By day the vast extent of the Recoleta Cemetery becomes more evident. A virtual city of tombs, it is a great place to spend a few hours walking along it's streets and paths and investigating the elaborate resting places of the famous of Argentina. It's most famous occupant is Evita, who is buried in her family's tomb here. It is the Duarte Family tomb, and is easily found by spotting the crowds around it. Her husband, Juan Peron, was not buried here but rather in La Chicarita Cemetery in northern Buenos Aires.

The top of our cruise ship is just barely visible in the harbor at the top of the picture. See the notation.

Best viewed large to see all the details.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanderling

  

The sanderling (Calidris alba) is a small wading bird. The name derives from Old English sand-yrðling, "sand-ploughman".[2] The genus name is from Ancient Greek kalidris or skalidris, a term used by Aristotle for some grey-coloured waterside birds. The specific alba is Latin for "white".[3]

 

It is a circumpolar Arctic breeder, and is a long-distance migrant, wintering south to South America, South Europe, Africa, and Australia. It is highly gregarious in winter, sometimes forming large flocks on coastal mudflats or sandy beaches.

 

It is somewhat unlike other sandpipers in appearance, which has led to the suggestion that it should be placed into a monotypic genus Crocethia. A more recent review (Thomas et al., 2004) indicates, however, that the sanderling is a fairly typical "stint" or small sandpiper and should be separated from the large knots with its closest relatives in a distinct genus.

 

This bird is similar in size to a dunlin, but stouter, with a thick bill. It shows a strong white wingbar in flight, and runs along the sandy beaches it prefers with a characteristic "bicycling" action of its legs, stopping frequently to pick small food items. It eats small crabs and other small invertebrates. In spring, birds migrating north from South America consume large numbers of horseshoe crab eggs in the Delaware Bay area.

 

In spring, the birds arrive on the High Arctic breeding grounds (see map), where they lay 3–4 eggs in a ground scrape. On the nesting grounds, these birds mainly eat insects and some plant material.

 

The sanderling is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.

  

Description

  

The sanderling is a small plump sandpiper, 18–20 cm (7.1–7.9 in) in length. Its weight ranges from 40–100 g (1.4–3.5 oz). The winter bird is very pale, almost white apart from a dark shoulder patch. This is the source of the specific name, alba, which is the Latin for "white". Later in the summer, the face and throat become brick-red. The juvenile bird is spangled black and white, and shows much more contrast than the adult.

 

Standard Measurements[4][5]

length180–220 mm (7.1–8.7 in)

weight60 g (2.1 oz)

wingspan430 mm (17 in)

wing114.5–121.6 mm (4.51–4.79 in)

tail47.3–53 mm (1.86–2.09 in)

culmen22.5–26.6 mm (0.89–1.05 in)

tarsus23.5–25.8 mm (0.93–1.02 in)

  

If its size is misjudged, a sanderling in breeding plumage can be mistaken for some varieties of stint, or a sanderling in winter plumage can be mistaken for a dunlin or red knot. It can be told from other small wading birds, given good views, by its lack of a hind toe. Its behavior is also distinctive.

  

Distribution, habitat and migration

  

The sanderling breeds in the High Arctic areas of North America, Europe and Asia. In North America, it breeds in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Nunavut, Greenland (and to a lesser extent Alaska). In Eurasia, it breeds in Spitsbergen and areas of northern Russia from the Taymyr Peninsula to the New Siberian Islands. In the northern winter, it has a nearly cosmopolitan distribution across the world's marine coasts. It is a complete migrant, travelling between 3,000 to 10,000 km (1,900 to 6,200 mi) from its breeding grounds to its wintering sites. Birds that travel further also arrive later and leave sooner. Most adults leave the breeding grounds in July and early August, whereas juvenile birds leave in late August and early September. The northward migration begins in March at the southern end of their winter distribution.[6]

 

The breeding habitat of the sanderling is coastal tundra north of 5 °C (41 °F) July isotherm. The species typically chooses nesting sites on dry stony areas near wet areas, from 60 m (200 ft) above sea level to 800 m (2,600 ft). During the winter and its migration, it is most commonly found on coastal sandy beaches, but also occurs on tidal sand flats, mud flats and the shores of lakes and rivers. More infrequently, it may occur on rocky shores.[6]

  

Subspecies

  

The sanderling consists of two subspecies:

 

C. a. alba, (Pallas, 1764), breeds on Ellesmere Island, north & east Greenland, Svalbard, Franz Josef Land and the Taymyr Peninsula

C. a. rubida, (Gmelin, 1789), breeds in northeast Siberia, Alaska and northern Canada

  

Behaviour

  

Feeding behaviour

  

Sanderlings feed on invertebrate prey buried in the sand in the upper intertidal zone. In North America, this diet largely consists of the isopods Excirolana linguifrons, Excirolana kincaidii, and the mole crab, Emerita analoga. When the tide is out, these crustaceans live in burrows some way beneath the surface. When the tide comes in, they move into the upper layers of sand and feed on the plankton and detritus that washes over them with each wave. They then burrow rapidly down again as the water retreats. They leave no marks on the surface, so the sanderlings hunt for them by plunging their beaks into the sand at random, consuming whatever they find. Their bills can penetrate only 2 or 3 cm (0.79 or 1.18 in) and as the water swirls around and retreats, the sand is softer; this makes it easier for the birds' beaks to penetrate further. In the spring, when much breeding activity is taking place in the benthic community, there may be as many as 4000 invertebrates per square metre, but their average size is smaller than later in the year. The birds appear to rush madly around at the edge of the surf, but in reality they are maximising their chances of catching as many prey animals as possible when they are at their most vulnerable near the surface.[7]

  

Breeding behaviour

  

At breeding time sanderlings are territorial, with the male aggressively defending its territory. They may either form monogamous pairs or polyandrous (one female and two male) pairings.

Fork-tailed Woodnymph

  

A text, in english, from Birdlife International:

  

Justification

This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 30% decline over ten years or three generations). The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.

  

Taxonomic source(s)

del Hoyo, J.; Collar, N. J.; Christie, D. A.; Elliott, A.; Fishpool, L. D. C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International.

SACC. 2006. A classification of the bird species of South America. Available at: #http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCBaseline.html#.

  

Population justification

The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).

  

Trend justification

This species is suspected to lose 15.9-17.6% of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations (12 years) based on a model of Amazonian deforestation (Soares-Filho et al. 2006, Bird et al. 2011). It is therefore suspected to decline by <25% over three generations.

  

References

Stotz, D. F.; Fitzpatrick, J. W.; Parker, T. A.; Moskovits, D. K. 1996. Neotropical birds: ecology and conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

  

Further web sources of information

Explore HBW Alive for further information on this species

  

Search for photos and videos,and hear sounds of this species from the Internet Bird Collection

  

Text account compilers

Ekstrom, J., Butchart, S.

  

IUCN Red List evaluators

Butchart, S., Symes, A.

  

Recommended citation

BirdLife International (2015) Species factsheet: Thalurania furcata. Downloaded from www.birdlife.org on 14/12/2015. Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2015) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from www.birdlife.org on 14/12/2015.

  

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

  

To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife

  

To contribute to discussions on the evaluation of the IUCN Red List status of Globally Threatened Birds, please visit BirdLife's Globally Threatened Bird Forums.

  

Beija-flor-tesoura-verde

Texto, em português, da WikiAves:

  

O beija-flor-tesoura-verde é uma ave da ordem dos Apodiformes, da família Trochilidae.

  

Também é conhecido como beija-flor-de-barriga-violeta. No livro Aves do Brasil, edição Pantanal e Cerrado, consta como beija-flor-de-ventre-roxo.

Seu nome significa: do (grego) thalos = criança, descendente de; e ouranos céu, celeste, referente ao azul do céu; e do (latim) furcata, furcatus = bifurcada. ⇒ Pássaro filho do azul celeste com cauda bifurcada.

Mede cerca de 9,7 cm de comprimento. Macho com partes superiores esverdeadas, garganta verde-metálica, peito e barriga azul-violeta-brilhante; fêmea com as partes inferiores cinza.

Possui doze subespécies:

  

Thalurania furcata furcata (Gmelin, 1788) - ocorre no extremo Leste da Venezuela, Guianas e Norte do Brasil, ao norte do Rio Amazonas;

Thalurania furcata refulgens (Gould, 1853) - ocorre no Nordeste da Venezuela, na Península de Paría e na Serra de Cumaná;

Thalurania furcata fissilis (Berlepsch & Hartert, 1902) - ocorre no Leste da Venezuela, e na região adjacente no extremo Oeste da Guiana e Nordeste do Brasil;

Thalurania furcata nigrofasciata (Gould, 1846) - ocorre do Sudoeste da Colômbia até o extremo Sul da Venezuela e Noroeste do Brasil;

Thalurania furcata viridipectus (Gould, 1848) - ocorre do Leste da Cordilheira dos Andes na Leste da Colômbia até o Nordeste do Peru;

Thalurania furcata jelskii (Taczanowski, 1874) - ocorre na região tropical Leste do Peru e na região adjacente no Brasil;

Thalurania furcata simoni (Hellmayr, 1906) - ocorre na Amazônia ao Sul do Rio Amazonas no extremo Leste do Peru e no Oeste do Brasil;

Thalurania furcata balzani (Simon, 1896) - ocorre na região Norte e Central do Brasil ao sul do Rio Amazonas;

Thalurania furcata furcatoides (Gould, 1861) - ocorre no baixo Rio Amazonas, na região Leste do Brasil ao Sul do Rio Amazonas;

Thalurania furcata boliviana (Boucard, 1894) - ocorre nos sopés da Cordilheira dos Andes no Sudeste do Peru e no Nordeste da Bolívia;

Thalurania furcata baeri (Hellmayr, 1907) - ocorre da região Central e Nordeste do Brasil até o Sudeste da Bolívia e no Norte da Argentina;

Thalurania furcata eriphile (Lesson, 1832) - ocorre do Sudeste do Brasil, Leste do Paraguai até o Nordeste da Argentina, na região de Misiones.

Alimenta-se em flores à pouca altura, buscando também insetos na vegetação ou capturando-os no ar.

Faz ninho em forma de taça profunda, preso por teias de aranha a forquilhas ou pequenos ramos, a cerca de 2 m de altura. Põe 2 ovos brancos. Os filhotes deixam o ninho após 18 a 24 dias.

Comum no sub-bosque de florestas altas, capoeiras e florestas de várzea. Vive solitário, defendendo seu território de maneira agressiva.

Distribuição Geográfica:

Quase todo o Brasil, da Amazônia ao Paraná. Encontrado também do México à Bolívia, Paraguai e Argentina.

Referências:

Portal Brasil 500 Pássaros, Beija-flor-tesoura-verde - Disponível em webserver.eln.gov.br/Pass500/BIRDS/1birds/p159.htm Acesso em 09 mai. 2009

CLEMENTS, J. F.; The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World. Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2005.

  

Classificação Científica

Reino: Animalia

Filo: Chordata

Classe: Aves

Ordem: Apodiformes

Família: Trochilidae

Vigors, 1825

Subfamília: Trochilinae

Vigors, 1825

Espécie: T. furcata

Nome Científico

Thalurania furcata

(Gmelin, 1788)

Nome em Inglês

Fork-tailed Woodnymph

  

Estado de Conservação

(IUCN 3.1)

Pouco Preocupante

The remains of the Limes today consist of vestiges of built walls, ditches, forts, fortresses, watchtowers, and civilian settlements; the two sections of the Limes in Germany, Hadrian’s Wall, and the Antonine Wall are now all inscribed on the World Heritage List as the “Frontiers of the Roman Empire”; the wooden post (in the background, just to the right of the rocks) marks the crossing of the field track with the Limes, which ran in west-eastern direction along the plateau

 

To all who visit and view, and – especially – express support and satisfaction: you are much appreciated!

 

Im Gebiet von Idstein und Niedernhausen ging diesem Limes eine ältere Grenzlinie voraus, die erst um die Mitte des 2. Jahrhunderts bis zu 750 m vorgeschoben und begradigt wurde

 

________________________________________

Album Description – Idstein, Germany – 2016APR07:

 

Super layover! The Idstein tower built 1170 is new compared to what we next saw just outside town.

 

After eating out with Dori and Siggi, we walked off part of our meal; then, on the way taking me back to Mainz, Dori stopped for me to see a Roman watch tower: at nearly 2000 years old, the monument is almost twice the age of the historic Idstein watch tower.

 

Accurately re-constructed in 2002, it's a UNESCO location of world heritage since 2005, in the Idstein Valley – Protection of the Gateway to the South – 26th of some 900 the Romans built to guard the fortified frontier, 'Limes'.

 

The Limes stretched 3,000+ miles, delineating the Roman Empire at its greatest extent in the 2nd century A.D., forts & barriers (trench & rampart, wooden palisade, wall) guarding the Roman Empire border from Rhine to Danube, end of the 1st century until 2nd half of the 3rd century A.D. [Anno Domini, Latin; set out more fully: anno Domini nostri Iesu (or Jesu) Christi ("in the year of Our Lord Jesus Christ")].

 

The best of 524 photos from this layover are a 3-album set:

• Mainz, Germany – 2016APR06-08

• Idstein, Germany – 2016APR07

• Roman Limes Tower at Idstein, Germany – 2016APR07

 

Hope you enjoy my favorite 29% of 28 photos on the Limes!

Church "saint Nedelia" Църква "Цвета Неделя"

The history of the cathedral's earliest years is to a large extent unknown. It was probably built in the 10th century and had stone foundations and an otherwise wooden construction, remaining wooden until the middle of the 19th century, unlike most other churches in the city. A German traveller by the name of Stefan Gerlach visited Sofia in 1578 and mentioned the church.

  

The relics of Serbian king Stephen Milutin (r. 1282–1321) in the St Nedelya Church

Around 1460, the remains of Serbian king Stephen Milutin were carried to Bulgaria and were stored in various churches and monasteries until being transferred to St Nedelya after it became a bishop's residence in the 18th century. With some interruptions, the remains have been preserved in the church ever since and the church acquired another name, Holy King („Свети Крал“, „Sveti Kral“), in the late 19th and early 20th century.

 

The former building was demolished to make place for a larger and more imposing cathedral on 25 April 1856. The construction of the 35.5 m-long and 19 m-wide church began in the summer of the same year. The still incomplete building suffered from an earthquake in 1858, which prolonged the construction works that ultimately finished in 1863. It was officially inaugurated on 11 May 1867 in the presence of 20,000 people. A new belfry was erected to accommodate the 8 bells given to the church as a present by Russian Knyaz (Prince) Dondukov-Korsakov in 1879.

 

The church was renovated in 1898, with new domes being added. Exarch Joseph I of Bulgaria was buried immediately outside the walls of St Nedelya in 1915. The church was razed in the assault in 1925 that claimed over 150 victims. After the assault, the church was restored to its modern appearance between the summer of 1927 and the spring of 1933 (once again inaugurated on 7 April 1933). It was almost erected anew as a temple 30 m in length and 15.50 m in width and featuring a central dome that made it 31 m high. The gilt iconostasis that survived the bomb attack was returned to the church.

 

The mural decoration was done by a team led by Nikolay Rostovtsev between 1971 and 1973. The floor was renovated and the north colonnade was glazed between 1992 and 1994. The façade was cleaned thoroughly in 2000 and a device to automatically ring the eleven bells (the eight ones from Knyaz Dondukov-Korsakov, two made in Serbia and one cast in Bulgaria) was installed in 2002.

"Moreover, to the extent that the troopers were restraining Robinson from making

any future videotapes and from publicizing or publishing what he

had filmed, the defendants' conduct clearly amounted to an

unlawful prior restraint upon his protected speech."..."Robinson was simply

recording the activities of Pennsylvania state troopers as they

went about their duties on a public highway and its adjoining

berm."..."The activities of the police, like those of other

public officials, are subject to public scrutiny. Indeed, 'the

First Amendment protects a significant amount of verbal criticism

and challenge directed at police officers.' " Robinson v. Fetterman

 

Blogged: technorati.com/photos/tag/Tyranny

 

Extention from concept of the daily light & shadow in Autumn, after explore the " rainy night" ,"dream light " , "mysterious light " & "cold night" , for the Series V, I am more interest about the contrast of light & shadow , and the light in between the noisy & calm space. Here are my presentation. Kindly advise what you thought.

Small Indian Civet (Viverricula indica) is widely used, for various reasons. There has been heavy harvest for skins in China and probably to some extent elsewhere. For the production of its perineal gland secretion, 'civet' musk, a raw ingredient in the perfume, medicine and other industries, large numbers are kept in India and, increasingly, Thailand; these are sourced almost entirely from the wild . It is the second most commonly traded civet in Java, Indonesia, where there is a current craze for keeping civets at pets, with the mushrooming of civet-'lovers' clubs; numbers in this trade are however dwarfed by those of Common Palm Civet, with almost 20 times as many of the latter seen . While hunting (including the use of traps for civets) seems to be rare in some of its range, such as Java , a large part of its range - North-east India, southern China and northern South-east Asia - has heavy to very heavy mammal hunting using, in great part, non-selective techniques such as snaring, for domestic consumption and, in many areas, sale into the urban and international wildlife trade. In the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, local people kill Small Indian Civets (for meat consumption) with poison. The demand for civet meat in Chinese and Viet Namese markets has increased rapidly since the 1980s and remains high. This species is perhaps somewhat insulated from the heaviest pressures because such activities are mostly within closed evergreen forest, only a marginal habitat of this species. On the other hand, its use of marginal and degraded habitats means it might suffer more than do the more closed-forest associated small carnivores from retaliatory killing , secondary accumulation of rodenticides (heavily used in some parts of its range) and killing by domestic dogs. It is reasonably clear that, in aggregate, these threats are not causing steep declines in India, Myanmar and southern China where it remains common even though most other small carnivores are severely depleted the situation is less clear in northern South-east Asia, where hunting is highest, because of the species' limited occurrence in closed evergreen forest, which hosts the majority of wildlife survey and research. It is clearly widespread even in Viet Nam and Lao PDR, but populations there are probably well below what they would be in the absence of hunting.

  

Forest loss and degradation are unlikely to be, overall, a threat to this species; the opening-up of large areas of closed-canopy old-growth evergreen forest in South-east Asia has probably increased the total habitat availability, more than offsetting the losses from conversion of open deciduous forest to habitats supporting lower densities of this species. Its use of agriculture-dominated landscapes, while common, is poorly understood: it is quite plausible that the rapid intensification of field crop systems in Java, Thailand, Vietnam, China and, increasingly, Lao PDR and Cambodia will be reducing habitat suitability over large areas, particularly through loss of uncultivated patches: daytime resting sites in Hlawga Park, Myanmar, were typically at ground level in dense shrubby tangles and such patches are also likely to increase food supply over that in crop monoculture.

  

In sum, while further information would be useful in elaborating the detail of the response to the various potential threats facing this species, its continued abundance in most of its range indicates that it is well able to survive the current levels of threats.

 

It's hard to picture the extent of the smoke emanating from the Bridger Foothills fire on the day after it started. The white clouds at the top are pyrocummulonimbus, that is, clouds created by the fire itself. As of September 13, 2020, 9 days after ignition, it has consumed 8,224 acres of National Forest and private residential and agricultural land in Montana's Gallatin Valley. It burned 28 homes to the ground, in spite of vigorous efforts to control the burn.

 

The fire is now 77% contained, meaning under the right conditions it could resume vigorous activity, but we are no longer seeing active burning or smoke (except what wafted into our valley from the fires in California, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon, which is substantial).

 

Bridger Canyon Road is still closed to non-residents, so I have not personally viewed the devastation. It is in the area where most of the photos in my album, "East of the Bridgers" flic.kr/s/aHsmQgv8Ef were taken just two weeks earlier.

 

The cause has been determined to be delayed ignition from a lightning strike several days before the fire was spotted. There is no evidence it was human-caused.

 

Deutschland - Baden-Württemberg - Kaiserstuhl

 

Alt Vogtsburg

 

seen from Eichelspitze Observation Tower. In the background you can see the Vosges.

 

gesehen vom Eichelspitzturm. Im Hintergrund sieht man die Vogesen.

 

The Kaiserstuhl (German: [ˈkaɪzɐʃtuːl], lit. "Emperor’s Chair") is a range of hills in the state of Baden-Württemberg in southwest Germany with a maximum height of 556.6 metres (1,826 ft). It is of volcanic origin and located in the southwest of the state in the counties of Emmendingen and Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald. In terms of natural regions it is considered to be a part of the Upper Rhine Plain.

 

Name

 

The name "Kaiserstuhl" is believed to refer to King Otto III, who held court near Sasbach on 22 December 994. From then on, the whole hill range was called the Königsstuhl – the King’s Chair. In May 996, Otto III was crowned Emperor and the King’s Chair eventually became the Emperor’s Chair – "Kaiserstuhl". Reliable sources mention the name Kaiserstuhl only as early as 1304 and historians thus suppose that the term Kaiserstuhl was not coined until the 13th century.

 

Geography

 

Location

 

The Kaiserstuhl is situated in South Baden, mainly in Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald county or district. However, the smaller northern part belongs to Emmendingen. Within the Upper Rhine Plain it is situated about 16 km northwest of the city of Freiburg, right next to the eastern bank of the Rhine and a short distance west of the Dreisam. It reaches up to 377 metres above the level of the Rhine downstream (179.5 m a.s.l.) from the weir close to Burkheim.

 

At its greatest extent, from the Michaelsberg near Riegel in the northeast, to the Fohrenberg, by Ihringen in the southwest, the Kaiserstuhl is about 15 km long. Its maximum width is about 12.5 km.

 

Hills

 

The hills of the Kaiserstuhl include the following (sorted by height in metres above sea level):

 

Totenkopf (556.6 m), 1.9 km east of Bickensohl; with the Vogtsburg 1 telecommunication tower and Neunlinden observation tower

Eichelspitze (521.3 m), 2.8 km northwest of Bötzingen

Katharinenberg (492.4 m), 1.3 km southeast of Amoltern

Bisamberg (469.0 m), 1.2 km south of Amoltern

Staffelberg (446.0 m), 1.5 km northwest of Schelingen

Badberg (432.7 m) (protected area), 1.5 km east of Oberbergen

Holzeck (431.9 m), 1.7 km northeast of Ihringen; with tower

Hochbuck (374.8 m), 900 m south of Achkarren

Schlossberg (352.1 m), 500 m northwest of Achkarren; with Höhingen Castle ruins

Böselsberg (340.1 m), 500 m northwest of Wasenweiler

Büchsenberg (283.7 m), 1.3 km west of Achkarren

 

Geology

 

The formation of the Kaiserstuhl volcano during the Tertiary was the climax and at the same time the end of volcanic activity in the Upper Rhine Valley Rift. Volcanism started as early as the Cretaceous Period. Volcanic landforms include heavily eroded volcanic vents. The Kaiserstuhl is the only larger volcano from this period in the rift valley. Geologically the Kaiserstuhl can be divided into two parts: the sedimentary and volcanic part. Due to these peculiarities the Kaiserstuhl has been labeled one of the most important national geotopes.

 

Sedimentary base

 

The horizontal sedimentary layers forming the eastern third of the Kaiserstuhl date back to the Jurassic and the Tertiary long before the volcanic activity. Important stratigraphic outcrops include the Hauptrogenstein (local oolite) which is found mainly near the village of Riegel and the Pechelbronner Schichten (local Tertiary layers in the South German Scarplands) near Bötzingen. During the formation of the Upper Rhine Plain this part of the Kaiserstuhl sloped less in respect to its surrounding area – and thus appears as a so-called horst. In terms of its geological structure and the sequence of its escarpments, the Kaiserstuhl is comparable to the nearby Tuniberg, Nimberg and also to the Schönberg, which is situated south of the city of Freiburg.

