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Pentidattilo, an Italian ghost town
it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentidattilo
fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentedattilo
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentedattilo
February 2012 - New edition, uploaded 2023/01/17
From Wiki:
Pentedattilo (Calabrian Greek: Pentadàktilo) is a ghost town in Calabria, southern Italy, administratively a frazione of Melito di Porto Salvo. Until 1811, before the unification of Italy, it was a separate commune. It is situated at 250 m above the sea level, on the Monte Calvario, a mountain whose shapes once resembled that of five fingers (whence the name, from the Greek penta + daktylos , meaning "five fingers")
It's possible to stay overnight in this village, it's not easy though, cars stop where I took the photo, all food and luggage must be carried up from this point, that part was definitely not fun. Night versions coming soon.
Voor de eerste intercity naar het noorden, IC 564, zijn er diverse fraaie stekken langs de zuidkust tussen Melito di Porto Salvo en Capo Spartivento. Op 24 oktober werd gekeken of er bij het begin van de diesellijn in Melito di Porto Salvo iets mogelijk was met de Etna en de boogbrug en dat bleek inderdaad goed te passen :) De D445 1056 in IC-kleuren is hier net vertrokken uit het station, terwijl de zon zo'n drie kwartier boven de horizon is. Merk op dat de bovenleiding eindigt ter hoogte van het sein op de achtergrond. De trein rijdt hier over één van de vele bruggetjes op deze lijn waaronder regenwater uit de bergen de zee kan bereiken. Het ziet er aardig vervallen uit zo met het zichtbare betonstaal. Rechts heeft het wegverkeer een op het eerste gezicht serieuzer bruggetje. Aan de andere kant van het water zien we verder nog de Etna op Sicilië liggen.
The first northbound intercity, IC 564, departs here from Melito di Porto Salvo on a somewhat decaying bridge. Road traffic on the right seems to have a slightly more serious one. These are the first meters of this track without overhead wire: it ends near the signal on the other side of the bridge. In the background, we can see the Etna vulcano on Sicily.
24 oktober 2022, 08:02
Langs de zuid- en oostkust van Calibrië, het uiterste zuiden van het Italiaanse vasteland, loopt de ongeveer 500 kilometer lange spoorlijn van Reggio di Calabria via Catanzaro Lido naar Taranto. Vanaf Reggio di Calabria zijn de eerste 30 kilometer tot Melito di Porto Salvo dubbelsporig en geëlektrificeerd, waarna een enkelsporige diesellijn verder gaat tot het circa 150 kilometer verder gelegen Catanzaro Lido. Op het stuk tussen Catanzaro Lido en Sibari is men reeds druk bezig met de elektrificatie, en staan er buiten de stations overal al bovenleidingsmasten. Het laatste stuk naar Taranto is al vele jaren onder de draad.
Bijna het gehele niet-geëlektrificeerde stuk tussen Melito di Porto Salvo en Catanzaro Lido ligt binnen een paar honderd meter van de kust en is daarmee een heerlijke vakantiebestemming voor liefhebbers van treinen langs het water :) Goederenvervoer per spoor heb je er echter niet, maar wel rijden er dagelijks twee Intercity's per richting. Ze bestaan uit een D445 met drie rijtuigen. Aan het begin van de ochtend en rond het begin van de middag vertrekt er een IC in zowel Reggio di Calabria als Taranto, welke dan na een 6,5 à 7 uur durende rit aan de andere kant van de lijn arriveren.
Op 22 oktober passeert IC 558, de eerste IC van Taranto naar Reggio di Calabria Centrale, even voor Palizzi langs het water met de D445 1063. Het is één van de twee loccen die onderweg waren in de nieuwe IC-kleuren, waarbij dit exemplaar duidelijk strakker in de lak zat dan de al langer in IC-kleuren rondrijdende D445 1056. Op de achtergrond ligt een begraafplaats, zoals erg typerend voor Italië bestaand uit vele kleine straatjes met kapelletjes.
On October 22, D445 1063 passes between Gruda and Palizzi with IC 558, the first intercity (of two) from Taranto to Reggio di Calabria. Between Catanzaro Lido and Melito di Porto Salvo, there are fortunately still no visible signs of an upcoming electrification, contrary to the part between Catanzaro Lido and Sibari where catenary masts are already placed along the track (except at the stations). Loco D445 1063 is one of the two locos that I saw on service in this area in Intercity colors, together with the 1056 that wears those colors already a bit longer.
22 oktober 2022, 15:10
Optimale Wetterbedingungen herrschten im äußersten Süden Italiens vor, als fünf Eisenbahnfotografen aus dem Allgäu und der Bodenseeregion über den Monatswechsel Februar und März 2019 nach Kalabrien gereist waren. Perfekt, um ein Wunschmotiv an der Strecke Sibari - Reggio di Calabria, der "Jonica", mit D445 abzuhaken.
Am 01.03.2019 ist D445 1126 mit IC 1549 und bester Ausleuchtung bei Bova Marina unterwegs.
Noch eine Information am Rande: Nachdem an der Strecke von Sibari nach Catanzaro Lido (und weiter nach Lamezia Terme) schon ordentlich gebaut wird und die ersten Fahrleitungsmasten aufgestellt sind, scheint jetzt auch für den südlichen Abschnitt der Jonica von Catanzaro Lido nach Melito di Porto Salvo die Elektrifizierung finanziell gesichert zu sein.
… macht schöne Farben beim Sonnenuntergang. Sagt man.
Was liegt also näher, als zum Ende des Tages den aus einem ALn 663 gebildeten R 21598 vor der Kulisse des Ätnas zu fotografieren, hinter dessen Südflanke die Sonne in wenigen Minuten verschwinden wird. Zwischen dem Vulkan und dem Fotostandpunkt am südlichsten Rand des italienischen Stiefels liegt noch die Meerenge von Messina.
Der Triebwagen hat auf seiner abendlichen Tour von Reggio di Calabria nach Roccella Ionica gerade Melito di Porto Salvo verlassen und gewinnt unter ordentlichem Brummen nun wieder an Geschwindigkeit. Anschließend übernimmt wieder das Meer die Beschallung – und das mindestens genauso angenehm.
17 Stunden Nachtzugreise von Milano Porta Garibaldi nach Reggio Calabria Centrale hat die fünfköpfige Gruppe in den Knochen, doch schon einige Kilometer vor dem Zielort ist man hochmotiviert: Eine unglaublich klare Luft liegt über Meer und Land. Jetzt rasch das Mietauto in Besitz nehmen und ab an die Strecke! Zwei Tage Kalabrien und Sizilien stehen auf dem Programm.
Und wer hätte gedacht, dass gleich das Auftaktfoto so viel Spaß machen würde? Der ALn 663 1090 schnurrt als R 22476 von Reggio Calabria Centrale über die eingleisige Dieselstrecke nach Roccella Ionica und lässt bei Melito Porto Salvo, am äußersten südlichen Rand des italienischen Festlands, auch den auf der Insel Sizilien liegenden Vulkan Ätna hinter sich. Selbst aus rund 70 Kilometern Entfernung und trotz erkennbarer vulkanischer Aktivität ist der 3300 Meter hohe Gigant glasklar zu sehen. Bis weit hinunter liegt sogar noch Schnee.
An der kalabrischen Küstenstrecke ist richtiges Winterwetter dagegen kein Thema. So wird auch der Triebwagen seine großen Schneeräumer hier wohl niemals brauchen. Sie zeugen noch vom früheren Einsatzgebiet ganz im Norden, wo er öfters gegen die Schneemassen der Alpen zu kämpfen hatte.
Una doppia di 663 serie 1100 si apprestano ad arrivare a Melito di Porto Salvo con il R22477 proveniente da Roccella Jonica. L'Etna, fumante, fa da sfondo alla scena. Melito di Porto Salvo, Lunedì 15 Giugno 2020.
2013/02/04©Christian Hermann Fotografie
camera: Nikon D80
objective: Nikkor AF-S DX 18-200 mm 1:3,5-5,6G IF-ED VR
filter: UV
1/250
ƒ13
ISO 400
coordinates: 37.919361,15.756744
Adobe Bridge
" For the sake of suffering humanity he came down from heaven to earth, clothed himself in that humanity in the Virgin’s womb, and was born a man. Having then a body capable of suffering, he took the pain of fallen man upon himself; he triumphed over the diseases of soul and body that were its cause, and by his Spirit, which was incapable of dying, he dealt man’s destroyer, death, a fatal blow.
He was led forth like a lamb; he was slaughtered like a sheep. He ransomed us from our servitude to the world, as he had ransomed Israel from the hand of Egypt; he freed us from our slavery to the devil, as he had freed Israel from the hand of Pharaoh. He sealed our souls with his own Spirit, and the members of our body with his own blood."
- from an Easter Homily of St Melito of Sardis, which is read at Matins today.
Detail from the mosaics in the Rosary Basilica of Lourdes.
Oakley Ad artwork featuring pro snowboader Shaun White.
Artwork created in Illustrator from photo references. Art direction from Paul Schulte of Oakley.
From a homily by Melito of Sardis:
"There was much proclaimed by the prophets about the mystery of the Passover: that mystery is Christ, and to him be glory for ever and ever. Amen.
For the sake of suffering humanity he came down from heaven to earth, clothed himself in that humanity in the Virgin's womb, and was born a man. Having then a body capable of suffering, he took the pain of fallen man upon himself; he triumphed over the diseases of soul and body that were its cause, and by his Spirit, which was incapable of dying, he dealt man's destroyer, death, a fatal blow.
He was led forth like a lamb; he was slaughtered like a sheep. He ransomed us from our servitude to the world, as he had ransomed Israel from the hand of Egypt; he freed us from our slavery to the devil, as he had freed Israel from the hand of Pharaoh. He sealed our souls with his own Spirit, and the members of our body with his own blood.
He is the One who covered death with shame and cast the devil into mourning, as Moses cast Pharaoh into mourning . He is the One that smote sin and robbed iniquity of offspring, as Moses robbed the Egyptians of their offspring. He is the One who brought us out of slavery into freedom, out of darkness into light, out of death into life, out of tyranny into an eternal kingdom; who made us a new priesthood, a people chosen to be his own for ever. He is the Passover that is our salvation.
It is he who endured every kind of suffering in all those who foreshadowed him. In Abel he was slain, in Isaac bound, in Jacob exiled, in Joseph sold, in Moses exposed to die. He was sacrificed in the Passover lamb, persecuted in David, dishonoured in the prophets.
It is he who was made man of the Virgin, he who was hung on the tree; it is he who was buried in the earth, raised from the dead, and taken up to the heights of heaven. He is the mute lamb, the slain lamb born of Mary, the fair ewe. He was seized from the flock, dragged off to be slaughtered, sacrificed in the evening, and buried at night. On the tree no bone of his was broken; in the earth his body knew no decay. He is the One who rose from the dead, and who raised man from the depths of the tomb."
This photo shows the site of Calvary or Golgotha, the "place of the skull" in Jerusalem where the Cross of Jesus Christ was implanted in the ground, and where he was crucified and hung up on the Tree for our salvation. From here, his blood flowed and washed away the sins of the whole world.
Oakley Ad artwork featuring the awesome surfer Bruce Irons.
Artwork created in Illustrator from photo references. Art direction from Paul Schulte of Oakley.
This is the second Oakley ad I worked on featuring pro surfer Bruce Irons. I believe it's the most used since I've seen it at the ASR tradeshow and in many publications. It's also the final ad that was run in the United States.
Artwork created in Illustrator from photo references. Art direction from Paul Schulte of Oakley.
The Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo) is a species of eagle-owl that resides in much of Eurasia. It is also called the Uhu and it is occasionally abbreviated to just the eagle-owl in Europe. It is one of the largest species of owl, and females can grow to a total length of 75 cm (30 in), with a wingspan of 188 cm (6 ft 2 in), with males being slightly smaller. This bird has distinctive ear tufts, with upper parts that are mottled with darker blackish colouring and tawny. The wings and tail are barred. The underparts are a variably hued buff, streaked with darker colouring. The facial disc is not very defined and the orange eyes are distinctive.
Eurasian eagle-owls are found in many habitats, but are mostly birds of mountainous regions or other rocky areas, often those near varied woodland edge and shrubby areas with openings or wetlands to hunt a majority of their prey. Additionally, they inhabit coniferous forests, steppes, and other areas at varied elevations that are typically relatively remote. Eurasian eagle-owls are occasionally found amongst farmland and in park-like settings within European cities, even rarely within busier urban areas. The eagle-owl is mostly a nocturnal predator, hunting for a range of different prey species. Predominantly, their diet is composed of small mammals such as rodents and rabbits, but they also prey on larger mammals and birds of varying sizes. Other secondary prey can include reptiles, amphibians, fish, large insects and other assorted invertebrates. The species typically breeds on cliff ledges, in gullies, among rocks, or in other concealed locations. The nest is a scrape containing a clutch of 2–4 eggs typically, which are laid at intervals and hatch at different times. The female incubates the eggs and broods the young, and the male provides food for her, and when they hatch, for the nestlings, as well. Continuing parental care for the young is provided by both adults for about five months. At least 12 subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl are described.
In addition to being one of the largest living species of owl, the Eurasian eagle-owl is also one of the most widely distributed.[9] With a total range in Europe and Asia of about 51.4 million km2 (19.8 million sq mi) and a total population estimated to be between 100,000 and 500,000 individuals, the IUCN lists the bird's conservation status as being of least concern, although the trend is listed as decreasing. The vast majority of eagle-owls live in Continental Europe, Scandinavia, Russia (which is almost certainly where the peak numbers and diversity of race occurs), and Central Asia. Additional minor populations exist in Anatolia, the northern Middle East, the montane upper part of South Asia, China, Korea and in Japan; in addition, an estimated 12 to 40 pairs are thought to reside in the United Kingdom as of 2016 (where they are arguably non-native), a number which may be on the rise, and have successfully bred in the UK since at least 1996. Tame eagle-owls have occasionally been used in pest control because of their size to deter large birds such as gulls from nesting.
Description
The Eurasian eagle-owl is among the larger birds of prey, smaller than the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), but larger than the snowy owl (Bubo scandiacus), despite some overlap in size with both of those species. It is sometimes referred to as the world's largest owl, although Blakiston's fish owl (B. blakistoni) is slightly heavier on average and the much lighter weight great grey owl (Strix nebulosa) is slightly longer on average. Heimo Mikkola reported the largest specimens of eagle-owl as having the same upper body mass, 4.6 kg (10 lb), as the largest Blakiston’s fish owl and attained a length around 3 cm (1.2 in) longer. In terms of average weight and wing size, the Blakiston’s is the slightly larger species seemingly, even averaging a bit larger in these aspects than the biggest eagle-owl races from Russia. Also, although 9 cm (3.5 in) shorter than the largest of the latter species, the Eurasian eagle-owl can weigh well more than twice as much as the largest great grey owl. The Eurasian eagle-owl typically has a wingspan of 131–188 cm (4 ft 4 in – 6 ft 2 in), with the largest specimens possibly attaining 2 m (6 ft 7 in). The total length of the species can vary from 56 to 75 cm (22 to 30 in). Females can weigh from 1.75 to 4.6 kg (3.9 to 10.1 lb), and males can weigh from 1.2 to 3.2 kg (2.6 to 7.1 lb). In comparison, the barn owl (Tyto alba), the world's most widely distributed owl species, weighs about 0.5 kg (1.1 lb) and the great horned owl (B. virginianus), which fills the eagle-owl's ecological niche in North America, weighs around 1.4 kg (3.1 lb).
Eurasian eagle-owl in captivity
Besides the female being larger, little external sexual dimorphism is seen in the Eurasian eagle-owl, although the ear tufts of males reportedly tend to be more upright than those of females. When an eagle-owl is seen on its own in the field, distinguishing the individual’s sex is generally not possible. Gender determination by size is possible by in-hand measurements. In some populations, the female typically may be slightly darker than the male. The plumage coloration across at least 13 accepted subspecies can be highly variable. The upper parts may be brown-black to tawny-buff to pale creamy gray, typically showing dense freckling on the forehead and crown, stripes on the nape, sides, and back of the neck, and dark splotches on the pale ground colour of the back, mantle, and scapulars. A narrow buff band, freckled with brown or buff, often runs up from the base of the bill, above the inner part of the eye, and along the inner edge of the black-brown ear tufts. The rump and upper tail-coverts are delicately patterned with dark vermiculations and fine, wavy barring, the extent of which varies with subspecies. The underwing coverts and undertail coverts are similar, but tend to be more strongly barred in brownish-black.
The primaries and secondaries are brown with broad, dark brown bars and dark brown tips, and grey or buff irregular lines. A complete moult takes place each year between July and December. The facial disc is tawny-buff, speckled with black-brown, so densely on the outer edge of the disc as to form a "frame" around the face. The chin and throat are white with a brownish central streak. The feathers of the upper breast generally have brownish-black centres and reddish-brown edges except for the central ones, which have white edges. The chin and throat may appear white continuing down the center of the upper breast. The lower breast and belly feathers are creamy-brown to tawny buff to off-white with a variable amount of fine dark wavy barring, on a tawny-buff ground colour. The legs and feet (which are feathered almost to the talons) are likewise marked on a buff ground colour but more faintly. The tail is tawny-buff, mottled dark grey-brown with about six black-brown bars. The bill and feet are black. The iris is most often orange but is fairly variable. In some European birds, the iris is a bright reddish, blood-orange colour but then in subspecies found in arid, desert-like habitats, the iris can range into an orange-yellow colour (most closely related species generally have yellowish irises, excluding the Indian eagle-owl).
Standard measurements and physiology
Among standard measurements for the Eurasian eagle-owl, the wing chord measures 378 to 518 mm (14.9 to 20.4 in), the tail measures 229–310 mm (9.0–12.2 in) long, the tarsus measures 64.5–112 mm (2.54–4.41 in), and the total length of the bill is 38.9–59 mm (1.53–2.32 in). The wings are reportedly the smallest in proportion to the body weight of any European owl, when measured by the weight per area of wing size, was found to be 0.72 g/cm2. Thus, they have quite high wing loading. The great horned owl has even smaller wings (0.8 g/cm2) relative to its body size. The golden eagle has slightly lower wing loading proportionately (0.65 g/cm2), so the aerial abilities of the two species (beyond the eagle’s spectacular ability to stoop) may not be as disparate as expected. Some other owls, such as barn owls, short-eared owls (Asio flammeus), and even the related snowy owls have lower wing loading relative to their size, so are presumably able to fly faster, with more agility, and for more extended periods than the Eurasian eagle-owl. In the relatively small race B. b. hispanus, the middle claw, the largest talon, (as opposed to rear hallux-claw, which is the largest in accipitrids) was found to measure from 21.6 to 40.1 mm (0.85 to 1.58 in) in length. A 3.82 kg (8.4 lb) female examined in Britain (origins unspecified) had a middle claw measuring 57.9 mm (2.28 in), on par in length with a large female golden eagle hallux-claw. Generally, owls do not have talons as proportionately large as those of accipitrids, but have stronger, more robust feet relative to their size. Accipitrids use their talons to inflict organ damage and blood loss, whereas typical owls use their feet to constrict their prey to death, the talons serving only to hold the prey in place or provide incidental damage. The talons of the Eurasian eagle-owl are very large and not often exceeded in size by diurnal raptors. Unlike the great horned owls, the overall foot size and strength of the Eurasian eagle-owl is not known to have been tested, but the considerably smaller horned owl has one of the strongest grips ever measured in a bird.
The feathers of the ear tufts in Spanish birds (when not damaged) were found to measure from 63.3 to 86.6 mm (2.49 to 3.41 in).[26] The ear openings (covered in feathers as in all birds) are relatively uncomplicated for an owl, but are also large, being larger on the right than on the left as in most owls, and proportionately larger than those of the great horned owl. In the female, the ear opening averages 31.7 mm (1.25 in) on the right and 27.4 mm (1.08 in) on the left, and in males, averages 26.8 mm (1.06 in) on the right and 24.4 mm (0.96 in) on the left. The depth of the facial disc and the size and complexity of the ear opening are directly correlated to the importance of sound in an owl’s hunting behaviour. Examples of owls with more complicated ear structures and deeper facial disc are barn owls, long-eared owls (Asio otus), and boreal owls (Aegolius funereus). Given the uncomplicated structure of their ear openings and relatively shallow, undefined facial discs, hunting by ear is secondary to hunting by sight in eagle-owls; this seems to be true for Bubo in general. More sound-based hunters such as the aforementioned species likely focus their hunting activity in more complete darkness. Also, owls with white throat patches such as the Eurasian eagle-owl are more likely to be active in low-light conditions in the hours before and after sunrise and sunset rather than the darkest times in the middle of the night. The boreal and barn owls, to extend these examples, lack obvious visual cues such as white throat patches (puffed up in displaying eagle-owls), again indicative of primary activity being in darker periods.
Distinguishing from other species
The great size, bulky, barrel-shaped build, erect ear tufts, and orange eyes render this as a distinctive species. Other than general morphology, the above features differ markedly from those of two of the next largest subarctic owl species in Europe and western Asia, which are the great grey owl and the greyish to chocolate-brown Ural owl (Strix uralensis), both of which have no ear tufts and have a distinctly rounded head, rather than the blocky shape of the eagle-owl’s head. The snowy owl is obviously distinctive from most eagle-owls, but during winter the palest Eurasian eagle-owl race (B. b. sibiricus) can appear off-white. Nevertheless, the latter is still distinctively an ear-tufted Eurasian eagle-owl and lacks the pure white background colour and variable blackish spotting of the slightly smaller species (which has relatively tiny, vestigial ear tufts that have only been observed to have flared on rare occasions).
Unique camouflage pattern
The long-eared owl has a somewhat similar plumage to the eagle-owl, but is considerably smaller (an average female eagle-owl may be twice as long and 10 times heavier than an average long-eared owl). Long-eared owls in Eurasia have vertical striping like that of the Eurasian eagle-owl, while long-eared owls in North America show a more horizontal striping like that of great horned owls. Whether these are examples of mimicry either way is unclear but it is known that both Bubo owls are serious predators of long-eared owls. The same discrepancy in underside streaking has also been noted in the Eurasian and American representations of the grey owl. A few other related species overlap minimally in range in Asia, mainly in East Asia and the southern reaches of the Eurasian eagle-owl’s range. Three fish owls appear to overlap in range, the brown (Ketupa zeylonensis) in at least northern Pakistan, probably Kashmir, and discontinuously in southern Turkey, the tawny (K. flavipes) through much of eastern China, and Blakiston's fish owl in the Russian Far East, northeastern China, and Hokkaido. Fish owls are distinctively different looking, possessing more scraggy ear tufts that hang to the side rather than sit erect on top of the head, and generally have more uniform, brownish plumages without the contrasting darker streaking of an eagle-owl. The brown fish owl has no feathering on the tarsus or feet, and the tawny has feathering only on the upper portion of the tarsi, but the Blakiston’s is nearly as extensively feathered on the tarsi and feet as the eagle-owl. Tawny and brown fish owls are both slightly smaller than co-occurring Eurasian eagle-owls, and Blakiston’s fish owls are similar or slightly larger than co-occurring large northern eagle-owls. Fish owls, being tied to the edges of fresh water, where they hunt mainly fish and crabs, also have slightly differing, and more narrow, habitat preferences.
