Keto Foods
View allAll Photos Tagged ketones
[ｍｙ ｂｅａｕｔｙ]
...they said they did not want my face in their magazine
Cos I’m not BEAUTIFUL
Am I the most fucking fantastic freak you’ve ever seen? Did I make you scream?
Do we make you sick?
Do our imperfections make your blue breath run thick. Give me scars and strips
It does not please me to be easy on any of your eyes, any of your eyes
BEAU.TI.FUL. BEAUTIFUL IS BORING.
You’re never gunna save those ‘soul suckers’
Fall flawless to the floor
Shady lady gave me ‘Ketones’ so I might be decor
Just pass me my cigar
Teaching children to be anything other than who they are... who they are
Cetonia aurata
Cétoine dorée
Hanneton des roses
Golden Ketone
Rose Chafer
This year I was so lucky to see many golden ketones, they are magnificent golden beetles that shine in the sun.
Cette année j'ai eu la chance de voir de nombreuses cétoines dorées , ce sont des scarabés magnifiques, ils sont dorés et brillent au soleil.
(A7R09849_DxO SHmbn-DNsnm-DNclrll)
Cetonia aurata
Cétoine dorée
Hanneton des roses
Golden Ketone
Rose Chafer
This year I was so lucky to see many golden ketones, they are magnificent golden beetles that shine in the sun.
Cette année j'ai eu la chance de voir de nombreuses cétoines dorées , ce sont des scarabés magnifiques, ils sont dorés et brillent au soleil.
(A7R09646_DxO DNclrllm-4K21)
Cetonia aurata
Cétoine dorée
Hanneton des roses
Golden Ketone
Rose Chafer
This year I was so lucky to see many golden ketones, they are magnificent golden beetles that shine in the sun.
Cette année j'ai eu la chance de voir de nombreuses cétoines dorées , ce sont des scarabés magnifiques, ils sont dorés et brillent au soleil.
(A7R09647_DxO-SHmbn5020m-4K21)
Amazingly great & greatly amazing - work from Ketones6000 in East London.
Yeah the sign is annoying, but preferred the straight on shot to the slight angle....
The Beauty of the Beast.
Imitating the actions of the Tiger is Ketones600 on the Tiger Public House, Hackney, East London.
Edson Fichter Nature Area, Pocatello, Idaho
10:58 11 March 2023
Aves
Passeriformes
Icteridae
Agelaius phoeniceus
"Two keto-carotenoids – carotenoid with a ketone group – reds synthesized by the birds themselves – namely astaxanthin and canthaxanthin – are responsible for the bright red color of the wing spots, but two yellow dietary precursor pigments – lutein and zeaxanthin – are also present in moderately high concentrations in red feathers." - Wikipedia
"
Lest we forget.
The mural depicts 3 stories; the first is a German and British soldier sharing a cigarette together on what was known as the Christmas Truce in 1914 where there was a series of unofficial ceasefires.
The second portrait is of George Gristey who was born in Hackney and lived in Bethnal Green. George served as a Private in the East Surrey Regiment and was killed in action in Belgium on 23 June 1915.
The third is a woman working in a bomb factory in East London. These women were known as the ‘Canary Girls’ because their efforts working with toxic chemicals turned their skin yellow. There were many of these factories around East London and without these forgotten heroes who risked life and limb to supply ammunition to the frontline, the war would have been completely different.
Work from 2018 by Ketones6000 in Bethnal Green,London.
A street art tribute to Sir David Attenborough (Aged 93) from Ketones 6000.
LR3626 © Joe O'Malley 2019
616 miles for June. 3806 for the year.
45th day of intermittent fasting. Amazing results. Inflamation is gone. I've lost 25 lbs. I have the BP of a 20 year old. And I'm burning ketones instead of glucose.
716 miles for the month. 3190 for the year.
15th day of fasting one-meal-a-day. Excellent results. Inflamation is gone from my shoulders. Previously stiff and painful, they're smooth and pain free now. My dry skin is moist. Who knows what else autophagy is accomplishing. I'm anxious to see the test results when I visit my doctor next month.
I've been on ketosis for about 12 days per the test strips. I'm pretty sure I'm burning ketones on the bike instead of glucose!
I've also lost 12 pounds as a bonus.
I was walking south along the bridle path that circumnavigates the reservoir in Central Park; and the view here is basically south, with the CitiCorp building and various other New York City skyscrapers in the background. The reservoir is enclosed by a fence (presumably to keep people from falling in, or jumping in to swim, or perhaps even attempting to fish), and there's a jogging trail that runs along the fence; so scenes like this are pretty common.
I hadn't taken the sun into account when I took this picture; during this season, it's pretty far south, and for whatever reason, it left the runner in pretty dark shadow. I tweaked it a bit, and hopefully didn't distort the background too badly. I also replaced the grayish-white hazy sky with a bluish gradient fill, using Adobe Photoshop Elements ...
***********************************
Note: this photo was published in a Feb 26, 2009 blog article titled "How to Intensify Your Running and Lose More Weight.." It was also published in a blog article (allegedly published on May 21, 2006 - which is difficult to imagine, since I didn't take the picture until Nov 21, 2008) entitled "Burn Twice as Many Calories Running." It was also published in an April 14, 2009 blog titled "Find Our How Far You Run." And it was used in a May 8, 2009 Internet announcement proclaiming "Come cheer on the Lime team," for the Chase Corporate Challenge race on June 11, 2009. And it was published in a May 21, 2009 blog titled "Cardiovascular Fitness Means Healthier Heart ." I've also discovered that it was published in a Mar 20, 2009 blog titled "Running in the City, " (and then republished in the Mar 31, 2010 issue of the same blog ). More recently, it was published in a Jun 25, 2009 blog titled "How To... Stay Fit on the Road." I've also just discovered that it was published in the April 4, 2009 issue of the Directory of New York City blog, in an article titled "Central Park Indulgence."
The photo was also published in a Jul 21, 2009 blog titled "How to Get Started Long-Distance Running." Also in a Jul 24, 2009 blog titled "City Dwellers Are Healthier." And it was published in a Jul 29, 2009 blog titled "Le jogging est-il mauvais pour la santé?.." (which, according to Google's translation service, means something like "Is jogging bad for health?" Yeah, is it? Well, you'll have to read the blog to find out!
More recently, it was published in a Dec 15, 2009 blog titled "Care to read more of my thoughts on fitness?" And it was published as an illustration in a Dec 17, 2009 blog titled "Eco-Beat, 12/17." It was also published in an undated (Dec 2009) Jog4Life blog titled "Beginner Week Three Marathon Training."
Moving into 2010, the photo was published in a Jan 2, 2010 blog titled "Save Money by Sticking to Your Resolutions." And it was published in a Jan 7, 2010 blog titled "Sightjogging: City Walking Tours on Speed." It was also published in a Feb 1, 2010 blog titled "Francis Collins, National Institutes of Health director, speaks on 5-year priorities," as well as a Feb 7, 2010 blog titled "Hold My Heart." And it was published in a Feb 25, 2010 blog titled "Physical exercise for a health" [sic]. And it was pubilshed as an illustration in a brief Mar 3, 2010 blog titled "What can you do with your high cholesterol." It was also published in an undated (mid-March 2010) blog titled "Ungewöhnliche Fitnessübungen ohne Geräte." And it was published in a Mar 16, 2010 blog titled "What Can Raise Your Blood Pressure?"
On April 1st, 2010, the photo was published in a blog titled "Staying Active." And on Apr 8, the photo was published in an blog titled "Write-up on wholesome residing." On Apr 11, 2010, it was published in a blog titled "Post on wholesome living," with a comment that said, "Above picture is a random extract from Flickr, writer of this blog do not claim ownership of this picture, visit Flickr for its owner." Gee, thanks for that enthusiastic citation! Meanwhile, the photo was published in an Apr 15, 2010 blog titled "Recomendaciones para prevenir la hipertensión." And it was published in an Apr 22, 2010 blog titled "New Experiment: Integrating Physical Activity Into the Daily Routine." It was also published in a Jul 14, 2010 blog titled "Running and Peaches." And it was published in a Jul 19, 2010 blog titled "Three Ways we Self-Sabotage." It was also published in a Jul 23, 2010 blog titled "wLe sightjogging : le tourisme en courant!" as well as a Jul 27, 2010 blog titled "En salud no es mejor tarde que nunca." And it was published in a Jul 28, 2010 blog titled "Los riesgos de practicar carrera en ciudad durante el verano."
Shortly after Labor Day and the beginning of the fall season in 2010, the photo was published in a Sep 10, 2010 blog titled "Le logiciel libre en entreprise expliqué par un communiqué de presse." It was also published in a Sep 20, 2010 blog titled "Get Fit for Fall." And it was published in a Sep 27, 2010 blog titled " Fitness events take focus off weight-loss frustration," but also with the title and notes from my original Flickr page. It was also published in an undated (early Oct 2010) blog titled "Be Heart Healthy With Home Remedies For High Cholesterol." And it was published in an undated (Oct 2010) blog titled "Cardio Workout Routines- Maintain A Cardio Exercise Routine And Lose Weight Efficiently." It was also published in an Oct 18, 2010 blog titled "Come prevenire i dolori alle articolazioni." And it was published in an undated (mid-Nov 2010) blog titled "Weight Loss Maintenance," as well as an undated (mid-Nov 2010) blog titled "Healthy Weight Loss: Exercises To Augment Your Efforts, Part 2." It was also published in a Nov 12, 2010 blog titled "Translation service: for any kind of language translations." And it was published in a Nov 19, 2010 Brazilian blog titled "Do que eu falo quando eu falo de natação." It was also published in a Nov 21, 2010 FeelBetter4Life blog, with the same title as the caption that I used on this Flickr page, as well as a Nov 21, 2010 blog titled "How many steps should I be walking each day for weight loss?" And it was published in a Nov 30, 2010 blog titled "Consejos controlar presion arterial." It was also published in a Dec 16, 2010 Lifehacker blog titled "Working Out Before Breakfast Is Better for Weight Loss," and it was published in a Dec 19, 2010 "Cool Weight Loss Programs That Work images blog, with the same title and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. I then found that it had also been published in a Dec 17, 2010 Vertical Jump Training blog and a Dec 26, 2010 Awesome Diet blog, with the same title and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. There was another undated (late Dec 2010) publication in a blog titled "Weight Loss Remedy is Diet."
Moving into 2011, the photo was published in a Jan 3, 2011 blog titled "Vertical Jump Workouts," as well as a Jan 4, 2011 blog titled "6 Faktor yang Dapat Meningkatkan Tekanan Darah." It was also published in an undated (early Jan 2011) "Weight Loss Helps" blog titled " The Pure Acai Berry Seeded fruit Weight Loss Program." And it was published in a Jan 12,2011 blog titled "Best Means To Burn Belly Fat Fast." It was also published in a Jan 13, 2 011 blog titled "Some of the Tips on How to Lose Weight Effectively," as well as an undated (mid-Jan 2011) blog titled "Right Attitude for Weight Loss." It was also published in a Jan 24, 2011 blog titled "The effect of weight on fertility, as well as a Jan 25, 2011 blog titled Perfect Acai Pure Organic Acai Berry (1 Bottle) Reviews , with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written here on this Flickr page. And it was published in a Jan 28, 2011 blog titled "Diets - the big, fat lies."
In February, it was also published in an undated (early Feb 2011) Dutch blog titled "Geef stress minder kans: vergroot uw weerbaarheid." And it was published in an undated (mid-Feb 2011) blog titled "State faces enforcement questions for air pollution-prone Fairbanks, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. It was also published in a Feb 15, 2011 blog titled "Nice How To Lose Fat Fast photos." And it was published in a Mar 4, 2011 blog titled "what do you think of chitocal and acai berry diet pill?" It was also published in a Mar 14, 2011 Fasts to Lose Weight blog, with the same caption that I used on this Flickr page. And it was published in an Apr 16, 2011 blog titled "Brain Tumour Foundation of Canada – Spring Sprint ." It was also published in an Apr 18, 2011 blog titled "Heart Needs Work After Heart Attack: New Study Challenges the Notion That the Heart Must Rest." And it was published in an Apr 24, 2011 blog titled "Incorporación de ejercicios quema grasa en su vida diaria!", as well as an Apr 25, 2011 blog titled "FTC Cracks down on “fake” websites," with the same detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. It was also published in a May 6, 2011 blog titled "c25k redux." And it was published in a May 21, 2011 blog titled "How To Reduce Your Weight Quickly." It was also published in a May 24, 2011 blog titled "The Most Effective Way To Lose Weight and Get In Shape!!" And it was published in a Jul 11, 2011 Forbes blog titled "Random Acts of Exercise: Why Little Movements Can Have Big Benefits." It was also published in an undated (late Jul 2011) Stresspages blog titled "Increase resilience." And it was published in an Aug 8, 2011 Cool New York pics blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had used on this Flickr page. It was published in an Aug 22, 2011 blog titled "Feelgood Fitness: 3 Great Cities for Jogging," as well as an Aug 24, 2011 Tolle Fitnessübungen Bilder blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. And it was published in a Sep 19, 2011 blog titled "Stuck in a Design Slump? Go Outside!." It was also published in an undated (early Oct 2011) blog titled "Realizing You Have Everything You Need." It was also published in an Oct 4, 2011 blog titled "Feel Better and Accomplish More: How to Make Your Routine Work With Your Bad Habits and Energy Levels." And it was published in an Oct 5, 2011 blog titled "Hey, That Hurt!" It was also published in an Oct 28, 2011 blog titled "25 Exceptional Photos of Runners, Races & Marathons." And it was published in a Nov 1, 2011 blog titled "Vancouver Personal Training | Enhance Your Mood With Fitness." It was also published in a Nov 27, 2011 Weight Loss and Sport blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page.
Moving into 2012, the photo was published in a Jan 6, 2012 Lifehacker blog titled "Why Placebos Work, and How You Can Use the Placebo Effect to Accomplish Your Goals." It was also published in an undated (early Jan 2012) blog titled "Thought Questions." It was also published in a Jan 16, 2012 Fitness Websites blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written here on this Flickr page. And it was published in an undated (mid-Mar 2012) blog titled "BioMio Mør okse." It was also published in an undated (early Apr 2012) blog titled "Allenamento per corer meglio." And it was published in a May 5, 2012 blog titled "Slow Jogging Just A Few Times A Week Can Add Years To Your Life." It was also published in a May 20, 2012 blog titled "Zacznij biegać – już teraz!" And it was published in a Jun 8, 2012 Step Exercise Equipment blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. It was also published in a Jun 20, 2012 Samsung Lifeblog titled "작심365, 그 첫번째 - 다이어트." For some reason, the photo was also published in a Jun 24, 2012 blog titled "Whitecaps surpass 2011 win total with 1-0 victory over Colorado." It was also published in an undated (late Jun 2012) blog titled "20 Great Pictures of Central Park NYC."
Moving into the 2nd half of 2012, the photo was published in a Jul 5, 2012 blog titled "10 Good Reasons to Drink Coffee." And it was published in a Jul 26, 2012 blog with the bizarre titled of "Jogging on a bright November morning and Pure Raspberry Ketones in Evolution Slimmings Raspberry Ketone Plus+; Now $5 off with Immediate Shipping." It was also published in an undated (mid-Aug 2012) "Fine Retirement" blog titled "Exercising With Varied Health Challenges." And it was published in an Oct 28, 2012 blog titled "What weight loss pill should I take that will work fast?" It was also published in a Nov 1, 2012 blog titled "どんなに忙しくても僕らがランニングをするべき７つの理由 ." And it was published in an undated (mid-Nov 2012) blog titled "What Is NRF2?" It was also published in an undated (late Nov 2012) blog titled "Travel: Escaping reality or trading up?"
Moving into 2013, the photo was published in a Jan 8, 2013 blog titled "Your Vision Will Drive You To Lose Belly Fat." It was also published in a Jan 16, 2013 blog titled "How to Exercise Your Willpower by Working Out," as well as a Jan 16, 2013 blog titled "What is a good diet pill to aid in the weight loss process that has minimal neg. side effects?" And it was published in a Jan 26, 2013 blog titled "Quick Workout of the Week: Washboard Abs Blast." It was also published in a Jan 30, 2013 blog titled "AYT USA: Judgey at the gym – the power of words." And it was published in an undated (early Feb 2013) blog titled "Le logiciel libre en entreprise expliqué par un communiqué de presse." It was also published in a Feb 19, 2013 blog titled "Couch to 5K: anyone want to join me?" And it was published in an undated (late Feb 2013) blog titled "Are there disadvantages of running?", as well as a Mar 5, 2013 blog titled " I am SO not doing a 365–BUT…" It was also published in an Apr 3, 2013 blog titled "#NPM2013: Prompt 3." And it was published in an Apr 22, 2013 blog titled "セルフマネジメントのレベルと欠かせないスキル 〜 自己組織化されたチームを作るためには," as well as a May 5, 2013 blog titled "【RUN】気分爽快！！早朝ランニングが最高に気持ちいい件！！." It was also published in a Jun 3, 2013 blog titled "カナダのアニメイベントに現れたコスプレイヤーがとんでもないことになってた," as well as a Jun 21, 2013 blog titled" When Is The Right Time To Lose Weight?" And it was published in an undated (late Jun 2013) blog titled "7 Tips to Keep Your Heart Healthy." It was also published in a Sep 4, 2013 blog titled "Running in the City." And it was published in an Oct 10, 2013 blog titled "Où faire du tourisme en footing?"