 

Volcanic activity

 

Petrologically the volcanic Kaiserstuhl is an alkali-carbonate rock formation. The volcanic rocks making up a large part of the central and western Kaiserstuhl were the result of numerous volcanic eruptions during the Miocene, about 19 to 16 million years ago. They cover parts of the sedimentary base of the eastern Kaiserstuhl, which is why in some places changes in the base’s mineralogical composition occurred. The driving force behind this process of contact metamorphism was an increase in temperature. Due to the alternate eruption of tephra and lava flows from several vents a complex stratovolcano came into existence. Some of the rising magma solidified as volcanic intrusions below the surface – and today forms the central part of the Kaiserstuhl. Laterally rising phonolite magma also intruded into the sedimentary base of the Eastern Kaiserstuhl. Several hundred metres of the original volcano have been eroded.

Volcanic rocks

 

The entire volcanic Kaiserstuhl consists of rock types that contain feldspathoid minerals and olivine and are undersaturated with SiO2. Most igneous rocks at the surface are leucite-tephrites, with subordinate phonolites, limburgites, and olivine-nephelinites (at the Limberg Mountain near Sasbach), the last of which is rich in xenoliths from the Earth’s mantle. Carbonatite ignimbrite and lapilli are local peculiarities; they can be found in places in the western part of the Kaiserstuhl (Henkenberg near Burkheim, Kirchberg near Oberrotweil).

 

The subvolcanic and intrusive rocks of the central Kaiserstuhl are plutonic equivalents of the erupted material (essexite, carbonatite and coarse-granular phonolite). Several local terms which do not carry official status with the International Union of Geological Sciences have been used for different varieties of the intrusive rocks. Of major scientific interest is the consolidated carbonatite near Altvogtsburg und Schelingen. It is a quite rare volcanic rock, which crystallized from a carbonate magmatic melt rather than a silicate one. Given its unusual composition for an igneous rock, the magmatic nature of the carbonatite was not proposed for a long time and remained doubtful subsequently. An alternative interpretation was that it was a metamorphically altered sedimentary rock, examples of which can be found nearby. Only in the 1950s and 1960s did research prove that it was a carbonatite; one of the clues was identification of the eruptive carbonatites found in the western part of the Kaiserstuhl. The carbonatite contains the niobium rich pyrochlore; attempts to mine the carbonatite rock for niobium were carried out in the middle of the 20th century, but the amount turned out to be too small to be economical.

 

Minerals

 

For a long time the Kaiserstuhl has been known for rare minerals. Examples include the quarries at the Limberg (zeolites), Badberg (carbonatites), Orberg and Fohberg. Well-crystallized minerals can be found predominantly in clefts or cavities in the volcanic rock.

 

Loess

 

The Kaiserstuhl is today largely covered by a Quaternary loess layer, a loosely cemented sediment. It is derived from other rocks through erosion and is then transported by the wind. The loess at the Kaiserstuhl – as in all the peripheral areas of the Upper Rhine Valley – was formed during the last Ice Age. Large parts were bare of vegetation and so loess was winnowed out from the Rhine sediments. It was then deposited in the periglacial area (i.e. ice-free, but surrounded by glaciers) at the Kaiserstuhl. The major process active here was frost weathering resulting in crushed rocks. The wind blew strongly, as there was no vegetation that could have moderated it – entraining the lightest material and depositing it at obstacles like the Kaiserstuhl. Deposition took place northeast of the Kaiserstuhl, as the winds blew from the southwest.

 

The higher the place of sedimentation, the thinner the layer of the sedimented material is. At the Kaiserstuhl the thickness of the loess layer varies between 10 and 40 metres. There are, however, also areas in the southwest where no loess has been deposited. The Northern Limestone Alps are considered the main source of the Kaiserstuhl loess. A rust-coloured band occurs at irregular intervals. It developed as a new material and did not arrive regularly but in phases of different intensities. In a phase of weak sedimentation the material on top weathered – and the calcium carbonate was washed out. It then precipitated further down and formed a particular type of soil horizon, which contains concretions of calcium carbonate.

 

The Kaiserstuhl loess soils are used for intensive farming, as they offer good aeration, high water storage capacities and good mechanical qualities. Besides, as a result of farming deep narrow ravine-like paths developed.

 

As the loess developed over time it is, furthermore, significant for flood control. Sponge-like, it absorbs and then gently releases rainfall. This quality is however lost when bulldozers, employed to construct large terraces for viticulture, compress the loess.

 

Climate

 

General

 

The Kaiserstuhl is one of the warmest regions in Germany. The winters are relatively mild for the area, and the summers are warm or even hot, with possible average temperatures of over 20 °C (68 °F) in July and August. Because of its loess covered volcanic soils it is a very good wine-producing region. The climatic situation of the Kaiserstuhl is outstanding in the area. It is rain-shadowed by the Vosges Mountains, under the climatic influence of the Belfort Gap and is characterized by a drier and hotter climate, which one would rather expect not to be typical of the area. Despite this, winters remain cold and dry, and summers wet, in comparison with Mediterranean climate (which instead has a rainfall peak during winter, which can see few frost days, and a dry season in summer).

 

Meteorological data

 

The average annual temperature is 9.9 °C (49.8 °F), with 50–60 days with a maximum temperature above 25 °C (77 °F) as well as 60–70 days with a minimum temperature below 0 °C (32 °F). This illustrates a special feature of the Kaiserstuhl: it is characterized by its relatively extreme climate. The average difference between the lowest and the highest average temperatures within one year is 18.5 °C (65.3 °F). The mean precipitation at the Kaiserstuhl is approximately 600–700 millimetres (24–28 in), with about 1,720 hours of sunshine per year.

 

Flora and fauna

 

The climate of the Kaiserstuhl also explains the vast richness of thermophile flora and fauna. The Kaiserstuhl is for example one of the places with the largest variety of orchids in Europe – more than 30 species have been recorded. Among the vines wild grape hyacinths sprawl and along acclivities iris plants blossom. Furthermore, sand lizards (lacerta bilineata) and praying mantis (Mantis religiosa) live here – species which mainly occur in the Mediterranean area. (However, according to the latest research results the sand lizard presumably belongs to the allochthonous species of the European green lizard (Lacerta viridis)). The pubescent oak (Quercus pubescens) is a Xerophyte and normally only occurs in Southern Europe, but is also able to survive at the Kaiserstuhl. This species has a disjunct distribution, which means away from its normal habitat. It is a relict of a postglacial warm period where there had been a much warmer climate around the Kaiserstuhl. After the end of the warm period only the named species were able to survive. Besides there is a larger population of the May beetle (Melolontha melolontha). In spite of protests from conservationists the May Beetle is controlled by the use of insecticides.

 

Changes in landscape

 

The terrain of the Kaiserstuhl has been altered by the people living there since it was settled. The loam there is strongly susceptible to erosion as a result of soil cultivation, thus terraces had to be added, which were then mostly used as vineyards, as well as fruit growing or for other agricultural uses. As a result, the typical small "patio" hillsides and the streaked loess sunken roads typical of the region came into being.

 

To start with, it was for this reason that smaller terraces were merged in around 1950, this resulted in large scale reallocation, which turned parts of the original landscape completely upside down.

 

The phases of this reallocation were:-

 

Small-scale realignment between 1950 and 1960. At the same time the terrain was generally modified by manual labour with the help of in-house machines. During this time approximately 950 hectares were enclosed by the farmland consolidation authority.

Between 1960 and 1970 the loess slopes were more comprehensively modified, whereby large rectangular terraced areas with corresponding high embankments were made. The terraces were arranged with mountain like slopes so that now only the multiple slope edges are visible from the valley. About 650 hectares of the surface were styled in this way.

The plans to create large-scale terraces made between 1970 and 1976 were executed with the help of heavy machinery, changing the landscape radically. Before the original, naturally formed, depressions had still been visible in the gentle hillsides with only small terraces. Natural and man-made structures existed side by side. However, these small-scale structures were then obliterated completely. Monstrous areas resembling fortresses and entirely incongruous to the region were created. The total wine-growing area of the terraces was 630 ha. As the embankments and other areas exceeded the size of the wine-growing areas, the changes affected more than twice the newly created arable area. The land reforms of Oberrotweil-Oberberg, Ihringen-Abtsweingarten, Eichstetten-Hättlinsberg and Endingen am Kaiserstuhl-Schambach are examples of this phase.

The last phase of wine-growing land reforms was realized between 1976 and 1982. Due, in part, to protests against plans for further large scale terraces the changes were not as radical as the previous phase: the maximum height for embankments was "limited" to 10 m and their shapes were "made smooth and adjusted to the landscape" (Mayer 1986, citation translated). This procedure was, for example, applied to about 330 ha of wine-growing area in Oberbergen-Baßgeige or in Bickensohl-Herrenstück.

 

From 1977 on, several longer periods of enhanced precipitation caused damage to the embankments. During one week in May 1983 for example, the amount of precipitation was so large that in some areas it was equivalent to one third of the annual average, causing great damage in the modified areas.

 

The surfaces of the acclivities often slid off together with the vegetation. Former valleys, which had been blocked due to re-allocation, were flushed out. In some terraces dramatic shear failures developed. In addition extensive, devastating frost damage occurred; due to the incline of the mountainside at the surfaces of the acclivities, cold air pockets were formed in which the vines in bloom were frostbitten. Additionally substantial frost damage occurred in the woody part of the vines, especially in the vineyards which were situated in lower regions. In earlier times fruit had mostly been grown here but later this was changed to vineyards.

 

The activity of the farmland consolidation authority was narrowed to repairing and partly to rescheduling which at least was meant to correct the most severe consequences of the transformations from 1982 on.

 

Hiking

 

There are many opportunities for hiking in the Kaiserstuhl. The best known trail is the North-South Trail (check mark: blue rhomb on yellow background) from Endingen across the Katharinenberg and the Totenkopf and the Neunlinden viewing point to Ihringen. From the trail there are panoramic views over the Black Forest, the Upper Rhine Valley and the Vosges.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Der Kaiserstuhl ist ein bis 556,8 m ü. NHN hohes, kleines Mittelgebirge vulkanischen Ursprungs in der Oberrheinischen Tiefebene. Es erhebt sich im Südwesten von Baden-Württemberg (Deutschland), in den Landkreisen Emmendingen und Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald.

 

Namensdeutung

 

Seinen Namen hat der Kaiserstuhl vermutlich von König Otto III., der bei Sasbach am 22. Dezember 994 einen Gerichtstag abhielt. Nach diesem Gerichtstag wurde das ganze Gebirge als „Königsstuhl“ bezeichnet. Nachdem Otto III. im Mai 996 zum Kaiser gekrönt worden war, wurde aus dem „Königsstuhl“ der „Kaiserstuhl“. Nachweislich belegt ist die Bezeichnung „Kaiserstuhl“ erst seit 1304. Historiker vermuten, dass der Begriff „Kaiserstuhl“ nicht vor dem 13. Jahrhundert entstand.

 

Geographie

 

Lage

 

Naturräumlich wird der Kaiserstuhl zum Oberrheinischen Tiefland gezählt und stellt dort die Haupteinheit 203 dar. Er befindet sich in Südbaden zum Großteil im Landkreis Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald, der kleine Nordteil gehört zum Landkreis Emmendingen. Innerhalb der Oberrheinischen Tiefebene liegt er etwa 16 km nordwestlich der Großstadt Freiburg, direkt östlich des Rheins und etwas westlich der Dreisam. Er erhebt sich maximal 377,1 m über den Rhein unterhalb (179,5 m) des Stauwehrs bei Burkheim.

 

In seiner weitesten Ausdehnung vom Michaelsberg bei Riegel im Nordosten bis zum Fohrenberg bei Ihringen im Südwesten ist der Kaiserstuhl rund 15 km lang, seine größte Breite beträgt etwa 12,5 km.

 

Berge

 

Zu den Bergen, Erhebungen und deren Ausläufern des Kaiserstuhls gehören – sortiert nach Höhe in Meter (m) über Normalhöhennull[1]:

 

Totenkopf (556,8 m), 1,9 km östlich von Bickensohl; mit Fernmeldeturm Vogtsburg-Totenkopf und Aussichtsturm Neunlinden

Eichelspitze (521,3 m), 2,8 km nordwestlich von Bötzingen mit dem Eichelspitzturm

Katharinenberg (491,9 m), 1,3 km südsüdöstlich von Amoltern

Bisamberg (469,6 m), 1,2 km südlich von Amoltern

Staffelberg (447,6 m), 1,5 km nordnordwestlich von Schelingen

Badberg (432,7 m) (Naturschutzgebiet), 1,5 km östlich von Oberbergen

Holzeck (431,9 m), 1,7 km nordnordöstlich von Ihringen; mit Sendeturm

Hochbuck (375,2 m), 900 m südlich von Achkarren

Schlossberg (351,9 m), 500 m nordwestlich von Achkarren; mit Burgruine Höhingen

Böselsberg (340,1 m), 500 m nordwestlich von Wasenweiler

Hochberg, (288,7 m), 900 m nordöstlich von Jechtingen

Büchsenberg (283,7 m), 1,3 km westlich von Achkarren

 

Geologie

 

Die Entstehung des Kaiserstuhlvulkans im Tertiär stellt sowohl den Höhepunkt als auch den Schlusspunkt der vulkanischen Aktivität im Oberrheingraben dar. Diese begann schon in der Kreidezeit und zeigt sich in zahlreichen, heute tief erodierten Vulkanschloten. Der Kaiserstuhl ist der einzige größere Vulkan aus dieser Zeit im Bereich des Oberrheingrabens. Dieser trifft hier auf den Bonndorfer Graben, der über den Hegau zum Bodensee führt. Gegen Ende des Oligozäns drang Magma empor, erstarrte jedoch noch unter der Erdoberfläche. Erst im Miozän kam es zu einem Durchbruch und zu großflächigen Lavaströmen. Geologisch gesehen lässt sich der Kaiserstuhl in einen sedimentären und einen vulkanischen Teil gliedern. Aufgrund dieser Besonderheiten wurde der Kaiserstuhl als eines der bedeutendsten nationalen Geotope Deutschlands ausgezeichnet.

 

Sedimentärer Sockel

 

Die das östliche Drittel bildenden, nahezu horizontal lagernden Sedimentgesteine wurden lange vor der vulkanischen Aktivität zu Zeiten des Juras und Tertiärs gebildet. Wichtige aufgeschlossene stratigraphische Einheiten sind der Hauptrogenstein (hauptsächlich in Riegel) und die Pechelbronner Schichten (in der Gegend von Bötzingen). Dieser Teil des Kaiserstuhls wurde während der Entstehung des Oberrheingrabens weniger stark als seine Umgebung abgesenkt und stellt einen sogenannten Horst dar. Er entspricht im Aufbau und der Schichtenfolge äquivalenten Strukturen im näheren Umkreis, wie dem Tuniberg und Nimberg westlich sowie dem Schönberg südlich von Freiburg im Breisgau.

 

Vulkanismus

 

Petrologisch handelt es sich beim vulkanischen Kaiserstuhl um einen Alkaligesteins-Karbonatit-Komplex. Die den Großteil des zentralen und westlichen Kaiserstuhls aufbauenden vulkanischen Gesteine wurden vor rund 19 bis 16 Millionen Jahren im Miozän durch zahlreiche Vulkanausbrüche gebildet. Sie überlagern teilweise den sedimentären Sockel des östlichen Kaiserstuhls, wodurch dieser stellenweise kontaktmetamorph, das heißt durch Einwirkung hoher Temperatur, verändert wurde. Durch abwechselnde Eruption von Tephra und Lavaströmen aus mehreren Schloten bildete sich ein komplexer Schicht- oder Stratovulkan. Emporquellendes Magma erstarrte teilweise als subvulkanische Intrusion im Vulkangebäude und baut heute den Zentralkaiserstuhl auf. Lateral aufsteigende phonolithische Schmelzen drangen auch in den sedimentären Sockel des östlichen Kaiserstuhls. Bis heute wurden durch Erosion mehrere 100 m des ursprünglichen Vulkans abgetragen.

 

Vulkanische Gesteine

 

Der gesamte vulkanische Kaiserstuhl besteht aus Foid- und/oder Olivin-führenden, SiO2-untersättigten Gesteinen. Bei den Eruptivgesteinen handelt es sich zum größten Teil um Leucit-Tephrit, untergeordnet auch Phonolith, Limburgit und Olivin-Nephelinit (am Limberg bei Sasbach). Letzterer ist sehr reich an Xenolithen aus dem Erdmantel. Als Besonderheit bei den Eruptivgesteinen sind karbonatitische Ignimbrite und Lapilli zu nennen, die im Westkaiserstuhl an einigen Stellen (Henkenberg bei Burkheim, Kirchberg bei Oberrotweil) aufgeschlossen sind.

 

Bei den subvulkanischen Intrusionen und Ganggesteinen des zentralen Kaiserstuhls handelt es sich um die Tiefengesteinsäquivalente der Ausbruchsprodukte (Essexit, Karbonatit und grobkörnigerer Phonolith). Für verschiedene Varietäten der Ganggesteine existieren in der Literatur eine Fülle weiterer Bezeichnungen (Alvikit, Hauynophyr, Mondhaldeit, Tinguait, Monchiquit und viele andere), die aber teilweise keine allgemein anerkannten Gesteinsnamen sind. Von großem wissenschaftlichen Interesse ist der bei Altvogtsburg und Schelingen anstehende Karbonatit. Dabei handelt es sich um ein recht seltenes vulkanisches Gestein, das nicht aus einer silikatischen, sondern aus einer karbonatischen Schmelze auskristallisierte. Aufgrund dieses ungewöhnlichen Umstandes wurde die magmatische Natur des Karbonatits lange Zeit nicht erkannt oder in Zweifel gezogen. Alternative Interpretationen gingen von kontaktmetamorph veränderten Sedimentgesteinen aus, die bekanntermaßen in unmittelbarer Nähe zu finden sind. Erst in den 1950er- und 1960er-Jahren gelang es, das Gestein gesichert als Karbonatit zu identifizieren, unter anderem durch das Auffinden der eruptiven Karbonatite im westlichen Kaiserstuhl. Wegen des in ihm auftretenden Niob-Minerals Koppit wurde der Karbonatit in der Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts versuchsweise bergmännisch abgebaut. Allerdings erwiesen sich die Gehalte als zu gering für eine Nutzung in größerem Umfang.

 

Minerale

 

Seit langer Zeit ist der Kaiserstuhl als Fundstelle für zum Teil seltene Minerale bekannt. Besondere Fundstellen sind die Steinbrüche im Limburgit des Limbergs (verschiedene Zeolithe), im Karbonatit am Badberg und Orberg (Koppit) und im Phonolith des Fohbergs und des Kirchbergs (Zeolithe, Wollastonit, Melanit). Überwiegend treten diese als Kluftminerale oder Blasenfüllungen (Mandelstein) auf.

 

Lössbedeckung

 

Der Kaiserstuhl ist heute weitgehend von einer quartären Lössschicht bedeckt. Löss ist ein Lockersediment, welches durch Erosion anderer Gesteine entsteht und durch äolischen Transport an seinen Ablagerungsort befördert wird. Der Löss entstand – wie im gesamten Randbereich der Oberrheinebene – während der letzten weitgehend vegetationsfreien Eiszeit durch Auswehung aus dem Rheinschlamm. Die Ablagerung fand im periglazialen (eisfreien, jedoch von Gletschereis umgebenen) Gebiet um den Kaiserstuhl statt. Der Hauptprozess, der in dieser Region stattfindet, ist Frostsprengung von Gestein. Da keine Vegetation vorhanden ist, die den Wind bremsen könnte, weht dieser beständig stark. Er nimmt das leichteste Material mit und lagert es an Hindernissen, beispielsweise dem Kaiserstuhl, wieder ab. Hierbei ist zu beachten, dass die Ablagerung im Lee stattfindet, im Falle des Kaiserstuhls – wo der Wind aus Südwesten wehte – also im Nordosten. Je höher der Sedimentationsort liegt, desto dünner ist die Schicht tatsächlich abgelagerten Materials. Am Kaiserstuhl liegt die Mächtigkeit der Lössschicht zwischen 10 und 40 Metern, es gibt jedoch auch Orte im Südwesten, an denen kein Löss sedimentiert wurde. Der Herkunftsort des Lösses am Kaiserstuhl lag hauptsächlich in den nördlichen Kalkalpen. Auffällig im anstehenden Löss ist ein sich in unregelmäßigen Abständen wiederholender, rostfarbener Streifen. Dieser entsteht durch die phasenweise Anlieferung neuen Materials. Während einer schwachen Sedimentationsphase verwittert das obenauf liegende Material, wobei der Kalk ausgewaschen wird. Hierbei bildet sich Lösslehm. Der ausgewaschene Kalkanteil fällt weiter unten im Bodenprofil wieder aus und bildet den sogenannten Lösskindelhorizont. Zu jedem Ausfällungshorizont gehört deshalb ein Anreicherungshorizont.

 

Die Lössböden des Kaiserstuhls werden agrarisch intensiv genutzt, da sie eine gute Belüftung bieten und eine hohe Wasserspeicherfähigkeit sowie mechanisch gute Eigenschaften besitzen. Außerdem sind im Zuge der landwirtschaftlichen Nutzung die sogenannten Lösshohlwege entstanden.

 

Der gewachsene Löss ist zudem für den Hochwasserschutz von Bedeutung, da er starke Niederschläge wie ein Schwamm aufnimmt und dann gleichmäßig wieder abgibt. Durch die Anlage von Großterrassen für den Weinbau am Kaiserstuhl wird der Löss jedoch mit Planierraupen verdichtet und verliert diese Eigenschaft.

 

Klima

 

Allgemeines

 

Klimatisch zählt der Kaiserstuhl zur temperaten (gemäßigten) Klimazone. Durch die in der Oberrheinebene vorherrschende Wärmebegünstigung gehört er jedoch zu den wärmsten Orten Deutschlands mit für Mitteleuropa vergleichsweise milden Wintern und warmen Sommern, die teilweise sogar Durchschnittstemperaturen von über 20 Grad in den Monaten Juli und August aufweisen können. Durch seine mit Löss bedeckten vulkanischen Böden ist er ein sehr gutes Weinanbaugebiet. Die klimatischen Voraussetzungen des Kaiserstuhls heben sich von seiner Umgebung deutlich ab. Er liegt im Regenschatten der Vogesen, im Einfluss der Burgundischen Pforte, und hat somit ein eher trockenes Klima.

 

Meteorologische Daten

 

Die Jahresmitteltemperatur beträgt 9,9 °C, wobei sowohl 50 bis 60 Sommertage als auch 60 bis 70 Frosttage zu verzeichnen sind. Dies spiegelt schon ein besonderes Merkmal des Kaiserstuhls wider, denn er zeichnet sich durch recht extreme Klimaverhältnisse aus, was sich besonders in der durchschnittlichen jährlichen Temperaturschwankung von 18,5 °C ausdrückt. Der mittlere Niederschlag auf dem Kaiserstuhl beträgt etwa 600 bis 700 mm, bei jährlich rund 1.720 Stunden Sonnenschein.