In the lower Himalayas of northern Pakistan and Jammu and Kashmir, along with the brown fish owl, the Eurasian eagle-owl at the limit of its distribution may co-exist with at least two to three other eagle-owls. One of these, the dusky eagle-owl (B. coromandus) is smaller, with more uniform tan-brownish plumage, untidy uniform light streaking rather than the Eurasian’s dark streaking below and an even less well-defined facial disc. The dusky is usually found in slightly more enclosed woodland areas than Eurasian eagle-owls. Another is possibly the spot-bellied eagle-owl (B. nipalensis), which is strikingly different looking, with stark brown plumage, rather than the warm hues typical of the Eurasian, bold spotting on a whitish background on the belly, and somewhat askew ear tufts that are bold white with light brown crossbars on the front. Both species may occur in some parts of the Himalayan foothills, but they are not currently verified to occur in the same area, in part because of the spot-bellied’s preference for dense, primary forest. Most similar, with basically the same habitat preferences and the only one verified to co-occur with the Eurasian eagle-owls of the race B. b. turcomanus in Kashmir is the Indian eagle-owl (B. bengalensis). The Indian species is smaller, with a bolder, blackish facial disc border, more rounded and relatively smaller wings, and partially unfeathered toes. Far to the west, the pharaoh eagle-owl (B. ascalaphus) also seemingly overlaps in range with the Eurasian, at least in Jordan. Although also relatively similar to the Eurasian eagle-owl, the pharaoh eagle-owl is distinguished by its smaller size, paler, more washed-out plumage, and the diminished size of its ear tufts.
Moulting
The Eurasian eagle-owls’ feathers are lightweight and robust, but nevertheless need to be replaced periodically as they become worn. In the Eurasian eagle-owl, this happens in stages, and the first moult starts the year after hatching with some body feathers and wing coverts being replaced. The next year, the three central secondaries on each wing and three middle tail feathers are shed and regrow, and the following year, two or three primaries and their coverts are lost. In the final year of this postjuvenile moult, the remaining primaries are moulted and all the juvenile feathers will have been replaced. Another moult takes place during years 6-12 of the bird's life. This happens between June and October after the conclusion of the breeding season, and again it is a staged process with six to nine main flight feathers being replaced each year. Such a moulting pattern lasting several years is repeated throughout the bird's life.
Taxonomy
The Eurasian eagle-owl was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Strix bulbo. Although Linnaeus specified the "habitat" as "Europa" the type locality is restricted to Sweden. The Eurasian eagle-owl is now placed in the genus Bubo that was introduced by André Duméril in 1805.
The genus Bubo with 20 extant species includes most of the larger owl species in the world today. Based on an extensive fossil record and a central distribution of extant species on that continent, Bubo appears to have evolved into existence in Africa, although early radiations seem to branch from southern Asia, as well. Two genera belonging to the scops owls complex, the giant scops owls (Otus gurneyi) found in Asia and the Ptilopsis or the white-faced scops owl found in Africa, although firmly ensconced in the scops owl group, appear to share some characteristics with the eagle-owls. The Strix genus is also related to Bubo, and is considered a "sister complex", with Pulsatrix possibly being intermediate between the two. The Eurasian eagle-owl appears to represent an expansion of the genus Bubo into the Eurasian continent. A few of the other species of Bubo seem to have been derived from the Eurasian eagle-owl, making it a "paraspecies", or they at least share a relatively recent common ancestor.
The pharaoh eagle-owl, distributed in the Arabian Peninsula and sections of the Sahara Desert through North Africa where rocky outcrops are found, was until recently considered a subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl. The pharaoh eagle-owl apparently differs about 3.8% in mitochondrial DNA from the Eurasian eagle-owl, well past the minimum genetic difference to differentiate species of 1.5%. Smaller and paler than Eurasian eagle-owls, the pharaoh eagle-owl can also be considered a distinct species largely due to its higher-pitched and more descending call, and the observation that Eurasian eagle-owls formerly found in Morocco (B. b. hispanus) apparently did not breed with the co-existing pharaoh eagle-owls. On the contrary, the race still found together with the pharaoh eagle-owl in the wild (B. b. interpositus) in the central Middle East has been found to interbreed in the wild with the pharaoh eagle-owl, although genetical materials have indicated B. b. interpositus may itself be a distinct species from the Eurasian eagle-owl, as it differs from the nominate subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl by 2.8% in mitochondrial DNA. For three Asian Eurasian eagle-owl subspecies (B. b. ussuriensis, B. b. kiautschensis and B. b. hemachlana, respectively), it was found that they met the criterion for subspecies well, with a high haplotype diversity and in spite of a relatively recent common ancestor and low genetic diversity. The Indian eagle-owl (B. bengalensis) was also considered a subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl until recently, but its smaller size, distinct voice (more clipped and high-pitched than the Eurasian), and the fact that it is largely allopatric in distribution (filling out the Indian subcontinent) with other Eurasian eagle-owl races has led to it being considered a distinct species. The mitochondrial DNA of the Indian species also appears considerably distinct from the Eurasian species. The Cape eagle-owl (B. capensis) appears to represent a return of this genetic line back into the African continent, where it leads a lifestyle similar to Eurasian eagle-owls, albeit far to the south. Another offshoot of the northern Bubo group is the snowy owl. It appears to have separated from other Bubo species at least 4 million years ago.
The fourth and most famous derivation of the evolutionary line that includes the Eurasian eagle-owl is the great horned owl, which appears to have been the result of primitive eagle-owls spreading into North America. According to some authorities, the great horned owls and Eurasian eagle-owls are barely distinct as species, with a similar level of divergence in their plumages as the Eurasian and North American representations of the great grey owl or the long-eared owl. More outward physical differences exist between the great horned owl and the Eurasian eagle-owl than in those two examples, including a great size difference favoring the Eurasian species, the great horned owl’s horizontal rather than vertical underside barring, yellow rather than orange eyes, and a much stronger black bracket to the facial disc, not to mention a number of differences in their reproductive behaviour and distinctive voices. Furthermore, genetic research has revealed that the snowy owl is more closely related to the great horned owl than are Eurasian eagle-owls. The most closely related species beyond the pharaoh, Indian, and Cape eagle-owls to the Eurasian eagle-owl is the smaller, less powerful and African spotted eagle-owl (B. africanus), which was likely to have divided from the line before they radiated away from Africa. Somehow, genetic materials indicate the spotted eagle-owl appears to share a more recent ancestor with the Indian eagle-owl than with the Eurasian eagle-owl or even the sympatric Cape eagle-owl. Eurasian eagle-owls in captivity have produced apparently healthy hybrids with both the Indian eagle-owl and the great horned owl. The pharaoh, Indian, and Cape eagle-owls and the great horned owl are all broadly similar in size to each other, but all are considerably smaller than the Eurasian eagle-owl, which averages at least 15–30% larger in linear dimensions and 30–50% larger in body mass than these other related species, possibly as the eagle-owls adapted to warmer climates and smaller prey. Fossils from southern France have indicated that during the Middle Pleistocene, Eurasian eagle-owls (this paleosubspecies is given the name B. b. davidi) were larger than they are today, even larger were those found in Azerbaijan and in the Caucasus (either B. b. bignadensis or B. bignadensis), which were deemed to date to the Late Pleistocene. About 12 subspecies are recognized today.
Habitat
Eagle-owls are distributed somewhat sparsely, but can potentially inhabit a wide range of habitats, with a partiality for irregular topography. They have been found in habitats as diverse as northern coniferous forests to the edge of vast deserts. Essentially, Eurasian eagle-owls have been found living in almost every climatic and environmental condition on the Eurasian continent, excluding the greatest extremities, i.e. they are absent from humid rainforest in Southeast Asia, and the high Arctic tundra, both of which they are more or less replaced by other species of Bubo owls. They are often found in the largest numbers in areas where cliffs and ravines are surrounded by a scattering of trees and bushes. Grassland areas such as alpine meadows or desert-like steppe can also host them so long as they have the cover and protection of rocky areas. The preference of eagle-owls for places with irregular topography has been reported in most known studies. The obvious benefit of such nesting locations is that both nests and daytime roosts located in rocky areas and/or steep slopes would be less accessible to predators, including man. Also, they may be attracted to the vicinity of riparian or wetlands areas, because the soft soil of wet areas is conducive to burrowing by the small, terrestrial mammals normally preferred in the diet, such as voles and rabbits.
Due to their preference for rocky areas, the species is often found in mountainous areas, and can be found up to elevations of 2,100 m (6,900 ft) in the Alps, 4,500 m (14,800 ft) in the Himalayas, and 4,700 m (15,400 ft) in the adjacent Tibetan Plateau. They can also be found living at sea level and may nest amongst rocky sea cliffs. Despite their success in areas such as subarctic zones and mountains that are frigid for much of the year, warmer conditions seem to result in more successful breeding attempts per studies in the Eifel region of Germany. In a study from Spain, areas primarily consisting of woodlands (52% of study area being forested) were preferred with pine trees predominating the oaks in habitats used, as opposed to truly mixed pine-oak woodland. Pine and other coniferous stands are often preferred in great horned owls, as well, due to the constant density, which make overlooking the large birds more likely. In mountainous forest, they are not generally found in enclosed wooded areas, as is the tawny owl (Strix alucco), instead usually near forest edge. Only 2.7% of the habitat included in the territorial ranges for eagle-owls per the habitat study in Spain consisted of cultivated or agricultural land. Compared to golden eagles, though, they can visit cultivated land more regularly in hunting forays due to their nocturnal habits, which allow them to largely evade human activity. Other accounts make clear that farmland is only frequented where its less intensively farmed, holds more extensive treed and bushy areas, and often has limited to no irrigation; farmland areas with fallow or abandoned fields are more likely to hold more prey, so are prone to less frequent human disturbance. In the Italian Alps, almost no pristine habitat remained, and eagle-owls nested locally in the vicinity of towns, villages, and ski resorts.
Although found in the largest numbers in areas sparsely populated by humans, farmland is sometimes inhabited, and they even have been observed living in park-like or other quiet settings within European cities. Since 2005, at least five pairs have nested in Helsinki. This is due in part to feral European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) having recently populated the Helsinki area, originally from pet rabbits released to the wild. The number is expected to increase due to the growth of the European rabbit population in Helsinki. European hares (Lepus europaeus), the often preferred prey species by biomass of the eagle-owls in their natural habitat, live only in rural areas of Finland, not in the city centre. In June 2007, an eagle-owl nicknamed 'Bubi' landed in the crowded Helsinki Olympic Stadium during the European Football Championship qualification match between Finland and Belgium. The match was interrupted for six minutes. After tiring of the match, following Jonathan Johansson's opening goal for Finland, the bird left the scene. Finland's national football team have had the nickname Huuhkajat (Finnish for "Eurasian eagle-owls") ever since. The owl was named "Helsinki Citizen of the Year" in December 2007. In 2020, a brood of three eagle-owl chicks was raised by their mother on a large, well-foliaged planter on an apartment window in the city centre of Geel, Belgium.
Distribution
The Eurasian eagle-owl is one of the most widely distributed of all owl species, although it is far less wide-ranging than the barn owl, the short-eared owl (Asio flammeus) and long-eared owl and lacks the circumpolar range of boreal species such as great grey owl, boreal owl and northern hawk owl (Surnia ulula). This eagle-owl reaches its westernmost range in the Iberian Peninsula, both almost throughout Spain and more spottily in Portugal. From there, the Eurasian eagle-owl ranges widely in the south of France from Toulouse to Monaco and as far north into the central part of the country as in Allier. Farther north, they are found sporadically and discontinuously in Luxembourg, southern and western Belgium and scarcely into the Netherlands. It is infrequently found in southern and central United Kingdom. In Germany, the eagle-owl can be found in large but highly discontinuous areas, mostly in the south and central areas but is almost entirely absent in areas such as Brandenburg. Across from its south German range, this species range is nearly continuous into the Czech Republic, Slovakia, northern and eastern Hungary and very spottily into Poland. In the fairly montane countries of Switzerland and Austria, the eagle-owl can be found fairly broadly. In Italy, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found where the habitat is favorable in much of the northern, western and central portions down to as far south Melito di Porto Salvo. From Italy, this species sweeps quite broadly along the Mediterranean coast in Southeastern Europe from Slovenia mostly continuously to most of Greece and Bulgaria. In eastern Europe, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found essentially throughout from central Romania to Estonia. The species also occupies a majority of Finland and Scandinavia, where most broadly found in Norway, somewhat more spottily in Sweden and in Denmark it is found widely in Jutland (absent from the islands).
The Eurasian eagle-owl's range in Russia is truly massive, with the species apparently nearly unbound by habitat, with their distribution only excluding them from the true Arctic zone, i.e. their range stops around the tree line. If not the most densely populated species, they almost certainly stand as Russia's most widely distributed owl species. From Russia, they are found throughout Central Asia, residing continuously in each nation from Kazakhstan down to Afghanistan. In Asia Minor, they are found broadly in Georgia, Azerbaijan and somewhat so in western and southern Turkey but is quite sporadic in distribution overall in Turkey. A spotty range also exists in the Middle East in Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and western Iran, the species being found broadly only in north and western Iran. In South Asia, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found mostly often in northern Pakistan, northern Nepal and Bhutan and more marginally into far northern India. This species resides throughout Mongolia, almost the entirety of China (mainly absent only from southern Yunnan and southern Guangxi). From China and eastern Russia, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found throughout Korea, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and rarely into Japan in northern Hokkaido. Besides the Kurils, the farthest eastern part of the range for this species is in Magadan in the Russian Far East.
Behaviour
The Eurasian eagle-owl is largely nocturnal in activity, as are most owl species, with its activity focused in the first few hours after sunset and the last few hours before sunrise. In the northern stretches of its range, partial diurnal behaviour has been recorded, including active hunting in broad daylight during the late afternoon. In such areas, full nightfall is essentially non-existent at the peak of summer, so eagle-owls must presumably hunt and actively brood at the nest during daylight. The Eurasian eagle-owl has a number of vocalizations that are used at different times. It will usually select obvious topographic features such as rocky pinnacles, stark ridges and mountain peaks to use as regular song posts. These are dotted along the outer edges of the eagle-owl's territory and they are visited often but only for a few minutes at a time.
Vocal activity is almost entirely confined to the colder months from late fall through winter, with vocal activity in October through December mainly having territorial purposes and from January to February being primarily oriented towards courtship and mating purposes. Vocalizations in a Spanish study begin no sooner than 29 minutes after sunset and end no later than 55 minutes before sunrise. The territorial song, which can be heard at great distance, is a deep resonant ooh-hu with emphasis on the first syllable for the male, and a more high-pitched and slightly more drawn-out uh-hu for the female. It is not uncommon for a pair to perform an antiphonal duet. The widely used name in Germany as well as some other sections of Europe for this species is uhu due to its song. At 250–350 Hz, the Eurasian eagle-owls territorial song or call is deeper, farther-carrying and is often considering "more impressive" than the territorial songs of the great horned owl or even that of the slightly larger Blakiston's fish owl, although the horned owl’s call averages slightly longer in duration and the Blakiston's call is typically deeper.[7] Other calls include a rather faint, laughter-like OO-OO-oo and a harsh kveck-kveck. Intruding eagle-owls and other potential dangers may be met with a "terrifying", extremely loud hooo. Raucous barks not unlike those of ural owls or long-eared owls have been recorded but are deeper and more powerful than those species’ barks. Annoyance at close quarters is expressed by bill-clicking and cat-like spitting, and a defensive posture involves lowering the head, ruffling the back feathers, fanning the tail and spreading the wings.
The Eurasian eagle-owl rarely assumes the so-called "tall-thin position", which is when an owl adopts an upright stance with plumage closely compressed and may stand tightly beside a tree trunk. Among others, the long-eared owl is among the most often reported to sit with this pose. The great horned owl has been more regularly recorded using the tall-thin, if not as consistently as some Strix and Asio owls, and it is commonly thought to aid camouflage if encountering a threatening or novel animal or sound. The Eurasian eagle-owl is a broad-winged species and engages in a strong, direct flight, usually consisting of shallow wing beats and long, surprisingly fast glides. It has, unusually for an owl, also been known to soar on updrafts on rare occasions. The latter method of flight has led them to be mistaken for Buteos, which are smaller and quite differently proportioned. Usually when seen flying during the day, it is due to being disturbed or displaced from its roost by humans or mobbing animals, such as crows. Eurasian eagle-owls are highly sedentary, normally maintaining a single territory throughout their adult lives.
Eurasian eagle-owl are considered a completely non-migratory bird, as are all members of the Bubo genus excluding the snowy owl. Even those near the northern limits of their range, where winters are harsh and likely to bear little in food, the eagle-owl does not leave its native range. In 2020, a study presented evidence of a short distance distribution by adult eagle-owls in the fall subsequent to breeding, with 5 adults found to move over 20 km (12 mi) away from their nests. There are additionally claimed cases from Russia of Eurasian eagle-owls moving south for the winter, as the icebound, infamously harsh climate there may be too severe even for these hardy birds and their prey. Similarly, Eurasian eagle-owls living in the Tibetan highlands and Himalayas may in some anecdotal cases vacate their normal territories when winter hits and move south. In both of those examples, these are old, unverified reports and there is no evidence whatsoever of consistent, annual migration by Eurasian eagle-owls and the birds may eke out a living on their normal territories even in the sparsest times.
Dietary biology
Eurasian eagle-owls are strictly territorial and will defend their territories from interloping eagle-owls year around, but territorial calling appears to peak around October to early January. Territory size is similar or occasionally slightly greater than great horned owl: averaging 15 to 80 km2 (5.8 to 30.9 sq mi). Territories are established by the male eagle-owl, who selected the highest points in the territory from which to sing. The high prominence of singing perches allows their song to be heard at greater distances and lessens the need for potentially dangerous physical confrontations in the areas where territories may meet. Nearly as important in territorial behaviour as vocalization is the white throat patch. When taxidermied specimens with flared white throats were placed around the perimeter of eagle-owl territories, male eagle-owls reacted quite strongly and often attacked the stuffed owl, reacting more mildly to a stuffed eagle-owl with a non-flared white throat. Females were less likely to be aggressive to mounted specimens and did not seem to vary in their response whether exposed to the specimens with or without the puffed up white patch. In January and February, the primary function for vocalization becomes for the purpose of courtship. More often than not, eagle-owls will pair for life but usually engage in courtship rituals annually, most likely to re-affirm pair bonds. When calling for the purposes of courtship, males tend to bow and hoot loudly but do so in a less contorted manner than the male great horned owl. Courtship in the Eurasian eagle-owl may involve bouts of "duetting", with the male sitting upright and the female bowing as she calls. There may be mutual bowing, billing and fondling before the female flies to a perch where coitus occurs, usually taking place several times over the course of a few minutes.
Nests
The male selects breeding sites and advertises their potential to the female by flying to them and kneading out a small depression (if soil is present) and making staccato notes and clucking noises. Several potential sites may be presented, with the female selecting one. In Baden-Wurttenberg, Germany, the amount of male nest site visits were found to increase in time spent over the pre-laying breeding season from a mean of 29 minutes to 3 hours with frequent incubation like sitting by the male. Like all owls, Eurasian eagle-owls do not build nests or add material but nest on the surface or material already present. Eurasian eagle-owls normally nest on rocks or boulders, most often utilizing cliff ledges and steep slopes, as well as crevices, gullies, holes or caves. Rocky areas that also prove concealing woodlots as well as, for hunting purposes, that border river valleys and grassy scrubland may be especially attractive. If only low rubble is present, they will nest on the ground between rocks. Often, in more densely forested areas, they've been recorded nesting on the ground, often among roots of trees, under large bushes and under fallen tree trunks. Steep slopes with dense vegetation are preferred if nesting on the ground, although some ground nests are surprisingly exposed or in flat spots such as in open spots of the taiga, steppe, ledges of river banks and between wide tree trunks. All Eurasian eagle-owl nests in the largely forested Altai Krai region of Russia were found to be on the ground, usually at the base of pines. This species does not often use other bird’s nests as does the great horned owl, which often prefers nests built by other animals over any other nesting site. The Eurasian eagle-owl has been recorded in singular cases using nests built by common buzzards (Buteo buteo), golden eagle, greater spotted (Clanga clanga) and white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla), common ravens (Corvus corax) and black storks (Ciconia nigra). Among the eagle-owls of the fairly heavily wooded wildlands of Belarus, they more commonly utilize nests built by other birds than most eagle-owls, i.e. stork or accipitrid nests, but a majority of nests are still located on the ground. This is contrary to the indication that ground nests are selected only if rocky areas or other bird nests are unavailable, as many will utilize ground nests even where large bird nests seem to be accessible. Tree holes being used for nesting sites are even more rarely recorded than nests constructed by other birds. While it may be assumed that the eagle-owl is too large to utilize tree hollows, when other large species like the great grey owl have never been recorded nesting in one, the even more robust Blakiston's fish owl nests exclusively in cavernous hollows. The Eurasian eagle-owl often uses the same nest site year after year.
Parental behaviour
In Engadin, Switzerland, the male eagle-owl alone hunts until the young are 4 to 5 weeks old and the female spends all her time brooding at the nest. After this point, the female gradually resumes hunting from both herself and the young and thus provides a greater range of food for the young. While it may seem contrary to the species’ highly territorial nature, there is one verified cases of polygamy in Germany, with a male apparently mating with two females, and cooperative brooding in Spain, with a third adult of undetermined sex helping a breeding pair care for the chicks. The response of Eurasian eagle-owls to humans approaching at the nest is quite variable. The species is often rather less aggressive than some other owls, including related species like the spot-bellied eagle-, great horned and snowy owls, many of the northern Strix species, and even some rather smaller owl species, which often fearlessly attack any person found to be nearing their nests. Occasionally, if a person climbs to an active nest, the adult female eagle-owl will do a distraction display, in which they feign an injury. This is an uncommon behavior in most owls and is most often associated with small birds trying to falsely draw the attention of potential predators away from their offspring. More commonly, the adults withdraw to a safe distance, as their nests are usually well-camouflaged. Occasionally if cornered both adults and nestlings will do an elaborate threat display, also rare in owls in general, in which the eagle-owls raise their wings into a semi-circle and puff up their feathers, followed by a snapping of their bills. Apparently, eagle-owls of uncertain and probably exotic origin in Britain are likely to react aggressively to humans approaching the nest. Also, aggressive encounters involving eagle-owls around their nest, despite being historically uncommon, apparently have increased in recent decades in Scandinavia. The discrepancy of aggressiveness at the nest between the Eurasian eagle-owl and its Nearctic counterpart may be correlated to variation in the extent of nest predation that the species endured during the evolutionary process.
Eggs and offspring development
The eggs are normally laid at intervals of three days and are incubated only by the female. Laying generally begins in late winter but may be later in the year in colder habitats. During the incubation period, the female is brought food at the nest by her mate. A single clutch of white eggs is laid; each egg can measure from 56 to 73 mm (2.2 to 2.9 in) long by 44.2 to 53 mm (1.74 to 2.09 in) in width, and will usually weigh about 75 to 80 g (2.6 to 2.8 oz). In Central Europe, eggs average 59.8 mm × 49.5 mm (2.35 in × 1.95 in), and in Siberia, eggs average 59.4 mm × 50.1 mm (2.34 in × 1.97 in). Their eggs are only slightly larger than those of snowy owls and the nominate subspecies of great horned owl, while similar in size to those of spot-bellied eagle-owls and Blakiston's fish owls. The Eurasian eagle-owl’s eggs are noticeably larger than those of Indian eagle-owl and pharaoh eagle-owls. Usually clutch size is one or two, rarely three or four, and exceptionally to six. The average number of eggs laid varies with latitude in Europe. Clutch size ranges from 2.02 to 2.14 in Spain and the massifs of France, and 1.82 to 1.89 in central Europe and the eastern Alps; in Sweden and Finland, the mean clutch size is 1.56 and 1.87, respectively. While variation based on climate is not unusual for different wide-ranging palearctic species, the higher clutch size of western Mediterranean eagle-owls is also probably driven by the presence of lagomorphs in the diet, which provide high nutritional value than most other regular prey. The average clutch size, attributed as 2.7, was the lowest of any European owl per one study. One species was attributed with an even lower clutch size in North America, the great grey owl with a mean of 2.6, but the mean clutch size was much higher for the same species in Europe, at 4.05.
