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Googie architecture is a form of modern architecture, a subdivision of futurist architecture influenced by car culture, the Space Age, and the Atomic Age. Originating in Southern California during the late 1940s and continuing approximately into the mid-1960s, Googie-themed architecture was popular among motels, coffee houses and gas stations. The school later became widely known as part of the Mid-Century modern style, elements of which represent the populuxe aesthetic,[attribution needed] as in Eero Saarinen's TWA Flight Center. The term "Googie" comes from a now defunct coffee shop and cafe built in West Hollywood.
Features of Googie include upswept roofs, curvaceous, geometric shapes, and bold use of glass, steel and neon. Googie was also characterized by Space Age designs symbolic of motion, such as boomerangs, flying saucers, atoms and parabolas, and free-form designs such as "soft" parallelograms and an artist's palette motif. These stylistic conventions represented American society's fascination with Space Age themes and marketing emphasis on futuristic designs. As with the Art Deco style of the 1930s, Googie became less valued as time passed, and many buildings in this style have been destroyed. Some examples have been preserved, though, such as the oldest McDonald's stand that was put on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.
The La Concha Motel was a motel that opened in 1961 and closed in December 2003. It was designed by architect Paul Williams who was one of the first prominent African American architects in the United States and was also the architect who designed the first LAX theme building. It was located at 2955 Las Vegas Blvd South Winchester, Nevada and was considered one of the best-preserved examples of 1950's Googie architecture. The La Concha Motel is now restored in Las Vegas' Neon Museum
-Wikipedia
© All Rights Reserved. Please do not use this image on websites, blogs or other media without my prior permission.
Flame Resonance Extractor.
See.. even two plebs like me and the rodinator (Rodney Campbell) get that ya gotta channel that flame sh$t out somewhere... even NASA on their Saturn rockets worked it out, yet SpaceX Heavy just goes, meh, lets just put a bit of concrete with some tin wire in it to erode away as 16 millons pounds of thrust push that tin can into space
If they are that happy when it fails and self destructs then I can only imagine the party thats gonna happen when they get the thing into orbit
For those who do not follow whats happening in the space world all that will make no sense 😉
here's a cool space dad joke anyways
Why did the astronaut break up with his girlfriend?
.
.
He just needed space.
This shot took awhile, single shot, no blends, no AI - although I am interested to know what happens when I put a query into a popular photo-AI program that goes alittle like "2 nut jobs under a bridge simulating flame extraction with steel wool, EL wire and a bit-whip"
Single shot 671 seconds, thats like 11 minutes @ f8 14mm.
Hillary is looking so sleek and awesome in her silver frost pink outfit! Extracted from her sparks video! so gotta do that for one of my out of this world!
This image was made with my Canon 80D and a little editing trickery, extracting this moon, from a separate less exposed take where the sky and landscape were virtually black, and inserting it over the overexposed moon the shot originally produced. Admittedly, we have to strain a bit to pick out Mars to the left of the Moon. See next image in this stream....
Well after all this time, i finally bottled my vanilla. It tastes really great. Never again will i buy vanilla from the shops :)
Pimple Popping 2 CHUNKY ingrown hair removed with 1 squeeze Abscess popping method pimple popping Big cyst pop Eye Cyst Cyst Excised From Heart Of Patient Gross Zit Cyst Pimple Pus Filled Popping FUN Eye Cyst GROSS!! Popping a huge nasty boil! LOTS of Pus! Pimple Zit Cyst 2 Eye Cyst How To Pop Huge Back Zit Popping Cyst Removal 2014 kopia Eye Cyst pimple popping cyst zit 3 Gross Zit Cyst Pimple Pus Filled Popping FUN Eye Cyst 360p Dengan Kualitas HD Terbaru Bisa Langsung Anda Unduh Dari Dekstop dan Ponsel adroid Anda. Berikut Ini Adalah Detail Video Gross Zit Cyst Pimple Pus Filled Popping FUN Eye Cyst 360p: Thick, Chunky Ingrown, Hair Removed, ingrown hair cyst, ingrown hair, ingrown hair removal, ingrown hair removed, Ingrown Hair, Pus, Hair, Dream Out Shout Back Youtube, Medicine, Disease, ingrown blood, ingrown hair, pulled squeezed, tweezer tweezers, hair skin removed removal makeup, Cosmetics, Free New, Quotation, Account Speech Member, Fashion, female health, Hygiene, Freedom, Hair Removal, Pimple"
Another image from my old film repository to extract a colour transparency made using my medium-format Pentax during a trip out West to Dinosaur Provincial Park in rural Alberta back in August of 1995. Here a rather strange landscape formed by erosion yields hoodoos as well as landscape opportunities to the photographer. This image shows a sample of the eroded landscape in which harder layers protect lower softer layers to some degree but still allow the lower layers to erode. This leaves caps of harder stone perched on softer columns.