 

Flora und Fauna

 

Das Klima des Kaiserstuhls erklärt auch die große Fülle an wärmeliebender Flora und Fauna. Beispielsweise ist der Kaiserstuhl einer der Orte mit der größten Orchideenvielfalt in Europa – mehr als 30 Arten wurden registriert. Zwischen den Rebstöcken wuchern wilde Traubenhyazinthen, und an Böschungen blühen Schwertlilien. Außerdem leben hier Bienenfresser, Smaragdeidechsen und Gottesanbeterinnen (Mantis religiosa) – Arten, die ihren Verbreitungsschwerpunkt im mediterranen Bereich haben (nach neuen genetischen Studien handelt es sich bei der Smaragdeidechse allerdings um eine wahrscheinlich allochthone Population der Östlichen Smaragdeidechse). Die Flaumeiche ist ein Xerophyt und kommt sonst vor allem in Südeuropa vor, am Kaiserstuhl kann sie sich jedoch vor allem im Flaumeichenwald am Büchsenberg als Niederwald halten. Diese Arten leben in einem disjunkten Areal, also von ihrem normalen Verbreitungsgebiet abgetrennt. Dies ist ein Relikt einer postglazialen Warmzeit, zu der auch im Gebiet um den Kaiserstuhl ein deutlich wärmeres Klima herrschte. Nach Ende der Warmzeit konnten die genannten Arten nur noch am Kaiserstuhl überleben. Außerdem gibt es am Kaiserstuhl größere Populationen des Maikäfers. Die Art wurde in der Vergangenheit trotz Kritik von Umweltschützern mit Insektiziden bekämpft, so etwa im Jahr 2009. Die Aktion wurde damit begründet, dass der Maikäfer ansonsten existenzbedrohende Schäden in der umliegenden Landwirtschaft auslösen könnte.

 

Landschaftsveränderung

 

Die Oberfläche des Kaiserstuhls wurde vom wirtschaftenden Menschen seit dessen Besiedlung verändert. Da Löss infolge der Bodenbearbeitung stark erosionsanfällig ist, mussten Terrassen geschaffen werden, die meist als Rebflächen, teilweise auch für Obst- oder zum Ackerbau genutzt wurden. Dadurch entstanden schon früh die typischen kleinterrassierten Hänge, die zudem von den ebenfalls durch die „Nutzung“ entstandenen Lösshohlwegen durchzogen wurden.

 

Im Sinne der Flurbereinigung wurde um 1950 damit begonnen, zunächst kleinere Terrassen zusammenzulegen; dies endete in Großumlegungen, welche die ursprüngliche Landschaft in Teilbereichen völlig umgestalteten. Diese Umgestaltung begann zwischen 1950 und 1960 mit kleinräumigen Neuordnungen. Dabei wurde das Gelände meist in Handarbeit bzw. mit Hilfe betriebseigener Maschinen umgestaltet. In dieser Zeit wurden rund 950 ha von den Flurbereinigungsbehörden flurbereinigt.

 

Zwischen 1960 und 1970 wurden die Lösshänge umfassender umgestaltet, wobei große, tiefe und möglichst rechteckige Terrassenflächen mit entsprechend hohen Böschungen entstanden. Die Terrassen wurden mit bergseitiger Neigung angelegt, so dass jetzt vom Tal aus vielfach nur noch die Kanten sichtbar sind. Auf diese Art entstanden rund 650 ha Rebfläche.

 

Mit umfassendem Maschineneinsatz wurden die Großterrassenplanungen der Jahre 1970 bis 1976 umgesetzt, die das Landschaftsbild deutlich veränderten. Vor diesen Maßnahmen zeichneten sich in den sanften Hängen, deren Oberflächen von den kleinen Terrassen überprägt waren, noch die ursprünglich natürlich entstandenen Senken ab. Statt diesem Nebeneinander von natürlichen und vom Menschen geschaffenen Strukturen nehmen die Kritiker nun festungsartige und landschaftsfremde Oberflächen wahr, die eine Gesamtgröße von ca. 630 ha Rebfläche bieten. Da die Böschungen und sonstigen Flächen größer waren als die Rebflächen, erstreckte sich die Landschaftsveränderung jeweils auf mehr als das Doppelte der neu geschaffenen nutzbaren Fläche. Beispiele für diese Phase sind die Flurbereinigungen Oberrotweil-Oberberg, Ihringen-Abtsweingarten, Eichstetten-Hättlinsberg und Endingen am Kaiserstuhl-Schambach. Inzwischen war der Großteil der Lösshohlwege durch die Flurbereinigung verschwunden, die zuvor ökologische Nischen speziell für Wildbienen und Vögel gewesen waren.

 

Die letzte Phase der Rebflurbereinigung erstreckte sich auf die Zeit zwischen 1976 und 1982, in der unter anderem wegen der Proteste gegen die Großterrassenplanungen gemäßigt vorgegangen wurde: Die Böschungshöhen wurden auf maximal 10 m „beschränkt“, der Böschungsverlauf wurde „geschwungen angelegt und der Landschaft angepasst“. Mit diesen Verfahren wurden zum Beispiel in Oberbergen-Baßgeige oder in Bickensohl-Herrenstück rund 330 ha Rebfläche bearbeitet.

 

Nachdem ab 1977 durch länger anhaltende niederschlagsreiche Perioden Böschungsschäden entstanden waren, fielen in der Pfingstwoche des Jahres 1983 Niederschlagsmengen, die teilweise ein Drittel des Jahresmittels ausmachten. Diese führten in den umgelegten Gebieten zu Schäden: Die Böschungsoberflächen rutschten vielfach mitsamt der Vegetation ab, ehemalige, durch die Umlegungen verschüttete Talzüge wurden ausgeschwemmt, in einzelnen Terrassen entstanden tiefgreifende Grundbrüche. Überdies kam es in den Folgejahren zu Frostschäden. Durch die bergseitige Neigung der Terrassenoberflächen konnten sich Kaltluftseen bilden, in denen die Reben vor allem in der Blüte erfroren.[6] Außerdem entstanden, vor allem in den niedriger gelegenen Rebflächen, in denen zuvor meist Obst angebaut worden war, erhebliche Frostschäden am Holz der Rebbestände.

 

Die Tätigkeit der Flurbereinigungsbehörden beschränkte sich in der Zeit nach 1982 auf Reparaturarbeiten und partielle Umplanungen, die zumindest die schwersten Folgen der Umgestaltungen korrigieren sollten. Inzwischen hatte man auch begonnen, die verbliebenen Lösshohlwege als Naturdenkmale auszuweisen und sie zu schützen.

 

Seit 2021 wird auf einer Fläche von etwa einem Hektar Echter Lavendel und Lavandin angebaut. Dank der Wärme und der kalkreichen Böden gedeiht er gut. Zwei der vier Felder liegen in Bischoffingen, wo es auch einen Hofladen gibt und je eines in Königschaffhausen und Burkheim. Auf letzterem wachsen neun verschiedene Sorten.

 

Wandern

 

Der bekannteste und „klassische“ Wanderweg ist der Neunlindenpfad (Nord-Süd-Weg); er ist einer von acht Themenpfaden und führt von Endingen über den Katharinenberg und den Totenkopf mit Aussichtsturm Neunlinden nach Ihringen. Von den Wegen bieten sich vielerorts Ausblicke auf den Schwarzwald, die Rheinebene und die Vogesen. Auch der Querweg Schwarzwald–Kaiserstuhl–Rhein führt über den Kaiserstuhl.

 

Als Wissenschaftlicher Lehrpfad wurde 1977 der Limberg-Weg angelegt. Er umfasst 90 Stationen zu den Themen Geologie und Mineralogie, Geschichte, Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege, Forstwirtschaft, Wein- und Obstbau, Rheinbau und Wasserwirtschaft, sowie Landeskunde.

 

Die acht Themenpfade wurden 2007 mit einer Gesamtlänge von 140 km eröffnet und in das bestehende Wanderwegenetz des Schwarzwaldvereins (Markierung: gelber Rhombus auf weißem Hintergrund) integriert. Dabei wurde das Wanderwegenetz mit 430 neuen Wegweisern ausgeschildert. Große Tafeln mit einer Übersichtskarte und mit Standortinformationen sind an zentralen Punkten wie zum Beispiel an Bahnhöfen in den von den Themenpfaden verbundenen oder durchlaufenden Ortschaften aufgestellt. Jeder Themenpfad ist durch eine eigene Farbe und ein dem Namen entsprechendes Symbol auf den Eingangsportalen und den Wegweisern optisch gekennzeichnet. Weitere 120 kleinere Thementafeln erläutern entlang der Wanderwege lokale Besonderheiten. Örtliche Pfade, wie zum Beispiel der Brunnenpfad (7 km) in Bötzingen, wurden in das neue Netz der Themenpfade integriert.

 

Die acht Themenpfade wurden 2010 durch den Kaiserstuhlpfad ergänzt, der als Prädikatswanderweg das Gütesiegel „Qualitätsweg Wanderbares Deutschland“ erhielt. Der 21,7 km lange Kaiserstuhlpfad orientiert sich mit einigen Erweiterungen am Neunlindenpfad (Nord-Süd-Weg) und führt von Endingen durch das Erletal hoch zur Katharinenkapelle, entlang der Naturschutzgebiete Badberg und Haselschacher Buck zum Eichelspitzturm, weiter über den Vogelsang-Pass zum Neunlindenturm, durch den Lößhohlweg Eichgasse nach Bickensohl und über den Kreuzenbuck durch die Lenzengasse nach Ihringen.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Die Eichelspitze ist ein 521,3 m ü. NHN hoher Berg. Er bildet nach dem Totenkopf (556,8 m ü. NHN) die zweithöchste Erhebung des Kaiserstuhls in Baden-Württemberg. Ihr Gipfel liegt am Ostrand dieses Mittelgebirges, nahe dem Treffpunkt der Gemarkungsgrenzen von Eichstetten, Bötzingen und Vogtsburg.

 

Bruderhäusle und St. Erhardskapelle

 

Auf dem Gipfel der Eichelspitze hat sich eine spätmittelalterliche, aus Küche und Schlafraum bestehende Eremiten-Einsiedlei mit angrenzender St. Erhards-Kapelle nachweisen lassen. Nach ersten Lesefunden von Hobbyarchäologen fanden die Reste der Gebäude besondere Beachtung, als im Zuge der Errichtung eines provisorischen Aussichtsturmes weitere Funde aus dem 14. bis 16. Jahrhundert zu Tage kamen. Bei der gezielten Grabung vor der Errichtung des heutigen Eichelspitzturmes (Eröffnung im Juli 2006) kamen unter anderem zahlreiche Ofenkacheln, Bruchstücke von Geschirrkeramik, Maultrommeln und eine Ringfibel aus Bronze hinzu, die einen guten Einblick in das alltägliche Leben der vor Ort lebenden Eremiten bieten.

 

Der Gebäudekomplex war Teil des in Sichtweite, 2,1 km (Luftlinie) entfernt gelegenen St. Petersklosters auf dem Neunlinden-Buck (555 m ü. NHN; Totenkopf-Nebengipfel), das Hesso von Baden-Hachberg einigen Pauliner-Ordensbrüdern 1387 übertrug. Die St. Erhards-Kapelle wird unter anderem 1491 in einem Urbar der Eichstetter Pfarrei erwähnt, das die Einnahmen der kleinen Kirche thematisiert.

 

Da Eichstetten zur Herrschaft Hachberg gehörte und sich somit schon früh der Reformation anschloss, wurde die Einsiedelei wahrscheinlich in dieser Zeit aufgegeben. Schichten von Ofenbauteilen und Baumaterial lassen auf einen Abbruch des Gebäudes schließen. Von dem einst von einem Graben umgebenen Gebäudekomplex von ungefähr 16 auf 9 Meter (mittels Georadar nachgewiesen) ist heute noch ein Mauerrest von 4 m Breite und 2,5 m Höhe zu sehen. Die bauliche Struktur des Bruderhäusles ist seit der Eröffnung des Fundortes als Bodendenkmal durch eine Lage oberirdischer Granitblöcke nachgebildet.

 

Eichelspitzturm

 

Seit Juli 2006 steht auf der Eichelspitze der insgesamt 42,5 Meter hohe Eichelspitzturm, der in einer Gemeinschaftsaktion der Gemeinden Eichstetten, Bötzingen, Bahlingen und Vogtsburg sowie des Fördervereins Eichelspitztum e. V., des Landes Baden-Württemberg und dem Mobilfunkanbieter O2 realisiert wurde. Die Höhe der Besucherplattform beträgt 28 Meter, von dort bietet sich ein guter Rundumblick auf Kaiserstuhl, Schwarzwald und Vogesen.

 

Besichtigung der Eichelspitze

 

Die Eichelspitze ist nicht mit dem Auto befahrbar, kann aber über einen als Rundweg konzipierten Geopfad erreicht werden, der im Samengarten der Stiftung Kaiserstühler Garten in Eichstetten startet. Der gut neun Kilometer lange Weg führt in etwa 1,5 Stunden über den alten Eichstetter Steinbruch zum Gipfel. Vom Parkplatz Fohrenbuck (Eichstetten) ist es etwa ein Kilometer Fußmarsch auf die Anhöhe, die Eichelspitze ist auch gut vom Vogelsang-Pass (277 m ü. NHN) zwischen Bötzingen und Vogtsburg zu erreichen.

 

(Wikipedia)

An attempt to convey the full extent of the amazing roof structure at the Picture Gallery in Kilkenny Castle. This was built in the early 18th century by the architect William Robertson with a flat roof. What a shame! But the roof started to have problems so in 1860 another architectural firm, Dean and Woodward, thankfully created this masterpiece.

All trains were double headed and can be seen at davebowles.smugmug.com/Recent-events-and-uploads/2223rd-M...

Those mountains may be well called ("The Glory of Granada"). They dominate the whole extent of Andalusia, and may be seen from its most distant parts. The muleteer hails them, as he views their frosty peaks from the sultry level of the plain; and the Spanish mariner on the deck of his bark, far, far off on the bosom of the blue Mediterranean, watches them with a pensive eye, thinks of delightful Granada, and chants, in low voice, some old romance about the Moors.

 

Esas montañas bien pueden llamarse "La Gloria de Granada"). Dominan toda la extensión de Andalucía, y se pueden ver desde sus partes más distantes. El arriero los saluda, al ver sus picos helados desde el nivel sensual de la llanura; y el marinero español en la cubierta de su corteza, muy, muy lejos en el seno del azul Mediterráneo, los mira con ojos pensativos, piensa en la deliciosa Granada y canta, en voz baja, algún viejo romance sobre los moros.

  

La Alhambra

 

The Alhambra Location:

Located northeast of the center, east of the Albaicín, and southeast of Sacromonte is the riveting La Alhambra complex. Setting out from Plaza Nueva, get up to La Alhambra via a hike up the Cuesta de Gomérez.

 

In a nutshell:

Emblem of Granada, pinnacle of Islamic splendor, epitome of romance and mystery... La Alhambra is all of this and more. Walking through the rooms and courtyards of La Alhambra is like being transported back in time to the centuries of Islamic grandeur, so lose yourself amongst the tranquil fountains, the lavish rooms, and the paradisaical gardens for an experience you won't soon forget!

 

La Alhambra

 

La ubicación de Alhambra:

Situado al noreste del centro, al este del Albaicín, y al sureste del Sacromonte, se encuentra el fascinante complejo de La Alhambra. Partiendo de Plaza Nueva, suba a La Alhambra por una caminata hasta la Cuesta de Gomérez.

 

En una palabra:

Emblema de Granada, pináculo del esplendor islámico, epítome del romance y el misterio ... La Alhambra es todo esto y más. Pasear por las habitaciones y los patios de La Alhambra es como transportarse en el tiempo a los siglos de grandeza islámica, así que perderte entre las fuentes tranquilas, las lujosas habitaciones y los jardines paradisíacos para una experiencia que no olvidarás.

   

The folly called White Nancy at the northern extent of the Saddle of Kerridge dominating the skyline above the small mill town of Bollington, Cheshire.

White Nancy was built in 1817 by John Gaskell junior of North End Farm to commemorate the victory at the Battle of Waterloo. It originally had a door into a room lined with stone benches and a circular table, but was sealed up to stop vandalism.

Normally painted white but occasionally other colours are used. In the 80's it was often painted at Christmas to resemble a Christmas pudding or Father Christmas.

The Emar Mutt complex was demolished August 2019 completely.

 

++++ FROM WIKIPEDIA ++++

Raghunandana Library is located in the Emara Math-a complex (opposite Simhadwara or lion gate, the main entrance gate). The Jagannatha Aitihasika Gavesana Samiti (Jagannatha Historical Centre) is also located here. The library houses ancient palm leaf manuscripts on Jagannatha, His cult and the history of the city.

 

Puri (Odia: [ˈpuɾi (ପୁରୀ)] is a coastal city and a municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, 60 kilometres (37 mi) south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as Sri Jagannatha Dhama after the 12th-century Jagannath Temple located in the city. It is one of the original Char Dham pilgrimage sites for Hindus.

 

Puri is known by several names since the ancient times, and was locally known as "Sri Kshetra" and the Jagannath temple is known as "Badadeula". Puri and the Jagannath Temple were invaded 18 times by Muslim rulers, from the 7th century AD till the early 19th century with the objective of looting the treasures of the temple. Odisha, including Puri and its temple, were part of British India from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947. Even though princely states do not exist in India today, the heirs of the House of Gajapati still perform the ritual duties of the temple. The temple town has many Hindu religious mathas or monasteries.

 

The economy of Puri is dependent on the religious importance of the Jagannath Temple to the extent of nearly 80 percent. The 24 festivals, including 13 major ones, held every year in the temple complex contribute to the economy; Ratha Yatra and its related festivals are the most important which are attended by millions of people every year. Sand art and applique art are some of the important crafts of the city.

 

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) scheme of Government of India.

 

History

 

Names in history

Puri, the holy land of Jagannatha, also known by the popular vernacular name Srikshetram, has many ancient names in the Hindu scriptures such as the Rigveda, Matsya purana, Brahma Purana, Narada Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Kapila Purana and Niladrimahodaya. In the Rigveda, in particular, it is mentioned as a place called Purushamandama-grama meaning the place where the Creator deity of the world – Supreme Divinity deified on an altar or mandapa was venerated near the coast and prayers offered with Vedic hymns. Over time the name got changed to Purushottama Puri and further shortened to Puri, and the Purusha came to be known as Jagannatha. Sages like Bhrigu, Atri and Markandeya had their hermitage close to this place. Its name is mentioned, conforming to the deity worshipped, as Srikshetra, Purusottama Dhāma, Purusottama Kshetra, Purusottama Puri and Jagannath Puri. Puri, however, is the popular usage. It is also known by the geographical features of its location as Shankhakshetra (the layout of the town is in the form of a conch shell),[4] Neelāchala ("Blue mountain" a terminology used to name a very large sand lagoon over which the temple was built but this name is not in vogue), Neelāchalakshetra, Neelādri.[5] In Sanskrit, the word "Puri" means town or city,and is cognate with polis in Greek.

 

Another ancient name is Charita as identified by General Alexander Cunningham of the Archaeological Survey of India, which was later spelled as Che-li-ta-lo by Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang. When the present temple was built by the Eastern Ganga king Anantavarman Chodaganga in the 11th and 12th centuries AD, it was called Purushottamkshetra. However, the Moghuls, the Marathas and early British rulers called it Purushottama-chhatar or just Chhatar. In Moghul ruler Akbar's Ain-i-Akbari and subsequent Muslim historical records it was known as Purushottama. In the Sanskrit drama Anargha Raghava Nataka as well, authored by Murari Mishra, a playwright, in the 8th century AD, it is referred to as Purushottama.[4] It was only after the 12th century AD that Puri came to be known by the shortened form of Jagannatha Puri, named after the deity or in a short form as Puri.[5] It is the only shrine in India, where Radha, along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga, Bhudevi, Sati, Parvati, and Shakti, abodes with Krishna, who is also known by the name Jagannatha.

 

Ancient period

 

King Indradyumna of Ujjayani credited with building the original Puri Jagannath temple in 318 AD

According to the chronicle Madala Panji, in 318 AD, the priests and servitors of the temple spirited away the idols to escape the wrath of the Rashtrakuta king Rakatavahu.[9] In the temple's historical records it finds mention in the Brahma Purana and Skanda Purana stating that the temple was built by the king Indradyumna, Ujjayani.

 

S. N. Sadasivan, a historian, in his book A Social History of India quotes William Joseph Wilkins, author of the book Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Purānic as stating that in Puri, Buddhism was once a well established practice but later Buddhists were persecuted and Brahmanism became the order of the religious practice in the town; the Buddha deity is now worshipped by the Hindus as Jagannatha. It is also said by Wilkinson that some relics of Buddha were placed inside the idol of Jagannatha which the Brahmins claimed were the bones of Lord Krishna. Even during Maurya king Ashoka's reign in 240 BC, Kalinga was a Buddhist center and that a tribe known as Lohabahu (barbarians from outside Odisha) converted to Buddhism and built a temple with an idol of Buddha which is now worshipped as Jagannatha. Wilkinson also says that the Lohabahu deposited some Buddha relics in the precincts of the temple.

 

Construction of the present Jagannath Temple started in 1136 AD and completed towards the latter part of the 12th century. The Eastern Ganga king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to Lord Jagannatha, then known as the Purushottama-Jagannatha, and resolved that from then on he and his descendants would rule under "divine order as Jagannatha's sons and vassals". Even though princely states do not exist in India today, the heirs of the Eastern Ganga dynasty of Puri still perform the ritual duties of the temple; the king formally sweeps the road in front of the chariots before the start of the Ratha Yatra. This ritual is called Cherra Pahanra.

 

Medieval and early modern periods

The history of Puri is on the same lines as that of the Jagannath Temple, which was invaded 18 times during its history to plunder the treasures of the temple, rather than for religious reasons. The first invasion occurred in the 8th century AD by Rastrakuta king Govinda III (798–814 AD), and the last took place in 1881 AD by the monotheistic followers of Alekh (Mahima Dharma) who did not recognise the worship of Jagannatha.[13] From 1205 AD onward there were many invasions of the city and its temple by Muslims of Afghan and Moghul descent, known as Yavanas or foreigners. In most of these invasions the idols were taken to safe places by the priests and the servitors of the temple. Destruction of the temple was prevented by timely resistance or surrender by the kings of the region. However, the treasures of the temple were repeatedly looted.[14] The table lists all the 18 invasions along with the status of the three images of the temple, the triad of Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra following each invasion.

  

In the 16th century, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Bengal established the Bhakti movements of India, now known by the name the Hare Krishna movement. He spent many years as a devotee of Jagannatha at Puri; he is said to have merged with the deity.[25] There is also a matha of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu here known as Radhakanta Math.

 

In the 17th century, for the sailors sailing on the east coast of India, the temple served as a landmark, being located in a plaza in the centre of the city, which they called the "White Pagoda" while the Konark Sun Temple, 60 kilometres (37 mi) away to the east of Puri, was known as the "Black Pagoda".

 

The iconic representation of the images in the Jagannath temple is believed to be the forms derived from the worship made by the tribal groups of Sabaras belonging to northern Odisha. These images are replaced at regular intervals as the wood deteriorates. This replacement is a special event carried out ritualistically by special group of carpenters.

 

Govardhana matha main gate

The city has many other Mathas as well. The Emar Matha was founded by the Tamil Vaishnava saint Ramanujacharya in the 12th century AD. This Matha, which is now located in front of Simhadvara across the eastern corner of the Jagannath Temple, is reported to have been built in the 16th century during the reign of kings of Suryavamsi Gajapatis. The Matha was in the news on 25 February 2011 for the large cache of 522 silver slabs unearthed from a closed chamber.