In Spain, incubation is from mid-January to mid-March, hatching and early nestling period is from late March to early April, fledging and postfledging dependence can range from mid-April to August, and territorial/courtship is anytime hereafter; i.e. the period between the beginning of juvenile dispersal to egg laying; from September to early January. The same general date parameters were followed in southern France. In the Italian Alps, the mean egg-laying date was similarly February 27, but the young were more likely to be dependent later, as all fledglings were still being cared for by the end of August, and some even lingered under parental care until October. In northern climes, the breeding season shifts somewhat later by as much as a month so that egg laying may be as late as late March or early April. Nonetheless, the Eurasian eagle-owl is one of the earliest nesting bird species in Europe or northern, temperate Asia.
The first egg hatches after 31 to 36 days of incubation. The eggs hatch successively; although the average interval between egg-laying is 3 days, the young tend to hatch no more than a day or two apart. Like all owls that nest in the open, the downy young are often a mottled grey with some white and buff, which provides camouflage. They open their eyes at 4 days of age. The chicks grow rapidly, being able to consume small prey whole after roughly 3 weeks. In Andalusia, the most noticeable development of the young before they leave the nest was the increase of body size, which was the highest growth rate of any studied owl and faster than either snowy or great horned owls. Body mass increased fourteen times over from 5 days old to 60 days old in this study. The male continues to bring prey, leaving it on or around the nest, and the female feeds the nestlings, tearing up the food into suitably sized pieces. The female resumes hunting after about 3 weeks, which increases the food supply to the chicks. Many nesting attempts produce two fledglings, indicating that siblicide is not as common as in other birds of prey, especially a few species of eagles. In Spain, males are thought to be the first egg laid to reduce the likelihood of sibling aggression due to the size difference, thus the younger female hatchling is less likely to be killed since it is similar in size to its older sibling.
Apparently, the point at which the chicks venture out of the nest is driven by the location of the nest. In elevated nest sites, chicks usually wander out of the nest at 5 to as late as 7 weeks of age, but have been recorded leaving the nest if the nest is on the ground as early as 22 to 25 days old. The chicks can walk well at 5 weeks of age and by 7 weeks are taking short flights. Hunting and flying skills are not tested prior to the young eagle-owls leaving the nest. Young Eurasian eagle-owls leave the nest by 5–6 weeks of age and typically can be flying weakly (a few metres) by about 7–8 weeks of age. Normally, they are cared for at least another month. By the end of the month, the young eagle-owls are quite assured fliers. A few cases have been confirmed of adult eagle-owls in Spain feeding and caring for postfledgling juvenile eagle-owls that were not their own.
Like many large owls, Eurasian eagle-owls leave the nest while still in a functionally flightless state and with large amounts of second down still present, but will fly shortly thereafter.
A study from southern France found the mean number of fledglings per nest was 1.67. In central Europe, the mean number of fledglings per nest was between 1.8 and 1.9. The mean fledgling rate in the Italian Alps was 1.89, thus being similar. In the Italian Alps, heavier rainfall during breeding decreased fledgling success because it inhibited the ability of the parents to hunt and potentially exposed nestlings to hypothermia. In the reintroduced population of eagle-owls in Eifel, Germany, occupied territories produced an average of 1.17 fledglings, but not all occupying pairs attempted to breed, with about 23% of those attempting to breed being unsuccessful. In slightly earlier studies, possibly due to higher persecution rates, the mean number of young leaving the nest was often lower, such as 1.77 in Bavaria, Germany, 1.1 in lower Austria, and 0.6 in southern Sweden. An experimental supplemental feeding program to young eagle-owls on two small Norwegian islands were found to increase mean numbers of fledglings from a mean of about 1.2 to 1.7 despite evidence that increased human activity near the nest decreased owlet survivability. While sibling owls are close in the stage between leaving the nest and fully fledged, about 20 days after leaving the nest, the family unit seems to dissolve and the young disperse quickly and directly. All told, the dependence of young eagle-owls on their parents lasts for 20 to 24 weeks. Independence in central Europe is from September to November. The young leave their parents' care normally on their own, but are also sometimes chased away by their parents. The young Eurasian eagle-owls reach sexual maturity by the following year, but do not normally breed until they can establish a territory at around 2–3 years old. Until they are able to establish their own territories, young eagle-owls spend their lives as nomadic "floaters", and while they also call, select inconspicuous perch sites unlike breeding birds. Male floaters are especially wary about intrusion into an established territory to avoid potential conspecific aggression.
Status
he Eurasian eagle-owl has a very wide range across much of Europe and Asia, estimated to be about 32,000,000 km2 (12,000,000 sq mi). In Europe, the population is estimated at 19,000 to 38,000 breeding pairs, and in the whole world around 250,000 to 2,500,000 individual birds. The population trend is thought to be decreasing because of human activities, but with such a large range and large total population, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated the bird as being of least concern. Although roughly equal in adaptability and wideness of distribution, the great horned owl, with a total estimated population up to 5.3 million individuals, apparently has a total population that is roughly twice that of the Eurasian eagle-owl. Numerous factors, including a shorter history of systematic persecution, lesser sensitivity to human disturbance while nesting, somewhat greater ability to adapt to marginal habitats and widespread urbanization, and slightly smaller territories may play into the horned owls greater numbers in modern times. Eurasian eagle-owls are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated.
Longevity
The Eurasian eagle-owl surely is one of the longest-living owls on average. The eagle-owl can live for up to 20 years in the wild. At one time, the oldest ringed eagle-owl was considered a 19-year-old specimen. Some studies posited that in protected areas, lifespans ranging up to 15–20 years may not be uncommon. A record-breaking specimen banded in the wild was subsequently found to survive to be 27 years and 9 months old. Like many other bird species in captivity, they can live much longer without having to endure difficult natural conditions, and have possibly survived up to 68 years in zoo collections. Healthy adults normally have no natural predators, thus are considered apex predators. The leading causes of death for this species are man-made; electrocution, traffic accidents, and shooting frequently claim the lives of eagle-owls.
Anthropogenic mortality
Electrocution was the greatest cause of mortality in 68% of 25 published studies, and accounted, on average, for 38.2% of the reported eagle-owl deaths. This was particularly true in the Italian Alps, where the number of dangerous, uninsulated pylons near nests was extremely high, but is highly problematic almost throughout the species’ European distribution. In one telemetry study, 55% of 27 dispersing young were electrocuted within 1 year of their release from captivity, while electrocution rates of wild-born young are even higher. Mortality in the Swiss Rhine Valley was variable, in radio-tagged, released individuals, most died as a result of starvation (48%) rather than human-based causes, but 93% of the wild, untagged individuals found dead were due to human activities, 46% due to electrocution, and 43% due to collision with vehicles or trains. Insulation of pylons is thought to result in a stabilisation of the local population due to floaters taking up residence in unoccupied territories that formerly held deceased eagle-owls. Eurasian eagle-owls from Finland were found mainly to die due to electrocution (39%) and collisions with vehicles (22%). Wind turbine collisions can also be a serious cause of mortality locally.
Eagle-owls have been singled out historically as a threat to game species, thus to the economic well-being of landowners, game-keepers, and even governmental agencies, and as such, have been singled out for widespread persecution. Local extinctions of Eurasian eagle-owls have been primarily due to persecution. Examples of this include northern Germany in 1830, the Netherlands sometimes in the late 19th century, Luxembourg in 1903, Belgium in 1943, and central and western Germany in the 1960s. In trying to determine causes of death for 1476 eagle-owls from Spain, most were unknown and undetermined types of trauma. The largest group that could be determined, 411 birds, was due to collisions, more than half of which were from electrocution, while 313 were due to persecution, and merely 85 were directly attributable to natural causes. Clearly, while pylon safety is perhaps the most serious factor to be addressed in Spain, persecution continues to be a massive problem for Spanish eagle-owls. Of seven European nations where modern Eurasian eagle-owl mortality is well-studied, continual persecution is by far the largest problem in Spain, although also continues to be serious (often comprising at least half of studied mortality) in France. From France and Spain, nearly equal numbers of eagle-owls are poisoned (for which raptors might not be the main target), or shot intentionally.
Conservation and reintroductions
While the eagle-owl remains reasonably numerous in some parts of its habitat where nature is still relatively little disturbed by human activity, such as the sparsely populated regions of Russia and Scandinavia, concern has been expressed about the future of the Eurasian eagle-owl in Western and Central Europe. There, very few areas are not heavily modified by human civilisation, thus exposing the birds to the risk of collisions with deadly man-made objects (e.g. pylons) and a depletion of native prey numbers due to ongoing habitat degradation and urbanisation.
In Spain, long-term governmental protection of the Eurasian eagle-owl seems to have no positive effect on reducing the persecution of eagle-owls. Therefore, Spanish conservationists have recommended to boost education and stewardship programs to protect eagle-owls from direct killing by local residents. Unanimously, biologists studying eagle-owl mortality and conservation factors have recommended to proceed with the proper insulation of electric wires and pylons in areas where the species is present. As this measure is labour-intensive and therefore rather expensive, few efforts have actually been made to insulate pylons in areas with few fiscal resources devoted to conservation such as rural Spain. In Sweden, a mitigation project was launched to insulate transformers that are frequently damaged by eagle-owl electrocution.
Large reintroduction programs were instituted in Germany after the eagle-owl was deemed extinct in the country as a breeding species by the 1960s, as a result of a long period of heavy persecution. The largest reintroduction there occurred from the 1970s to the 1990s in the Eifel region, near the border with Belgium and Luxembourg. The success of this measure, consisting in more than a thousand eagle-owls being reintroduced at an average cost of US$1,500 per bird, is a subject of controversy. Those eagle-owls reintroduced in the Eifel region appear to be able to breed successfully, and enjoy nesting success comparable with wild eagle-owls from elsewhere in Europe. Mortality levels in the Eifel region, though, appear to remain quite high due to anthropogenic factors. Also, concerns exist about a lack of genetic diversity of the species in this part of Germany. Apparently, the German reintroductions have allowed eagle-owls to repopulate neighbouring parts of Europe, as the breeding populations now occurring in the Low Countries (the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg) are believed to be the result of influx from regions further to the east. Smaller reintroductions have been done elsewhere, and the current breeding population in Sweden is believed to be primarily the result of a series of reintroductions. Conversely to numerous threats and declines incurred by Eurasian eagle-owls, areas where human-dependent, non-native prey species such as brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) and rock pigeons (Columba livia) have flourished, have given the eagle-owls a primary food source and allowed them occupy regions where they were once marginalized or absent.
Occurrence in Great Britain
The Eurasian eagle-owl at one time occurred naturally in Great Britain. Some, including the RSPB, have claimed that it had disappeared about 10,000–9,000 years ago, after the last ice age, but fossil remains found in Meare Lake Village indicate the eagle-owl occurring as recently as roughly 2,000 years ago in the fossil record. The lack of presence of the Eurasian eagle-owl in British folklore or writings in recent millennium may indicate the lack of occurrence by this species there. The flooding of the land bridge between Britain and continental Europe may have been responsible for their extirpation as they only disperse over limited distances, although early human persecution presumably played a role as well. Some reportages of eagle-owls in Britain have been revealed to actually be great horned owls or Indian eagle-owls, the latter a particularly popular owl in falconry circuits.[110] Some breeding pairs do still occur in Britain, though the exact number of pairs and individuals is not definitely known. The World Owl Trust stated that they believe some eagle-owls occurring in North England and Scotland are naturally occurring, making the flight of roughly 350 to 400 km (220 to 250 mi) from the west coast of Norway to Shetland and the east coast of Scotland, as well as possibly from the coasts of the Netherlands and Belgium to the south. Although not migratory, eagle-owls can disperse some notable distances in young birds seeking a territory.
Prior studies of eagle-owl distribution have indicated a strong reluctance to cross large bodies of water in the species. Many authorities state that the Eurasian eagle-owls occurring in Britain are individuals that have escaped from captivity. While, until the 19th century, wealthy collectors may have released unwanted eagle-owls, despite press to the contrary, no evidence of any organization or individual intentionally releasing eagle-owls recently with the intent to establish a breeding population has been found. Many feel that the eagle-owl would be classified as an "alien" species. Due to its predatory abilities, many, especially those in the press, have expressed alarm of their effect on "native" species. From 1994 to 2007, 73 escaped eagle-owls were not registered as returned, while 50 escapees were recaptured. Several recorded breeding attempts have been studied, and most were unsuccessful, due in large part to incidental disturbance by humans and some due to direct persecution, with eggs having been smashed.
Effect on conservation-dependent species
As highly opportunistic predators, Eurasian eagle-owls hunt almost any appropriately sized prey they encounter. Most often, they take whatever prey is locally common and can take a large number of species considered harmful to human financial interests, such as rats, mice, and pigeons. Eurasian eagle-owls do take rare or endangered species, as well. Among the species considered at least vulnerable (up to critically endangered as in the mink and eel, both heavily overexploited by humans) to extinction known to be hunted by Eurasian eagle-owls are Russian desman (Desmana moschata) Pyrenean desman (Galemys pyrenaicus), barbastelle (Barbastella barbastellus), European ground squirrel (Spermophilus citellus), southwestern water vole (Arvicola sapidus), European mink (Mustela lutreola), marbled polecat (Vormela peregusna), lesser white-fronted goose (Anser erythrops), Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), greater spotted eagle (Clanga clanga), eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), saker falcon (Falco cherrug), houbara bustard (Chlamydotis undulata), great bustard (Otis tarda), spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca), Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), European eel (Anguilla anguilla) and lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus).
The Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo) is a species of eagle-owl that resides in much of Eurasia. It is also called the Uhu and it is occasionally abbreviated to just the eagle-owl in Europe. It is one of the largest species of owl, and females can grow to a total length of 75 cm (30 in), with a wingspan of 188 cm (6 ft 2 in), with males being slightly smaller. This bird has distinctive ear tufts, with upper parts that are mottled with darker blackish colouring and tawny. The wings and tail are barred. The underparts are a variably hued buff, streaked with darker colouring. The facial disc is not very defined and the orange eyes are distinctive.
Eurasian eagle-owls are found in many habitats, but are mostly birds of mountainous regions or other rocky areas, often those near varied woodland edge and shrubby areas with openings or wetlands to hunt a majority of their prey. Additionally, they inhabit coniferous forests, steppes, and other areas at varied elevations that are typically relatively remote. Eurasian eagle-owls are occasionally found amongst farmland and in park-like settings within European cities, even rarely within busier urban areas. The eagle-owl is mostly a nocturnal predator, hunting for a range of different prey species. Predominantly, their diet is composed of small mammals such as rodents and rabbits, but they also prey on larger mammals and birds of varying sizes. Other secondary prey can include reptiles, amphibians, fish, large insects and other assorted invertebrates. The species typically breeds on cliff ledges, in gullies, among rocks, or in other concealed locations. The nest is a scrape containing a clutch of 2–4 eggs typically, which are laid at intervals and hatch at different times. The female incubates the eggs and broods the young, and the male provides food for her, and when they hatch, for the nestlings, as well. Continuing parental care for the young is provided by both adults for about five months. At least 12 subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl are described.
In addition to being one of the largest living species of owl, the Eurasian eagle-owl is also one of the most widely distributed.[9] With a total range in Europe and Asia of about 51.4 million km2 (19.8 million sq mi) and a total population estimated to be between 100,000 and 500,000 individuals, the IUCN lists the bird's conservation status as being of least concern, although the trend is listed as decreasing. The vast majority of eagle-owls live in Continental Europe, Scandinavia, Russia (which is almost certainly where the peak numbers and diversity of race occurs), and Central Asia. Additional minor populations exist in Anatolia, the northern Middle East, the montane upper part of South Asia, China, Korea and in Japan; in addition, an estimated 12 to 40 pairs are thought to reside in the United Kingdom as of 2016 (where they are arguably non-native), a number which may be on the rise, and have successfully bred in the UK since at least 1996. Tame eagle-owls have occasionally been used in pest control because of their size to deter large birds such as gulls from nesting.
Description
The Eurasian eagle-owl is among the larger birds of prey, smaller than the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), but larger than the snowy owl (Bubo scandiacus), despite some overlap in size with both of those species. It is sometimes referred to as the world's largest owl, although Blakiston's fish owl (B. blakistoni) is slightly heavier on average and the much lighter weight great grey owl (Strix nebulosa) is slightly longer on average. Heimo Mikkola reported the largest specimens of eagle-owl as having the same upper body mass, 4.6 kg (10 lb), as the largest Blakiston’s fish owl and attained a length around 3 cm (1.2 in) longer. In terms of average weight and wing size, the Blakiston’s is the slightly larger species seemingly, even averaging a bit larger in these aspects than the biggest eagle-owl races from Russia. Also, although 9 cm (3.5 in) shorter than the largest of the latter species, the Eurasian eagle-owl can weigh well more than twice as much as the largest great grey owl. The Eurasian eagle-owl typically has a wingspan of 131–188 cm (4 ft 4 in – 6 ft 2 in), with the largest specimens possibly attaining 2 m (6 ft 7 in). The total length of the species can vary from 56 to 75 cm (22 to 30 in). Females can weigh from 1.75 to 4.6 kg (3.9 to 10.1 lb), and males can weigh from 1.2 to 3.2 kg (2.6 to 7.1 lb). In comparison, the barn owl (Tyto alba), the world's most widely distributed owl species, weighs about 0.5 kg (1.1 lb) and the great horned owl (B. virginianus), which fills the eagle-owl's ecological niche in North America, weighs around 1.4 kg (3.1 lb).
Eurasian eagle-owl in captivity
Besides the female being larger, little external sexual dimorphism is seen in the Eurasian eagle-owl, although the ear tufts of males reportedly tend to be more upright than those of females. When an eagle-owl is seen on its own in the field, distinguishing the individual’s sex is generally not possible. Gender determination by size is possible by in-hand measurements. In some populations, the female typically may be slightly darker than the male. The plumage coloration across at least 13 accepted subspecies can be highly variable. The upper parts may be brown-black to tawny-buff to pale creamy gray, typically showing dense freckling on the forehead and crown, stripes on the nape, sides, and back of the neck, and dark splotches on the pale ground colour of the back, mantle, and scapulars. A narrow buff band, freckled with brown or buff, often runs up from the base of the bill, above the inner part of the eye, and along the inner edge of the black-brown ear tufts. The rump and upper tail-coverts are delicately patterned with dark vermiculations and fine, wavy barring, the extent of which varies with subspecies. The underwing coverts and undertail coverts are similar, but tend to be more strongly barred in brownish-black.
The primaries and secondaries are brown with broad, dark brown bars and dark brown tips, and grey or buff irregular lines. A complete moult takes place each year between July and December. The facial disc is tawny-buff, speckled with black-brown, so densely on the outer edge of the disc as to form a "frame" around the face. The chin and throat are white with a brownish central streak. The feathers of the upper breast generally have brownish-black centres and reddish-brown edges except for the central ones, which have white edges. The chin and throat may appear white continuing down the center of the upper breast. The lower breast and belly feathers are creamy-brown to tawny buff to off-white with a variable amount of fine dark wavy barring, on a tawny-buff ground colour. The legs and feet (which are feathered almost to the talons) are likewise marked on a buff ground colour but more faintly. The tail is tawny-buff, mottled dark grey-brown with about six black-brown bars. The bill and feet are black. The iris is most often orange but is fairly variable. In some European birds, the iris is a bright reddish, blood-orange colour but then in subspecies found in arid, desert-like habitats, the iris can range into an orange-yellow colour (most closely related species generally have yellowish irises, excluding the Indian eagle-owl).
Standard measurements and physiology
Among standard measurements for the Eurasian eagle-owl, the wing chord measures 378 to 518 mm (14.9 to 20.4 in), the tail measures 229–310 mm (9.0–12.2 in) long, the tarsus measures 64.5–112 mm (2.54–4.41 in), and the total length of the bill is 38.9–59 mm (1.53–2.32 in). The wings are reportedly the smallest in proportion to the body weight of any European owl, when measured by the weight per area of wing size, was found to be 0.72 g/cm2. Thus, they have quite high wing loading. The great horned owl has even smaller wings (0.8 g/cm2) relative to its body size. The golden eagle has slightly lower wing loading proportionately (0.65 g/cm2), so the aerial abilities of the two species (beyond the eagle’s spectacular ability to stoop) may not be as disparate as expected. Some other owls, such as barn owls, short-eared owls (Asio flammeus), and even the related snowy owls have lower wing loading relative to their size, so are presumably able to fly faster, with more agility, and for more extended periods than the Eurasian eagle-owl. In the relatively small race B. b. hispanus, the middle claw, the largest talon, (as opposed to rear hallux-claw, which is the largest in accipitrids) was found to measure from 21.6 to 40.1 mm (0.85 to 1.58 in) in length. A 3.82 kg (8.4 lb) female examined in Britain (origins unspecified) had a middle claw measuring 57.9 mm (2.28 in), on par in length with a large female golden eagle hallux-claw. Generally, owls do not have talons as proportionately large as those of accipitrids, but have stronger, more robust feet relative to their size. Accipitrids use their talons to inflict organ damage and blood loss, whereas typical owls use their feet to constrict their prey to death, the talons serving only to hold the prey in place or provide incidental damage. The talons of the Eurasian eagle-owl are very large and not often exceeded in size by diurnal raptors. Unlike the great horned owls, the overall foot size and strength of the Eurasian eagle-owl is not known to have been tested, but the considerably smaller horned owl has one of the strongest grips ever measured in a bird.
The feathers of the ear tufts in Spanish birds (when not damaged) were found to measure from 63.3 to 86.6 mm (2.49 to 3.41 in).[26] The ear openings (covered in feathers as in all birds) are relatively uncomplicated for an owl, but are also large, being larger on the right than on the left as in most owls, and proportionately larger than those of the great horned owl. In the female, the ear opening averages 31.7 mm (1.25 in) on the right and 27.4 mm (1.08 in) on the left, and in males, averages 26.8 mm (1.06 in) on the right and 24.4 mm (0.96 in) on the left. The depth of the facial disc and the size and complexity of the ear opening are directly correlated to the importance of sound in an owl’s hunting behaviour. Examples of owls with more complicated ear structures and deeper facial disc are barn owls, long-eared owls (Asio otus), and boreal owls (Aegolius funereus). Given the uncomplicated structure of their ear openings and relatively shallow, undefined facial discs, hunting by ear is secondary to hunting by sight in eagle-owls; this seems to be true for Bubo in general. More sound-based hunters such as the aforementioned species likely focus their hunting activity in more complete darkness. Also, owls with white throat patches such as the Eurasian eagle-owl are more likely to be active in low-light conditions in the hours before and after sunrise and sunset rather than the darkest times in the middle of the night. The boreal and barn owls, to extend these examples, lack obvious visual cues such as white throat patches (puffed up in displaying eagle-owls), again indicative of primary activity being in darker periods.
Distinguishing from other species
The great size, bulky, barrel-shaped build, erect ear tufts, and orange eyes render this as a distinctive species. Other than general morphology, the above features differ markedly from those of two of the next largest subarctic owl species in Europe and western Asia, which are the great grey owl and the greyish to chocolate-brown Ural owl (Strix uralensis), both of which have no ear tufts and have a distinctly rounded head, rather than the blocky shape of the eagle-owl’s head. The snowy owl is obviously distinctive from most eagle-owls, but during winter the palest Eurasian eagle-owl race (B. b. sibiricus) can appear off-white. Nevertheless, the latter is still distinctively an ear-tufted Eurasian eagle-owl and lacks the pure white background colour and variable blackish spotting of the slightly smaller species (which has relatively tiny, vestigial ear tufts that have only been observed to have flared on rare occasions).