The original image is a full colour transparency. However, in processing the scan, it struck me that it might have more impact as a monochrome. Hence the conversion from colour to B&W. - JW
Date Taken: 1995-08
Tech Details:
Taken using a tripod-mounted, Pentax 6x7 medium format camera fitted with a 55mm f/4.0 lense, Fuji Provia 100 (an ISO100 E-6 process colour transparency) film, exposure not recorded, scanned on an Epson Perfection v500 Photo at 3200 dpi and colour restoration enabled and saved to 16-bit TIFF file. PP in free Open Source RAWTherapee: adjust colour balance by slightly warming the default scan, slightly increase vibrance slightly, enable micro-contrast, apply noise reduction and save to TIFF file. PP in free Open Source GIMP: use auto white balance and then apply slight red and yellow correction in white balance adjustment tool, convert to black-and-white using the Ilford Delta 100 film model, sharpen, add fine black and white frame, add bar and text on left, scale to 1800 wide for posting.
We did not revel in the illusions of love, of hope, and of peaceful fame for long; the amusements of youth soon vanished like a dream, like morning mist.
But our hearts still burn with yearning; under the yoke of oppression we await the call of the fatherland.
In an anguish of anticipation, we long, like a young lover would long for an agreed-upon rendezvous, for the moment when sacred freedom will come.
While freedom still inflames us, while our hearts are still devoted, let us, my friend, dedicate to our fatherland our soul’s noble impulses!
Believe, my friend: the star of enchanting happiness will rise, Russia will rouse herself from her long sleep, and on the ruins of tyranny the nation will write our names.
- A. S. Pushkin, "To Chaadaev" (1818)
EOS 5D Mark III+Sigma 50mm F1.4 DG HSM Art
* If you have requests or comments, please describe these in photo comment space.
Creator: The British American Brewing Co., Windsor, Ont.
Title: Malt Extract
Date: [c.1898-1929]
Extent: 1 label: printed ; (7.5x10cm)
Notes: From a collection of beer labels, stationery and Canadian breweriana donated by Lawrence C. Sherk.
Format: Label
Rights Info: No known restrictions on access
Repository: Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario Canada, M5S 1A5, library.utoronto.ca/fisher
Silver Spotted Skipper extracting some of the very fine pollen from our Lantana. Blooms were totally blown out, couldn't restore. Very heavily shaded. Sorry for so many moreSkipper & Lantana photos. :)
Lime extract made with vodka and organic lime peel. Made from a recipe i found online. Wow the limes were so expensive, i only managed to make these three bottles from about 9 limes!!!
I've been having fun with my new toy, a camera i bought with a bit of my christmas bonus.
oooh what fun :)
This photograph of him appeared in the edition of the Norwich Mercury dated January 26 1918. The caption reads : Pte. Sidney Payne, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, of Feltwell, killed in action.
S. PAYNE, ROYAL INNIS. FUS.*********
On the Church Roll of Honour he is recorded as Sidney Payne.
Private PAYNE, SYDNEY
Service Number:…………… 43973
Died:……………………….. 20/11/1917
Unit:…………………………1st Bn. Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Son of Lemon Payne; husband of Mabel Ella Payne, of Shrub Cottage, Feltwell, Brandon, Suffolk.
Commemorated at CAMBRAI MEMORIAL, LOUVERVAL
CWGC: www.cwgc.org/find-war-dead/casualty/1755848/payne,-sydney/
SDGW records that Private 43973 Sydney Payne was Killed in Action on the 20th November 1917 whilst serving in France & Flanders with the 1st Battalion, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers. He was formerly 018179, Army Ordnance Corps. He was born “Felwell”, Norfolk and enlisted Norwich. No place of residence is shown.
The Medal Index card for Private 43973 Sydney Payne, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, is held at the National Archive under reference WO 372/15/162291
However its shows him previously as 50347 North Staffordshire Regiment.
discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/D4561416
He qualified for the British War Medal and the Victory Medal. The related Medal Roll shows that he was original 50347 5th North Staffordshire Regiment, then 43973 1st Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers.
His Service Records do not appear to have survived the incendiary attack during the Blitz on the Warehouse where all the Other Ranks Army Service Records were stored.
No match on Picture Norfolk, the county image archive.
No obvious Missing Person enquiry received by the International Red Cross.
The 1918 Probate Calendar records that ‘Sidney’ Payne of Feltwell, Norfolk, Private Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers died 20th November 1917 in France, Probate was granted at the Norwich Court on the 27th May 1918 to Henry Addison and Wilfred Addison, house decorators. His effects were valued at £284 19s.
probatesearch.service.gov.uk/Calendar?surname=Payne&y...
The balance of his pay was sent to his Executor, Henry Addison, in July 1918. Sydneys’ War Gratuity was also paid in November 1919 to Henry.
The relevant Panel on the Cambrai Memorial can be seen here:-
www.findagrave.com/memorial/56029128/sydney-payne#view-ph...
1889/1890 – Birth and Baptism……..
The birth of a Sidney Payne was registered with the Civil Authorities in the Thetford District in the January to March quarter, (Q1), of 1890. Then, as now, you had 42 days after the event to report the birth without facing prosecution and a fine. A baby registered at the start of Q1 could therefore have been born as early as the middle of the previous November.
The baptism of a Sidney Payne, no date of birth recorded, took place in the Parish of St Mary and St Nicholas, Feltwell on the 25th October 1890. His mother was Clara Genese Payne. No father was listed.