Moving into 2014, the photo was published in an undated (mid-Jan 2014) "RunKeeper" blog titled "はじめに." It was also published in a Feb 21, 2014 blog titled "Ways To Burn Fats Quick Could Make You Cash." And it was published in an Oct 22, 2014 blog titled "Tips For Staying Fit Without Going To The Gym."
**********************
Having seen this Photoshopped color version of this photograph, my instructor in a March 2009 street photography class suggested that I convert it to black-and-white to accentuate the vertical shapes of the fence behind the runner. I did so here on Flickr, using Apple's Aperture program, and with a yellow filter applied to the initial image.
I think the result is interesting, and I'll try to keep an open mind for a while before deciding whether I like it better than the color version. However, if you have strong opinions one way or the other, I'd enjoy hearing it; leave me Flickr-mail or email me at ed at yourdon dot com
This is a coffee cream soda before I stir it. Ingredients are:
One third coffee;
One third Muscle Milk vitamin and protein drink;
One or two tablespoons heavy whipping cream;
One third seltzer water.
In the summer I make it over ice..
Be careful to pour the seltzer in slowly because when it hits the cream it quickly froths up and can go over the rim of the large glass❣️
Alternate Recipe:
Heart Healthy Version
- Uses decaf brewed coffee or decaf instant coffee.
- Uses Muscle Milk instead of chocolate syrup with all its sugar
Unfortunately, I didn't have a chilled glass...;)) so I added:
Ice cubes,
Then I added:
Decaffeinated Coffee,
Refrigerated Muscle Milk protein drink,
Refrigerated Seltzer,
and,
Heavy whipping cream (not whipped.).
This is before stirring.
I did not have time to whip the cream since I was very thirsty (;-)
Note:
For my heart healthy version, I have modified it by using decaffeinated coffee, Muscle Milk as my sweetener instead of chocolate syrup, seltzer, and heavy cream instead of milk.
Places / Germany / Baden-Wurttemberg / Tuebingen
Highest position: 255 on Friday, January 9, 2015
here: half file size
bighugelabs.com/scout.php?mode=history&id=16041233569
Mondphase und Mondstand
am
8.1.2015
stand der Mond im Sternzeichen:
Löwe ♂
bei (Phase):
abnehmendem Mond (3. Viertel)
abnehmend bis
bis Dienstag 20.01.2015 -
--------
1. Vollmond:
2015
Schneemond
war am 5-1- 2015 - 6:00 Uhr
Nutzen Sie Voll- und Neumondtage als Fastentage ( z.B. Saftfasten o.ä.) bis zum Dienstag 20.01.2015.
Beginnen Sie Ihre Diät bei abnehmendem Mond z.B. direkt nach dem Vollmond. Der Körper entschlackt, entgiftet und entwässert in dieser Mondphase am besten. Es ist einfacher überhaupt anzufangen, geht müheloser und schneller.
Stimmt!
Effi
Auch wenn Sie Sportlernahrung oder Nahrungsergänzung zu sich nehmen, wird es wahrscheinlich nicht schaden, den Mond zu berücksichtigen ;-)
Raspberry ketone
Das Himbeer-Keton kommt auch im Tabakrauch vor, wobei es im Tabak selbst nicht gefunden wurde.
It is one of the most expensive natural flavor components used in the food industry. The natural compound can cost as much as $20,000 per kg.
de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himbeerketon
4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)butan-2-on, Frambinon, Oxyphenalon, Rheosmin
Summenformal: C-10 H-12 O-2
-
Views about 10.000 clicks
tags/views10000/
---
listed on
www.flickr.com/explore/2015/01/08
---
THE EXPLORE GROUP
www.flickr.com/groups/inexplore/pool/
___
From Raw-file, ".CR2", aka "Canon-Raw-File"
The CR2 file type is primarily associated with 'Canon Digital Camera' by Canon, Inc.. Raw image format for some Canon digital cameras. Raw images are basically the data as it comes directly from the CCD detector in the camera. Raw files can also contain text information about the picture and conditions in the camera when the picture was taken. These images are based on the TIFF image standard. Konvertor will display these EXIF metadata.
www.graphicregion.com/ablerawer.htm
converted by Faststone viewer IMG_2911
- hand-held
- with hands fixed on the wall,
- taken with the articulated display control
as good as it gets
Besser ging es nicht!
***
Jetzt bin ich mit der Canon SX60 d'accord.
Diese angemessene Qualität einer Bridge Kamera wollte ich unbedingt haben.
Den Vergleich mit der SX50 hat sie überwunden, wenn auch nur mit RAW-File!
Ein Quantensprung seit der Vorstellung der Canon Powershot SX1 von 2009.
Im Super-macro-modus (f/2,8), Foliage Modus für natürliche Farben und Sonneuntergang Modus ist die SX1 allerdings immer noch super!
weitreichenden Dioptrienausgleich: -6.0 bis +2.0 dpt (SX1)
Manches hat die SX60 nicht mehr genauso gut wie die Vorgänger-Modelle!
***
Canon PowerShot SX60 HS,
Canon, PowerShot, SX60, HS, Bridgecamera, bridge, camera, Canon PowerShot SX60, Canon SX60,Powershot SX60,SX60HS,eagle1effi, Powershot SX60,
Vorteil raw
Record Mode CR2+JPEG
Continuous Drive- Continuous 4.8 fps
postprocessing
Raw lässt sich 50% nachschärfen
JPG nur 15%
-
Camera Canon PowerShot SX60 HS
Exposure 0.017 sec (1/60)
Aperture f/6.5
Focal Length 247 mm ~1365 mm analog 35 mm film
ISO Speed 100
Exposure Bias - 1/3 EV
..
daily
File Number 612-2911
...
How do you actually visit the full 500 Explore list of any past date?
December 2014
www.flickr.com/explore/interesting/2014/12/
January 2015
#01
Artist
eagle1effi
- Canon SX60 HS - - Moon, tonight - Canon PowerShot SX60 HS.
Places / Germany / Baden-Wurttemberg / Tuebingen
Highest position: 255 on Friday, January 9, 2015
RAW - Canon SX60 HS - - Moon, tonight - Canon PowerShot SX60 HS. Seen On Explore January 9. 2015. #255.
#02
by Aviary
2017
ein wenig gedreht
Zuschnitt
+ Kontraste
bighugelabs.com/scout.php?mode=history&id=16041233569
Mondphase und Mondstand
am
8.1.2015
stand der Mond im Sternzeichen:
Löwe ♂
bei (Phase):
abnehmendem Mond (3. Viertel)
abnehmend bis
bis Dienstag 20.01.2015 -
--------
1. Vollmond:
2015
Schneemond
war am 5-1- 2015 - 6:00 Uhr
Nutzen Sie Voll- und Neumondtage als Fastentage ( z.B. Saftfasten o.ä.) bis zum Dienstag 20.01.2015.
Beginnen Sie Ihre Diät bei abnehmendem Mond z.B. direkt nach dem Vollmond. Der Körper entschlackt, entgiftet und entwässert in dieser Mondphase am besten. Es ist einfacher überhaupt anzufangen, geht müheloser und schneller.
Stimmt!
Effi
Auch wenn Sie Sportlernahrung oder Nahrungsergänzung zu sich nehmen, wird es wahrscheinlich nicht schaden, den Mond zu berücksichtigen ;-)
Raspberry ketone
Das Himbeer-Keton kommt auch im Tabakrauch vor, wobei es im Tabak selbst nicht gefunden wurde.
It is one of the most expensive natural flavor components used in the food industry. The natural compound can cost as much as $20,000 per kg.
de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himbeerketon
4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)butan-2-on, Frambinon, Oxyphenalon, Rheosmin
Summenformal: C-10 H-12 O-2
-
Views about 10.000 clicks
tags/views10000/
---
listed on
www.flickr.com/explore/2015/01/08
---
THE EXPLORE GROUP
www.flickr.com/groups/inexplore/pool/
___
From Raw-file, ".CR2", aka "Canon-Raw-File"
The CR2 file type is primarily associated with 'Canon Digital Camera' by Canon, Inc.. Raw image format for some Canon digital cameras. Raw images are basically the data as it comes directly from the CCD detector in the camera. Raw files can also contain text information about the picture and conditions in the camera when the picture was taken. These images are based on the TIFF image standard. Konvertor will display these EXIF metadata.
www.graphicregion.com/ablerawer.htm
converted by Faststone viewer IMG_2911
- hand-held
- with hands fixed on the wall,
- taken with the articulated display control
as good as it gets
Besser ging es nicht!
***
Jetzt bin ich mit der Canon SX60 d'accord.
Diese angemessene Qualität einer Bridge Kamera wollte ich unbedingt haben.
Den Vergleich mit der SX50 hat sie überwunden, wenn auch nur mit RAW-File!
Ein Quantensprung seit der Vorstellung der Canon Powershot SX1 von 2009.
Im Super-macro-modus (f/2,8), Foliage Modus für natürliche Farben und Sonneuntergang Modus ist die SX1 allerdings immer noch super!
weitreichenden Dioptrienausgleich: -6.0 bis +2.0 dpt (SX1)
Manches hat die SX60 nicht mehr genauso gut wie die Vorgänger-Modelle!
***
Canon PowerShot SX60 HS,
Canon, PowerShot, SX60, HS, Bridgecamera, bridge, camera, Canon PowerShot SX60, Canon SX60,Powershot SX60,SX60HS,eagle1effi, Powershot SX60,
Vorteil raw
Record Mode CR2+JPEG
Continuous Drive- Continuous 4.8 fps
postprocessing
Raw lässt sich 50% nachschärfen
JPG nur 15%
-
Camera Canon PowerShot SX60 HS
Exposure 0.017 sec (1/60)
Aperture f/6.5
Focal Length 247 mm ~1365 mm analog 35 mm film
ISO Speed 100
Exposure Bias - 1/3 EV
..
daily
File Number 612-2911
...
How do you actually visit the full 500 Explore list of any past date?
December 2014
www.flickr.com/explore/interesting/2014/12/
January 2015
Europe’s first 3D printer designed for use in weightlessness, printing aerospace-quality plastics, has won the prestigious Aerospace Applications Award from design-to-manufacturing specialist TCT Magazine.
ESA’s Manufacturing of Experimental Layer Technology (MELT) project printer has to be able to operate from any orientation – up, down or sideways – in order to serve in microgravity conditions aboard the International Space Station. Based on the ‘fuse filament fabrication’ process, it has been designed to fit within a standard ISS payload rack, and to meet the Station’s rigorous safety standards.
The MELT printer can print a wide variety of thermoplastics from ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene), as used in Lego, up to high-melting point engineering thermoplastics such PEEK (Polyether ether ketone), which is robust enough to substitute for metal materials in some cases.
“This printer could be used to make parts on demand for the repair and maintenance of a long-duration orbital habitat,” explains ESA materials and processes engineer Ugo Lafont. “This printer would also benefit human bases on planetary surfaces. Crucially, it can also print using recycled plastics, allowing a whole new maintenance strategy based on closed-loop reuse of materials.”
The printer was produced for ESA by a consortium led by Sonaca Space GmbH together with BeeVeryCreative, Active Space Techologies SA and OHB-System AG.
The MELT project was supported through ESA’s Technology Development Element programme, which identifies promising technologies for space, then demonstrates their workability.
Watch a video of the printer in operation here.
Credits: ESA–G. Porter, CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO
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The durian (/ˈdjʊriən/) is the fruit of several tree species belonging to the genus Durio. The name 'durian' is derived from the Malay-Indonesian languages word for duri or "spike", a reference to the numerous spike protuberances of the fruit, together with the noun-building suffix -an. There are 30 recognised Durio species, at least nine of which produce edible fruit. Durio zibethinus is the only species available in the international market: other species are sold in their local regions.
Regarded by many people in southeast Asia as the "king of fruits", the durian is distinctive for its large size, strong odour, and formidable thorn-covered husk. The fruit can grow as large as 30 centimetres long and 15 centimetres in diameter, and it typically weighs one to three kilograms. Its shape ranges from oblong to round, the colour of its husk green to brown, and its flesh pale yellow to red, depending on the species.
The edible flesh emits a distinctive odour that is strong and penetrating even when the husk is intact. Some people regard the durian as having a pleasantly sweet fragrance; others find the aroma overpowering and revolting. The smell evokes reactions from deep appreciation to intense disgust, and has been described variously as rotten onions, turpentine, and raw sewage. The persistence of its odour has led to the fruit's banishment from certain hotels and public transportation in Southeast Asia.
The durian, native to Southeast Asia, has been known to the Western world for about 600 years. The nineteenth-century British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described its flesh as "a rich custard highly flavoured with almonds". The flesh can be consumed at various stages of ripeness, and it is used to flavour a wide variety of savoury and sweet edibles in Southeast Asian cuisines. The seeds can also be eaten when cooked.
There are hundreds of durian cultivars; many consumers express preferences for specific cultivars, which fetch higher prices in the market.
TAXONOMY
The genus Durio is placed by some taxonomists in the family Bombacaceae, or by others in a broadly defined Malvaceae that includes Bombacaceae, and by others in a smaller family of just seven genera Durionaceae.
DESCRIPTION
Durian trees are large, growing to 25–50 metres in height depending on the species. The leaves are evergreen, elliptic to oblong and 10–18 centimetres long. The flowers are produced in three to thirty clusters together on large branches and directly on the trunk with each flower having a calyx (sepals) and five (rarely four or six) petals. Durian trees have one or two flowering and fruiting periods per year, although the timing varies depending on the species, cultivars, and localities. A typical durian tree can bear fruit after four or five years. The durian fruit can hang from any branch and matures roughly three months after pollination. The fruit can grow up to 30 centimetres long and 15 centimetres (6 in) in diameter, and typically weighs one to three kilograms. Its shape ranges from oblong to round, the colour of its husk green to brown, and its flesh pale-yellow to red, depending on the species. Among the thirty known species of Durio, nine of them have been identified as producing edible fruits: D. zibethinus, D. dulcis, D. grandiflorus, D. graveolens, D. kutejensis, D. macrantha, D. oxleyanus, and D. testudinarum. There are many species for which the fruit has never been collected or properly examined, however, so other species with edible fruit may exist. The durian is somewhat similar in appearance to the jackfruit, an unrelated species.
The name durian comes from the Malay word duri (thorn) together with the suffix -an (for building a noun in Malay). D. zibethinus is the only species commercially cultivated on a large scale and available outside of its native region. Since this species is open-pollinated, it shows considerable diversity in fruit colour and odour, size of flesh and seed, and tree phenology. In the species name, zibethinus refers to the Indian civet, Viverra zibetha. There is disagreement regarding whether this name, bestowed by Linnaeus, refers to civets being so fond of the durian that the fruit was used as bait to entrap them, or to the durian smelling like the civet.
Durian flowers are large and feathery with copious nectar, and give off a heavy, sour, and buttery odour. These features are typical of flowers pollinated by certain species of bats that eat nectar and pollen. According to research conducted in Malaysia in the 1970s, durians were pollinated almost exclusively by cave fruit bats (Eonycteris spelaea); however, a 1996 study indicated two species, D. grandiflorus and D. oblongus, were pollinated by spiderhunters (Nectariniidae) and another species, D. kutejensis, was pollinated by giant honey bees and birds as well as bats.
CULTIVARS
Over the centuries, numerous durian cultivars, propagated by vegetative clones, have arisen in southeast Asia. They used to be grown with mixed results from seeds of trees bearing superior quality fruit, but now are propagated by layering, marcotting, or more commonly, by grafting, including bud, veneer, wedge, whip or U-grafting onto seedlings of randomly selected rootstocks. Different cultivars may be distinguished to some extent by variations in the fruit shape, such as the shape of the spines. Durian consumers express preferences for specific cultivars, which fetch higher prices in the market.
Most cultivars have a common name and a code number starting with "D". For example, some popular clones are Kop (D99 Thai: กบ – "frog" [kòp]), Chanee (D123, Thai: ชะนี – gibbon [tɕʰániː]), Berserah or Green Durian or Tuan Mek Hijau (D145 Thai: ทุเรียนเขียว – Green Durian [tʰúriːən kʰǐow]), Kan Yao (D158, Thai: ก้านยาว – Long Stem [kâːn jaːw]), Mon Thong (D159, Thai: หมอนทอง – Golden Pillow [mɔ̌ːn tʰɔːŋ]), Kradum Thong (Thai: กระดุมทอง – Golden Button [kràdum tʰɔːŋ]), and with no common name, D24 and D169. Each cultivar has a distinct taste and odour. More than 200 cultivars of D. zibethinus exist in Thailand.
Mon thong is the most commercially sought after for its thick, full-bodied creamy and mild sweet tasting flesh with relatively moderate smell emitted and smaller seeds, while Chanee is the best in terms of its resistance to infection by Phytophthora palmivora. Kan Yao is somewhat less common, but prized for its longer window of time when it is both sweet and odorless at the same time. Among all the cultivars in Thailand, five are currently in large-scale commercial cultivation: Chanee, Mon Thong, Kan Yao, Ruang, and Kradum. There are more than 100 registered cultivars since 1920's in Malaysia and up to 193 cultivar by 1992, and many superior cultivars have been identified through competitions held at the annual Malaysian Agriculture, Horticulture, and Agrotourism Show. In Vietnam, the same process has been achieved through competitions held by the Southern Fruit Research Institute. A recently popular variety is, Cat Mountain King or Musang King.