Unique camouflage pattern
The long-eared owl has a somewhat similar plumage to the eagle-owl, but is considerably smaller (an average female eagle-owl may be twice as long and 10 times heavier than an average long-eared owl). Long-eared owls in Eurasia have vertical striping like that of the Eurasian eagle-owl, while long-eared owls in North America show a more horizontal striping like that of great horned owls. Whether these are examples of mimicry either way is unclear but it is known that both Bubo owls are serious predators of long-eared owls. The same discrepancy in underside streaking has also been noted in the Eurasian and American representations of the grey owl. A few other related species overlap minimally in range in Asia, mainly in East Asia and the southern reaches of the Eurasian eagle-owl’s range. Three fish owls appear to overlap in range, the brown (Ketupa zeylonensis) in at least northern Pakistan, probably Kashmir, and discontinuously in southern Turkey, the tawny (K. flavipes) through much of eastern China, and Blakiston's fish owl in the Russian Far East, northeastern China, and Hokkaido. Fish owls are distinctively different looking, possessing more scraggy ear tufts that hang to the side rather than sit erect on top of the head, and generally have more uniform, brownish plumages without the contrasting darker streaking of an eagle-owl. The brown fish owl has no feathering on the tarsus or feet, and the tawny has feathering only on the upper portion of the tarsi, but the Blakiston’s is nearly as extensively feathered on the tarsi and feet as the eagle-owl. Tawny and brown fish owls are both slightly smaller than co-occurring Eurasian eagle-owls, and Blakiston’s fish owls are similar or slightly larger than co-occurring large northern eagle-owls. Fish owls, being tied to the edges of fresh water, where they hunt mainly fish and crabs, also have slightly differing, and more narrow, habitat preferences.
In the lower Himalayas of northern Pakistan and Jammu and Kashmir, along with the brown fish owl, the Eurasian eagle-owl at the limit of its distribution may co-exist with at least two to three other eagle-owls. One of these, the dusky eagle-owl (B. coromandus) is smaller, with more uniform tan-brownish plumage, untidy uniform light streaking rather than the Eurasian’s dark streaking below and an even less well-defined facial disc. The dusky is usually found in slightly more enclosed woodland areas than Eurasian eagle-owls. Another is possibly the spot-bellied eagle-owl (B. nipalensis), which is strikingly different looking, with stark brown plumage, rather than the warm hues typical of the Eurasian, bold spotting on a whitish background on the belly, and somewhat askew ear tufts that are bold white with light brown crossbars on the front. Both species may occur in some parts of the Himalayan foothills, but they are not currently verified to occur in the same area, in part because of the spot-bellied’s preference for dense, primary forest. Most similar, with basically the same habitat preferences and the only one verified to co-occur with the Eurasian eagle-owls of the race B. b. turcomanus in Kashmir is the Indian eagle-owl (B. bengalensis). The Indian species is smaller, with a bolder, blackish facial disc border, more rounded and relatively smaller wings, and partially unfeathered toes. Far to the west, the pharaoh eagle-owl (B. ascalaphus) also seemingly overlaps in range with the Eurasian, at least in Jordan. Although also relatively similar to the Eurasian eagle-owl, the pharaoh eagle-owl is distinguished by its smaller size, paler, more washed-out plumage, and the diminished size of its ear tufts.
Moulting
The Eurasian eagle-owls’ feathers are lightweight and robust, but nevertheless need to be replaced periodically as they become worn. In the Eurasian eagle-owl, this happens in stages, and the first moult starts the year after hatching with some body feathers and wing coverts being replaced. The next year, the three central secondaries on each wing and three middle tail feathers are shed and regrow, and the following year, two or three primaries and their coverts are lost. In the final year of this postjuvenile moult, the remaining primaries are moulted and all the juvenile feathers will have been replaced. Another moult takes place during years 6-12 of the bird's life. This happens between June and October after the conclusion of the breeding season, and again it is a staged process with six to nine main flight feathers being replaced each year. Such a moulting pattern lasting several years is repeated throughout the bird's life.
Taxonomy
The Eurasian eagle-owl was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Strix bulbo. Although Linnaeus specified the "habitat" as "Europa" the type locality is restricted to Sweden. The Eurasian eagle-owl is now placed in the genus Bubo that was introduced by André Duméril in 1805.
The genus Bubo with 20 extant species includes most of the larger owl species in the world today. Based on an extensive fossil record and a central distribution of extant species on that continent, Bubo appears to have evolved into existence in Africa, although early radiations seem to branch from southern Asia, as well. Two genera belonging to the scops owls complex, the giant scops owls (Otus gurneyi) found in Asia and the Ptilopsis or the white-faced scops owl found in Africa, although firmly ensconced in the scops owl group, appear to share some characteristics with the eagle-owls. The Strix genus is also related to Bubo, and is considered a "sister complex", with Pulsatrix possibly being intermediate between the two. The Eurasian eagle-owl appears to represent an expansion of the genus Bubo into the Eurasian continent. A few of the other species of Bubo seem to have been derived from the Eurasian eagle-owl, making it a "paraspecies", or they at least share a relatively recent common ancestor.
The pharaoh eagle-owl, distributed in the Arabian Peninsula and sections of the Sahara Desert through North Africa where rocky outcrops are found, was until recently considered a subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl. The pharaoh eagle-owl apparently differs about 3.8% in mitochondrial DNA from the Eurasian eagle-owl, well past the minimum genetic difference to differentiate species of 1.5%. Smaller and paler than Eurasian eagle-owls, the pharaoh eagle-owl can also be considered a distinct species largely due to its higher-pitched and more descending call, and the observation that Eurasian eagle-owls formerly found in Morocco (B. b. hispanus) apparently did not breed with the co-existing pharaoh eagle-owls. On the contrary, the race still found together with the pharaoh eagle-owl in the wild (B. b. interpositus) in the central Middle East has been found to interbreed in the wild with the pharaoh eagle-owl, although genetical materials have indicated B. b. interpositus may itself be a distinct species from the Eurasian eagle-owl, as it differs from the nominate subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl by 2.8% in mitochondrial DNA. For three Asian Eurasian eagle-owl subspecies (B. b. ussuriensis, B. b. kiautschensis and B. b. hemachlana, respectively), it was found that they met the criterion for subspecies well, with a high haplotype diversity and in spite of a relatively recent common ancestor and low genetic diversity. The Indian eagle-owl (B. bengalensis) was also considered a subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl until recently, but its smaller size, distinct voice (more clipped and high-pitched than the Eurasian), and the fact that it is largely allopatric in distribution (filling out the Indian subcontinent) with other Eurasian eagle-owl races has led to it being considered a distinct species. The mitochondrial DNA of the Indian species also appears considerably distinct from the Eurasian species. The Cape eagle-owl (B. capensis) appears to represent a return of this genetic line back into the African continent, where it leads a lifestyle similar to Eurasian eagle-owls, albeit far to the south. Another offshoot of the northern Bubo group is the snowy owl. It appears to have separated from other Bubo species at least 4 million years ago.
The fourth and most famous derivation of the evolutionary line that includes the Eurasian eagle-owl is the great horned owl, which appears to have been the result of primitive eagle-owls spreading into North America. According to some authorities, the great horned owls and Eurasian eagle-owls are barely distinct as species, with a similar level of divergence in their plumages as the Eurasian and North American representations of the great grey owl or the long-eared owl. More outward physical differences exist between the great horned owl and the Eurasian eagle-owl than in those two examples, including a great size difference favoring the Eurasian species, the great horned owl’s horizontal rather than vertical underside barring, yellow rather than orange eyes, and a much stronger black bracket to the facial disc, not to mention a number of differences in their reproductive behaviour and distinctive voices. Furthermore, genetic research has revealed that the snowy owl is more closely related to the great horned owl than are Eurasian eagle-owls. The most closely related species beyond the pharaoh, Indian, and Cape eagle-owls to the Eurasian eagle-owl is the smaller, less powerful and African spotted eagle-owl (B. africanus), which was likely to have divided from the line before they radiated away from Africa. Somehow, genetic materials indicate the spotted eagle-owl appears to share a more recent ancestor with the Indian eagle-owl than with the Eurasian eagle-owl or even the sympatric Cape eagle-owl. Eurasian eagle-owls in captivity have produced apparently healthy hybrids with both the Indian eagle-owl and the great horned owl. The pharaoh, Indian, and Cape eagle-owls and the great horned owl are all broadly similar in size to each other, but all are considerably smaller than the Eurasian eagle-owl, which averages at least 15–30% larger in linear dimensions and 30–50% larger in body mass than these other related species, possibly as the eagle-owls adapted to warmer climates and smaller prey. Fossils from southern France have indicated that during the Middle Pleistocene, Eurasian eagle-owls (this paleosubspecies is given the name B. b. davidi) were larger than they are today, even larger were those found in Azerbaijan and in the Caucasus (either B. b. bignadensis or B. bignadensis), which were deemed to date to the Late Pleistocene. About 12 subspecies are recognized today.
Habitat
Eagle-owls are distributed somewhat sparsely, but can potentially inhabit a wide range of habitats, with a partiality for irregular topography. They have been found in habitats as diverse as northern coniferous forests to the edge of vast deserts. Essentially, Eurasian eagle-owls have been found living in almost every climatic and environmental condition on the Eurasian continent, excluding the greatest extremities, i.e. they are absent from humid rainforest in Southeast Asia, and the high Arctic tundra, both of which they are more or less replaced by other species of Bubo owls. They are often found in the largest numbers in areas where cliffs and ravines are surrounded by a scattering of trees and bushes. Grassland areas such as alpine meadows or desert-like steppe can also host them so long as they have the cover and protection of rocky areas. The preference of eagle-owls for places with irregular topography has been reported in most known studies. The obvious benefit of such nesting locations is that both nests and daytime roosts located in rocky areas and/or steep slopes would be less accessible to predators, including man. Also, they may be attracted to the vicinity of riparian or wetlands areas, because the soft soil of wet areas is conducive to burrowing by the small, terrestrial mammals normally preferred in the diet, such as voles and rabbits.
Due to their preference for rocky areas, the species is often found in mountainous areas, and can be found up to elevations of 2,100 m (6,900 ft) in the Alps, 4,500 m (14,800 ft) in the Himalayas, and 4,700 m (15,400 ft) in the adjacent Tibetan Plateau. They can also be found living at sea level and may nest amongst rocky sea cliffs. Despite their success in areas such as subarctic zones and mountains that are frigid for much of the year, warmer conditions seem to result in more successful breeding attempts per studies in the Eifel region of Germany. In a study from Spain, areas primarily consisting of woodlands (52% of study area being forested) were preferred with pine trees predominating the oaks in habitats used, as opposed to truly mixed pine-oak woodland. Pine and other coniferous stands are often preferred in great horned owls, as well, due to the constant density, which make overlooking the large birds more likely. In mountainous forest, they are not generally found in enclosed wooded areas, as is the tawny owl (Strix alucco), instead usually near forest edge. Only 2.7% of the habitat included in the territorial ranges for eagle-owls per the habitat study in Spain consisted of cultivated or agricultural land. Compared to golden eagles, though, they can visit cultivated land more regularly in hunting forays due to their nocturnal habits, which allow them to largely evade human activity. Other accounts make clear that farmland is only frequented where its less intensively farmed, holds more extensive treed and bushy areas, and often has limited to no irrigation; farmland areas with fallow or abandoned fields are more likely to hold more prey, so are prone to less frequent human disturbance. In the Italian Alps, almost no pristine habitat remained, and eagle-owls nested locally in the vicinity of towns, villages, and ski resorts.
Although found in the largest numbers in areas sparsely populated by humans, farmland is sometimes inhabited, and they even have been observed living in park-like or other quiet settings within European cities. Since 2005, at least five pairs have nested in Helsinki. This is due in part to feral European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) having recently populated the Helsinki area, originally from pet rabbits released to the wild. The number is expected to increase due to the growth of the European rabbit population in Helsinki. European hares (Lepus europaeus), the often preferred prey species by biomass of the eagle-owls in their natural habitat, live only in rural areas of Finland, not in the city centre. In June 2007, an eagle-owl nicknamed 'Bubi' landed in the crowded Helsinki Olympic Stadium during the European Football Championship qualification match between Finland and Belgium. The match was interrupted for six minutes. After tiring of the match, following Jonathan Johansson's opening goal for Finland, the bird left the scene. Finland's national football team have had the nickname Huuhkajat (Finnish for "Eurasian eagle-owls") ever since. The owl was named "Helsinki Citizen of the Year" in December 2007. In 2020, a brood of three eagle-owl chicks was raised by their mother on a large, well-foliaged planter on an apartment window in the city centre of Geel, Belgium.
Distribution
The Eurasian eagle-owl is one of the most widely distributed of all owl species, although it is far less wide-ranging than the barn owl, the short-eared owl (Asio flammeus) and long-eared owl and lacks the circumpolar range of boreal species such as great grey owl, boreal owl and northern hawk owl (Surnia ulula). This eagle-owl reaches its westernmost range in the Iberian Peninsula, both almost throughout Spain and more spottily in Portugal. From there, the Eurasian eagle-owl ranges widely in the south of France from Toulouse to Monaco and as far north into the central part of the country as in Allier. Farther north, they are found sporadically and discontinuously in Luxembourg, southern and western Belgium and scarcely into the Netherlands. It is infrequently found in southern and central United Kingdom. In Germany, the eagle-owl can be found in large but highly discontinuous areas, mostly in the south and central areas but is almost entirely absent in areas such as Brandenburg. Across from its south German range, this species range is nearly continuous into the Czech Republic, Slovakia, northern and eastern Hungary and very spottily into Poland. In the fairly montane countries of Switzerland and Austria, the eagle-owl can be found fairly broadly. In Italy, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found where the habitat is favorable in much of the northern, western and central portions down to as far south Melito di Porto Salvo. From Italy, this species sweeps quite broadly along the Mediterranean coast in Southeastern Europe from Slovenia mostly continuously to most of Greece and Bulgaria. In eastern Europe, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found essentially throughout from central Romania to Estonia. The species also occupies a majority of Finland and Scandinavia, where most broadly found in Norway, somewhat more spottily in Sweden and in Denmark it is found widely in Jutland (absent from the islands).
The Eurasian eagle-owl's range in Russia is truly massive, with the species apparently nearly unbound by habitat, with their distribution only excluding them from the true Arctic zone, i.e. their range stops around the tree line. If not the most densely populated species, they almost certainly stand as Russia's most widely distributed owl species. From Russia, they are found throughout Central Asia, residing continuously in each nation from Kazakhstan down to Afghanistan. In Asia Minor, they are found broadly in Georgia, Azerbaijan and somewhat so in western and southern Turkey but is quite sporadic in distribution overall in Turkey. A spotty range also exists in the Middle East in Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and western Iran, the species being found broadly only in north and western Iran. In South Asia, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found mostly often in northern Pakistan, northern Nepal and Bhutan and more marginally into far northern India. This species resides throughout Mongolia, almost the entirety of China (mainly absent only from southern Yunnan and southern Guangxi). From China and eastern Russia, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found throughout Korea, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and rarely into Japan in northern Hokkaido. Besides the Kurils, the farthest eastern part of the range for this species is in Magadan in the Russian Far East.
Behaviour
The Eurasian eagle-owl is largely nocturnal in activity, as are most owl species, with its activity focused in the first few hours after sunset and the last few hours before sunrise. In the northern stretches of its range, partial diurnal behaviour has been recorded, including active hunting in broad daylight during the late afternoon. In such areas, full nightfall is essentially non-existent at the peak of summer, so eagle-owls must presumably hunt and actively brood at the nest during daylight. The Eurasian eagle-owl has a number of vocalizations that are used at different times. It will usually select obvious topographic features such as rocky pinnacles, stark ridges and mountain peaks to use as regular song posts. These are dotted along the outer edges of the eagle-owl's territory and they are visited often but only for a few minutes at a time.
Vocal activity is almost entirely confined to the colder months from late fall through winter, with vocal activity in October through December mainly having territorial purposes and from January to February being primarily oriented towards courtship and mating purposes. Vocalizations in a Spanish study begin no sooner than 29 minutes after sunset and end no later than 55 minutes before sunrise. The territorial song, which can be heard at great distance, is a deep resonant ooh-hu with emphasis on the first syllable for the male, and a more high-pitched and slightly more drawn-out uh-hu for the female. It is not uncommon for a pair to perform an antiphonal duet. The widely used name in Germany as well as some other sections of Europe for this species is uhu due to its song. At 250–350 Hz, the Eurasian eagle-owls territorial song or call is deeper, farther-carrying and is often considering "more impressive" than the territorial songs of the great horned owl or even that of the slightly larger Blakiston's fish owl, although the horned owl’s call averages slightly longer in duration and the Blakiston's call is typically deeper.[7] Other calls include a rather faint, laughter-like OO-OO-oo and a harsh kveck-kveck. Intruding eagle-owls and other potential dangers may be met with a "terrifying", extremely loud hooo. Raucous barks not unlike those of ural owls or long-eared owls have been recorded but are deeper and more powerful than those species’ barks. Annoyance at close quarters is expressed by bill-clicking and cat-like spitting, and a defensive posture involves lowering the head, ruffling the back feathers, fanning the tail and spreading the wings.
The Eurasian eagle-owl rarely assumes the so-called "tall-thin position", which is when an owl adopts an upright stance with plumage closely compressed and may stand tightly beside a tree trunk. Among others, the long-eared owl is among the most often reported to sit with this pose. The great horned owl has been more regularly recorded using the tall-thin, if not as consistently as some Strix and Asio owls, and it is commonly thought to aid camouflage if encountering a threatening or novel animal or sound. The Eurasian eagle-owl is a broad-winged species and engages in a strong, direct flight, usually consisting of shallow wing beats and long, surprisingly fast glides. It has, unusually for an owl, also been known to soar on updrafts on rare occasions. The latter method of flight has led them to be mistaken for Buteos, which are smaller and quite differently proportioned. Usually when seen flying during the day, it is due to being disturbed or displaced from its roost by humans or mobbing animals, such as crows. Eurasian eagle-owls are highly sedentary, normally maintaining a single territory throughout their adult lives.
Eurasian eagle-owl are considered a completely non-migratory bird, as are all members of the Bubo genus excluding the snowy owl. Even those near the northern limits of their range, where winters are harsh and likely to bear little in food, the eagle-owl does not leave its native range. In 2020, a study presented evidence of a short distance distribution by adult eagle-owls in the fall subsequent to breeding, with 5 adults found to move over 20 km (12 mi) away from their nests. There are additionally claimed cases from Russia of Eurasian eagle-owls moving south for the winter, as the icebound, infamously harsh climate there may be too severe even for these hardy birds and their prey. Similarly, Eurasian eagle-owls living in the Tibetan highlands and Himalayas may in some anecdotal cases vacate their normal territories when winter hits and move south. In both of those examples, these are old, unverified reports and there is no evidence whatsoever of consistent, annual migration by Eurasian eagle-owls and the birds may eke out a living on their normal territories even in the sparsest times.
Dietary biology
Eurasian eagle-owls are strictly territorial and will defend their territories from interloping eagle-owls year around, but territorial calling appears to peak around October to early January. Territory size is similar or occasionally slightly greater than great horned owl: averaging 15 to 80 km2 (5.8 to 30.9 sq mi). Territories are established by the male eagle-owl, who selected the highest points in the territory from which to sing. The high prominence of singing perches allows their song to be heard at greater distances and lessens the need for potentially dangerous physical confrontations in the areas where territories may meet. Nearly as important in territorial behaviour as vocalization is the white throat patch. When taxidermied specimens with flared white throats were placed around the perimeter of eagle-owl territories, male eagle-owls reacted quite strongly and often attacked the stuffed owl, reacting more mildly to a stuffed eagle-owl with a non-flared white throat. Females were less likely to be aggressive to mounted specimens and did not seem to vary in their response whether exposed to the specimens with or without the puffed up white patch. In January and February, the primary function for vocalization becomes for the purpose of courtship. More often than not, eagle-owls will pair for life but usually engage in courtship rituals annually, most likely to re-affirm pair bonds. When calling for the purposes of courtship, males tend to bow and hoot loudly but do so in a less contorted manner than the male great horned owl. Courtship in the Eurasian eagle-owl may involve bouts of "duetting", with the male sitting upright and the female bowing as she calls. There may be mutual bowing, billing and fondling before the female flies to a perch where coitus occurs, usually taking place several times over the course of a few minutes.
Nests
The male selects breeding sites and advertises their potential to the female by flying to them and kneading out a small depression (if soil is present) and making staccato notes and clucking noises. Several potential sites may be presented, with the female selecting one. In Baden-Wurttenberg, Germany, the amount of male nest site visits were found to increase in time spent over the pre-laying breeding season from a mean of 29 minutes to 3 hours with frequent incubation like sitting by the male. Like all owls, Eurasian eagle-owls do not build nests or add material but nest on the surface or material already present. Eurasian eagle-owls normally nest on rocks or boulders, most often utilizing cliff ledges and steep slopes, as well as crevices, gullies, holes or caves. Rocky areas that also prove concealing woodlots as well as, for hunting purposes, that border river valleys and grassy scrubland may be especially attractive. If only low rubble is present, they will nest on the ground between rocks. Often, in more densely forested areas, they've been recorded nesting on the ground, often among roots of trees, under large bushes and under fallen tree trunks. Steep slopes with dense vegetation are preferred if nesting on the ground, although some ground nests are surprisingly exposed or in flat spots such as in open spots of the taiga, steppe, ledges of river banks and between wide tree trunks. All Eurasian eagle-owl nests in the largely forested Altai Krai region of Russia were found to be on the ground, usually at the base of pines. This species does not often use other bird’s nests as does the great horned owl, which often prefers nests built by other animals over any other nesting site. The Eurasian eagle-owl has been recorded in singular cases using nests built by common buzzards (Buteo buteo), golden eagle, greater spotted (Clanga clanga) and white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla), common ravens (Corvus corax) and black storks (Ciconia nigra). Among the eagle-owls of the fairly heavily wooded wildlands of Belarus, they more commonly utilize nests built by other birds than most eagle-owls, i.e. stork or accipitrid nests, but a majority of nests are still located on the ground. This is contrary to the indication that ground nests are selected only if rocky areas or other bird nests are unavailable, as many will utilize ground nests even where large bird nests seem to be accessible. Tree holes being used for nesting sites are even more rarely recorded than nests constructed by other birds. While it may be assumed that the eagle-owl is too large to utilize tree hollows, when other large species like the great grey owl have never been recorded nesting in one, the even more robust Blakiston's fish owl nests exclusively in cavernous hollows. The Eurasian eagle-owl often uses the same nest site year after year.