The two of them lived in the Parish.
www.freereg.org.uk/search_records/5818f8fde93790eca32d257...
On the same day and in the same parish, two other Paynes were baptised.
Avis Hilda, no date of birth recorded. Parents John Lemon, a Farmer and Mary Ann.
www.freereg.org.uk/search_records/5818f8fde93790eca32d256...
Katie Louisa, no date of birth recorded. Parents John Lemon, a Farmer and Mary Ann.
www.freereg.org.uk/search_records/5818f8fde93790eca32d256...
1891 Census of England and Wales
The 1 year old “Sidney” Payne, born Feltwell, was recorded living in a dwelling on Howard’s Drove, Feltwell, This was the household of his grandparents, Lemon, (aged 39, a Farmer + Machinist, born Feltwell), and MaryAnn, (aged 40(?) and born Northwold, Norfolk). As well as Sidney their own children living with them are:-
Clara…………aged 16……born Feltwell
Robert………..aged 12…….born Feltwell
Manella(?)……aged 7……..born Feltwell
Katie………….aged 4……..born Feltwell
Aves(?)……….aged 2……..born Feltwell
1901 Census of England and Wales
The 11 year old “Sidney” was probably still living with same family, but now his relationship is shown as son. They were living at the Farm House, Near Elm Tree, either on or near the junction with Howard’s Lane, Feltwell. Parents were John L. Payne, (49, a Farmer, born Feltwell), and Mary A, (aged 53, now stated to have been born Feltwell). Children still single and living with them are:-
Frederick W……..aged 24…..born Feltwell….Engineer
Kate……………..aged 14…...born Feltwell
Avis……………..aged 12……born Feltwell
Clement…………aged 9……..born Feltwell
1911 Census of England and Wales
The Payne family were now recorded living at Short Beck, Feltwell. Parents John Lemon, (aged 60. A Farmer) and Maryann, (62, now reverted to being born Northwold), have been married 38 years and have had 8 children, who were all then still alive. The only other person living with them is their 21 year old unmarried son, Sidney Payne, a Farm Bailiff.
1913 – Marriage……………………..
The marriage of a Sidney Payne to a Mabel E. Leonard was recorded in the Thetford District in the October to December quarter, (Q4), of 1913.
Until September 1911 the quarterly index published by the General Registrars Office did not show information about the mothers’ maiden name. A check of the General Registrars Office Index of Birth for England and Wales 1911 – 1983 shows no likely children of Sidney and Mabel.
On the day…………………………….
Selected extracts from “The Story of the 29th Division: A record of gallant deeds” by Captain Stair Gillon – pages 151 – 159
1st Royal Inniskillings were part of 87th Brigade in 29th Division
20th November 1917
Page 151
The advance of the 29th, which began between 1 and 2 a.m. on the morning of November 20, was carried out without a hitch. The 87th, which led, reached the point of assembly at 3.30 a.m.
The only audible sound was the chug, chugging noise of the tanks,378 of which had been allotted to the III. and IV. Corps. The 86th and the 88th were in position in ample time for zero.
………
At 6. 10 a.m. the tanks started. It was one of the most dramatic moments in the war. At 6.20, from concealed guns which had only just registered, there burst a torrent of smoke, gas, and high explosiveshells. And all this in an autumn mist so thick that one
(Page 152) could only see 100 yards ahead. It is recorded by the 2nd Royal Fusiliers that they marched on a compass bearing of 40° till they passed through the 6th Division, who had captured and were holding the Hindenburg Line. The assaulting three divisions of the corps attacked with the barrage, and the 29th moved forward quickly to allotted positions in the old front line., which was reached about 7.30 a.m. The feeble counter-barrage did little damage, and soon ceased. Prisoners were soon seen in masses.
……….
Soon after 10 a.m. the bugle sounded G., and the three brigades advanced towards their objectives preceded by twelve tanks, four being assigned to each brigade. The machine-guns went forward on the backs of mules, and although there was some hoof-frisking under the stimulus of the gun fire, not a gun was lost or injured, as Captain K. M. Moir has testified.
The orders to the 29th were to wait until information arrived that the leading divisions had gained the Hindenburg Support Line, timed for 10 o'clock. Owing to fog an aeroplane could not act, and it took two hours for information to reach the 29th Divisional Headquarters that we had gained the Hindenburg Line. To have waited for news of reaching the second objective would have rendered the pursuit by the 29th abortive owing to want of time. At 10.30 a.m. therefore, the three brigades were ordered to advance, the 88th Brigade (Nelson) on the right moving north-east against Masnieres, the 87th Brigade (Lucas) in the centre due north against Marcoing, by the east slopes of the Couillet valley, and the 86th Brigade (Cheape) north-north-east by the west slopes of the Couillet valley against Nine Wood, a copse at the top of a ridge overlooking Marcoing, and a mile to the north of it. There was no divisional reserve, as the 29th had three distinct and widely separated positions, to attain each of which would require a full brigade. But a pursuing force is frequently entitled to take extraordinary risks, and in this case there was no choice. The two brigades on the flanks
(Page 153) moved in diamond formation with a battalion at each point, so that if the leading battalion was unable to advance, the flanking battalions by continuing to advance would automatically turn the flanks of the defenders. This manoeuvre proved most successful. All the brigades advanced through the broad lanes torn by the tanks through the forest of barbed wire. The 16th Battalion Middlesex Regiment, acting as advanced guard to the 86th Brigade, was held up by heavy machine-gun fire from a chalk quarry in front of Nine Wood, a place essential to the safe holding of Marcoing, but the 2nd Royal Fusiliers on the right, and the Guernsey Light Infantry on the left, pushed in and took the quarry by reverse fire with hardly a check, the latter battalion receiving their baptism of fire in the course of this flawless manoeuvre. In addition to many prisoners, 26 machine guns were captured there. The centre brigade adopted the square formation, the two leading battalions finding their own advanced guards. After the garrison of the quarry had been thus disposed of, Nine Wood was captured with hardly a check, and outposts pushed on to Noyelles-sur-L'Escaut, a village about a mile to the north-west of the top of the spur, and lying, as its full name tells, on the (left) bank of the Scheidt.