By 2007, Songpol Somsri, a Thai government scientist, had crossbred more than ninety varieties of durian to create Chantaburi No. 1, a cultivar without the characteristic odour. Another hybrid, Chantaburi No. 3, develops the odour about three days after the fruit is picked, which enables an odourless transport yet satisfies consumers who prefer the pungent odour. On 22 May 2012, two other cultivars from Thailand that also lack the usual odour, Long Laplae and Lin Laplae, were presented to the public by Yothin Samutkhiri, governor of Uttaradit province from where these cultivars were developed locally, while he announced the dates for the yearly durian fair of Laplae District, and the name giver to both cultivars.
Popular cultivars in Malaysia and Singapore (Singapore imports most of its durians from Malaysia hence the varieties are similar although there may be slight variation in the names) include "D24" which is a popular variety known for its bitter sweet taste; "XO" which has a pale color, thick flesh with a tinge of alcoholic fermentation; "Chook Kiok" (Cantonese meaning: bamboo leg) which has a distinctive yellowish core in the inner stem and "Musang King" ( Musang is the Malay word for civet cat) which is usually the priciest of all cultivars. Musang King has bright yellow flesh and is almost like a more potent or enhanced version of the D24. This particular variety should be consumed last since it tends to make other durians taste bland in comparison.
CULTIVATION AND AVAIBILITY
The durian is native to Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia.[8] There is some debate as to whether the durian is native to the Philippines, particularly the Davao region in the island of Mindanao, or was introduced. The durian is grown in other areas with a similar climate; it is strictly tropical and stops growing when mean daily temperatures drop below 22 °C.
The centre of ecological diversity for durians is the island of Borneo, where the fruit of the edible species of Durio including D. zibethinus, D. dulcis, D. graveolens, D. kutejensis, D. oxleyanus and D. testudinarum is sold in local markets. In Brunei, D. zibethinus is not grown because consumers prefer other species such as D. graveolens, D. kutejensis and D. oxleyanus. These species are commonly distributed in Brunei, and together with other species like D. testudinarum and D. dulcis, represent rich genetic diversity.
Although the durian is not native to Thailand, the country is currently one of the major exporters of durians, growing 781,000 tonnes of the world's total harvest of 1,400,000 tonnes in 1999, 111,000 tonnes of which it exported to Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and Canada. Malaysia and Indonesia follow, both producing about 265,000 tonnes each. Of this, Malaysia exported 35,000 tonnes in 1999. Chantaburi in Thailand each year holds the World Durian Festival in early May. This single province is responsible for half of the durian production of Thailand. In the Philippines, the centre of durian production is the Davao Region. The Kadayawan Festival is an annual celebration featuring the durian in Davao City. Other places where durian farms are located include Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India, the West Indies, Florida, Hawaii, Papua New Guinea, the Polynesian Islands, Madagascar, southern China (Hainan Island), northern Australia, and Singapore.
Durian was introduced into Australia in the early 1960s and clonal material was first introduced in 1975. Over thirty clones of D. zibethinus and six Durio species have been subsequently introduced into Australia. China is the major importer, purchasing 65,000 tonnes in 1999, followed by Singapore with 40,000 tonnes and Taiwan with 5,000 tonnes. In the same year, the United States imported 2,000 tonnes, mostly frozen, and the European Community imported 500 tonnes.
The durian is a seasonal fruit, unlike some other non-seasonal tropical fruits such as the papaya, which are available throughout the year. In Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, the season for durians is typically from June to August, which coincides with that of the mangosteen. Prices of durians are relatively high as compared with other fruits. For example, in Singapore, the strong demand for high quality cultivars such as the D24, Sultan, and Mao Shan Wang has resulted in typical retail prices of between S$8 to S$15 (US$5 to US$10) per kilogram of whole fruit. With an average weight of about 1.5 kilograms, a durian fruit would therefore cost about S$12 to S$22 (US$8 to US$15). The edible portion of the fruit, known as the aril and usually referred to as the "flesh" or "pulp", only accounts for about 15–30% of the mass of the entire fruit. Many consumers in Singapore are nevertheless quite willing to spend up to around S$75 (US$50) on a single purchase of about half a dozen of the favoured fruit to be shared by family members.
In-season durians can be found in mainstream Japanese supermarkets, while in the West they are sold mainly by Asian markets.
FLAVOUR AND ODOUR
The unusual flavour and odour of the fruit have prompted many people to express diverse and passionate views ranging from deep appreciation to intense disgust. Writing in 1856, the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace provided a much-quoted description of the flavour of the durian:
The five cells are silky-white within, and are filled with a mass of firm, cream-coloured pulp, containing about three seeds each. This pulp is the edible part, and its consistence and flavour are indescribable. A rich custard highly flavoured with almonds gives the best general idea of it, but there are occasional wafts of flavour that call to mind cream-cheese, onion-sauce, sherry-wine, and other incongruous dishes. Then there is a rich glutinous smoothness in the pulp which nothing else possesses, but which adds to its delicacy. It is neither acidic nor sweet nor juicy; yet it wants neither of these qualities, for it is in itself perfect. It produces no nausea or other bad effect, and the more you eat of it the less you feel inclined to stop. In fact, to eat Durians is a new sensation worth a voyage to the East to experience. ... as producing a food of the most exquisite flavour it is unsurpassed.
Wallace described himself as being at first reluctant to try it because of the aroma, "but in Borneo I found a ripe fruit on the ground, and, eating it out of doors, I at once became a confirmed Durian eater." He cited one traveller from 1599: "it is of such an excellent taste that it surpasses in flavour all other fruits of the world, according to those who have tasted it." He cites another writer: "To those not used to it, it seems at first to smell like rotten onions, but immediately after they have tasted it they prefer it to all other food. The natives give it honourable titles, exalt it, and make verses on it." Despite having tried many foods that are arguably more eccentric, Andrew Zimmern, host of Bizarre Foods, was unable to finish a durian upon sampling it, due to his intolerance of its strong taste.
While Wallace cautions that "the smell of the ripe fruit is certainly at first disagreeable", later descriptions by westerners are more graphic. Novelist Anthony Burgess writes that eating durian is "like eating sweet raspberry blancmange in the lavatory". Chef Andrew Zimmern compares the taste to "completely rotten, mushy onions". Anthony Bourdain, a lover of durian, relates his encounter with the fruit thus: "Its taste can only be described as...indescribable, something you will either love or despise. ...Your breath will smell as if you'd been French-kissing your dead grandmother." Likewise, fellow chef Jamie Oliver has also expressed admiration for the fruit on his first sampling. Travel and food writer Richard Sterling says:
... its odor is best described as pig-shit, turpentine and onions, garnished with a gym sock. It can be smelled from yards away. Despite its great local popularity, the raw fruit is forbidden from some establishments such as hotels, subways and airports, including public transportation in Southeast Asia.
Other comparisons have been made with the civet, sewage, stale vomit, skunk spray and used surgical swabs. The wide range of descriptions for the odour of durian may have a great deal to do with the variability of durian odour itself. Durians from different species or clones can have significantly different aromas; for example, red durian (D. dulcis) has a deep caramel flavour with a turpentine odour while red-fleshed durian (D. graveolens) emits a fragrance of roasted almonds. Among the varieties of D. zibethinus, Thai varieties are sweeter in flavour and less odorous than Malay ones. The degree of ripeness has an effect on the flavour as well. Three scientific analyses of the composition of durian aroma – from 1972, 1980, and 1995 – each found a mix of volatile compounds including esters, ketones, and different sulphur compounds, with no agreement on which may be primarily responsible for the distinctive odour. People in South East Asia with frequent exposures to durian are able to easily distinguish its sweet-like ketones and esters scent from rotten or putrescine odours which are from volatile amines and fatty acids. Developmental or genetic differences in olfactory perception and mapping within the brain ( for e.g. anterior piriform cortex to the orbitofrontal cortex) could possibly explain why some individuals are unable to differentiate these smells and find this fruit noxious.
This strong odour can be detected half a mile away by animals, thus luring them. In addition, the fruit is extremely appetising to a variety of animals, including squirrels, mouse deer, pigs, orangutan, elephants, and even carnivorous tigers. While some of these animals eat the fruit and dispose of the seed under the parent plant, others swallow the seed with the fruit and then transport it some distance before excreting, with the seed being dispersed as a result. The thorny, armoured covering of the fruit discourages smaller animals; larger animals are more likely to transport the seeds far from the parent tree.
RIPENESS AND SELECTION
According to Larousse Gastronomique, the durian fruit is ready to eat when its husk begins to crack. However, the ideal stage of ripeness to be enjoyed varies from region to region in Southeast Asia and by species. Some species grow so tall that they can only be collected once they have fallen to the ground, whereas most cultivars of D. zibethinus are nearly always cut from the tree and allowed to ripen while waiting to be sold. Some people in southern Thailand prefer their durians relatively young when the clusters of fruit within the shell are still crisp in texture and mild in flavour. For some people in northern Thailand, the preference is for the fruit to be soft and aromatic. In Malaysia and Singapore, most consumers prefer the fruit to be as ripe and pungent in aroma as possible and may even risk allowing the fruit to continue ripening after its husk has already cracked open. In this state, the flesh becomes richly creamy, slightly alcoholic, the aroma pronounced and the flavour highly complex.
The various preferences regarding ripeness among consumers make it hard to issue general statements about choosing a "good" durian. A durian that falls off the tree continues to ripen for two to four days, but after five or six days most would consider it overripe and unpalatable. The usual advice for a durian consumer choosing a whole fruit in the market is to examine the quality of the stem or stalk which loses moisture as it ages: a big, solid stem is a sign of freshness. Reportedly, unscrupulous merchants wrap, paint, or remove the stalks altogether. Due to the popularity of Kan Yao, street vendors may sometimes sell a lesser variety with a long stem to unsuspecting customers. Another frequent piece of advice is to shake the fruit and listen for the sound of the seeds moving within, indicating the durian is very ripe and the pulp has dried out a bit.
HISTORY
The durian has been known and consumed in Southeast Asia since prehistoric times, but has only been known to the western world for about 600 years. The earliest native reference to durian is the several bas relief panels of 9th-century Borobudur depicting durian as one of fruit offering for Javanese king, and also as one of the fruits sold in marketplace.
The earliest known European reference to the durian is the record of Niccolò Da Conti, who travelled to southeastern Asia in the 15th century. Translated from the Latin in which Poggio Bracciolini recorded Da Conti's travels: "They (people of Sumatra) have a green fruit which they call durian, as big as a watermelon. Inside there are five things like elongated oranges, and resembling thick butter, with a combination of flavours." The Portuguese physician Garcia de Orta described durians in Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India published in 1563. In 1741, Herbarium Amboinense by the German botanist Georg Eberhard Rumphius was published, providing the most detailed and accurate account of durians for over a century. The genus Durio has a complex taxonomy that has seen the subtraction and addition of many species since it was created by Rumphius. During the early stages of its taxonomical study, there was some confusion between durian and the soursop (Annona muricata), for both of these species had thorny green fruit. It is also interesting to note the Malay name for the soursop is durian Belanda, meaning Dutch durian. In the 18th century, Johann Anton Weinmann considered the durian to belong to Castaneae as its fruit was similar to the horse chestnut.
D. zibethinus was introduced into Ceylon by the Portuguese in the 16th century and was reintroduced many times later. It has been planted in the Americas but confined to botanical gardens. The first seedlings were sent from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, to Auguste Saint-Arroman of Dominica in 1884.
In southeastern Asia, the durian has been cultivated for centuries at the village level, probably since the late 18th century, and commercially since the mid-20th century. In My Tropic Isle, Australian author and naturalist Edmund James Banfield tells how, in the early 20th century, a friend in Singapore sent him a durian seed, which he planted and cared for on his tropical island off the north coast of Queensland.
In 1949, the British botanist E. J. H. Corner published The Durian Theory, or the Origin of the Modern Tree. His theory was that endozoochory (the enticement of animals to transport seeds in their stomach) arose before any other method of seed dispersal, and that primitive ancestors of Durio species were the earliest practitioners of that dispersal method, in particular red durian (D. dulcis) exemplifying the primitive fruit of flowering plants.
Since the early 1990s, the domestic and international demand for durian in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region has increased significantly, partly due to the increasing affluence of Asia.
USES
CULINARY
Durian fruit is used to flavour a wide variety of sweet edibles such as traditional Malay candy, ice kacang, dodol, lempuk, rose biscuits, and, with a touch of modern innovation, ice cream, milkshakes, mooncakes, Yule logs, and cappuccino. Es durian (durian ice cream) is a popular dessert in Indonesia, sold at street side stall in Indonesian cities, especially in Java. Pulut Durian or ketan durian is glutinous rice steamed with coconut milk and served with ripened durian. In Sabah, red durian is fried with onions and chilli and served as a side dish. Red-fleshed durian is traditionally added to sayur, an Indonesian soup made from freshwater fish. Ikan brengkes is fish cooked in a durian-based sauce, traditional in Sumatra. Traditionally Bollen pastry, specialty of Bandung is filled with banana and cheese. Today Bollen durian is also available, it is pastry filled with durian. Dried durian flesh can be made into kripik durian (durian chips).
Tempoyak refers to fermented durian, usually made from lower quality durian that is unsuitable for direct consumption. Tempoyak can be eaten either cooked or uncooked, is normally eaten with rice, and can also be used for making curry. Sambal Tempoyak is a Sumatran dish made from the fermented durian fruit, coconut milk, and a collection of spicy ingredients known as sambal.
In Thailand, durian is often eaten fresh with sweet sticky rice, and blocks of durian paste are sold in the markets, though much of the paste is adulterated with pumpkin. Unripe durians may be cooked as a vegetable, except in the Philippines, where all uses are sweet rather than savoury. Malaysians make both sugared and salted preserves from durian. When durian is minced with salt, onions and vinegar, it is called boder. The durian seeds, which are the size of chestnuts, can be eaten whether they are boiled, roasted or fried in coconut oil, with a texture that is similar to taro or yam, but stickier. In Java, the seeds are sliced thin and cooked with sugar as a confection. Uncooked durian seeds are toxic due to cyclopropene fatty acids and should not be ingested.
Young leaves and shoots of the durian are occasionally cooked as greens. Sometimes the ash of the burned rind is added to special cakes. The petals of durian flowers are eaten in the North Sumatra province of Indonesia, while in the Moluccas islands the husk of the durian fruit is used as fuel to smoke fish. The nectar and pollen of the durian flower that honeybees collect is an important honey source, but the characteristics of the honey are unknown.
NUTRITIONS AND FOLK MEDICINE
Durian fruit contains a high amount of sugar, vitamin C, potassium, and the serotonergic amino acid tryptophan, and is a good source of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. It is recommended as a good source of raw fats by several raw food advocates, while others classify it as a high-glycemic food, recommending to minimise its consumption.
In Malaysia, a decoction of the leaves and roots used to be prescribed as an antipyretic. The leaf juice is applied on the head of a fever patient. The most complete description of the medicinal use of the durian as remedies for fevers is a Malay prescription, collected by Burkill and Haniff in 1930. It instructs the reader to boil the roots of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis with the roots of Durio zibethinus, Nephelium longan, Nephelium mutabile and Artocarpus integrifolia, and drink the decoction or use it as a poultice.
In the 1920s, Durian Fruit Products, Inc., of New York City launched a product called "Dur-India" as a health food supplement, selling at US$9 for a dozen bottles, each containing 63 tablets. The tablets allegedly contained durian and a species of the genus Allium from India and vitamin E. The company promoted the supplement saying that it provides "more concentrated healthful energy in food form than any other product the world affords".
CUSTOMS AND BELIEFS
Southeast Asian traditional beliefs, as well as traditional Chinese medicine, consider the durian fruit to have warming properties liable to cause excessive sweating. The traditional method to counteract this is to pour water into the empty shell of the fruit after the pulp has been consumed and drink it. An alternative method is to eat the durian in accompaniment with mangosteen, which is considered to have cooling properties. Pregnant women or people with high blood pressure are traditionally advised not to consume durian.
Another common local belief is that the durian is harmful when eaten with coffee or alcoholic beverages. The latter belief can be traced back at least to the 18th century when Rumphius stated that one should not drink alcohol after eating durians as it will cause indigestion and bad breath. In 1929, J. D. Gimlette wrote in his Malay Poisons and Charm Cures that the durian fruit must not be eaten with brandy. In 1981, J. R. Croft wrote in his Bombacaceae: In Handbooks of the Flora of Papua New Guinea that "a feeling of morbidity" often follows the consumption of alcohol too soon after eating durian. Several medical investigations on the validity of this belief have been conducted with varying conclusions, though a study by the University of Tsukuba finds the fruit's high sulphur content inhibits the activity of aldehyde dehydrogenase, causing a 70% reduction of the ability to clear toxins from the body.
The Javanese believe durian to have aphrodisiac qualities, and impose a set of rules on what may or may not be consumed with it or shortly thereafter. A saying in Indonesian, durian jatuh sarung naik, meaning "the durian falls and the sarong comes up", refers to this belief. The warnings against the supposed lecherous quality of this fruit soon spread to the West – the Swedenborgian philosopher Herman Vetterling commented on so-called "erotic properties" of the durian in the early 20th century.
A durian falling on a person's head can cause serious injuries because it is heavy, armed with sharp thorns, and can fall from a significant height. Wearing a hardhat is recommended when collecting the fruit. Alfred Russel Wallace writes that death rarely ensues from it, because the copious effusion of blood prevents the inflammation which might otherwise take place. A common saying is that a durian has eyes and can see where it is falling because the fruit allegedly never falls during daylight hours when people may be hurt. A saying in Indonesian, ketiban durian runtuh, which translates to "getting a durian avalanche", is the equivalent of the English phrase "windfall gain". Nevertheless, signs warning people not to linger under durian trees are found in Indonesia. Strong nylon or woven rope nettings are often strung between durian trees in orchards, serving a threefold purpose: the nets aid in the collection of the mature fruits, deter ground-level scavengers, and most importantly, prevent the durians from falling onto people.