Parental behaviour
In Engadin, Switzerland, the male eagle-owl alone hunts until the young are 4 to 5 weeks old and the female spends all her time brooding at the nest. After this point, the female gradually resumes hunting from both herself and the young and thus provides a greater range of food for the young. While it may seem contrary to the species’ highly territorial nature, there is one verified cases of polygamy in Germany, with a male apparently mating with two females, and cooperative brooding in Spain, with a third adult of undetermined sex helping a breeding pair care for the chicks. The response of Eurasian eagle-owls to humans approaching at the nest is quite variable. The species is often rather less aggressive than some other owls, including related species like the spot-bellied eagle-, great horned and snowy owls, many of the northern Strix species, and even some rather smaller owl species, which often fearlessly attack any person found to be nearing their nests. Occasionally, if a person climbs to an active nest, the adult female eagle-owl will do a distraction display, in which they feign an injury. This is an uncommon behavior in most owls and is most often associated with small birds trying to falsely draw the attention of potential predators away from their offspring. More commonly, the adults withdraw to a safe distance, as their nests are usually well-camouflaged. Occasionally if cornered both adults and nestlings will do an elaborate threat display, also rare in owls in general, in which the eagle-owls raise their wings into a semi-circle and puff up their feathers, followed by a snapping of their bills. Apparently, eagle-owls of uncertain and probably exotic origin in Britain are likely to react aggressively to humans approaching the nest. Also, aggressive encounters involving eagle-owls around their nest, despite being historically uncommon, apparently have increased in recent decades in Scandinavia. The discrepancy of aggressiveness at the nest between the Eurasian eagle-owl and its Nearctic counterpart may be correlated to variation in the extent of nest predation that the species endured during the evolutionary process.
Eggs and offspring development
The eggs are normally laid at intervals of three days and are incubated only by the female. Laying generally begins in late winter but may be later in the year in colder habitats. During the incubation period, the female is brought food at the nest by her mate. A single clutch of white eggs is laid; each egg can measure from 56 to 73 mm (2.2 to 2.9 in) long by 44.2 to 53 mm (1.74 to 2.09 in) in width, and will usually weigh about 75 to 80 g (2.6 to 2.8 oz). In Central Europe, eggs average 59.8 mm × 49.5 mm (2.35 in × 1.95 in), and in Siberia, eggs average 59.4 mm × 50.1 mm (2.34 in × 1.97 in). Their eggs are only slightly larger than those of snowy owls and the nominate subspecies of great horned owl, while similar in size to those of spot-bellied eagle-owls and Blakiston's fish owls. The Eurasian eagle-owl’s eggs are noticeably larger than those of Indian eagle-owl and pharaoh eagle-owls. Usually clutch size is one or two, rarely three or four, and exceptionally to six. The average number of eggs laid varies with latitude in Europe. Clutch size ranges from 2.02 to 2.14 in Spain and the massifs of France, and 1.82 to 1.89 in central Europe and the eastern Alps; in Sweden and Finland, the mean clutch size is 1.56 and 1.87, respectively. While variation based on climate is not unusual for different wide-ranging palearctic species, the higher clutch size of western Mediterranean eagle-owls is also probably driven by the presence of lagomorphs in the diet, which provide high nutritional value than most other regular prey. The average clutch size, attributed as 2.7, was the lowest of any European owl per one study. One species was attributed with an even lower clutch size in North America, the great grey owl with a mean of 2.6, but the mean clutch size was much higher for the same species in Europe, at 4.05.
In Spain, incubation is from mid-January to mid-March, hatching and early nestling period is from late March to early April, fledging and postfledging dependence can range from mid-April to August, and territorial/courtship is anytime hereafter; i.e. the period between the beginning of juvenile dispersal to egg laying; from September to early January. The same general date parameters were followed in southern France. In the Italian Alps, the mean egg-laying date was similarly February 27, but the young were more likely to be dependent later, as all fledglings were still being cared for by the end of August, and some even lingered under parental care until October. In northern climes, the breeding season shifts somewhat later by as much as a month so that egg laying may be as late as late March or early April. Nonetheless, the Eurasian eagle-owl is one of the earliest nesting bird species in Europe or northern, temperate Asia.
The first egg hatches after 31 to 36 days of incubation. The eggs hatch successively; although the average interval between egg-laying is 3 days, the young tend to hatch no more than a day or two apart. Like all owls that nest in the open, the downy young are often a mottled grey with some white and buff, which provides camouflage. They open their eyes at 4 days of age. The chicks grow rapidly, being able to consume small prey whole after roughly 3 weeks. In Andalusia, the most noticeable development of the young before they leave the nest was the increase of body size, which was the highest growth rate of any studied owl and faster than either snowy or great horned owls. Body mass increased fourteen times over from 5 days old to 60 days old in this study. The male continues to bring prey, leaving it on or around the nest, and the female feeds the nestlings, tearing up the food into suitably sized pieces. The female resumes hunting after about 3 weeks, which increases the food supply to the chicks. Many nesting attempts produce two fledglings, indicating that siblicide is not as common as in other birds of prey, especially a few species of eagles. In Spain, males are thought to be the first egg laid to reduce the likelihood of sibling aggression due to the size difference, thus the younger female hatchling is less likely to be killed since it is similar in size to its older sibling.
Apparently, the point at which the chicks venture out of the nest is driven by the location of the nest. In elevated nest sites, chicks usually wander out of the nest at 5 to as late as 7 weeks of age, but have been recorded leaving the nest if the nest is on the ground as early as 22 to 25 days old. The chicks can walk well at 5 weeks of age and by 7 weeks are taking short flights. Hunting and flying skills are not tested prior to the young eagle-owls leaving the nest. Young Eurasian eagle-owls leave the nest by 5–6 weeks of age and typically can be flying weakly (a few metres) by about 7–8 weeks of age. Normally, they are cared for at least another month. By the end of the month, the young eagle-owls are quite assured fliers. A few cases have been confirmed of adult eagle-owls in Spain feeding and caring for postfledgling juvenile eagle-owls that were not their own.
Like many large owls, Eurasian eagle-owls leave the nest while still in a functionally flightless state and with large amounts of second down still present, but will fly shortly thereafter.
A study from southern France found the mean number of fledglings per nest was 1.67. In central Europe, the mean number of fledglings per nest was between 1.8 and 1.9. The mean fledgling rate in the Italian Alps was 1.89, thus being similar. In the Italian Alps, heavier rainfall during breeding decreased fledgling success because it inhibited the ability of the parents to hunt and potentially exposed nestlings to hypothermia. In the reintroduced population of eagle-owls in Eifel, Germany, occupied territories produced an average of 1.17 fledglings, but not all occupying pairs attempted to breed, with about 23% of those attempting to breed being unsuccessful. In slightly earlier studies, possibly due to higher persecution rates, the mean number of young leaving the nest was often lower, such as 1.77 in Bavaria, Germany, 1.1 in lower Austria, and 0.6 in southern Sweden. An experimental supplemental feeding program to young eagle-owls on two small Norwegian islands were found to increase mean numbers of fledglings from a mean of about 1.2 to 1.7 despite evidence that increased human activity near the nest decreased owlet survivability. While sibling owls are close in the stage between leaving the nest and fully fledged, about 20 days after leaving the nest, the family unit seems to dissolve and the young disperse quickly and directly. All told, the dependence of young eagle-owls on their parents lasts for 20 to 24 weeks. Independence in central Europe is from September to November. The young leave their parents' care normally on their own, but are also sometimes chased away by their parents. The young Eurasian eagle-owls reach sexual maturity by the following year, but do not normally breed until they can establish a territory at around 2–3 years old. Until they are able to establish their own territories, young eagle-owls spend their lives as nomadic "floaters", and while they also call, select inconspicuous perch sites unlike breeding birds. Male floaters are especially wary about intrusion into an established territory to avoid potential conspecific aggression.
Status
he Eurasian eagle-owl has a very wide range across much of Europe and Asia, estimated to be about 32,000,000 km2 (12,000,000 sq mi). In Europe, the population is estimated at 19,000 to 38,000 breeding pairs, and in the whole world around 250,000 to 2,500,000 individual birds. The population trend is thought to be decreasing because of human activities, but with such a large range and large total population, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated the bird as being of least concern. Although roughly equal in adaptability and wideness of distribution, the great horned owl, with a total estimated population up to 5.3 million individuals, apparently has a total population that is roughly twice that of the Eurasian eagle-owl. Numerous factors, including a shorter history of systematic persecution, lesser sensitivity to human disturbance while nesting, somewhat greater ability to adapt to marginal habitats and widespread urbanization, and slightly smaller territories may play into the horned owls greater numbers in modern times. Eurasian eagle-owls are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated.
Longevity
The Eurasian eagle-owl surely is one of the longest-living owls on average. The eagle-owl can live for up to 20 years in the wild. At one time, the oldest ringed eagle-owl was considered a 19-year-old specimen. Some studies posited that in protected areas, lifespans ranging up to 15–20 years may not be uncommon. A record-breaking specimen banded in the wild was subsequently found to survive to be 27 years and 9 months old. Like many other bird species in captivity, they can live much longer without having to endure difficult natural conditions, and have possibly survived up to 68 years in zoo collections. Healthy adults normally have no natural predators, thus are considered apex predators. The leading causes of death for this species are man-made; electrocution, traffic accidents, and shooting frequently claim the lives of eagle-owls.
Anthropogenic mortality
Electrocution was the greatest cause of mortality in 68% of 25 published studies, and accounted, on average, for 38.2% of the reported eagle-owl deaths. This was particularly true in the Italian Alps, where the number of dangerous, uninsulated pylons near nests was extremely high, but is highly problematic almost throughout the species’ European distribution. In one telemetry study, 55% of 27 dispersing young were electrocuted within 1 year of their release from captivity, while electrocution rates of wild-born young are even higher. Mortality in the Swiss Rhine Valley was variable, in radio-tagged, released individuals, most died as a result of starvation (48%) rather than human-based causes, but 93% of the wild, untagged individuals found dead were due to human activities, 46% due to electrocution, and 43% due to collision with vehicles or trains. Insulation of pylons is thought to result in a stabilisation of the local population due to floaters taking up residence in unoccupied territories that formerly held deceased eagle-owls. Eurasian eagle-owls from Finland were found mainly to die due to electrocution (39%) and collisions with vehicles (22%). Wind turbine collisions can also be a serious cause of mortality locally.
Eagle-owls have been singled out historically as a threat to game species, thus to the economic well-being of landowners, game-keepers, and even governmental agencies, and as such, have been singled out for widespread persecution. Local extinctions of Eurasian eagle-owls have been primarily due to persecution. Examples of this include northern Germany in 1830, the Netherlands sometimes in the late 19th century, Luxembourg in 1903, Belgium in 1943, and central and western Germany in the 1960s. In trying to determine causes of death for 1476 eagle-owls from Spain, most were unknown and undetermined types of trauma. The largest group that could be determined, 411 birds, was due to collisions, more than half of which were from electrocution, while 313 were due to persecution, and merely 85 were directly attributable to natural causes. Clearly, while pylon safety is perhaps the most serious factor to be addressed in Spain, persecution continues to be a massive problem for Spanish eagle-owls. Of seven European nations where modern Eurasian eagle-owl mortality is well-studied, continual persecution is by far the largest problem in Spain, although also continues to be serious (often comprising at least half of studied mortality) in France. From France and Spain, nearly equal numbers of eagle-owls are poisoned (for which raptors might not be the main target), or shot intentionally.
Conservation and reintroductions
While the eagle-owl remains reasonably numerous in some parts of its habitat where nature is still relatively little disturbed by human activity, such as the sparsely populated regions of Russia and Scandinavia, concern has been expressed about the future of the Eurasian eagle-owl in Western and Central Europe. There, very few areas are not heavily modified by human civilisation, thus exposing the birds to the risk of collisions with deadly man-made objects (e.g. pylons) and a depletion of native prey numbers due to ongoing habitat degradation and urbanisation.
In Spain, long-term governmental protection of the Eurasian eagle-owl seems to have no positive effect on reducing the persecution of eagle-owls. Therefore, Spanish conservationists have recommended to boost education and stewardship programs to protect eagle-owls from direct killing by local residents. Unanimously, biologists studying eagle-owl mortality and conservation factors have recommended to proceed with the proper insulation of electric wires and pylons in areas where the species is present. As this measure is labour-intensive and therefore rather expensive, few efforts have actually been made to insulate pylons in areas with few fiscal resources devoted to conservation such as rural Spain. In Sweden, a mitigation project was launched to insulate transformers that are frequently damaged by eagle-owl electrocution.
Large reintroduction programs were instituted in Germany after the eagle-owl was deemed extinct in the country as a breeding species by the 1960s, as a result of a long period of heavy persecution. The largest reintroduction there occurred from the 1970s to the 1990s in the Eifel region, near the border with Belgium and Luxembourg. The success of this measure, consisting in more than a thousand eagle-owls being reintroduced at an average cost of US$1,500 per bird, is a subject of controversy. Those eagle-owls reintroduced in the Eifel region appear to be able to breed successfully, and enjoy nesting success comparable with wild eagle-owls from elsewhere in Europe. Mortality levels in the Eifel region, though, appear to remain quite high due to anthropogenic factors. Also, concerns exist about a lack of genetic diversity of the species in this part of Germany. Apparently, the German reintroductions have allowed eagle-owls to repopulate neighbouring parts of Europe, as the breeding populations now occurring in the Low Countries (the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg) are believed to be the result of influx from regions further to the east. Smaller reintroductions have been done elsewhere, and the current breeding population in Sweden is believed to be primarily the result of a series of reintroductions. Conversely to numerous threats and declines incurred by Eurasian eagle-owls, areas where human-dependent, non-native prey species such as brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) and rock pigeons (Columba livia) have flourished, have given the eagle-owls a primary food source and allowed them occupy regions where they were once marginalized or absent.
Occurrence in Great Britain
The Eurasian eagle-owl at one time occurred naturally in Great Britain. Some, including the RSPB, have claimed that it had disappeared about 10,000–9,000 years ago, after the last ice age, but fossil remains found in Meare Lake Village indicate the eagle-owl occurring as recently as roughly 2,000 years ago in the fossil record. The lack of presence of the Eurasian eagle-owl in British folklore or writings in recent millennium may indicate the lack of occurrence by this species there. The flooding of the land bridge between Britain and continental Europe may have been responsible for their extirpation as they only disperse over limited distances, although early human persecution presumably played a role as well. Some reportages of eagle-owls in Britain have been revealed to actually be great horned owls or Indian eagle-owls, the latter a particularly popular owl in falconry circuits.[110] Some breeding pairs do still occur in Britain, though the exact number of pairs and individuals is not definitely known. The World Owl Trust stated that they believe some eagle-owls occurring in North England and Scotland are naturally occurring, making the flight of roughly 350 to 400 km (220 to 250 mi) from the west coast of Norway to Shetland and the east coast of Scotland, as well as possibly from the coasts of the Netherlands and Belgium to the south. Although not migratory, eagle-owls can disperse some notable distances in young birds seeking a territory.
Prior studies of eagle-owl distribution have indicated a strong reluctance to cross large bodies of water in the species. Many authorities state that the Eurasian eagle-owls occurring in Britain are individuals that have escaped from captivity. While, until the 19th century, wealthy collectors may have released unwanted eagle-owls, despite press to the contrary, no evidence of any organization or individual intentionally releasing eagle-owls recently with the intent to establish a breeding population has been found. Many feel that the eagle-owl would be classified as an "alien" species. Due to its predatory abilities, many, especially those in the press, have expressed alarm of their effect on "native" species. From 1994 to 2007, 73 escaped eagle-owls were not registered as returned, while 50 escapees were recaptured. Several recorded breeding attempts have been studied, and most were unsuccessful, due in large part to incidental disturbance by humans and some due to direct persecution, with eggs having been smashed.
Effect on conservation-dependent species
As highly opportunistic predators, Eurasian eagle-owls hunt almost any appropriately sized prey they encounter. Most often, they take whatever prey is locally common and can take a large number of species considered harmful to human financial interests, such as rats, mice, and pigeons. Eurasian eagle-owls do take rare or endangered species, as well. Among the species considered at least vulnerable (up to critically endangered as in the mink and eel, both heavily overexploited by humans) to extinction known to be hunted by Eurasian eagle-owls are Russian desman (Desmana moschata) Pyrenean desman (Galemys pyrenaicus), barbastelle (Barbastella barbastellus), European ground squirrel (Spermophilus citellus), southwestern water vole (Arvicola sapidus), European mink (Mustela lutreola), marbled polecat (Vormela peregusna), lesser white-fronted goose (Anser erythrops), Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), greater spotted eagle (Clanga clanga), eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), saker falcon (Falco cherrug), houbara bustard (Chlamydotis undulata), great bustard (Otis tarda), spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca), Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), European eel (Anguilla anguilla) and lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus).
Louis Gauffier (1762-1801) - The family of Andre-Francois, Count Miot de Melito (1762-1841), consul of France to Florence, 1795-6
www.youtube.com/watch?v=y5JN8_OUgks
Ecco cosa ha scritto ieri Osvaldo Pieroni nel suo photostream:
In Osvaldo Pieroni's photostream yesterday I read:
TOMORROW THERE WILL BE A GREAT PROTEST RALLY AGAINST TOXIC WASTE IN CALABRIA. (I will partecipate, of course)
Fathers have deliberately and repeatedly been poisoning their children. This is what has actually been happening over the last 15-20 years in Calabria, the poorest southern Italian region. At the beginning, the toxic waste scandal seemed an invented story, a legend; in the last few months however, several concrete new elements have surfaced and made this plot as true as it is disgusting. People have come to realise the brutal and most extreme consequences of the eco-mafia affair.
Francesco Fonti, a former ‘mafioso’, has informed investigators that the 'ndrangheta (the Calabrian mafia) made easy and good money by treating toxic dangerous waste, whose legal treatment would have been extremely expensive and politically complicated. The murky affair was not limited to Southern Italian regions but might also have involved Northern African countries. Fonti reported that around 30 toxic ships were sunk off the Calabrian coast by local Mafia and a profit amounting to between 2 and 15 m€ was collected per ship. He declared that in 1992 he was personally responsible for the explosion and the sinking of three ships (Cunsky, Yvonne A and Voriais Sporadais), off the coasts of Cetraro, Maratea and Melito Porto Salvo. Fonti's description of the events appears to be reliable as a recent verification of the ship which was found a few days ago in the Cetraro sea bed was rapidly linked to the Cunsky.
As is usual in such operations, the mafia did not act alone. A strong economic and institutional network with links both within and beyond the Italian borders provided support in masterminding the affair. On the one hand, international and national economic groups were willing to accept a far cheaper alternative for toxic waste treatment. On the other hand, involvement even from the Italian secret services facilitated the organisation of such a complicated criminal operation.
According to Francesco Fonti, the SISMI (Italian Security and Secret Services) was a key figure in mediating all relations between economic powers and local mafias, in addition to guaranteeing extensive political protection for eco-mafia. Luca Barbareschi, Vice-President of the Parliamentary Transports Committee, declared in a recent interview that "international governments agreed on building/accepting a system which enabled them to get rid of dangerous toxic waste. The health of their citizens was their last concern…Secret services played a pivotal role in managing the whole illegal business".
All statements and suspects are now under investigation. Some declarations even suggest that such a large operation might have affected not just the Calabrian coastline but also the Calabrian internal countryside. Another worrying possibility being discussed is whether some of the toxic waste recipients, when prevented from being sunk with the ship, were moved and buried in the countryside. This would explain why in 1990 when a ship stranded over Formiciche's beach, its cargo was never found; scientists then discovered that the cancer index and the radioactive index in the close internal areas were abnormally high.
Whatever judgement is pronounced at the end of the investigation, this toxic waste scandal is likely to add a new and worrying black page in the endless book of mafia's crimes in Southern Italy. Given the relevance and the extent of this affair, we can easily assume that too many people were aware of the operation and that too many people decided to accept the system. For this reason, it is not senseless to state that fathers deliberately decided to poison their own children. State and anti-state (local mafia in primis), have, yet again, cooperated against people's basic rights. People's health was disregarded and people's right to live in a better region was dismissed. We cannot forget that Calabria, a Mediterranean jewel with over 700 Km of blue and transparent sea coasts, relies on a tourism based economy. The consequences of this eco-affair are likely to be devastating for the Calabrian population and for the decreasing number of young people who have stayed in Calabria in the hope of building their future in their own region. Mass migration is expected to continue and is likely to increase.
Calabria has been poisoned yet again. The sun of the formerly prosperous Magna Grecia stands over a moral desert.
Oakley ad art featuring Greg Lutzka. In this ad, the action art had more detail than the bigger foreground artwork.
Artwork created in Illustrator from photo references. Art direction from Paul Schulte of Oakley.
from a friend’s email on Holy Thursday:
"If I, therefore, the master and teacher, have washed your feet, you
ought to wash one another's feet. I have given you a model to follow,
so that as I have done for you, you should also do." (John 13:14-15)
Be gracious to me, O God, according to Your loving kindness;
According to the greatness of Your compassion blot out my
transgressions.
Wash me thoroughly from my iniquity
And cleanse me from my sin.
Purify me with hyssop, and I shall be clean;
Wash me, and I shall be whiter than snow. (Psalm 51)
In celebrating the sacrifice of the Lamb, we are united to the
heavenly liturgy and become part of that great multitude which cries
out: Salvation belongs to our God who sits upon the throne, and to the
Lamb! (Rev 7:10). The Eucharist is truly a glimpse of heaven appearing
on earth. It is a glorious ray of the heavenly Jerusalem which pierces
the clouds of our history and lights up our journey (Pope John Paul
II, Ecclesia de Eucharistia, 19).
O Sacrament Most Holy,
O Sacrament Divine,
All praise and all thanksgiving
Be every moment Thine!
This is He [Jesus in the Holy Eucharist] who is the Passover of our
salvation . . . . This is He who on the cross was not broken, and in
the earth did not decay, but from the dead rose again, and raised up
man from the depths of the tomb (Melito of Sardis, Second Century
Monk).
Eucharistic Prayer
Most Holy Trinity, I adore you!
My God, my God, I love You in the Most Blessed Sacrament.
Most Sorrowful, Ever Immaculate Heart of Mary, your Son suffered agony
at the thought of God's Will. He surrendered to the Will of the
Father, and an angel came to comfort Him. Pray for us to accept the
Crosses in our lives as God's Will, and to realize that we too will be
given the comfort and grace to carry them.
Invocation to the Holy Angels
Dear heavenly angels, all who reside in Heaven and assist us on
earth, guide us. Minister to the needs of all mankind. Be for us a
liaison between God and man. Protect the tabernacles of the world as
you protect our hearts as well, against the attacks of the evil one.
Dear angels, take all our needs and petitions to Heaven and lay them
on the Divine Altar of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Amen.
"COULD YOU NOT SPEND ONE HOUR WITH ME?"
Twelve Reasons From The Teachings Of The Church For Wanting To Spend
One Hour With Jesus In The Blessed Sacrament
1. You are greatly needed! "The Church and the world have a great need of Eucharistic Adoration."
(Pope John Paul II, Dominicae Cenae)
2. This is a personal invitation to you from Jesus. "Jesus waits for us in this Sacrament of Love." (Pope John Paul II,
Dominicae Canae)
3. Jesus is counting on you because the Eucharist is the center of
life. "Every member of the Church must be vigilant in seeing that the
sacrament of Love shall be at the center of the life of the people of
God so that through all the manifestations of worship due Him shall be given back "love for love" and truly become the life of our souls."
(Pope John Paul II, Redeemer of Man)
4. Your hour with Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament will repair for evils
of the world and bring about peace on earth. "Let us be generous with our time in going to meet Jesus and ready to make reparation for the great evils of the world. Let your adoration
never cease." (Pope John Paul II, Dominicai Cenae)
5. Day and night Jesus dwells in the Blessed Sacrament because you are
the most important person in the world to Him! "Christ is reserved in our churches as the spiritual center of the
heart of the community, the universal Church and all humanity, since
within the veil of the species, Christ is contained, the Invisible
Heart of the Church, the Redeemer of the world, the center of all
hearts, by Him all things are and of whom we exist." (Pope Paul IV,
Mysterium Fidei)
6. Jesus wants you to do more than to go to Mass on Sunday.
"Our communal worship at Mass must go together with our personal
worship of Jesus in Eucharistic adoration in order that our love may
be complete." (Pope John Paul II, Redeemer of Man)
7. You grow spiritually with each moment you spend with Jesus!
"Our essential commitment in life is to preserve and advance
constantly in Eucharistic life and Eucharistic piety and to grow
spiritually in the climate of the Holy Eucharist." (Pope John Paul II,
Redeemer of Man)
8. The best time you spend on earth is with Jesus, your Best Friend,
in the Blessed Sacrament!