 

The British conquered Orissa in 1803, and, recognising the importance of the Jagannath Temple in the life of the people of the state, they initially appointed an official to look after the temple's affairs and later declared the temple as part of a district.

 

Modern history

 

H.H Jagadguru Swami Nischalananda Saraswati, The Shankaracharya of Puri

In 1906, Sri Yukteswar, an exponent of Kriya Yoga and a resident of Puri, established an ashram, a spiritual training center, named "Kararashram" in Puri. He died on 9 March 1936 and his body is buried in the garden of the ashram.

 

The city is the site of the former summer residence of British Raj, the Raj Bhavan, built in 1913–14 during the era of governors.[30]

 

For the people of Puri, Lord Jagannatha, visualized as Lord Krishna, is synonymous with their city. They believe that Lord Jagannatha looks after the welfare of the state. However, after the partial collapse of the Jagannath Temple (in the Amalaka part of the temple) on 14 June 1990, people became apprehensive and considered it a bad omen for Odisha. The replacement of the fallen stone by another of the same size and weight (7 tonnes (7.7 tons)), that could be done only in the early morning hours after the temple gates were opened, was done on 28 February 1991.[25]

 

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of the Indian Government. It is chosen as one of the 12 heritage cities with "focus on holistic development" to be implemented within 27 months by the end of March 2017.[31]

 

Non-Hindus are not permitted to enter the shrines but are allowed to view the temple and the proceedings from the roof of the Raghunandan library, located within the precincts of the temple, for a small donation.[32]

 

Geography and climate

 

Geography

 

The Atharanala Bridge dating back to the 16th century at the entrance of Puri

Puri, located on the east coast of India on the Bay of Bengal, is in the centre of the Puri district. It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, the Mauza Sipaurubilla on the west, Mauza Gopinathpur in the north and Mauza Balukhand in the east. It is within the 67 kilometres (42 mi) coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between Chilika Lake and the south of Puri city. However, the administrative jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of 16.3268 square kilometres (6.3038 sq mi) spread over 30 wards, which includes a shore line of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi).[33]

 

Puri is in the coastal delta of the Mahanadi River on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. In the ancient days it was near to Sisupalgarh (also known as "Ashokan Tosali"). Then the land was drained by a tributary of the Bhargavi River, a branch of the Mahanadi River. This branch underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the estuary, and formed many sand hills. These sand hills could be cut through by the streams. Because of the sand hills, the Bhargavi River, flowing to the south of Puri, moved away towards the Chilika Lake. This shift also resulted in the creation of two lagoons, known as Sar and Samang, on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively. Sar lagoon has a length of 5 miles (8.0 km) in an east–west direction and a width of 2 miles (3.2 km) in north–south direction. The estuary of the Bhargavi River has a shallow depth of just 5 feet (1.5 m) and the process of siltation continues. According to a 15th-century Odia writer Saraladasa, the bed of the unnamed stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or Neelachal was filled up. Katakarajavamsa, a 16th-century chronicle (c.1600), attributes filling up of the bed of the river which flowed through the present Grand Road, as done during the reign of King Narasimha II (1278–1308) of Eastern Ganga dynasty.

 

Climate

According to the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system the climate of Puri is classified as Aw (Tropical savanna climate). The city has moderate and tropical climate. Humidity is fairly high throughout the year. The temperature during summer touches a maximum of 36 °C (97 °F) and during winter it is 17 °C (63 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,337 millimetres (52.6 in) and the average annual temperature is 26.9 °C (80.4 °F).

 

Demographics

 

According to the 2011 Census of India, Puri is an urban agglomeration governed by the Municipal Corporation in Odisha state, with a population of 200,564, comprising 104,086 males, 96,478 females, and 18,471 children (under six years of age). The sex ratio is 927. The average literacy rate in the city is 88.03 percent (91.38 percent for males and 84.43 percent for females).

 

Administration

 

Samudra arati or worship of the sea at Swargadwar by disciples of the Govardhana matha

The Puri Municipality, Puri Konark Development Authority, Public Health Engineering Organisation and Orissa Water Supply Sewerage Board are some of the principal organisations that are devolved with the responsibility of providing for civic amenities such as water supply, sewerage, waste management, street lighting and infrastructure of roads. The major activity, which puts maximum pressure on these organisations, is the annual event of the Ratha Yatra held during June- July. According to the Puri Municipality more than a million people attend this event. Hence, development activities such as infrastructure and amenities to the pilgrims, apart from security, gets priority attention.

 

The civic administration of Puri is the responsibility of the Puri Municipality. The municipality came into existence in 1864 in the name of the Puri Improvement Trust, which was converted into Puri Municipality in 1881. After India's independence in 1947, the Orissa Municipal Act (1950) was promulgated entrusting the administration of the city to the Puri Municipality. This body is represented by elected representatives with a Chairperson and councilors representing the 30 wards within the municipal limits.

 

Economy

The economy of Puri is dependent on tourism to the extent of about 80 percent. The temple is the focal point of the city and provides employment to the people of the town. Agricultural production of rice, ghee, vegetables and so forth of the region meet the large requirements of the temple. Many settlements around the town exclusively cater to the other religious requirements of the temple. The temple administration employs 6,000 men to perform the rituals. The temple also provides economic sustenance to 20,000 people. According to Colleen Taylor Set an author on food and travel, writing on the food culture of India, the temple kitchen has 400 cooks serving food to as many as 100,000 people,. According to J Mohapatra, Director, Ind Barath Power Infra Ltd (IBPIL), the kitchen is known as "a largest and biggest kitchen of the world."

 

Landmarks

Jagannath Temple at Puri

 

The Jagannath Temple at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples built in the Kalinga style of architecture.The temple tower, with a spire, rises to a height of 58 metres (190 ft), and a flag is unfurled above it, fixed over a wheel (chakra).[

  

Left:Ritual chakra and flags at the top shikhara of Puri temple of Jagannatha also related to Sudarsana chakra. The red flag (12 hand or 14 feet (4.3 m) denotes that Jagannath is within the temple.

 

Right: Statue of Aruna the charioteer of the Sun God on top of the Aruna Stambha in front of the Singhadwara

The temple is built on an elevated platform (of about 420,000 square feet (39,000 m2) area),[46] 20 feet (6.1 m) above the adjacent area. The temple rises to a height of 214 feet (65 m) above the road level. The temple complex covers an area of 10.7 acres (4.3 ha).[39] There are four entry gates in four cardinal directions of the temple, each gate located at the central part of the walls. These gates are: the eastern gate called the Singhadwara (Lions Gate), the southern gate known as Ashwa Dwara (Horse Gate), the western gate called the Vyaghra Dwara (Tigers Gate) or the Khanja Gate, and the northern gate called the Hathi Dwara or (elephant gate). These four gates symbolize the four fundamental principles of Dharma (right conduct), Jnana (knowledge), Vairagya (renunciation) and Aishwarya (prosperity). The gates are crowned with pyramid shaped structures. There is a stone pillar in front of the Singhadwara, called the Aruna Stambha {Solar Pillar}, 11 metres (36 ft) in height with 16 faces, made of chlorite stone; at the top of the stamba an elegant statue of Aruṇa (Sun) in a prayer mode is mounted. This pillar was shifted from the Konarak Sun Temple.[47] The four gates are decorated with guardian statues in the form of lion, horse mounted men, tigers, and elephants in the name and order of the gates.[32] A pillar made of fossilized wood is used for placing lamps as offering. The Lion Gate (Singhadwara) is the main gate to the temple, which is guarded by two guardian deities Jaya and Vijaya.[46][47][48] The main gate is ascended through 22 steps known as Baisi Pahaca, which are revered, as it is believed to possess "spiritual animation". Children are made to roll down these steps, from top to bottom, to bring them spiritual happiness. After entering the temple, on the left side, there is a large kitchen where food is prepared in hygienic conditions in huge quantities; the kitchen is called as "the biggest hotel of the world".

  

The main entrance of the Jagannath Temple

According to a legend King Indradyumma was directed by Lord Jagannatha in a dream to build a temple for him which he did as directed. However, according to historical records the temple was started some time during the 12th century by King Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. It was completed by his descendant, Anangabhima Deva, in the 12th century. The wooden images of Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra were then deified here. The temple was under the control of the Hindu rulers up to 1558. Then, when Orissa was occupied by the Afghan Nawab of Bengal, it was brought under the control of the Afghan General Kalapahad. Following the defeat of the Afghan king by Raja Mansingh, the General of Mughal emperor Akbar, the temple became part of the Mughal empire till 1751. Subsequently, it was under the control of the Marathas till 1803. During the British Raj, the Puri Raja was entrusted with its management until 1947.

 

The triad of images in the temple are of Jagannatha, personifying Lord Krishna, Balabhadra, His older brother, and Subhadra, His younger sister. The images are made of neem wood in an unfinished form. The stumps of wood which form the images of the brothers have human arms, while that of Subhadra does not have any arms. The heads are large, painted and non-carved. The faces are marked with distinctive large circular eyes.[25]

 

The Pancha Tirtha of Puri

 

Markandeshwar Tank

Hindus consider it essential to bathe in the Pancha Tirtha or the five sacred bathing spots of Puri, to complete a pilgrimage to Puri. The five sacred water bodies are the Indradyumana Tank, the Rohini Kunda, the Markandeya Tank, the Swetaganga Tank, and the Bay of Bengal also called the Mahodadhi, in Sanskrit 'Mahodadhi' means a "great ocean";[49] all are considered sacred bathing spots in the Swargadwara area.[50][51][52] These tanks have perennial sources of supply from rainfall and ground water.[53]

 

Gundicha Temple

Main article: Gundicha Temple

 

Main entrance of the Gundicha Temple

The Gundicha Temple, known as the Garden House of Jagannatha, stands in the centre of a garden, bounded by compound walls on all sides. It lies at a distance of about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) to the northeast of the Jagannath Temple. The two temples are located at the two ends of the Bada Danda (Grand Avenue), which is the pathway for the Ratha Yatra. According to a legend, Gundicha was the wife of King Indradyumna who originally built the Jagannath temple.

 

The temple is built using light-grey sandstone, and, architecturally, it exemplifies typical Kalinga temple architecture in the Deula style. The complex comprises four components: vimana (tower structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), nata-mandapa (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings). There is also a kitchen connected by a small passage. The temple is set within a garden, and is known as "God's Summer Garden Retreat" or garden house of Jagannatha. The entire complex, including the garden, is surrounded by a wall which measures 430 by 320 feet (131 m × 98 m) with height of 20 feet (6.1 m).

 

Except for the 9-day Ratha Yatra, when the triad images are worshipped in the Gundicha Temple, otherwise it remains unoccupied for the rest of the year. Tourists can visit the temple after paying an entry fee. Foreigners (generally prohibited entry in the main temple) are allowed inside this temple during this period.[56] The temple is under the Jagannath Temple Administration, Puri, the governing body of the main temple. A small band of servitors maintain the temple.

 

Swargadwar

 

Sea at Swargadwar of Puri

Swargadwar is the name given to the cremation ground or burning ghat which is located on the shores of the sea. Here thousands of dead bodies of Hindus brought from faraway places are cremated. It is a belief that the Chaitanya Mahaparabhu disappeared from this Swargadwar about 500 years back.

 

Beach

 

Puri sea sunrise

 

Puri sea beach viewed from the light house

The beach at Puri, known as the "Ballighai beach, at the mouth of Nunai River", is 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) away from the town and is fringed by casurina trees.[10] It has golden yellow sand. Sunrise and sunset are pleasant scenic attractions here. Waves break in at the beach which is long and wide.

 

District museum

The Puri district museum is located on the station road where the exhibits in display are the different types of garments worn by Lord Jagannatha, local sculptures, patachitra (traditional, cloth-based scroll painting), ancient Palm-leaf manuscripts, and local craft work.

  

Festivals of Puri

The Grand Road near the Jagannath Temple

Puri witnesses 24 festivals every year, of which 13 are major. The most important of these is the Ratha Yatra, or the car festival, held in the June–July, which is attended by more than 1 million people.

 

Ratha Yatra at Puri

The Ratha Yatra in Puri in modern times showing the three chariots of the deities with the Temple in the background

The Jagannath Temple triad are normally worshipped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of Asadha (rainy season of Orissa, usually in June or July), they are brought out on the Bada Danda (main street of Puri) and taken over a distance of (3 kilometres (1.9 mi)) to the Gundicha Temple[61] in huge chariots (ratha), allowing the public to have darśana (holy view). This festival is known as the Ratha Yatra, meaning the journey (yatra) of the chariots.[62] The yatra starts every year according to the Hindu calendar on the Asadha Sukla Dwitiya day, the second day of bright fortnight of Asadha (June–July).[63]

 

Historically, the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Ratha Yatra on the completion of the Jagannath Temple around 1150 AD. This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early.[64] Friar Odoric, in his account of 1321, reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the King, the Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.[65][66]

 

The Rathas are huge wooden structures provided with large wheels, which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees. The chariot for Lord Jagannatha is about 45 feet (14 m) high and 35 square feet (3.3 m2) and takes about 2 months for its construction.[67] The chariot is mounted with 16 wheels, each of 7 feet (2.1 m) diameter. The carving in the front face of the chariot has four wooden horses drawn by Maruti. On its other three faces, the wooden carvings are of Rama, Surya and Vishnu. The chariot is known as Nandi Ghosha. The roof of the chariot is covered with yellow and red coloured cloth. The next chariot is of Balabhadra which is 44 feet (13 m) in height fitted with 14 wheels. The chariot is carved with Satyaki as the charioteer, roof covered in red and green coloured cloth, and the chariot is known as Taladhwaja. The carvings on this chariot include images of Narasimha and Rudra as Jagannatha's companions. The next chariot in the order is of Subhadra, which is 43 feet (13 m) in height supported on 12 wheels, roof covered in black and red colour cloth, and the chariot is known as Darpa Dalaan and the charioteer carved is Arjuna. Other images carved on the chariot are of Vana Durga, Tara Devi and Chandi Devi.[63][68] The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels, the wood-carved charioteer and horses, and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne.[62] The chariots of Jagannatha pulled during Ratha Yatra is the etymological origin of the English word Juggernaut.[69] The Ratha Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra and Ghosha yatra

  

Pahandi bije during Ratha Yatra at Puri

Chhera Panhara

The Chhera Panhara[70] (sweeping with water) is a significant ritual associated with the Ratha Yatra. During this ritual, the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots. The king cleans the road in front of the chariots with a gold-handled broom and sprinkles sandalwood water and powder. As per the custom, although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in the Kalingan kingdom, he still renders the menial service to Jagannatha. This ritual signifies that under the lordship of Jagannatha, there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign and the humblest devotee.[71]

 

Chandan Yatra

 

The Chandan Yatra festival held every year on Akshaya Tritiya day marks the commencement of the construction of the chariots of the Ratha Yatra. It also marks the celebration of the Hindu new year.

 

Snana Yatra

Every year, on the Purnima day in the Hindu calendar month of Jyestha (June), the triad images of the Jagannath Temple are ceremonially bathed and decorated on the occasion of Snana Yatra. Water for the bath is taken in 108 pots from the Suna kuan (meaning: "golden well") located near the northern gate of the temple. Water is drawn from this well only once in a year for the sole purpose of the religious bath of the deities. After the bath the triad images are dressed in the fashion of the elephant god, Ganesha. Later, during the night, the original triad images are taken out in a procession back to the main temple but kept at a place known as Anasara pindi.[63] After this the Jhulana Yatra is performed when proxy images of the deities are taken out in a grand procession for 21 days, cruised over boats in the Narendra Tirtha tank.[10]

 

Anavasara or Anasara

 

Anasara, a derivative of the Sanskrit word "Anabasara", literally means vacation. Every year after the holy Snana Yatra, the triad images, without the Sudarshana Chakra, are taken to a secret altar named Anavasara Ghar (also known as Anasara pindi, 'pindi' is Oriya term meaning "platform" [72]) where they remain for the next fortnight of (Krishna paksha); devotees are not allowed to view these images. Instead, devotees go to the nearby Brahmagiri to see the Lord in the four-handed form of Alarnath, a depiction of Vishnu.[63][73] Devotees then get the first glimpse of the Lord only on the day before Ratha Yatra, which is called Navayouvana. It is a local belief that the gods suffer from fever after taking an elaborate ritual bath, and they are treated by the special servants, the Daitapatis, for 15 days. Daitapatis perform special nitis (rites) known as Netrotchhaba (a rite of painting the eyes of the triad). During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.[74]

 

Naba Kalebara

Main articles: Nabakalevara and Nabakalebara 2015

Naba Kalebara is one of the most grand events associated with the Lord Jagannatha that takes place when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another of Ashadha called Adhika Masa (extra month). This can take place at an interval of 8, 12 or even 18 years. Literally meaning the "New Body" (Nava = New, Kalevar = Body) in Odia, the festival is witnessed by millions of people and the budget for this event generally exceeds $500,000. The event involves installation of new images in the temple and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha. During the Nabakalebara ceremony held during July 2015 the idols that were installed in the temple in 1996 were replaced by specially carved new images made of neem wood. More than 3 million people are reported to have attended this festival.[77]

 

Suna Besha

Main article: Suna Besha

 

Suna Besha or Golden Attire of Lord Jagannatha

Suna Besha, ('Suna besh'in English translates to "gold dressing"[78]) also known as Raja or Rajadhiraja Bhesha [79] or Raja Bhesha, is an event when the triad images of the Jagannath Temple are adorned with gold jewelry. This event is observed five times in a year. It is commonly observed on Magha Purnima (January), Bahuda Ekadashi also known as Asadha Ekadashi (July), Dashahara (Bijayadashami) (October), Karthik Purnima (November), and Pousa Purnima (December).[80][81] One such Suna Bhesha event is observed on Bahuda Ekadashi during the Ratha Yatra on the chariots placed at the Simhadwar. The other four Beshas are observed inside the temple on the Ratna Singhasana (gem studded altar). On this occasion gold plates are decorated over the hands and feet of Jagannatha and Balabhadra; Jagannatha is also adorned with a Chakra (disc) made of gold on the right hand while a silver conch adorns the left hand. Balabhadra is decorated with a plough made of gold on the left hand while a golden mace adorns his right hand.[80]

 

Niladri Bije

Niladri Bije, celebrated in the Hindu calendar month Asadha (June–July) on Trayodashi (13th day),[82] marks the end of the Ratha Yatra. The large wooden images of the triad of gods are taken out from the chariots and then carried to the sanctum sanctorum, swaying rhythmically; a ritual which is known as pahandi.

 

Sahi yatra

 

A scene from a play being enacted during the Sahi Yatra

The Sahi Yatra, considered the world's biggest open-air theatre,[83] is an annual event lasting 11 days; a traditional cultural theatre festival or folk drama which begins on Ram Navami and ends on Rama avishke (Sanskrit meaning : anointing). The festival includes plays depicting various scenes from the Ramayana. The residents of various localities, or Sahis, are entrusted the task of performing the drama at the street corners.[84]

 

Samudra Arati

 

Samudra arati of worship of the sea by disciples of the Matha at Puri

The Samudra arati is a daily tradition started by the present Shankaracharya 9 years ago.[85] The daily practise includes prayer and fire offering to the sea at Swargadwar in Puri by disciples of the Govardhan Matha. On Paush Purnima of every year the Shankaracharya himself comes out to offer prayers to the sea.

 

Transport

Earlier, when roads did not exist, people used to walk or travel by animal-drawn vehicles or carriages along beaten tracks to reach Puri. Travel was by riverine craft along the Ganges up to Calcutta, and then on foot or by carriages. It was only during the Maratha rule that the Jagannath Sadak (Road) was built around 1790. The East India Company laid the rail track from Calcutta to Puri, which became operational in 1898.[86] Puri is now well-connected by rail, road and air services. A broad gauge railway line of the South Eastern Railways which connects Puri with Calcutta, and Khurda is an important railway junction on this route. The rail distance is about 499 kilometres (310 mi) from Calcutta[87] and 468 kilometres (291 mi) from Vishakhapatnam. Road network includes NH 203 that links the city with Bhubaneswar, the state capital, situated about 60 kilometres (37 mi) away. NH 203 B connects the city with Satapada via Brahmagiri. Marine drive, which is part of NH 203 A, connects Puri with Konark. The nearest airport is the Biju Patnaik International Airport at Bhubaneswar.[60] Puri railway station is among the top hundred booking stations of the Indian Railways.[88]

 

Arts and crafts

 

Sand art

Sand art of a baby elephant

Sand art is a special art form that is created on the beaches of Puri. The art form is attributed to Balaram Das, a poet who lived in the 14th century. Sculptures of various gods and famous people are now created in sand by amateur artists. These are temporary in nature as they get washed away by waves. This art form has gained international fame in recent years. One of the famed sand artists of Odisha is Sudarshan Patnaik. He established the Golden Sand Art Institute in 1995, in the open air on the shores of Bay of Bengal, to provide training to students interested in this art form.[89][84]

 

Appliqué art

An applique art work

Appliqué art, which is a stitching-based craft unlike embroidery, was pioneered by Hatta Maharana of Pipili. It is widely used in Puri, both for decoration of the deities and for sale. Maharana's family members are employed as darjis or tailors or sebaks by the Maharaja of Puri. They prepare articles for decorating the deities in the temple for various festivals and religious ceremonies. The appliqué works are brightly coloured and patterned fabric in the form of canopies, umbrellas, drapery, carry bags, flags, coverings of dummy horses and cows, and other household textiles; these are marketed in Puri. The cloth used is made in dark colours of red, black, yellow, green, blue and turquoise blue.[90]

 

Patta Chaitra

Patta Chittra is the one of the oldest forms of art which has its roots to thousands of years ago. It has stayed vibrant amidst changes in cultures and still remains one of the unique art forms of India especially Odisa which originated in Puri.

 

Culture

 

Odissi dancer

Cultural activities, including the annual religious festivals, in Puri are: The Puri Beach Festival held from 5 to 9 November every year, and the Shreekshetra Utsav held from 20 December to 2 January every year. The cultural programmes include unique sand art, display of local and traditional handicrafts and food festival.[91] In addition, cultural programmes are held for two hours on every second Saturday of the month at the district Collector's Conference Hall near Sea Beach Police Station. Odissi dance, Odissi music and folk dances are part of this event.[91] Odissi dance is the cultural heritage of Puri. This dance form originated in Puri from the dances performed by Devadasis (Maharis) attached to the Jagannath Temple who performed dances in the Nata mandapa of the temple to please the deities. Though the devadasi practice has been discontinued, the dance form has become modern and classical and is widely popular; many of the Odissi virtuoso artists and gurus (teachers) are from Puri.[92] Some of the notable Odissi dancers are Kelucharan Mohapatra, Mayadhar Raut, Sonal Mansingh, and Sanjukta Panigrahi.[citation needed]

 

Goti Pua nacha (a dance form) is a famous one which has its origins from hundreds of years before much before Odissi.

 

Many Odia dishes have their roots from Puri, Malpua, Pakhala (fermented water rice), Dalma are few dishes which originated from Puri.