A naturally spineless variety of durian growing wild in Davao, Philippines, was discovered in the 1960s; fruits borne from these seeds also lacked spines. Since the bases of the scales develop into spines as the fruit matures, sometimes spineless durians are produced artificially by scraping scales off immature fruits. In Malaysia, a spinesless durian clone D172 is registered by Agriculture Department on 17 June 1989. It was called "Durian Botak" (Bald Durian). In Indonesia, Ir Sumeru Ashari, head of Durian Research Centre, Universitas Brawijaya reported spineless durian from Kasembon, Malang. Another cultivar is from Lombok, Nusa Tenggara Barat, Indonesia.
Animals such as Sumatran elephants are known to consume durians. Curiously, the carnivorous Sumatran tiger is also known to consume durian occasionally. The strong odour of the fallen fruits in the jungle probably attracts the tiger to inspect the fruit and lick it.
CULTURAL INFLUENCE
The durian is commonly known as the "King of the Fruits", a label that can be attributed to its formidable look and overpowering odour. In its native southeastern Asia, the durian is an everyday food and portrayed in the local media in accordance with the cultural perception it has in the region. The durian symbolised the subjective nature of ugliness and beauty in Hong Kong director Fruit Chan's 2000 film Durian Durian (榴槤飄飄, lau lin piu piu), and was a nickname for the reckless but lovable protagonist of the eponymous Singaporean TV comedy Durian King played by Adrian Pang. Likewise, the oddly shaped Esplanade building in Singapore is often called "The Durian" by locals, and "The Big Durian" is the nickname of Jakarta, Indonesia.
One of the names Thailand contributed to the list of storm names for Western North Pacific tropical cyclones was 'Durian', which was retired after the second storm of this name in 2006. Being a fruit much loved by a variety of wild beasts, the durian sometimes signifies the long-forgotten animalistic aspect of humans, as in the legend of Orang Mawas, the Malaysian version of Bigfoot, and Orang Pendek, its Sumatran version, both of which have been claimed to feast on durians.
Frozen whole durians are shipped from Thailand to Asian markets and Chinatowns in Western countries.
WIKIPEDIA
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war am 5-1- 2015 - 6:00 Uhr
Nutzen Sie Voll- und Neumondtage als Fastentage ( z.B. Saftfasten o.ä.) bis zum Dienstag 20.01.2015.
Beginnen Sie Ihre Diät bei abnehmendem Mond z.B. direkt nach dem Vollmond. Der Körper entschlackt, entgiftet und entwässert in dieser Mondphase am besten. Es ist einfacher überhaupt anzufangen, geht müheloser und schneller.
Stimmt!
Effi
Auch wenn Sie Sportlernahrung oder Nahrungsergänzung zu sich nehmen, wird es wahrscheinlich nicht schaden, den Mond zu berücksichtigen ;-)
Raspberry ketone
Das Himbeer-Keton kommt auch im Tabakrauch vor, wobei es im Tabak selbst nicht gefunden wurde.
It is one of the most expensive natural flavor components used in the food industry. The natural compound can cost as much as $20,000 per kg.
de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himbeerketon
4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)butan-2-on, Frambinon, Oxyphenalon, Rheosmin
Summenformal: C-10 H-12 O-2
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Views about 10.000 clicks
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listed on
www.flickr.com/explore/2015/01/08
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THE EXPLORE GROUP
www.flickr.com/groups/inexplore/pool/
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From Raw-file, ".CR2", aka "Canon-Raw-File"
The CR2 file type is primarily associated with 'Canon Digital Camera' by Canon, Inc.. Raw image format for some Canon digital cameras. Raw images are basically the data as it comes directly from the CCD detector in the camera. Raw files can also contain text information about the picture and conditions in the camera when the picture was taken. These images are based on the TIFF image standard. Konvertor will display these EXIF metadata.
www.graphicregion.com/ablerawer.htm
converted by Faststone viewer IMG_2911
- hand-held
- with hands fixed on the wall,
- taken with the articulated display control
as good as it gets
Besser ging es nicht!
***
Jetzt bin ich mit der Canon SX60 d'accord.
Diese angemessene Qualität einer Bridge Kamera wollte ich unbedingt haben.
Den Vergleich mit der SX50 hat sie überwunden, wenn auch nur mit RAW-File!
Ein Quantensprung seit der Vorstellung der Canon Powershot SX1 von 2009.
Im Super-macro-modus (f/2,8), Foliage Modus für natürliche Farben und Sonneuntergang Modus ist die SX1 allerdings immer noch super!
weitreichenden Dioptrienausgleich: -6.0 bis +2.0 dpt (SX1)
Manches hat die SX60 nicht mehr genauso gut wie die Vorgänger-Modelle!
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Canon PowerShot SX60 HS,
Canon, PowerShot, SX60, HS, Bridgecamera, bridge, camera, Canon PowerShot SX60, Canon SX60,Powershot SX60,SX60HS,eagle1effi, Powershot SX60,
Vorteil raw
Record Mode CR2+JPEG
Continuous Drive- Continuous 4.8 fps
postprocessing
Raw lässt sich 50% nachschärfen
JPG nur 15%
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Camera Canon PowerShot SX60 HS
Exposure 0.017 sec (1/60)
Aperture f/6.5
Focal Length 247 mm ~1365 mm analog 35 mm film
ISO Speed 100
Exposure Bias - 1/3 EV
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daily
File Number 612-2911
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How do you actually visit the full 500 Explore list of any past date?
December 2014
www.flickr.com/explore/interesting/2014/12/
January 2015
The Faeth site just went live, and the scientific founders' groundbreaking work was just featured in Science:
"Special diets might boost the power of drugs to vanquish cancers
"Scientists including Vousden, who cofounded a company with Cantley to test diet-drug combinations in cancer trials, are unraveling the molecular pathways by which slashing calories or removing a dietary component can bolster the effects of drugs. In mice with cancer, “the effects are oftentimes on the same order of magnitude as those from the drugs that we give patients. That’s a powerful thing to think about"
In one trial, participants will shop for and prepare meals according to instructions. In the other, the company Faeth Therapeutics that Cantley co-founded will ship meals to patients to help them stay on track.
If those trials show the ketogenic diet helps curb tumor growth for a year or two longer than the PI3K inhibitor otherwise would, the diet “could become the standard of care,” Cantley says. “That will be what physicians will tell patients to do.”
A ketogenic diet may enhance other cancer treatments, too. Immunologist Laurence Zitvogel of the Gustave Roussy Institute in France recently studied mice with skin, kidney, or lung cancers receiving a drug known as a checkpoint inhibitor that helps the immune system’s T cells kill tumors. In animals on a ketogenic diet, the ketone bodies they produced boosted the T cells’ power, her team reported in January. Rabinowitz and collaborators have begun enrollment for a 40-person trial to see whether the diet can enhance the impact on pancreatic cancer of a chemotherapy cocktail.
OTHER RESEARCHERS ARE exploring an even more precise dietary limitation: cutting out specific amino acids, best known as the building blocks of proteins but also key to many other metabolic processes. Vousden unexpectedly veered into that line of research while studying a cancer-preventing gene called p53. The protein it encodes can trigger cells that have DNA damage to self-destruct, stopping them from turning cancerous. The gene is mutated in many tumors, allowing unrestrained growth.
But in 2005, a U.S. lab reported a surprising finding: The intact p53 protein helps healthy cells survive when glucose is scarce, suggesting p53-mutated cancer cells are especially vulnerable to glucose limitation. Vousden wondered whether the protein also helps cells survive a shortage of other, less explored nutrients, such as amino acids—and whether the mutated p53 in cancer would make the cells less resilient.
To find out, her postdoc Oliver Maddocks [and Faeth Head of Research] methodically removed various amino acids from cancer cells’ culture medium. Many types of cancer cells grew more slowly when deprived of two related amino acids, serine and glycine, and deleting p53 ramped up that effect. The scientists then tested the effects of a serine- and glycine-free diet in mice. Maddocks and Vousden reported in 2013 and 2017 that the special diet slowed cancer growth and extended the lives of mice implanted with colon cancer cells lacking p53 as well as in mice engineered to develop lymphoma or colon tumors. Cells need serine or glycine to make a compound that sops up DNA-damaging free radicals, and the deprivation made tumor cells more sensitive to that oxidative stress. Radiation and some chemotherapies kill cells by generating free radicals, so the results suggested the diet could prime tumors for those treatments.
Similar findings have emerged for other amino acids. Limiting the essential amino acid methionine appears to amplify the effects of radiation and chemotherapy in mice with colon cancer and sarcomas. And removing asparagine, an amino acid abundant in asparagus, from mouse diets curbed the spread of metastatic breast cancer, suggesting the diet could enhance drug treatments.
As with serine, depriving mice of one of those amino acids apparently disrupts metabolic cycles by which cancer cells respond to oxidative stress, synthesize DNA, and turn genes off and on.
The company Vousden and Cantley founded, Faeth (Welsh for nutrition), is gearing up to test amino acid–depleted diets in two clinical trials this year. Faeth, also cofounded by Maddocks, will combine chemotherapy with a shake lacking specific amino acids, delivered to participants’ homes alongside other meal components, such as salads. The researchers got support from private investors after failing to win research grants for their idea, says Maddocks, now at the University of Glasgow. “It’s quite out of the box.”
Maddocks expects the cancer-diet field will take years to move from “piecemeal forays” to a clear understanding of each diet’s pros and cons. Establishing that a specific diet works well enough to become part of routine clinical care also will take time. But Zitvogel says fighting cancer with diet is no longer a fringe idea. The field is at the start of “a new era where people will really take diet seriously into account,” she says. “The time is ripe.”
Jesus said:"I tell you the truth,unless you change and become like little children,
you will never enter the kingdom of heaven. Therefore,whoever humbles hmself like
a little child is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven.
And whoever welcomes a little child like this in my name welcomes me." Matthew 18:3-5 The Holy Bible
I want to dedicate this video to all of you going through some difficult times. Enjoy !
www.youtube.com/watch?v=lcJ-iEnHn50&feature=related
All you prayer warriors,please say a prayer for my husband Lee,and son,Craig to get home safely tonight.
Our grandson,Christian has been sick and his blood sugars were high causing the ketones to be high and causing him not to be able to keep food or liquids down. He seems to be much better now,but his Dad and Grand Dad were worried about him,so they are on their way home from Baton Rouge. It will be around 2 AM when they get here,so just whisper a prayer for their safety. Thank you !
Samburu National Reserve
Kenya
East Africa
BEST VIEWED IN LARGER SIZE
Musth or must /ˈmʌst/ is a periodic condition in bull (male) elephants, characterized by highly aggressive behavior and accompanied by a large rise in reproductive hormones. Testosterone levels in an elephant in musth can be as much as 60 times greater than in the same elephant at other times. However, whether this hormonal surge is the sole cause of musth, or merely a contributing factor, is unknown; scientific investigation of musth is problematic because even the most placid elephants become highly violent toward humans and other elephants during musth, requiring segregation and isolation until they recover. Female elephants do not undergo musth.
Often, elephants in musth discharge a thick tar-like secretion called temporin from the temporal ducts on the sides of the head. Temporin contains proteins, lipids (notably cholesterol), phenol and 4-methyl phenol,[2][3] cresols and sesquiterpenes (notably farnesol and its derivatives).[4] Secretions and urine collected from zoo elephants have been shown to contain elevated levels of various highly odorous ketones and aldehydes. The elephant's aggression may be partially caused by a reaction to the temporin, which naturally trickles down into the elephant's mouth. Another contributing factor may be the accompanying swelling of the temporal glands; this presses on the elephant's eyes and causes acute pain comparable to severe root abscess toothache. Elephants sometimes try to counteract this pain by digging their tusks into the ground.
Musth is linked to sexual arousal or establishing dominance, but this relationship is far from clear. Cases of elephants goring and killing rhinoceroses without provocation in national parks in Africa have been documented and attributed to musth in young male elephants, especially those growing in the absence of older males. Studies show that reintroducing older males into the elephant population of the area seems to prevent younger males from entering musth, and therefore, stop this aggressive behavior.
I've been taking my measurement roughly every fortnight since I've been in ketosis. My chest has been around 33.5" for a couple of weeks now and I can't see it getting too much smaller. I wouldn't want it to either. I don't want to end up really skinny just to be a better climber. I could try riding up more hills first!
As well as measuring my chest, waist, legs, biceps every fortnight I'm also recording my weight, body fat and ketones every day. They don't change that fast but you can certainly see patterns with my weight and ketones when I'm exercising. My ketones seem to be going up lately so I'm hoping that means I'm adapting. That means I'll have an uninterrupted source of fuel for muscle growth and other important things like drinking tea. Sounds like some weirdo magical diet.... My main concern is losing muscle but I'm certain that's not happening. Stephen Phinney and Jeff Volek in Art and Science of Low Carbohydrate Performance say that you'll gain muscle and lose fat as long as you're in ketosis, are doing some exercise, and have a well formulated diet. For us that means plenty of good quality organic food, plenty of greens, mushrooms, meat, fish, cold pressed oils, coconut fat, butter, cream, and free range eggs. You must also increase in your sodium, potassium, and magnesium and keep protein around 0.5g-1g per kilo gram of body weight, which we're doing by popping electrolyte tablets in our water bottles, always making and eating the gravy from roasts, not being scared of salt, eating loads of mushrooms and avocados, and just eating a few eggs and normal portions of meat most days. There's no need to go silly with protein by eating loads of meat (that seems to be a common misconception). It's all good right now. Although I could really do with buying some new clothes...
A piece called Death by Beauty by Ketones.
The flowers depicted are the 6 most deadly flowers in Europe...thanks to a passing street art tour guide for the info....
...I will never call them annoying again...but I cannot promise that...
Polyester resin is toxic and produces a terrible odour, so adequate space, ventilation and other safety measures are needed. The liquid resin mixture has a catalyst added to begin the hardening process. Commonly used catalysts include methyl ethyl ketone peroxide, which can be highly volatile, and the less-hazardous benzoyl peroxide. Toxic chlorinated solvents released can contaminate groundwater and degrade the atmosphere. Castings keep on stinking for months: indeed off-gassing will be an ongoing cause of indoor air quality degradation. In the finishing process dust from sanding poly resin can be toxic as well as the spray painting process. And of course there is the not insubstantial carbon cost to ship this religious kitsch abroad. New Kadampa cult has clearly invested a lot of money in its purpose built studio building, the results of this quasi-industrial enterprise are dubious from a Buddhist point of view if it uses harmful toxic industrial methods.
. . . because of it´s taste it is the king of fruits!
Size is up to 30 cm long and 3 kg in weight.
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The durian (/ˈdjʊriən/) is the fruit of several tree species belonging to the genus Durio. The name 'durian' is derived from the Malay-Indonesian languages word for duri or "spike", a reference to the numerous spike protuberances of the fruit, together with the noun-building suffix -an. There are 30 recognised Durio species, at least nine of which produce edible fruit. Durio zibethinus is the only species available in the international market: other species are sold in their local regions.
Regarded by many people in southeast Asia as the "king of fruits", the durian is distinctive for its large size, strong odour, and formidable thorn-covered husk. The fruit can grow as large as 30 centimetres long and 15 centimetres in diameter, and it typically weighs one to three kilograms. Its shape ranges from oblong to round, the colour of its husk green to brown, and its flesh pale yellow to red, depending on the species.
The edible flesh emits a distinctive odour that is strong and penetrating even when the husk is intact. Some people regard the durian as having a pleasantly sweet fragrance; others find the aroma overpowering and revolting. The smell evokes reactions from deep appreciation to intense disgust, and has been described variously as rotten onions, turpentine, and raw sewage. The persistence of its odour has led to the fruit's banishment from certain hotels and public transportation in Southeast Asia.
The durian, native to Southeast Asia, has been known to the Western world for about 600 years. The nineteenth-century British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described its flesh as "a rich custard highly flavoured with almonds". The flesh can be consumed at various stages of ripeness, and it is used to flavour a wide variety of savoury and sweet edibles in Southeast Asian cuisines. The seeds can also be eaten when cooked.
There are hundreds of durian cultivars; many consumers express preferences for specific cultivars, which fetch higher prices in the market.
TAXONOMY
The genus Durio is placed by some taxonomists in the family Bombacaceae, or by others in a broadly defined Malvaceae that includes Bombacaceae, and by others in a smaller family of just seven genera Durionaceae.
DESCRIPTION
Durian trees are large, growing to 25–50 metres in height depending on the species. The leaves are evergreen, elliptic to oblong and 10–18 centimetres long. The flowers are produced in three to thirty clusters together on large branches and directly on the trunk with each flower having a calyx (sepals) and five (rarely four or six) petals. Durian trees have one or two flowering and fruiting periods per year, although the timing varies depending on the species, cultivars, and localities. A typical durian tree can bear fruit after four or five years. The durian fruit can hang from any branch and matures roughly three months after pollination. The fruit can grow up to 30 centimetres long and 15 centimetres (6 in) in diameter, and typically weighs one to three kilograms. Its shape ranges from oblong to round, the colour of its husk green to brown, and its flesh pale-yellow to red, depending on the species. Among the thirty known species of Durio, nine of them have been identified as producing edible fruits: D. zibethinus, D. dulcis, D. grandiflorus, D. graveolens, D. kutejensis, D. macrantha, D. oxleyanus, and D. testudinarum. There are many species for which the fruit has never been collected or properly examined, however, so other species with edible fruit may exist. The durian is somewhat similar in appearance to the jackfruit, an unrelated species.