"How great is the value of conversation with Christ in the Blessed
Sacrament, for there is nothing more consoling on earth, nothing more
efficacious for advancing along the road of holiness!" (Pope Paul VI,
Mysterium Fidei)
9. Just as you can't be exposed to the sun without receiving its rays,
neither can you come to Jesus exposed in the Blessed Sacrament without
receiving the Divine Rays of His Grace, His Love, His Peace.
"Christ is truly the Emmanuel, that is, God with us, day and night,
His is in our midst. He dwells with us full of grace and truth. He
restores morality, nourishes virtue, consoles the afflicted,
strengthens the weak." (Pope Paul VI, Mysterium Fidei)
10. If Jesus were actually visible in church, everyone would run to
welcome Him, but He remains hidden in the Sacred Host under the
appearance of Bread, because He is calling us to faith, that we many
come to Him in humility.
"The Blessed Sacrament is the "Living Heart" of each of our churches
and it is our very sweet duty to honor and adore the Blessed Host,
which our eyes see, the Incarnate Word, Whom they cannon see." (Pope
Paul VI, Credo of the People of God)
11. With transforming mercy, Jesus makes our heart one with His.
"He proposes His own example to those who come to Him, that all may
learn to be like Himself, gentle and humble of heart, and to seek not
their own interest but those of God." (Pope Paul VI, Mysterium Fidei)
12. If the Pope himself would give you a special invitation to visit
him in the Vatican, this honor would be nothing in comparison to the
honor and dignity that Jesus Himself bestows upon you with the
Invitation of spending one hour with Him in the Blessed Sacrament.
"The Divine Eucharist bestows upon the Christian people the
incomparable dignity." (Pope Paul VI, Mysterium Fidei)
________________
EXPLORE # 241 on Monday, March 24, 2008
The Book of Revelation, often called the Revelation to John, the Apocalypse of John, The Revelation, or simply Revelation, the Revelation of Jesus Christ (from its opening words) or the Apocalypse (and often misquoted as Revelations), is the final book of the New Testament, and therefore also the final book of the Christian Bible. It occupies a central place in Christian eschatology. Its title is derived from the first word of the text, written in Koine Greek: apokalypsis, meaning "unveiling" or "revelation" (before title pages and titles, books were commonly known by the incipit, their first words, as is also the case of the Hebrew Five Books of Moses (Torah)). The Book of Revelation is the only apocalyptic document in the New Testament canon (although there are short apocalyptic passages in various places in the Gospels and the Epistles).[a]
The author names himself in the text as "John", but his precise identity remains a point of academic debate. Second-century Christian writers such as Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Melito the bishop of Sardis, and Clement of Alexandria and the author of the Muratorian fragment identify John the Apostle as the "John" of Revelation.[1] Modern scholarship generally takes a different view,[2] and many consider that nothing can be known about the author except that he was a Christian prophet.[3][citation not found] Some modern scholars characterise Revelation's author as a putative figure whom they call "John of Patmos". The bulk of traditional sources date the book to the reign of the emperor Domitian (AD 81–96), and the evidence tends to confirm this.[4]
The book spans three literary genres: the epistolary, the apocalyptic, and the prophetic.[5] It begins with John, on the island of Patmos in the Aegean Sea, addressing a letter to the "Seven Churches of Asia". He then describes a series of prophetic visions, including figures such as the Seven Headed Dragon, The Serpent and the Beast, culminating in the Second Coming of Jesus.
The obscure and extravagant imagery has led to a wide variety of Christian interpretations: historicist interpretations see in Revelation a broad view of history; preterist interpretations treat Revelation as mostly referring to the events of the apostolic era (1st century), or, at the latest, the fall of the Roman Empire; futurists believe that Revelation describes future events, the seven churches growing into the body/believers throughout the age, and a reemergence or continuous rule of a Roman/Graeco system with modern capabilities described by John in ways familiar to him; and idealist or symbolic interpretations consider that Revelation does not refer to actual people or events, but is an allegory of the spiritual path and the ongoing struggle between good and evil.
Title, authorship, and date[edit]
St. John receives his Revelation. Saint-Sever Beatus, 11th century.
Main article: Authorship of the Johannine works
The name Revelation comes from the first word of the book in Koine Greek: ἀποκάλυψις (apokalypsis), which means "unveiling" or "revelation". The author names himself as "John", but modern scholars consider it unlikely that the author of Revelation also wrote the Gospel of John. Pope Dionysius of Alexandria set out some of the evidence for this view as early as the second half of the third century, noting that the gospel and the epistles attributed to John, unlike Revelation, do not name their author, and that the Greek of the gospel is stylistically correct and elegant while that of Revelation is neither; some later scholars believe that the two books also have radical differences in theological perspective.[6]
Tradition ascribes the authorship to John the Apostle, but it seems unlikely that the apostle could have lived into the most likely time for the book's composition, the reign of Domitian, and the author never states that he knew Jesus.[7] All that is known is that this John was a Jewish Christian prophet, probably belonging to a group of such prophets, and was accepted as such by the congregations to whom he addresses his letter.[4][8][citation not found] His precise identity remains unknown,[9] and modern scholarship commonly refers to him as "John of Patmos" [10] (Rev. 1:9 – "I was put on the Island of Patmos").
The book has been written about 95 AD. The date is suggested by clues in the visions pointing to the reign of the emperor Domitian.[11] The beast with seven heads and the number 666 seem to allude directly to the emperor Nero (reigned AD 54–68), but this does not require that Revelation was written in the 60s, as there was a widespread belief in later decades that Nero would return.[12][citation not found][4]
Genre[edit]
Revelation is an apocalyptic prophecy with an epistolary introduction addressed to seven churches in the Roman province of Asia.[13] "Apocalypse" means the revealing of divine mysteries;[14] John is to write down what is revealed (what he sees in his vision) and send it to the seven churches.[13] The entire book constitutes the letter—the letters to the seven individual churches are introductions to the rest of the book, which is addressed to all seven.[13] While the dominant genre is apocalyptic, the author sees himself as a Christian prophet: Revelation uses the word in various forms twenty-one times, more than any other New Testament book.[15]
Sources[edit]
The predominant view is that Revelation alludes to the Old Testament although it is difficult among scholars to agree on the exact number of allusions or the allusions themselves.[16] Revelation rarely quotes directly from the Old Testament, yet almost every verse alludes to or echoes older scriptures. Over half of the references stem from Daniel, Ezekiel, Psalms, and Isaiah, with Daniel providing the largest number in proportion to length and Ezekiel standing out as the most influential. Because these references appear as allusions rather than as quotes, it is difficult to know whether the author used the Hebrew or the Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures, but he was clearly often influenced by the Greek. He very frequently combines multiple references, and again the allusional style makes it impossible to be certain to what extent he did so consciously.[17][need quotation to verify]
According to several studies including a review by Dr James Tabor and Dr J. Massyngberde Ford, the Book of Revelation contains ancient pre-Christian texts of Jewish origin dating back to the time of John the Baptist and the communities of Qumran as well as antique Jewish texts. In several verses one can identify the ancient texts and that attributed to John, the latter having just added in the original text the words "Jesus Christ" (Rev 1: 1), "testimony of Jesus Christ" (Rev. 1: 2) or even "Jesus" (Rev 1: 9), and similar words in dozens of other verses.
Setting[edit]
Conventional understanding until recent times was that the Book of Revelation was written to comfort beleaguered Christians as they underwent persecution at the hands of a megalomaniacal Roman emperor, but much of this has now been jettisoned: Domitian is no longer viewed as a despot imposing an imperial cult, and it is no longer believed that there was any systematic empire-wide persecution of Christians in his time.[18][additional citation(s) needed] The current view is that Revelation was composed in the context of a conflict within the Christian community of Asia Minor over whether to engage with, or withdraw from, the far larger non-Christian community: Revelation chastises those Christians who wanted to reach an accommodation with the Roman cult of empire.[19] This is not to say that Christians in Roman Asia were not suffering, for withdrawal from, and defiance against, the wider Roman society, which imposed very real penalties; Revelation offered a victory over this reality by offering an apocalyptic hope: in the words of professor Adela Yarbro Collins, "What ought to be was experienced as a present reality."[20]
Canonical history[edit]
Further information: Development of the New Testament canon
Revelation was the last book accepted into the Christian biblical canon, and to the present day some churches that derive from the Church of the East reject it.[21][22] Eastern Christians became skeptical of the book as doubts concerning its authorship and unusual style[23] were reinforced by aversion to its acceptance by Montanists and other groups considered to be heretical.[24] This distrust of the Book of Revelation persisted in the East through the 15th century.[25]
Dionysius (248 AD), bishop of Alexandria, disciple of Origen wrote that the Book of Revelation could have been written by Cerinthus although he himself did not adopt the view that Cerinthus was the writer. He regarded the Apocalypse as the work of an inspired man but not of an Apostle (Eusebius, Church History VII.25).[26]
Eusebius, in his Church History (c. 330 AD) mentioned that the Apocalypse of John was accepted as a Canonical book and rejected at the same time:
1. ... it is proper to sum up the writings of the New Testament which have been already mentioned... After them is to be placed, if it really seem proper, the Apocalypse of John, concerning which we shall give the different opinions at the proper time. These then belong among the accepted writings [Homologoumena].
4. Among the rejected [Kirsopp. Lake translation: "not genuine"] writings must be reckoned, as I said, the Apocalypse of John, if it seem proper, which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the accepted books.[27]
The Apocalypse of John, also called Revelation, is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp. Lake translation: "Recognized") and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. The disputation can perhaps be attributed to Origen.[28] Origen seems to have accepted it in his writings.[29]
Cyril of Jerusalem (348 AD) does not name it among the canonical books (Catechesis IV.33–36).[30]
Athanasius (367 AD) in his Letter 39,[31] Augustine of Hippo (c. 397 AD) in his book On Christian Doctrine (Book II, Chapter 8),[32] Tyrannius Rufinus (c. 400 AD) in his Commentary on the Apostles' Creed,[33] Pope Innocent I (405 AD) in a letter to the bishop of Toulouse[34] and John of Damascus (about 730 AD) in his work An Exposition of the Orthodox Faith (Book IV:7)[35] listed "the Revelation of John the Evangelist" as a canonical book.
Synods[edit]
The Council of Laodicea (363) omits it as a canonical book.[36]
The Decretum Gelasianum, which is a work written by an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553, contains a list of books of scripture presented as having been reckoned as canonical by the Council of Rome (382 AD). This list mentions it as a part of the New Testament canon.[37]
The Synod of Hippo (in 393),[38] followed by the Council of Carthage (397), the Council of Carthage (419), the Council of Florence (1442 AD)[39] and the Council of Trent (1546 AD)[40] classified it as a canonical book.[41]
The Apostolic Canons, approved by the Eastern Orthodox Council in Trullo in 692, but rejected by Pope Sergius I, omit it.[42]
Protestant Reformation[edit]
Doubts resurfaced during the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther called it "neither apostolic nor prophetic" in the 1522 preface to his translation of the New Testament (he revised his position with a much more favorable assessment in 1530), and it was the only New Testament book on which John Calvin did not write a commentary.[43] As of 2015 it remains the only New Testament work not read in the Divine Liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church,[citation needed] though Catholic and Protestant liturgies include it.[citation needed]
Texts and manuscripts[edit]
There are approximately 300 Greek manuscripts of Revelation.[44] While the Codex Vaticanus does not include it, the other major manuscripts that do are the Codex Sinaiticus (4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (5th century), and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (5th century). In addition, there are numerous papyri, especially that of
P
{\mathfrak {P}}47 (3rd century); the minuscules (8th to 10th century), plus fragmentary quotations in the Church fathers of the 2nd to 5th centuries and the 6th-century Greek commentary on Revelation by Andreas.[45]
Literary structure[edit]
Divisions in the book seem to be marked by the repetition of key phrases, by the arrangement of subject matter into blocks, and associated with its Christological passages,[46] and much use is made of significant numbers, especially the number seven, which represented perfection according to ancient numerology.[47] Nevertheless, there is a "complete lack of consensus" among scholars about the structure of Revelation.[48] The following is therefore an outline of the book's contents rather than of its structure.
Outline[edit]
Main article: Events of Revelation
See also: Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
Revelation 6.2: And I saw, and behold a white horse: and he that sat on him had a bow; and a crown was given unto him: and he went forth conquering, and to conquer. White Rider from Tolkovy Apocalyps, Moscow, 17th century
Apocalypse 7, the 144,000 elect. Beatus d'Osma, 11th century
The Fourth Angel sounds his trumpet, Apocalypse 8. Beatus Escorial, circa 950.
Apocalypse 12, the Woman and the Dragon. Beatus d'Osma, 11th century
A seven-headed leopard-like beast, Apocalypse 13, Beatus Escorial
An 1880 Baxter process colour plate illustrating Revelation 22:17 by Joseph Martin Kronheim
"Thrust in thy sickle, and reap: for the time is come for thee to reap; for the harvest of the earth is ripe." (14:15), Escorial Beatus
The Great Red Dragon and the Woman Clothed with the Sun (Rev. 12 1–4) – William Blake Brooklyn Museum
The Revelation of Jesus Christ
The Revelation of Jesus Christ is communicated to John of Patmos through prophetic visions. (1:1–9)
John is instructed by the "one like a son of man" to write all that he hears and sees, from the prophetic visions, to Seven churches of Asia. (1:10–13)
The appearance of the "one like a son of man" is given, and he reveals what the seven stars and seven lampstands represent. (1:14–20)
Messages for seven churches of Asia
Ephesus: From this church, those "who overcome are granted to eat from the tree of life, which is in the midst of the Paradise of God." (2:1–7)
Praised for not bearing those who are evil, testing those who say they are apostles and are not, and finding them to be liars; hating the deeds of the Nicolaitans; having persevered and possessing patience.
Admonished to "do the first works" and to repent for having left their "first love."
Smyrna: From this church, those who are faithful until death, will be given "the crown of life." Those who overcome shall not be hurt by the second death. (2:8–11)
Praised for being "rich" while impoverished and in tribulation.
Admonished not to fear the "synagogue of Satan", nor fear a ten-day tribulation of being thrown into prison.
Pergamum: From this church, those who overcome will be given the hidden manna to eat and a white stone with a secret name on it." (2:12–17)
Praised for holding "fast to My name", not denying "My faith" even in the days of Antipas, "My faithful martyr."
Admonished to repent for having held the doctrine of Balaam, who taught Balak to put a stumbling block before the children of Israel; eating things sacrificed to idols, committing sexual immorality, and holding the "doctrine of the Nicolaitans."
Thyatira: From this church, those who overcome until the end, will be given power over the nations in order to dash them to pieces with the rule of a rod of iron; they will also be given the "morning star." (2:18–29)
Praised for their works, love, service, faith, and patience.
Admonished to repent for allowing a "prophetess" to promote sexual immorality and to eat things sacrificed to idols.
Sardis: From this church, those who overcome will be clothed in white garments, and their names will not be blotted out from the Book of Life; their names will also be confessed before the Father and His angels. (3:1–6)
Admonished to be watchful and to strengthen since their works have not been perfect before God.
Philadelphia: From this church, those who overcome will be made a pillar in the temple of God having the name of God, the name of the city of God, "New Jerusalem", and the Son of God's new name. (3:7–13)
Praised for having some strength, keeping "My word", and having not denied "My name."
Reminded to hold fast what they have, that no one may take their crown.
Laodicea: From this church, those who overcome will be granted the opportunity to sit with the Son of God on His throne. (3:14–22)
Admonished to be zealous and repent from being "lukewarm"; they are instructed to buy the "gold refined in the fire", that they may be rich; to buy "white garments", that they may be clothed, so that the shame of their nakedness would not be revealed; to anoint their eyes with eye salve, that they may see.
Before the Throne of God
The Throne of God appears, surrounded by twenty four thrones with Twenty-four elders seated in them. (4:1–5)
The four living creatures are introduced. (4:6–11)
A scroll, with seven seals, is presented and it is declared that the Lion of the tribe of Judah, from the "Root of David", is the only one that will be worthy to open this scroll in the future (5:1–5)[49]
When the "Lamb having seven horns and seven eyes" took the scroll, the creatures of heaven fell down before the Lamb to give him praise, joined by myriads of angels and the creatures of the earth. (5:6–14)
Seven Seals are opened
First Seal: A white horse appears, whose crowned rider has a bow with which to conquer. (6:1–2)
Second Seal: A red horse appears, whose rider is granted a "great sword" to take peace from the earth. (6:3–4)
Third Seal: A black horse appears, whose rider has "a pair of balances in his hand", where a voice then says, "A measure of wheat for a penny, and three measures of barley for a penny; and [see] thou hurt not the oil and the wine." (6:5–6)
Fourth Seal: A pale horse appears, whose rider is Death, and Hades follows him. Death is granted a fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, with hunger, with death, and with the beasts of the earth. (6:7–8)
Fifth Seal: "Under the altar", appeared the souls of martyrs for the "word of God", who cry out for vengeance. They are given white robes and told to rest until the martyrdom of their brothers is completed. (6:9-11)
Sixth Seal: (6:12–17)
There occurs a great earthquake where "the sun becomes black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon like blood" (6:12).
The stars of heaven fall to the earth and the sky recedes like a scroll being rolled up (6:13–14).
Every mountain and island is moved out of place (6:14).
The people of earth retreat to caves in the mountains (6:15).
The survivors call upon the mountains and the rocks to fall on them, so as to hide them from the "wrath of the Lamb" (6:16).
Interlude: The 144,000 Hebrews are sealed.
144,000 from the Twelve Tribes of Israel are sealed as servants of God on their foreheads (7:1–8)
A great multitude stand before the Throne of God, who come out of the Great Tribulation, clothed with robes made "white in the blood of the Lamb" and having palm branches in their hands. (7:9–17)
Seventh Seal: Introduces the seven trumpets (8:1–5)
"Silence in heaven for about half an hour" (8:1).
Seven angels are each given trumpets (8:2).
An eighth angel takes a "golden censer", filled with fire from the heavenly altar, and throws it to the earth (8:3–5). What follows are "peals of thunder, rumblings, flashes of lightning, and an earthquake" (8:5).
After the eighth angel has devastated the earth, the seven angels introduced in verse 2 prepare to sound their trumpets (8:6).
Seven trumpets are sounded (Seen in Chapters 8, 9, and 12).
First Trumpet: Hail and fire, mingled with blood, are thrown to the earth burning up a third of the trees and green grass. (8:6–7)
Second Trumpet: Something that resembles a great mountain, burning with fire, falls from the sky and lands in the ocean. It kills a third of the sea creatures and destroys a third of the ships at sea. (8:8–9)
Third Trumpet: A great star, named Wormwood, falls from heaven and poisons a third of the rivers and springs of water. (8:10–11)
Fourth Trumpet: A third of the sun, the moon, and the stars are darkened creating complete darkness for a third of the day and the night. (8:12–13)
Fifth Trumpet: The First Woe (9:1–12)
A "star" falls from the sky (9:1).
This "star" is given "the key to the bottomless pit" (9:1).
The "star" then opens the bottomless pit. When this happens, "smoke [rises] from [the Abyss] like smoke from a gigantic furnace. The sun and sky [are] darkened by the smoke from the Abyss" (9:2).
From out of the smoke, locusts who are "given power like that of scorpions of the earth" (9:3), who are commanded not to harm anyone or anything except for people who were not given the "seal of God" on their foreheads (from chapter 7) (9:4).
The "locusts" are described as having a human appearance (faces and hair) but with lion's teeth, and wearing "breastplates of iron"; the sound of their wings resembles "the thundering of many horses and chariots rushing into battle" (9:7–9).
Sixth Trumpet: The Second Woe (9:13–21)
The four angels bound to the great river Euphrates are released to prepare two hundred million horsemen.
These armies kill a third of mankind by plagues of fire, smoke, and brimstone.
Interlude: The little scroll. (10:1–11)
An angel appears, with one foot on the sea and one foot on the land, having an opened little book in his hand.
Upon the cry of the angel, seven thunders utter mysteries and secrets that are not to be written down by John.
John is instructed to eat the little scroll that happens to be sweet in his mouth, but bitter in his stomach, and to prophesy.
John is given a measuring rod to measure the temple of God, the altar, and those who worship there.
Outside the temple, at the court of the holy city, it is trod by the nations for forty-two months (3 1/2 years).
Two witnesses prophesy for 1,260 days, clothed in sackcloth. (11:1–14)
Seventh Trumpet: The Third Woe that leads into the seven bowls (11:15–19)
The temple of God opens in heaven, where the ark of His covenant can be seen. There are lightnings, noises, thunderings, an earthquake, and great hail.
The Seven Spiritual Figures. (Events leading into the Third Woe)
A Woman "clothed with a white robe, with the sun at her back, with the moon under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars" is in pregnancy with a male child. (12:1–2)
A great Dragon (with seven heads, ten horns, and seven crowns on his heads) drags a third of the stars of Heaven with his tail, and throws them to the Earth. (12:3–4). The Dragon waits for the birth of the child so he can devour it. However, sometime after the child is born, he is caught up to God's throne while the Woman flees into the wilderness into her place prepared of God that they should feed her there for 1,260 days (3½ years). (12:5–6). War breaks out in heaven between Michael and the Dragon, identified as that old Serpent, the Devil, or Satan (12:9). After a great fight, the Dragon and his angels are cast out of Heaven for good, followed by praises of victory for God's kingdom. (12:7–12). The Dragon engages to persecute the Woman, but she is given aid to evade him. Her evasiveness enrages the Dragon, prompting him to wage war against the rest of her offspring, who keep the commandments of God and have the testimony of Jesus Christ. (12:13–17)
A Beast (with seven heads, ten horns, and ten crowns on his horns and on his heads names of blasphemy) emerges from the Sea, having one mortally wounded head that is then healed. The people of the world wonder and follow the Beast. The Dragon grants him power and authority for forty-two months. (13:1–5)
The Beast of the Sea blasphemes God's name (along with God's tabernacle and His kingdom and all who dwell in Heaven), wages war against the Saints, and overcomes them. (13:6–10)
Then, a Beast emerges from the Earth having two horns like a lamb, speaking like a dragon. He directs people to make an image of the Beast of the Sea who was wounded yet lives, breathing life into it, and forcing all people to bear "the mark of the Beast", "666". Events leading into the Third Woe:
The Lamb stands on Mount Zion with the 144,000 "first fruits" who are redeemed from Earth and victorious over the Beast and his mark and image. (14:1–5)
The proclamations of three angels. (14:6–13)
One like the Son of Man reaps the earth. (14:14–16)
A second angel reaps "the vine of the Earth" and throws it into "the great winepress of the wrath of God... and blood came out of the winepress... up to one thousand six hundred stadia." (14:17–20)
The temple of the tabernacle, in Heaven, is opened(15:1–5), beginning the "Seven Bowls" revelation.
Seven angels are given a golden bowl, from the Four Living Creatures, that contains the seven last plagues bearing the wrath of God. (15:6–8)
Seven bowls are poured onto Earth:
First Bowl: A "foul and malignant sore" afflicts the followers of the Beast. (16:1–2)
Second Bowl: The Sea turns to blood and everything within it dies. (16:3)
Third Bowl: All fresh water turns to blood. (16:4–7)
Fourth Bowl: The Sun scorches the Earth with intense heat and even burns some people with fire. (16:8–9)
Fifth Bowl: There is total darkness and great pain in the Beast's kingdom. (16:10–11)
Sixth Bowl: The Great River Euphrates is dried up and preparations are made for the kings of the East and the final battle at Armageddon between the forces of good and evil. (16:12–16)
Seventh Bowl: A great earthquake and heavy hailstorm: "every island fled away and the mountains were not found." (16:17–21)
Aftermath: Vision of John given by "an angel who had the seven bowls"
The great Harlot who sits on a scarlet Beast (with seven heads and ten horns and names of blasphemy all over its body) and by many waters: Babylon the Great. The angel showing John the vision of the Harlot and the scarlet Beast reveals their identities and fates (17:1–18)
New Babylon is destroyed. (18:1–8)
The people of the Earth (the kings, merchants, sailors, etc.) mourn New Babylon's destruction. (18:9–19)
The permanence of New Babylon's destruction. (18:20–24)
The Marriage Supper of the Lamb
A great multitude praises God. (19:1–6)
The marriage Supper of the Lamb. (19:7–10)
The Judgment of the two Beasts, the Dragon, and the Dead (19:11–20:15)
The Beast and the False Prophet are cast into the Lake of Fire. (19:11–21)
The Dragon is imprisoned in the Bottomless Pit for a thousand years. (20:1–3)
The resurrected martyrs live and reign with Christ for a thousand years. (20:4–6)
After the Thousand Years
The Dragon is released and goes out to deceive the nations in the four corners of the Earth—Gog and Magog—and gathers them for battle at the holy city. The Dragon makes war against the people of God, but is defeated. (20:7–9)
The Dragon is cast into the Lake of Fire with the Beast and the False Prophet. (20:10)
The Last Judgment: the wicked, along with Death and Hades, are cast into the Lake of Fire, which is the second death. (20:11–15)
The New Heaven and Earth, and New Jerusalem
A new, glorious Heaven replaces the old Earth. There is no more suffering or death. (21:1–8)
God comes to dwell with humanity in the New Jerusalem. (21:2–8)
Description of the New Jerusalem. (21:9–27)
The River of Life and the Tree of Life appear for the healing of the nations and peoples. The curse of sin is ended. (22:1–5)
Conclusion
Christ's reassurance that his coming is imminent. Final admonitions. (22:6–21)
Territorio [modifica]
Il paesino è posto a cavallo tra la provincia di Avellino e quella di Benevento.
Sorge su di un complesso montuoso di non eccessiva altezza, detto da secoli "Montagna di Montefusco", perché le vette più alte si trovano tutte nel territorio comunale del nostro comune: Monte Gloria, Monte San Felice e, appunto, Montefusco stesso. Al gruppo montuoso - che si innalza tra la Valle del Calore e quella del Sabato e si distacca nettamente dalle ultime propaggini del Partenio per mezzo della rocciosa gola dello Stretto di Barba (per un lato in comune di Chianche e per l'altro invece di Ceppaloni) - appartengono i territori comunali di: Montefusco, San Nazzaro, San Giorgio del Sannio, Calvi, San Martino Sannita, San Nicola Manfredi, Sant'Angelo a Cupolo, Santa Paolina, Torrioni, Petruro Irpino, Tufo e Chianche. Alla Montagna appartengono anche il paesino di Sant'Angelo a Cancelli, oggi in comune di Pietradefusi ma geograficamente unito a Montefusco, e tutto il Monte delle Guardie in comune di Benevento, estrema propaggine su cui ormai è sorto un quartiere del capoluogo sannita (Pacevecchia). Di tutti questi paesi, storicamente ed artisticamente il più importante è sicuramente proprio Montefusco, mentre senza dubbio il più popoloso è San Giorgio del Sannio che, dal Fascismo in poi, ha conosciuto una continua ascesa economica e demografica; il meno popoloso è Petruro, peraltro il comune meno popoloso di tutta la Campania. Ad unire tutti questi centri non solo la contiguità morfologica ma anche le natura del territorio, caratterizzato da boschi fitti di castagni (più in alto) e querce, detti 'E Surti, cioè le selve nel dialetto locale. Un tempo questi boschi erano certamente ininterrotti fino a Benevento, mentre oggi la continuità è spesso interrotta pur restando vastissimi spazi verdi soprattutto nell'area da Montefusco a Monterocchetta.
Etimologia del nome [modifica]
L'origine del nome del paese è incerta. L'opinione storica più diffusa è che la città sia la sannitica Fulsulae di cui parla Tito Livio, centro abitato dalla tribù irpina e non ancora identificato. Tesi assai risalente e possibile data l'abitudine dei Sanniti di costruire i loro pagi in zone elevate e inaccessibili. L'ampissima visuale che si gode da Montefusco sarebbe stata utilissima a questa popolazione bellicosa; infatti, alcuni ritrovamenti sono stati fatti risalente all'epoca romana, ma nessuna delle epigrafi ancora oggi custodite in città attestano esplicitamente il nome di Fulsulae, lasciando aperta la questione. Un altro "pagus" sorgeva nei pressi, si tratta di "Melae", anch'esso nelle Storie di Tito Livio, sito in località Piana delle Mele. "Fulsulae" (splendente) sarebbe comunque divenuta "Fusculus" (oscura) perché i fuochi dei templi sannitici un tempo risplndenti su di essa si sarebbero spenti dopo la conquista romana del Sannio (G. Castagnetti).
Altra ipotesi: il nome descriverebbe il fatto che la vetta della montagna è spesso oscurata da nubi fitte. Altri studiosi più recenti vogliono riconnetterlo al nome di persona Fusculus,attestato in fonti longobarde; non sarebbe difficile immaginare che si tratti di un feudatario.
Storia [modifica]
La posizione del paese ne fece con grandissima probabilità una roccaforte sannitica (Fulsulae) poi romanizzata, ma ancor prima tracce neolitiche di presenze umane in territorio montefuscano sono attestate dal ritrovamento di frecce.
Grande sviluppo ebbe con l'arrivo dei Longobardi, che circondarono la capitale della Longobardia Minor, Benevento di castelli e villaggi fortificati, come Ceppaloni, Chianche, Torrioni. Tra questi vi fu probabilmente proprio Montefusco, anche se non citato da alcuna fonte scritta; le tracce architettoniche di muratura chiaramente longobarda nei ruderi delle Mura non lasciano però dubbi, così come la posizione strategica dominante le Valli del Calore, del Sabato nonché vaste zone montuose e collinari che si aprono fino alla Puglia.
Entrò prepotentemente nella Storia e nelle fonti con i Normanni, tant'è che lo storico Falcone Beneventano a pochi anni dalla caduta del Principato Longobardo di Benevento già ne parla nelle sue Cronache come di un centro importante militarmente e politicamente. Teatro di una lunga, logorante guerra tra Giordano d'Ariano e Ruggero, in cui entrò anche Landolfo della Greca, fu contesa dai litiganti, potenti feudatari in un periodo di sostanziale anarchia per il Mezzogiorno.
Anche sotto gli Svevi ebbe importanza tant'è che sia Federico II che Manfredi la tennero come castello personale e vi risiedettero per mesi. Pare che prima della fatale Battaglia di Benevento Manfredi abbia organizzato il proprio esercito proprio a Montefusco.
Con Carlo d'Angiò, nel 1287 al Feudalesimo si affiancherà una più efficiente organizzazione del nuovo Regno di Napoli in province controllate da emissari di nomina regia (a seconda del periodo, presidi o giustizieri). L'antico Principato Longobardo (che aveva perso la sua antica capitale Benevento passata già nel 1077 nel dominio papale, ma che aveva ancora Salerno come centro principale) fu smembrato in due: Salerno rimase a capo del territorio aldiquà delle Serre di Montoro (da allora Principato Citra), Montefusco, invece, divenne capitale del neonato Principato Ultra, comprendente un territorio davvero vastissimo: le intere province di Benevento ed Avellino.
Per secoli la città visse, quindi, un periodo aureo ospitando, tra l'altro, un nobile ceto di giuristi e avvocati (ovvie conseguenze della presenza della Regia Udienza - tribunale - con tutti gli uffici provinciali annessi, e della Compagnia di Campagna - un'autorità di polizia). Favorì la scelta di Montefusco e non di Avellino lo status di demanio della Corona che la nostra città aveva, a differenza dell'attuale capoluogo irpino che per secoli restò infeudato. Tuttavia in seguito anche Montefusco fu concessa in feudo, divenendo centro di una Baronia in origine molto estesa, poi pian piano ridotta a pochi centri della Montagna di Montefusco.
A favorire l'elezione di Montefusco fu poi, ancor di più, la posizione di controllo che il nostro centro ha su Benevento, posta a valle: l'antica capitale longobarda era un'enclave pontificia pericolosa sia politicamente per il Regno di Napoli, sia concretamente per la sicurezza dei cittadini dato che ospitava un gran numero di briganti che vi trovavano asilo ed impunità per i crimini commessi nel Regno e Montefusco poteva essere utilissimo avamposto per controllare quella che un re chiamò senza mezzi termini petra scandali regni nostri.
In quei secoli Montefusco aveva, inoltre, un dotto clero godendo in particolar modo di un Abate Infulato (cioè avente dignità quasi vescovile) di Santa Maria della Piazza, e inoltre di una Chiesa Madre di rango palatino, cioè svincolata dal controllo dell'Arcivescovo e controllata direttamente dal Re per mezzo di un collegio di canonici (si tratta della Chiesa di San Giovanni del Vaglio: la sua natura regia è chiaramente dovuta all'essere stata la chiesa del castello, pian piano scomparso nelle sue originarie forme maschie e ingentilitosi nell'attuale palazzo comunale).
Inoltre in paese non mancavano intellettuali e scrittori, tra cui merita una menzione il seicentesco Eliseo Danza per l'amore sincero verso la sua città che seppe infondere in ogni pagina delle sue opere storiche, nonché per la passione e l'impegno di avvocato che perorò la causa della giustizia in un regno dove le soverchierie e la confusione amministrativa e giuridica imperavano. Egli era membro dell'Accademia degli Offuscati con sede proprio a Montefusco (all'epoca ancora chiamata Montefuscoli).
Il declino cominciò lentamente nel Settecento, per poi divenire evidente nei primi anni dell'Ottocento quando il nuovo governo francese cercava una razionalizzazione delle Provincie: in base a criteri moderni Montefusco era ormai un luogo scomodo e piccolo per ospitare la sede di una grande provincia, freddo e inaccessibile durante l'inverno. Quelle qualità militari che ne avevano fatto la fortuna nel Medioevo e durante tutta l'Età Moderna non erano ritenute più utili in un'epoca di sviluppo e innovazione, così, sprezzanti di un'antica tradizione secolare che era cominciata già nel Duecento, l'8 agosto 1806 fu votata a Napoli una legge che trasferì la sede del Principato Ultra nella più decentrata ma pianeggiante Avellino.
Per Montefusco fu un colpo al cuore. La sede degli uffici vi rimase fino al 1816 finché ad Avellino non furono costruiti edifici appositi, tra cui il carcere, ma intanto l'emigrazione di nobili, avvocati, notai e sacerdoti iniziò. Da allora, Montefusco sta diventando sempre più un paese provinciale e disabitato, povero e abbandonato a sè stesso. Ancora all'inizio del Novecento i Montefuscani erano 5000. Oggi non se ne contano 1500.
Importante è inoltre ricordare il ruolo che Montefusco ebbe durante il Risorgimento. Il vecchio carcere del tribunale provinciale, sito nei seminterrati del Castello, riaprì per diventare Bagno penale di massima sicurezza in cui furono detenuti molti patrioti del Regno delle Due Sicilie in condizioni talmente pietose che Montefusco fu definita "lo Spielberg dell'Irpinia". Vi furono ospitati tra gli altri il duca Sigismondo Castromediano e il barone Nicola Nisco, che scrissero toccanti diari delle loro prigioni.
Durante la Seconda Guerra Mondiale, Montefusco fu occupata per un certo periodo dai Nazisti. Recentemente, la sua economia vive un certo benessere grazie al riconoscimento del prestigioso marchio DOCG al suo vino Greco di Tufo. Il futuro di Montefusco, città il cui cuore pulsa di storia e di arte come poche altre nel Mezzogiorno, sta nella rivalutazione del suo patrimonio monumentale ed ambientalustico, dei suoi prodotti artigianali e tipici, che possono svelare ancora di più il suo affascinate volto di splendida donna addormentata da secoli.
Monumenti e luoghi di interesse [modifica]
Castello Longobardo [modifica]
L'antico Castello, fondato dai Longobardi e parte della cerchia difensiva che venne posta a controllo delle vie per Benevento, ospitò re normanni, svevi, angioini e aragonesi. È facilemente ipotizzabile che in età longobarda-normanna il Castello avesse una forma molto più fortificata e occupasse senz'altro tutta l'area di Piazza Castello, inglobando anche la Chiesa Palatina di San Giovanni del Vaglio (da balium cioè cortile) e il Monastero di Santa Caterina da Siena che, infatti, rivela mura imponenti che ricordano quelle di un fortilizio molto antico, di certo precedente alla fondazione settecentesca del convento. Col tempo il Vaglio divenne una piazza vera e propria ma il cuore del Castello non perse la sua funzione, tant'è che ospitò fino all'Ottocento il Preside della Provincia di Principato Ultra con tutti gli uffici, tribunale compreso. Attualmente vi ha sede il Comune.
Nel seminterrato, strutturato su due piani, vi è il Carcere, utilizzato dapprima come prigione provinciale. Chiuse per alcuni anni col definitivo trasferimento ad Avellino degli uffici del Giustizierato, per poi riaprire in epoca risorgimentale, ospitando un Bagno penale di prima classe caratterizzato da un regime durissimo. Il freddo montefuscano unito all'umidità degli androni scavati nella roccia e alle punizioni esemplari (come il puntale) ne fecero un luogo di sofferenza tale che fu soprannominato lo Spielberg dell'Irpinia. Alcuni celebri carcerati furono i patrioti napoletani Poerio, Nisco, Castromediano e Pironti.
L'antico detto esprime bene ciò che voleva dire esservi imprigionato: Chi trase a Montefuscolo e po' se n'esce po' dì ca 'n'terra 'n'ata vota nasce. ("Chi entra a Montefusco e poi ne esce può dire che in Terra nasce di nuovo).
Chiesa Palatina di San Giovanni del Vaglio [modifica]
L'edificio religioso fu eretto verso la fine del XII secolo. In questa chiesa, i papi Callisto II e Onofrio II che soggiornarono nel paese, esercitarono i riti religiosi. Nella chiesa si trovano tuttora dipinti risalenti al '700, colonne marmoree di epoca romana, pochi affreschi medievali riscoperti recentemente e si venera la Sacra Spina di Cristo, reliquia assurta a protrettrice della città.
Chiesa di Santa Maria della Piazza [modifica]
Probabilmente la prima chiesa della città destinata ai civili (San Giovanni era interna al Castello), Santa Maria era una importante Abbazia e il suo parroco sicuramente il più influente di tutti quelli di Montefusco. Parzialmente demolita per ampliare Largo Tommaso Rossi, al suo interno conserva qualche antico affresco.
Oratorio di San Giacomo Apostolo [modifica]
Piccolo gioiello di arte seicentesca, tutto affrescato, fu sede di una congregazione per secoli. È posto al di sotto della Chiesa e dell'Abbazia di Santa Maria della Piazza.
Chiesa di San Francesco di Assisi [modifica]
La tradizione la vuole fondata, insieme al non più esistente convento, da San Francesco d'Assisi in persona in uno dei suoi viaggi per l'Italia. Dal Trecento ad oggi la sua funzione religiosa è ininterrotta. Nonostante non manchino tracce medievali (abside) la Chiesa all'interno rivela un gusto settecentesco.
Chiesa e Monastero di San Domenico [modifica]
Sorta sull'antico Castello, essa ha una evidente origine settecentesca. Vi è ancora annesso il Convento di Suore Domenicane.
Chiesa di Santa Maria del Carmine e annessa Chiesa di San Sebastiano [modifica]
Chiesetta settecentesca dove si custodisce la statua lignea veneratissima di Santa Maria del Monte Carmelo. Alle spalle sorge la Chiesa di San Sebastiano utilizzata da cimitero un tempo
Oratorio di San Raimondo [modifica]
Ne resta visibile solo un portale marmoreo, mentre l'interno è ormai adibito a casa privata.
Eremo di Sant'Antonio Abate [modifica]
Sorge sulle Surti ed ha origini molto antiche.
Palazzi nobiliari [modifica]
Corte Baronale, Palazzo De Luca (Antica Dogana), Palazzo Aggiutorio, Palazzo Giordano, Palazzo Regina, Ospizio dei Pellegrini, Palazzo Melisurgo, Palazzo Dente, Palazzo Ruggero, Palazzo Riola, Palazzo Mascia.
Cinta Muraria Longobarda [modifica]
Se ne vedono ancora tracce in varie parti della città. Inoltre esistono ancora la Porta del Canale e la Porta di San Bartolomeo (rifatta nel '700), oltre alla Torre che domina la vallata del Calore (detta Torre Riola perché vicina all'omonimo palazzo).
La chiesa di San Bartolomeo
Chiesa di San Bartolomeo Apostolo [modifica]
Entrando in paese, lungo le strette vie irte, superando l' antica Porta San Bartolomeo, si arriva alla chiesa, eretta alla fine del XI secolo, particolare per il campanile. Si tratta di un edificio semplice di età longobarda: questo popolo aveva infatti un notevole culto di San Bartolomeo da quando il principe Sicardo di Benevento ne aveva portato il corpo a Benevento (di cui è infatti patrono). Ad una sola navata, al suo interno si trovano alcune statue lignee di San Bartolomeo, San Antonio Abate e Santa Lucia.
Il convento di Sant'Egidio
Monastero di Sant'Egidio [modifica]
Alla base del colle su cui si colloca il paese si trova il convento di Sant'Egidio. Le origini del convento risalgono al 1625. In questo convento, all'inizio della sua "carriera" soggiornò Padre Pio nel 1908, quando era ancora novizio e non ancora dodicenne.
Presso il convento di trovano alcune tele dell'artista Alberto Sforza.
'I Surti [modifica]
Boschi di castagni e querce, ricchi di vegetazione, fauna e sorgenti, è stato riconosciuto Sito di Importanza Comunitaria. Grazie ai fondi della U.E. è stato possibile ripristinare alcuni dei tanti sentieri che corrono lungo le montagne e collegano i paesi di Montefusco, Cucciano, San Martino, Torrioni, Monterocchetta, Toccanisi ed altri della Montagna di Montefusco. Particolarmente bella è la zona di Fontana Riviezzo. Vi sono animali come il gatto selvatico, il cinghiale, tassi, faine, volpi, rettili, furetti e uccelli rari.
Illustri patrioti detenuti nelle Carceri di Montefusco [modifica]
* Sigismondo Castromediano
* Cesare Braico
* Luigi Settembrini
* Carlo Poerio
* Michele Pironti
* Nicola Nisco
Economia [modifica]
Negli ultimi anni si sta riscoprendo l'antica arte femminile della lavorazione del tombolo di merletti, coperte e tovaglie.
Artigianato e prodotti tipici [modifica]
* Tombolo
* Uncinetto
* Greco di Tufo D.O.C.G. (vino bianco)
* Irpinia I.G.T. (vino rosso)
* Funghi porcini
* Castagne
* Miele
Geografia antropica [modifica]
Frazioni [modifica]
* Marotta
* Piano delle Mele
* Sant'Antonio Abate
* Sant'Egidio
* Serra
Feste e tradizioni [modifica]
* Febbraio: la festa di San Antonio Abate;
* Maggio: la Sacra Spina;
* Giugno: si festeggia San Antonio di Padova;
* Inizio agosto: festeggiamenti della Madonna del Carmine;
* Tutto agosto: Estate Montefuscana
* Fine agosto: Festival Canoro "Città di Montefusco"
* Fine agosto: Caccia al Tesoro "Città di Montefusco"
* Inizio settembre: Fiera e Sagra di Sant'Egidio (tradizione dal 1416)
* Ultimo fine settimana di ottobre: Sagra della Castagna
* 26 e 27 Dicembre: Betlemme, Greccio, Montefusco: il Presepe Vivente tra le pietre antiche del borgo
Caccia al Tesoro "Città di Montefusco" [modifica]
Uno degli eventi più rilevanti del paese è la tradizionale Caccia al Tesoro, manifestazione che si tiene tutti gli anni nel mese di agosto e vede impegnati i Montefuscani nel risolvere giochi di intelligenza, cultura e abilità che toccano sia la cultura generale che locale. La prima venne organizzata nel lontano 1983 e da allora gli organizzatori sono cambiati più volte. La Caccia al Tesoro è una istituzione così sentita da appassionare i partecipanti al punto tale che se ne parla per tutto l'anno; ogni edizione, infatti, porta con sè strascichi di polemiche da parte delle squadre sconfitte. Personaggio leggendario è Nando che per tre anni di fila ha vinto la gara tra mille polemiche circa il corretto svolgimento della stessa. Al proposito, nel 2006 scoppiò lo scandalo "Cacciopoli". Nel 2008 la Caccia al Tesoro ha raggiunto un record storico di iscrizioni, con ben 53 partecipanti. Nel 2009 la competizione, particolarmente riuscita sul piano organizzativo, è stata vinta dalla squadra "I Polemici" che s'è aggiudicata l'ambito premio grazie ad una norma del Regolamento che prevede che, se non viene trovato il Tesoro entro il tempo massimo, esso viene assegnato al primo in classifica. Ciò è accaduto per la seconda volta di seguito ed il fatto ha suscitato puntuali, inevitabili polemiche. La Targa Danza è stata assegnata alla stessa squadra.
Premi assegnati nell'ultima edizione [modifica]
* Tesoro (I Polemici)
* Premio Classifica (Spice 69)
* Targa Eliseo Danza per la memoria storica montefuscana (I Polemici)
* Premio Simpatia (Cesare Parente)
Evoluzione demografica [modifica]
Abitanti censiti
Amministrazione [modifica]
Sindaco: Mirco Figliolino (lista civica Bilancia) dal 08/06/2009
Centralino del comune: 0825 964003
Posta elettronica: info@comune.montefusco.av.it
Altre informazioni amministrative [modifica]
Il comune fa parte della:
* Comunità Montana Partenio - Vallo di Lauro
* Regione Agraria n. 9 - Colline dell'Irpinia Centrale
Note [modifica]
1. ^ Dati Istat - Popolazione residente all'1/6/2009
Voci correlate [modifica]
* Avellino
* Benevento
* Comunità Montana del Partenio
* Principato Ultra
* San Pio da Pietrelcina
* Teresa Manganiello
Altri progetti [modifica]
* Commons
* Collabora a Commons Wikimedia Commons contiene file multimediali su Montefusco
Collegamenti esterni [modifica]
* Brigantaggio a Montefusco
* Caccia al Tesoro "Città di Montefusco"
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Categoria: Comuni della provincia di Avellino
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Territorio [modifica]
Il paesino è posto a cavallo tra la provincia di Avellino e quella di Benevento.
