three months after leaving Egypt, and a mere 40 days after receiving the Torah at Mount Sinai, the Jewish people created an idol and worshipped it. Having miscalculated the date of Moses’ promised to return from the mountain, the Jewish people thought their leader had died. They decided to replace him, and with the help of Aaron, formed a golden calf and worshipped it.
The Story
On the 15th day of the Hebrew month of Nissan, the Jewish people left Egypt and began traveling through the desert. After 49 days of travel, on the 50th day, the sixth (or the seventh1) of Sivan, God gave them the Torah. Standing at the foot of Mount Sinai, they witnessed God’s glory descend upon the mountain, and they heard the Ten Commandments. The next day, God commanded Moses to ascend the mountain for 40 days, where He would teach him all the laws and present him with the tablets on which the Ten Commandments were carved.2 Moses took leave of his people, promising to return in 40 days.
When Moses told the people 40 days, he meant 40 full days—nights and days. And since Moses left in the morning, that first day was not included in the count. However, the Jews miscalculated and expected Moses to return on the 16th of Tammuz. In vain the Jews waited for Moses on the 16th, and when he didn’t show, they began to worry. The biblical commentator Rashi describes how Satan made the sky grow dark and caused a feeling of gloominess to descend upon the camp, further unnerving the people.
As this was happening, the erev rav (“mixed multitude”)—a ragtag group of Egyptian outcasts who had tagged along with the Jews when they left Egypt, and who were insincere in their commitment to God—convinced the people that Moses was dead and that they needed a new leader. Terrified, the Jewish people gathered around Aaron, Moses’ brother, and demanded that he make them a new leader. (The commentators note that, at this point, the people only wanted a new leader in place of Moses, not a new God.) Aaron told them to go home and collect their wives’ jewelry and bring it back to him. Crazed, the men ripped off their own jewelry and threw it into a fire. And out of the fire, a golden calf emerged.
I would like to photograph the geo-art in this playa in its natural state. Sportsters with jeeps and ATVs like to drive on it and leave their marks. Faint palimpsests of old tracks seem to indicate the marks can last for years.
Whose lake is it? Both activities are legal. We have different goals. I try to look for the few spots where they haven't driven yet. Fortunately, some of the best are still pristine. To protect them, I'm not saying where they are.
Palimpsest - Joseph Murphy | May 24, 2012
Palimpsest: Jazz and the Generational Continua am
Palimpsest – 1.A parchment or other surface which later writing has been superimposed upon 2. Something bearing the traces of an earlier time
“The Past is Never Dead, It’s not even past”
William Faulkner
History of the Rappahannock River
by Virginia October 30, 2018
Rappahannock River near Fredericksburg, opens a new window by Justin Critzer
From the Central Rappahannock Regional Library
The Civil War on the River Lines of Virginia, 1862-1864
"Trask argues that the bloody engagements on the river lines were the most important battles of the Civil War in the East, far surpassing even the dramatic contests at Antietam and Gettysburg in significance. During the Civil War, the Union and the Confederacy fought for possession of the land between Culpeper Court House and Fredericksburg in east-central Virginia from December 1862 to May 1864, waging four great battles at Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, the Wilderness, and Spotsylvania Court House."
Chicago’s full of empty walls that once contained a families life… and sadly slipped through the fingers of those who’d inherited it, & failed to maintain what the were handed. 😔
Palimpsest • \PAL-imp-sest\ • noun = Multiple Layers.
The Architectural History revealed when a building is destroyed, removed or altered,
exposing all of the painted surfaces, wall textures, bricked in windows & doorways.
Humans are builders.
And-
"REAL ESTATE" is a finite reality (Commodity).
Quite often what one man builds - another man tears down
....and often in the process reveals something unique
about the past occupants.
What was there........?
Architects imply Palimpsest as a ghost—an image of what once was.
In the built environment, this occurs somewhat often.
Whenever spaces are shuffled, rebuilt, or remodeled, shadows remain.
Tarred rooflines remain on the sides of a building long after the neighboring structure
has been demolished;
Demolished Stairs, leave an imprint of where the painted wall surface stopped.
Dust lines recall a relocated appliance.
Ancient ruins speak volumes of their former wholeness.
Palimpsests can inform us, archaeologically, of the realities of the built past.
Entrance on the corner of River and Lake Streets.
Description
Council Rock is situated at the corner of Lake and River Streets within the Village of Cooperstown. It is a 1.25 acre site on the west bank of the mouth of the Susquehanna River. Stone steps lead from the street to the Lake.