The name durian comes from the Malay word duri (thorn) together with the suffix -an (for building a noun in Malay). D. zibethinus is the only species commercially cultivated on a large scale and available outside of its native region. Since this species is open-pollinated, it shows considerable diversity in fruit colour and odour, size of flesh and seed, and tree phenology. In the species name, zibethinus refers to the Indian civet, Viverra zibetha. There is disagreement regarding whether this name, bestowed by Linnaeus, refers to civets being so fond of the durian that the fruit was used as bait to entrap them, or to the durian smelling like the civet.
Durian flowers are large and feathery with copious nectar, and give off a heavy, sour, and buttery odour. These features are typical of flowers pollinated by certain species of bats that eat nectar and pollen. According to research conducted in Malaysia in the 1970s, durians were pollinated almost exclusively by cave fruit bats (Eonycteris spelaea); however, a 1996 study indicated two species, D. grandiflorus and D. oblongus, were pollinated by spiderhunters (Nectariniidae) and another species, D. kutejensis, was pollinated by giant honey bees and birds as well as bats.
CULTIVARS
Over the centuries, numerous durian cultivars, propagated by vegetative clones, have arisen in southeast Asia. They used to be grown with mixed results from seeds of trees bearing superior quality fruit, but now are propagated by layering, marcotting, or more commonly, by grafting, including bud, veneer, wedge, whip or U-grafting onto seedlings of randomly selected rootstocks. Different cultivars may be distinguished to some extent by variations in the fruit shape, such as the shape of the spines. Durian consumers express preferences for specific cultivars, which fetch higher prices in the market.
Most cultivars have a common name and a code number starting with "D". For example, some popular clones are Kop (D99 Thai: กบ – "frog" [kòp]), Chanee (D123, Thai: ชะนี – gibbon [tɕʰániː]), Berserah or Green Durian or Tuan Mek Hijau (D145 Thai: ทุเรียนเขียว – Green Durian [tʰúriːən kʰǐow]), Kan Yao (D158, Thai: ก้านยาว – Long Stem [kâːn jaːw]), Mon Thong (D159, Thai: หมอนทอง – Golden Pillow [mɔ̌ːn tʰɔːŋ]), Kradum Thong (Thai: กระดุมทอง – Golden Button [kràdum tʰɔːŋ]), and with no common name, D24 and D169. Each cultivar has a distinct taste and odour. More than 200 cultivars of D. zibethinus exist in Thailand.
Mon thong is the most commercially sought after for its thick, full-bodied creamy and mild sweet tasting flesh with relatively moderate smell emitted and smaller seeds, while Chanee is the best in terms of its resistance to infection by Phytophthora palmivora. Kan Yao is somewhat less common, but prized for its longer window of time when it is both sweet and odorless at the same time. Among all the cultivars in Thailand, five are currently in large-scale commercial cultivation: Chanee, Mon Thong, Kan Yao, Ruang, and Kradum. There are more than 100 registered cultivars since 1920's in Malaysia and up to 193 cultivar by 1992, and many superior cultivars have been identified through competitions held at the annual Malaysian Agriculture, Horticulture, and Agrotourism Show. In Vietnam, the same process has been achieved through competitions held by the Southern Fruit Research Institute. A recently popular variety is, Cat Mountain King or Musang King.
By 2007, Songpol Somsri, a Thai government scientist, had crossbred more than ninety varieties of durian to create Chantaburi No. 1, a cultivar without the characteristic odour. Another hybrid, Chantaburi No. 3, develops the odour about three days after the fruit is picked, which enables an odourless transport yet satisfies consumers who prefer the pungent odour. On 22 May 2012, two other cultivars from Thailand that also lack the usual odour, Long Laplae and Lin Laplae, were presented to the public by Yothin Samutkhiri, governor of Uttaradit province from where these cultivars were developed locally, while he announced the dates for the yearly durian fair of Laplae District, and the name giver to both cultivars.
Popular cultivars in Malaysia and Singapore (Singapore imports most of its durians from Malaysia hence the varieties are similar although there may be slight variation in the names) include "D24" which is a popular variety known for its bitter sweet taste; "XO" which has a pale color, thick flesh with a tinge of alcoholic fermentation; "Chook Kiok" (Cantonese meaning: bamboo leg) which has a distinctive yellowish core in the inner stem and "Musang King" ( Musang is the Malay word for civet cat) which is usually the priciest of all cultivars. Musang King has bright yellow flesh and is almost like a more potent or enhanced version of the D24. This particular variety should be consumed last since it tends to make other durians taste bland in comparison.
CULTIVATION AND AVAIBILITY
The durian is native to Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia.[8] There is some debate as to whether the durian is native to the Philippines, particularly the Davao region in the island of Mindanao, or was introduced. The durian is grown in other areas with a similar climate; it is strictly tropical and stops growing when mean daily temperatures drop below 22 °C.
The centre of ecological diversity for durians is the island of Borneo, where the fruit of the edible species of Durio including D. zibethinus, D. dulcis, D. graveolens, D. kutejensis, D. oxleyanus and D. testudinarum is sold in local markets. In Brunei, D. zibethinus is not grown because consumers prefer other species such as D. graveolens, D. kutejensis and D. oxleyanus. These species are commonly distributed in Brunei, and together with other species like D. testudinarum and D. dulcis, represent rich genetic diversity.
Although the durian is not native to Thailand, the country is currently one of the major exporters of durians, growing 781,000 tonnes of the world's total harvest of 1,400,000 tonnes in 1999, 111,000 tonnes of which it exported to Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and Canada. Malaysia and Indonesia follow, both producing about 265,000 tonnes each. Of this, Malaysia exported 35,000 tonnes in 1999. Chantaburi in Thailand each year holds the World Durian Festival in early May. This single province is responsible for half of the durian production of Thailand. In the Philippines, the centre of durian production is the Davao Region. The Kadayawan Festival is an annual celebration featuring the durian in Davao City. Other places where durian farms are located include Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India, the West Indies, Florida, Hawaii, Papua New Guinea, the Polynesian Islands, Madagascar, southern China (Hainan Island), northern Australia, and Singapore.
Durian was introduced into Australia in the early 1960s and clonal material was first introduced in 1975. Over thirty clones of D. zibethinus and six Durio species have been subsequently introduced into Australia. China is the major importer, purchasing 65,000 tonnes in 1999, followed by Singapore with 40,000 tonnes and Taiwan with 5,000 tonnes. In the same year, the United States imported 2,000 tonnes, mostly frozen, and the European Community imported 500 tonnes.
The durian is a seasonal fruit, unlike some other non-seasonal tropical fruits such as the papaya, which are available throughout the year. In Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, the season for durians is typically from June to August, which coincides with that of the mangosteen. Prices of durians are relatively high as compared with other fruits. For example, in Singapore, the strong demand for high quality cultivars such as the D24, Sultan, and Mao Shan Wang has resulted in typical retail prices of between S$8 to S$15 (US$5 to US$10) per kilogram of whole fruit. With an average weight of about 1.5 kilograms, a durian fruit would therefore cost about S$12 to S$22 (US$8 to US$15). The edible portion of the fruit, known as the aril and usually referred to as the "flesh" or "pulp", only accounts for about 15–30% of the mass of the entire fruit. Many consumers in Singapore are nevertheless quite willing to spend up to around S$75 (US$50) on a single purchase of about half a dozen of the favoured fruit to be shared by family members.
In-season durians can be found in mainstream Japanese supermarkets, while in the West they are sold mainly by Asian markets.
FLAVOUR AND ODOUR
The unusual flavour and odour of the fruit have prompted many people to express diverse and passionate views ranging from deep appreciation to intense disgust. Writing in 1856, the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace provided a much-quoted description of the flavour of the durian:
The five cells are silky-white within, and are filled with a mass of firm, cream-coloured pulp, containing about three seeds each. This pulp is the edible part, and its consistence and flavour are indescribable. A rich custard highly flavoured with almonds gives the best general idea of it, but there are occasional wafts of flavour that call to mind cream-cheese, onion-sauce, sherry-wine, and other incongruous dishes. Then there is a rich glutinous smoothness in the pulp which nothing else possesses, but which adds to its delicacy. It is neither acidic nor sweet nor juicy; yet it wants neither of these qualities, for it is in itself perfect. It produces no nausea or other bad effect, and the more you eat of it the less you feel inclined to stop. In fact, to eat Durians is a new sensation worth a voyage to the East to experience. ... as producing a food of the most exquisite flavour it is unsurpassed.
Wallace described himself as being at first reluctant to try it because of the aroma, "but in Borneo I found a ripe fruit on the ground, and, eating it out of doors, I at once became a confirmed Durian eater." He cited one traveller from 1599: "it is of such an excellent taste that it surpasses in flavour all other fruits of the world, according to those who have tasted it." He cites another writer: "To those not used to it, it seems at first to smell like rotten onions, but immediately after they have tasted it they prefer it to all other food. The natives give it honourable titles, exalt it, and make verses on it." Despite having tried many foods that are arguably more eccentric, Andrew Zimmern, host of Bizarre Foods, was unable to finish a durian upon sampling it, due to his intolerance of its strong taste.
While Wallace cautions that "the smell of the ripe fruit is certainly at first disagreeable", later descriptions by westerners are more graphic. Novelist Anthony Burgess writes that eating durian is "like eating sweet raspberry blancmange in the lavatory". Chef Andrew Zimmern compares the taste to "completely rotten, mushy onions". Anthony Bourdain, a lover of durian, relates his encounter with the fruit thus: "Its taste can only be described as...indescribable, something you will either love or despise. ...Your breath will smell as if you'd been French-kissing your dead grandmother." Likewise, fellow chef Jamie Oliver has also expressed admiration for the fruit on his first sampling. Travel and food writer Richard Sterling says:
... its odor is best described as pig-shit, turpentine and onions, garnished with a gym sock. It can be smelled from yards away. Despite its great local popularity, the raw fruit is forbidden from some establishments such as hotels, subways and airports, including public transportation in Southeast Asia.
Other comparisons have been made with the civet, sewage, stale vomit, skunk spray and used surgical swabs. The wide range of descriptions for the odour of durian may have a great deal to do with the variability of durian odour itself. Durians from different species or clones can have significantly different aromas; for example, red durian (D. dulcis) has a deep caramel flavour with a turpentine odour while red-fleshed durian (D. graveolens) emits a fragrance of roasted almonds. Among the varieties of D. zibethinus, Thai varieties are sweeter in flavour and less odorous than Malay ones. The degree of ripeness has an effect on the flavour as well. Three scientific analyses of the composition of durian aroma – from 1972, 1980, and 1995 – each found a mix of volatile compounds including esters, ketones, and different sulphur compounds, with no agreement on which may be primarily responsible for the distinctive odour. People in South East Asia with frequent exposures to durian are able to easily distinguish its sweet-like ketones and esters scent from rotten or putrescine odours which are from volatile amines and fatty acids. Developmental or genetic differences in olfactory perception and mapping within the brain ( for e.g. anterior piriform cortex to the orbitofrontal cortex) could possibly explain why some individuals are unable to differentiate these smells and find this fruit noxious.
This strong odour can be detected half a mile away by animals, thus luring them. In addition, the fruit is extremely appetising to a variety of animals, including squirrels, mouse deer, pigs, orangutan, elephants, and even carnivorous tigers. While some of these animals eat the fruit and dispose of the seed under the parent plant, others swallow the seed with the fruit and then transport it some distance before excreting, with the seed being dispersed as a result. The thorny, armoured covering of the fruit discourages smaller animals; larger animals are more likely to transport the seeds far from the parent tree.
RIPENESS AND SELECTION
According to Larousse Gastronomique, the durian fruit is ready to eat when its husk begins to crack. However, the ideal stage of ripeness to be enjoyed varies from region to region in Southeast Asia and by species. Some species grow so tall that they can only be collected once they have fallen to the ground, whereas most cultivars of D. zibethinus are nearly always cut from the tree and allowed to ripen while waiting to be sold. Some people in southern Thailand prefer their durians relatively young when the clusters of fruit within the shell are still crisp in texture and mild in flavour. For some people in northern Thailand, the preference is for the fruit to be soft and aromatic. In Malaysia and Singapore, most consumers prefer the fruit to be as ripe and pungent in aroma as possible and may even risk allowing the fruit to continue ripening after its husk has already cracked open. In this state, the flesh becomes richly creamy, slightly alcoholic, the aroma pronounced and the flavour highly complex.
The various preferences regarding ripeness among consumers make it hard to issue general statements about choosing a "good" durian. A durian that falls off the tree continues to ripen for two to four days, but after five or six days most would consider it overripe and unpalatable. The usual advice for a durian consumer choosing a whole fruit in the market is to examine the quality of the stem or stalk which loses moisture as it ages: a big, solid stem is a sign of freshness. Reportedly, unscrupulous merchants wrap, paint, or remove the stalks altogether. Due to the popularity of Kan Yao, street vendors may sometimes sell a lesser variety with a long stem to unsuspecting customers. Another frequent piece of advice is to shake the fruit and listen for the sound of the seeds moving within, indicating the durian is very ripe and the pulp has dried out a bit.
HISTORY
The durian has been known and consumed in Southeast Asia since prehistoric times, but has only been known to the western world for about 600 years. The earliest native reference to durian is the several bas relief panels of 9th-century Borobudur depicting durian as one of fruit offering for Javanese king, and also as one of the fruits sold in marketplace.
The earliest known European reference to the durian is the record of Niccolò Da Conti, who travelled to southeastern Asia in the 15th century. Translated from the Latin in which Poggio Bracciolini recorded Da Conti's travels: "They (people of Sumatra) have a green fruit which they call durian, as big as a watermelon. Inside there are five things like elongated oranges, and resembling thick butter, with a combination of flavours." The Portuguese physician Garcia de Orta described durians in Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India published in 1563. In 1741, Herbarium Amboinense by the German botanist Georg Eberhard Rumphius was published, providing the most detailed and accurate account of durians for over a century. The genus Durio has a complex taxonomy that has seen the subtraction and addition of many species since it was created by Rumphius. During the early stages of its taxonomical study, there was some confusion between durian and the soursop (Annona muricata), for both of these species had thorny green fruit. It is also interesting to note the Malay name for the soursop is durian Belanda, meaning Dutch durian. In the 18th century, Johann Anton Weinmann considered the durian to belong to Castaneae as its fruit was similar to the horse chestnut.
D. zibethinus was introduced into Ceylon by the Portuguese in the 16th century and was reintroduced many times later. It has been planted in the Americas but confined to botanical gardens. The first seedlings were sent from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, to Auguste Saint-Arroman of Dominica in 1884.
In southeastern Asia, the durian has been cultivated for centuries at the village level, probably since the late 18th century, and commercially since the mid-20th century. In My Tropic Isle, Australian author and naturalist Edmund James Banfield tells how, in the early 20th century, a friend in Singapore sent him a durian seed, which he planted and cared for on his tropical island off the north coast of Queensland.
In 1949, the British botanist E. J. H. Corner published The Durian Theory, or the Origin of the Modern Tree. His theory was that endozoochory (the enticement of animals to transport seeds in their stomach) arose before any other method of seed dispersal, and that primitive ancestors of Durio species were the earliest practitioners of that dispersal method, in particular red durian (D. dulcis) exemplifying the primitive fruit of flowering plants.
Since the early 1990s, the domestic and international demand for durian in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region has increased significantly, partly due to the increasing affluence of Asia.
USES
CULINARY
Durian fruit is used to flavour a wide variety of sweet edibles such as traditional Malay candy, ice kacang, dodol, lempuk, rose biscuits, and, with a touch of modern innovation, ice cream, milkshakes, mooncakes, Yule logs, and cappuccino. Es durian (durian ice cream) is a popular dessert in Indonesia, sold at street side stall in Indonesian cities, especially in Java. Pulut Durian or ketan durian is glutinous rice steamed with coconut milk and served with ripened durian. In Sabah, red durian is fried with onions and chilli and served as a side dish. Red-fleshed durian is traditionally added to sayur, an Indonesian soup made from freshwater fish. Ikan brengkes is fish cooked in a durian-based sauce, traditional in Sumatra. Traditionally Bollen pastry, specialty of Bandung is filled with banana and cheese. Today Bollen durian is also available, it is pastry filled with durian. Dried durian flesh can be made into kripik durian (durian chips).
Tempoyak refers to fermented durian, usually made from lower quality durian that is unsuitable for direct consumption. Tempoyak can be eaten either cooked or uncooked, is normally eaten with rice, and can also be used for making curry. Sambal Tempoyak is a Sumatran dish made from the fermented durian fruit, coconut milk, and a collection of spicy ingredients known as sambal.
In Thailand, durian is often eaten fresh with sweet sticky rice, and blocks of durian paste are sold in the markets, though much of the paste is adulterated with pumpkin. Unripe durians may be cooked as a vegetable, except in the Philippines, where all uses are sweet rather than savoury. Malaysians make both sugared and salted preserves from durian. When durian is minced with salt, onions and vinegar, it is called boder. The durian seeds, which are the size of chestnuts, can be eaten whether they are boiled, roasted or fried in coconut oil, with a texture that is similar to taro or yam, but stickier. In Java, the seeds are sliced thin and cooked with sugar as a confection. Uncooked durian seeds are toxic due to cyclopropene fatty acids and should not be ingested.
Young leaves and shoots of the durian are occasionally cooked as greens. Sometimes the ash of the burned rind is added to special cakes. The petals of durian flowers are eaten in the North Sumatra province of Indonesia, while in the Moluccas islands the husk of the durian fruit is used as fuel to smoke fish. The nectar and pollen of the durian flower that honeybees collect is an important honey source, but the characteristics of the honey are unknown.