………
(Page 154) Meanwhile, the 87th in the centre progressed steadily (and likethe 88th, without any artillery help), and with a certain degree of caution, as prisoners stated that Marcoing was held by three battalions. Some troublesome machine-gun fire was met with at Marcoing Copse, half a mile south-east of the village, and a certain number of casualties occurred, but the advance continued, and it was soon seen that any resistance this side of the canal was more apparent than real. The K.O.S.B., the leading battalion on the left, on capturing Marcoing, secured only 50 prisoners. The rest had fled, and yet it was evidently a place of great importance. Valuable assistance was rendered to the K.O.S.B. by tanks in this well-fought action. Nor did the K.O.S.B. forget their instructions regarding bridgeheads. Leaving two companies to mop up the village., Colonel C. A. G. O. Murray sent on the two others to capture the main bridge over the canal. Thanks to the intrepid advance of Major B. T. Wilson, R.E., in front of the infantry, this bridge was saved from destruction in the nick of time. It had been mined, but the engineers were up in time to cut the leads. As soon as the bridge was in our hands, the Borders, under Lieutenant-Colonel A. J. Ellis, D.S.O., carne sweeping through to attack the third and last line of the German system of defence. It was at this time that a check was threatened by a well-posted machine gun. The Germans were evidently regaining their heads and hearts. But it was not for long. Sergeant Spackman, of the Border Regiment, dashed across to the far side, for he had located the danger. Single-handed, and with great tactical skill, he worked round the gun by short rushes from cover to cover, shooting down the detachment in his advance. He shot all but one man, who abandoned his gun and bolted. By this intrepid act Sergeant Spackman cleared the way for those of his comrades, who did not cross by the lock bridge at the little Chateau of Talrna, north of the village, to cross the canal. For this dashing exploit Sergeant Spackman won the twenty-first V.C. for the 29th.
(Page 155) Now for the S.W.B. and R.I.F. on the right. It will be evident to the reader that, when mention was made of firing at Marcoing Copse, it would principally affect the right half of the brigade. It was the S.W.B. under Colonel G. T. Raikes, D.S.O., who met with and overcame this opposition. They continued their march towards the river and the canal, which at this point are almost contiguous. About two-thirds of the two miles of distance between Marcoing and Masnieres, in the direction of Masnieres, is a lock. This lock the S.W.B. seized, and, crossing by it, formed a bridgehead on the farther side. Hard behind them came the R.I.F., but, by the time they came up, a machine gun, firing from a building on the far side, made any attempt to cross futile. It was then that the initiative and bravery of their commanding officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Sherwood-Kelly, C.M.G., D.S.O., once more restored the situation. He ran under fire to a tank, with which he returned, and the fire of which he directed against the building. He himself at the head of his men then crossed the lock-bridge, followed by his leading company. Opposition then collapsed, and the remainder of the battalion passed over in safety. Although it is out of the order of events, it may be stated here that the same officer, on the same day, covered another company through a belt of wire, using a Lewis gun himself. His final exploit on that day was personally to lead a company against the defenders of some sunk gun pits, between Masnieres and Marcoing, which resulted in the capture of 46 prisoners and 5 machine guns. The Times correspondent, in giving his account of this record of gallantry, speaks of '' his coolness and nonchalance which were the inspiration of the whole battalion." His arm bore four wound stripes, and his last wound in the lung, as we know, would have entitled him to be permanently invalided. For these exploits he was subsequently awarded the V.C., the twenty-second won for the division.
(Page 157) But the N.F.L.D., on reaching the canal lock on the left edge of Masnieres, met with
stubborn resistance. After a severe combat the bridge was won, but, as the final objective, the Beaurevoir line, was beyond reach, a defensive flank was dug, linking up with the 87th Brigade.