Not only does the park offer a magnificent view of the lake, but it is also an important site in the history of Cooperstown [Council Rock and Clinton/Sullivan Expedition of August 9, 1779]. Its entrance is marked by two stone columns with Historical Markers and a large painted arrow which indicates true North.
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The 1779 Sullivan Expedition, also known as the Sullivan-Clinton Expedition, or Sullivan Campaign was an extended systematic military campaign during the American Revolutionary War against Loyalists ("Tories") and the four Nations of the Haudenosaunee which had sided with the British. It has been described by some historians as a genocide due to the magnitude and totality of its violence towards and destruction of the Haudenosaunee.
The campaign ordered and organized by George Washington and his staff was conducted chiefly in the lands of the Iroquois Confederacy (also known as the Longhouse Confederacy) "taking the war home to the enemy to break their morale", and the expedition was largely successful in that goal as they destroyed more than 40 Iroquois villages and stores of winter crops, breaking the power of the six nations in New York all the way to the Great Lakes, as the terrified Indian families relocated to Canada seeking protection of the British. Today this area is the heartland of Upstate New York, and with the military power of the Iroquois vanquished, the events also opened up the vast Ohio Country, the Great Lakes regions, Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Kentucky to post-war settlements.
Led by Major General John Sullivan and Brigadier General James Clinton, the expedition was conducted during the summer of 1779, beginning June 18 when the army marched from Easton, Pennsylvania, to October 3 when it abandoned Fort Sullivan, built at Tioga, to return to George Washington's main camp in New Jersey. While the campaign had only one major battle, at Newtown (since the tribes evacuated ahead of the large military force) along the Chemung River in western New York, the expedition severely damaged the Iroquois nations' economies by burning their crops, villages, and chattels, thus ruining the Iroquois technological infrastructure. With the Native Americans' shelter gone and food supplies destroyed, thereafter the strength of the Iroquois Confederacy was broken. The death toll from exposure and starvation dwarfed the casualties received in the Battle of Newtown, in which about 1,000 Iroquois and Loyalists were decisively defeated by an army of 3,200 Continental soldiers.
Sullivan's army carried out a scorched earth campaign, methodically destroying at least forty Iroquois villages throughout the Finger Lakes region of western New York, to put an end to Iroquois and Loyalist attacks against American settlements as had occurred the previous year of 1778, such as the Cobleskill, Wyoming Valley and Cherry Valley massacres. The survivors fled to British regions in Canada and the Niagara Falls and Buffalo areas. The devastation created great hardships for the thousands of Iroquois refugees who fled the region to shelter under British military protection outside Fort Niagara that winter, and many starved or froze to death, despite strenuous attempts by the British authorities to import food and provide shelter via their limited resources.
The Sullivan Expedition devastated the Iroquois crops and towns and left them dependent upon the mercy of the British for the harsh winter of 1779. With the Iroquois population decimated by disease and battle, the Indian morale never fully recovered, and the Iroquois thereafter mostly limited their incursions into the new United States to isolated hunting parties, the main populations having permanently migrated north of the border.
When the American Revolutionary War began, British officials as well as the colonial Continental Congress sought the allegiance (or at least the neutrality) of the influential Iroquois Confederacy. The Six Nations divided over what course to pursue. Most Mohawks, Cayugas, Onondagas, and Senecas chose to ally themselves with the British. But the Oneidas and Tuscaroras, thanks in part to the influence of Presbyterian missionary Samuel Kirkland, joined the American revolutionaries. For the Iroquois, the American Revolution became a civil war.
The Iroquois homeland lay on the frontier between the Province of Quebec and the provinces of New York and Pennsylvania. After a British army surrendered after the Battles of Saratoga in upstate New York in 1777, Loyalists and their Iroquois allies raided American Patriot settlements in the region, as well as the villages of American-allied Iroquois. Working out of Fort Niagara, men such as Loyalist commander Colonel John Butler, Sayenqueraghta, Mohawk military leader Joseph Brant, and Seneca chief Cornplanter led the British-Indian raids. Commander-in-chief General George Washington never allocated more than minimal Continental Army troops for the defense of the frontier and he told the frontier settlements to use local militia for their own defense.
On June 10, 1778, the Board of War of the Continental Congress concluded that a major Indian war was in the offing. Since a defensive war would prove to be inadequate the board called for a major expedition of 3,000 men against Fort Detroit and a similar thrust into Seneca country to punish the Iroquois. Congress designated Major General Horatio Gates to lead the campaign and appropriated funds for the campaign. In spite of these plans, the expedition did not occur until the following year.