Sorge su di un complesso montuoso di non eccessiva altezza, detto da secoli "Montagna di Montefusco", perché le vette più alte si trovano tutte nel territorio comunale del nostro comune: Monte Gloria, Monte San Felice e, appunto, Montefusco stesso. Al gruppo montuoso - che si innalza tra la Valle del Calore e quella del Sabato e si distacca nettamente dalle ultime propaggini del Partenio per mezzo della rocciosa gola dello Stretto di Barba (per un lato in comune di Chianche e per l'altro invece di Ceppaloni) - appartengono i territori comunali di: Montefusco, San Nazzaro, San Giorgio del Sannio, Calvi, San Martino Sannita, San Nicola Manfredi, Sant'Angelo a Cupolo, Santa Paolina, Torrioni, Petruro Irpino, Tufo e Chianche. Alla Montagna appartengono anche il paesino di Sant'Angelo a Cancelli, oggi in comune di Pietradefusi ma geograficamente unito a Montefusco, e tutto il Monte delle Guardie in comune di Benevento, estrema propaggine su cui ormai è sorto un quartiere del capoluogo sannita (Pacevecchia). Di tutti questi paesi, storicamente ed artisticamente il più importante è sicuramente proprio Montefusco, mentre senza dubbio il più popoloso è San Giorgio del Sannio che, dal Fascismo in poi, ha conosciuto una continua ascesa economica e demografica; il meno popoloso è Petruro, peraltro il comune meno popoloso di tutta la Campania. Ad unire tutti questi centri non solo la contiguità morfologica ma anche le natura del territorio, caratterizzato da boschi fitti di castagni (più in alto) e querce, detti 'E Surti, cioè le selve nel dialetto locale. Un tempo questi boschi erano certamente ininterrotti fino a Benevento, mentre oggi la continuità è spesso interrotta pur restando vastissimi spazi verdi soprattutto nell'area da Montefusco a Monterocchetta.
Etimologia del nome [modifica]
L'origine del nome del paese è incerta. L'opinione storica più diffusa è che la città sia la sannitica Fulsulae di cui parla Tito Livio, centro abitato dalla tribù irpina e non ancora identificato. Tesi assai risalente e possibile data l'abitudine dei Sanniti di costruire i loro pagi in zone elevate e inaccessibili. L'ampissima visuale che si gode da Montefusco sarebbe stata utilissima a questa popolazione bellicosa; infatti, alcuni ritrovamenti sono stati fatti risalente all'epoca romana, ma nessuna delle epigrafi ancora oggi custodite in città attestano esplicitamente il nome di Fulsulae, lasciando aperta la questione. Un altro "pagus" sorgeva nei pressi, si tratta di "Melae", anch'esso nelle Storie di Tito Livio, sito in località Piana delle Mele. "Fulsulae" (splendente) sarebbe comunque divenuta "Fusculus" (oscura) perché i fuochi dei templi sannitici un tempo risplndenti su di essa si sarebbero spenti dopo la conquista romana del Sannio (G. Castagnetti).
Altra ipotesi: il nome descriverebbe il fatto che la vetta della montagna è spesso oscurata da nubi fitte. Altri studiosi più recenti vogliono riconnetterlo al nome di persona Fusculus,attestato in fonti longobarde; non sarebbe difficile immaginare che si tratti di un feudatario.
Storia [modifica]
La posizione del paese ne fece con grandissima probabilità una roccaforte sannitica (Fulsulae) poi romanizzata, ma ancor prima tracce neolitiche di presenze umane in territorio montefuscano sono attestate dal ritrovamento di frecce.
Grande sviluppo ebbe con l'arrivo dei Longobardi, che circondarono la capitale della Longobardia Minor, Benevento di castelli e villaggi fortificati, come Ceppaloni, Chianche, Torrioni. Tra questi vi fu probabilmente proprio Montefusco, anche se non citato da alcuna fonte scritta; le tracce architettoniche di muratura chiaramente longobarda nei ruderi delle Mura non lasciano però dubbi, così come la posizione strategica dominante le Valli del Calore, del Sabato nonché vaste zone montuose e collinari che si aprono fino alla Puglia.
Entrò prepotentemente nella Storia e nelle fonti con i Normanni, tant'è che lo storico Falcone Beneventano a pochi anni dalla caduta del Principato Longobardo di Benevento già ne parla nelle sue Cronache come di un centro importante militarmente e politicamente. Teatro di una lunga, logorante guerra tra Giordano d'Ariano e Ruggero, in cui entrò anche Landolfo della Greca, fu contesa dai litiganti, potenti feudatari in un periodo di sostanziale anarchia per il Mezzogiorno.
Anche sotto gli Svevi ebbe importanza tant'è che sia Federico II che Manfredi la tennero come castello personale e vi risiedettero per mesi. Pare che prima della fatale Battaglia di Benevento Manfredi abbia organizzato il proprio esercito proprio a Montefusco.
Con Carlo d'Angiò, nel 1287 al Feudalesimo si affiancherà una più efficiente organizzazione del nuovo Regno di Napoli in province controllate da emissari di nomina regia (a seconda del periodo, presidi o giustizieri). L'antico Principato Longobardo (che aveva perso la sua antica capitale Benevento passata già nel 1077 nel dominio papale, ma che aveva ancora Salerno come centro principale) fu smembrato in due: Salerno rimase a capo del territorio aldiquà delle Serre di Montoro (da allora Principato Citra), Montefusco, invece, divenne capitale del neonato Principato Ultra, comprendente un territorio davvero vastissimo: le intere province di Benevento ed Avellino.
Per secoli la città visse, quindi, un periodo aureo ospitando, tra l'altro, un nobile ceto di giuristi e avvocati (ovvie conseguenze della presenza della Regia Udienza - tribunale - con tutti gli uffici provinciali annessi, e della Compagnia di Campagna - un'autorità di polizia). Favorì la scelta di Montefusco e non di Avellino lo status di demanio della Corona che la nostra città aveva, a differenza dell'attuale capoluogo irpino che per secoli restò infeudato. Tuttavia in seguito anche Montefusco fu concessa in feudo, divenendo centro di una Baronia in origine molto estesa, poi pian piano ridotta a pochi centri della Montagna di Montefusco.
A favorire l'elezione di Montefusco fu poi, ancor di più, la posizione di controllo che il nostro centro ha su Benevento, posta a valle: l'antica capitale longobarda era un'enclave pontificia pericolosa sia politicamente per il Regno di Napoli, sia concretamente per la sicurezza dei cittadini dato che ospitava un gran numero di briganti che vi trovavano asilo ed impunità per i crimini commessi nel Regno e Montefusco poteva essere utilissimo avamposto per controllare quella che un re chiamò senza mezzi termini petra scandali regni nostri.
In quei secoli Montefusco aveva, inoltre, un dotto clero godendo in particolar modo di un Abate Infulato (cioè avente dignità quasi vescovile) di Santa Maria della Piazza, e inoltre di una Chiesa Madre di rango palatino, cioè svincolata dal controllo dell'Arcivescovo e controllata direttamente dal Re per mezzo di un collegio di canonici (si tratta della Chiesa di San Giovanni del Vaglio: la sua natura regia è chiaramente dovuta all'essere stata la chiesa del castello, pian piano scomparso nelle sue originarie forme maschie e ingentilitosi nell'attuale palazzo comunale).
Inoltre in paese non mancavano intellettuali e scrittori, tra cui merita una menzione il seicentesco Eliseo Danza per l'amore sincero verso la sua città che seppe infondere in ogni pagina delle sue opere storiche, nonché per la passione e l'impegno di avvocato che perorò la causa della giustizia in un regno dove le soverchierie e la confusione amministrativa e giuridica imperavano. Egli era membro dell'Accademia degli Offuscati con sede proprio a Montefusco (all'epoca ancora chiamata Montefuscoli).
Il declino cominciò lentamente nel Settecento, per poi divenire evidente nei primi anni dell'Ottocento quando il nuovo governo francese cercava una razionalizzazione delle Provincie: in base a criteri moderni Montefusco era ormai un luogo scomodo e piccolo per ospitare la sede di una grande provincia, freddo e inaccessibile durante l'inverno. Quelle qualità militari che ne avevano fatto la fortuna nel Medioevo e durante tutta l'Età Moderna non erano ritenute più utili in un'epoca di sviluppo e innovazione, così, sprezzanti di un'antica tradizione secolare che era cominciata già nel Duecento, l'8 agosto 1806 fu votata a Napoli una legge che trasferì la sede del Principato Ultra nella più decentrata ma pianeggiante Avellino.
Per Montefusco fu un colpo al cuore. La sede degli uffici vi rimase fino al 1816 finché ad Avellino non furono costruiti edifici appositi, tra cui il carcere, ma intanto l'emigrazione di nobili, avvocati, notai e sacerdoti iniziò. Da allora, Montefusco sta diventando sempre più un paese provinciale e disabitato, povero e abbandonato a sè stesso. Ancora all'inizio del Novecento i Montefuscani erano 5000. Oggi non se ne contano 1500.
Importante è inoltre ricordare il ruolo che Montefusco ebbe durante il Risorgimento. Il vecchio carcere del tribunale provinciale, sito nei seminterrati del Castello, riaprì per diventare Bagno penale di massima sicurezza in cui furono detenuti molti patrioti del Regno delle Due Sicilie in condizioni talmente pietose che Montefusco fu definita "lo Spielberg dell'Irpinia". Vi furono ospitati tra gli altri il duca Sigismondo Castromediano e il barone Nicola Nisco, che scrissero toccanti diari delle loro prigioni.
Durante la Seconda Guerra Mondiale, Montefusco fu occupata per un certo periodo dai Nazisti. Recentemente, la sua economia vive un certo benessere grazie al riconoscimento del prestigioso marchio DOCG al suo vino Greco di Tufo. Il futuro di Montefusco, città il cui cuore pulsa di storia e di arte come poche altre nel Mezzogiorno, sta nella rivalutazione del suo patrimonio monumentale ed ambientalustico, dei suoi prodotti artigianali e tipici, che possono svelare ancora di più il suo affascinate volto di splendida donna addormentata da secoli.
Monumenti e luoghi di interesse [modifica]
Castello Longobardo [modifica]
L'antico Castello, fondato dai Longobardi e parte della cerchia difensiva che venne posta a controllo delle vie per Benevento, ospitò re normanni, svevi, angioini e aragonesi. È facilemente ipotizzabile che in età longobarda-normanna il Castello avesse una forma molto più fortificata e occupasse senz'altro tutta l'area di Piazza Castello, inglobando anche la Chiesa Palatina di San Giovanni del Vaglio (da balium cioè cortile) e il Monastero di Santa Caterina da Siena che, infatti, rivela mura imponenti che ricordano quelle di un fortilizio molto antico, di certo precedente alla fondazione settecentesca del convento. Col tempo il Vaglio divenne una piazza vera e propria ma il cuore del Castello non perse la sua funzione, tant'è che ospitò fino all'Ottocento il Preside della Provincia di Principato Ultra con tutti gli uffici, tribunale compreso. Attualmente vi ha sede il Comune.
Nel seminterrato, strutturato su due piani, vi è il Carcere, utilizzato dapprima come prigione provinciale. Chiuse per alcuni anni col definitivo trasferimento ad Avellino degli uffici del Giustizierato, per poi riaprire in epoca risorgimentale, ospitando un Bagno penale di prima classe caratterizzato da un regime durissimo. Il freddo montefuscano unito all'umidità degli androni scavati nella roccia e alle punizioni esemplari (come il puntale) ne fecero un luogo di sofferenza tale che fu soprannominato lo Spielberg dell'Irpinia. Alcuni celebri carcerati furono i patrioti napoletani Poerio, Nisco, Castromediano e Pironti.
L'antico detto esprime bene ciò che voleva dire esservi imprigionato: Chi trase a Montefuscolo e po' se n'esce po' dì ca 'n'terra 'n'ata vota nasce. ("Chi entra a Montefusco e poi ne esce può dire che in Terra nasce di nuovo).
Chiesa Palatina di San Giovanni del Vaglio [modifica]
L'edificio religioso fu eretto verso la fine del XII secolo. In questa chiesa, i papi Callisto II e Onofrio II che soggiornarono nel paese, esercitarono i riti religiosi. Nella chiesa si trovano tuttora dipinti risalenti al '700, colonne marmoree di epoca romana, pochi affreschi medievali riscoperti recentemente e si venera la Sacra Spina di Cristo, reliquia assurta a protrettrice della città.
Chiesa di Santa Maria della Piazza [modifica]
Probabilmente la prima chiesa della città destinata ai civili (San Giovanni era interna al Castello), Santa Maria era una importante Abbazia e il suo parroco sicuramente il più influente di tutti quelli di Montefusco. Parzialmente demolita per ampliare Largo Tommaso Rossi, al suo interno conserva qualche antico affresco.
Oratorio di San Giacomo Apostolo [modifica]
Piccolo gioiello di arte seicentesca, tutto affrescato, fu sede di una congregazione per secoli. È posto al di sotto della Chiesa e dell'Abbazia di Santa Maria della Piazza.
Chiesa di San Francesco di Assisi [modifica]
La tradizione la vuole fondata, insieme al non più esistente convento, da San Francesco d'Assisi in persona in uno dei suoi viaggi per l'Italia. Dal Trecento ad oggi la sua funzione religiosa è ininterrotta. Nonostante non manchino tracce medievali (abside) la Chiesa all'interno rivela un gusto settecentesco.
Chiesa e Monastero di San Domenico [modifica]
Sorta sull'antico Castello, essa ha una evidente origine settecentesca. Vi è ancora annesso il Convento di Suore Domenicane.
Chiesa di Santa Maria del Carmine e annessa Chiesa di San Sebastiano [modifica]
Chiesetta settecentesca dove si custodisce la statua lignea veneratissima di Santa Maria del Monte Carmelo. Alle spalle sorge la Chiesa di San Sebastiano utilizzata da cimitero un tempo
Oratorio di San Raimondo [modifica]
Ne resta visibile solo un portale marmoreo, mentre l'interno è ormai adibito a casa privata.
Eremo di Sant'Antonio Abate [modifica]
Sorge sulle Surti ed ha origini molto antiche.
Palazzi nobiliari [modifica]
Corte Baronale, Palazzo De Luca (Antica Dogana), Palazzo Aggiutorio, Palazzo Giordano, Palazzo Regina, Ospizio dei Pellegrini, Palazzo Melisurgo, Palazzo Dente, Palazzo Ruggero, Palazzo Riola, Palazzo Mascia.
Cinta Muraria Longobarda [modifica]
Se ne vedono ancora tracce in varie parti della città. Inoltre esistono ancora la Porta del Canale e la Porta di San Bartolomeo (rifatta nel '700), oltre alla Torre che domina la vallata del Calore (detta Torre Riola perché vicina all'omonimo palazzo).
La chiesa di San Bartolomeo
Chiesa di San Bartolomeo Apostolo [modifica]
Entrando in paese, lungo le strette vie irte, superando l' antica Porta San Bartolomeo, si arriva alla chiesa, eretta alla fine del XI secolo, particolare per il campanile. Si tratta di un edificio semplice di età longobarda: questo popolo aveva infatti un notevole culto di San Bartolomeo da quando il principe Sicardo di Benevento ne aveva portato il corpo a Benevento (di cui è infatti patrono). Ad una sola navata, al suo interno si trovano alcune statue lignee di San Bartolomeo, San Antonio Abate e Santa Lucia.
Il convento di Sant'Egidio
Monastero di Sant'Egidio [modifica]
Alla base del colle su cui si colloca il paese si trova il convento di Sant'Egidio. Le origini del convento risalgono al 1625. In questo convento, all'inizio della sua "carriera" soggiornò Padre Pio nel 1908, quando era ancora novizio e non ancora dodicenne.
Presso il convento di trovano alcune tele dell'artista Alberto Sforza.
'I Surti [modifica]
Boschi di castagni e querce, ricchi di vegetazione, fauna e sorgenti, è stato riconosciuto Sito di Importanza Comunitaria. Grazie ai fondi della U.E. è stato possibile ripristinare alcuni dei tanti sentieri che corrono lungo le montagne e collegano i paesi di Montefusco, Cucciano, San Martino, Torrioni, Monterocchetta, Toccanisi ed altri della Montagna di Montefusco. Particolarmente bella è la zona di Fontana Riviezzo. Vi sono animali come il gatto selvatico, il cinghiale, tassi, faine, volpi, rettili, furetti e uccelli rari.
Illustri patrioti detenuti nelle Carceri di Montefusco [modifica]
* Sigismondo Castromediano
* Cesare Braico
* Luigi Settembrini
* Carlo Poerio
* Michele Pironti
* Nicola Nisco
Economia [modifica]
Negli ultimi anni si sta riscoprendo l'antica arte femminile della lavorazione del tombolo di merletti, coperte e tovaglie.
Artigianato e prodotti tipici [modifica]
* Tombolo
* Uncinetto
* Greco di Tufo D.O.C.G. (vino bianco)
* Irpinia I.G.T. (vino rosso)
* Funghi porcini
* Castagne
* Miele
Geografia antropica [modifica]
Frazioni [modifica]
* Marotta
* Piano delle Mele
* Sant'Antonio Abate
* Sant'Egidio
* Serra
Feste e tradizioni [modifica]
* Febbraio: la festa di San Antonio Abate;
* Maggio: la Sacra Spina;
* Giugno: si festeggia San Antonio di Padova;
* Inizio agosto: festeggiamenti della Madonna del Carmine;
* Tutto agosto: Estate Montefuscana
* Fine agosto: Festival Canoro "Città di Montefusco"
* Fine agosto: Caccia al Tesoro "Città di Montefusco"
* Inizio settembre: Fiera e Sagra di Sant'Egidio (tradizione dal 1416)
* Ultimo fine settimana di ottobre: Sagra della Castagna
* 26 e 27 Dicembre: Betlemme, Greccio, Montefusco: il Presepe Vivente tra le pietre antiche del borgo
Caccia al Tesoro "Città di Montefusco" [modifica]
Uno degli eventi più rilevanti del paese è la tradizionale Caccia al Tesoro, manifestazione che si tiene tutti gli anni nel mese di agosto e vede impegnati i Montefuscani nel risolvere giochi di intelligenza, cultura e abilità che toccano sia la cultura generale che locale. La prima venne organizzata nel lontano 1983 e da allora gli organizzatori sono cambiati più volte. La Caccia al Tesoro è una istituzione così sentita da appassionare i partecipanti al punto tale che se ne parla per tutto l'anno; ogni edizione, infatti, porta con sè strascichi di polemiche da parte delle squadre sconfitte. Personaggio leggendario è Nando che per tre anni di fila ha vinto la gara tra mille polemiche circa il corretto svolgimento della stessa. Al proposito, nel 2006 scoppiò lo scandalo "Cacciopoli". Nel 2008 la Caccia al Tesoro ha raggiunto un record storico di iscrizioni, con ben 53 partecipanti. Nel 2009 la competizione, particolarmente riuscita sul piano organizzativo, è stata vinta dalla squadra "I Polemici" che s'è aggiudicata l'ambito premio grazie ad una norma del Regolamento che prevede che, se non viene trovato il Tesoro entro il tempo massimo, esso viene assegnato al primo in classifica. Ciò è accaduto per la seconda volta di seguito ed il fatto ha suscitato puntuali, inevitabili polemiche. La Targa Danza è stata assegnata alla stessa squadra.
Premi assegnati nell'ultima edizione [modifica]
* Tesoro (I Polemici)
* Premio Classifica (Spice 69)
* Targa Eliseo Danza per la memoria storica montefuscana (I Polemici)
* Premio Simpatia (Cesare Parente)
Evoluzione demografica [modifica]
Abitanti censiti
Amministrazione [modifica]
Sindaco: Mirco Figliolino (lista civica Bilancia) dal 08/06/2009
Centralino del comune: 0825 964003
Posta elettronica: info@comune.montefusco.av.it
Altre informazioni amministrative [modifica]
Il comune fa parte della:
* Comunità Montana Partenio - Vallo di Lauro
* Regione Agraria n. 9 - Colline dell'Irpinia Centrale
Note [modifica]
1. ^ Dati Istat - Popolazione residente all'1/6/2009
Voci correlate [modifica]
* Avellino
* Benevento
* Comunità Montana del Partenio
* Principato Ultra
* San Pio da Pietrelcina
* Teresa Manganiello
Altri progetti [modifica]
* Commons
* Collabora a Commons Wikimedia Commons contiene file multimediali su Montefusco
Collegamenti esterni [modifica]
* Brigantaggio a Montefusco
* Caccia al Tesoro "Città di Montefusco"
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Provincia di Avellino-Stemma.png
Campania · Comuni della provincia di Avellino
Aiello del Sabato · Altavilla Irpina · Andretta · Aquilonia · Ariano Irpino · Atripalda · Avella · Avellino · Bagnoli Irpino · Baiano · Bisaccia · Bonito · Cairano · Calabritto · Calitri · Candida · Caposele · Capriglia Irpina · Carife · Casalbore · Cassano Irpino · Castel Baronia · Castelfranci · Castelvetere sul Calore · Cervinara · Cesinali · Chianche · Chiusano di San Domenico · Contrada · Conza della Campania · Domicella · Flumeri · Fontanarosa · Forino · Frigento · Gesualdo · Greci · Grottaminarda · Grottolella · Guardia Lombardi · Lacedonia · Lapio · Lauro · Lioni · Luogosano · Manocalzati · Marzano di Nola · Melito Irpino · Mercogliano · Mirabella Eclano · Montaguto · Montecalvo Irpino · Montefalcione · Monteforte Irpino · Montefredane · Montefusco · Montella · Montemarano · Montemiletto · Monteverde · Montoro Inferiore · Montoro Superiore · Morra De Sanctis · Moschiano · Mugnano del Cardinale · Nusco · Ospedaletto d'Alpinolo · Pago del Vallo di Lauro · Parolise · Paternopoli · Petruro Irpino · Pietradefusi · Pietrastornina · Prata di Principato Ultra · Pratola Serra · Quadrelle · Quindici · Rocca San Felice · Roccabascerana · Rotondi · Salza Irpina · San Mango sul Calore · San Martino Valle Caudina · San Michele di Serino · San Nicola Baronia · San Potito Ultra · San Sossio Baronia · Sant'Andrea di Conza · Sant'Angelo a Scala · Sant'Angelo all'Esca · Sant'Angelo dei Lombardi · Santa Lucia di Serino · Santa Paolina · Santo Stefano del Sole · Savignano Irpino · Scampitella · Senerchia · Serino · Sirignano · Solofra · Sorbo Serpico · Sperone · Sturno · Summonte · Taurano · Taurasi · Teora · Torella dei Lombardi · Torre Le Nocelle · Torrioni · Trevico · Tufo · Vallata · Vallesaccarda · Venticano · Villamaina · Villanova del Battista · Volturara Irpina · Zungoli
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Campania · Comuni della Comunità Montana Partenio - Vallo di Lauro
Avella· Baiano· Cervinara· Lauro· Mercogliano· Monteforte Irpino· Montefusco· Moschiano· Mugnano del Cardinale· Ospedaletto d'Alpinolo· Pannarano· Pietrastornina· Quadrelle· Quindici· Roccarainola· Rotondi· San Martino Valle Caudina· Santa Paolina· Sant'Angelo a Scala· Sirignano· Summonte· Taurano· Torrioni· Visciano·
* Provincia di Avellino Portale Provincia di Avellino: accedi alle voci di Wikipedia che trattano di Provincia di Avellino
Estratto da "http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montefusco"
Categoria: Comuni della provincia di Avellino
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My fifth Oakley ad artwork featuring pro surfer Tom Whitaker. This ad ran mainly in Australia.
Artwork created in Illustrator from photo references. Art direction from Paul Schulte of Oakley.
The second ad I did for Oakley features famed skateboard kid Ryan Scheckler. Well, he was a kid at the time. The action photo is from an actual jump that he did. Artwork created in Illustrator from photo references. Art direction from Paul Schulte of Oakley.