NUTRITIONS AND FOLK MEDICINE
Durian fruit contains a high amount of sugar, vitamin C, potassium, and the serotonergic amino acid tryptophan, and is a good source of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. It is recommended as a good source of raw fats by several raw food advocates, while others classify it as a high-glycemic food, recommending to minimise its consumption.
In Malaysia, a decoction of the leaves and roots used to be prescribed as an antipyretic. The leaf juice is applied on the head of a fever patient. The most complete description of the medicinal use of the durian as remedies for fevers is a Malay prescription, collected by Burkill and Haniff in 1930. It instructs the reader to boil the roots of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis with the roots of Durio zibethinus, Nephelium longan, Nephelium mutabile and Artocarpus integrifolia, and drink the decoction or use it as a poultice.
In the 1920s, Durian Fruit Products, Inc., of New York City launched a product called "Dur-India" as a health food supplement, selling at US$9 for a dozen bottles, each containing 63 tablets. The tablets allegedly contained durian and a species of the genus Allium from India and vitamin E. The company promoted the supplement saying that it provides "more concentrated healthful energy in food form than any other product the world affords".
CUSTOMS AND BELIEFS
Southeast Asian traditional beliefs, as well as traditional Chinese medicine, consider the durian fruit to have warming properties liable to cause excessive sweating. The traditional method to counteract this is to pour water into the empty shell of the fruit after the pulp has been consumed and drink it. An alternative method is to eat the durian in accompaniment with mangosteen, which is considered to have cooling properties. Pregnant women or people with high blood pressure are traditionally advised not to consume durian.
Another common local belief is that the durian is harmful when eaten with coffee or alcoholic beverages. The latter belief can be traced back at least to the 18th century when Rumphius stated that one should not drink alcohol after eating durians as it will cause indigestion and bad breath. In 1929, J. D. Gimlette wrote in his Malay Poisons and Charm Cures that the durian fruit must not be eaten with brandy. In 1981, J. R. Croft wrote in his Bombacaceae: In Handbooks of the Flora of Papua New Guinea that "a feeling of morbidity" often follows the consumption of alcohol too soon after eating durian. Several medical investigations on the validity of this belief have been conducted with varying conclusions, though a study by the University of Tsukuba finds the fruit's high sulphur content inhibits the activity of aldehyde dehydrogenase, causing a 70% reduction of the ability to clear toxins from the body.
The Javanese believe durian to have aphrodisiac qualities, and impose a set of rules on what may or may not be consumed with it or shortly thereafter. A saying in Indonesian, durian jatuh sarung naik, meaning "the durian falls and the sarong comes up", refers to this belief. The warnings against the supposed lecherous quality of this fruit soon spread to the West – the Swedenborgian philosopher Herman Vetterling commented on so-called "erotic properties" of the durian in the early 20th century.
A durian falling on a person's head can cause serious injuries because it is heavy, armed with sharp thorns, and can fall from a significant height. Wearing a hardhat is recommended when collecting the fruit. Alfred Russel Wallace writes that death rarely ensues from it, because the copious effusion of blood prevents the inflammation which might otherwise take place. A common saying is that a durian has eyes and can see where it is falling because the fruit allegedly never falls during daylight hours when people may be hurt. A saying in Indonesian, ketiban durian runtuh, which translates to "getting a durian avalanche", is the equivalent of the English phrase "windfall gain". Nevertheless, signs warning people not to linger under durian trees are found in Indonesia. Strong nylon or woven rope nettings are often strung between durian trees in orchards, serving a threefold purpose: the nets aid in the collection of the mature fruits, deter ground-level scavengers, and most importantly, prevent the durians from falling onto people.
A naturally spineless variety of durian growing wild in Davao, Philippines, was discovered in the 1960s; fruits borne from these seeds also lacked spines. Since the bases of the scales develop into spines as the fruit matures, sometimes spineless durians are produced artificially by scraping scales off immature fruits. In Malaysia, a spinesless durian clone D172 is registered by Agriculture Department on 17 June 1989. It was called "Durian Botak" (Bald Durian). In Indonesia, Ir Sumeru Ashari, head of Durian Research Centre, Universitas Brawijaya reported spineless durian from Kasembon, Malang. Another cultivar is from Lombok, Nusa Tenggara Barat, Indonesia.
Animals such as Sumatran elephants are known to consume durians. Curiously, the carnivorous Sumatran tiger is also known to consume durian occasionally. The strong odour of the fallen fruits in the jungle probably attracts the tiger to inspect the fruit and lick it.
CULTURAL INFLUENCE
The durian is commonly known as the "King of the Fruits", a label that can be attributed to its formidable look and overpowering odour. In its native southeastern Asia, the durian is an everyday food and portrayed in the local media in accordance with the cultural perception it has in the region. The durian symbolised the subjective nature of ugliness and beauty in Hong Kong director Fruit Chan's 2000 film Durian Durian (榴槤飄飄, lau lin piu piu), and was a nickname for the reckless but lovable protagonist of the eponymous Singaporean TV comedy Durian King played by Adrian Pang. Likewise, the oddly shaped Esplanade building in Singapore is often called "The Durian" by locals, and "The Big Durian" is the nickname of Jakarta, Indonesia.
One of the names Thailand contributed to the list of storm names for Western North Pacific tropical cyclones was 'Durian', which was retired after the second storm of this name in 2006. Being a fruit much loved by a variety of wild beasts, the durian sometimes signifies the long-forgotten animalistic aspect of humans, as in the legend of Orang Mawas, the Malaysian version of Bigfoot, and Orang Pendek, its Sumatran version, both of which have been claimed to feast on durians.
Frozen whole durians are shipped from Thailand to Asian markets and Chinatowns in Western countries.
WIKIPEDIA
. . . this Durian is partly opened and the flesh is visible.
The Durian is the queen of fruits! There is nothing coming close to the Durian.
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The durian (/ˈdjʊriən/) is the fruit of several tree species belonging to the genus Durio. The name 'durian' is derived from the Malay-Indonesian languages word for duri or "spike", a reference to the numerous spike protuberances of the fruit, together with the noun-building suffix -an. There are 30 recognised Durio species, at least nine of which produce edible fruit. Durio zibethinus is the only species available in the international market: other species are sold in their local regions.
Regarded by many people in southeast Asia as the "king of fruits", the durian is distinctive for its large size, strong odour, and formidable thorn-covered husk. The fruit can grow as large as 30 centimetres long and 15 centimetres in diameter, and it typically weighs one to three kilograms. Its shape ranges from oblong to round, the colour of its husk green to brown, and its flesh pale yellow to red, depending on the species.
The edible flesh emits a distinctive odour that is strong and penetrating even when the husk is intact. Some people regard the durian as having a pleasantly sweet fragrance; others find the aroma overpowering and revolting. The smell evokes reactions from deep appreciation to intense disgust, and has been described variously as rotten onions, turpentine, and raw sewage. The persistence of its odour has led to the fruit's banishment from certain hotels and public transportation in Southeast Asia.
The durian, native to Southeast Asia, has been known to the Western world for about 600 years. The nineteenth-century British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described its flesh as "a rich custard highly flavoured with almonds". The flesh can be consumed at various stages of ripeness, and it is used to flavour a wide variety of savoury and sweet edibles in Southeast Asian cuisines. The seeds can also be eaten when cooked.
There are hundreds of durian cultivars; many consumers express preferences for specific cultivars, which fetch higher prices in the market.
TAXONOMY
The genus Durio is placed by some taxonomists in the family Bombacaceae, or by others in a broadly defined Malvaceae that includes Bombacaceae, and by others in a smaller family of just seven genera Durionaceae.
DESCRIPTION
Durian trees are large, growing to 25–50 metres in height depending on the species. The leaves are evergreen, elliptic to oblong and 10–18 centimetres long. The flowers are produced in three to thirty clusters together on large branches and directly on the trunk with each flower having a calyx (sepals) and five (rarely four or six) petals. Durian trees have one or two flowering and fruiting periods per year, although the timing varies depending on the species, cultivars, and localities. A typical durian tree can bear fruit after four or five years. The durian fruit can hang from any branch and matures roughly three months after pollination. The fruit can grow up to 30 centimetres long and 15 centimetres (6 in) in diameter, and typically weighs one to three kilograms. Its shape ranges from oblong to round, the colour of its husk green to brown, and its flesh pale-yellow to red, depending on the species. Among the thirty known species of Durio, nine of them have been identified as producing edible fruits: D. zibethinus, D. dulcis, D. grandiflorus, D. graveolens, D. kutejensis, D. macrantha, D. oxleyanus, and D. testudinarum. There are many species for which the fruit has never been collected or properly examined, however, so other species with edible fruit may exist. The durian is somewhat similar in appearance to the jackfruit, an unrelated species.
The name durian comes from the Malay word duri (thorn) together with the suffix -an (for building a noun in Malay). D. zibethinus is the only species commercially cultivated on a large scale and available outside of its native region. Since this species is open-pollinated, it shows considerable diversity in fruit colour and odour, size of flesh and seed, and tree phenology. In the species name, zibethinus refers to the Indian civet, Viverra zibetha. There is disagreement regarding whether this name, bestowed by Linnaeus, refers to civets being so fond of the durian that the fruit was used as bait to entrap them, or to the durian smelling like the civet.
Durian flowers are large and feathery with copious nectar, and give off a heavy, sour, and buttery odour. These features are typical of flowers pollinated by certain species of bats that eat nectar and pollen. According to research conducted in Malaysia in the 1970s, durians were pollinated almost exclusively by cave fruit bats (Eonycteris spelaea); however, a 1996 study indicated two species, D. grandiflorus and D. oblongus, were pollinated by spiderhunters (Nectariniidae) and another species, D. kutejensis, was pollinated by giant honey bees and birds as well as bats.
CULTIVARS
Over the centuries, numerous durian cultivars, propagated by vegetative clones, have arisen in southeast Asia. They used to be grown with mixed results from seeds of trees bearing superior quality fruit, but now are propagated by layering, marcotting, or more commonly, by grafting, including bud, veneer, wedge, whip or U-grafting onto seedlings of randomly selected rootstocks. Different cultivars may be distinguished to some extent by variations in the fruit shape, such as the shape of the spines. Durian consumers express preferences for specific cultivars, which fetch higher prices in the market.
Most cultivars have a common name and a code number starting with "D". For example, some popular clones are Kop (D99 Thai: กบ – "frog" [kòp]), Chanee (D123, Thai: ชะนี – gibbon [tɕʰániː]), Berserah or Green Durian or Tuan Mek Hijau (D145 Thai: ทุเรียนเขียว – Green Durian [tʰúriːən kʰǐow]), Kan Yao (D158, Thai: ก้านยาว – Long Stem [kâːn jaːw]), Mon Thong (D159, Thai: หมอนทอง – Golden Pillow [mɔ̌ːn tʰɔːŋ]), Kradum Thong (Thai: กระดุมทอง – Golden Button [kràdum tʰɔːŋ]), and with no common name, D24 and D169. Each cultivar has a distinct taste and odour. More than 200 cultivars of D. zibethinus exist in Thailand.
Mon thong is the most commercially sought after for its thick, full-bodied creamy and mild sweet tasting flesh with relatively moderate smell emitted and smaller seeds, while Chanee is the best in terms of its resistance to infection by Phytophthora palmivora. Kan Yao is somewhat less common, but prized for its longer window of time when it is both sweet and odorless at the same time. Among all the cultivars in Thailand, five are currently in large-scale commercial cultivation: Chanee, Mon Thong, Kan Yao, Ruang, and Kradum. There are more than 100 registered cultivars since 1920's in Malaysia and up to 193 cultivar by 1992, and many superior cultivars have been identified through competitions held at the annual Malaysian Agriculture, Horticulture, and Agrotourism Show. In Vietnam, the same process has been achieved through competitions held by the Southern Fruit Research Institute. A recently popular variety is, Cat Mountain King or Musang King.
By 2007, Songpol Somsri, a Thai government scientist, had crossbred more than ninety varieties of durian to create Chantaburi No. 1, a cultivar without the characteristic odour. Another hybrid, Chantaburi No. 3, develops the odour about three days after the fruit is picked, which enables an odourless transport yet satisfies consumers who prefer the pungent odour. On 22 May 2012, two other cultivars from Thailand that also lack the usual odour, Long Laplae and Lin Laplae, were presented to the public by Yothin Samutkhiri, governor of Uttaradit province from where these cultivars were developed locally, while he announced the dates for the yearly durian fair of Laplae District, and the name giver to both cultivars.
Popular cultivars in Malaysia and Singapore (Singapore imports most of its durians from Malaysia hence the varieties are similar although there may be slight variation in the names) include "D24" which is a popular variety known for its bitter sweet taste; "XO" which has a pale color, thick flesh with a tinge of alcoholic fermentation; "Chook Kiok" (Cantonese meaning: bamboo leg) which has a distinctive yellowish core in the inner stem and "Musang King" ( Musang is the Malay word for civet cat) which is usually the priciest of all cultivars. Musang King has bright yellow flesh and is almost like a more potent or enhanced version of the D24. This particular variety should be consumed last since it tends to make other durians taste bland in comparison.
CULTIVATION AND AVAIBILITY
The durian is native to Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia.[8] There is some debate as to whether the durian is native to the Philippines, particularly the Davao region in the island of Mindanao, or was introduced. The durian is grown in other areas with a similar climate; it is strictly tropical and stops growing when mean daily temperatures drop below 22 °C.
The centre of ecological diversity for durians is the island of Borneo, where the fruit of the edible species of Durio including D. zibethinus, D. dulcis, D. graveolens, D. kutejensis, D. oxleyanus and D. testudinarum is sold in local markets. In Brunei, D. zibethinus is not grown because consumers prefer other species such as D. graveolens, D. kutejensis and D. oxleyanus. These species are commonly distributed in Brunei, and together with other species like D. testudinarum and D. dulcis, represent rich genetic diversity.
Although the durian is not native to Thailand, the country is currently one of the major exporters of durians, growing 781,000 tonnes of the world's total harvest of 1,400,000 tonnes in 1999, 111,000 tonnes of which it exported to Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and Canada. Malaysia and Indonesia follow, both producing about 265,000 tonnes each. Of this, Malaysia exported 35,000 tonnes in 1999. Chantaburi in Thailand each year holds the World Durian Festival in early May. This single province is responsible for half of the durian production of Thailand. In the Philippines, the centre of durian production is the Davao Region. The Kadayawan Festival is an annual celebration featuring the durian in Davao City. Other places where durian farms are located include Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India, the West Indies, Florida, Hawaii, Papua New Guinea, the Polynesian Islands, Madagascar, southern China (Hainan Island), northern Australia, and Singapore.
Durian was introduced into Australia in the early 1960s and clonal material was first introduced in 1975. Over thirty clones of D. zibethinus and six Durio species have been subsequently introduced into Australia. China is the major importer, purchasing 65,000 tonnes in 1999, followed by Singapore with 40,000 tonnes and Taiwan with 5,000 tonnes. In the same year, the United States imported 2,000 tonnes, mostly frozen, and the European Community imported 500 tonnes.
The durian is a seasonal fruit, unlike some other non-seasonal tropical fruits such as the papaya, which are available throughout the year. In Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, the season for durians is typically from June to August, which coincides with that of the mangosteen. Prices of durians are relatively high as compared with other fruits. For example, in Singapore, the strong demand for high quality cultivars such as the D24, Sultan, and Mao Shan Wang has resulted in typical retail prices of between S$8 to S$15 (US$5 to US$10) per kilogram of whole fruit. With an average weight of about 1.5 kilograms, a durian fruit would therefore cost about S$12 to S$22 (US$8 to US$15). The edible portion of the fruit, known as the aril and usually referred to as the "flesh" or "pulp", only accounts for about 15–30% of the mass of the entire fruit. Many consumers in Singapore are nevertheless quite willing to spend up to around S$75 (US$50) on a single purchase of about half a dozen of the favoured fruit to be shared by family members.
In-season durians can be found in mainstream Japanese supermarkets, while in the West they are sold mainly by Asian markets.
FLAVOUR AND ODOUR
The unusual flavour and odour of the fruit have prompted many people to express diverse and passionate views ranging from deep appreciation to intense disgust. Writing in 1856, the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace provided a much-quoted description of the flavour of the durian:
The five cells are silky-white within, and are filled with a mass of firm, cream-coloured pulp, containing about three seeds each. This pulp is the edible part, and its consistence and flavour are indescribable. A rich custard highly flavoured with almonds gives the best general idea of it, but there are occasional wafts of flavour that call to mind cream-cheese, onion-sauce, sherry-wine, and other incongruous dishes. Then there is a rich glutinous smoothness in the pulp which nothing else possesses, but which adds to its delicacy. It is neither acidic nor sweet nor juicy; yet it wants neither of these qualities, for it is in itself perfect. It produces no nausea or other bad effect, and the more you eat of it the less you feel inclined to stop. In fact, to eat Durians is a new sensation worth a voyage to the East to experience. ... as producing a food of the most exquisite flavour it is unsurpassed.
Wallace described himself as being at first reluctant to try it because of the aroma, "but in Borneo I found a ripe fruit on the ground, and, eating it out of doors, I at once became a confirmed Durian eater." He cited one traveller from 1599: "it is of such an excellent taste that it surpasses in flavour all other fruits of the world, according to those who have tasted it." He cites another writer: "To those not used to it, it seems at first to smell like rotten onions, but immediately after they have tasted it they prefer it to all other food. The natives give it honourable titles, exalt it, and make verses on it." Despite having tried many foods that are arguably more eccentric, Andrew Zimmern, host of Bizarre Foods, was unable to finish a durian upon sampling it, due to his intolerance of its strong taste.