From a coign of vantage General Lucas had been an eye-witness of much of the earlier part of the 29th's operations, which might have been a field day on Salisbury Plain: the 86th with their
tanks moving up the slopes and capturing Nine Wood, and his own Borders moving up the slopes towards the Beaurevoir line in extended order, just as a mass of Germans were hurrying from the opposite quarter towards the same goal. As the mist closed in on the combatants, it seemed as though the Germans would win the race, and this proved to be the case. It was the 107th Division, fresh, in every sense, from Russia, just arrived in the very nick of time to save the Mas-Beau Line. In many ways the Germans had the luck that day. And then the mist swallowed up the combatants. Most terrible and significant of all was the sight of the hold-up of the 51st at Flesquieres, with a tank in flames on the edge of it, and some six or eight others round about also on fire. Incidentally, it may be mentioned that the tanks cut all telephone wires, so
that no communications came from the front for a considerable time.
87th Brigade Headquarters then moved to Marcoing, where the battalion headquarters were already ensconced, and attention was directed to discovering how the attack on the Beaurevoir line and the north-western suburbs of Masnieres had succeeded. Great results were not to be expected from a few tired battalions (the R.I.F. had had a rencontre of considerable asperity 1,000 yards north-west of Masnieres and taken some prisoners en route) and
(Page 158) one tank, confronted with a wired and entrenched position about a mile away. On the extreme left a company of the Borders captured a portion of the hostile trenches and 19 prisoners. As it could not be supported, it was ordered to retire. This order was carried out with masterly skill by alternate platoons. Not a prisoner escaped. It was a very fine example of "fire and movement'' in retreat.
Elsewhere all efforts failed, and a bridgehead line of trenches was dug from the canal north of the Talma Chateau to the canal at the outskirts of Masnieres, manned from left to right by the Borders, R.I.F., and N.F.L.D.
The net result from north to west was that the 86th had reached their objective at Noyelles, the 87th had two battalions confronting the final objective and two in reserve in Marcoing. The 88th had captured three-fourths of Masnieres, and had three battalions across the canal and one in and around L.R.V. Rain had begun to fall early in the aftemoon. It was a nasty, cold winter’s night. The men had no blankets, but, though dog tired, they had plenty to do with pick and shovel.
……….
(Page 159) Perhaps the notable feature of this operation lay in the sustained endurance of the troops prior to, during, and subsequent to the attack. There had been no night's rest for three nights previous to the battle, and a night in the train had been followed by three night marches, some of the units doing as much as 12 miles in a night. On the actual day of battle the 29th Division marched 10 miles to the canal, carrying 6o lbs. of equipment. They fought till dark, and then consolidated a position 5,000 yards long by 1,500 deep.
Tank involvement
Orders
9, 11 and 10 sections, each with four tanks, were allotted respectively to 86th, 87th and 88th brigades, 29th Division. This division was to pass through the leading waves at the Brown Line and then assault toward the Bridges in Marcoing and Masnieres.
11 Section. With 87th Div, start R14b.5.9. advance when 3G's sounded from bugle. To capture Bridges over canal in Marcoing then advance to Flot Farm.
11 Section
The section stared from at L38b.8.1at Z+ 3.45. The lead tank A54 was asked to turn half right and deal with two enemy MGs that were holding up advance and did so. The other three tanks proceeded to Marcoing A53 smashed its right sponson door on the post of the level crossing and remained there for some time fixing it, it was joined by A54 which had to re affix its unditching gear.
A52 and A55 crossed the Canal and then fired into the rear of Talma Chateau before proceeding to the left and right of Flot Farm. The infantry however didn’t advance and A52 retired; A55 was lost at this point according to “Cambrai 1917” (S40p184) possibly due to penetration by AP ammo (S40p185) , the Company commanders report also indicates one tank was out of action in the German Lines, the OIC 2Lt Lipscombe was reported missing.
A second attack was launched at 5pm: A53 advanced without infantry, going along the trenches on the right of the railway and dispersing some infantry there; A52 advanced with a Company of Border Regt and attacked trenches in front of Flot Farm but got lost in the dark; A54 was ordered to support 1st Inniskillings in attacking trenches from Flot Farm to Rumilly the infantry didn’t attack but the tank conducted a recce to the front.
All three surviving tanks then rallied at Marcoing station.
11 Section Capt Raikes DT. 87th brigade
A52, m, 8091, “Artful Alice II”, 2Lt Charles
A53, m, 8087, “Angelina II”, 2Lt Wright
A54, f, 8079 “Adsum II”, 2Lt Johnson
A55, , 2878, “Aggressive II”, 2Lt Lipscombe
Source: sites.google.com/site/landships/home/narratives/1917/camb...
Taken in Laguna Hills, California. © 2012 All Rights Reserved.
My images are not to be used, copied, edited, or blogged without my explicit permission.
Please!! NO Glittery Awards or Large Graphics...Buddy Icons are OK. Thank You!
I was going to get a picture of one of our servers in the dining room after he joined the Marines
and returned in his uniform but now it doesn't look like he'll be back before 2013...
www.gihichem.com/products/angelica-extract/
Angelica is a plant. The root, seed, and fruit are used to make medicine.
Angelica is used for heartburn, intestinal gas (flatulence), loss of appetite (anorexia), arthritis, circulation problems, "runny nose" (respiratory catarrh), nervousness, plague, and trouble sleeping (insomnia).
Some women use angelica to start their menstrual periods. Sometimes this is done to cause an abortion.
Angelica is also used to increase urine production, improve sex drive, stimulate the production and secretion of phlegm, and kill germs.