 

Education

 

Samanta Chandra Sekhara College, Puri

Schools

D.A.V Public School

Bholanath Vidyapith

Biswambhar Bidyapitha

Blessed Sacrament High School Puri

Kendriya Vidyalaya

Puri Zilla School

Colleges and universities

Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management

Shri Jagannath Sanskrit University

Sri Jagannath Medical College and Hospital

Notable people

Chakhi Khuntia – Freedom fighter [93]

Bidhu Bhusan Das - Academic and Vice Chancellor, DPI Odisha

Gopabandhu Das – Social worker

Nilakantha Das – Social activist

Pankaj Charan Das – Odissi dancer

Prabhat Nalini Das - pro Vice Chancellor, academician, feminist, Dean IIT Kanpur

Gajapati Maharaja Dibyasingha Deb - Odia King

Charles Garrett – Cricketer

Kelucharan Mohapatra – Odissi dancer

Raghunath Mohapatra – Architect and sculptor

Baisali Mohanty - ALC Global Fellow at University of Oxford, United Kingdom

Rituraj Mohanty – Singer

Sudarshan Pattnaik – Sand Artist

Jayee Rajguru - Freedom fighter

Madhusudan Rao – Odia Poet

Sudarshan Sahoo - Sculptor

Pinaki Misra - Politician

Biswanath Das- Scholar, Philosopher (Emar Mutha, Puri)

Oilers in the playoffs this year!

Situated 16 kilometres southwest of Loch Ness along the Great Glen, the loch is over 15 kilometres long with an average width of about 1 kilometre. The River Lochy flows from its southwestern end while the Caledonian Canal links its northwestern extent to Loch Oich.

 

It is here were the Battle of the Shirts took place involving Clan Donald and Clan Fraser.

++++++FROM WIKIPEDIA ++++

 

Puri (About this soundlisten (help·info)) is a city and a Municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, 60 kilometres (37 mi) south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as Sri Jagannatha Dhama after the 12th-century Jagannatha Temple located in the city. It is one of the original Char Dham pilgrimage sites for Hindus.

Puri

 

ପୁରୀ

 

Puri is known by several names since the ancient times, and was locally known as "Sri Kshetra" and Lord Jagannatha temple is known as "Badadeula". Puri and the Jagannatha Temple were invaded 18 times by Hindu and Muslim rulers, from the 4th century AD till the early 19th century with the objective of looting the treasures of the temple. Odisha, including Puri and its temple, were part of British India from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947. Even though princely states do not exist in India today, the heirs of the Gajapati Dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple. The temple town has many Hindu religious mathas or monasteries.

 

The economy of Puri is dependent on the religious importance of the Jagannatha Temple to the extent of nearly 80 percent. The 24 festivals, including 13 major ones, held every year in the temple complex contribute to the economy; Ratha Yatra and its related festivals are the most important which are attended by millions of people every year. Sand art and applique art are some of the important crafts of the city.

 

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) scheme of Government of India.

Geography and climateEdit

GeographyEdit

The Atharanala Bridge dating back to the 16th century at the entrance of Puri

 

Puri, located on the east coast of India on the Bay of Bengal, is in the centre of the Puri district. It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, the Mauza Sipaurubilla on the west, Mauza Gopinathpur in the north and Mauza Balukhand in the east. It is within the 67 kilometres (42 mi) coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between Chilika Lake and the south of Puri city. However, the administrative jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of 16.3268 square kilometres (6.3038 sq mi) spread over 30 wards, which includes a shore line of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi).[1]

 

Puri is in the coastal delta of the Mahanadi River on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. In the ancient days it was near to Sisupalgarh (also known as "Ashokan Tosali"). Then the land was drained by a tributary of the Bhargavi River, a branch of the Mahanadi River. This branch underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the estuary, and formed many sand hills. These sand hills could be cut through by the streams. Because of the sand hills, the Bhargavi River, flowing to the south of Puri, moved away towards the Chilika Lake. This shift also resulted in the creation of two lagoons, known as Sar and Samang, on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively. Sar lagoon has a length of 5 miles (8.0 km) in an east-west direction and a width of 2 miles (3.2 km) in north-south direction. The estuary of the Bhargavi River has a shallow depth of just 5 feet (1.5 m) and the process of siltation continues. According to a 15th-century Odia writer Saraladasa, the bed of the unnamed stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or Neelachal was filled up. Katakarajavamsa, a 16th-century chronicle (c.1600), attributes filling up of the bed of the river which flowed through the present Grand Road, as done during the reign of King Narasimha II (1278–1308) of Eastern Ganga dynasty.[2]

ClimateEdit

 

According to the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system the climate of Puri is classified as Aw (Tropical savanna climate). The city has moderate and tropical climate. Humidity is fairly high throughout the year. The temperature during summer touches a maximum of 36 °C (97 °F) and during winter it is 17 °C (63 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,337 millimetres (52.6 in) and the average annual temperature is 26.9 °C (80.4 °F). The weather data is given in the following table.[3][4]

 

HistoryEdit

Main article: Timeline of Puri

Names in historyEdit

 

Puri, the holy land of Lord Jagannatha, also known by the popular vernacular name Shrikhetra, has many ancient names in the Hindu scriptures such as the Rigveda, Matsya purana, Brahma Purana, Narada Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Kapila Purana and Niladrimahodaya. In the Rigveda, in particular, it is mentioned as a place called Purushamandama-grama meaning the place where the Creator deity of the world – Supreme Divinity deified on an altar or mandapa was venerated near the coast and prayers offered with Vedic hymns. Over time the name got changed to Purushottama Puri and further shortened to Puri, and the Purusha came to be known as Jagannatha. Sages like Bhrigu, Atri and Markandeya had their hermitage close to this place.[5] Its name is mentioned, conforming to the deity worshipped, as Srikshetra, Purusottama Dhāma, Purusottama Kshetra, Purusottama Puri and Jagannath Puri. Puri, however, is the popular usage. It is also known by the geographical features of its location as Shankhakshetra (the layout of the town is in the form of a conch shell),[6] Neelāchala ("Blue mountain" a terminology used to name a very large sand lagoon over which the temple was built but this name is not in vogue), Neelāchalakshetra, Neelādri.[7] In Sanskrit, the word "Puri" means town or city,[8] and is cognate with polis in Greek.[9]

 

Another ancient name is Charita as identified by General Alexander Cunningham of the Archaeological Survey of India, which was later spelled as Che-li-ta-lo by Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang. When the present temple was built by the Eastern Ganga king Anantavarman Chodaganga in the 11th and 12th centuries AD, it was called Purushottamkshetra. However, the Moghuls, the Marathas and early British rulers called it Purushottama-chhatar or just Chhatar. In Moghul ruler Akbar's Ain-i-Akbari and subsequent Muslim historical records it was known as Purushottama. In the Sanskrit drama Anargha Raghava Nataka as well, authored by Murari Mishra, a playwright, in the 8th century AD, it is referred to as Purushottama.[6] It was only after the 12th century AD that Puri came to be known by the shortened form of Jagannatha Puri, named after the deity or in a short form as Puri.[7] It is the only shrine in India, where Radha, along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga, Bhudevi, Sati, Parvati, and Shakti, abodes with Krishna, who is also known by the name Jagannatha.[10]

Ancient periodEdit

king Indradyumna of Ujjayani credited with building the original temple in 318 AD

 

According to the chronicle Madala Panji, in 318 AD, the priests and servitors of the temple spirited away the idols to escape the wrath of the Rashtrakuta king Rakatavahu.[11] In the temple's historical records it finds mention in the Brahma Purana and Skanda Purana stating that the temple was built by the king Indradyumna, Ujjayani.[12]

 

S. N. Sadasivan, a historian, in his book A Social History of India quotes William Joseph Wilkins, author of the book Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Purānic as stating that in Puri, Buddhism was once a well established practice but later Buddhists were persecuted and Brahmanism became the order of the religious practice in the town; the Buddha deity is now worshipped by the Hindus as Jagannatha. It is also said by Wilkinson that some relics of Buddha were placed inside the idol of Jagannatha which the Brahmins claimed were the bones of Lord Krishna. Even during Maurya king Ashoka's reign in 240 BC, Kalinga was a Buddhist center and that a tribe known as Lohabahu (barbarians from outside Odisha) converted to Buddhism and built a temple with an idol of Buddha which is now worshipped as Jagannatha. Wilkinson also says that the Lohabahu deposited some Buddha relics in the precincts of the temple.[13]

 

Construction of the Jagannatha Temple started in 1136 AD and completed towards the latter part of the 12th century. The Eastern Ganga king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to Lord Jagannatha, then known as the Purushottama-Jagannatha, and resolved that from then on he and his descendants would rule under "divine order as Jagannatha's sons and vassals". Even though princely states do not exist in India today, the heirs of the Gajapati dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple; the king formally sweeps the road in front of the chariots before the start of the Ratha Yatra.[14]

Medieval and early modern periodsEdit

 

The history of Puri is on the same lines as that of the Jagannatha Temple, which was invaded 18 times during its history to plunder the treasures of the temple, rather than for religious reasons. The first invasion occurred in the 8th century AD by Rastrakuta king Govinda-III (798–814 AD), and the last took place in 1881 AD by the monotheistic followers of Alekh (Mahima Dharma) who did not recognise the worship of Jagannatha.[15] From 1205 AD onward [14] there were many invasions of the city and its temple by Muslims of Afghan and Moghul descent, known as Yavanas or foreigners. In most of these invasions the idols were taken to safe places by the priests and the servitors of the temple. Destruction of the temple was prevented by timely resistance or surrender by the kings of the region. However, the treasures of the temple were repeatedly looted.[16] The table lists all the 18 invasions along with the status of the three images of the temple, the triad of Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra following each invasion.[15]

Invasion number Invader (s), year (s) AD Local rulers Status of the three images of the Jagannatha temple

1 Raktabahu or Govinda III (798–814) of the Rashtrakuta Empire King Subhanadeva of Bhaumakara dynasty Idols shifted to Gopali near Sonepur. Was brought back to Puri by Yayati I after 146 years and re-consecrated after performing Nabakalebara.[17]

2 Illias Shah, Sultan of Bengal, 1340 Narasinghadeva III Images shifted to a secret location.[18]

3 Feroz Shah Tughlaq, 1360 Ganga King Bhanudeva III Images not found, though rumored that they were thrown into the Bay Of Bengal.[18]

4 Ismail Ghazi commander of Alauddin Hussain Shah of Bengal, 1509 King Prataprudradeva Images shifted to Chandhei Guha Pahada near Chilika Lake.[18]

5 Kalapahara, army assistant general of Sulaiman Karrani of the Afghan Sultan of Bengal, 1568 Mukundadeva Harichandan Images initially hidden in an island in Chilika Lake. However, the invader took the idols from here to the banks of the Ganges River and burnt them. Bisher Mohanty, a Vaishnavite saint, who had followed the invading army, retrieved the Brahmas and hid it in a drum at Khurdagada in 1575 AD and finally re-installed it in the deities. Deities were brought back to Puri and consecrated in the Jagannatha Temple.[19]

6 Suleman, the son of Kuthu Khan and Osman, the son of Isha (ruler of Orissa), 1592 Ramachandradeva, the Bhoi dynasty ruler of Khurda Revolt was by local Muslim rulers who desecrated the images.[20]

7 Mirza Khurum, the commander of Islam Khan I, the Nawab of Bengal, 1601 Purushottamadeva of Bhoi Dynasty Image moved to Kapileswarpur village by boat through the river Bhargavi and kept in the Panchamukhi Gosani temple. Thereafter, the deities were kept in Dobandha—Pentha.[20]

8 Hasim Khan, the Subedar of Orissa, 1608 Purushottam Deva, the King of Khurda Images shifted to the Gopal temple at Khurda and brought back in 1608.[20]

9 Hindu Rajput Jagirdar Kesodasmaru, 1610 Purusottamdeva, the king of Khurda Images kept at the Gundicha Temple and brought back to Puri after eight months.[20]

10 Kalyan Malla, 1611 Purushottamadeva, the King of Khurda Images moved to 'Mahisanasi' also known as'Brahmapura' or 'Chakanasi' in the Chilika Lake where they remained for one year.[21]

11 Kalyan Malla, 1612 Paiks of Purushottamadeva, the King of Khurda Images placed on a fleet of boats at Gurubai Gada and hidden under the 'Lotani Baragachha' or Banyan tree) and then at 'Dadhibaman Temple'.[22]

12 Mukarram Khan, 1617 Purushottama Deva, the King of Khurda Images moved to the Bankanidhi temple, Gobapadar and brought back to Puri in 1620.[22]

13 Mirza Ahmad Beg, 1621 Narasingha Deva Images shifted to 'Andharigada' in the mouth of the river Shalia across the Chilika Lake. Moved back to Puri in 1624.[23]

14 Amir Mutaquad Khan alias Mirza Makki, 1645 Narasingha Deva and Gangadhar Not known.[24]

15 Amir Fateh Khan, 1647 Not known Not known[24]

16 Ekram Khan and Mastram Khan on behalf of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, 1692 Divyasingha Deva, the king of Khurda Images moved to 'Maa Bhagabati Temple' and then to Bada Hantuada in Banpur across the Chilika Lake, and finally brought back to Puri in 1699.[24]

17 Muhammad Taqi Khan, 1731 and 1733 Birakishore Deva and Birakishore Deva of Athagada Images moved to Hariswar in Banpur, Chikili in Khalikote, Rumagarh in Kodala, Athagada in Ganjam and lastly to Marda in Kodala. Shifted back to Puri after 2.5 years.[24]

18 Followers of Mahima Dharma, 1881 Birakishore Deva and Birakishore Deva of Athagada Images burnt in the streets. [25]

 

Puri is the site of the Govardhana Matha, one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankaracharya, when he visited Puri in 810 AD, and since then it has become an important dham (divine centre) for the Hindus; the others being those at Sringeri, Dwarka and Jyotirmath. The Matha (monastery of various Hindu sects) is headed by Jagatguru Shankarachrya. It is a local belief about these dhams that Lord Vishnu takes his dinner at Puri, has his bath at Rameshwaram, spends the night at Dwarka and does penance at Badrinath.[12][26]

 

In the 16th century, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Bengal established the Bhakti movements of India, now known by the name the Hare Krishna movement. He spent many years as a devotee of Jagannatha at Puri; he is said to have merged with the deity.[27] There is also a matha of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu here known as Radhakanta Math.[12]

 

In the 17th century, for the sailors sailing on the east coast of India, the temple served as a landmark, being located in a plaza in the centre of the city, which they called the "White Pagoda" while the Konark Sun Temple, 60 kilometres (37 mi) away to the east of Puri, was known as the "Black Pagoda".[27]

 

The iconic representation of the images in the Jagannatha temple is believed to be the forms derived from the worship made by the tribal groups of Sabaras belonging to northern Odisha. These images are replaced at regular intervals as the wood deteriorates. This replacement is a special event carried out ritualistically by special group of carpenters.[27]

Govardhana matha main gate

 

The city has many other Mathas as well. The Emar Matha was founded by the Tamil Vaishnava saint Ramanujacharya in the 12th century AD. This Matha, which is now located in front of Simhadvara across the eastern corner of the Jagannatha Temple, is reported to have been built in the 16th century during the reign of kings of Suryavamsi Gajapatis. The Matha was in the news on 25 February 2011 for the large cache of 522 silver slabs unearthed from a closed chamber.[28][29]

 

The British conquered Orissa in 1803, and, recognising the importance of the Jagannatha Temple in the life of the people of the state, they initially appointed an official to look after the temple's affairs and later declared the temple as part of a district.[14]

Modern historyEdit

H.H Jagadguru Swami Nischalananda Saraswati, The Shankaracharya of Puri

 

In 1906, Sri Yukteswar, an exponent of Kriya Yoga and a resident of Puri, established an ashram, a spiritual training center, named "Kararashram" in Puri. He died on 9 March 1936 and his body is buried in the garden of the ashram.[30][31]

 

The city is the site of the former summer residence of British Raj, the Raj Bhavan, built in 1913–14 during the era of governors.[32]

 

For the people of Puri, Lord Jagannatha, visualized as Lord Krishna, is synonymous with their city. They believe that Lord Jagannatha looks after the welfare of the state. However, after the partial collapse of the Jagannatha Temple (in the Amalaka part of the temple) on 14 June 1990, people became apprehensive and considered it a bad omen for Odisha. The replacement of the fallen stone by another of the same size and weight (7 tonnes (7.7 tons)), that could be done only in the early morning hours after the temple gates were opened, was done on 28 February 1991.[27]

 

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of the Indian Government. It is chosen as one of the 12 heritage cities with "focus on holistic development" to be implemented within 27 months by the end of March 2017.[33]

 

Non-Hindus are not permitted to enter the shrines but are allowed to view the temple and the proceedings from the roof of the Raghunandan library, located within the precincts of the temple, for a small donation.[34]

DemographicsEdit

See also: List of cities in Odisha

 

According to the 2011 Census of India, Puri is an urban agglomeration governed by the Municipal Corporation in Odisha state, with a population of 201,026[35] This rose to 200,564 in 2011 – comprising 104,086 males, 96,478 females, and 18,471 children (under six years of age). The sex ratio is 927. The average literacy rate in the city is 88.03 percent (91.38 percent for males and 84.43 percent for females).

EconomyEdit

 

The economy of Puri is dependent on tourism to the extent of about 80 percent. The temple is the focal point of the city and provides employment to the people of the town. Agricultural production of rice, ghee, vegetables and so forth of the region meet the large requirements of the temple. Many settlements around the town exclusively cater to the other religious requirements of the temple.[36] The temple administration employs 6,000 men to perform the rituals. The temple also provides economic sustenance to 20,000 people.[34] According to Colleen Taylor Sen an author on food and travel, writing on the food culture of India, the temple kitchen has 400 cooks serving food to as many as 100,000 people,.[37] According to J Mohapatra, Director, Ind Barath Power Infra Ltd (IBPIL), the kitchen is known as "a largest and biggest kitchen of the world."[38]

City management and governanceEdit

Samudra arati or worship of the sea at Swargadwar by disciples of the Govardhana matha

 

The Puri Municipality, Puri Konark Development Authority, Public Health Engineering Organisation and Orissa Water Supply Sewerage Board are some of the principal organisations that are devolved with the responsibility of providing for civic amenities such as water supply, sewerage, waste management, street lighting and infrastructure of roads. The major activity, which puts maximum pressure on these organisations, is the annual event of the Ratha Yatra held during June- July. According to the Puri Municipality more than a million people attend this event. Hence, development activities such as infrastructure and amenities to the pilgrims, apart from security, gets priority attention.[39]

 

The civic administration of Puri is the responsibility of the Puri Municipality. The municipality came into existence in 1864 in the name of the Puri Improvement Trust, which was converted into Puri Municipality in 1881. After India's independence in 1947, the Orissa Municipal Act (1950) was promulgated entrusting the administration of the city to the Puri Municipality. This body is represented by elected representatives with a Chairperson and councilors representing the 30 wards within the municipal limits.[40]

LandmarksEdit

Jagannatha temple

Jagannatha Temple at PuriEdit

Main article: Jagannath Temple (Puri)

Left: Jagannath Temple at Puri Right: View of the temple at night

 

The Jagannatha Temple at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples built in the Kalinga style of architecture.[41] The temple tower, with a spire, rises to a height of 58 metres (190 ft), and a flag is unfurled above it, fixed over a wheel (chakra).[34][42]

Left:Ritual chakra and flags at the top shikhara of Puri temple of Jagannatha also related to Sudarsana chakra. The red flag (12 hand or 14 feet (4.3 m) denotes that Jagannath is within the temple.

Right: Statue of Aruna the charioteer of the Sun God on top of the Aruna Stambha in front of the Singhadwara

 

The temple is built on an elevated platform (of about 420,000 square feet (39,000 m2) area),[43] 20 feet (6.1 m) above the adjacent area. The temple rises to a height of 214 feet (65 m) above the road level. The temple complex covers an area of 10.7 acres (4.3 ha).[39] There are four entry gates in four cardinal directions of the temple, each gate located at the central part of the walls. These gates are: the eastern gate called the Singhadwara (Lions Gate), the southern gate known as Ashwa Dwara (Horse Gate), the western gate called the Vyaghra Dwara (Tigers Gate) or the Khanja Gate, and the northern gate called the Hathi Dwara or (elephant gate). These four gates symbolize the four fundamental principles of Dharma (right conduct), Jnana (knowledge), Vairagya (renunciation) and Aishwarya (prosperity). The gates are crowned with pyramid shaped structures. There is a stone pillar in front of the Singhadwara, called the Aruna Stambha {Solar Pillar}, 11 metres (36 ft) in height with 16 faces, made of chlorite stone; at the top of the stamba an elegant statue of Aruṇa (Sun) in a prayer mode is mounted. This pillar was shifted from the Konarak Sun Temple.[44] The four gates are decorated with guardian statues in the form of lion, horse mounted men, tigers, and elephants in the name and order of the gates.[34] A pillar made of fossilized wood is used for placing lamps as offering. The Lion Gate (Singhadwara) is the main gate to the temple, which is guarded by two guardian deities Jaya and Vijaya.[43][44][45] The main gate is ascended through 22 steps known as Baisi Pahaca, which are revered, as it is believed to possess "spiritual animation". Children are made to roll down these steps, from top to bottom, to bring them spiritual happiness. After entering the temple, on the left side, there is a large kitchen where food is prepared in hygienic conditions in huge quantities; the kitchen is called as "the biggest hotel of the world".[43]

The main entrance of the Jagannatha Temple

 

According to a legend King Indradyumma was directed by Lord Jagannatha in a dream to build a temple for him which he did as directed. However, according to historical records the temple was started some time during the 12th century by King Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. It was completed by his descendant, Anangabhima Deva, in the 12th century. The wooden images of Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra were then deified here. The temple was under the control of the Hindu rulers up to 1558. Then, when Orissa was occupied by the Afghan Nawab of Bengal, it was brought under the control of the Afghan General Kalapahad. Following the defeat of the Afghan king by Raja Mansingh, the General of Mughal emperor Akbar, the temple became part of the Mughal empire till 1751. Subsequently, it was under the control of the Marathas till 1803. During the British Raj, the Puri Raja was entrusted with its management until 1947.[42]

 

The triad of images in the temple are of Jagannatha, personifying Lord Krishna, Balabhadra, His older brother, and Subhadra, His younger sister. The images are made of neem wood in an unfinished form. The stumps of wood which form the images of the brothers have human arms, while that of Subhadra does not have any arms. The heads are large, painted and non-carved. The faces are marked with distinctive large circular eyes.[27]

The Pancha Tirtha of PuriEdit

Main article: Pancha Tirtha of Puri

Markandeshwar Tank

 

Hindus consider it essential to bathe in the Pancha Tirtha or the five sacred bathing spots of Puri, to complete a pilgrimage to Puri. The five sacred water bodies are the Indradyumana Tank, the Rohini Kunda, the Markandeya Tank, the Swetaganga Tank, and the Bay of Bengal also called the Mahodadhi, in Sanskrit 'Mahodadhi' means a "great ocean";[46] all are considered sacred bathing spots in the Swargadwar area.[47][48][49] These tanks have perennial sources of supply from rainfall and ground water.[50]

Gundicha TempleEdit

Main article: Gundicha Temple

The Main Gate of the Gundicha Temple

 

The Gundicha Temple, known as the Garden House of Jagannatha, stands in the centre of a beautiful garden, bounded by compound walls on all sides. It lies at a distance of about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) to the northeast of the Jagannatha Temple. The two temples are located at the two ends of the Bada Danda (Grand Avenue), which is the pathway for the Ratha Yatra. According to a legend, Gundicha was the wife of King Indradyumna who originally built the Jagannatha temple.[51]

 

The temple is built using light-grey sandstone, and, architecturally, it exemplifies typical Kalinga temple architecture in the Deula style. The complex comprises four components: vimana (tower structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), nata-mandapa (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings). There is also a kitchen connected by a small passage. The temple is set within a garden, and is known as "God's Summer Garden Retreat" or garden house of Jagannatha. The entire complex, including the garden, is surrounded by a wall which measures 430 by 320 feet (131 m × 98 m) with height of 20 feet (6.1 m).[52]

 

Except for the 9-day Ratha Yatra, when the triad images are worshipped in the Gundicha Temple, otherwise it remains unoccupied for the rest of the year. Tourists can visit the temple after paying an entry fee. Foreigners (generally prohibited entry in the main temple) are allowed inside this temple during this period.[53] The temple is under the Jagannatha Temple Administration, Puri, the governing body of the main temple. A small band of servitors maintain the temple.[52]

SwargadwarEdit

The Sea at Swargadwar of Puri

 

Swargadwar is the name given to the cremation ground or burning ghat which is located on the shores of the sea. Here thousands of dead bodies of Hindus brought from faraway places are cremated. It is a belief that the Chitanya Mahaparabhu disappeared from this Swargadwar about 500 years back.[54]

BeachEdit

Puri sea sunrise

Puri Sea Beach viewed from the light house

 

The beach at Puri, known as the "Ballighai beach, at the mouth of Nunai River, is 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) away from the town and is fringed by casurina trees.[12] It has golden yellow sand. Sunrise and sunset are pleasant scenic attractions here.[55] Waves break in at the beach which is long and wide.[27]

District museumEdit

 

The Puri district museum is located on the station road where the exhibits in display are the different types of garments worn by Lord Jagannatha, local sculptures, patachitra (traditional, cloth-based scroll painting), ancient Palm-leaf manuscripts, and local craft work.[56]

Raghunandana libraryEdit

 

Raghunandana Library is located in the Emara Matha complex (opposite Simhadwara or lion gate, the main entrance gate). The Jagannatha Aitihasika Gavesana Samiti (Jagannatha Historical Centre) is also located here. The library houses ancient palm leaf manuscripts on Jagannatha, His cult and the history of the city.[56]

Festivals of PuriEdit

Main article: List of festivals observed at Jagannatha Temple, Puri

The Grand Road near the Jagannatha Temple

 

Puri witnesses 24 festivals every year, of which 13 are major. The most important of these is the Ratha Yatra, or the car festival, held in the June–July, which is attended by more than 1 million people.[57]

Ratha Yatra at PuriEdit

Main article: Ratha-Yatra (Puri)

The Ratha Yatra in Puri in modern times showing the three chariots of the deities with the Temple in the background

 

The Jagannatha Temple triad are normally worshipped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of Asadha (rainy season of Orissa, usually in June or July), they are brought out on the Bada Danda (main street of Puri) and taken over a distance of (3 kilometres (1.9 mi)) to the Shri Gundicha Temple[58] in huge chariots (ratha), allowing the public to have darśana (holy view). This festival is known as the Ratha Yatra, meaning the journey (yatra) of the chariots.[59] The yatra starts every year according to the Hindu calendar on the Asadha Sukla Dwitiya day, the second day of bright fortnight of Asadha (June–July).[60]

 

Historically, the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Ratha Yatra on the completion of the Jagannatha Temple around 1150 AD. This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early.[61] Friar Odoric, in his account of 1321, reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the King, the Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.[62][63]

 

The Rathas are huge wooden structures provided with large wheels, which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees. The chariot for Lord Jagannatha is about 45 feet (14 m) high and 35 square feet (3.3 m2) and takes about 2 months for its construction.[64] The chariot is mounted with 16 wheels, each of 7 feet (2.1 m) diameter. The carving in the front face of the chariot has four wooden horses drawn by Maruti. On its other three faces, the wooden carvings are of Rama, Surya and Vishnu. The chariot is known as Nandi Ghosha. The roof of the chariot is covered with yellow and red coloured cloth. The next chariot is of Balabhadra which is 44 feet (13 m) in height fitted with 14 wheels. The chariot is carved with Satyaki as the charioteer, roof covered in red and green coloured cloth, and the chariot is known as Taladhwaja. The carvings on this chariot include images of Narasimha and Rudra as Jagannatha's companions. The next chariot in the order is of Subhadra, which is 43 feet (13 m) in height supported on 12 wheels, roof covered in black and red colour cloth, and the chariot is known as Darpa Dalaan and the charioteer carved is Arjuna. Other images carved on the chariot are of Vana Durga, Tara Devi and Chandi Devi.[60][65] The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels, the wood-carved charioteer and horses, and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne.[59] The chariots of Jagannatha pulled during Ratha Yatra is the etymological origin of the English word Juggernaut.[66] The Ratha Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra and Ghosha yatra[60]

Pahandi bije during Ratha Yatra at Puri

Chhera PaharaEdit

 

The Chhera Pahara (sweeping with water) is a significant ritual associated with the Ratha Yatra. During this ritual, the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots. The king cleans the road in front of the chariots with a gold-handled broom and sprinkles sandalwood water and powder. As per the custom, although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in the Kalingan kingdom, he still renders the menial service to Jagannatha. This ritual signifies that under the lordship of Jagannatha, there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign and the humblest devotee.[67]

Chandan YatraEdit

The Narendra Tirtha tank where ceremonies of Chandan Yatra are performed

Main article: Chandan Yatra

 

The Chandan Yatra festival held every year on Akshaya Tritiya day marks the commencement of the construction of the chariots of the Ratha Yatra. It also marks the celebration of the Hindu new year.[12]

Snana YatraEdit

Main article: Snana Yatra

 

Every year, on the Purnima day in the Hindu calendar month of Jyestha (June), the triad images of the Jagannatha Temple are ceremonially bathed and decorated on the occasion of Snana Yatra. Water for the bath is taken in 108 pots from the Suna kuan (meaning: "golden well") located near the northern gate of the temple. Water is drawn from this well only once in a year for the sole purpose of the religious bath of the deities. After the bath the triad images are dressed in the fashion of the elephant god, Ganesha. Later, during the night, the original triad images are taken out in a procession back to the main temple but kept at a place known as Anasara pindi.[60] After this the Jhulana Yatra is performed when proxy images of the deities are taken out in a grand procession for 21 days, cruised over boats in the Narendra Tirtha tank.[12]

Anavasara or AnasaraEdit

Images during the Snana Yatra.

 

Anasara, a derivative of the Sanskrit word "Anabasara",[68] literally means vacation. Every year after the holy Snana Yatra, the triad images, without the Sudarshana Chakra, are taken to a secret altar named Anavasara Ghar (also known as Anasara pindi, 'pindi' is Oriya term meaning "platform" [68]) where they remain for the next fortnight of (Krishna paksha); devotees are not allowed to view these images. Instead, devotees go to the nearby Brahmagiri to see the Lord in the four-handed form of Alarnath, a depiction of Vishnu.[60][69] Devotees then get the first glimpse of the Lord only on the day before Ratha Yatra, which is called Navayouvana. It is a local belief that the gods suffer from fever after taking an elaborate ritual bath, and they are treated by the special servants, the Daitapatis, for 15 days. Daitapatis perform special nitis (rites) known as Netrotchhaba (a rite of painting the eyes of the triad). During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.[70]

Naba KalebaraEdit

Main articles: Nabakalevara and Nabakalebara 2015

 

Naba Kalebara is one of the most grand events associated with the Lord Jagannatha that takes place when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another of Ashadha called Adhika Masa (extra month). This can take place at an interval of 8, 12 or even 18 years. Literally meaning the "New Body" (Nava = New, Kalevar = Body) in Odia, the festival is witnessed by millions of people and the budget for this event generally exceeds $500,000. The event involves installation of new images in the temple and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha. During the Nabakalebara ceremony held during July 2015 the idols that were installed in the temple in 1996 were replaced by specially carved new images made of neem wood.[71][72] More than 3 million people are reported to have attended this festival.[73]

Suna BeshaEdit

Main article: Suna Besha

Suna Besha or Golden Attire of Lord Jagannatha

 

Suna Besha, ('Suna besh'in English translates to "gold dressing”[74]) also known as Raja or Rajadhiraja Bhesha [75] or Raja Bhesha, is an event when the triad images of the Jagannatha Temple are adorned with gold jewelry. This event is observed five times in a year. It is commonly observed on Magha Purnima (January), Bahuda Ekadashi also known as Asadha Ekadashi (July), Dashahara (Bijayadashami) (October), Karthik Purnima (November), and Pousa Purnima (December).[76][77] One such Suna Bhesha event is observed on Bahuda Ekadashi during the Ratha Yatra on the chariots placed at the Simhadwar. The other four Beshas are observed inside the temple on the Ratna Singhasana (gem studded altar). On this occasion gold plates are decorated over the hands and feet of Jagannatha and Balabhadra; Jagannatha is also adorned with a Chakra (disc) made of gold on the right hand while a silver conch adorns the left hand. Balabhadra is decorated with a plough made of gold on the left hand while a golden mace adorns his right hand.[76]

Niladri BijeEdit

 

Niladri Bije, celebrated in the Hindu calendar month Asadha (June–July) on Trayodashi (13th day),[78] marks the end of the Ratha Yatra. The large wooden images of the triad of gods are taken out from the chariots and then carried to the sanctum sanctorum, swaying rhythmically; a ritual which is known as pahandi.[72]

Sahi yatraEdit

A scene from a play being enacted during the Sahi Yatra

 

The Sahi Yatra, considered the world's biggest open-air theatre,[79] is an annual event lasting 11 days; a traditional cultural theatre festival or folk drama which begins on Ram Navami and ends on Rama avishke (Sanskrit meaning : anointing). The festival includes plays depicting various scenes from the Ramayana. The residents of various localities, or Sahis, are entrusted the task of performing the drama at the street corners.[80]

Samudra AratiEdit

Samudra arati of worship of the sea by disciples of the Matha at Puri

 

The Samudra arati is a daily tradition started by the present Shankaracharya 9 years ago.[81] The daily practise includes prayer and fire offering to the sea at Swargadwar in Puri by disciples of the Govardhan Matha. On Paush Purnima of every year the Shankaracharya himself comes out to offer prayers to the sea.

TransportEdit

 

Earlier, when roads did not exist, people used to walk or travel by animal-drawn vehicles or carriages along beaten tracks to reach Puri. Travel was by riverine craft along the Ganges up to Calcutta, and then on foot or by carriages. It was only during the Maratha rule that the popular Jagannath Sadak (Road) was built around 1790. The East India Company laid the rail track from Calcutta to Puri, which became operational in 1898.[82] Puri is now well-connected by rail, road and air services. A broad gauge railway line of the South Eastern Railways which connects Puri with Calcutta, and Khurda is an important railway junction on this route. The rail distance is about 499 kilometres (310 mi) from Calcutta[83] and 468 kilometres (291 mi) from Vishakhapatnam. Road network includes NH 203 that links the city with Bhubaneswar, the state capital, situated about 60 kilometres (37 mi) away. NH 203 B connects the city with Satapada via Brahmagiri. Marine drive, which is part of NH 203 A, connects Puri with Konark. The nearest airport is the Biju Patnaik International Airport at Bhubaneswar.[57] Puri railway station is among the top hundred booking stations of the Indian Railways.[84]

Arts and craftsEdit

Sand artEdit

Sand art of a Baby Elephant

 

Sand art is a special art form that is created on the beaches of Puri. The art form is attributed to Balaram Das, a poet who lived in the 14th century. Sculptures of various gods and famous people are now created in sand by amateur artists. These are temporary in nature as they get washed away by waves. This art form has gained international fame in recent years. One of the famed sand artists of Odisha is Sudarshan Patnaik. He established the Golden Sand Art Institute in 1995, in the open air on the shores of Bay of Bengal, to provide training to students interested in this art form.[85][80]

Appliqué artEdit

An applique art work

 

Appliqué art, which is a stitching-based craft unlike embroidery, was pioneered by Hatta Maharana of Pipili. It is widely used in Puri, both for decoration of the deities and for sale. Maharana's family members are employed as darjis or tailors or sebaks by the Maharaja of Puri. They prepare articles for decorating the deities in the temple for various festivals and religious ceremonies. The appliqué works are brightly coloured and patterned fabric in the form of canopies, umbrellas, drapery, carry bags, flags, coverings of dummy horses and cows, and other household textiles; these are marketed in Puri. The cloth used is made in dark colours of red, black, yellow, green, blue and turquoise blue.[86]

CultureEdit

Odissi dancer

 

Cultural activities, including the annual religious festivals, in Puri are: The Puri Beach Festival held from 5 to 9 November every year, and the Shreekshetra Utsav held from 20 December to 2 January every year. The cultural programmes include unique sand art, display of local and traditional handicrafts and food festival.[87] In addition, cultural programmes are held for two hours on every second Saturday of the month at the district Collector's Conference Hall near Sea Beach Police Station. Odissi dance, Odissi music and folk dances are part of this event.[87] Odissi dance is the cultural heritage of Puri. This dance form originated in Puri from the dances performed by Devadasis (Maharis) attached to the Jagannatha Temple who performed dances in the Nata mandapa of the temple to please the deities. Though the devadasi practice has been discontinued, the dance form has become modern and classical and is widely popular; many of the Odissi virtuoso artists and gurus (teachers) are from Puri.[88] Some of the famous Odissi dancers are Kelucharan Mohapatra, Mayadhar Raut, Sonal Mansingh, Sanjukta Panigrahi and many more

EducationEdit

Samanta Chandra Sekhar College, Puri

 

Some of the educational institutions in Puri are:

 

Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management

Gangadhar Mohapatra Law College, established in 1981[89]

Extension Unit of Regional Research Institute of Homoeopathy, Puri, under Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH), New Delhi; established in March 2006 [90]

Shri Jagannath Sanskrit University, established in July 1981[91]

Gopabandhu Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya, a college and hospital where treatment and training is based on Ayurveda school of medicine [92]

The Industrial Training Institute, a premier technical institution to provide education to skilled, committed & talented technicians was established in 1966 by the Government of India[93]

Blessed Sacrament High School established in 1952 is otherwise known as Puri convent. It is one of the best schools in the city. The school features classes 1 to 10. It is located in VIP Road, Puri.

 

Puri peopleEdit

 

Jayee Rajguru - Freedom fighter

Chakhi Khuntia (Chandan Hajuri) – Freedom fighter [94]

Utkalmani Pandit Gopabandhu Das – Social worker

Pandit Nilakantha Das – Social activist

Bhaktakabi Madhusudan Rao – Odia Poet

Padma Vibhushan Kelucharan Mohapatra – Odissi dancer

Padma Shri Pankaj Charan Das – Odissi dancer

Padma Shri Pandit Sadashiv Rathasharma – Scholar and Preacher of Shri Jagannatha Culture

Padma Vibhushan Raghunath Mohapatra – Architect and sculptor

Padma Shri Sudarshan Pattnaik – Sand Artist

Baisali Mohanty - ALC Global Fellow at University of Oxford, United Kingdom

Rituraj Mohanty – Singer

Event: Morris Register National Rally

Location: Thoresby Hall, Budby, Nottinghamshire

Camera: Thornton Pickard Imperial Triple Extension Half-Plate Field Camera

Lens(s): Thornton Pickard Rectoplanat 9” f/8

Plate: J. Lane Standard Plate

Shot ISO: 2.5

Light Meter: Weston Master II

Movements: None

Bellows: 230mm (+0)

Exposure: 2s @ f/11

Lighting: Overcast - 11:10am

Mounting: Tripod - Manfrotto

Firing: Lens cap removal

Developer: Ilford Ilfotec HC (1+31) - 6 mins by inspection

Scanner: Epson V800

Post: Adobe Lightroom & Photoshop (dust removal)

As seen by a Meyer-Gorlitz 100/2.8 Trioplan and extention tube. It was -30c at one point yesterday. My desire to shoot has forced my lenses into action as both hunter and prey as I entertain the urge indoors. Of all the lenses I've used I always get the most enjoyment visually from the wide aperture teles. The Planar for example looks like a metal rimmed pool of glass.

A collage showing the extent of Belgian Air Force solo F-16AM pilot Vador's anti-missile flare popping display during RNAS Yeovilton's Air Day

 

The bottom three photo's are his departure and landing either side of his dynamic display with:

 

Top left - the first salvo of 8

Top right - the 2nd salvo of 8

Then the background collage turned through 90 degrees showing his final vertical spread where he popped off 32 !!!

 

I counted 48 in all !

 

Yeovilton's annual Air Day seems to be the only show in the UK where firing flares is authorised! Long may it continue

 

IMG_5587 and many more

Eye Macro shot with Canon 600D with extention Tubes and a 18-55mm.

Aztec National Monument

 

This shows the extent of the west settlement. There are 4 more unexcavated ones located in close proximity. The Animas River is just beyond the large trees.

  

“The Aztec Ruins National Monument, located in San Juan County in northwest New Mexico, contains the remains of prehistoric Ancestral Puebloan (Anasazi) structures.

 

These ancient Indians constructed this large planned community over 1,000 years ago. At that time, the ancestral pueblo people began planning and constructing the pueblo, which was close to the Animas River, where early farmers could take advantage of the constant water supply.

 

Its access to the river provided the people with a reliable food source, as they could plant crops. Built on and below a terrace overlooking the river, the pueblo would ultimately have many large and small public structures, earthworks, ceremonial buildings, residential pueblos, and roads.

 

This extensive community likely served as a trade, ceremonial, and administrative center for many of the scattered communities associated with Chaco Canyon. The Chaco culture exhibited great influence over much of this part of New Mexico between 850 A.D. and 1130 A.D. This influence, including its architectural, ceramic, and ceremonial styles, strongly influenced Aztec’s early inhabitants and initial builders.

 

Aztec was a bustling community for over two centuries, and its planned layout reveals that the initial ancestral Pueblo builders conceived a grand design for their community. When the building ceased in the late 1200s, the community consisted of several great houses, great kivas, small residential pueblos, earthworks, roads, and tri-walled kivas. The structures and landscapes were all constructed and modified to give continuity and formality to the community’s overall essence. The builders used local adobe mud for the structures’ walls. They used cottonwood, pinyon pine, juniper, pine, spruce, Douglas fir, and aspen, which they obtained from mountains many miles away for roofing.

 

By 1100 AD, the Aztec Ruins community may have become a center in its own right when Chaco’s regional influence began to fade. By about 1300 A.D., these people left this region and dispersed to the south in various directions. After serving their society for over two centuries, a combination of drought, climate changes, depletion of natural resources, and social changes likely influenced the ancestral Puebloans’ decision to leave their well-planned community.

 

The ruins were named when 19th-century American settlers misattributed their construction to the Aztecs of Mexico. The first actual description of the Aztec Ruins was made by the geologist J. S. Newberry, who saw the site in August 1859. Lewis H. Morgan published the first ground plan and a further description from his visit of July 1879. From then on, little consequence appeared until archeologist Earl H. Morris began systematic excavations in the West Ruin in 1916. Morris spent six field seasons in the excavation of the West Ruin between 1919 and 1928.

 

In 1920 the American Museum of Natural History purchased the major ruins and deeded them to the United States. The area was proclaimed a National Monument in January 1923.

 

Excavation of the site revealed artifacts such as food remains, stone and wood tools, cotton and feather clothing, fiber sandals, and jewelry made of turquoise and shells.

 

The great houses within the West and East Ruins are large public buildings with many connected rooms surrounding a central plaza. The largest preserved structure is the West Ruin, a D-shaped great house constructed in the early 1100s. With at least 400 interconnected rooms of three stories, the site was occupied for over 200 years. Some of its walls reach 30 feet. Also of note is the excavated and reconstructed Great Kiva, situated in the center of West Ruin’s Plaza. Ancestral Pueblos used the Great Kiva for community-wide ceremonial events. Over 40 feet in diameter, the semi-subterranean structure is the oldest and largest reconstructed building of its kind.

 

The Hubbard Site, dating from the early 1100s and one of only a handful of tri-walled structures in the Southwest, has three concentric walls divided into 22 rooms, with a kiva. It was rebuilt in 1934 by Earl Morris, an archeologist for the American Museum of Natural History.” ( www.legendsofamerica.com/aztec-ruins-national-monument/ )

 

Fork-tailed Woodnymph

  

A text, in english, from Birdlife International:

  

Justification

This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 30% decline over ten years or three generations). The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.

  

Taxonomic source(s)

del Hoyo, J.; Collar, N. J.; Christie, D. A.; Elliott, A.; Fishpool, L. D. C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International.

SACC. 2006. A classification of the bird species of South America. Available at: #http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCBaseline.html#.

  

Population justification

The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).

  

Trend justification

This species is suspected to lose 15.9-17.6% of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations (12 years) based on a model of Amazonian deforestation (Soares-Filho et al. 2006, Bird et al. 2011). It is therefore suspected to decline by <25% over three generations.

  

References

Stotz, D. F.; Fitzpatrick, J. W.; Parker, T. A.; Moskovits, D. K. 1996. Neotropical birds: ecology and conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

  

Further web sources of information

Explore HBW Alive for further information on this species

  

Search for photos and videos,and hear sounds of this species from the Internet Bird Collection

  

Text account compilers

Ekstrom, J., Butchart, S.

  

IUCN Red List evaluators

Butchart, S., Symes, A.

  

Recommended citation

BirdLife International (2015) Species factsheet: Thalurania furcata. Downloaded from www.birdlife.org on 14/12/2015. Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2015) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from www.birdlife.org on 14/12/2015.

  

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

  

To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife

  

To contribute to discussions on the evaluation of the IUCN Red List status of Globally Threatened Birds, please visit BirdLife's Globally Threatened Bird Forums.

  

Beija-flor-tesoura-verde

Texto, em português, da WikiAves:

  

O beija-flor-tesoura-verde é uma ave da ordem dos Apodiformes, da família Trochilidae.

  

Também é conhecido como beija-flor-de-barriga-violeta. No livro Aves do Brasil, edição Pantanal e Cerrado, consta como beija-flor-de-ventre-roxo.

Seu nome significa: do (grego) thalos = criança, descendente de; e ouranos céu, celeste, referente ao azul do céu; e do (latim) furcata, furcatus = bifurcada. ⇒ Pássaro filho do azul celeste com cauda bifurcada.

Mede cerca de 9,7 cm de comprimento. Macho com partes superiores esverdeadas, garganta verde-metálica, peito e barriga azul-violeta-brilhante; fêmea com as partes inferiores cinza.

Possui doze subespécies:

  

Thalurania furcata furcata (Gmelin, 1788) - ocorre no extremo Leste da Venezuela, Guianas e Norte do Brasil, ao norte do Rio Amazonas;

Thalurania furcata refulgens (Gould, 1853) - ocorre no Nordeste da Venezuela, na Península de Paría e na Serra de Cumaná;

Thalurania furcata fissilis (Berlepsch & Hartert, 1902) - ocorre no Leste da Venezuela, e na região adjacente no extremo Oeste da Guiana e Nordeste do Brasil;

Thalurania furcata nigrofasciata (Gould, 1846) - ocorre do Sudoeste da Colômbia até o extremo Sul da Venezuela e Noroeste do Brasil;

Thalurania furcata viridipectus (Gould, 1848) - ocorre do Leste da Cordilheira dos Andes na Leste da Colômbia até o Nordeste do Peru;

Thalurania furcata jelskii (Taczanowski, 1874) - ocorre na região tropical Leste do Peru e na região adjacente no Brasil;

Thalurania furcata simoni (Hellmayr, 1906) - ocorre na Amazônia ao Sul do Rio Amazonas no extremo Leste do Peru e no Oeste do Brasil;

Thalurania furcata balzani (Simon, 1896) - ocorre na região Norte e Central do Brasil ao sul do Rio Amazonas;

Thalurania furcata furcatoides (Gould, 1861) - ocorre no baixo Rio Amazonas, na região Leste do Brasil ao Sul do Rio Amazonas;

Thalurania furcata boliviana (Boucard, 1894) - ocorre nos sopés da Cordilheira dos Andes no Sudeste do Peru e no Nordeste da Bolívia;

Thalurania furcata baeri (Hellmayr, 1907) - ocorre da região Central e Nordeste do Brasil até o Sudeste da Bolívia e no Norte da Argentina;

Thalurania furcata eriphile (Lesson, 1832) - ocorre do Sudeste do Brasil, Leste do Paraguai até o Nordeste da Argentina, na região de Misiones.

Alimenta-se em flores à pouca altura, buscando também insetos na vegetação ou capturando-os no ar.

Faz ninho em forma de taça profunda, preso por teias de aranha a forquilhas ou pequenos ramos, a cerca de 2 m de altura. Põe 2 ovos brancos. Os filhotes deixam o ninho após 18 a 24 dias.

Comum no sub-bosque de florestas altas, capoeiras e florestas de várzea. Vive solitário, defendendo seu território de maneira agressiva.

Distribuição Geográfica:

Quase todo o Brasil, da Amazônia ao Paraná. Encontrado também do México à Bolívia, Paraguai e Argentina.

Referências:

Portal Brasil 500 Pássaros, Beija-flor-tesoura-verde - Disponível em webserver.eln.gov.br/Pass500/BIRDS/1birds/p159.htm Acesso em 09 mai. 2009

CLEMENTS, J. F.; The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World. Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2005.

  

Classificação Científica

Reino: Animalia

Filo: Chordata

Classe: Aves

Ordem: Apodiformes

Família: Trochilidae

Vigors, 1825

Subfamília: Trochilinae

Vigors, 1825

Espécie: T. furcata

Nome Científico

Thalurania furcata

(Gmelin, 1788)

Nome em Inglês

Fork-tailed Woodnymph

  

Estado de Conservação

(IUCN 3.1)

Pouco Preocupante

Macro

XF18-55 +Extention tube

www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/m/marshside/index.aspx

  

www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/m/marshside/about.aspx

   

There's something for everyone all year round at this delightful coastal reserve. In the spring you can see brown hares boxing in the fields, while in the early summer you'll spot nesting birds like avocets and lapwings. During the winter months the skies fill with visiting waterfowl such as pink-footed geese and wigeons, not to mention birds of prey that can set flocks wheeling over the marshes.

 

There are two hides, a viewing platform and three viewing screens. If you're new to birdwatching, why not come on one of our special event days?

 

Opening times

8.30 am to 5 pm every day.

 

Entrance charges

Free, but donations to help us continue our work here are welcome.

 

If you are new to birdwatching...

Extensive events programme and ABB events take place - all aimed at beginners. Birds all-year and plenty of them.

 

Information for dog owners

Some access for dogs - please contact reserve for details

  

Star species

Our star species are some of the most interesting birds you may see on your visit to the reserve.

  

Avocet

Watch elegant avocets 'scooping up' microscopic, aquatic life in their amazing, sickle-shaped beaks. They nest in mini colonies on the islands.

   

Black-tailed godwit

Flocks of black-tailed godwits can be seen on in spring - when they rest and feed here before heading north to Iceland to breed - they are resplendent in their 'tomato soup-red' breeding attire. On their return in autumn, you can pick out the scaly-backed juvenile birds if you look closely. Some birds also spend summer here.

  

Lapwing

Watch the nesting lapwings here chasing predators that may come too close to their nests or show too much of an interest in their chicks. The protective parents regularly give chase to crows and do not stop their 'mobbing' attacks until the danger has passed.

  

Pink-footed goose

Many pink-footed geese assemble here from late September through to March. They roost on the mudflats and fly inland at dawn to feed in nearby fields.

  

Wigeon

During winter, flocks of wigeons are a daily sight, with several thousand often on the reserve. Wintering birds arrive from early September and numbers build up to a peak, usually in January.

   

Seasonal highlights

Each season brings a different experience at our nature reserves. In spring, the air is filled with birdsong as they compete to establish territories and attract a mate. In summer, look out for young birds making their first venture into the outside world. Autumn brings large movements of migrating birds - some heading south to a warmer climate, others seeking refuge in the UK from the cold Arctic winter. In winter, look out for large flocks of birds gathering to feed, or flying at dusk to form large roosts to keep warm.

 

Spring

Lapwings tumble in excitable displays over the nesting areas. Early morning is the best time to see the hares 'boxing'. Watch out for the first wheatears and swallows to arrive from Africa. The flood-waters are retreating, leaving muddy edges - look out for migrating waders like common sandpipers and ruffs. There are still large numbers of wigeons, teals, black-tailed godwits and other water birds biding their time or passing through on their way north.

  

Summer

Redshanks and avocets scold you from a distance as they watch over their chicks. The grass is peppered with the colours of wildflowers. Wall brown and common blue butterflies are found along the paths on warm, sunny days. Grey herons stalk the ditches. Summering black-tailed godwits can be found in the wetter spots.

  

Autumn

A dashing falcon at this time of year could be a merlin just in from Iceland. Look for skeins of pink-footed geese flying to and from their roost out on the mudflats at dusk and dawn. Migrant hawker dragonflies patrol the ditches on sunny days. Wigeon and teal numbers begin to build up.

  

Winter

You will be sure to see huge flocks of wigeons, teals, lapwings and golden plovers wheeling and turning over the marshes. Look out for the bird of prey that has caused the panic. It could be a kestrel, merlin, peregrine or sparrowhawk or perhaps one of the voracious great black-backed gulls that patrol these marshes.

  

Facilities

 

Facilities

•Information centre

•Car park : Free car park (local authority). Bicycle rack at Sandgrounders Hide.

•Toilets

•Disabled toilets

•Group bookings accepted

•Guided walks available

•Good for walking

•Pushchair friendly

 

Viewing points

Two hides - both glazed, one heated. One viewing platform and three viewing screens.

 

Nature trails

Trail to Sandgrounders Hide from car park 200 m, wheelchair/pushchair-suitable. Trail from Nel's Hide to car park 550 m wheelchair/pushchair-suitable. Footpaths along old sea-wall and coast road make round trips of 1.8 miles (3 km), 2.5 miles (4 km) and 4.3 miles (7 km) possible for able-bodied.

  

Accessibility

This is a natural site with unimproved paths and trails - the access around this site may not be suitable for all visitors. If you have concerns, please contact the reserve or regional office before your visit to discuss your requirements.

  

How to get here

 

By train

Southport (Chapel Street Station) - follow London Street till it joins Lord Street and then go straight across Lord Street and on down Nevill Street to the Promenade; turn right to follow Marine Lake to its northern end; turn left onto Fairway and then right on to Marine Drive. Reserve begins at Hesketh Road after 0.6 mile (1 km; first turning on right). Total distance 1.8 miles (3 km).

 

By bus

Southport (War Memorial, Lord Street) to Crossens via Marshside Road. No.44 every 15 minutes. Get off at Elswick Road junction. Walk north 200 m along Marshside Road to start of reserve.

 

By road

From Southport, follow coast road north (1.5 miles or 2.5 km from Southport Pier) to small car park by sand works.

  

Our work here

Marshside protects 94 ha of coastal grassland and pools on the shores of the Ribble estuary.

The RSPB is managing the reserve to protect important populations of breeding waders and wintering wildfowl, plus other wildlife such as brown hares and wintering birds of prey. We are also developing the reserve as a popular visitor attraction.

 

Top targets

We are working towards five-year mean targets for key breeding birds. These include 80 pairs of lapwings, 10 pairs of avocets and 30 pairs of redshanks. We will also ensure that black-tailed godwits remain present through the breeding season and that breeding wildfowl numbers are stable.

Meanwhile, our October-March targets for non-breeding birds include at least 900 black-tailed godwits, 300 pink-footed geese, 6,000 wigeons, 1,500 teals, 100 shovelers and 750 golden plovers.

 

Grassland gains

We are improving our grassland for breeding waders, using summer grazing with cattle and topping, where necessary, to create suitable sward heights. We will retain a tussocky structure, and will ensure that up to 33 ha of grassland holds permanent surface water in winter. We will also increase our small area of ungrazed grassland and preserve the extent of our ‘dune-slack’ grassland, which is rich in wildlife.

 

Water and swamp

We will ensure that all permanent water bodies are at least 10 cm deep from the start of June. We will also increase the extent of open water in pools and ditches, by rotationally cleaning and re-profiling ditches. We will dig new ditches and create small pools to break up waterless ‘plain’ areas, and will excavate to create 1 ha of open water and an additional 1 ha of swamp.

 

Keeping tabs

Constant monitoring helps us to manage the site and contribute to research projects elsewhere. We focus on breeding waders, lapwing nest productivity and wintering wildfowl, as well as water voles, natterjack toads and butterflies. We also monitor sward height, cattle numbers, the levels and quality of water, and the extent and quality of grassland.

 

People

We are continuing to improve visitor facilities, making our hides, nature trails and footpaths accessible to all. We also run a varied events programme and will keep developing our volunteer scheme.

   

Contact us

•Tel: 01704 226190

Where is it?

•Lat/lng: 53.67694,-2.98096

•Grid reference: SD353205

•Nearest town: Southport, Merseyside

•County: Merseyside

•Country: England

 

Extention Tubes 65mm (13mm, 21mm & 31mm) Attached To 60mm Lens.

Edge Of Flash Gun Placed Next to Sponge With Sponge At A Slight Angle.

The extent of southern US snow

macro snail bokeh

Paris | 2016

Pancolar Carl Zeiss Jena DDR 50mm f/1.8 @ 1.8 + 31mm macro extention ring

The weight of what they had done, smashed onto them with the might of a felled Endor redwood. With a terrified gulp, they all as one, realised the full extent of their calamitous blunder.

 

The celebration of the big party had simply, gone to their heads. The acquisition of their new "big dog" had left them feeling optimistically invulnerable.

 

When Logray suggested they mark the occasion by, "finishing off the last of the Endor spirit vine,"

 

it had seemed like a good idea..

 

For some reason Chief Chirpa didn't question the ridiculously large shamanic dose which Logray authoritatively passed around. Carried away by the moment, he, like his brethren, had greedily, heroically, stupidly imbibed the foul tasting concoction.

 

Inebriated by the novelty of all the recent new experiences, they had excitedly climbed and clambered into the head of the dosing metallic behemoth..

 

Feeling elated by their outlandish battle success, proud warriors and defenders of their tribe; mythical even, they had become true Ewoks.

 

They had many previous experiences with the spirit vine, but never at this dosage. They had somehow, ridiculously, ingested almost ten times their normal amount.

 

It had come on fast. Way too ******* fast.

 

The initial euphoric sensational head to toe bodily rushes of extreme pleasure, threatened to lift their very souls into the ether to dance with the forest spirits. Then it actually happened, collectively they left their bodies and twirled and swirled in love, light, joy and peace. A truly wondrous experience, none had ever imagined possible . Words could not describe the synesthesia between vision and feelings they experienced.

 

Soon, too soon, they returned to their cosy, fury bodies. The strangely lit, glowing glass captured their enhanced attention and threw their primitive minds into a confused future. The electric dance of the display initially entrapped and dazzled their deepening perception, but they were soon mesmerically shocked by violent visions from the past acts of the dark spirit of the men who had created the demonic killing device.

 

It hadn't taken long for the fear to tighten its menacing grip. It seemed to all of them four present that the beast was never going to let them escape its metallic evil clutches.

Terrible visions of what this technology would do to the future of their race splashed into and twisted their inebriated nervous systems.

 

Well now, as reality plunged into a swirling singularity, the deep hum of the AT-AT engine combined with the unbearable hallucinogenic throb, threatening to engulf and explode their very existence, by the golden levitating God of the stars, it was time to pay the price for their mistake.

 

Blog: onlyhope1977.wordpress.com

 

More land was converted to cropland in the 30 years after 1950 than in the 150 years between 1700 and 1850. Cultivated systems (areas where at least 30% of the landscape is in croplands,shifting cultivation, confined livestock production, or freshwater aquaculture) now cover one quarter of Earth’s terrestrial surface.

 

For any form of publication, please include the link to this page:

www.grida.no/resources/6064

 

This photo has been graciously provided to be used in the GRID-Arendal resources library by: Philippe Rekacewicz, Emmanuelle Bournay, UNEP/GRID-Arendal

London headquarters of Channel Four Television, including offices, post-production edit suites, restaurant, screening room and originally a studio. Built to designs by Richard Rogers Partnership (partner in charge, John Young), 1992-1994. Structural engineers Ove Arup and Partners.

 

The mapping of the listed building does not reflect the full extent of its below-ground footprint.

Reasons for Designation

124-126 Horseferry Road, built as the headquarters of Channel Four Television to designs by Richard Rogers Partnership 1992-94, is listed at Grade II for the following principal reasons:

 

Architectural interest:

 

* as an elegant work of the High-tech movement, displaying many of its key principles, such as the separation of services from the spaces served, the use of prefabricated elements and a technological aesthetic based upon expressed structure and exposed services; * for its logical L-plan with a dynamic, highly articulated corner composition and entrance sequence, dominated by a curved, top-hung, structural glass wall; * for the sophistication of its design, in which intricate details, executed in a consistent palette of materials, are integrated into a rigorous modular framework; * for its sequence of three linked interior spaces, centring on the dramatic full-height entrance atrium, to which are connected the fan-shaped restaurant and the subterranean screening room and foyer; * as a late-C20 exemplar of both a prestigious, owner-occupied headquarters building and a television centre, equipped primarily for the commissioning, but not the production of television programming, as per Channel 4’s remit; * for its designed flexibility to allow for changing technologies and operational needs, combining set-piece interiors with adaptable office workspaces; * for its degree of survival, with little alteration externally or to its key interior spaces.

 

Historic interest:

 

* as the purpose-built headquarters of Channel 4, a key player in television broadcasting history, commercially funded but with a public-service remit to provide innovative and diverse programming; * as an important British work by Richard Rogers Partnership, a practice of international renown led by one of Britain’s most celebrated architects.

History

124-126 Horseferry Road was built in 1992-1994 as the headquarters for Channel 4, a publicly owned, commercially-funded public service broadcaster, established with a remit to make innovative, experimental and distinctive programmes. After launching on 2 November 1982, its audience share gradually increased and the station soon outgrew its collection of rented offices in the West End. The switch to digital broadcasting also loomed. The chief executive, Michael Grade, and the chairman, Sir Richard Attenborough, took the decision to build a new headquarters. A suitable site was found at the junction of Horseferry Road and Chadwick Street, and a limited competition held in late 1990.

 

The commission was won by the Richard Rogers Partnership (RRP), who then explored the organisation’s needs through a series of workshops. As Channel 4 was a commissioner and transmitter, but not a producer of programmes, their main requirements were for offices and prestigious spaces to receive clients. The office space was specified to institutional standards so that the building could be readily let or sold in the event of a future move. A 10m deep basement already existed from a previous stalled development, so production and transmission facilities and a minimal studio occupied two subterranean levels, with provision made in the design for adding windows to the lower ground floor in the future, and flooring over the double-height studio to make the space more flexible.

 

RRP proposed a perimeter plan that reinforced the street pattern. Office wings at right angles were hinged by a ‘knuckle’, containing an entrance atrium and restaurant, with offices above. Behind the building a public garden was created, framed to the south and east by a separate housing development which fulfilled a planning condition set by Westminster City Council. In 2007 ‘the big 4’, a metal sculpture designed by Nick Knight and based on the channel’s current on-air identity was erected in the small piazza at the front of the building.

 

Richard Rogers was one of a group of British architects responsible for the High-tech movement, which originated in the 1960s with in a series of loose-fit industrial structures. By the 1980s High-tech architecture was increasingly being translated into urban contexts and cultural commissions. 124-126 Horseferry Road demonstrates many of its key principles, such as the separation of services from the spaces served, the use of prefabricated elements and a technological aesthetic based upon expressed structure and exposed services. It was Rogers’ first central London job after the Lloyd’s Building (1978-1986, listed Grade I), a seminal work of High-tech architecture. The image of Lloyds’ seems to have loomed large. For John Young, partner in charge, 124-126 Horseferry Road is ‘a building in the Lloyds mould.’ (Powell, 2001, 173).

 

The building’s drama is focussed on the entrance front; its transparency revealing the principal interior spaces, giving views right through the building to the public garden, and glimpses of working life within. ‘The effect, especially at night, is televisual’, commented Jonathan Glancey, (The Independent, 1994). The office wings are conventional in their planning and the building was designed to meet the bespoke needs of the client, as well as to be sufficiently adaptable should those needs change, or the building be sold.

 

124-126 Horseferry Road was a BBC Design Awards Finalist 1996 and won a RIBA National Award 1995; Royal Fine Art Commission Award 1995 and Civic Trust Award 1996. Since its opening the building has undergone several phases of internal refurbishment, including, in about 2010, the flooring-over of the double-height basement studio and repurposing of the space for various other uses. Externally, the building is largely unaltered.

 

Television as a broadcasting phenomenon began in the 1930s, with the first regular television service in the world introduced on 2 November 1936 by the BBC. The BBC’s monopoly was broken by the Television Act 1954, which created commercially funded Independent Television (ITV), served by regional franchised networks. Channel 4 arrived in 1982, established under the provisions of the 1980 Broadcasting Act. The act provided for a new, fourth, channel with a remit to ‘encourage innovation and experiment in the form and content of programmes’; its output was to be distinctive, offering programming for tastes not catered for by the commercial broadcaster ITV.

 

Its organisational model was equally distinctive, funded by advertising but adhering to a public service remit, it didn’t produce its own programming, instead commissioning and purchasing material from independent production companies. It employed commissioning editors to nurture the various strands and genres of the channel’s output and made particular efforts to employ people outside the television industry who could bring new and non-traditional perspectives. This meant new voices and new talents, and a greater plurality of programming and representation, including minorities. Channel 4 still proclaims its role as a ‘disruptive, innovative force in UK Broadcasting’ (Channel4.com, accessed 3 December 2021). Channel 4 has been major contributor to the British cultural landscape of the last four decades.

 

Richard Rogers, later Lord Rogers of Riverside, (1933-2021) was born in Florence. He trained at the Architectural Association and Yale University before setting up the Team 4 practice with Norman Foster and others in 1962. Their house for his in-laws, Creekvean in Feock, Cornwall (1964-1967) was listed Grade II in 1998 and upgraded to Grade II* in 2002. Rogers subsequently formed an architectural practice with his then wife, Su Rogers, and from 1970-1977, worked with the Italian architect Renzo Piano. Their Pompidou Centre building in Paris, which opened in 1977, is a major landmark of the High-tech style. Richard Rogers Partnership was formed the same year, with John Young, a veteran team member from Team 4 days, as one of several partners. The Lloyd’s Building together with the Pompidou sealed an international reputation. Other major works by Rogers include: the European Court of Human Rights, Strasbourg (1989-1995), Terminal 4 at Barajas Airport in Madrid (2004), the National Assembly of Wales in Cardiff (2005) and Terminal 5 at Heathrow Airport (2008). Rogers won the RIBA Royal Gold Medal in 1985, was knighted in 1991 and was created Baron Rogers of Riverside in 1996. In 2007 the Richard Rogers Partnership was renamed Rogers Stirk Harbour and Partners to reflect the practice‘s succession plan.

Details

Once national, now regional, headquarters of Channel Four Television, including offices, post-production edit suites, restaurant, screening room and originally a studio. Built to designs by Richard Rogers Partnership (partner in charge, John Young),1992-1994. Structural engineers Ove Arup and Partners.

 

MATERIALS: the majority of the building has a reinforced concrete frame with metal and glass cladding. The conference rooms have a steel pin-jointed frame and the atrium frontage is of glass, suspended from above and held in tension by a steel cabling system devised by Arup.

 

PLAN: the building is L-shaped in plan, occupying the corner between Horseferry Road to the west and Chadwick Street to the north, with rectangular office wings fronting each road and a concave quadrant knuckle connecting the two and framing a small piazza facing the road junction. The building has four floors above a basement and lower-ground floor levels. To the rear are two terraces; one at ground-floor level, above the larger footprint of the two lower floors, and one at third floor, where the footprint of the central knuckle is set back from the floors below.

 

Each office wing has two internal service cores and externally-expressed stair towers at each end. There is a lift tower at the far end of the Chadwick Street wing and three wall-climber lifts facing Horseferry Road, adjacent to the piazza. The basement level is given over to plant, storage, staff well-being facilities and edit suites. The lower-ground floor is a mixture of open-plan office space, meeting rooms and staff facilities; the main area of interest is the fan-shaped screening room with its circular foyer beneath the piazza, and stair connecting it to the atrium above. The ground floor contains the atrium reception area and large curved restaurant on a slightly lower level behind, overlooking the garden; the office blocks are given over to open-plan work space and a loading bay. First, second and third floors are mainly open-plan work space, with some meeting rooms and private offices as well. Key aspects of the building’s layout are original, including the screening room and foyer, reception atrium and restaurant. There has been reconfiguration in other parts, in particular the flooring-over of the studio, reconfiguration of the editing-suites and the removal of rows of perimeter offices.

 

EXTERIOR: the building’s key aspect faces onto the Horseferry Road/ Chadwick Street junction. The ends of the office wings are pulled back from the corner and the piazza is framed by a High-tech composition of glass and graphite-coloured steel, aluminium and cladding panels, punctuated by vertical flashes of red-painted structural steelwork. The full-height, concave, structural glass wall of the atrium is at the centre, suspended from above by a steel frame. Flanking it to either side are radiused stair towers. The stair towers have bands of glazing following the line of the stair within, almost uninterrupted by vertical supports because the cladding is supported internally on rods hung from above. To the left is a stack of conference rooms with glazed end walls, elevated and supported by a red pin-jointed steel frame. To the right is a stack of glazed lift lobbies serving a bank of three external ‘wall-climber’ lifts running along red steelwork; above are boxed-out service elements and a quasi-Constructivist transmission tower, creating a strong vertical element in the composition. Boiler flues add further interest to the roofline.

 

The piazza has shallow steps and flanking ramps which lead to a circular space immediately in front of the building. The centre of this is occupied by a circular skylight lighting the foyer of the screening room below; a bridge sheltered by a glass canopy stretches across it to a pair of revolving entrance doors. The sculpture, ‘the big 4’* stands towards the front edge of the piazza.

 

The office wings are clad with glazed panels of powder-coated aluminium, at ground floor these are set back behind the exposed concrete posts of the building’s frame, and above they are jettied out slightly, meeting at the corners with narrow, vertical, fully-glazed units. The panels each have four rebated horizontal glazed units divided by a fin-like transom, the lowest unit also having a band of sunscreen steel mesh in front. The floor plates are faced with panelled steel units. The facing components meet with a narrow shadow gap and the overall effect is of a modelled grid with a horizontal emphasis. The rear elevations, both to the office wings and the convexly curved knuckle, follow this aesthetic.

 

INTERIOR: the atrium is the building’s key public-facing interior space. The curved, full-height glazed wall is held in tension by a complex network of steel cables and suspended from above by exposed red steelwork. Set back from the wall, and above the ground-floor reception area, are curved cantilevered walkways at each floor, open to the atrium and floored in concrete panels set with circular glass blocks; behind, offices are enclosed by glazed walls.

 

Behind the reception, at a slightly lower level, is the staff restaurant. This has been refurbished a number of times but retains its distinctive fan shape, exposed concrete ceiling and glazed walls looking out onto the terrace.

 

The screening room, beneath the piazza, has a fan-shaped auditorium and circular foyer. Both spaces have been refurbished but retain perforated steel acoustic panelling and exposed concrete structural elements. The walls of the anti-room are hung with a chain curtain and the space is lit from above by the circular skylight in the piazza pavement; the glazing is held in a steel, umbrella-like structure. A concrete stair with steel balustrade leads from the foyer up to the atrium above.

 

The stairs in the four towers are dog-legged, red with stainless steel tubular balustrades; the treads and risers are of folded steel, supported at the half landings by flanged I-beam newels.

 

The interior most relevant to the building’s special interest are addressed in the paragraphs above. Throughout the rest of the building, the smooth round concrete posts and other concrete structural elements are visible, but spaces have been reconfigured and refurbished to suit operational needs.

 

* Pursuant to s1 (5A) of the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 (‘the Act’) it is declared that ‘the big 4’ sculpture on the building’s piazza is not of special architectural or historic interest, however any works which have the potential to affect the character of the listed building as a building of special architectural or historic interest may still require LBC and this is a matter for the LPA to determine.

The extent of the line side growth is evident as 66704 hauls the 6E51 to Selby out of Peak Forest.

Shortly after, 66143 ran down to Peak Forest long sidings with its fully loaded rake of MMA boxes.

Tuesday 30 July 2024

This province, called Tebet, is of very great extent. The people, as I have told you, have a language of their own, and they are Idolaters, and they border on Manzi and sundry other regions. Moreover, they are very great thieves.

 

The country is, in fact, so great that it embraces eight kingdoms, and a vast number of cities and villages.{1} It contains in several quarters rivers and lakes, in which gold-dust is found in great abundance.{2} Cinnamon also grows there in great plenty. Coral is in great demand in this country and fetches a high price, for they delight to hang it round the necks of their women and of their idols.{3} They have also in this country plenty of fine woollens and other stuffs, and many kinds of spices are produced there which are never seen in our country.

 

Among this people, too, you find the best enchanters and astrologers that exist in all that quarter of the world; they perform such extraordinary marvels and sorceries by diabolic art, that it astounds one to see or even hear of them. So I will relate none of them in this book of ours; people would be amazed if they heard them, but it would serve no good purpose.

Südafrika - Kleine Karoo

 

Red Stone Hills

 

Sunset - Sonnenuntergang

 

The Karoo (/kəˈruː/ kə-ROO; from a Khoikhoi word, possibly garo "desert") is a semi-desert natural region of South Africa. There is no exact definition of what constitutes the Karoo, and therefore its extent is also not precisely defined. The Karoo is partly defined by its topography, geology and climate — above all, its low rainfall, arid air, cloudless skies, and extremes of heat and cold. The Karoo also hosted a well-preserved ecosystem hundreds of million years ago which is now represented by many fossils.

 

The Karoo is sharply divided into the Great Karoo and the Little Karoo by the Swartberg Mountain Range, which runs east-west, parallel to the southern coastline, but is separated from the sea by another east-west range called the Outeniqua –Langeberg Mountains. The Great Karoo lies to the north of the Swartberg range; the Little Karoo is to the south of it.

 

The Little Karoo is separated from the Great Karoo by the Swartberg Mountain range. Geographically, it is a 290 km long valley, only 40–60 km wide, formed by two parallel Cape Fold Mountain ranges, the Swartberg to the north, and the continuous Langeberg-Outeniqua range to the south. The northern strip of the valley, within 10–20 km from the foot of the Swartberg mountains is most un-karoo-like, in that it is a well watered area both from the rain, and the many streams that cascade down the mountain, or through narrow defiles in the Swartberg from the Great Karoo. The main towns of the region are situated along this northern strip of the Little Karoo: Montagu, Barrydale, Ladismith, Calitzdorp, Oudtshoorn and De Rust, as well as such well-known mission stations such as Zoar, Amalienstein, and Dysselsdorp.

 

The southern 30–50 km wide strip, north of the Langeberg range is as arid as the western Lower Karoo, except in the east, where the Langeberg range (arbitrarily) starts to be called the Outeniqua Mountains.

 

The Little Karoo can only be accessed by road through the narrow defiles cut through the surrounding Cape Fold Mountains by ancient, but still flowing rivers. A few roads traverse the mountains over passes, the most famous and impressive of which is the Swartberg Pass between Oudtshoorn in the Little Karoo and Prince Albert on the other side of the Swartberg mountains in the Great Karoo. There is also the main road between Oudtshoorn and George, on the coastal plain, that crosses the mountains to the south via the Outeniqua Pass. The only exit from the Little Karoo that does not involve crossing a mountain range is through the 150 km long, narrow Langkloof valley between Uniondale and Humansdorp, near Plettenberg Bay.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Die Karoo (auch Karroo, früher Karru; Khoisan für Halbwüste) ist eine Halbwüstenlandschaft in den Hochebenen des Landes Südafrika, nördlich der Großen Randstufe und im südlichen Namibia. Unterschieden werden Kleine Karoo, Große Karoo und Obere Karoo sowie Sukkulentenkaroo und Nama-Karoo. Mit einer Ausdehnung von 500.000 km² umfasst die Karoo fast ein Drittel des Territoriums Südafrikas. Die Sukkulentenkaroo gehört zu den Biodiversitäts-Hotspots der Erde und wird u. a. im Rahmen von BIOTA AFRICA systematisch kartiert.

 

Der Name Karoo kommt von kurú (trocken) aus der Sprache der San, die einst hier lebten und jagten. In Hinsicht auf die geographische Ausdehnung des Karoo-Begriffs sind die folgenden Teilaspekte zu beachten und voneinander zu unterscheiden.

 

Die Karoo als Landschaft im traditionellen Verständnis ist eine südafrikanische Trockenregion innerhalb der Provinzen Westkap, Ostkap und Nordkap sowie im Süden Namibias. Ihre spezifische kapländische Strauchvegetation weist sie als Halbwüste aus. Ursprünglich wird in zwei Regionen unterschieden: Große Karoo und Kleine Karoo.

 

Die Große Karoo besitzt eine West-Ost-Ausdehnung von über 750 Kilometern und eine Nord-Süd-Ausdehnung von etwa 110 Kilometern. Sie wird im Westen vom Massiv der Zederberge und im Osten durch die Winterberge begrenzt. Im Norden bilden die Bergketten vom Roggeveld-, Koms-, Nuweveldberge und Sneeuberg und im Süden die Höhenzüge der Witteberge, Groot Swartberge und die Groot Winterhoek die natürliche Begrenzung.

 

Südlich dieser Region schließt sich die Kleine Karoo an. Diese wird wiederum an ihrer südlichen Flanke von den küstennahen Langebergen und Outeniqua-Bergen begrenzt.

 

Anders als in dieser traditionellen Gliederung, wird die Karoo heute nach ökologischen Gesichtspunkten in einen östlichen Teil, die Nama-Karoo, und einen westlichen Teil, die Sukkulenten-Karoo, gegliedert, wobei auch die Gesamtausdehnung der Karoo nach diesem Konzept von jener der traditionellen Betrachtungsweise abweicht.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Die Little Karoo (englisch, auf Afrikaans Klein Karoo) ist eine Region in der Western Cape Provinz in Südafrika.

 

Durch die Little Karoo zieht sich die Route 62.

 

Die Klein Karoo ist ein halbwüstenartiger Landstrich, der zwischen den Swartbergen im Norden und den Outeniqua-Bergen im Süden liegt. Die Gegend ist fruchtbar und nicht ganz so trocken wie die nördlich anschließende Große Karoo. Die Kleine Karoo ist bekannt für die Straußenzucht, allein in der Umgebung von Oudtshoorn gibt es angeblich über 400 Betriebe, landwirtschaftliche Nutztiere der Region sind auch Schafe und Angoraziegen.

 

Die Kleine Karoo ist das östlichste Weinbaugebiet Südafrikas. Muskatweine, Portweine und Desertweine gedeihen in dem recht trockenen Klima, ein Teil des Weines wird zu Brandy verarbeitet. Auch das hier angebaute Obst wird teilweise zu Schnaps verarbeitet, man bekommt aber auch überall recht preisgünstig getrocknete Früchte.

 

(wikivoyage.org)

Fork-tailed Woodnymph

 

A text, in english, from Birdlife International:

 

Justification

This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence 30% decline over ten years or three generations). The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.

 

Taxonomic source(s)

del Hoyo, J.; Collar, N. J.; Christie, D. A.; Elliott, A.; Fishpool, L. D. C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International.

SACC. 2006. A classification of the bird species of South America. Available at: #http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCBaseline.html#.

 

Population justification

The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).

 

Trend justification

This species is suspected to lose 15.9-17.6% of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations (12 years) based on a model of Amazonian deforestation (Soares-Filho et al. 2006, Bird et al. 2011). It is therefore suspected to decline by <25% over three generations.

 

References

Stotz, D. F.; Fitzpatrick, J. W.; Parker, T. A.; Moskovits, D. K. 1996. Neotropical birds: ecology and conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

 

Further web sources of information

Explore HBW Alive for further information on this species

 

Search for photos and videos,and hear sounds of this species from the Internet Bird Collection

 

Text account compilers

Ekstrom, J., Butchart, S.

 

IUCN Red List evaluators

Butchart, S., Symes, A.

 

Recommended citation

BirdLife International (2015) Species factsheet: Thalurania furcata. Downloaded from www.birdlife.org on 14/12/2015. Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2015) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from www.birdlife.org on 14/12/2015.

 

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

 

To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife

 

To contribute to discussions on the evaluation of the IUCN Red List status of Globally Threatened Birds, please visit BirdLife's Globally Threatened Bird Forums.

 

Beija-flor-tesoura-verde

Texto, em português, da WikiAves:

 

O beija-flor-tesoura-verde é uma ave da ordem dos Apodiformes, da família Trochilidae.

 

Também é conhecido como beija-flor-de-barriga-violeta. No livro Aves do Brasil, edição Pantanal e Cerrado, consta como beija-flor-de-ventre-roxo.

Seu nome significa: do (grego) thalos = criança, descendente de; e ouranos céu, celeste, referente ao azul do céu; e do (latim) furcata, furcatus = bifurcada. ⇒ Pássaro filho do azul celeste com cauda bifurcada.

Mede cerca de 9,7 cm de comprimento. Macho com partes superiores esverdeadas, garganta verde-metálica, peito e barriga azul-violeta-brilhante; fêmea com as partes inferiores cinza.

Possui doze subespécies:

 

Thalurania furcata furcata (Gmelin, 1788) - ocorre no extremo Leste da Venezuela, Guianas e Norte do Brasil, ao norte do Rio Amazonas;

Thalurania furcata refulgens (Gould, 1853) - ocorre no Nordeste da Venezuela, na Península de Paría e na Serra de Cumaná;

Thalurania furcata fissilis (Berlepsch & Hartert, 1902) - ocorre no Leste da Venezuela, e na região adjacente no extremo Oeste da Guiana e Nordeste do Brasil;

Thalurania furcata nigrofasciata (Gould, 1846) - ocorre do Sudoeste da Colômbia até o extremo Sul da Venezuela e Noroeste do Brasil;

Thalurania furcata viridipectus (Gould, 1848) - ocorre do Leste da Cordilheira dos Andes na Leste da Colômbia até o Nordeste do Peru;

Thalurania furcata jelskii (Taczanowski, 1874) - ocorre na região tropical Leste do Peru e na região adjacente no Brasil;

Thalurania furcata simoni (Hellmayr, 1906) - ocorre na Amazônia ao Sul do Rio Amazonas no extremo Leste do Peru e no Oeste do Brasil;

Thalurania furcata balzani (Simon, 1896) - ocorre na região Norte e Central do Brasil ao sul do Rio Amazonas;

Thalurania furcata furcatoides (Gould, 1861) - ocorre no baixo Rio Amazonas, na região Leste do Brasil ao Sul do Rio Amazonas;

Thalurania furcata boliviana (Boucard, 1894) - ocorre nos sopés da Cordilheira dos Andes no Sudeste do Peru e no Nordeste da Bolívia;

Thalurania furcata baeri (Hellmayr, 1907) - ocorre da região Central e Nordeste do Brasil até o Sudeste da Bolívia e no Norte da Argentina;

Thalurania furcata eriphile (Lesson, 1832) - ocorre do Sudeste do Brasil, Leste do Paraguai até o Nordeste da Argentina, na região de Misiones.

Alimenta-se em flores à pouca altura, buscando também insetos na vegetação ou capturando-os no ar.

Faz ninho em forma de taça profunda, preso por teias de aranha a forquilhas ou pequenos ramos, a cerca de 2 m de altura. Põe 2 ovos brancos. Os filhotes deixam o ninho após 18 a 24 dias.

Comum no sub-bosque de florestas altas, capoeiras e florestas de várzea. Vive solitário, defendendo seu território de maneira agressiva.

Distribuição Geográfica:

Quase todo o Brasil, da Amazônia ao Paraná. Encontrado também do México à Bolívia, Paraguai e Argentina.

Referências:

Portal Brasil 500 Pássaros, Beija-flor-tesoura-verde - Disponível em webserver.eln.gov.br/Pass500/BIRDS/1birds/p159.htm Acesso em 09 mai. 2009

CLEMENTS, J. F.; The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World. Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2005.

 

Classificação Científica

Reino: Animalia

Filo: Chordata

Classe: Aves

Ordem: Apodiformes

Família: Trochilidae

Vigors, 1825

Subfamília: Trochilinae

Vigors, 1825

Espécie: T. furcata

Nome Científico

Thalurania furcata

(Gmelin, 1788)

Nome em Inglês

Fork-tailed Woodnymph

 

Estado de Conservação

(IUCN 3.1)

Pouco Preocupante

Not sure what the extent of the work will be here, but there are new copper lines being installed overhead in addition to the bottom panels removed as seen here. I'll try to get another update sometime soon.

 

Apologies, as uploads are likely to be light at times during the early part of fall at least (due to some of my own renovations/improvements due to get underway at l_dawg headquarters) :P For this week I've resorted to just doing a few uploads from work in fact.

The extent range of the Flattened Musk Turtle is the Black Warrior River system, most of which is within the boundaries of the Bankhead National Forest in Northern Alabama. They are considered critically endangered due to habitat destruction caused by siltation and damming of the rivers they call home.

 

The clear, clean rivers they occupy occur above the fall line which are riddled with boulders, exposed bedrock and large cliffs. They have evolved a low-profile shell which allows them to squeeze between, and under, rocks and also aides in the their movement within the water column of these swift waters.

Looking through one of not many gaps down by the road at Dove Holes now as the greenery has well and truly taken over and ruined the spot.... I don't think me an my saw would even be able to tackle the extent its got to now here unfortunately, another spot with limited places to fot now.

66703 & 66432 at Dove Holes Cemex 26/08/2022

Contax 645 13mm extention tube. 80mm lens.Kodak Ektar.

After inspecting northern pastoral lands in South Australia, devastated by a drought in 1864 - 1865, Surveyor-General George Woodroffe Goyder advised the colonial government to discourage farmers from planting crops to the north of a line delineating the extent of the 12-inch (30cm) annual rainfall.

 

Goyder’s findings were embodied in the first schedule of the Waste Lands Alienation Act 1872, which permitted farmers to purchase land on credit only within designated agricultural areas. From east to west, ‘Goyder’s Line of Rainfall’ ran approximately from the Hundred of Pinnaroo, swung northwest to the Hundred of Commooroo and the Melrose area, southwest through Yorke Peninsula to the Hundred of Wallaroo, then northwest across Eyre Peninsula from the Hundred of Hawker to south of Darke’s Peak, and across to the Hundred of Chilundie near Thevenard.

 

The law was short-lived; favourable seasons in the north encouraged the government to pass Act No. 22 of 1874 repealing the 1872 Act and allowing the sale of land under credit agreement outside ‘Goyder’s Line’. A run of bad seasons in the 1880s halted the northward progression, forcing many farmers to abandon their homesteads and, more often than not, a severely eroded landscape.

 

Surveyor-General George Woodroffe Goyder:

 

George Woodroffe Goyder (1826 - 1898), surveyor-general, was baptized on the 16th of July 1826 at Liverpool, England, son of David George Goyder, physician and Swedenborgian minister, and his wife Sarah, née Etherington. The family later moved to Glasgow where George studied surveying and was articled to a railway engineer. He migrated to Sydney in 1848. After three years with an auctioneering firm he visited Melbourne and went to Adelaide where he decided to settle. In June 1851 he entered the South Australian civil service as a draftsman and on 10 December at Christ Church, North Adelaide, married Frances Mary Smith.

 

Goyder joined the Department of Lands as chief clerk in January 1853. In quick stages he rose from second assistant to assistant surveyor-general in January 1857. In April he took charge of an exploration to report on country north of pastoral settlement. He was amazed to find Lake Torrens full of fresh water and its flourishing eastern surroundings very different from the desert described by Edward Eyre in 1839. His exuberant report persuaded the surveyor-general, Captain (Sir) Arthur Freeling, to examine the area in September. No more rain had fallen but hot winds had killed the vegetation and turned the lake into a bed of mud. Freeling returned to criticize Goyder for mistaking flood for permanent water, being misled by mirage and misconceiving the value of the northern country. Although Goyder had proved that Eyre's horseshoe of salt lakes was penetrable and thereby opened the way to further exploration, he was too conscientious to ignore his blunder and in 1859 at his own request led survey parties to triangulate the country between Lakes Torrens and Eyre and to sink wells. When Freeling resigned Goyder was recalled from the north to become surveyor-general on 19 January 1861 at a salary of £700.

 

Goyder's northern surveys had attracted many large pastoralists who soon demanded modified conditions for their leases. With extra duties as inspector of mines and valuator of runs Goyder went north to classify grazing leases, rents and rights of renewal. In less than twenty months he rode over 20,000 miles (32,186 km), visiting 83 stations and handling his departmental correspondence each night. When his valuations were published the outback lessees complained bitterly and inside pastoralists demanded re-assessment while smallholders and urban anti-squatters condemned any concession to hungry graziers. In this three-sided struggle four ministries rose and fell but Goyder stood firm. In 1865 three commissioners were sent north to reassess rents but found the country in severe drought. In November Goyder was directed to go north and from his own observations to lay down on the map 'the line of demarcation between that portion of the country where the rainfall has extended, and that where the drought prevails'. With a small mounted party he went to Swan Reach on the River Murray and thence north-west to Pekina, east to Melrose and returned through Crystal Brook to Adelaide. A map published in 1866 showed his line of travel with a wing sweeping east from the Murray to the Victorian border and another from Spencer Gulf far to the west.

 

Goyder's rainfall line was first used for the reassessment of leases and the relief of stricken pastoralists. After the drought broke in 1867 he cautiously admitted that his line separated 'to a certain extent' lands suitable for agriculture and those fit only for grazing. This statement strengthened the urban land reformers in the general election in April 1868. Led by Henry Strangways they introduced 'Agricultural Areas' where sections up to 320 acres (130 ha) were to be sold at auction on credit, thus enabling small farmers to compete against wealthy speculators. When the new Act was passed in January 1869 Goyder had chosen six areas, each with easy access to the coast. While the new sections were marked out he took 150 men to the Northern Territory where incompetence and delay in the surveys were causing much discontent. His prompt and firm action soon restored confidence. He recommended Palmerston (Darwin) as the capital site, completed the survey of 665,860 acres (269,467 ha) in six months, reported on traces of minerals and located a million acres (404,690 ha) of average quality suitable for the growth of tropical products. He sailed for Adelaide in November and next February visited Victoria to see the working of land regulations there. He disliked random selection before survey but his mission led to amendments of Strangways' Act. Liberal extensions of credit to new farmers and good seasons in the 1870s brought land sales of nine million acres (3,642,210 ha) for the decade. With larger sections and better opportunities to buy land in well-watered areas he discouraged attempts at farming beyond his line. He pursued this policy as chairman of the railways commission in 1874-75 but northern newspapers claimed that the southern districts were full and ridiculed the accuracy of the line. Scorning Goyder's warnings the government yielded in 1874 and made land available beyond the line. Farmers pushed north and had fair harvests but the onset of bad seasons in 1880 left them in dire distress. At great expense they had to be relocated south of the line, their sections reverting to sheep runs spoiled by wind erosion and destruction of native vegetation.

 

One of Goyder's many enterprises sprang from the colony's severe shortage of timber. He did his utmost to preserve trees and encourage planting. In 1873 he recommended the use of forest reserves and in 1875-83 was chairman of the Forest Board with John Ednie Brown as chief conservator. Another constant project of Goyder's was water conservation. Starting with wells and dams on northern stockroutes he persuaded the government to spend £300,000 on drainage in the south-east in 1867. In 1871 he inspected pumping machinery and irrigation works in Britain and America and returned to Adelaide with much knowledge of boring for artesian water. He advised many pastoralists on water problems and rejected such impracticable schemes as irrigating the Adelaide plain by a canal from the River Murray. His paper on the development of water conservation in 1883 indicated the immense scope of his inquiries.

 

Nicknamed 'Little Energy', Goyder was reputed the ablest administrator and most efficient public servant in the colony. A martinet in office hours he won the respect and affection of his subordinates. As 'king of the lands department' he served under 24 different commissioners of crown lands through 34 changes of ministry and helped to amend over 60 Lands Acts. Costs of his department rose from £15,000 in 1861 to £165,000 in 1883 when his power began to wane but in the same time he quadrupled the colony's revenue from land sales and leases. Disgruntled graziers, farmers and miners all charged him with partiality but it was never proved. In fixing rents, boundaries and valuations he was scrupulous and firm, and his rulings were tolerated because of his integrity and honour. In fieldwork his powers of observation were almost uncanny; he brought fortunes to many settlers but remained comparatively poor. He tendered his resignation in 1862, 1873 and 1878 but each time was persuaded to withdraw it by increments to his salary. He was earning £1250 a year when he retired on 30 June 1894 and was then given £4375 in lieu of a pension. In October leading citizens gave him a purse of a thousand sovereigns. He was appointed C.M.G. in 1889.

 

Goyder consistently overworked himself and his health suffered. For years after 1861 he had scurvy and in 1869 returned from Darwin with 'nervous and muscular debility' and was ordered complete rest. His wife was then recuperating in England where she died on 8 April 1870 at Bristol from an overdose of sleeping pills. In 1871 Goyder took nine months leave and visited Britain and America leaving his nine children with Ellen Priscilla Smith, his deceased wife's sister. On 20 November he married her: they had one son and twin daughters. Goyder died on 2 November 1898 at his home Warrakilla, near Aldgate, leaving an estate of £4000.

 

Source: SA History Hub & Australian Dictionary of Biography.

@Tokyo Bay Wild Birds Park, tokyo, apr/2009

Mamiya 645 Pro

Schneider Kreuznach Xenotar MF 80mm F2.8

(w/ Extention Tube)

 

Kodak E100G

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View On Black

 

  

153. People’s life as a rule fails through mediocre conditions, and not through the most negative conditions - since against the latter everyone to some extent defends themselves. But against mediocre conditions the majority of people are helpless: for these are not so bad that they would revolt against them, but bad enough to impede spiritual development.

 

191. The spiritual path even two thousand years ago was called the »narrow path«, or was compared to the edge of a sword. However, this path is not simply narrow, but is also getting narrower and more impassable. The »wide path«, on the contrary, which many people follow quite happily, is indeed a wayless way; a wide path, which is not a real path: it leads nowhere, to nothing, to death...

 

151. Most people are infantile until about the midpoint of their lives, that is until the age of thirty-six, and immediately after that from one day to another grow senile.

 

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