While Wallace cautions that "the smell of the ripe fruit is certainly at first disagreeable", later descriptions by westerners are more graphic. Novelist Anthony Burgess writes that eating durian is "like eating sweet raspberry blancmange in the lavatory". Chef Andrew Zimmern compares the taste to "completely rotten, mushy onions". Anthony Bourdain, a lover of durian, relates his encounter with the fruit thus: "Its taste can only be described as...indescribable, something you will either love or despise. ...Your breath will smell as if you'd been French-kissing your dead grandmother." Likewise, fellow chef Jamie Oliver has also expressed admiration for the fruit on his first sampling. Travel and food writer Richard Sterling says:
... its odor is best described as pig-shit, turpentine and onions, garnished with a gym sock. It can be smelled from yards away. Despite its great local popularity, the raw fruit is forbidden from some establishments such as hotels, subways and airports, including public transportation in Southeast Asia.
Other comparisons have been made with the civet, sewage, stale vomit, skunk spray and used surgical swabs. The wide range of descriptions for the odour of durian may have a great deal to do with the variability of durian odour itself. Durians from different species or clones can have significantly different aromas; for example, red durian (D. dulcis) has a deep caramel flavour with a turpentine odour while red-fleshed durian (D. graveolens) emits a fragrance of roasted almonds. Among the varieties of D. zibethinus, Thai varieties are sweeter in flavour and less odorous than Malay ones. The degree of ripeness has an effect on the flavour as well. Three scientific analyses of the composition of durian aroma – from 1972, 1980, and 1995 – each found a mix of volatile compounds including esters, ketones, and different sulphur compounds, with no agreement on which may be primarily responsible for the distinctive odour. People in South East Asia with frequent exposures to durian are able to easily distinguish its sweet-like ketones and esters scent from rotten or putrescine odours which are from volatile amines and fatty acids. Developmental or genetic differences in olfactory perception and mapping within the brain ( for e.g. anterior piriform cortex to the orbitofrontal cortex) could possibly explain why some individuals are unable to differentiate these smells and find this fruit noxious.
This strong odour can be detected half a mile away by animals, thus luring them. In addition, the fruit is extremely appetising to a variety of animals, including squirrels, mouse deer, pigs, orangutan, elephants, and even carnivorous tigers. While some of these animals eat the fruit and dispose of the seed under the parent plant, others swallow the seed with the fruit and then transport it some distance before excreting, with the seed being dispersed as a result. The thorny, armoured covering of the fruit discourages smaller animals; larger animals are more likely to transport the seeds far from the parent tree.
RIPENESS AND SELECTION
According to Larousse Gastronomique, the durian fruit is ready to eat when its husk begins to crack. However, the ideal stage of ripeness to be enjoyed varies from region to region in Southeast Asia and by species. Some species grow so tall that they can only be collected once they have fallen to the ground, whereas most cultivars of D. zibethinus are nearly always cut from the tree and allowed to ripen while waiting to be sold. Some people in southern Thailand prefer their durians relatively young when the clusters of fruit within the shell are still crisp in texture and mild in flavour. For some people in northern Thailand, the preference is for the fruit to be soft and aromatic. In Malaysia and Singapore, most consumers prefer the fruit to be as ripe and pungent in aroma as possible and may even risk allowing the fruit to continue ripening after its husk has already cracked open. In this state, the flesh becomes richly creamy, slightly alcoholic, the aroma pronounced and the flavour highly complex.
The various preferences regarding ripeness among consumers make it hard to issue general statements about choosing a "good" durian. A durian that falls off the tree continues to ripen for two to four days, but after five or six days most would consider it overripe and unpalatable. The usual advice for a durian consumer choosing a whole fruit in the market is to examine the quality of the stem or stalk which loses moisture as it ages: a big, solid stem is a sign of freshness. Reportedly, unscrupulous merchants wrap, paint, or remove the stalks altogether. Due to the popularity of Kan Yao, street vendors may sometimes sell a lesser variety with a long stem to unsuspecting customers. Another frequent piece of advice is to shake the fruit and listen for the sound of the seeds moving within, indicating the durian is very ripe and the pulp has dried out a bit.
HISTORY
The durian has been known and consumed in Southeast Asia since prehistoric times, but has only been known to the western world for about 600 years. The earliest native reference to durian is the several bas relief panels of 9th-century Borobudur depicting durian as one of fruit offering for Javanese king, and also as one of the fruits sold in marketplace.
The earliest known European reference to the durian is the record of Niccolò Da Conti, who travelled to southeastern Asia in the 15th century. Translated from the Latin in which Poggio Bracciolini recorded Da Conti's travels: "They (people of Sumatra) have a green fruit which they call durian, as big as a watermelon. Inside there are five things like elongated oranges, and resembling thick butter, with a combination of flavours." The Portuguese physician Garcia de Orta described durians in Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India published in 1563. In 1741, Herbarium Amboinense by the German botanist Georg Eberhard Rumphius was published, providing the most detailed and accurate account of durians for over a century. The genus Durio has a complex taxonomy that has seen the subtraction and addition of many species since it was created by Rumphius. During the early stages of its taxonomical study, there was some confusion between durian and the soursop (Annona muricata), for both of these species had thorny green fruit. It is also interesting to note the Malay name for the soursop is durian Belanda, meaning Dutch durian. In the 18th century, Johann Anton Weinmann considered the durian to belong to Castaneae as its fruit was similar to the horse chestnut.
D. zibethinus was introduced into Ceylon by the Portuguese in the 16th century and was reintroduced many times later. It has been planted in the Americas but confined to botanical gardens. The first seedlings were sent from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, to Auguste Saint-Arroman of Dominica in 1884.
In southeastern Asia, the durian has been cultivated for centuries at the village level, probably since the late 18th century, and commercially since the mid-20th century. In My Tropic Isle, Australian author and naturalist Edmund James Banfield tells how, in the early 20th century, a friend in Singapore sent him a durian seed, which he planted and cared for on his tropical island off the north coast of Queensland.
In 1949, the British botanist E. J. H. Corner published The Durian Theory, or the Origin of the Modern Tree. His theory was that endozoochory (the enticement of animals to transport seeds in their stomach) arose before any other method of seed dispersal, and that primitive ancestors of Durio species were the earliest practitioners of that dispersal method, in particular red durian (D. dulcis) exemplifying the primitive fruit of flowering plants.
Since the early 1990s, the domestic and international demand for durian in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region has increased significantly, partly due to the increasing affluence of Asia.
USES
CULINARY
Durian fruit is used to flavour a wide variety of sweet edibles such as traditional Malay candy, ice kacang, dodol, lempuk, rose biscuits, and, with a touch of modern innovation, ice cream, milkshakes, mooncakes, Yule logs, and cappuccino. Es durian (durian ice cream) is a popular dessert in Indonesia, sold at street side stall in Indonesian cities, especially in Java. Pulut Durian or ketan durian is glutinous rice steamed with coconut milk and served with ripened durian. In Sabah, red durian is fried with onions and chilli and served as a side dish. Red-fleshed durian is traditionally added to sayur, an Indonesian soup made from freshwater fish. Ikan brengkes is fish cooked in a durian-based sauce, traditional in Sumatra. Traditionally Bollen pastry, specialty of Bandung is filled with banana and cheese. Today Bollen durian is also available, it is pastry filled with durian. Dried durian flesh can be made into kripik durian (durian chips).
Tempoyak refers to fermented durian, usually made from lower quality durian that is unsuitable for direct consumption. Tempoyak can be eaten either cooked or uncooked, is normally eaten with rice, and can also be used for making curry. Sambal Tempoyak is a Sumatran dish made from the fermented durian fruit, coconut milk, and a collection of spicy ingredients known as sambal.
In Thailand, durian is often eaten fresh with sweet sticky rice, and blocks of durian paste are sold in the markets, though much of the paste is adulterated with pumpkin. Unripe durians may be cooked as a vegetable, except in the Philippines, where all uses are sweet rather than savoury. Malaysians make both sugared and salted preserves from durian. When durian is minced with salt, onions and vinegar, it is called boder. The durian seeds, which are the size of chestnuts, can be eaten whether they are boiled, roasted or fried in coconut oil, with a texture that is similar to taro or yam, but stickier. In Java, the seeds are sliced thin and cooked with sugar as a confection. Uncooked durian seeds are toxic due to cyclopropene fatty acids and should not be ingested.
Young leaves and shoots of the durian are occasionally cooked as greens. Sometimes the ash of the burned rind is added to special cakes. The petals of durian flowers are eaten in the North Sumatra province of Indonesia, while in the Moluccas islands the husk of the durian fruit is used as fuel to smoke fish. The nectar and pollen of the durian flower that honeybees collect is an important honey source, but the characteristics of the honey are unknown.
NUTRITIONS AND FOLK MEDICINE
Durian fruit contains a high amount of sugar, vitamin C, potassium, and the serotonergic amino acid tryptophan, and is a good source of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. It is recommended as a good source of raw fats by several raw food advocates, while others classify it as a high-glycemic food, recommending to minimise its consumption.
In Malaysia, a decoction of the leaves and roots used to be prescribed as an antipyretic. The leaf juice is applied on the head of a fever patient. The most complete description of the medicinal use of the durian as remedies for fevers is a Malay prescription, collected by Burkill and Haniff in 1930. It instructs the reader to boil the roots of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis with the roots of Durio zibethinus, Nephelium longan, Nephelium mutabile and Artocarpus integrifolia, and drink the decoction or use it as a poultice.
In the 1920s, Durian Fruit Products, Inc., of New York City launched a product called "Dur-India" as a health food supplement, selling at US$9 for a dozen bottles, each containing 63 tablets. The tablets allegedly contained durian and a species of the genus Allium from India and vitamin E. The company promoted the supplement saying that it provides "more concentrated healthful energy in food form than any other product the world affords".
CUSTOMS AND BELIEFS
Southeast Asian traditional beliefs, as well as traditional Chinese medicine, consider the durian fruit to have warming properties liable to cause excessive sweating. The traditional method to counteract this is to pour water into the empty shell of the fruit after the pulp has been consumed and drink it. An alternative method is to eat the durian in accompaniment with mangosteen, which is considered to have cooling properties. Pregnant women or people with high blood pressure are traditionally advised not to consume durian.
Another common local belief is that the durian is harmful when eaten with coffee or alcoholic beverages. The latter belief can be traced back at least to the 18th century when Rumphius stated that one should not drink alcohol after eating durians as it will cause indigestion and bad breath. In 1929, J. D. Gimlette wrote in his Malay Poisons and Charm Cures that the durian fruit must not be eaten with brandy. In 1981, J. R. Croft wrote in his Bombacaceae: In Handbooks of the Flora of Papua New Guinea that "a feeling of morbidity" often follows the consumption of alcohol too soon after eating durian. Several medical investigations on the validity of this belief have been conducted with varying conclusions, though a study by the University of Tsukuba finds the fruit's high sulphur content inhibits the activity of aldehyde dehydrogenase, causing a 70% reduction of the ability to clear toxins from the body.
The Javanese believe durian to have aphrodisiac qualities, and impose a set of rules on what may or may not be consumed with it or shortly thereafter. A saying in Indonesian, durian jatuh sarung naik, meaning "the durian falls and the sarong comes up", refers to this belief. The warnings against the supposed lecherous quality of this fruit soon spread to the West – the Swedenborgian philosopher Herman Vetterling commented on so-called "erotic properties" of the durian in the early 20th century.
A durian falling on a person's head can cause serious injuries because it is heavy, armed with sharp thorns, and can fall from a significant height. Wearing a hardhat is recommended when collecting the fruit. Alfred Russel Wallace writes that death rarely ensues from it, because the copious effusion of blood prevents the inflammation which might otherwise take place. A common saying is that a durian has eyes and can see where it is falling because the fruit allegedly never falls during daylight hours when people may be hurt. A saying in Indonesian, ketiban durian runtuh, which translates to "getting a durian avalanche", is the equivalent of the English phrase "windfall gain". Nevertheless, signs warning people not to linger under durian trees are found in Indonesia. Strong nylon or woven rope nettings are often strung between durian trees in orchards, serving a threefold purpose: the nets aid in the collection of the mature fruits, deter ground-level scavengers, and most importantly, prevent the durians from falling onto people.
A naturally spineless variety of durian growing wild in Davao, Philippines, was discovered in the 1960s; fruits borne from these seeds also lacked spines. Since the bases of the scales develop into spines as the fruit matures, sometimes spineless durians are produced artificially by scraping scales off immature fruits. In Malaysia, a spinesless durian clone D172 is registered by Agriculture Department on 17 June 1989. It was called "Durian Botak" (Bald Durian). In Indonesia, Ir Sumeru Ashari, head of Durian Research Centre, Universitas Brawijaya reported spineless durian from Kasembon, Malang. Another cultivar is from Lombok, Nusa Tenggara Barat, Indonesia.
Animals such as Sumatran elephants are known to consume durians. Curiously, the carnivorous Sumatran tiger is also known to consume durian occasionally. The strong odour of the fallen fruits in the jungle probably attracts the tiger to inspect the fruit and lick it.
CULTURAL INFLUENCE
The durian is commonly known as the "King of the Fruits", a label that can be attributed to its formidable look and overpowering odour. In its native southeastern Asia, the durian is an everyday food and portrayed in the local media in accordance with the cultural perception it has in the region. The durian symbolised the subjective nature of ugliness and beauty in Hong Kong director Fruit Chan's 2000 film Durian Durian (榴槤飄飄, lau lin piu piu), and was a nickname for the reckless but lovable protagonist of the eponymous Singaporean TV comedy Durian King played by Adrian Pang. Likewise, the oddly shaped Esplanade building in Singapore is often called "The Durian" by locals, and "The Big Durian" is the nickname of Jakarta, Indonesia.
One of the names Thailand contributed to the list of storm names for Western North Pacific tropical cyclones was 'Durian', which was retired after the second storm of this name in 2006. Being a fruit much loved by a variety of wild beasts, the durian sometimes signifies the long-forgotten animalistic aspect of humans, as in the legend of Orang Mawas, the Malaysian version of Bigfoot, and Orang Pendek, its Sumatran version, both of which have been claimed to feast on durians.
Frozen whole durians are shipped from Thailand to Asian markets and Chinatowns in Western countries.
WIKIPEDIA
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Anthony Michael Bourdain was an American celebrity chef, author, and travel documentarian who starred in programs focusing on the exploration of international culture, cuisine, and the human condition
Viola is a genus of flowering plants in the violet family Violaceae. It is the largest genus in the family, containing over 680 species. Most species are found in the temperate Northern Hemisphere; however, some are also found in widely divergent areas such as Hawaii, Australasia, and the Andes.
Some Viola species are perennial plants, some are annual plants, and a few are small shrubs. Many species, varieties and cultivars are grown in gardens for their ornamental flowers. In horticulture, the term pansy is normally used for those multi-colored, large-flowered cultivars which are raised annually or biennially from seed and used extensively in bedding. The terms viola and violet are normally reserved for small-flowered annuals or perennials, including the wild species.
Description
Annual or perennial caulescent or acaulescent (with or without a visible plant stem above the ground) herbs, shrubs or very rarely treelets. In acaulescent taxa the foliage and flowers appear to rise from the ground. The remainder have short stems with foliage and flowers produced in the axils of the leaves (axillary).
Viola typically have heart-shaped or reniform (kidney-shaped), scalloped leaves, though a number have linear or palmate leaves. The simple leaves of plants with either habit are arranged alternately; the acaulescent species produce basal rosettes. Plants always have leaves with stipules that are often leaf-like.
The flowers of the vast majority of the species are strongly zygomorphic with bilateral symmetry and solitary, but occasionally form cymes. The flowers are formed from five petals; four are upswept or fan-shaped with two per side, and there is one, broad, lobed lower petal pointing downward. This petal may be slightly or much shorter than the others and is weakly differentiated. The shape of the petals and placement defines many species, for example, some species have a "spur" on the end of each petal while most have a spur on the lower petal. The spur may vary from scarcely exserted (projecting) to very long, such as in Viola rostrata.
Solitary flowers end long stalks with a pair of bracteoles. The flowers have five sepals that persist after blooming, and in some species the sepals enlarge after blooming. The corolla ranges from white to yellow, orange or various shades of blue and violet or multicolored, often blue and yellow, with or without a yellow throat.
The flowers have five free stamens with short free filaments that are oppressed against the ovary, with a dorsal connective appendage that is large, entire and oblong to ovate. Only the lower two stamens are calcarate (possessing nectary spurs that are inserted on the lowest petal into the spur or a pouch). The styles are filiform (threadlike) or clavate (clubshaped), thickened at their tip, being globose to rostellate (beaked). The stigmas are head-like, narrowed or often beaked. The flowers have a superior ovary with one cell, which has three placentae, containing many ovules.
After flowering, fruit capsules are produced that are thick walled, with few to many seeds per carpel, and dehisce (split open) by way of three valves. On drying, the capsules may eject seeds with considerable force to distances of several meters. The nutlike seeds, which are obovoid to globose, are typically arillate (with a specialized outgrowth) and have straight embryos, flat cotyledons, and soft fleshy endosperm that is oily.
Phytochemistry
One characteristic of some Viola is the elusive scent of their flowers; along with terpenes, a major component of the scent is a ketone compound called ionone, which temporarily desensitizes the receptors of the nose, thus preventing any further scent being detected from the flower until the nerves recover.
Taxonomy
First page of Linnaeus' 1753 description of Viola
Linnaeus' original description (1753)
History
First formally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753[7] with 19 species, the genus Viola bears his botanical authority, L. When Jussieu established the hierarchical system of families (1789), he placed Viola in the Cisti (rock roses), though by 1811 he suggested Viola be separated from these. However, in 1802 Batsch had already established a separate family, which he called Violariae based on Viola as the type genus, with seven other genera. Although Violariae continued to be used by some authors, such as Bentham and Hooker in 1862 (as Violarieae), most authors adopted the alternative name Violaceae, first proposed by de Lamarck and de Candolle in 1805, and Gingins (1823) and Saint-Hilaire (1824). However de Candolle also used Violarieae in his 1824 Prodromus.
Phylogeny
Viola is one of about 25 genera and about 600 species in the large eudicot family Violaceae, divided into subfamilies and tribes. While most genera are monotypic, Viola is a very large genus, variously circumscribed as having between 500 and 600 species. Historically it was placed in subfamily Violoideae, tribe Violeae. But these divisions have been shown to be artificial and not monophyletic. Molecular phylogenetic studies show that Viola occurs in Clade I of the family, as Viola, Schweiggeria, Noisettia and Allexis, in which Schweiggeria and Noisettia are monotypic and form a sister group to Viola.
Subdivision
Viola is a large genus that has traditionally been treated in sections. One of these was that of Gingins (1823), based on stigma morphology, with five sections (Nomimium, Dischidium, Chamaemelanium, Melanium, Leptidium). The extensive taxonomic studies of Wilhelm Becker, culminating in his 1925 conspectus, resulted in 14 sections and many infrasectional groups. The largest and most diverse, being section Viola, with 17 subsections. In addition to subsections, series were also described. Alternatively, some authors have preferred to subdivide the genus into subgenera. Subsequent treatments were by Gershoy (1934) and Clausen (1964), using subsections and series. These were all based on morphological characteristics. Subsequent studies using molecular phylogenetic methods, such as that of Ballard et al. (1998) have shown that many of these traditional divisions are not monophyletic, the problem being related to a high degree of hybridization. In particular section Nomimium was dismembered into several new sections and transferring part of it to section Viola. Section Viola s. lat. is represented by four sections, Viola sensu stricto, Plagiostigma s. str., Nosphinium sensu lato. and the V. spathulata group. In that analysis, the S American sections appear to be the basal groups, starting with Rubellium, then Leptidium. However, the exact phylogenetic relationships remain unresolved, as a consequence many different taxonomic nomenclatures are in use, including groupings referred to as Grex. Marcussen et al. place the five S American sections, Andinium, Leptidium, Tridens, Rubellium and Chilenium at the base of the phylogenetic tree, in that order. These are followed by the single Australian section, Erpetion, as sister group to Chilenium, the northern hemisphere sections and finally the single African section, V. abyssinica. These sections are morphologically, chromosomally, and geographically distinct.
Sections
Seventeen sections are recognized, listed alphabetically (approximate no. species);
Sect. Andinium W.Becker (113) S America
Sect. Chamaemelanium Ging. s.lat. (61) N America, northeast Asia (includes Dischidium, Orbiculares)
Subsect. Chamaemelanium
Subsect. Nudicaules
Subsect. Nuttalianae
Sect. Chilenium W.Becker (8) southern S America
Sect. Danxiaviola W. B. Liao et Q. Fan (1) China
Sect. Delphiniopsis W.Becker (3) western Eurasia: southern Spain; Balkans
Sect. Erpetion (Banks) W.Becker (11–18) eastern Australia; Tasmania
Sect. Leptidium Ging. (19) S America
Sect. Melanium Ging. (125) western Eurasia (pansies)
Sect. Nosphinium W.Becker s.lat. (31–50) N, C and northern S America; Beringia; Hawaii
Sect. nov. A (V. abyssinica group) (1–3) Africa: equatorial high mountains
Sect. nov. B (V. spathulata group) (7–9) western and central Asia: northern Iraq to Mongolia
Sect. Plagiostigma Godr. (120) northern hemisphere (includes Diffusae)
Grex Primulifolia
Sect. Rubellium W.Becker (3–6) S America: Chile
Sect. Sclerosium W.Becker (1–4) northeastern Africa to southwestern Asia
Sect. Tridens W.Becker (2) southern S America
Sect. Viola s.str. (Rostellatae nom. illeg.) (75) northern hemisphere (violets) (includes Repentes)
Subsect. Rostratae Kupffer (W.Becker)
Subsect. Viola
Sect. Xylinosium W.Becker (3–4) Mediterranean region
Species
The genus includes dog violets, a group of scentless species which are the most common Viola in many areas, sweet violet (Viola odorata) (named from its sweet scent), and many other species whose common name includes the word "violet". But not other "violets": Neither Streptocarpus sect. Saintpaulia ("African violets", Gesneriaceae) nor Erythronium dens-canis ("dogtooth violets", Liliaceae) are related to Viola.
List of selected species
Viola canina flower and leaves
Viola canina
Section Andinium
With about 113 species, the South American section Andinium is the largest of the Viola sections. It is one of the four sections distributed primarily or exclusively in South America, and the basal group of Viola. New species continue to be identified. Species include;
Viola escarapela
Viola lilliputana
Viola biflora flower and leaves
Viola biflora
Section Chamaemelanium
Chamaemelanium was one of a number of sections originally classified on the basis of the shape of the stigma, in this case one that was facial shaped, had an absent beak and had lateral beards. But this section has subsequently been shown to be paraphyletic, requiring revision. It occurs at high altitudes (above 600 m) in both N America and northeast Asia, including Siberia and Korea, and the species are perennial, caulous and herbaceous. With about 61 species including;
Viola biflora – yellow wood violet, twoflower violet
Viola glabella – stream violet
Viola pedunculata – yellow pansy
Viola praemorsa – canary violet
Viola pubescens – downy yellow violet
Viola reichei
Viola reichei
Section Chilenium
A small S American section with about 8 species, as sister group to Erpetion, including;
Viola reichei
Section Danxiaviola
Viola hybanthoides
Section Delphiniopsis
Viola Cazorlensis
Viola Cazorlensis
Viola cazorlensis
Viola delphinantha
Viola kosaninii
Section Erpetion
Viola banksii
Viola banksii
Viola banksii – Australian native violet, ivy-leaved violet
Viola hederacea – Australian native violet, ivy-leaved violet
Section Leptidium
Viola stipularis
Viola stipularis
Viola stipularis
Section Melanium (pansies)
Flowers of Viola tricolor
Viola tricolor
Viola arvensis – field pansy
Viola bicolor
Viola pedunculata – yellow pansy, Pacific coast.
Viola bertolonii
Viola calcarata
Viola cheiranthifolia – Teide violet
Viola cornuta
Viola lutea
Viola tricolor – wild pansy, heartsease
Section Nosphinium
Flowers of Viola pedata
Viola pedata
Viola pedata
Section A (V. abyssinica group)
Flower of Viola abyssinica
Viola abyssinica
Viola abyssinica
Section B (V. spathulata group)
Viola spathulata
Section Plagiostigma
Flower of Viola epipsila
Viola epipsila
Viola epipsila
Section Rubellium
Viola capillaris
Viola portalesia
Viola rubella
Section Sclerosium
Viola cinerea
Section Tridens
Flowers of Viola tridentata
Viola tridentata
Viola tridentata – mountain violet
Section Viola (violets)
Flowers of Viola sororia
Viola sororia
Viola canina – heath dog violet
Viola hirta – hairy violet
Viola labradorica – alpine violet
Viola odorata – sweet violet
Viola persicifolia – fen violet
Viola riviniana – common dog violet
Viola rostrata – long-spurred violet
Viola sororia – common blue violet, hooded violet
Viola decumbens
Viola decumbens
Evolution and biogeography
One fossil seed of †Viola rimosa has been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland. The genus is thought to have arisen in S America, most likely the Andes.
Genetics
Habitat fragmentation has been shown to have minimal effect on the genetic diversity and gene flow of the North American woodland violet Viola pubescens. This may be partially attributed to the ability of Viola pubescens to continue to persist within a largely agricultural matrix. This trend of unexpectedly high genetic diversity is also observed in Viola palmensis, a Canary Island endemic known only from a 15 square kilometer range on La palma island. High levels of genetic diversity within these species indicate that these plants are outcrossing, even though many violet species can produce many clonal offspring throughout the year via cleistogamous flowers. Plants that produce copious amounts of clonal seeds from cleistogamous flowers often experience increased levels of inbreeding. These reportedly high rates of outcrossing and genetic diversity indicate that these violets are strong competitors for pollinators during the early spring when they are in bloom and that those pollinators can travel considerable distances between often fragmented populations.
Distribution and habitat
The worldwide northern temperate distribution of the genus distinguishes it from the remaining largely tropical Violaceae genera, restricted to either Old World or New World species, while in the tropics the distribution is primarily in high mountainous areas. Centres of diversity occur mainly in the northern hemisphere, in mountainous regions of eastern Asia, Melanesia, and southern Europe, but also occur in the Andes and the southern Patagonian cone of South America. One of the highest species concentrations is in the former USSR. Australia is home to a number of Viola species, including Viola hederacea, Viola betonicifolia and Viola banksii, first collected by Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander on the Cook voyage to Botany Bay.
Ecology
Viola species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the giant leopard moth, large yellow underwing, lesser broad-bordered yellow underwing, high brown fritillary, small pearl-bordered fritillary, pearl-bordered fritillary, regal fritillary, cardinal, and Setaceous Hebrew character. The larvae of many fritilary butterfly species use violets as an obligate host plant, although these butterflies do not always ovaposit directly onto violets. While the ecology of this genera is extremely diverse, violets are mainly pollinated by members within the orders Diptera and Hymenoptera. Showy flowers are produced in early spring, and clonal cleistogamous flowers are produced from late spring until the end of the growing season under favorable conditions. Cleistogamy allows plants to produce offspring year round and have more chances for establishment. This system is especially important in violets, as these plants are often weak competitors for pollination due to their small size.
Many violet species exhibit two modes of seed dispersal. Once seed capsules have matured, seeds are dispelled around the plant through explosive dehiscence. Viola pedata seeds have been reported being dispersed distances of up to 5 meters away from the parent plant. Often, seeds are then further dispersed by ants through a process called myrmecochory. Violets whose seeds are dispersed this way have specialized structures on the exterior of the seeds called elaiosomes. This interaction allows violet seed to germinate and establish in a protected, stable environment.
Many violet seeds exhibit physiological dormancy and require some period of cold stratification to induce germination under ex situ conditions. Rates of germination are often quite poor, especially when seeds are stored for extended periods of time. In North American habitat restoration, native violets are in high demand due to their relationship with the aforementioned fritillary butterflies.
Violet species occupy a diverse array of habitats, from bogs (Viola lanceolata) to dry hill prairies (V. pedata) to woodland understories (V. labradorica). While many of these species are indicators of high quality habitat, some violets are capable of thriving in a human altered landscape. Two species of zinc violet (V. calaminaria and V. guestphalica) are capable of living in soils severely contaminated with heavy metals. Many violets form relationships with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and in the case of the zinc violets, this allows them to tolerate such highly contaminated soils.
Flowering is often profuse, and may last for much of the spring and summer. Viola are most often spring-blooming with chasmogamous flowers that have well developed petals pollinated by insects. Many species also produce self-pollinated cleistogamous flowers in summer and autumn that do not open and lack petals. In some species the showy chasmogamous flowers are infertile (e.g.,Viola sororia).
Horticultural uses
The international registration authority for the genus is the American Violet Society, where growers register new Viola cultivars. A coding system is used for cultivar description of ten horticultural divisions, such as Violet (Vt) and Violetta (Vtta). Examples include Viola 'Little David' (Vtta) and Viola 'Königin Charlotte' (Vt).
In this system violets (Vt) are defined as "stoloniferous perennials with small, highly fragrant, self-coloured purple, blue or white flowers in late winter and early spring".
Species and cultivars
Many species, varieties and cultivars are grown in gardens for their ornamental flowers. In horticulture the term pansy is normally used for those multi-colored, large-flowered cultivars which are raised annually or biennially from seed and used extensively in bedding. The terms viola and violet are normally reserved for small-flowered annuals or perennials, including the wild species.
Cultivars of Viola cornuta, Viola cucullata, and Viola odorata, are commonly grown from seed. Other species often grown include Viola labradorica, Viola pedata, and Viola rotundifolia.
The modern garden pansy (V. × wittrockiana) is a plant of complex hybrid origin involving at least three species, V. tricolor (wild pansy or heartsease), V. altaica, and V. lutea (mountain pansy). The hybrid horned pansy (V. × williamsii) originates from hybridization involving garden pansy and Viola cornuta.
Bedding plants
In 2005 in the United States, Viola cultivars (including pansies) were one of the top three bedding plant crops and 111 million dollars worth of flats of Viola were produced for the bedding flower market. Pansies and violas used for bedding are generally raised from seed, and F1 hybrid seed strains have been developed which produce compact plants of reasonably consistent flower coloring and appearance. Bedding plants are usually discarded after one growing season.
Perennial cultivars
There are hundreds of perennial viola and violetta cultivars; many of these do not breed true from seed and therefore have to be propagated from cuttings. Violettas can be distinguished from violas by the lack of ray markings on their petals. The following cultivars, of mixed or uncertain parentage, have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's
Award of Garden Merit:
'Aspasia'
'Clementina'
'Huntercombe Purple'
'Jackanapes'
'Molly Sanderson'
'Moonlight'
'Nellie Britton'
Other popular examples include:
Ardross Gem' (viola)
'Blackjack'
'Buttercup' (violetta)
'Columbine' (viola)
'Dawn' (violetta)
'Etain' (viola)
'Irish Molly' (viola)
'Maggie Mott' (viola)
'Martin' (viola)
'Rebecca' (violetta)
'Vita' (viola)
'Zoe' (violetta)
Other uses
Culinary
When newly opened, Viola flowers may be used to decorate salads or in stuffings for poultry or fish. Soufflés, cream, and similar desserts can be flavoured with essence of Viola flowers. The young leaves are edible raw or cooked as a mild-tasting leaf vegetable. The flowers and leaves of the cultivar 'Rebecca', one of the Violetta violets, have a distinct vanilla flavor with hints of wintergreen. The pungent perfume of some varieties of V. odorata adds inimitable sweetness to desserts, fruit salads, and teas while the mild pea flavor of V. tricolor combines equally well with sweet or savory foods, like grilled meats and steamed vegetables. The heart-shaped leaves of V. odorata provide a free source of greens throughout a long growing season, while the petals are used for fragrant flavoring in milk puddings and ice cream or in salads and as garnishes.
A candied violet or crystallized violet is a flower, usually of Viola odorata, preserved by a coating of egg white and crystallised sugar. Alternatively, hot syrup is poured over the fresh flower (or the flower is immersed in the syrup) and stirred until the sugar recrystallizes and has dried. This method is still used for rose petals and was applied to orange flowers in the past (when almonds or orange peel are treated this way they are called pralines). Candied violets are still made commercially in Toulouse, France, where they are known as violettes de Toulouse. They are used as decorating cakes or trifles or included in aromatic desserts.
The French are also known for their violet syrup, most commonly made from an extract of violets. In the United States, this French violet syrup is used to make violet scones and marshmallows. Viola essence flavours the liqueurs Creme Yvette, Creme de Violette, and Parfait d'Amour. It is also used in confectionery, such as Parma Violets and C. Howard's Violet candies.
Medicinal
Many Viola species contain antioxidants called anthocyanins. Fourteen anthocyanins from V. yedoensis and V. prionantha have been identified. Some anthocyanins show strong antioxidant activities. Most violas tested and many other plants of the family Violaceae contain cyclotides, which have a diverse range of in vitro biological activities when isolated from the plant, including uterotonic, anti-HIV, antimicrobial, and insecticidal activities. Viola canescens, a species from India, exhibited in vitro activity against Trypanosoma cruzi.
Viola has been evaluated in different clinical indications in human studies. A double blind clinical trial showed that the adjuvant use of Viola odorata syrup with short-acting β-agonists can improve the cough suppression in children with asthma. In another study intranasal administration of Viola odorata extract oil showed to be effective in patients with insomnia. Topical use of an herbal formulation containing Viola tricolor extract also showed promising effects in patients with mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis.
Perfume
Viola odorata is used as a source for scents in the perfume industry. Violet is known to have a 'flirty' scent as its fragrance comes and goes. Ionone is present in the flowers, which turns off the ability for humans to smell the fragrant compound for moments at a time.
Cultural associations
Birth
Violet is the traditional birth flower for February in English tradition.
Geographical territories
In the United States, the common blue violet Viola sororia is the state flower of Illinois, Rhode Island, New Jersey and Wisconsin, In Canada, the Viola cucullata is the provincial flower of New Brunswick adopted in 1936 In the United Kingdom, Viola riviniana is the county flower of Lincolnshire.
Lesbian and bisexual culture
Violets became symbolically associated with romantic love between women. This connection originates from fragments of a poem by Sappho about a lost love, in which she describes her as "Close by my side you put around yourself [many wreaths] of violets and roses." In another poem, Sappho describes her lost love as wearing "violet tiaras, braided rosebuds, dill and crocus twined around" her neck. In 1926, one of the first plays to involve a lesbian relationship, La Prisonnière by Édouard Bourdet, used a bouquet of violets to signify lesbian love.
Tributes
Violets, and badges depicting them, were sold in fund-raising efforts in Australia and New Zealand on and around Violet Day in commemoration of the lost soldiers of World War I.