Some people apply angelica directly to the skin for nerve pain (neuralgia), joint pain (rheumatism), and skin disorders.
In combination with other herbs, angelica is also used for treating premature ejaculation.
Benefits of Angelica Extract
Curing
Curing heart-throb,megrim and injuries from falls and also enriching the blood
Providing
Providing energy,vitality,and resistance to disease.
Treating
Treating anemia, low im-munity, and problems of peripheral blood flow.
Regulating female hormones
In the treatment of most menstrual and menopausal problems and in pregnancy and delivery.
A blood tonic
Promoting its production and circulation.
Preventing spasms
Relaxing vessels, and reducing blood clotting in peripheral vessels.
Functions of Angelica Extract
Enrich the blood
Invigorate the circulation of blood.
Fight against oxidation
Scavenge free radicals.
Reduce the excitability of myocardium
Treat the auricular fibrillation.
Lower blood pressure and blood fat
Protect the pathological changes of main artery
Treat atherosclerosis.
Assemblage visible lors de la prolongation de l'exposition Graffuturism à Los Angeles
Part2 (Géometrique) avec Augustine Kofie, Boris Delta Tellegen, Christopher Derek Bruno, Gilbert1, Clemens Behr, Graphic Surgery, Kenor, Matt W. Moore, Moneyless, Remi Rough, Steve More
Du 2 au 15 février - Soze Gallery - 2020 E 7th st LA
C.F. Sauer Company - maker of spices, flavoring extracts and other food products, celebrates its 125th anniversary in 2012.
The Apatanis follow a religion known as Donyi-Polo, which means they are animists. They ritually sacrifice animals. Before the actual sacrifice, the shaman killed a chicken and some birds so the bird'slivers could be "read" by the shaman and the elders. The idea being that the liver would foretell if the the forthcoming ritual sacrifice was a go well.
My idea is not to shock,merely to record what happens.
¡Esas carreras de Cruz Orellana!...
“El cartero” pedaleaba duro y parejo repartiendo correspondencia. Iba por la orilla del Parque Forestal y como para cambiar de ritmo, se paró en los pedales, como suelen hacerlo los ciclistas de veras en las carreras de caminos. Fue entonces cuando lo observo un fulano y le gritó: “¡He, cachiporra! ¿Qué te creís Cruz Orellana?”.
Le acertó porque el cartero era Cruz Orellana.
Esto me lo conto Salomón, hermano de Cruz y su historiador. Salomón también era ciclista pero después se dedico a entrenador, nunca pudo alcanzar a su hermano, pero lo admiraba y se sentía orgulloso de él.
Una tarde pedaleaba apresurado rumbo al correo (Correos de Chile) su lugar de trabajo, cuando lo detuvo un policía. Cruz pensó que iba demasiado ligero y que el poli le llamaría la atención. “A lo mejor me lleva preso y es mejor que haga caso”. Se paro en seco y esperó.
“-Oiga - le dijo el carabinero -, me parece que usted es muy bueno para la bicicleta y pasa que en el barrio estamos organizando un club ciclístico. ¿por qué no se dedica a pedalero?. Nosotros podríamos ayudarlo, ¿que le parece?”.
Lo malo era que Cruz Orellana en ese año era campeón de Chile de carretera.
En una vuelta a San Antonio yo les había asegurado a mis amigos que Cruz Orellana los iba a rebanar, que no era carrera esta. En la primera etapa, Cruz llegó en un pelotón y como veinte corredores antes que él. Almorzamos en el puerto y allá me queje:
“-Me está dejando en ridículo, Cruz. Yo había asegurado que ganaría lejos”.
-¿Para que se preocupa? De aquí a Santiago les voy a sacar cinco minutos a todos. ¿No ve que de vuelta es más difícil?.
Y Cruz Orellana llegó a la capital despegado con cinco minutos de ventaja.
Cruz era un hombre para el camino y mientras más difícil éste, mucho mejor. Me acuerdo que en una vuelta que salio de Santiago, fue por la costa hasta Viña del Mar, pasó por San Felipe y agarró al final la cuesta Chacabuco, Cruz no estaba adelante al comenzar la última etapa. Nunca dejámos de charlar antes de la partida y le hice ver que el asunto no se le presentaba muy claro.
“- Vamos - me dijo -, ¿no ve que después de la cuesta hay un tramo muy recontra malo, lleno de piedras, un verdadero infierno?. Va a ver como me les voy en ese tramo y cuando lleguen los demás a San Eugenio (meta) yo ya me habré duchado y todo”.
Justo como él lo había dicho, ganó la etapa y la prueba sobrado.
Entre Viña y San Felipe había unos caminos infernales. En otra oportunidad yo vi a Cruz pegarse un costalazo feroz al chocar contra una piedra de la ruta. La rueda delantera quedó chueca, a la miseria y él muy magullado y sangrando. No había manera de esperar ayuda y tuvo que trabajar solo, enderezo la rueda, dejando la maquina en buenas condiciones, olvidando los machucones. Esa carrera la ganó de todos modos.
Fallecieron hace años y muy jovenes los hermanos Orellana, (Salomon y Cruz) pero todavía se les recuerda con cariño. Una vez en una doble Viña - Curicó, charlaba yo con Renato Iturrate, que siempre acompañaba a Exequiel Ramírez quien fue un deportista cabal y de mucho entusiasmo.