On July 3, 1778, Loyalist commander Colonel Butler led his Rangers accompanied by a force of Senecas and Cayugas (led by Sayenqueraghta) in an attack on Pennsylvania's Wyoming Valley (a rebel granary and settlement along the Susquehanna River near Wilkes-Barre), practically annihilating 360 armed Patriot defenders lured out of their defenses at Forty Fort.
In September 1778, revenge for the Wyoming defeat was taken by American Colonel Thomas Hartley who, with 200 soldiers, burned nine to twelve Seneca, Delaware and Mingo villages along the Susquehanna River in northeast Pennsylvania, including Tioga and Chemung. At the same time, Butler's Rangers attacked German Flatts in the Mohawk Valley, destroying all the houses and fields in the area. Further American retaliation was soon taken by Continental Army units under William Butler (no relation to John Butler) and John Cantine, burning the substantial Indian villages at Unadilla and Onaquaga on the Susquehanna River.
On November 11, 1778, Loyalist Captain Walter Butler (the son of John Butler) led two companies of Butler's Rangers along with about 320 Iroquois led by Cornplanter, including 30 Mohawks led by Joseph Brant, on an assault at Cherry Valley in New York. While the fort was surrounded, Indians began to massacre civilians in the village, killing and scalping 16 soldiers and 32 civilians, mostly women and children, and taking 80 captive, half of whom were never returned. In vain, Brant, who was blamed for the attack, actually tried to stop the rampage. The town was plundered and destroyed.
The Cherry Valley Massacre convinced the American colonists that they needed to take action. In April 1779, American Colonel Van Schaick led an expedition of over 500 soldiers against the Onondaga, destroying several villages. When the British began to concentrate their military efforts on the southern colonies in 1779, Washington used the opportunity to launch a larger planned offensive towards Fort Niagara. His initial impulse was to assign the expedition to Major General Charles Lee, but he, Major General Philip Schuyler, and Major General Israel Putnam were all disregarded for various reasons. Washington first offered command of the expedition to Horatio Gates, the "Hero of Saratoga," but Gates turned down the offer, ostensibly for health reasons. Major General John Sullivan, fifth on the seniority list, was offered command on March 6, 1779, and accepted. Washington's orders to Sullivan made it clear that he wanted the Iroquois threat completely eliminated:
Orders of George Washington to General John Sullivan, at Head-Quarters (Wallace House, New Jersey) May 31, 1779
The Expedition you are appointed to command is to be directed against the hostile tribes of the Six Nations of Indians, with their associates and adherents. The immediate objects are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements, and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex as possible. It will be essential to ruin their crops now in the ground and prevent their planting more.
I would recommend, that some post in the center of the Indian Country, should be occupied with all expedition, with a sufficient quantity of provisions whence parties should be detached to lay waste all the settlements around, with instructions to do it in the most effectual manner, that the country may not be merely overrun, but destroyed.
But you will not by any means listen to any overture of peace before the total ruinment of their settlements is effected. Our future security will be in their inability to injure us and in the terror with which the severity of the chastisement they receive will inspire them.[5]
Washington instructed Gen. Sullivan and three brigades to march from Easton, Pennsylvania to the Susquehanna River in central Pennsylvania and to follow the river upstream to Tioga, now known as Athens, Pennsylvania. He ordered Gen. James Clinton to assemble a fourth brigade at Schenectady, New York, move westward up the Mohawk River Valley to Canajoharie, and cross overland to Otsego Lake as a staging point. When Sullivan so ordered, Clinton's New York Brigade was to march down the Susquehanna to meet Sullivan at Tioga, destroying all Indian villages on his route. Sullivan's army was to have totaled 15 regiments and 5,000 men, but his Pennsylvania brigade entered the campaign more than 750 men short, and promised enlistments never materialized. In addition, the third regiment of the brigade, the German Battalion, had shrunk by casualties, sickness, and desertion (the three-year term of enlistment of its soldiers had expired on June 27) to only 100 men, and was parceled out in 25-man companies as flank protection for the expedition. Armand's Legion was recalled by Washington to the Main Army before the campaign began. Because of these and other shortages, Sullivan's army, including two companies of local militia totaling only 70 men, never exceeded 4,000 troops.
The main army left Easton on June 18, marching 58 miles to an encampment on the Bullock farm in the Wyoming Valley, which it reached on June 23. There they awaited provisions and supplies that had not been sent forward, remaining in the Wyoming Valley until July 31. The army marched slowly, paced by both the mountainous terrain and the flatboats carrying the army's supplies up the Susquehanna, and arrived at Tioga on August 11. They began construction of a temporary fort at the confluence of the Chemung and Susquehanna Rivers they called Fort Sullivan.
Sullivan sent one of his guides, Lt. John Jenkins, who had been captured while surveying the area in November 1777, with a scouting party to reconnoiter Chemung. He reported that the village was active and unaware of his presence. Sullivan marched the greater part of the army all night over two high defiles and attacked out of a thick fog just after dawn only to find the town deserted. Brig. Gen. Edward Hand reported a small force fleeing towards Newtown and received permission to pursue. Despite flankers, he had gone only a mile when his advance guard was ambushed with six dead and nine wounded. The entire brigade assaulted but the ambushers escaped with minimal if any casualties. Sullivan's men spent the day burning the town and destroyed all of its grain and vegetable crops. During the afternoon the 1st New Hampshire Regiment of Poor's brigade was fired on, either from ambush or possibly by fire from other troops, inflicting another soldier killed and five wounded. Ambushes also occurred on August 15 and August 17, with combined casualties of two killed and two wounded. On August 23, the accidental discharge of a rifle in camp resulted in one captain killed and one man wounded.
After two-weeks' portage of supplies, Clinton's brigade set up camp on June 30 at the south end of Otsego Lake (now Cooperstown, New York), where he waited for orders that did not arrive until August 6. The next day he began his destructive march of 154 miles (248 km) to Tioga along the upper Susquehanna, taking all of his supplies with him in 250 bateaux. The actions at Chemung made Sullivan suspicious that the Iroquois might be trying to defeat in detail his split forces, and the next day he sent 1,084 picked men under Brig. Gen. Enoch Poor north to locate Clinton and escort him to Fort Sullivan. The entire army assembled on August 22.
On August 26, the combined army of approximately 3,200 men and 250 pack horse teamsters left Fort Sullivan, garrisoned by 300 troops taken from across the army and left behind under Col. Israel Shreve of the 2nd New Jersey Regiment. Marching slowly north into the Six Nations territory in central western New York, the campaign had only one major battle, the Battle of Newtown, fought on August 29. It was a complete victory for the Continental Army. Later a 25-man detachment of the Continental Army was ambushed, and all but five captured and killed at the Boyd and Parker ambush. On September 1 Captain John Combs died of an illness.
Sullivan's forces reached their deepest penetration at the Seneca town of Chenussio (also called Little Beard's town, Beardstown, Chinefee, Genesee, and Geneseo), near the present Cuylerville, New York, on September 15, inflicting total destruction on the Iroquois villages before returning to Fort Sullivan at the end of the month. Three days later the army abandoned the fort to return to Morristown, New Jersey, and go into winter quarters. By Sullivan's account, forty Iroquois villages were destroyed, including Catherine's Town, Goiogouen, Chonodote, and Kanadaseaga, along with all the crops and orchards of the Iroquois.
Appointed the British governor of Quebec in 1778, Frederick Haldimand, while kept informed of Sullivan's invasion by Butler and Fort Niagara, did not supply sufficient troops for his Iroquois allies' defense. Late in September, he dispatched a force of about 600 Loyalists and Iroquois, but by then the expedition had successfully ended.
Further west, a concurrent expedition was undertaken by Colonel Daniel Brodhead. Brodhead left Fort Pitt on August 14, 1779, with a contingent of 600 men, regulars of his 8th Pennsylvania Regiment and militia, marching up the Allegheny River into the Seneca and Munsee country of northwestern Pennsylvania and southwestern New York. Since most native warriors were away to confront Sullivan's army, Brodhead met little resistance and destroyed about 10 villages, including Conewango. Although initial plans called for Brodhead to eventually link up with Sullivan at Chenussio for an attack against Fort Niagara, Brodhead turned back after destroying villages near modern-day Salamanca, New York, never linking up with the main force. Washington's letters indicate that the cross-country trek east to the Finger Lakes region was considered too dangerous, limiting this smaller expedition to a raid north.
The final operation of the campaign occurred September 27. Sullivan sent a portion of Clinton's brigade directly back to winter quarters by way of Fort Stanwix, under Colonel Peter Gansevoort of the 3rd New York Regiment. Two days after leaving Stanwix, near their origination point of Schenectady, the detachment stopped at Teantontalago, the "Lower Mohawk Castle" (also known as Thienderego, Tionondorage and Tiononderoga) and carried out orders to arrest every male Mohawk. Gansevoort wrote "It is remarked that the Indians live much better than most of the Mohawk River farmers, their houses [being] very well furnished with all [the] necessary household utensils, great plenty of grain, several horses, cows, and wagons". The male population was incarcerated at Albany until 1780 and then released.