"- Oiga, tocayo - le decía -, usted sabe que los viñamarinos corren en equipo, se defienden, se apoyan y quizas por eso nunca dejan de estar en la quemada. Esta prueba es dura, ¿no cree usted que los santiaguinos debieran hacer lo mismo?, yo creo que si usted, Exequiel y Cruz corren en equipo nadie los podrá ganar.
"- Yo pienso igual - me respondió Renato -, pero Exequiel no quiere nada con arreglos. Ya le hablé y me contesto que era mejor así, cada uno para su santo. Que ganara el que tuviera más piernas..."
Para que les voy a contar el resultado, gano de todos modos Cruz Orellana.
Extracto de ppvaz (Bilobicles), sacado de la Revista Estadio, julio de 1973, número 1.564 escrito por Pancho Alsina. Fotografía Pool de Quimantú
Extract from the NSW Office of Environment and Heritage's website:
"Caringbah Railway Station - including the 1939 platform and platform building, stairs and identified moveable items and landscaping - is of local heritage significance. Caringbah Railway Station is of historical significance as part of the Cronulla line, a major 1930s Depression-era public work, and through its relationship to the development of the suburb of Caringbah and the broader Sutherland Shire region. The Caringbah Railway Station platform building is of aesthetic significance as a fine example of an Inter-war Functionalist style station building, similar to other original 1939 Cronulla line suburban platform buildings in design and style (six suburban stations were built from Sutherland to Woolooware, five now extant).
"The signalling board at Caringbah Railway Station is of technical significance as a good representative example of a 1930s 'electro pneumatic system’ signalling board with light signalling (other examples at Sutherland, Gymea and Oatley)."
The Great North Museum: Hancock is a museum of natural history and ancient civilisations in Newcastle upon Tyne, England.
The museum was established in 1884 and was formerly known as the Hancock Museum. In 2006 it merged with Newcastle University's Museum of Antiquities and Shefton Museum to form the Great North Museum. The museum reopened as the Great North Museum: Hancock in May 2009 following a major extension and refurbishment of the original Victorian building. The museum and most of its collections are owned by the Natural History Society of Northumbria, and it is managed by Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums on behalf of Newcastle University.
The museum is located on the campus of Newcastle University, next to the Great North Road, and close to Barras Bridge. The nearest Tyne & Wear Metro station is Haymarket, and there is also a bus station at Haymarket.
One of the Second World War air raid shelter openings into the Victoria Tunnel is beneath the grounds of the museum.
The collection of the Hancock Museum can be traced to about 1780 when Marmaduke Tunstall started accumulating ethnographic and natural history material from around the world. He then brought his collection from London to North Yorkshire. In 1790 Tunstall died, and George Allan of Darlington purchased Tunstall's collection; and later in 1823 it was acquired by the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne. A wombat, which is still on display, is considered to be the earliest object in the collection. It was the first complete wombat specimen to reach Europe. In 1829 the Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne (now the Natural History Society of Northumbria) was formed as a scientific offshoot of the Literary and Philosophical Society. Amongst the founding and early members of the Natural History Society were Joshua Alder, Albany Hancock, John Hancock, Prideaux John Selby and William Chapman Hewitson.
The museum opened on its current site in 1884 after the collection of the Natural History Society outgrew its small museum, located on Westgate Road, which opened in 1834. A major benefactor to the museum was William Armstrong who gave the then large sum of £11,500. Armstrong had also founded the College of Physical Science which later became part of Newcastle University. The museum was renamed in the 1890s, after the local Victorian naturalists, Albany and John Hancock. In 1959 the Natural History Society agreed with the University of Newcastle for the university to care for the building and collections, and since 1992 the university has contracted with Tyne & Wear Museums to manage the museum under a Service Level Agreement.
The Hancock Museum was closed on 23 April 2006 for refurbishment and did not reopen until 23 May 2009. It was completely refurbished and extended as part of the Great North Museum Project, at a cost of £26 million. Great North Museum project is a partnership between Newcastle University, Tyne & Wear Museums, Newcastle City Council, the Natural History Society of Northumbria and the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne. The project was made possible with funds from the Heritage Lottery Fund, TyneWear Partnership, One NorthEast, the European Regional Development Fund, Newcastle University, Newcastle City Council, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, the Wolfson Foundation and The Northern Rock Foundation, as well as numerous other trusts and foundations. The building architects were Terry Farrell and Partners; Sir Terry Farrell is a native of Newcastle, and had previously been a student at Newcastle University.
The new museum includes new displays on natural history and geology, Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece, Romans and Hadrian's Wall, World Cultures and Pre-history. It also includes an interactive study zone, an under 5's space, and a digital Planetarium, as well as new learning facilities, a new temporary exhibition space, and a study garden. The new museum houses not only the Hancock Museum collections, but also those of the university's Museum of Antiquities and Shefton Museum. The building that formerly housed the Museum of Antiquities was later demolished. The Hatton Gallery is also a part of the Great North Museum Project, but is not relocating to the Hancock, and is remaining in Newcastle University's Fine Art Building.