The action dispossessed the Mohawks of their homes. Local white settlers, homeless after Iroquois raids, asked Gansevoort to turn the homes over to them. Both actions were criticized by Philip Schuyler, then a New York representative to the Continental Congress, because all the Mohawks of Lower Mohawk castle had rejected fighting with the British, and many supported the Patriot cause. Ironically, Schuyler had been Washington's personal preference for command of the expedition, but his relief of command of the Continental Army's Northern Department had led to private service with the army until he could resign his commission, which he did in April 1779.
Exhausted from carrying heavy military equipment, Sullivan's horses reached the end of their endurance on their return route home. Just north of Elmira, New York, Sullivan euthanized his pack horses. A few years later, the skulls of these horses were lined along the trail as a warning to settlers. The area became known as "the Valley of Horses Heads" and is now known as the village and town of Horseheads, New York.
Sullivan, whose illness had slowed the expedition at times, resigned his commission in 1780 when his health continued to worsen.
More than 5,000 Iroquois refugees went to Canada (modern Ontario) for the British to feed. A report from 1778 by John Butler on the Haudenosaunee: "The Indians in this part of the Country are so ill off for Provisions that many have nothing to subsist upon but the roots and greens they gather in the woods" in May, 1778 – i.e., before the expedition. Fearing attack, many Tuscarora and Oneida defected to the British cause. The British granted the Indians 675,000 acres of land in Canada. About 1450 Iroquois and 400 allies lived at one new reserve at Grand River.
In February 1780, retired General Schuyler, now in the Congress, sent a party of pro-rebellion Indians to Fort Niagara to appeal for peace with the British-allied Iroquois. Suspecting a trick by Schuyler, those Iroquois rejected the proposal. The four messengers were imprisoned where one of them died.
Despite widespread dispersion, Washington was disappointed by the lack of a decisive battle and the failure to capture Fort Niagara. Although in truth, Washington's guidance to Sullivan had been that he take Ft Niagara, "if possible," an option not easily within Sullivan's means given the limitations of his artillery (no guns bigger than six inch field howitzers) and his logistics. Iroquois warriors and Loyalists continued to periodically raid the Mohawk and Schoharie Valleys during 1780 and 1781, causing widespread devastation of property and crops, and killing more than 200 settlers. The destruction of Minden on August 2, 1780 was the most destructive raid of property in the course of the four-year civil war. The last significant raid devastated a 20-mile swath of the lower Mohawk Valley in October 1781, but was defeated at the Battle of Johnstown on October 25, 1781. Walter Butler was killed in battle on October 30 at West Canada Creek during the Tory retreat.
The homelands and infrastructure of Iroquois life had been devastated by the campaign. In the long term, it became clear that the expedition broke the Iroquois Confederacy's power to maintain their former crops and utilize many town locations; the expedition appeared to have caused little more than famine and dispersion of the Iroquois people.
Following the war much of the Iroquois land was secured by the United States government in the peace Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784) agreed to by the six nations of the Iroquois League. This land was later absorbed by treaties with the State of New York.
Much of the native population of these lands would move to Canada, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin. In the wake of the Treaty of Paris (1783), European-Americans began settling the newly vacant areas in relative safety, eventually isolating the remaining pockets of demoralized Iroquois into villages and towns cut off under land treaties with New York State (Wikipedia).
A metal ghost zign, with something written on top of something else, in Fairmont, West Virginia. I can only make out the word "Security".
Coachwork by Pininfarina
Palimpsest.
Designers on both sides of the Atlantic were attracted by the glass bubble that retained the pure shape of an open car and comfort for two passengers, but rarely with such elegance On the base of one of the 8 racing 3000 CMs, Pininfarina designed four concept cars of which this is the ultimate iteration making it all the more precious.
2.300 cc
6 in-line
Post-War Alfa-Romeo with Special Bodywork
Chantilly Arts & Elegance Richard Mille
Château de Chantilly
Chantilly
France - Frankrijk
September 2017
Lake Guntersville State Park - Guntersville
The park features a lodge with 112 hotel rooms and suites, 20 chalets, 15 cottages, a full-service restaurant and an 18-hole golf course. Camping and cabins are available on the lake. Enjoy more than 30 miles of hiking trails, picnicking, fabulous vistas and numerous sites for viewing wildlife. It is a winter home of the American bald eagle and the Park features educational programs.
1157 Lodge Drive
Guntersville, AL 35976
Personalized Directions
256-571-5444
Region
Guntersville is located in the Lake Guntersville Area Area of the North Alabama Region