In September 2008, the Great North Museum searched for a lookalike of the Emperor Hadrian, for a photo shoot, whose likeness would feature in a permanent display at the Hancock Museum. On 21 November 2008 the 'Be Part of It' campaign was launched, and it was announced that the Great North Museum: Hancock would be opening in May 2009. Athlete Jonathan Edwards is the patron of the 'Be Part of It' campaign. Other celebrity supporters of the museum include Sir Thomas Allen and Adam Hart-Davis. Donors to the campaign have the opportunity to have their name (or the name of a loved one) permanently included on a donor wall in the museum.
The Great North Museum formally re-opened on 23 May 2009. In August the museum announced that they had surpassed their expected annual target of 300,000 visitors. By August over 400,000 people had visited the reopened museum. On 6 November 2009 HM The Queen officially opened the Great North Museum. In 2009, the Great North Museum had over 600,000 visitors.
By August 2010, the reopened Great North Museum had welcomed its one millionth visitor.
Among the museum's permanent residents are a life-size cast of an African elephant; the Egyptian mummy Bakt-en-Hor (previously known as Bakt-hor-Nekht); a full size replica of a T-Rex skeleton; and Sparkie, Newcastle's famous talking budgie, who was stuffed after his death in 1962 and is now the subject of a new opera by Michael Nyman.
The full size cast of an African Elephant was built in the Living Planet gallery. The model was crafted by Zephyr Wildlife, who took a cast from an actual stuffed elephant at a museum in Bonn in Germany. To get the elephant into the museum a crane, from Bel Lift Trucks, had to be used. The full size model of a T-Rex dinosaur has been shipped from Canada, where it was built by a company called Research Casting International. It forms part of the display known as the Fossil Stories gallery. The T-Rex model was one of the first items to be placed in the new museum, due to its size. In 1908, the Manchester taxidermist Harry Ferris Brazenor mounted a "fine bison bull" for the museum.
Other exhibitions include 'Hadrian's Wall' looking at Roman life in the north of England, 'Natural Northumbria' focusing on the wildlife found in the northeast, 'Ancient Egypt' looking at the Ancient Egyptians and featuring the museum's two mummies, 'Ice Age to Iron Age' detailing the history of the British Isles over the past 12,000 years, 'World Cultures' featuring artifacts and displays from cultures across the globe, 'The Shefton Collection' with one of the most detailed collections of Greek artifacts in the UK and 'Explore' which is a more hands-on area of the museum and features regular interactive sessions.
There were live animals on display but these have now been withdrawn, as well as a conference area for corporate events and a fully provisioned learning suite for school visits.
The museum was entered into the 'long list' for the 2010 Art Fund Prize for museums and galleries.
The interactive Bio-Wall features hundreds of creatures, that visitors will be able to investigate and find out where they live and how they survive in such extreme places as the Arctic and Desert. There is also a great white shark display, polar bear and giraffe specimens from the historic Hancock collections and a moa skeleton. Also between May and October 2019 the museum hosted Dippy the dinosaur as part of its UK tour.
Within the museum's archives are the nineteenth century botanical paintings by Margaret Rebecca Dickinson of plants from the Newcastle and Scottish Borders region.
Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.
Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.
The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.
Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.
Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.
History
Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.
The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.
The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.
Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.
Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.
Roman invasion
The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.
The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.
The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.
Establishment of Roman rule
After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.
On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.
While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.
There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.
In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.
For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.
Roman military organisation in the north
In 84 AD
In 84 AD
In 155 AD
In 155 AD
Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall
There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.
Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.
A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.
In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.
The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.
During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.
In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.
The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.
3rd century
The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.
Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.
The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.
Northern campaigns, 208–211
An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.
As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.
During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.
Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.
The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.
Diocletian's reforms
As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).
The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.
Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.
The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.
The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.
Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.
In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.
A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.
4th century
Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.
In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.
As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.
Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.
End of Roman rule
The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.
The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.
Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.
Sub-Roman Britain
Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.
In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.
Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.
Trade
During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.
Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.
These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.
It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.
From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.
Economy
Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.
The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.
By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.
Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.
Government
Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain
Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.
To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.
Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.
Demographics
Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.
Town and country
During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.
Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.
Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C
Alcester (Alauna)
Alchester
Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C
Bath (Aquae Sulis) C
Brough (Petuaria) C
Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)
Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C
Caernarfon (Segontium) C
Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C
Caister-on-Sea C
Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C
Carlisle (Luguvalium) C
Carmarthen (Moridunum) C
Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)
Chester (Deva Victrix) C
Chester-le-Street (Concangis)
Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C
Cirencester (Corinium) C
Colchester (Camulodunum) C
Corbridge (Coria) C
Dorchester (Durnovaria) C
Dover (Portus Dubris)
Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C
Gloucester (Glevum) C
Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)
Ilchester (Lindinis) C
Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C
Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C
London (Londinium) C
Manchester (Mamucium) C
Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)
Northwich (Condate)
St Albans (Verulamium) C
Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C
Towcester (Lactodurum)
Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C
Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C
Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C
York (Eboracum) C
Religion
The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.
The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.
Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.
Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).
Christianity
It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.
The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.
A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.
Environmental changes
The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas
Legacy
During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.
Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton