A snail is, in loose terms, a shelled gastropod. The name is most often applied to land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs. However, the common name snail is also used for most of the members of the molluscan class Gastropoda that have a coiled shell that is large enough for the animal to retract completely into. When the word "snail" is used in this most general sense, it includes not just land snails but also numerous species of sea snails and freshwater snails. Gastropods that naturally lack a shell, or have only an internal shell, are mostly called slugs, and land snails that have only a very small shell (that they cannot retract into) are often called semi-slugs.

 

Snails have considerable human relevance, including as food items, as pests, as vectors of disease, and their shells are used as decorative objects and are incorporated into jewelry. The snail has also had some cultural significance, and has been used as a metaphor.

 

OVERVIEW

Snails that respire using a lung belong to the group Pulmonata. As traditionally defined, the Pulmonata were found to be polyphyletic in a molecular study per Jörger et al., dating from 2010. But snails with gills also form a polyphyletic group; in other words, snails with lungs and snails with gills form a number of taxonomic groups that are not necessarily more closely related to each other than they are related to some other groups.

 

Both snails that have lungs and snails that have gills have diversified so widely over geological time that a few species with gills can be found on land and numerous species with lungs can be found in freshwater. Even a few marine species have lungs.

 

Snails can be found in a very wide range of environments, including ditches, deserts, and the abyssal depths of the sea. Although land snails may be more familiar to laymen, marine snails constitute the majority of snail species, and have much greater diversity and a greater biomass. Numerous kinds of snail can also be found in fresh water.

 

Most snails have thousands of microscopic tooth-like structures located on a banded ribbon-like tongue called a radula. The radula works like a file, ripping food into small pieces. Many snails are herbivorous, eating plants or rasping algae from surfaces with their radulae, though a few land species and many marine species are omnivores or predatory carnivores. Snails cannot absorb colored pigments when eating paper or cardboard so their feces are also colored.

 

Several species of the genus Achatina and related genera are known as giant African land snails; some grow to 38 cm from snout to tail, and weigh 1 kg). The largest living species of sea snail is Syrinx aruanus; its shell can measure up to 90 cm in length, and the whole animal with the shell can weigh up to 18 kg.

 

The snail Lymnaea makes decisions by using only two types of neurons: one deciding whether the snail is hungry, and the other deciding whether there is food in the vicinity.

 

The largest known land gastropod is the African giant snail Achatina achatina, the largest recorded specimen of which measured 39.3 centimetres from snout to tail when fully extended, with a shell length of 27.3 cm in December 1978. It weighed exactly 900 g. Named Gee Geronimo, this snail was owned by Christopher Hudson (1955–79) of Hove, East Sussex, UK, and was collected in Sierra Leone in June 1976.

 

TYPES OF SNAILS BY HABITAT

SLUGS

Gastropods that lack a conspicuous shell are commonly called slugs rather than snails. Some species of slug have a red shell, some have only an internal vestige that serves mainly as a calcium repository, and others have no shell at all. Other than that there is little morphological difference between slugs and snails. There are however important differences in habitats and behavior.

 

A shell-less animal is much more maneuverable and compressible, so even quite large land slugs can take advantage of habitats or retreats with very little space, retreats that would be inaccessible to a similar-sized snail. Slugs squeeze themselves into confined spaces such as under loose bark on trees or under stone slabs, logs or wooden boards lying on the ground. In such retreats they are in less danger from either predators or desiccation, and often those also are suitable places for laying their eggs.

 

Slugs as a group are far from monophyletic; biologically speaking "slug" is a term of convenience with little taxonomic significance. The reduction or loss of the shell has evolved many times independently within several very different lineages of gastropods. The various taxa of land and sea gastropods with slug morphology occur within numerous higher taxonomic groups of shelled species; such independent slug taxa are not in general closely related to one another.

 

HUMAN RELEVANCE

Land snails are known as an agricultural and garden pest but some species are an edible delicacy and occasionally household pets.

 

IN AGRICULTURE

There are a variety of snail-control measures that gardeners and farmers use in an attempt to reduce damage to valuable plants. Traditional pesticides are still used, as are many less toxic control options such as concentrated garlic or wormwood solutions. Copper metal is also a snail repellent, and thus a copper band around the trunk of a tree will prevent snails from climbing up and reaching the foliage and fruit. A layer of a dry, finely ground, and scratchy substance such as diatomaceous earth can also deter snails.

 

The decollate snail (Rumina decollata) will capture and eat garden snails, and because of this it has sometimes been introduced as a biological pest control agent. However, this is not without problems, as the decollate snail is just as likely to attack and devour other gastropods that may represent a valuable part of the native fauna of the region.

 

AS FOOD

In French cuisine, edible snails are served for instance in Escargot à la Bourguignonne. The practice of rearing snails for food is known as heliciculture. For purposes of cultivation, the snails are kept in a dark place in a wired cage with dry straw or dry wood. Coppiced wine-grape vines are often used for this purpose. During the rainy period, the snails come out of hibernation and release most of their mucus onto the dry wood/straw. The snails are then prepared for cooking. Their texture when cooked is slightly chewy.

 

As well as being relished as gourmet food, several species of land snails provide an easily harvested source of protein to many people in poor communities around the world. Many land snails are valuable because they can feed on a wide range of agricultural wastes, such as shed leaves in banana plantations. In some countries, giant African land snails are produced commercially for food.

 

Land snails, freshwater snails and sea snails are all eaten in a number of countries (principally Spain, Philippines, Morocco, Nigeria, Algeria, Cameroon, France, Italy, Portugal, Greece, Bulgaria, Belgium, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Cyprus, Ghana, Malta, Terai of Nepal, China, Northeast India states such as Manipur, Tripura and parts of the United States). In certain parts of the world, snails are fried. For example, in Indonesia, they are fried as satay, a dish known as sate kakul. The eggs of certain snail species are eaten in a fashion similar to the way caviar is eaten.

 

In Bulgaria, snails are traditionally cooked in an oven with rice or fried in a pan with vegetable oil and red paprika powder. Before they are used for those dishes, however, they are thoroughly boiled in hot water (for up to 90 minutes) and manually extracted from their shells. The two species most commonly used for food in the country are Helix lucorum and Helix pomatia.

 

FAMINE FOOD

Snails and slug species that are not normally eaten in certain areas have occasionally been used as famine food in historical times. A history of Scotland written in the 1800s recounts a description of various snails and their use as food items in times of plague.

 

COSMETIC

Skin creams derived from Helix aspersa snails are sold for use on wrinkles, scars, dry skin, and acne. A research study suggested that secretions produced under stress by Helix aspersa might facilitate regeneration of wounded tissue.

Cultural depictions

 

SYMBOLISM

Because of its slowness, the snail has traditionally been seen as a symbol of laziness. In Christian culture, it has been used as a symbol of the deadly sin of sloth. Psalms 58:8 uses snail slime as a metaphorical punishment. In Mayan mythology, the snail is associated with sexual desire, being personified by the god Uayeb.

 

DIVINATION AND OTHER RELIGIOUS USES

Snails were widely noted and used in divination. The Greek poet Hesiod wrote that snails signified the time to harvest by climbing the stalks, while the Aztec moon god Tecciztecatl bore a snail shell on his back. This symbolised rebirth; the snail's penchant for appearing and disappearing was analogised with the moon.

 

LOVE DARTS AND CUPID

Professor Ronald Chase of McGill University in Montreal has suggested the ancient myth of Cupid's arrows might be based on early observations of the love dart behavior of the land snail species Helix aspersa.

 

In contemporary speech, the expression "a snail's pace" is often used to describe a slow, inefficient process. The phrase "snail mail" is used to mean regular postal service delivery of paper messages as opposed to the delivery of email, which can be virtually instantaneous.

 

IN INDONESIAN MYTHOLOGY

DEWI SEKARTAJI AS KEONG EMAS

Keong Emas (Javanese and Indonesian for Golden Snail) is a popular Javanese folklore about a princess magically transformed and contained in a golden snail shell. The folklore is a part of popular Javanese Panji cycle telling the stories about the prince Panji Asmoro Bangun (also known as Raden Inu Kertapati) and his consort, princess Dewi Sekartaji (also known as Dewi Chandra Kirana).

 

TEXTILES

Certain varieties of snails, notably the family Muricidae, produce a secretion that is a color-fast natural dye. The ancient Tyrian purple was made in this way as were other purple and blue dyes. The extreme expense of extracting this secretion is sufficient quantities limited its use to the very wealthy. It is such dyes as these that led to certain shades of purple and blue being associated with royalty and wealth.

 

WIKIPEDIA

South Asian sweets are the confectionery and desserts of South Asia. Thousands of dedicated shops in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka sell nothing but sweets.

 

Sugarcane has been grown in India for thousands of years, and the art of refining sugar was invented there. The English word sugar comes from a Sanskrit word sharkara, while the word candy comes from Sanskrit word khanda (jaggery) - one of the simplest raw forms of sweet. Over its long history, cuisines of the Indian Subcontinent developed a diversified array of sweets. Some[3] claim there is no other region of the world where sweets are so varied, so numerous, or so invested with meaning as the Indian Subcontinent.

 

In India's diverse languages, sweets are called by numerous names, one common name being Mithai (मिठाई). They include sugar, and a vast array of ingredients such as different flours, milk, milk solids, fermented foods, root vegetables, raw and roasted seeds, seasonal fruits, fruit pastes and dry fruits. Some sweets such as kheer are cooked, some like burfi are baked, varieties like Mysore pak are roasted, some like jalebi are fried, others like kulfi are frozen, while still others involve a creative combination of preparation techniques. The composition and recipes of the sweets and other ingredients vary by region. Mithai are sometimes served with a meal, and often included as a form of greeting, celebration, religious offering, gift giving, parties, and hospitality in India. On Indian festivals - such as Holi, Diwali, Eid, or Raksha Bhandan - sweets are homemade or purchased, then shared. Many social gatherings, wedding ceremonies and religious festivals often include a social celebration of food, and the flavors of sweets are an essential element of such a celebration.

 

HISTORY

Ancient Sanskrit literature from India mention feasts and offerings of mithas (sweet). One of the more complete surviving texts, with extensive description of sweets and how to prepare them is the Mānasollāsa (Sanskrit: मानसोल्लास; meaning in Sanskrit, the delight of an idea, or delight of mind and senses). This ancient encyclopedia on food, music and other Indian arts is also known as the Abhilaṣitārtha Cintāmaṇi (the magical stone that fulfils desires). Mānasollāsa was composed about 1130 AD, by the Hindu King Somesvara III. The document describes meals that include a rice pudding which are called payasam (Sanskrit: पायसं) are in modern Indian languages is called kheer. The document mentions seven kinds of rice.

 

Mānasollāsa also describes recipes for golamu as a donut from wheat flour and scented with cardamom, gharikas as a fried cake from black gram flour and sugar syrup, chhana as a fresh cheese and rice flour fritter soaked in sugar syrup that the document suggests should be prepared from strained curdled milk mixed with buttermilk, and many others. Mānasollāsa mentions numerous milk-derived sweets, along with describing the 11th century art of producing milk solids, condensed milk and methods for souring milk to produce sweets.

 

The origin of sweets in Indian subcontinent has been traced to at least 500 BC, where records suggest both raw sugar (gur, vellam, jaggery) as well as refined sugar (sarkara) were being produced. By 300 BC, kingdom officials in India were including five kinds of sugar in official documents. By the Gupta dynasty era (300–500 AD), sugar was being made not only from sugar cane, but other plant sources such as palm. Sugar-based foods were also included in temple offerings, as bhoga for the deities, which after the prayers became Prasād for devotees, the poor or visitors to the temple.

 

VARIETIES

BARFANI TODA

Barfi is a sweet, made from milk solids (khoya) or condensed milk and other ingredients like ground cashews or pistachios. Some barfi use various flours such as besan (gram flour). Barfi may be flavored with pastes or pieces of fruits such as mango, banana, berries, coconut. They may include aromatic spices such as cardamom and rose water to enhance the sensual impact while they are consumed.

 

Sometimes a thin inert silver or gold layer of edible foil is placed on top face of burfi for an attractive presentation. Gold and silver are approved food foils in the European Union, as E175 and E174 additives respectively. The independent European food-safety certification agency, TÜV Rheinland, has deemed gold leaf safe for consumption. Gold and silver leaf are certified kosher. These inert metal foils are neither considered toxic to human beings nor the broader ecosystem.

 

CHAM-CHAM

Cham Chams are prepared from flattened paneer (a form of curdled milk solids, cheese) sweetened in syrup.

 

CHHENA MURKI

Chhena murki, or chenna murki, is a sweet made from an Indian version of cottage cheese, milk and sugar in many states such as Odisha. Milk and sugar are boiled to a thick consistency. Round, cubes, cuboid or other shapes of cottage cheese are soaked in the milky condensate It basically started from coastal areas in the district of Bhadrak and nowadays it is available in all parts of Odisha. Other flavors and aromatic spices are typically added. It is also known by Bangladeshi and Guyanese people as pera.

 

CHHENA PODA

Chhena Poda is a cheese dessert from the state of Odisha in eastern India. 'Chhena poda' literally means 'burnt cheese' in Odia. It is made of well-kneaded homemade cottage cheese or chhena, sugar, cashew nuts and raisins, and is baked for several hours until it browns. The best quality of Chhena Poda is found in the localities of Nayagarh District in Odisha.This sweet is best taste when it is consumed within two days of preparation

 

CHIKKI

Chikki is a ready-to-eat solid, brittle sweet generally made from casting a mix of dry nuts and hot jaggery syrup. Peanuts and jaggery mix are most common. Other than almonds, cashews, walnuts, sesame and other seeds, varieties of chikki are also prepared from puffed or roasted Bengal gram, puffed rice, beaten rice, puffed seasonal grains, and regional produce such as Khobara (desiccated coconut). Like many Indian sweets, Chikki is typically a high protein delicacy.[

 

GAJRELA

Gajrela, also called Gajar halwa, is a seasonal pudding-like sweet made from carrot. It is popular in Punjab regions of India, agricultural belt of North India, now common in many parts of South Asia. It is made by slowly cooking carrot with ghee, concentrated and caramelized milk, mawa (khoya) and sugar; often served with a garnish of aromatic spices, almonds, cashews or pistachios. The recipes vary by region, and Gajrela may be cooked without ghee, then include cheese or other milk solids for sophisticated mix of flavors. It is common in Indian restaurants and is a seasonal street and cafe food during post-monsoon through spring festive celebrations.

 

GULAB JAMUN

Gulab jamun is a common sweet found in India, and Nepal. It is made out of fried chenna (milk solids and cheese) balls soaked in sweet rose-water flavoured syrup.

 

JALEBI OR IMARTI

Jalebi is made by deep-frying a fermented batter of wheat flour with yoghurt, in a circular (coil-like) shape and then soaking it in sugar syrup. Imarti is a variant of Jalebi, with a different flour mixture and has tighter coils. Typically Jalebi is brown or yellow, while Imarti is reddish in colour. Often taken with milk, tea, yogurt or Lassi. In classical Sanskrit literature, jalebis have been referred to as kundalika or jalavallika.

 

KHAJA

Khaja is a sweet of India. Refined wheat flour, sugar and oils are the chief ingredients of khaja.

 

It is believed that, even 2000 years ago,[citation needed] Khajas were prepared in the southern side of the Gangetic Plains of Bihar. These areas which are home to khaja, once comprised the central part of Maurya and Gupta empires. Presently, Khajas are prepared and sold in the city of Patna, Gaya and several other places across the state of Bihar. Khajas of the Silao and Rajgir are known for their puffiness.

 

Khajas have travelled to some other parts of India, including Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. Khaja of Kakinada, a coastal town of Andhra Pradesh is very much famous in South India and Orissa. This Khaja is dry from outside and full of sugar syrup from inside and is juicy. Khaja of Puri is also very famous. At first, the batter is of wheat flour, mawa and oil. It is then deep fried until crisp. Then a sugar syrup is made which is known as "pak". The crisp croissants are then soaked in the sugar syrup until they absorb the sugar syrup.

 

KULFI

Kulfis are traditional South Asian ice-cream, where flavored milk is first condensed and caramelized by slow cooking in presence of a small quantity of rice or seasonal grain flour; once condensed, dry nut pastes and aromatic spices are added, the mix frozen in small earthen or metal cans. This creates one of the densest known form of frozen sweets; it is typically served between -10 to -15 C when they are easier to spoon and eat. It comes in a variety of flavours such as mango, kesar, pistachios, badam (almond), coconut and plain. It is also a street side urban as well as rural India summer time snack and festive sweet, where food hawkers carry around frozen mounds of kulfi in a big earthen pot and play a particular horn music to attract customers. These vendors are known as "kulfiwalla" (one who sells kulfi).

 

KHEER OR PAYAS

Kheer is a pudding, usually made from milk, sugar and one of these ingredients - vermicelli, rice, Bulgar wheat, semolina, tapioca, dried dates, and shredded white gourd. It is also known as "Payas".

 

As sweet rice pudding, payas has been a cultural dish throughout the history of India, being usually found at ceremonies, feasts and celebrations. In many parts of India, ancient traditions maintain that a wedding is not fully blessed if payas (or payasam as known in South India) is not served at the feast during traditional ceremonies like marriage, child birth, annaprasan (first solid feed to child), and other occasions. Other than sweet yoghurt, some families include kheer in the last meal, as hospitality and auspicious food, before a family member or guest departs on a long journey away from the home.

 

LADDU

Laddu (sometimes transliterated as laddoo or laadu) is made of varieties of flour, grains, pulses, semolina, regional or seasonal fruits, dry fruits, and other ingredients cooked with sugar, then shaped into bite-size or larger spheres. Laddu is mentioned in ancient Sanskrit documents as temple offerings, and is referred to as Ladduka. They are popular all over India, easy to prepare, and come in dozens of varieties. Laddu is often made to celebrate festivals, religious ceremonies, or household events such as weddings.

 

One example of laddu is Motichoor Ka Ladoo. It is a sweet food in states like Bihar, made from roasted gram flour flakes which are sweetened, mixed with almonds, rolled into a batter which is then cast into mini balls and fried in ghee. Every mini ball called 'boondi' has enough sugar that melts like a fresh sweet. The mini balls are then combined with aromatic spices and then formed into bite-size spheres, which are called Motichoor Ka Ladoo. When bit, the mini balls distribute over the tongue for a burst of flavors throughout the mouth. Other examples include Tirupati Laddu so popular that over a million Laddu are distributed every week from a single temple of Lord Venkateswara.

 

MALPOA

Malpoa is the most ancient homemade sweets of India.[citation needed] It is a form of pancake (made of wheat or rice flour) deep fried and sugar syrup.

 

NARIKOL LARU

Narikol Laru is a dessert from Assam. They are ball-shaped and made from khoa/condensed milk and coconut, a traditional food during bihu and pujas

 

PARWAL KI MIHAI

Parwal Ki Mithai is a dry sweet made of the vegetable parwal, a kind of gourd. The shell of parwal is filled with milk solids, then cooked. It is rather popular in Bihar, but also found in Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.

 

PATHISHAPTA

Pathishapta is a Bengali dessert. The final dish is a rolled pancake that is stuffed with a filling often made of coconut, milk, cream, and jaggery from the date palm. These desserts are consumed in Thailand as well.

 

RASGULLA

Rasgulla is a popular sweet in South Asia. They come in many forms, such as Kamalabhog (Orange Rasgulla), Rajbhog (Giant Rasgulla), Kadamba often served with kheer, Rasamundi, Raskadamba, and others. Some are white, others cream, brown, gold or orange colored. They are called Rasbari in Nepal. This dish is made by boiling small dumplings of chhenna and semolina mixture in sugar syrup. Once cooked, these are stored in the syrup making them spongy. Increasing the semolina content reduces the sponginess and hardens them, creating variety of textures. Some Rasgulla are stuffed inside with treats, such as dry fruits, raisins, candied peel and other delicacies to create a series of flavors experienced as they are consumed. Some versions, called danedhar, are removed from syrup and sugar coated into shapes of fruits and other creative designs. These are festive foods found year round, in many parts of India.

 

RAS MALAI

Ras malai or rosh malai is a dessert eaten in India and Bangladesh. The name ras malai comes from two words in Hindi: ras, meaning "juice", and malai, meaning "cream". It has been described as "a rich cheesecake without a crust. Ras malai consists of sugary white, cream or yellow-coloured (or flattened) balls of paneer soaked in malai (clotted cream) flavoured with cardamom.

 

SANDESH

Sandesh is a sweet made from fine cheese made from cow's milk kneaded with fine ground sugar or molasses. This is a sweet from West Bengal and Odisha. Revered for its delicate making, and appreciated by the connoiseur, this represents sweet making at its finest. Sandesh comes in two varieties, "Norom Pak" (the softer version) and "Koda Pak" (the harder version). The softer version although more gentle and considered better, is fragile. The harder version is robust and often easier for storage. Molasses made from dates can be used to make a special variation of Sandesh called "Noleen Gurher Sandesh" (a Sandesh made from "Noleen Gurh" or molases from dates) or simply "Noleen Sandesh".

 

SEL ROTI

Sel roti is a Nepali home-made circular-shaped bread or rice donut, prepared during Tihar, a widely celebrated Hindu festival in Nepal. It is made of rice flour with adding customized flavors. A semi liquid rice flour dough is usually prepared by adding milk, water, sugar, butter, cardamom, cloves and other flavors of personal choice.

 

SHRIKHAND

Shrikhand is a creamy dessert made out of strained yogurt, from which water is drained off completely. Dry fruits, mango puree, saffron or cardamom and sugar are added to the thick yoghurt to get the desired flavour and taste. It is served chilled. It is a West Indian traditional dish.

 

OTHER SWEETS

Other traditional Indian sweets and desserts famous throughout the history of Indian food include:

 

- Mysore pak (a dessert made out of ghee, sugar and chick pea flour),

- Halwa (or Halva in modern English spelling); made out of flour, butter and sugar

- Jangiri

- Jhajariya

- Dharwad pedha

- Karadantu

 

WIKIPEDIA

Costa Rica (/ˌkɒstə ˈriːkə/ (About this sound listen); Spanish: [ˈkosta ˈrika]; "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica (Spanish: República de Costa Rica), is a country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and Ecuador to the south of Cocos Island. It has a population of around 4.9 million, in a land area of 51,060 square kilometers; over 300,000 live in the capital and largest city, San José, which had a population of an estimated 333,980 in 2015.

 

Costa Rica has been known for its stable democracy, in a region that has had some instability, and for its highly educated workforce, most of whom speak English. The country spends roughly 6.9% of its budget (2016) on education, compared to a global average of 4.4%. Its economy, once heavily dependent on agriculture, has diversified to include sectors such as finance, corporate services for foreign companies, pharmaceuticals, and ecotourism. Many foreign companies (manufacturing and services) operate in Costa Rica's free trade zones (FTZ) where they benefit from investment and tax incentives.

 

In spite of impressive growth in the Gross domestic product (GDP), low inflation, moderate interest rates and an acceptable unemployment level, Costa Rica in 2017 was facing a liquidity crisis due to a growing debt and budget deficit. By August 2017, the Treasury was having difficulty paying its obligations. Other challenges facing the country in its attempts to improve the economy by increasing foreign investment include a poor infrastructure and a need to improve public sector efficiency.

 

Costa Rica was sparsely inhabited by indigenous peoples before coming under Spanish rule in the 16th century. It remained a peripheral colony of the empire until independence as part of the short-lived First Mexican Empire, followed by membership in the United Provinces of Central America, from which it formally declared independence in 1847. Since then, Costa Rica has remained among the most stable, prosperous, and progressive nations in Latin America. Following the brief Costa Rican Civil War, it permanently abolished its army in 1949, becoming one of only a few sovereign nations without a standing army.

 

The country has consistently performed favourably in the Human Development Index (HDI), placing 69th in the world as of 2015, among the highest of any Latin American nation. It has also been cited by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) as having attained much higher human development than other countries at the same income levels, with a better record on human development and inequality than the median of the region.

 

Costa Rica also has progressive environmental policies. It is the only country to meet all five UNDP criteria established to measure environmental sustainability. It was ranked 42nd in the world, and third in the Americas, in the 2016 Environmental Performance Index, and was twice ranked the best performing country in the New Economics Foundation's (NEF) Happy Planet Index, which measures environmental sustainability, and was identified by the NEF as the greenest country in the world in 2009. Costa Rica plans to become a carbon-neutral country by 2021. By 2016, 98.1% of its electricity was generated from green sources particularly hydro, solar, geothermal and biomass.

 

HISTORY

PRE-COLUMBIAN PERIOD

Historians have classified the indigenous people of Costa Rica as belonging to the Intermediate Area, where the peripheries of the Mesoamerican and Andean native cultures overlapped. More recently, pre-Columbian Costa Rica has also been described as part of the Isthmo-Colombian Area.

 

Stone tools, the oldest evidence of human occupation in Costa Rica, are associated with the arrival of various groups of hunter-gatherers about 10,000 to 7,000 years BCE in the Turrialba Valley. The presence of Clovis culture type spearheads and arrows from South America opens the possibility that, in this area, two different cultures coexisted.

 

Agriculture became evident in the populations that lived in Costa Rica about 5,000 years ago. They mainly grew tubers and roots. For the first and second millennia BCE there were already settled farming communities. These were small and scattered, although the timing of the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture as the main livelihood in the territory is still unknown.

 

The earliest use of pottery appears around 2,000 to 3,000 BCE. Shards of pots, cylindrical vases, platters, gourds and other forms of vases decorated with grooves, prints, and some modelled after animals have been found.

 

The impact of indigenous peoples on modern Costa Rican culture has been relatively small compared to other nations, since the country lacked a strong native civilization to begin with. Most of the native population was absorbed into the Spanish-speaking colonial society through inter-marriage, except for some small remnants, the most significant of which are the Bribri and Boruca tribes who still inhabit the mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca, in the southeastern part of Costa Rica, near the frontier with Panama.

 

SPANISH COLONIZATION

The name la costa rica, meaning "rich coast" in the Spanish language, was in some accounts first applied by Christopher Columbus, who sailed to the eastern shores of Costa Rica during his final voyage in 1502, and reported vast quantities of gold jewelry worn by natives. The name may also have come from conquistador Gil González Dávila, who landed on the west coast in 1522, encountered natives, and appropriated some of their gold.

 

During most of the colonial period, Costa Rica was the southernmost province of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, nominally part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. In practice, the captaincy general was a largely autonomous entity within the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica's distance from the capital of the captaincy in Guatemala, its legal prohibition under Spanish law from trade with its southern neighbor Panama, then part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (i.e. Colombia), and lack of resources such as gold and silver, made Costa Rica into a poor, isolated, and sparsely-inhabited region within the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica was described as "the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America" by a Spanish governor in 1719.

 

Another important factor behind Costa Rica's poverty was the lack of a significant indigenous population available for encomienda (forced labor), which meant most of the Costa Rican settlers had to work on their own land, preventing the establishment of large haciendas (plantations). For all these reasons, Costa Rica was, by and large, unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own. The circumstances during this period are believed to have led to many of the idiosyncrasies for which Costa Rica has become known, while concomitantly setting the stage for Costa Rica's development as a more egalitarian society than the rest of its neighbors. Costa Rica became a "rural democracy" with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil and a milder climate than that of the lowlands.

 

INDEPENDENCE

Like the rest of Central America, Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain. On September 15, 1821, after the final Spanish defeat in the Mexican War of Independence (1810–21), the authorities in Guatemala declared the independence of all of Central America. That date is still celebrated as Independence Day in Costa Rica even though, technically, under the Spanish Constitution of 1812 that had been readopted in 1820, Nicaragua and Costa Rica had become an autonomous province with its capital in León.

 

Upon independence, Costa Rican authorities faced the issue of officially deciding the future of the country. Two bands formed, the Imperialists, defended by Cartago and Heredia cities which were in favor of joining the Mexican Empire, and the Republicans, represented by the cities of San José and Alajuela who defended full independence. Because of the lack of agreement on these two possible outcomes, the first civil war of Costa Rica occurred. The battle of Ochomogo (es) took place on the Hill of Ochomogo, located in the Central Valley in 1823. The conflict was won by the Republicans and, as a consequence, the city of Cartago lost its status as the capital, which moved to San José.

In 1838, long after the Federal Republic of Central America ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign. The considerable distance and poor communication routes between Guatemala City and the Central Plateau, where most of the Costa Rican population lived then and still lives now, meant the local population had little allegiance to the federal government in Guatemala. From colonial times to now, Costa Rica's reluctance to become economically tied with the rest of Central America has been a major obstacle to efforts for greater regional integration.

 

ECONOMIC GROWTH IN THE 19TH CENTURY

Coffee was first planted in Costa Rica in 1808, and by the 1820s, it surpassed tobacco, sugar, and cacao as a primary export. Coffee production remained Costa Rica's principal source of wealth well into the 20th century, creating a wealthy class of growers, the so-called Coffee Barons. The revenue helped to modernize the country.

 

Most of the coffee exported was grown around the main centers of population in the Central Plateau and then transported by oxcart to the Pacific port of Puntarenas after the main road was built in 1846. By the mid-1850s the main market for coffee was Britain. It soon became a high priority to develop an effective transportation route from the Central Plateau to the Atlantic Ocean. For this purpose, in the 1870s, the Costa Rican government contracted with U.S. businessman Minor C. Keith to build a railroad from San José to the Caribbean port of Limón. Despite enormous difficulties with construction, disease, and financing, the railroad was completed in 1890.

 

Most Afro-Costa Ricans descend from Jamaican immigrants who worked in the construction of that railway and now make up about 3% of Costa Rica's population. U.S. convicts, Italians and Chinese immigrants also participated in the construction project. In exchange for completing the railroad, the Costa Rican government granted Keith large tracts of land and a lease on the train route, which he used to produce bananas and export them to the United States. As a result, bananas came to rival coffee as the principal Costa Rican export, while foreign-owned corporations (including the United Fruit Company later) began to hold a major role in the national economy and eventually became a symbol of the exploitative export economy. The major labor dispute between the peasants and the United Fruit Company (The Great Banana Strike) was a major event in the country's history and was an important step that would eventually lead to the formation of effective trade unions in Costa Rica, as the company was required to sign a collective agreement with its workers in 1938.

 

20TH CENTURY

Historically, Costa Rica has generally enjoyed greater peace and more consistent political stability than many of its fellow Latin American nations. Since the late 19th century, however, Costa Rica has experienced two significant periods of violence. In 1917–19, General Federico Tinoco Granados ruled as a military dictator until he was overthrown and forced into exile. The unpopularity of Tinoco's regime led, after he was overthrown, to a considerable decline in the size, wealth, and political influence of the Costa Rican military. In 1948, José Figueres Ferrer led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election between Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia (who had been president between 1940 and 1944) and Otilio Ulate Blanco. With more than 2,000 dead, the resulting 44-day Costa Rican Civil War was the bloodiest event in Costa Rica during the 20th century.

 

The victorious rebels formed a government junta that abolished the military altogether, and oversaw the drafting of a new constitution by a democratically elected assembly. Having enacted these reforms, the junta transferred power to Ulate on November 8, 1949. After the coup d'état, Figueres became a national hero, winning the country's first democratic election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then, Costa Rica has held 14 presidential elections, the latest in 2014. With uninterrupted democracy dating back to at least 1948, the country is the region's most stable.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Costa Rica is located on the Central American isthmus, lying between latitudes 8° and 12°N, and longitudes 82° and 86°W. It borders the Caribbean Sea (to the east) and the Pacific Ocean (to the west), with a total of 1,290 kilometres of coastline, 212 km on the Caribbean coast and 1,016 km on the Pacific. Costa Rica also borders Nicaragua to the north (309 km of border) and Panama to the south-southeast (330 km of border). In total, Costa Rica comprises 51,100 square kilometres plus 589 square kilometres of territorial waters.

 

The highest point in the country is Cerro Chirripó, at 3,819 metres; it is the fifth highest peak in Central America. The highest volcano in the country is the Irazú Volcano (3,431 m) and the largest lake is Lake Arenal. There are 14 known volcanoes in Costa Rica, and six of them have been active in the last 75 years. The country has also experienced at least ten earthquakes of magnitude 5.7 or higher (3 of magnitude 7.0 or higher) in the last century.

 

Costa Rica also comprises several islands. Cocos Island (24 square kilometres) stands out because of its distance from the continental landmass, 480 kilometres from Puntarenas, but Isla Calero is the largest island of the country (151.6 square kilometres). Over 25% of Costa Rica's national territory is protected by SINAC (the National System of Conservation Areas), which oversees all of the country's protected areas. Costa Rica also possesses the greatest density of species in the world.

 

CLIMATE

Because Costa Rica is located between 8 and 12 degrees north of the Equator, the climate is tropical year round. However, the country has many microclimates depending on elevation, rainfall, topography, and by the geography of each particular region.

 

Costa Rica's seasons are defined by how much rain falls during a particular period. The year can be split into two periods, the dry season known to the residents as summer (verano), and the rainy season, known locally as winter (invierno). The "summer" or dry season goes from December to April, and "winter" or rainy season goes from May to November, which almost coincides with the Atlantic hurricane season, and during this time, it rains constantly in some regions.

 

The location receiving the most rain is the Caribbean slopes of the Cordillera Central mountains, with an annual rainfall of over 5,000 mm. Humidity is also higher on the Caribbean side than on the Pacific side. The mean annual temperature on the coastal lowlands is around 27 °C, 20 °C in the main populated areas of the Cordillera Central, and below 10 °C on the summits of the highest mountains.

 

FLORA AND FAUNA

Costa Rica is home to a rich variety of plants and animals. While the country has only about 0.03% of the world's landmass, it contains 5% of the world's biodiversity. Around 25% of the country's land area is in protected national parks and protected areas, the largest percentage of protected areas in the world (developing world average 13%, developed world average 8%). Costa Rica has successfully managed to diminish deforestation from some of the worst rates in the world from 1973 to 1989, to almost zero by 2005.

 

One national park, the Corcovado National Park, is internationally renowned among ecologists for its biodiversity (including big cats and tapirs) and is where visitors can expect to see an abundance of wildlife. Corcovado is the one park in Costa Rica where all four Costa Rican monkey species can be found. These include the white-headed capuchin, the mantled howler, the endangered Geoffroy's spider monkey, and the Central American squirrel monkey, found only on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and a small part of Panama, and considered endangered until 2008, when its status was upgraded to vulnerable. Deforestation, illegal pet-trading, and hunting are the main reasons for its threatened status.

 

Tortuguero National Park – the name Tortuguero can be translated as "Full of Turtles" – is home to spider, howler, and white-throated capuchin monkeys; the three-toed sloth and two-toed sloth; 320 species of birds; and a variety of reptiles. The park is recognized for the annual nesting of the endangered green turtle, and is the most important nesting site for the species. Giant leatherback, hawksbill, and loggerhead turtles also nest there. The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve is home to about 2,000 plant species, including numerous orchids. Over 400 types of birds and more than 100 species of mammals can be found there.

 

Over 840 species of birds have been identified in Costa Rica. As is the case in much of Central America, the avian species in Costa Rica are a mix of North and South American species. The country's abundant fruit trees, many of which bear fruit year round, are hugely important to the birds, some of whom survive on diets that consist only of one or two types of fruit. Some of the country's most notable avian species include the resplendent quetzal, scarlet macaw, three-wattled bellbird, bare-necked umbrellabird, and the keel-billed toucan. The Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad is allowed to collect royalties on any biological discoveries of medical importance. Costa Rica is a center of biological diversity for reptiles and amphibians, including the world's fastest running lizard, the spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura similis).

 

WIKIPEDIA

Quiggins was home to many small 'alternative' stores that were housed within three linked adjacent warehouse buildings on a site between School Lane, Peters Lane and College Lane in the city centre of Liverpool, UK. Originally established as an antiques business, with parts of the building rented out to other antique traders, it later diversified into providing space for specialist and alternative stores where many of the stall holders were local artists and craftsmen. It was also the home of "Fraggle Radio", an internet based station streaming rock and punk music, which was founded by Lex and Davey Carter, and the popular Brook Café provided a late night venue for live alternative music.

The business's first location was on Renshaw Street which opened in 1986, where it adopted the name of the long established (1911 Kelly's Directory at that location!) Quiggins architectural supplies & ironmongers which had formerly owned the premises and whose sign still adorned the shop front. The business outgrew the building and in 1988 moved to a larger location on School Lane where Quiggins soon became a significant part of Liverpool's cultural scene. Next to the Bluecoat Centre and only two blocks from the busiest pedestrian traffic on Merseyside, it was seen as an ideal place to trade and congregate.

As part of its Capital of Culture bid, Liverpool City Council drew up the Bluecoat Triangle plan, later to become the Paradise Street Development Scheme, to boost the retail and cultural areas in the city centre, one aspect of which was the proposed acquisition of the building containing Quiggins Centre. Many local residents and businesses lodged objections to these proposals and a well-publicised four-year public relations and political campaign was launched against the plans spearheaded by Peter Tierney, (co-owner & founder) and his supporters. These included a protest march, a petition with over a hundred and fifty thousand signatures presented to Parliament, letter writing and media events, etc.

  

Quiggins' attached warehouses with 'No Surrender' banner, protesting the CPO (compulsory purchase order) and imminent demolition. The banner is an adapted version of the famous image of Che Guevara to feature owner and founder Pete Tierney's face

A Public Inquiry was held in September to November 2003, at which fifty objectors to the scheme were heard, Quiggins being prominent among them. Noted barrister specialising in planning issues, Mr. Robert McCracken QC led for Quiggins; Mr. David Elvin QC for Liverpool Council and Grosvenor Estates. On the Quiggins' team were Joe Kenny, 'Save Quiggins' campaign manager, Prof. Iain Taylor, urban renewal consultant, Mike Franks, planning consultant and other experts and supporters.

Following the hearing, the Planning Inspector, Derek Mumford upheld the proposed CPOs and on 18 May 2004, the development scheme was approved by John Prescott, the British Deputy Prime Minister. This resulted in the issuance of CPOs against several businesses in the development area, including that of Quiggins. A further vigorous campaign was launched in the Spring of 2006 by the owners of Quiggins and its supporter. However last-ditch negotiations between the partners and with the developer, Grosvenor Estates in June 2006, apparently led to an undisclosed agreement and a withdrawal of the Quiggins' challenge.

The CPO was then executed, which reputedly granted Quiggins a compensation claim of £1.2M before legal costs and tax. On 1 July 2006 Quiggins closed its doors for the last time at the School Lane site. By early 2007 the buildings had been demolished except for the retained ornate facade at the corner of School Lane (Palatine Building) which has been re-used by the Liverpool One development as part of a street of boutiques between Church Street and Paradise Street which opened in late 2008.

In late 2006 Peter Tierney opened 'Quiggins AttiQue' in Aigburth, South Liverpool, and continues trading from there while planning a return to Liverpool City Centre retailing. Continuing its ethos of helping small independent businesses gain a strong foothold under the "Quiggins" banner, it had long been Quiggins' intention to acquire the lease to the John Lewis Store (formerly George Henry-Lee) on Church Street, and lengthy negotiations took place with Grosvenor and City Council in an attempt to achieve this. However an announcement on 1 October 2007 declared that Rapid Hardware would take over the premises in 2011.

The name Quiggins is now also associated with a shopping centre on Renshaw Street, Liverpool (the old Central Hall) as it came to accommodate some of the tenants who left Quiggins on Peters Lane after closure, but there is no business connection or ownership link between the two.

 

LIVERPOOL JUNE 2012

 

See where this picture was taken. [?]

ICI, was a very well known British company synonymous with the production and development of chemicals, fertilisers, insecticides, dyestuffs, metals, paints, and explosives. During the 1930s, ICI diversified into pharmaceuticals and developed drugs to control bacterial and parasitic infection. The Company was also credited with the development of the first effective synthetic malaria drug (1940s), and invented beta blockers for heart problems in the 1960s.

 

I came across this very early ICI (Imperial Chemical Industries) lapel badge in 2000, eight years before ICI ceased trading as a company. I bought the badge from an antique/collectables/bric-a-brac shop and was immediately intrigued by the lion trademark as it differed greatly from the familiar ICI roundel logo. Its size is also impressive, measuring approximately 2 x 2 inches.

 

In order to glean background information about the design, I wrote to ICI at its Millbank, London HQ in 2000 and received the following detailed information (via letter) from their public relations department.

 

'We can confirm that it has been associated (the design) with the company for the best part of its history and probably, the use of the lion as a symbol, predates the formation of ICI in 1926.

 

My research indicates that it probably made its first appearance as a design competition winner for the cover of the new house journal called 'ICI Magazine' which was published for all ICI staff throughout the world. The first edition published in 1928 carried the results of a competition with 421 entries and the designs of five of the winners were illustrated, including the lion device designed by W E Anderson of the British Dyestuffs Corporation Ltd., Sales Department, Blackley, Manchester.

 

British Dyestuffs Corporation Ltd (BDC), was one of the four major chemical companies (the others being Nobel Industries Ltd., Brunner Mond & Co Ltd and the Alkali Co Ltd) which were amalgamated to form ICI late in 1926 to combat foreign competition, particularly from the German chemical industry at that time. Incidentally, the present ICI roundel logo originated through an adaptation of one of the Nobel Industries logos which we felt to be the most easily adapted.

 

There may have been some use of a lion in BDC's product promotion prior to Mr Anderson's competition entry, but this would appear to be the first use of a lion combined with the ICI initials. It symbolises ICI and British Imperialism striding across the industrial world, a popular sentiment of the time.

 

Subsequently the device in various forms was used by the ICI Dyestuffs Division and their agents in certain product promotion overseas, particularly China and the Far East, Africa and the Near East, in the 30s and 40s. It was registered with adaptations as a trademark in some territories and was also used by ICI Paints Division later in the 1940s and 1950s. Indeed a large version of the ICI lion device was still affixed to the end of one of the buildings at our Paints site at Slough in the early 1990s and may still be there.

 

The Lion device gained popularity with the internal workforce and adopted as a symbol for factory recreation and social clubs, including some of the inter-site personnel activities which required a strong identification with the workforce.

 

Health and Safety has always been a prime consideration of the Company, who ran competitions to promote good practice and employees were encouraged to qualify as 'First Aid' staff. The badge is therefore an example of an award given to an employee of one of our sites.....'

 

This badge was purchased near Merthyr, South Wales and a calculated guess would suggest that the piece is linked to the former ICI Landore plant near Swansea, thirty miles west of Merthyr.

 

Photography, layout and design: Argy58

 

(This image also exists as a high resolution jpeg and tiff - ideal for a variety of print sizes

e.g. A4, A3, A2 and A1. The current uploaded format is for screen based viewing only: 72pi)

South Asian sweets are the confectionery and desserts of South Asia. Thousands of dedicated shops in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka sell nothing but sweets.

 

Sugarcane has been grown in India for thousands of years, and the art of refining sugar was invented there. The English word sugar comes from a Sanskrit word sharkara, while the word candy comes from Sanskrit word khanda (jaggery) - one of the simplest raw forms of sweet. Over its long history, cuisines of the Indian Subcontinent developed a diversified array of sweets. Some[3] claim there is no other region of the world where sweets are so varied, so numerous, or so invested with meaning as the Indian Subcontinent.

 

In India's diverse languages, sweets are called by numerous names, one common name being Mithai (मिठाई). They include sugar, and a vast array of ingredients such as different flours, milk, milk solids, fermented foods, root vegetables, raw and roasted seeds, seasonal fruits, fruit pastes and dry fruits. Some sweets such as kheer are cooked, some like burfi are baked, varieties like Mysore pak are roasted, some like jalebi are fried, others like kulfi are frozen, while still others involve a creative combination of preparation techniques. The composition and recipes of the sweets and other ingredients vary by region. Mithai are sometimes served with a meal, and often included as a form of greeting, celebration, religious offering, gift giving, parties, and hospitality in India. On Indian festivals - such as Holi, Diwali, Eid, or Raksha Bhandan - sweets are homemade or purchased, then shared. Many social gatherings, wedding ceremonies and religious festivals often include a social celebration of food, and the flavors of sweets are an essential element of such a celebration.

 

HISTORY

Ancient Sanskrit literature from India mention feasts and offerings of mithas (sweet). One of the more complete surviving texts, with extensive description of sweets and how to prepare them is the Mānasollāsa (Sanskrit: मानसोल्लास; meaning in Sanskrit, the delight of an idea, or delight of mind and senses). This ancient encyclopedia on food, music and other Indian arts is also known as the Abhilaṣitārtha Cintāmaṇi (the magical stone that fulfils desires). Mānasollāsa was composed about 1130 AD, by the Hindu King Somesvara III. The document describes meals that include a rice pudding which are called payasam (Sanskrit: पायसं) are in modern Indian languages is called kheer. The document mentions seven kinds of rice.

 

Mānasollāsa also describes recipes for golamu as a donut from wheat flour and scented with cardamom, gharikas as a fried cake from black gram flour and sugar syrup, chhana as a fresh cheese and rice flour fritter soaked in sugar syrup that the document suggests should be prepared from strained curdled milk mixed with buttermilk, and many others. Mānasollāsa mentions numerous milk-derived sweets, along with describing the 11th century art of producing milk solids, condensed milk and methods for souring milk to produce sweets.

 

The origin of sweets in Indian subcontinent has been traced to at least 500 BC, where records suggest both raw sugar (gur, vellam, jaggery) as well as refined sugar (sarkara) were being produced. By 300 BC, kingdom officials in India were including five kinds of sugar in official documents. By the Gupta dynasty era (300–500 AD), sugar was being made not only from sugar cane, but other plant sources such as palm. Sugar-based foods were also included in temple offerings, as bhoga for the deities, which after the prayers became Prasād for devotees, the poor or visitors to the temple.

 

VARIETIES

BARFANI TODA

Barfi is a sweet, made from milk solids (khoya) or condensed milk and other ingredients like ground cashews or pistachios. Some barfi use various flours such as besan (gram flour). Barfi may be flavored with pastes or pieces of fruits such as mango, banana, berries, coconut. They may include aromatic spices such as cardamom and rose water to enhance the sensual impact while they are consumed.

 

Sometimes a thin inert silver or gold layer of edible foil is placed on top face of burfi for an attractive presentation. Gold and silver are approved food foils in the European Union, as E175 and E174 additives respectively. The independent European food-safety certification agency, TÜV Rheinland, has deemed gold leaf safe for consumption. Gold and silver leaf are certified kosher. These inert metal foils are neither considered toxic to human beings nor the broader ecosystem.

 

CHAM-CHAM

Cham Chams are prepared from flattened paneer (a form of curdled milk solids, cheese) sweetened in syrup.

 

CHHENA MURKI

Chhena murki, or chenna murki, is a sweet made from an Indian version of cottage cheese, milk and sugar in many states such as Odisha. Milk and sugar are boiled to a thick consistency. Round, cubes, cuboid or other shapes of cottage cheese are soaked in the milky condensate It basically started from coastal areas in the district of Bhadrak and nowadays it is available in all parts of Odisha. Other flavors and aromatic spices are typically added. It is also known by Bangladeshi and Guyanese people as pera.

 

CHHENA PODA

Chhena Poda is a cheese dessert from the state of Odisha in eastern India. 'Chhena poda' literally means 'burnt cheese' in Odia. It is made of well-kneaded homemade cottage cheese or chhena, sugar, cashew nuts and raisins, and is baked for several hours until it browns. The best quality of Chhena Poda is found in the localities of Nayagarh District in Odisha.This sweet is best taste when it is consumed within two days of preparation

 

CHIKKI

Chikki is a ready-to-eat solid, brittle sweet generally made from casting a mix of dry nuts and hot jaggery syrup. Peanuts and jaggery mix are most common. Other than almonds, cashews, walnuts, sesame and other seeds, varieties of chikki are also prepared from puffed or roasted Bengal gram, puffed rice, beaten rice, puffed seasonal grains, and regional produce such as Khobara (desiccated coconut). Like many Indian sweets, Chikki is typically a high protein delicacy.[

 

GAJRELA

Gajrela, also called Gajar halwa, is a seasonal pudding-like sweet made from carrot. It is popular in Punjab regions of India, agricultural belt of North India, now common in many parts of South Asia. It is made by slowly cooking carrot with ghee, concentrated and caramelized milk, mawa (khoya) and sugar; often served with a garnish of aromatic spices, almonds, cashews or pistachios. The recipes vary by region, and Gajrela may be cooked without ghee, then include cheese or other milk solids for sophisticated mix of flavors. It is common in Indian restaurants and is a seasonal street and cafe food during post-monsoon through spring festive celebrations.

 

GULAB JAMUN

Gulab jamun is a common sweet found in India, and Nepal. It is made out of fried chenna (milk solids and cheese) balls soaked in sweet rose-water flavoured syrup.

 

JALEBI OR IMARTI

Jalebi is made by deep-frying a fermented batter of wheat flour with yoghurt, in a circular (coil-like) shape and then soaking it in sugar syrup. Imarti is a variant of Jalebi, with a different flour mixture and has tighter coils. Typically Jalebi is brown or yellow, while Imarti is reddish in colour. Often taken with milk, tea, yogurt or Lassi. In classical Sanskrit literature, jalebis have been referred to as kundalika or jalavallika.

 

KHAJA

Khaja is a sweet of India. Refined wheat flour, sugar and oils are the chief ingredients of khaja.

 

It is believed that, even 2000 years ago,[citation needed] Khajas were prepared in the southern side of the Gangetic Plains of Bihar. These areas which are home to khaja, once comprised the central part of Maurya and Gupta empires. Presently, Khajas are prepared and sold in the city of Patna, Gaya and several other places across the state of Bihar. Khajas of the Silao and Rajgir are known for their puffiness.

 

Khajas have travelled to some other parts of India, including Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. Khaja of Kakinada, a coastal town of Andhra Pradesh is very much famous in South India and Orissa. This Khaja is dry from outside and full of sugar syrup from inside and is juicy. Khaja of Puri is also very famous. At first, the batter is of wheat flour, mawa and oil. It is then deep fried until crisp. Then a sugar syrup is made which is known as "pak". The crisp croissants are then soaked in the sugar syrup until they absorb the sugar syrup.

 

KULFI

Kulfis are traditional South Asian ice-cream, where flavored milk is first condensed and caramelized by slow cooking in presence of a small quantity of rice or seasonal grain flour; once condensed, dry nut pastes and aromatic spices are added, the mix frozen in small earthen or metal cans. This creates one of the densest known form of frozen sweets; it is typically served between -10 to -15 C when they are easier to spoon and eat. It comes in a variety of flavours such as mango, kesar, pistachios, badam (almond), coconut and plain. It is also a street side urban as well as rural India summer time snack and festive sweet, where food hawkers carry around frozen mounds of kulfi in a big earthen pot and play a particular horn music to attract customers. These vendors are known as "kulfiwalla" (one who sells kulfi).

 

KHEER OR PAYAS

Kheer is a pudding, usually made from milk, sugar and one of these ingredients - vermicelli, rice, Bulgar wheat, semolina, tapioca, dried dates, and shredded white gourd. It is also known as "Payas".

 

As sweet rice pudding, payas has been a cultural dish throughout the history of India, being usually found at ceremonies, feasts and celebrations. In many parts of India, ancient traditions maintain that a wedding is not fully blessed if payas (or payasam as known in South India) is not served at the feast during traditional ceremonies like marriage, child birth, annaprasan (first solid feed to child), and other occasions. Other than sweet yoghurt, some families include kheer in the last meal, as hospitality and auspicious food, before a family member or guest departs on a long journey away from the home.

 

LADDU

Laddu (sometimes transliterated as laddoo or laadu) is made of varieties of flour, grains, pulses, semolina, regional or seasonal fruits, dry fruits, and other ingredients cooked with sugar, then shaped into bite-size or larger spheres. Laddu is mentioned in ancient Sanskrit documents as temple offerings, and is referred to as Ladduka. They are popular all over India, easy to prepare, and come in dozens of varieties. Laddu is often made to celebrate festivals, religious ceremonies, or household events such as weddings.

 

One example of laddu is Motichoor Ka Ladoo. It is a sweet food in states like Bihar, made from roasted gram flour flakes which are sweetened, mixed with almonds, rolled into a batter which is then cast into mini balls and fried in ghee. Every mini ball called 'boondi' has enough sugar that melts like a fresh sweet. The mini balls are then combined with aromatic spices and then formed into bite-size spheres, which are called Motichoor Ka Ladoo. When bit, the mini balls distribute over the tongue for a burst of flavors throughout the mouth. Other examples include Tirupati Laddu so popular that over a million Laddu are distributed every week from a single temple of Lord Venkateswara.

 

MALPOA

Malpoa is the most ancient homemade sweets of India.[citation needed] It is a form of pancake (made of wheat or rice flour) deep fried and sugar syrup.

 

NARIKOL LARU

Narikol Laru is a dessert from Assam. They are ball-shaped and made from khoa/condensed milk and coconut, a traditional food during bihu and pujas

 

PARWAL KI MIHAI

Parwal Ki Mithai is a dry sweet made of the vegetable parwal, a kind of gourd. The shell of parwal is filled with milk solids, then cooked. It is rather popular in Bihar, but also found in Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.

 

PATHISHAPTA

Pathishapta is a Bengali dessert. The final dish is a rolled pancake that is stuffed with a filling often made of coconut, milk, cream, and jaggery from the date palm. These desserts are consumed in Thailand as well.

 

RASGULLA

Rasgulla is a popular sweet in South Asia. They come in many forms, such as Kamalabhog (Orange Rasgulla), Rajbhog (Giant Rasgulla), Kadamba often served with kheer, Rasamundi, Raskadamba, and others. Some are white, others cream, brown, gold or orange colored. They are called Rasbari in Nepal. This dish is made by boiling small dumplings of chhenna and semolina mixture in sugar syrup. Once cooked, these are stored in the syrup making them spongy. Increasing the semolina content reduces the sponginess and hardens them, creating variety of textures. Some Rasgulla are stuffed inside with treats, such as dry fruits, raisins, candied peel and other delicacies to create a series of flavors experienced as they are consumed. Some versions, called danedhar, are removed from syrup and sugar coated into shapes of fruits and other creative designs. These are festive foods found year round, in many parts of India.

 

RAS MALAI

Ras malai or rosh malai is a dessert eaten in India and Bangladesh. The name ras malai comes from two words in Hindi: ras, meaning "juice", and malai, meaning "cream". It has been described as "a rich cheesecake without a crust. Ras malai consists of sugary white, cream or yellow-coloured (or flattened) balls of paneer soaked in malai (clotted cream) flavoured with cardamom.

 

SANDESH

Sandesh is a sweet made from fine cheese made from cow's milk kneaded with fine ground sugar or molasses. This is a sweet from West Bengal and Odisha. Revered for its delicate making, and appreciated by the connoiseur, this represents sweet making at its finest. Sandesh comes in two varieties, "Norom Pak" (the softer version) and "Koda Pak" (the harder version). The softer version although more gentle and considered better, is fragile. The harder version is robust and often easier for storage. Molasses made from dates can be used to make a special variation of Sandesh called "Noleen Gurher Sandesh" (a Sandesh made from "Noleen Gurh" or molases from dates) or simply "Noleen Sandesh".

 

SEL ROTI

Sel roti is a Nepali home-made circular-shaped bread or rice donut, prepared during Tihar, a widely celebrated Hindu festival in Nepal. It is made of rice flour with adding customized flavors. A semi liquid rice flour dough is usually prepared by adding milk, water, sugar, butter, cardamom, cloves and other flavors of personal choice.

 

SHRIKHAND

Shrikhand is a creamy dessert made out of strained yogurt, from which water is drained off completely. Dry fruits, mango puree, saffron or cardamom and sugar are added to the thick yoghurt to get the desired flavour and taste. It is served chilled. It is a West Indian traditional dish.

 

OTHER SWEETS

Other traditional Indian sweets and desserts famous throughout the history of Indian food include:

 

- Mysore pak (a dessert made out of ghee, sugar and chick pea flour),

- Halwa (or Halva in modern English spelling); made out of flour, butter and sugar

- Jangiri

- Jhajariya

- Dharwad pedha

- Karadantu

 

WIKIPEDIA

SALEM, Ore. – Husband and wife duo Chris and Elizabeth Miller believe that diversifying their farm is the key to success. That’s why their certified organic farm, Minto Island Growers, includes a Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) component, in addition to a farm stand, food truck, and service at the Salem Saturday Market. The farm has been in the family since the 1970s. Since 2010, Chris and Elizabeth have worked with the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) to obtain financial incentives and conservation assistance to help them maximize the potential of their organic operation. With funding from the NRCS organic initiative, the Miller’s have upgraded their irrigation equipment to save energy and labor costs; installed a seasonal high tunnel to expand the crop production season; planted cover crops, and more. Pictured: Chris Miller and Jarod Seaman, NRCS District Conservationist. NRCS photos by Tracy Robillard.

Reginald Ansett had made his first fortune building a small ground shuttle business in southern Australia, proving so successful he threatened a government monopoly on rail travel. Fearing the Australian government would shut his ground service down, Ansett diversified into air travel, then in its infancy in Australia. Revenue service with a Fokker Universal began in 1936 and was just as successful as his ground service; he expanded his routes during World War II by taking charters from US Army Air Forces units operating from Australia. This allowed him to acquire several Douglas C-47s from war surplus, putting them into service in 1946.

 

Ansett’s small service was able to survive in a niche market; postwar, the real competition was between state-owned Trans-Australian Airlines (TAA) and Australian National Airways (ANA), owned by a British consortium. TAA gradually drove ANA out of business by 1957, but the Australian government feared the backlash from a government-owned monopoly. Ansett offered to buy out ANA, an offer accepted in October 1957, and the two airlines became known as Ansett-ANA, until 1968, when it became Ansett of Australia. Both Reginald Ansett and the Australian government ensured that only two airlines would be allowed to operate domestically in Australia—the former by buying up several smaller Australian airlines, and the latter by forbidding the import of any new aircraft into Australia. Ansett was also able to temporarily halt the introduction of jet aircraft to domestic operations, preferring to fly turboprop Vickers Viscounts and Lockheed L-188 Electras.

 

Reginald Ansett retired in the late 1970s, and Ansett itself was acquired by Australian freight magnate Peter Abeles and British news media mogul Rupert Murdoch. Ansett changed its livery from its previous red-tail-and-delta motif to a stylized Australian flag on an all-white fuselage. The 1970s had seen the airline gradually modernize, finally acquiring jet Boeing 727s. The 1980s proved a time of expansion for Ansett, gradually moving into international operations with the acquisition of Boeing 767s, as well as opening a new subsidiary, Ansett New Zealand, for operations in that nation. This ended in 1995 when Air New Zealand acquired a 50% share of Ansett Australia.

 

By 2000 Ansett was in direct competition with Qantas both domestically and internationally. Air New Zealand bought out Abeles and Murdoch and owned Ansett directly, fighting off Singapore Airlines’ attempt to buy the airline. Ansett, however, was in trouble: the Australian government had considerably loosened Australia’s air corridors, allowing foreign airlines to fly domestic routes within the country. Facing competition from other airlines, low-cost startups like Virgin Blue, aging aircraft, and maintenance problems (the latter of which grounded Ansett’s 767 fleet in 2001, permanently), Ansett faced bankruptcy.

 

The situation worsened still when Air New Zealand, also facing bankruptcy, was bailed out by the New Zealand government; New Zealand could bail out its flag carrier or Ansett, but not both. With no money, Ansett collapsed on 13 September 2001, throwing 16,000 people out of work without warning. The Australian government allowed the airline to relaunch on a limited basis in October 2001, with a no-frills Airbus A320 service, in the hopes that it would attract a buyer. This was unsuccessful, and Ansett finally closed down for good in 2002.

 

From 1957 to 1968, Ansett operated in a dual livery with Australian National Airways, at the insistence of the Australian government, until Ansett was allowed to drop the ANA name. Towards the end of this arrangement, Ansett expressed interest in ordering wide-bodied airliners. In the end, the airline would instead order more Boeing 727s instead, and would not get their first wide-bodies until the late 1980s. The airline never flew the L-1011 Tristar, but it expressed interest in the design, as Ansett had flown L-188 Electras. Had the Ansett-ANA livery remained a few years and the airline operated the L-1011, this is what it would have looked like. As such, this is something of a "what-if."

 

VH-RME was an Ansett aircraft, but this time, it was a 727. This aircraft shows the hybrid Ansett-ANA livery of the late 1960s.

On the Alberta prairie farmers have plenty of experience working with the oil industry. Today farmers are starting to work with the wind industry with one important difference–wind companies must negotiate access to a farmer's land whereas oil companies already have the right to access their mineral rights. The Bull Creek Wind Farm is located on the farm of David Blume, a five generation farming family near Provost, Alberta. Photo David Dodge, GreenEnergyFutures.ca www.greenenergyfutures.ca/episode/bull-creek-powers-schools

Lost Einsteins: Diversifying Innovation

Amy Brachio, Global Deputy Vice-Chair, EY, USA. Kevin Frey, Chief Executive Officer, Generation Unlimited, UNICEF, Generation Unlimited, USA. Tomas Lamanauskas, Deputy Secretary-General-elect, International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Geneva

Maria Leptin, President, European Research Council, Belgium. Magdalena Skipper, Editor-in-Chief, Nature, United Kingdom

 

Tuesday 2 May 2023

14.45 - 15.30

Stakeholder Dialogue

World Economic Forum Headquarters, Eiger

Copyright: World Economic Forum/Jean-Luc Auboeuf

The Growth Summit: Jobs and Opportunity for All 2023 in Geneva, Switzerland

  

Bangladeshi farmer Gopal Mohanta fetches water as part of his daily task of feeding and watering his livestock. He did not previously have animals, but was able to buy them thanks to a dramatic improvement in his livelihood after he began to work with CIMMYT. He grows a variety of crops that meet the family's food and feed needs, and each day he and his wife mix up a balanced meal for their animals.

 

The family's fortunes began to change when Mohanta attended a farmer training session provided by CIMMYT in collaboration with partners in Bangladesh. This opened a door for him to take advantage of a range of resources from CIMMYT and its partners—including seed, technologies, and practices—and to combine these with his own hard work and talent.

 

One of the changes Mohanta made was to plant a more diverse range of crops, and in 2005 he planted maize for the first time, using improved seed based on CIMMYT materials. He achieves high yields of 12-13 t/ha, which he is able to sell at a good profit, as a growing market is fueling high and stable maize prices in Bangladesh. As well as being able to invest in livestock and other farm diversification, such as a pond stocked with fish, the increased income has brought other benefits for the family. Mohanta and his wife have built a new, larger house and are able to provide a better education for their two children.

 

The family has come a long way, providing a shining example of what is possible to others in their community of Boiragee, Dinajpur. However, the success story is far from over; looking to the future, Mohanta plans to buy more land and to plant more crops.

 

Photo credit: S. Mojumder/Drik/CIMMYT.

 

For the latest on CIMMYT in Bangladesh, see CIMMYT's blog at: blog.cimmyt.org/?tag=bangladesh.

GOVERNOR TOMBLIN DELIVERS

FAREWELL ADDRESS TO STATE LEGISLATURE

CHARLESTON, W.VA. (January 11, 2017)-Gov. Earl Ray Tomblin today

delivered his farewell address to the West Virginia Legislature in the House Chamber at the State Capitol Complex after serving six years as governor and a total of 42 years in public service in the Mountain State.

 

Information on Gov. Tomblin's accomplishments during his six-year

administration can be found here.

 

See below for the speech as prepared for delivery:

 

Mr. Speaker, Mr. President, members of the Board of Public Works, justices of

the Supreme Court of Appeals, members of the Legislature, distinguished guests, and my fellow West Virginians, I stand before you today, after six years in the Governor's office and 42 years in this grand statehouse, with a deep sense of gratitude and reflection and an equally profound hope for West Virginia's future.

 

Public service has anchored my life's work-from a young 22-year-old in this very House chamber, to a desk across the hall in the State Senate, the Senate President's podium for 17 years and now as your 35th Governor.

 

It has been the greatest honor-and the greatest reward-to serve the people of this state that we all love. Together, we have put West Virginia first and moved our state forward-even in the midst of tough times, including far-reaching economic shifts, budgetary challenges and historic natural disasters.

 

West Virginians are strongest in the toughest times. We come together. We lift each other up. And we don't just hope for a better future; we fight for it.

 

ECONOMIC DIVERSIFICATION & JOB CREATION

Working hard is exactly what we've done over the past six years to create new economic opportunities for the Mountain State.

 

We have all seen the dramatic impact of the coal industry's decline in our state. We've seen thousands of jobs lost. Families and communities struggling. People beginning to lose hope.

 

But I believe in-and have fought to reach-the light around the corner.

 

Shortly after becoming Governor, I pledged to go anywhere and meet with anyone to grow our state's economy. Across West Virginia, the country and the globe, we have succeeded.

 

Last year, global giant Procter & Gamble announced it would build its first U.S. manufacturing facility since the 1970s right here in West Virginia in the Eastern Panhandle. This will ultimately be a half-billion dollar investment in the Mountain State and result in hundreds of new jobs.

 

P&G chose our state after an exhaustive search of many others. And as numerous companies have discovered, I know they will find it to be the best decision they've ever made.

 

Toyota Motor Manufacturing West Virginia, which recently celebrated its 20th anniversary, has expanded continuously-nine times, in fact.

 

Today, Toyota employs more than 1,600 people. And the company has invested $1.4 billion since 1996.

 

Manufacturing jobs, like those at P&G in Martinsburg and Toyota in Buffalo, will be among the most critical to our state's economic future.

 

In my time as your Governor, I have fought for jobs like these and many more. From Amazon in Huntington and Macy's in Berkeley County, to Bombardier Aerospace manufacturing in Harrison County-which just in November announced an expansion of 150 jobs.

 

Companies are finding that when they invest in West Virginia, it pays off.

 

In fact, since 2011, West Virginia has seen more than $15 billion in new investments, spanning 275 projects. We have welcomed more than 60 new companies and secured 215 competitive expansion projects.

 

Over the past six years, investment projects have reached 22 industries and provided West Virginians with more than 12,000 good-paying jobs.

 

Right here in the Kanawha Valley, we have one of the best examples of that remarkable progress.

 

Gestamp has grown beyond the bounds of any of our expectations. Since opening in 2013, Gestamp has tripled production and more than doubled its workforce, now employing nearly 900 West Virginians.

 

I know that one of the fundamental reasons behind their growth has been our ability to transform workforce training in West Virginia for the better.

 

STRENGTHENING WORKFORCE TRAINING & EDUCATION

For example, the Learn and Earn program which we launched in 2012, gives our community and technical college students classroom instruction and hands-on work experience simultaneously. These students earn a competitive salary while giving employers a cost-effective way to recruit and train new employees.

 

Joe Atha is one of these students. A former coal miner, Joe is now a student at BridgeValley Community and Technical College where he is also supporting his family by earning a wage through the Learn and Earn program at Gestamp.

 

Joe is here today with his wife, Rita. Please stand to be recognized... along with Dr. Sarah Tucker, Chancellor of our Community and Technical College System.

 

Through forward-thinking programs like this, we can make a real, lasting difference for West Virginians.

 

That's why I personally convened the West Virginia Workforce Planning Council, which has helped us break down bureaucratic silos and better align classroom learning with the workforce needs of our businesses and industries.

 

We've even started that process in high schools through the Simulated Workplace program.

 

Today, our career technical education classrooms have been transformed into businesses. Medical classes are now clinics. Hospitality programs are now catering businesses and restaurants.

 

And instead of just going to a welding or carpentry class, our students are now part of a construction company, complete with job foremen and safety inspectors.

 

Just last month, we celebrated a heartwarming moment as a result of the hard work of more than 2,000 of these students from 12 high schools across the state.

 

Together with the Department of Education's Career Technical Education division, the West Virginia National Guard and our Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster, we presented keys to tiny homes that were designed and built by these students for survivors of the historic floods that hit our state last June.

 

REBUILDING FROM NATURAL DISASTERS

Time and again, in the aftermath of this tragic flooding we have seen the selflessness of West Virginians make a difference for one another.

 

The "Big Hearts Give Tiny Homes" project was a shining example of that West Virginia spirit-one that made an overwhelming difference for 15 families impacted by the flooding, including Brenda Rivers from Nicholas County, whose home was a total loss in the flooding. Brenda now lives in a new tiny home built by students, including Chance Ballard from Spring Valley High School in Wayne County.

 

Please join me in welcoming Brenda and Chance ... along with Dr. Kathy D'Antoni ... whose visionary leadership at the Department of Education has made Simulated Workplace the success it is today.

 

Working hand-in-hand with the federal government and local officials, our immediate response to the flooding was quick and effective. We were able to expedite federal assistance to our communities and families in need. And over the past seven months, we have been able to shift our focus to long-term recovery.

 

Through a public-private approach, we launched the RISE West Virginia program, which in total has provided nearly $2 million to 230 small businesses in the flood-impacted counties-funding that is helping them reopen or continue operations and keep fueling our local economies.

 

I would like to thank, once again, West Virginia native and champion Brad Smith-the CEO of Intuit, one of the world's leading financial software companies-and his wife Alys for their family donation of $500,000, which gave the RISE program its first, needed boost.

 

West Virginia has experienced more than its share of disasters during my time as your Governor-this historic flooding, the Derecho, Hurricane Sandy, Winter Storms Thor and Jonas and the water crisis.

 

Through it all, we have grown stronger, we have improved our emergency response capabilities and we have strengthened public safety.

 

Adversity demands resilience. That's what we have shown in these challenges and many more-including one of the most trying epidemics I believe the Mountain State has ever faced-with the sharp rise in substance abuse and addiction.

 

FIGHTING SUBSTANCE ABUSE

That's why in 2011, I issued an Executive Order to create the Governor's Advisory Council on Substance Abuse, made up of representatives of substance abuse prevention, behavioral medicine, law enforcement, child and adolescent psychology, the legal system, residential treatment facilities, the public school system, the faith community and health care.

 

My vision for this Council was a community-driven, ground-up approach to tackling this epidemic. Through community-based task forces in six regions across the state, we have made significant progress and enacted life-saving reforms.

 

We now look at substance abuse as an illness-not a crime.

 

We have decreased the number of meth labs across the state as the result of making it more difficult to obtain pseudoephedrine.

 

We have expanded access to the life-saving drug Narcan to first responders and family members of those struggling with addiction. Last year alone, hundreds of lives were saved as a result.

 

We have substance abuse prevention services in all 55 counties. We have expanded and improved community-based treatment options and recovery services. Across the state, we have 188 crisis detox beds in residential treatment facilities with more sites under development.

 

We have 118 beds designated for youth and postpartum treatment as well as short-term and long-term residential treatment. And we have over 1,000 beds for those seeking help and support through peer and provider recovery homes and facilities.

 

We are working closely with our prisons and correctional facilities to ensure all West Virginians are provided access to substance abuse rehabilitation.

 

In fact, the Division of Corrections operates nine residential substance abuse treatment units in correctional centers across the state and we have expanded this model to our regional jail facilities as well.

 

And-through Justice Reinvestment-we have successfully worked to address substance abuse, which is the root cause of many crimes.

 

Because of that work, we have expanded drug courts, substance abuse counseling and greater supervision after release.

 

And ultimately, we have better controlled incarceration rates, which prevented our state from having to build a new $200 million prison that was projected to be needed because of our previous rising prison population.

 

Just this week, we announced the news that West Virginia reached settlements with two additional drug wholesalers totaling $36 million, which resolves allegations by our state regarding the distribution of controlled substances in West Virginia.

 

This brings the total amount of drug settlement money paid to our state by drug wholesalers to $47 million, which will expand our efforts even further for more law enforcement diversion options, more treatment recovery services and many more efforts to fight this epidemic.

 

I am also deeply proud of the work we have done in creating the state's first 24-hour substance abuse call line, 844-HELP-4-WV, which has received nearly 8,500 calls since it launched in September 2015.

 

The help line provides referral support for those seeking help and recovery services. It's an opportunity for people who are struggling to talk with someone who cares, get connected to treatment options and begin the road to recovery.

 

No caller is ever placed on hold and they are immediately connected with treatment staff representing the best and most appropriate treatment options for them.

 

Administered by First Choice Health Systems of West Virginia, the help line is staffed by certified professionals, many who have overcome addiction themselves and want to help others turn their lives around as well.

 

One young gentleman I met did just that because he picked up the phone.

 

A.J. Walker, a recovering alcoholic and addict, was given the help line number by his brother.

 

A.J. said when he called, he was treated like a person-not like a drug addict-and he found hope. They got him into a detox facility and into recovery, and the help line staff called and checked in on him every step of the way.

  

Today, A.J. is employed by the treatment facility that helped him and he's in school studying to become a substance abuse counselor.

 

A.J. is here today with his brother, Andrew, and Vickie Jones ... Commissioner of our Bureau of Behavioral Health and Health Facilities.

 

A.J. we are so proud of you. And today ... you are giving hope to so many.

 

When I hear stories like A.J.'s, I am incredibly optimistic for West Virginia's future. With economic changes, job losses and families struggling, we have to seize every opportunity before us to become stronger as individuals and as a state.

 

One such opportunity lies in Boone and Lincoln Counties, where I believe we have the chance to revitalize Southern West Virginia and make the Mountain State stronger.

 

EMBRACING THE FUTURE

It was here in this chamber, one year ago during my State of the State Address, where I announced plans for the largest development project in West Virginia's history at the former Hobet surface mine site.

 

Since last year at this time, we have worked every day and we have made tremendous progress on this project, which is now known as Rock Creek Development Park.

 

We have worked with local landowners, who are generously donating land that will result in more than 12,000 developable acres for Rock Creek, which is the size of the city of Huntington.

 

The West Virginia National Guard-Rock Creek's first tenant-is on the ground with newly-expanded operations for maintenance work and training.

 

And we have a long-term strategic plan now in place, which looks at demographics and market trends to help us identify the best investment opportunities for Rock Creek.

 

For generations, our coal miners, workers and their families have kept West Virginia strong. Now, it's our turn to help them.

 

By realizing the full potential of Rock Creek Development Park for job creation and economic diversification, we can build up a region of our state hard hit by the downturn in the coal industry.

 

My vision for Rock Creek started many years ago as I rode my four-wheeler around the hills of Southern West Virginia and saw the possibilities that such an enormous site-with such a great amount of flat land-could have.

 

Embracing opportunities like this takes careful thought and planning, and this public-private project will require some investment by the state. But I believe wholeheartedly that the returns will vastly exceed our investment.

 

That isn't something I say lightly.

 

Throughout my 42 years in public service, fiscal responsibility has been at the heart of every project I've undertaken, every policy I've fought for and every decision I've made.

 

GOVERNING RESPONSIBLY

As a result of much hard work, over the years we have decreased taxes, embraced responsible spending, made great progress toward paying off the state's unfunded liabilities and controlled growth of the state's budget.

 

We have realized milestone tax reforms, including progressive elimination of the food tax, saving West Virginians $162 million each year.

 

We have gradually eliminated the state's business franchise tax and decreased the corporate net income tax-changes that make West Virginia more attractive for business investments.

 

As a result of responsible reforms, last year the National Council on Compensation Insurance filed the 12th reduction in workers' compensation premiums in 12 years. And West Virginia employers have seen a savings of more than $352 million since we privatized the program in 2006.

 

We addressed our Other Post Employment Benefits by dedicating $30 million annually to pay off the $5 billion unfunded liability, which was caused by previous promises that became too expensive to maintain.

 

As I did last year, I present to you today a budget that is balanced, but a budget that requires difficult decisions and thinking about the next generation rather than the next election.

 

I continue to be proud of the fiscal responsibility we have shown not just for the past six years, but over the last generation. Our commitment to paying down our long-term liabilities has not wavered and we have responsibly reduced taxes on both our employers and our employees.

 

Because of our improved fiscal policies, we have been able to refinance bonds that pay for schools, water and sewer lines, college campus improvements and roads to save more than $100 million in the past six years.

 

So when people ask me why I'm so concerned with maintaining our Rainy Day Fund and our bond rating, that's why. It means more schools, more roads and more homes with clean water.

 

As part of tough decisions during tough economic times, we have cut more than $600 million from our budget in the past five years. While we all continue to hope that the coal industry will rebound, that hasn't happened quickly and it likely won't ever return to the levels that we once saw.

 

We continue to work to diversify our economy and I know the improvements we've made will pay long-term dividends in job growth and investment.

 

But we're not there yet, and part of being fiscally responsible means making sure that we can pay our bills without taking the Rainy Day Fund to dangerously low levels or cutting services to the point where we cannot care for our people or educate our students.

 

Therefore, the budget I present to you today includes a 1 percent increase in the consumer sales tax to raise $200 million and elimination of the current sales tax exemption on telecommunications services-a move that would make our system the same as 80 percent of the country.

 

I understand these taxes will not be easy, but asking people to pay a few dollars more now is a far better choice than seeing PEIA cards not accepted by medical providers or going back to the days when we couldn't finance school and road improvements, or even pay the gas bill at the Governor's Mansion.

 

I urge you to consider these responsible actions to balance the budget until the brighter economic picture that we all expect comes into focus.

 

CLOSING

I believe the thing that compelled each of us to public service is our love for West Virginia. And that is the very thing that should compel us to work together.

 

When I became your Governor, I said that we must put West Virginia first.

 

That's what we have done. And I encourage you to continue working together out of that deep devotion to our beloved state-in the coming year and beyond.

 

I am proud of the work that we have accomplished. I look forward to the leadership of Governor-elect Jim Justice and I thank all of you who have worked with me over the years.

 

I thank my cabinet members and agency directors. And I thank my dedicated staff members who have worked every day-not for me, but for the people of West Virginia.

 

It has been the honor of my life to be your Governor-to be West Virginia's Governor. Joanne and I thank the people of West Virginia for your abiding trust, counsel and support.

 

And we look forward-with the greatest hope and optimism-to an even stronger West Virginia.

 

Thank you. God bless you. And God bless the great state of West Virginia.

###

 

Photos available for media use. All photos should be attributed “Photo courtesy of Office of the Governor.”

By the early nineteenth century, as ways of consuming the seaside matured and diversified, there was a growing appreciation of the joys and benefits to be gained by not just being beside the sea but venturing out onto the water itself without the disadvantages and dangers associated with boats.

The West Pier was designed and engineered by Eugenius Birch to attract visitors and survive in the hostile environment of the seashore. Built in 1866, it was a simple and functional structure built out from the sea using dozens of cast iron threaded columns screwed into the seabed and strengthened by a lattice of ties and girders that provide the necessary strength to support the promenade deck whilst allowing seas to pass harmlessly underneath.

Originally the West Pier had an open deck with only six small ornamental houses of Oriental design, two toll houses, glass screens at the pier head to protect visitors from the wind and lamps, with columns decorated with entwined serpents, placed around the perimeter and lit by gas. In 1875 a central bandstand was added and in the 1880′s weather screens the full length of the pier, steamer landing stages and a large pier head pavilion were constructed.

The final building, completed in 1916, was a graceful concert hall. The result was seaside architecture at its finest, designed to attract and entertain holiday-makers with all the pomp and frippery that is the essence of the English seaside resort.

The West Pier story closely follows the changing fortunes of the English seaside holiday. It began simply as a promenade pier where visitors could enjoy the thrill of walking on water; it was the place for the Victorian middle classes to socialise and exhibit their wealth, to see and be seen, to take in the sea air and admire the panoramic views of the land. By WW1 it had evolved into a pleasure pier with a great variety of seaside entertainment both indoors and out. Throughout the twenties it was immensely popular with attractions ranging from paddle steamer excursions, daring high divers and bathing from the pier head to military bands, recitals by the pier’s resident orchestra in the Concert Hall and an all-year-round programme of plays, pantomimes and ballets in the Theatre.

During WWII, the Pier was closed and mined for security reasons and sections were dismantled to prevent enemy landings. When the mines were removed and the pier reopened, after the repair of its war wounds, it completed its evolution into a funfair pier. The Theatre was converted into a restaurant on one floor and on the other the ‘Laughter Land’ games pavilion. The Concert Hall became a tea room, and the delights of the dodgems, helter-skelter, ghost train and miniature racing track could be enjoyed by all.

The pier was shut to the public in 1975 as it was deemed unsafe. A huge storm in December 2002 resulted in the dramatic collapse of the south east corner of the Concert Hall; in March 2003 the Pavilion was destroyed in an arson attack, and in May 2003 the Concert Hall was also burnt out deliberately. 2003 was a catastrophic year for the West Pier and by December 2003, a report concluded that despite the significant damage, given the wealth of salvaged material from the pier and the considerable photographic and video archive, repair and reconstruction of the pier was still viable. Unfortunately funding was not available.

The collapsed Concert Hall, being close to the beach, became a public hazard and in 2010 was removed. However, the skeletal ruin of the pier Pavilion has become an iconic feature of Brighton’s seafront. Its unique desolate beauty makes it much discussed, wondered about and photographed. The Pier has been too dangerous to access since the fires of 2003 and cannot be maintained. Over the coming years it will be reclaimed by nature and will inevitably degenerate and decay. The Trust has no intention of removing the remains unless overwhelming safety issues arise.

In 2006, planning permission was granted to the creators of the London eye to build the i360, an observation tower. It will be sited on the root-end of the pier and will open an exciting new chapter for the West Pier. This new landmark, which will be tied in with the original pier, has now commenced construction. At 175 metres high, and with an observation pod rising to 141 metres, the i360 will be Britain's highest observation tower outside London – taller even than the London Eye. The i360 follows in the spirit of the original pier, inviting visitors to "walk on air" and gain a different perspective of the city, just as they "walked on water" in the past and viewed the city from the sea. Chairman of the Brighton West Pier Trust, which owns the site of the former pier “believes that the Brighton i360 – a 'vertical pier' – is entirely in the spirit of the original pier's history and the best option to replicate its success and ethos." The i360 will restore parts of the original pier to their former glory, including the Victorian tollbooths. Parts of the cast iron supporting structure will be reused in the new visitor centre and an exhibition will enable visitors to learn about the pier's history. The cast iron structure off shore, known as the sea island, will stay but the wreckage of the derelict pier on the beach will be removed. A proportion of ticket revenues from the i360 will also go to the West Pier Trust charity, enabling it to continue promoting the pier's unique heritage.

This part of the plan really appeals to be - in the evenings, the Brighton i360 will transform into the Sky Bar – a chic, modern and accessible venue in which to relax and enjoy a glass of champagne, wine or a cocktail while taking in the stunning night-time views. The ride will be extended to 30 minutes to allow people plenty of time to enjoy their drink!!

The changing weather over a 3 day period is reflected in the photos I took of this fascinating and haunting structure – it looks quite eerie in the fog.

 

BOULTON & PAUL P.6 -

 

The long-established company in Norwich was widely diversified into the making of prefabricated buildings, and a vast array of products from cast-iron carts to motorboat engines. With the arrival of World War One it commenced propeller and aircraft manufacturing, and after this continued to build experimental aircraft, the ''P.6'' was the first.

 

The original P.6 aircraft (X25) was built by the company in 1918 for aerodynamic research purposes, the first flight was in November. Pilot: Frank Courtney. On 1st May 1919, the day the Air Navigation Act came into force, it made the first official business flight in Great Britain, flying the Boulton & Paul sales manager (Mr. R. McWilliams) from Norwich to Bury St Edmunds to complete a deal and back. Pilot: Captain Brook. The aircraft was officially registered K-120 on the 20th May 1919, and G-EACJ later for use by the company sales manager, although there is no evidence that it carried either. It was replaced in April 1920 by Boulton & Paul's second P.9 (G-EAPD).

 

This static reproduction of the Boulton & Paul P.6 experimental biplane was built from scratch by members of the Boulton Paul Association of Wolverhampton to mark the earlier origins of the company, it was done without the aid of the original drawings. It was the centre piece attraction of the Smiths Actuation Systems' exhibition stand at the 2003 Paris Air Show. Metamorphosis images of the components of the P.6 were cleverly transformed into their modern Smiths Aerospace equivalents on a large screen.

 

TECHNICAL INFORMATION -

 

▪︎Wingspan: 25 ft

▪︎Length: 19 ft

▪︎Height: 8 ft

▪︎Engine: 90 hp V.8 R.A.F. 1A

▪︎Maximum Speed: 103 mph

▪︎Empty Weight: 1,300 lb

▪︎Loaded Weight: 1,725 lb

▪︎Endurance: 2 hours 20 minutes.

 

Generously gifted to the Norfolk & Suffolk Aviation Museum by the Boulton Paul Association in January 2015.

“My family had a corner shop in Chapeltown. I learnt how to speak to and serve customers from a very young age. It was a vibrant but at time challenging area to live in. I loved it though, the diversity meant that I didn’t see difference, people from all walks of life came together and respected each other. This helped me connect with people later in my life. In college I received good grades and my parents wanted me to do medicine or engineering. But I wanted something different. I became a Proshetist Orthotist. I worked fitting artificial limbs to amputees and helped people with mobility difficulties. It was an amazing experience because it taught me a lot about life and struggles in a very short amount of time. I often saw people at their most fragile but also saw huge strength. Watching someone who’s had an amputation learn to stand again, walk, adapt and build new goals was rewarding to be part of. Sometimes Patients would come in and say they were being called names and stared at due to disability. If secondary to injury they weren’t necessarily used to it, but I was. I’d had that on and off as a person of colour my whole life. I knew what it felt like; to be shouted at. To feel intimidated. To walk into a room and have people look at you and ignore you. To not feel good enough.

 

My passion was always art. I’d wanted to pursue it since I was a child. About a month after making the decision to take the leap I ended up applying to BBC’s Big Painting Challenge. Not expecting anything to happen, I managed to get on the show. It was really fast-paced and I was overwhelmed at times. But I ended up winning the contest in 2017. It was a whirlwind of a time afterwards. I was suddenly accepted as an artist by my family. They saw my talent as worthwhile. And while it helped on one level, I found some barriers and walls within arts sector. I have personal experience of barriers - I’m not of a formal arts background. I’m a female. I’m a woman of colour. I’m from a ‘disadvantaged’ background. They say that anyone can be an artist; everyone has the right. But how is that possible when only a small portion gets reflected in institutions? I won’t stop until my voice is heard as an Artist.”

gp500.org/Suzuki.html

 

gp500.org/

Suzuki Motorcycle History

GP500.Org Part # 31600 GSXR 600 Suzuki motorcycle windshields

Suzuki is another member of the “Big Four” from Japan. It began manufacturing motorcycles in 1952 and has become well known around the world. Its off-road bikes and roadracers have won world titles, and its street machines range from the cruiser Boulevard series to the legendary GSX-R series of sportbikes. It, along with Honda, is unique in that the company also builds automobiles. .1909

Michio Suzuki founds the Suzuki Loom Company in Hamamatsu, Japan. He builds industrial looms for the thriving Japanese silk industry. 1937

To diversify activities, the company experiments with several interesting small car prototypes, but none go into production because the Japanese government declares civilian automobiles “non-essential commodities” at the onset of WWII. 1951

After the war, Suzuki (like Honda and others) begins making clip-on motors for bicycles. 1953

The Diamond Free is introduced and features double-sprocket wheel mechanism and two-speed transmission. 1955

The Colleda COX debuts, a 125cc bike equipped with a steel frame. It features a 4-stroke OHV single-cylinder engine with three-speed transmission. 1961

East German star Ernst Degner defects to the west while racing for MZ in the Swedish Grand Prix. He takes MZ’s most valuable secret – knowledge of Walter Kaaden’s expansion chamber designs – to Suzuki. 1962

Using MZ’s technology, Suzuki wins the newly created 50cc class in the World Championship. The company will win the class every year until ’67, and win the 125cc class twice in that period, too. 1963

U.S. Suzuki Motor Corp. opens in Los Angeles. 1965

The T20 is released (aka Super 6, X-6, Hustler). This two-stroke, street-going Twin is one of the fastest bikes in its class. The ‘6’ in its name(s) refers to its six-speed gearbox. 1968

The T500 ‘Titan’ is an air-cooled parallel-Twin two-stroke. 1970

Joel Robert wins the 250cc World Motocross Championship for Suzuki. This is the first year of a three-year streak. 1971

The GT750 2-stroke surprises people with its three-cylinder liquid-cooled engine. In North America, it’s nicknamed the Water Buffalo; in the UK they call them Kettles. Although the bike is quite advanced in many ways and inspires a line of smaller air-cooled triples (GT380 and GT550), it’s clear that pollution control legislation will limit the use of two-strokes as street motorcycles. Even while the GT750 was in development, Suzuki had signed a licensing deal with NSU to develop a motorcycle with a Wankel (rotary) engine.

The TM400A motocrosser goes into production, a 396cc bike designed for 500cc motocross races. Roger Decoster wins the 500cc World Championship on the factory version of this bike and will dominate the class, winning five times from 1971-’76.

1972

The Hustler 400, a street version of the TM400, is released. This bike features a double-cradle frame and 2-stroke single-cylinder 396cc engine. 1974

The RE5 is the first Japanese motorcycle with a rotary engine. It cost a fortune to develop and, while not bad, it’s a commercial disaster. After two years, the company abandons the project, and there are rumors the tooling was dumped into the sea so that Suzuki managers would never have to see it again. 1975

The RM125, with an air-cooled 2-stroke single-cylinder 123cc engine, is a production motocrosser 1976

With the GS750, Suzuki finally builds a 4-stroke, four-cylinder road bike. 1978

The GS1000E becomes the flagship model of the GS series – it’s Suzuki’s first literbike. 1979

Wes Cooley wins the AMA Superbike Championship on the new GS. He’ll repeat the feat in ’80 before submitting to Eddie Lawson. 1980

The GSX750E adopts Twin Swirl Combustion Chamber (TSCC) structure and a DOHC engine upgraded to four valves. Also, a new Anti Nose Dive Fork (ANDF) system is adopted for the front suspension.

Somewhere in Japan, Suzuki appoints a Vice President of Acronyms for Suzuki’s Success (V-PASS).

1981

German designer Hans A. Muth, styles the GSX1100S Katana. It boasts an output of 111 hp at 8,500 rpm.

Marco Lucchinelli wins the 500cc World Championship for Suzuki.

1982

Franco Uncini wins the 500cc World Championship. 1983

The RG250 is Suzuki’s first ever race replica. This bike features the AL-BOX, square aluminum frame, 16-inch tire and Anti Nose Dive Forks (ANDF) at the front. 1985

The RG500 “Gamma” features the same square-Four cylinder layout as the as the factory Grand Prix bikes. Other racy features are the square-tube aluminum frame and the removable cassette-type transmission. 1986

Although the rest of the world got the GSX-R750 a year earlier, the most important new motorcycle in a decade finally arrives in the U.S. in 1986. Kevin Cameron, reviewing the machine in Cycle World, rhetorically asks, “Where will we go from here?”

The new GSX-R1100 covers ¼ mile in 10.3 seconds and boasts a top speed of over 160 mph. That’s where we go from here.

1989

Jamie James wins the AMA Superbike Championship of the GSX-R750. 1990

The 779cc DR-BIG has the largest single-cylinder engine in living memory. 1991

The GSX-R750 switches from oil-cooling to water-cooling and gains weight. 1993

Kevin Schwantz wins the 500cc World Championship. “I’d rather not win it this way,” he says, referring to the career-ending injury of his arch-rival Wayne Rainey. 1995

The much-loved 16-valve, 1156cc air/oil-cooled Bandit 1200 appears on the scene. 1996

Suzuki calls the new GSX-R750 the ‘turning-point model’ thanks to its twin-spar frame instead of the older double-cradle frame. The engine is also redesigned and featured 3-piece crankcases, chrome-plated cylinders and a side-mount cam chain as well as Suzuki Ram Air Direct (SRAD) system. 1997

The TL1000S is the first Suzuki sportbike with a V-Twin engine. It will be followed a year later by a racier R version, with a dodgy rotary vane damping system in the rear shock. Suzuki equipped the TL1000R with a steering damper, but it was still prone to headshake and customers approached it with caution, if at all. 1999

Mat Mladin wins the AMA Superbike Championship, beginning a run of unprecedented dominance. Mladin will win five more times, and Suzuki will win 8 of the next 9 titles.

With sport bikes getting more and more sharp edged, the company is one of the first to recognize what might be called the ‘semi-sport’ market, as opposed to the supersport market. The SV650 features an aluminum-alloy truss frame and a liquid-cooled 90° V-Twin DOHC 4-valve engine.

Suzuki calls the Hayabusa the ultimate aerodynamic sportbike. It’s powered by a 1298cc liquid-cooled DOHC in-line 4-cylinder engine that becomes the darling of land-speed racers. The name means “peregrine falcon” in Japanese.

2001

Based on the compact GSX-R750, the GSX-R1000 is powered by a liquid-cooled DOHC 16-valve 4-cylinder 988cc engine, which features narrow-angle valves and downdraft individual throttle-body fuel injection. 2005

Suzuki’s original 4-stroke motocrosser, the RM-Z450, is equipped with a 4-stroke 449cc engine, which features the Suzuki Advanced Sump System (SASS).

Troy Corser gives Suzuki its first and only (so far) World Superbike Championship.

2006

The M109R, Suzuki’s flagship V-Twin cruiser, is powered by a 1783cc V-Twin engine with 112mm bore and 90.5mm stroke. It has the largest reciprocating pistons in any production passenger car or motorcycle. 2008

The B-King is launched, powered by the 1340cc Hayabusa engine, the B-King is Suzuki’s flagship big ‘Naked’ bike. Suzuki says it has the top-ranked power output in the naked category. 2010

Due to economic downturn, Suzuki decides not to import any sportbikes to America for the 2010 model year. It also sites a backlog of 2009 models still on showroom floors as part of the decision.

 

Bee & Lavender = Honey Big on Black

 

The lavenders (Lavandula) (Lavender) are a genus of 39 species of flowering plants in the mint family, Lamiaceae. An Old World genus, distributed from Macaronesia (Cape Verde and Canary Islands and Madeira) across Africa, the Mediterranean, South-West Asia, Arabia, Western Iran and South-East India. It is thought the genus originated in Asia but is most diversified in its western distribution. When trecking in the mountains yo will feel the aroma from the wild lavender and here

the wild bees summing arraund. The colors of the lavender is fantastic.

 

Culinary use

 

A bee on a lavender flower

 

Flowers also yield abundant nectar from which bees make a high-quality honey. Monofloral honey is produced primarily around the Mediterranean, and is marketed worldwide as a premium product. Flowers can be candied and are sometimes used as cake decorations. Lavender flavors baked goods and desserts (it pairs especially well with chocolate), as well as used to make "lavender sugar".[6] Lavender flowers are occasionally blended with black, green, or herbal tea, adds a fresh, relaxing scent and flavour.

 

Though it has many other traditional uses in southern France, lavender is not used in traditional southern French cooking.[7] In the 1970s, an herb blend called herbes de Provence usually including lavender was invented by spice wholesalers,[8] and lavender has more recently become popular in cookery.

 

Lavender lends a floral and slightly sweet flavor to most dishes, and is sometimes paired with sheep's-milk and goat's-milk cheeses. For most cooking applications the dried buds (also referred to as flowers) are used, though some chefs experiment with the leaves as well. Only the buds contain the essential oil of lavender, which is where the scent and flavour of lavender are best derived.

 

The French are also known for their lavender syrup, most commonly made from an extract of lavender. In the United States, both French lavender syrup and dried lavender buds make lavender scones and marshmallows.

[edit] Medicinal use

 

Lavender is used extensively with herbs and aromatherapy.

 

English lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) yields an essential oil with sweet overtones, and can be used in balms, salves, perfumes, cosmetics, and topical applications. Lavandin, Lavandula × intermedia (also known as Dutch lavender), yields a similar essential oil, but with higher levels of terpenes including camphor, which add a sharper overtone to the fragrance. Mexican lavender, Lavandula stoechas is not used medicinally, but mainly for landscaping.

 

Essential oil of lavender has antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties. It was used in hospitals during WWI to disinfect floors and walls. These extracts are also used as fragrances for bath products.

 

According to folk wisdom, lavender has many uses. Infusions of lavender soothes, heal insect bites and burns. Bunches of lavender repel insects. If applied to the temples, lavender oil soothes headaches. In pillows, lavender seeds and flowers aid sleep and relaxation. An infusion of three flowerheads added to a cup of boiling water soothes and relaxes at bedtime. Lavender oil (or extract of Lavender) heals acne when used diluted 1:10 with water, rosewater, or witch hazel; it also treats skin burns and inflammatory conditions.[citation needed]

 

A recent clinical study investigated anxiolytic effects and influence on sleep quality. Lavender oil with a high percentage of linalool and linalyl acetate, in form of capsules, was generally well tolerated. It showed meaningful efficacy in alleviating anxiety and related sleep disturbances.[9] In Germany, the capsules are available under the trade name Lasea.

[edit]

 

Bees play an important role in pollinating flowering plants, and are the major type of pollinator in ecosystems that contain flowering plants. Bees either focus on gathering nectar or on gathering pollen depending on demand, especially in social species. Bees gathering nectar may accomplish pollination, but bees that are deliberately gathering pollen are more efficient pollinators. It is estimated that one third of the human food supply depends on insect pollination, most of which is accomplished by bees, especially the domesticated European honey bee. Contract pollination has overtaken the role of honey production for beekeepers in many countries. Monoculture and the massive decline of many bee species (both wild and domesticated) have increasingly caused honey bee keepers to become migratory so that bees can be concentrated in seasonally varying high-demand areas of pollination.

Honey bee (Apis mellifera) collecting pollen

 

Most bees are fuzzy and carry an electrostatic charge, which aids in the adherence of pollen. Female bees periodically stop foraging and groom themselves to pack the pollen into the scopa, which is on the legs in most bees, and on the ventral abdomen on others, and modified into specialized pollen baskets on the legs of honey bees and their relatives. Many bees are opportunistic foragers, and will gather pollen from a variety of plants, while others are oligolectic, gathering pollen from only one or a few types of plant. A small number of plants produce nutritious floral oils rather than pollen, which are gathered and used by oligolectic bees. One small subgroup of stingless bees, called "vulture bees," is specialized to feed on carrion, and these are the only bees that do not use plant products as food. Pollen and nectar are usually combined together to form a "provision mass", which is often soupy, but can be firm. It is formed into various shapes (typically spheroid), and stored in a small chamber (a "cell"), with the egg deposited on the mass. The cell is typically sealed after the egg is laid, and the adult and larva never interact directly (a system called "mass provisioning").

 

In New Zealand scientists discovered that three genera of native bees have evolved to open flower buds of the native mistletoe Peraxilla tetrapetala. The buds cannot open themselves but are visited by birds such as the tui and bellbird which twist the top of the ripe bud. That action releases a mechanism which causes the petals to suddenly spring open, giving access to the nectar and pollen. However, when observing the native bees in the Canterbury province in the South Island, the scientists were astonished to see the bees biting the top off the buds, then pushing with their legs, occasionally popping open the buds to allow the bees to harvest the nectar and pollen, and therefore aid in the pollination of the mistletoe which is in decline in New Zealand. Nowhere else in the world have bees demonstrated ability to open explosive bird-adapted flowers.[2]

 

Visiting flowers can be a dangerous occupation. Many assassin bugs and crab spiders hide in flowers to capture unwary bees. Other bees are lost to birds in flight. Insecticides used on blooming plants kill many bees, both by direct poisoning and by contamination of their food supply. A honey bee queen may lay 2000 eggs per day during spring buildup, but she also must lay 1000 to 1500 eggs per day during the foraging season, mostly to replace daily casualties, most of which are workers dying of old age. Among solitary and primitively social bees, however, lifetime reproduction is among the lowest of all insects, as it is common for females of such species to produce fewer than 25 offspring.

 

The population value of bees depends partly on the individual efficiency of the bees, but also on the population itself. Thus while bumblebees have been found to be about ten times more efficient pollinators on cucurbits, the total efficiency of a colony of honey bees is much greater due to greater numbers. Likewise during early spring orchard blossoms, bumblebee populations are limited to only a few queens, and thus are not significant pollinators of early fruit.

By the early nineteenth century, as ways of consuming the seaside matured and diversified, there was a growing appreciation of the joys and benefits to be gained by not just being beside the sea but venturing out onto the water itself without the disadvantages and dangers associated with boats.

The West Pier was designed and engineered by Eugenius Birch to attract visitors and survive in the hostile environment of the seashore. Built in 1866, it was a simple and functional structure built out from the sea using dozens of cast iron threaded columns screwed into the seabed and strengthened by a lattice of ties and girders that provide the necessary strength to support the promenade deck whilst allowing seas to pass harmlessly underneath.

Originally the West Pier had an open deck with only six small ornamental houses of Oriental design, two toll houses, glass screens at the pier head to protect visitors from the wind and lamps, with columns decorated with entwined serpents, placed around the perimeter and lit by gas. In 1875 a central bandstand was added and in the 1880′s weather screens the full length of the pier, steamer landing stages and a large pier head pavilion were constructed.

The final building, completed in 1916, was a graceful concert hall. The result was seaside architecture at its finest, designed to attract and entertain holiday-makers with all the pomp and frippery that is the essence of the English seaside resort.

The West Pier story closely follows the changing fortunes of the English seaside holiday. It began simply as a promenade pier where visitors could enjoy the thrill of walking on water; it was the place for the Victorian middle classes to socialise and exhibit their wealth, to see and be seen, to take in the sea air and admire the panoramic views of the land. By WW1 it had evolved into a pleasure pier with a great variety of seaside entertainment both indoors and out. Throughout the twenties it was immensely popular with attractions ranging from paddle steamer excursions, daring high divers and bathing from the pier head to military bands, recitals by the pier’s resident orchestra in the Concert Hall and an all-year-round programme of plays, pantomimes and ballets in the Theatre.

During WWII, the Pier was closed and mined for security reasons and sections were dismantled to prevent enemy landings. When the mines were removed and the pier reopened, after the repair of its war wounds, it completed its evolution into a funfair pier. The Theatre was converted into a restaurant on one floor and on the other the ‘Laughter Land’ games pavilion. The Concert Hall became a tea room, and the delights of the dodgems, helter-skelter, ghost train and miniature racing track could be enjoyed by all.

The pier was shut to the public in 1975 as it was deemed unsafe. A huge storm in December 2002 resulted in the dramatic collapse of the south east corner of the Concert Hall; in March 2003 the Pavilion was destroyed in an arson attack, and in May 2003 the Concert Hall was also burnt out deliberately. 2003 was a catastrophic year for the West Pier and by December 2003, a report concluded that despite the significant damage, given the wealth of salvaged material from the pier and the considerable photographic and video archive, repair and reconstruction of the pier was still viable. Unfortunately funding was not available.

The collapsed Concert Hall, being close to the beach, became a public hazard and in 2010 was removed. However, the skeletal ruin of the pier Pavilion has become an iconic feature of Brighton’s seafront. Its unique desolate beauty makes it much discussed, wondered about and photographed. The Pier has been too dangerous to access since the fires of 2003 and cannot be maintained. Over the coming years it will be reclaimed by nature and will inevitably degenerate and decay. The Trust has no intention of removing the remains unless overwhelming safety issues arise.

In 2006, planning permission was granted to the creators of the London eye to build the i360, an observation tower. It will be sited on the root-end of the pier and will open an exciting new chapter for the West Pier. This new landmark, which will be tied in with the original pier, has now commenced construction. At 175 metres high, and with an observation pod rising to 141 metres, the i360 will be Britain's highest observation tower outside London – taller even than the London Eye. The i360 follows in the spirit of the original pier, inviting visitors to "walk on air" and gain a different perspective of the city, just as they "walked on water" in the past and viewed the city from the sea. Chairman of the Brighton West Pier Trust, which owns the site of the former pier “believes that the Brighton i360 – a 'vertical pier' – is entirely in the spirit of the original pier's history and the best option to replicate its success and ethos." The i360 will restore parts of the original pier to their former glory, including the Victorian tollbooths. Parts of the cast iron supporting structure will be reused in the new visitor centre and an exhibition will enable visitors to learn about the pier's history. The cast iron structure off shore, known as the sea island, will stay but the wreckage of the derelict pier on the beach will be removed. A proportion of ticket revenues from the i360 will also go to the West Pier Trust charity, enabling it to continue promoting the pier's unique heritage.

This part of the plan really appeals to be - in the evenings, the Brighton i360 will transform into the Sky Bar – a chic, modern and accessible venue in which to relax and enjoy a glass of champagne, wine or a cocktail while taking in the stunning night-time views. The ride will be extended to 30 minutes to allow people plenty of time to enjoy their drink!!

The changing weather over a 3 day period is reflected in the photos I took of this fascinating and haunting structure – it looks quite eerie in the fog.

 

An interesting bit of post-war diversification this - the Bristol Aircraft Company who had during WW2 been at full tilt building aircraft would have been, in common with other defence industries, looking for ways to built up ancillary trades using wartime technology and capacity. At the same time, in post-war austerity, there was a huge backlog of capital investment in the UK's infrastructure needing rapid and cheap building at a time of steel shortages. BAC offered a version of 'pre-fab' buildings for schools and a few were constructed. I'm uncertain if any survive. Bristol Aeroplanes were part of quite an industrial empire that had grown out of the original Bristol Tramways Comapny, moving to construction of road vehicles (cars but notably buses) and then into aircarft construction with the Filton plant becoming a major hub of construction in the UK.

By the early nineteenth century, as ways of consuming the seaside matured and diversified, there was a growing appreciation of the joys and benefits to be gained by not just being beside the sea but venturing out onto the water itself without the disadvantages and dangers associated with boats.

The West Pier was designed and engineered by Eugenius Birch to attract visitors and survive in the hostile environment of the seashore. Built in 1866, it was a simple and functional structure built out from the sea using dozens of cast iron threaded columns screwed into the seabed and strengthened by a lattice of ties and girders that provide the necessary strength to support the promenade deck whilst allowing seas to pass harmlessly underneath.

Originally the West Pier had an open deck with only six small ornamental houses of Oriental design, two toll houses, glass screens at the pier head to protect visitors from the wind and lamps, with columns decorated with entwined serpents, placed around the perimeter and lit by gas. In 1875 a central bandstand was added and in the 1880′s weather screens the full length of the pier, steamer landing stages and a large pier head pavilion were constructed.

The final building, completed in 1916, was a graceful concert hall. The result was seaside architecture at its finest, designed to attract and entertain holiday-makers with all the pomp and frippery that is the essence of the English seaside resort.

The West Pier story closely follows the changing fortunes of the English seaside holiday. It began simply as a promenade pier where visitors could enjoy the thrill of walking on water; it was the place for the Victorian middle classes to socialise and exhibit their wealth, to see and be seen, to take in the sea air and admire the panoramic views of the land. By WW1 it had evolved into a pleasure pier with a great variety of seaside entertainment both indoors and out. Throughout the twenties it was immensely popular with attractions ranging from paddle steamer excursions, daring high divers and bathing from the pier head to military bands, recitals by the pier’s resident orchestra in the Concert Hall and an all-year-round programme of plays, pantomimes and ballets in the Theatre.

During WWII, the Pier was closed and mined for security reasons and sections were dismantled to prevent enemy landings. When the mines were removed and the pier reopened, after the repair of its war wounds, it completed its evolution into a funfair pier. The Theatre was converted into a restaurant on one floor and on the other the ‘Laughter Land’ games pavilion. The Concert Hall became a tea room, and the delights of the dodgems, helter-skelter, ghost train and miniature racing track could be enjoyed by all.

The pier was shut to the public in 1975 as it was deemed unsafe. A huge storm in December 2002 resulted in the dramatic collapse of the south east corner of the Concert Hall; in March 2003 the Pavilion was destroyed in an arson attack, and in May 2003 the Concert Hall was also burnt out deliberately. 2003 was a catastrophic year for the West Pier and by December 2003, a report concluded that despite the significant damage, given the wealth of salvaged material from the pier and the considerable photographic and video archive, repair and reconstruction of the pier was still viable. Unfortunately funding was not available.

The collapsed Concert Hall, being close to the beach, became a public hazard and in 2010 was removed. However, the skeletal ruin of the pier Pavilion has become an iconic feature of Brighton’s seafront. Its unique desolate beauty makes it much discussed, wondered about and photographed. The Pier has been too dangerous to access since the fires of 2003 and cannot be maintained. Over the coming years it will be reclaimed by nature and will inevitably degenerate and decay. The Trust has no intention of removing the remains unless overwhelming safety issues arise.

In 2006, planning permission was granted to the creators of the London eye to build the i360, an observation tower. It will be sited on the root-end of the pier and will open an exciting new chapter for the West Pier. This new landmark, which will be tied in with the original pier, has now commenced construction. At 175 metres high, and with an observation pod rising to 141 metres, the i360 will be Britain's highest observation tower outside London – taller even than the London Eye. The i360 follows in the spirit of the original pier, inviting visitors to "walk on air" and gain a different perspective of the city, just as they "walked on water" in the past and viewed the city from the sea. Chairman of the Brighton West Pier Trust, which owns the site of the former pier “believes that the Brighton i360 – a 'vertical pier' – is entirely in the spirit of the original pier's history and the best option to replicate its success and ethos." The i360 will restore parts of the original pier to their former glory, including the Victorian tollbooths. Parts of the cast iron supporting structure will be reused in the new visitor centre and an exhibition will enable visitors to learn about the pier's history. The cast iron structure off shore, known as the sea island, will stay but the wreckage of the derelict pier on the beach will be removed. A proportion of ticket revenues from the i360 will also go to the West Pier Trust charity, enabling it to continue promoting the pier's unique heritage.

This part of the plan really appeals to be - in the evenings, the Brighton i360 will transform into the Sky Bar – a chic, modern and accessible venue in which to relax and enjoy a glass of champagne, wine or a cocktail while taking in the stunning night-time views. The ride will be extended to 30 minutes to allow people plenty of time to enjoy their drink!!

The changing weather over a 3 day period is reflected in the photos I took of this fascinating and haunting structure – it looks quite eerie in the fog.

 

GP500.Org Part # 31000 Suzuki motorcycle windshields

 

gp500.org/Suzuki.html

 

gp500.org/

Suzuki Motorcycle History

Suzuki is another member of the “Big Four” from Japan. It began manufacturing motorcycles in 1952 and has become well known around the world. Its off-road bikes and roadracers have won world titles, and its street machines range from the cruiser Boulevard series to the legendary GSX-R series of sportbikes. It, along with Honda, is unique in that the company also builds automobiles. .1909

Michio Suzuki founds the Suzuki Loom Company in Hamamatsu, Japan. He builds industrial looms for the thriving Japanese silk industry. 1937

To diversify activities, the company experiments with several interesting small car prototypes, but none go into production because the Japanese government declares civilian automobiles “non-essential commodities” at the onset of WWII. 1951

After the war, Suzuki (like Honda and others) begins making clip-on motors for bicycles. 1953

The Diamond Free is introduced and features double-sprocket wheel mechanism and two-speed transmission. 1955

The Colleda COX debuts, a 125cc bike equipped with a steel frame. It features a 4-stroke OHV single-cylinder engine with three-speed transmission. 1961

East German star Ernst Degner defects to the west while racing for MZ in the Swedish Grand Prix. He takes MZ’s most valuable secret – knowledge of Walter Kaaden’s expansion chamber designs – to Suzuki. 1962

Using MZ’s technology, Suzuki wins the newly created 50cc class in the World Championship. The company will win the class every year until ’67, and win the 125cc class twice in that period, too. 1963

U.S. Suzuki Motor Corp. opens in Los Angeles. 1965

The T20 is released (aka Super 6, X-6, Hustler). This two-stroke, street-going Twin is one of the fastest bikes in its class. The ‘6’ in its name(s) refers to its six-speed gearbox. 1968

The T500 ‘Titan’ is an air-cooled parallel-Twin two-stroke. 1970

Joel Robert wins the 250cc World Motocross Championship for Suzuki. This is the first year of a three-year streak. 1971

The GT750 2-stroke surprises people with its three-cylinder liquid-cooled engine. In North America, it’s nicknamed the Water Buffalo; in the UK they call them Kettles. Although the bike is quite advanced in many ways and inspires a line of smaller air-cooled triples (GT380 and GT550), it’s clear that pollution control legislation will limit the use of two-strokes as street motorcycles. Even while the GT750 was in development, Suzuki had signed a licensing deal with NSU to develop a motorcycle with a Wankel (rotary) engine.

The TM400A motocrosser goes into production, a 396cc bike designed for 500cc motocross races. Roger Decoster wins the 500cc World Championship on the factory version of this bike and will dominate the class, winning five times from 1971-’76.

1972

The Hustler 400, a street version of the TM400, is released. This bike features a double-cradle frame and 2-stroke single-cylinder 396cc engine. 1974

The RE5 is the first Japanese motorcycle with a rotary engine. It cost a fortune to develop and, while not bad, it’s a commercial disaster. After two years, the company abandons the project, and there are rumors the tooling was dumped into the sea so that Suzuki managers would never have to see it again. 1975

The RM125, with an air-cooled 2-stroke single-cylinder 123cc engine, is a production motocrosser 1976

With the GS750, Suzuki finally builds a 4-stroke, four-cylinder road bike. 1978

The GS1000E becomes the flagship model of the GS series – it’s Suzuki’s first literbike. 1979

Wes Cooley wins the AMA Superbike Championship on the new GS. He’ll repeat the feat in ’80 before submitting to Eddie Lawson. 1980

The GSX750E adopts Twin Swirl Combustion Chamber (TSCC) structure and a DOHC engine upgraded to four valves. Also, a new Anti Nose Dive Fork (ANDF) system is adopted for the front suspension.

Somewhere in Japan, Suzuki appoints a Vice President of Acronyms for Suzuki’s Success (V-PASS).

1981

German designer Hans A. Muth, styles the GSX1100S Katana. It boasts an output of 111 hp at 8,500 rpm.

Marco Lucchinelli wins the 500cc World Championship for Suzuki.

1982

Franco Uncini wins the 500cc World Championship. 1983

The RG250 is Suzuki’s first ever race replica. This bike features the AL-BOX, square aluminum frame, 16-inch tire and Anti Nose Dive Forks (ANDF) at the front. 1985

The RG500 “Gamma” features the same square-Four cylinder layout as the as the factory Grand Prix bikes. Other racy features are the square-tube aluminum frame and the removable cassette-type transmission. 1986

Although the rest of the world got the GSX-R750 a year earlier, the most important new motorcycle in a decade finally arrives in the U.S. in 1986. Kevin Cameron, reviewing the machine in Cycle World, rhetorically asks, “Where will we go from here?”

The new GSX-R1100 covers ¼ mile in 10.3 seconds and boasts a top speed of over 160 mph. That’s where we go from here.

1989

Jamie James wins the AMA Superbike Championship of the GSX-R750. 1990

The 779cc DR-BIG has the largest single-cylinder engine in living memory. 1991

The GSX-R750 switches from oil-cooling to water-cooling and gains weight. 1993

Kevin Schwantz wins the 500cc World Championship. “I’d rather not win it this way,” he says, referring to the career-ending injury of his arch-rival Wayne Rainey. 1995

The much-loved 16-valve, 1156cc air/oil-cooled Bandit 1200 appears on the scene. 1996

Suzuki calls the new GSX-R750 the ‘turning-point model’ thanks to its twin-spar frame instead of the older double-cradle frame. The engine is also redesigned and featured 3-piece crankcases, chrome-plated cylinders and a side-mount cam chain as well as Suzuki Ram Air Direct (SRAD) system. 1997

The TL1000S is the first Suzuki sportbike with a V-Twin engine. It will be followed a year later by a racier R version, with a dodgy rotary vane damping system in the rear shock. Suzuki equipped the TL1000R with a steering damper, but it was still prone to headshake and customers approached it with caution, if at all. 1999

Mat Mladin wins the AMA Superbike Championship, beginning a run of unprecedented dominance. Mladin will win five more times, and Suzuki will win 8 of the next 9 titles.

With sport bikes getting more and more sharp edged, the company is one of the first to recognize what might be called the ‘semi-sport’ market, as opposed to the supersport market. The SV650 features an aluminum-alloy truss frame and a liquid-cooled 90° V-Twin DOHC 4-valve engine.

Suzuki calls the Hayabusa the ultimate aerodynamic sportbike. It’s powered by a 1298cc liquid-cooled DOHC in-line 4-cylinder engine that becomes the darling of land-speed racers. The name means “peregrine falcon” in Japanese.

2001

Based on the compact GSX-R750, the GSX-R1000 is powered by a liquid-cooled DOHC 16-valve 4-cylinder 988cc engine, which features narrow-angle valves and downdraft individual throttle-body fuel injection. 2005

Suzuki’s original 4-stroke motocrosser, the RM-Z450, is equipped with a 4-stroke 449cc engine, which features the Suzuki Advanced Sump System (SASS).

Troy Corser gives Suzuki its first and only (so far) World Superbike Championship.

2006

The M109R, Suzuki’s flagship V-Twin cruiser, is powered by a 1783cc V-Twin engine with 112mm bore and 90.5mm stroke. It has the largest reciprocating pistons in any production passenger car or motorcycle. 2008

The B-King is launched, powered by the 1340cc Hayabusa engine, the B-King is Suzuki’s flagship big ‘Naked’ bike. Suzuki says it has the top-ranked power output in the naked category. 2010

Due to economic downturn, Suzuki decides not to import any sportbikes to America for the 2010 model year. It also sites a backlog of 2009 models still on showroom floors as part of the decision.

 

Costa Rica (/ˌkɒstə ˈriːkə/ (About this sound listen); Spanish: [ˈkosta ˈrika]; "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica (Spanish: República de Costa Rica), is a country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and Ecuador to the south of Cocos Island. It has a population of around 4.9 million, in a land area of 51,060 square kilometers; over 300,000 live in the capital and largest city, San José, which had a population of an estimated 333,980 in 2015.

 

Costa Rica has been known for its stable democracy, in a region that has had some instability, and for its highly educated workforce, most of whom speak English. The country spends roughly 6.9% of its budget (2016) on education, compared to a global average of 4.4%. Its economy, once heavily dependent on agriculture, has diversified to include sectors such as finance, corporate services for foreign companies, pharmaceuticals, and ecotourism. Many foreign companies (manufacturing and services) operate in Costa Rica's free trade zones (FTZ) where they benefit from investment and tax incentives.

 

In spite of impressive growth in the Gross domestic product (GDP), low inflation, moderate interest rates and an acceptable unemployment level, Costa Rica in 2017 was facing a liquidity crisis due to a growing debt and budget deficit. By August 2017, the Treasury was having difficulty paying its obligations. Other challenges facing the country in its attempts to improve the economy by increasing foreign investment include a poor infrastructure and a need to improve public sector efficiency.

 

Costa Rica was sparsely inhabited by indigenous peoples before coming under Spanish rule in the 16th century. It remained a peripheral colony of the empire until independence as part of the short-lived First Mexican Empire, followed by membership in the United Provinces of Central America, from which it formally declared independence in 1847. Since then, Costa Rica has remained among the most stable, prosperous, and progressive nations in Latin America. Following the brief Costa Rican Civil War, it permanently abolished its army in 1949, becoming one of only a few sovereign nations without a standing army.

 

The country has consistently performed favourably in the Human Development Index (HDI), placing 69th in the world as of 2015, among the highest of any Latin American nation. It has also been cited by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) as having attained much higher human development than other countries at the same income levels, with a better record on human development and inequality than the median of the region.

 

Costa Rica also has progressive environmental policies. It is the only country to meet all five UNDP criteria established to measure environmental sustainability. It was ranked 42nd in the world, and third in the Americas, in the 2016 Environmental Performance Index, and was twice ranked the best performing country in the New Economics Foundation's (NEF) Happy Planet Index, which measures environmental sustainability, and was identified by the NEF as the greenest country in the world in 2009. Costa Rica plans to become a carbon-neutral country by 2021. By 2016, 98.1% of its electricity was generated from green sources particularly hydro, solar, geothermal and biomass.

 

HISTORY

PRE-COLUMBIAN PERIOD

Historians have classified the indigenous people of Costa Rica as belonging to the Intermediate Area, where the peripheries of the Mesoamerican and Andean native cultures overlapped. More recently, pre-Columbian Costa Rica has also been described as part of the Isthmo-Colombian Area.

 

Stone tools, the oldest evidence of human occupation in Costa Rica, are associated with the arrival of various groups of hunter-gatherers about 10,000 to 7,000 years BCE in the Turrialba Valley. The presence of Clovis culture type spearheads and arrows from South America opens the possibility that, in this area, two different cultures coexisted.

 

Agriculture became evident in the populations that lived in Costa Rica about 5,000 years ago. They mainly grew tubers and roots. For the first and second millennia BCE there were already settled farming communities. These were small and scattered, although the timing of the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture as the main livelihood in the territory is still unknown.

 

The earliest use of pottery appears around 2,000 to 3,000 BCE. Shards of pots, cylindrical vases, platters, gourds and other forms of vases decorated with grooves, prints, and some modelled after animals have been found.

 

The impact of indigenous peoples on modern Costa Rican culture has been relatively small compared to other nations, since the country lacked a strong native civilization to begin with. Most of the native population was absorbed into the Spanish-speaking colonial society through inter-marriage, except for some small remnants, the most significant of which are the Bribri and Boruca tribes who still inhabit the mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca, in the southeastern part of Costa Rica, near the frontier with Panama.

 

SPANISH COLONIZATION

The name la costa rica, meaning "rich coast" in the Spanish language, was in some accounts first applied by Christopher Columbus, who sailed to the eastern shores of Costa Rica during his final voyage in 1502, and reported vast quantities of gold jewelry worn by natives. The name may also have come from conquistador Gil González Dávila, who landed on the west coast in 1522, encountered natives, and appropriated some of their gold.

 

During most of the colonial period, Costa Rica was the southernmost province of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, nominally part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. In practice, the captaincy general was a largely autonomous entity within the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica's distance from the capital of the captaincy in Guatemala, its legal prohibition under Spanish law from trade with its southern neighbor Panama, then part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (i.e. Colombia), and lack of resources such as gold and silver, made Costa Rica into a poor, isolated, and sparsely-inhabited region within the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica was described as "the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America" by a Spanish governor in 1719.

 

Another important factor behind Costa Rica's poverty was the lack of a significant indigenous population available for encomienda (forced labor), which meant most of the Costa Rican settlers had to work on their own land, preventing the establishment of large haciendas (plantations). For all these reasons, Costa Rica was, by and large, unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own. The circumstances during this period are believed to have led to many of the idiosyncrasies for which Costa Rica has become known, while concomitantly setting the stage for Costa Rica's development as a more egalitarian society than the rest of its neighbors. Costa Rica became a "rural democracy" with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil and a milder climate than that of the lowlands.

 

INDEPENDENCE

Like the rest of Central America, Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain. On September 15, 1821, after the final Spanish defeat in the Mexican War of Independence (1810–21), the authorities in Guatemala declared the independence of all of Central America. That date is still celebrated as Independence Day in Costa Rica even though, technically, under the Spanish Constitution of 1812 that had been readopted in 1820, Nicaragua and Costa Rica had become an autonomous province with its capital in León.

 

Upon independence, Costa Rican authorities faced the issue of officially deciding the future of the country. Two bands formed, the Imperialists, defended by Cartago and Heredia cities which were in favor of joining the Mexican Empire, and the Republicans, represented by the cities of San José and Alajuela who defended full independence. Because of the lack of agreement on these two possible outcomes, the first civil war of Costa Rica occurred. The battle of Ochomogo (es) took place on the Hill of Ochomogo, located in the Central Valley in 1823. The conflict was won by the Republicans and, as a consequence, the city of Cartago lost its status as the capital, which moved to San José.

In 1838, long after the Federal Republic of Central America ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign. The considerable distance and poor communication routes between Guatemala City and the Central Plateau, where most of the Costa Rican population lived then and still lives now, meant the local population had little allegiance to the federal government in Guatemala. From colonial times to now, Costa Rica's reluctance to become economically tied with the rest of Central America has been a major obstacle to efforts for greater regional integration.

 

ECONOMIC GROWTH IN THE 19TH CENTURY

Coffee was first planted in Costa Rica in 1808, and by the 1820s, it surpassed tobacco, sugar, and cacao as a primary export. Coffee production remained Costa Rica's principal source of wealth well into the 20th century, creating a wealthy class of growers, the so-called Coffee Barons. The revenue helped to modernize the country.

 

Most of the coffee exported was grown around the main centers of population in the Central Plateau and then transported by oxcart to the Pacific port of Puntarenas after the main road was built in 1846. By the mid-1850s the main market for coffee was Britain. It soon became a high priority to develop an effective transportation route from the Central Plateau to the Atlantic Ocean. For this purpose, in the 1870s, the Costa Rican government contracted with U.S. businessman Minor C. Keith to build a railroad from San José to the Caribbean port of Limón. Despite enormous difficulties with construction, disease, and financing, the railroad was completed in 1890.

 

Most Afro-Costa Ricans descend from Jamaican immigrants who worked in the construction of that railway and now make up about 3% of Costa Rica's population. U.S. convicts, Italians and Chinese immigrants also participated in the construction project. In exchange for completing the railroad, the Costa Rican government granted Keith large tracts of land and a lease on the train route, which he used to produce bananas and export them to the United States. As a result, bananas came to rival coffee as the principal Costa Rican export, while foreign-owned corporations (including the United Fruit Company later) began to hold a major role in the national economy and eventually became a symbol of the exploitative export economy. The major labor dispute between the peasants and the United Fruit Company (The Great Banana Strike) was a major event in the country's history and was an important step that would eventually lead to the formation of effective trade unions in Costa Rica, as the company was required to sign a collective agreement with its workers in 1938.

 

20TH CENTURY

Historically, Costa Rica has generally enjoyed greater peace and more consistent political stability than many of its fellow Latin American nations. Since the late 19th century, however, Costa Rica has experienced two significant periods of violence. In 1917–19, General Federico Tinoco Granados ruled as a military dictator until he was overthrown and forced into exile. The unpopularity of Tinoco's regime led, after he was overthrown, to a considerable decline in the size, wealth, and political influence of the Costa Rican military. In 1948, José Figueres Ferrer led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election between Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia (who had been president between 1940 and 1944) and Otilio Ulate Blanco. With more than 2,000 dead, the resulting 44-day Costa Rican Civil War was the bloodiest event in Costa Rica during the 20th century.

 

The victorious rebels formed a government junta that abolished the military altogether, and oversaw the drafting of a new constitution by a democratically elected assembly. Having enacted these reforms, the junta transferred power to Ulate on November 8, 1949. After the coup d'état, Figueres became a national hero, winning the country's first democratic election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then, Costa Rica has held 14 presidential elections, the latest in 2014. With uninterrupted democracy dating back to at least 1948, the country is the region's most stable.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Costa Rica is located on the Central American isthmus, lying between latitudes 8° and 12°N, and longitudes 82° and 86°W. It borders the Caribbean Sea (to the east) and the Pacific Ocean (to the west), with a total of 1,290 kilometres of coastline, 212 km on the Caribbean coast and 1,016 km on the Pacific. Costa Rica also borders Nicaragua to the north (309 km of border) and Panama to the south-southeast (330 km of border). In total, Costa Rica comprises 51,100 square kilometres plus 589 square kilometres of territorial waters.

 

The highest point in the country is Cerro Chirripó, at 3,819 metres; it is the fifth highest peak in Central America. The highest volcano in the country is the Irazú Volcano (3,431 m) and the largest lake is Lake Arenal. There are 14 known volcanoes in Costa Rica, and six of them have been active in the last 75 years. The country has also experienced at least ten earthquakes of magnitude 5.7 or higher (3 of magnitude 7.0 or higher) in the last century.

 

Costa Rica also comprises several islands. Cocos Island (24 square kilometres) stands out because of its distance from the continental landmass, 480 kilometres from Puntarenas, but Isla Calero is the largest island of the country (151.6 square kilometres). Over 25% of Costa Rica's national territory is protected by SINAC (the National System of Conservation Areas), which oversees all of the country's protected areas. Costa Rica also possesses the greatest density of species in the world.

 

CLIMATE

Because Costa Rica is located between 8 and 12 degrees north of the Equator, the climate is tropical year round. However, the country has many microclimates depending on elevation, rainfall, topography, and by the geography of each particular region.

 

Costa Rica's seasons are defined by how much rain falls during a particular period. The year can be split into two periods, the dry season known to the residents as summer (verano), and the rainy season, known locally as winter (invierno). The "summer" or dry season goes from December to April, and "winter" or rainy season goes from May to November, which almost coincides with the Atlantic hurricane season, and during this time, it rains constantly in some regions.

 

The location receiving the most rain is the Caribbean slopes of the Cordillera Central mountains, with an annual rainfall of over 5,000 mm. Humidity is also higher on the Caribbean side than on the Pacific side. The mean annual temperature on the coastal lowlands is around 27 °C, 20 °C in the main populated areas of the Cordillera Central, and below 10 °C on the summits of the highest mountains.

 

FLORA AND FAUNA

Costa Rica is home to a rich variety of plants and animals. While the country has only about 0.03% of the world's landmass, it contains 5% of the world's biodiversity. Around 25% of the country's land area is in protected national parks and protected areas, the largest percentage of protected areas in the world (developing world average 13%, developed world average 8%). Costa Rica has successfully managed to diminish deforestation from some of the worst rates in the world from 1973 to 1989, to almost zero by 2005.

 

One national park, the Corcovado National Park, is internationally renowned among ecologists for its biodiversity (including big cats and tapirs) and is where visitors can expect to see an abundance of wildlife. Corcovado is the one park in Costa Rica where all four Costa Rican monkey species can be found. These include the white-headed capuchin, the mantled howler, the endangered Geoffroy's spider monkey, and the Central American squirrel monkey, found only on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and a small part of Panama, and considered endangered until 2008, when its status was upgraded to vulnerable. Deforestation, illegal pet-trading, and hunting are the main reasons for its threatened status.

 

Tortuguero National Park – the name Tortuguero can be translated as "Full of Turtles" – is home to spider, howler, and white-throated capuchin monkeys; the three-toed sloth and two-toed sloth; 320 species of birds; and a variety of reptiles. The park is recognized for the annual nesting of the endangered green turtle, and is the most important nesting site for the species. Giant leatherback, hawksbill, and loggerhead turtles also nest there. The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve is home to about 2,000 plant species, including numerous orchids. Over 400 types of birds and more than 100 species of mammals can be found there.

 

Over 840 species of birds have been identified in Costa Rica. As is the case in much of Central America, the avian species in Costa Rica are a mix of North and South American species. The country's abundant fruit trees, many of which bear fruit year round, are hugely important to the birds, some of whom survive on diets that consist only of one or two types of fruit. Some of the country's most notable avian species include the resplendent quetzal, scarlet macaw, three-wattled bellbird, bare-necked umbrellabird, and the keel-billed toucan. The Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad is allowed to collect royalties on any biological discoveries of medical importance. Costa Rica is a center of biological diversity for reptiles and amphibians, including the world's fastest running lizard, the spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura similis).

 

WIKIPEDIA

By the early nineteenth century, as ways of consuming the seaside matured and diversified, there was a growing appreciation of the joys and benefits to be gained by not just being beside the sea but venturing out onto the water itself without the disadvantages and dangers associated with boats.

The West Pier was designed and engineered by Eugenius Birch to attract visitors and survive in the hostile environment of the seashore. Built in 1866, it was a simple and functional structure built out from the sea using dozens of cast iron threaded columns screwed into the seabed and strengthened by a lattice of ties and girders that provide the necessary strength to support the promenade deck whilst allowing seas to pass harmlessly underneath.

Originally the West Pier had an open deck with only six small ornamental houses of Oriental design, two toll houses, glass screens at the pier head to protect visitors from the wind and lamps, with columns decorated with entwined serpents, placed around the perimeter and lit by gas. In 1875 a central bandstand was added and in the 1880′s weather screens the full length of the pier, steamer landing stages and a large pier head pavilion were constructed.

The final building, completed in 1916, was a graceful concert hall. The result was seaside architecture at its finest, designed to attract and entertain holiday-makers with all the pomp and frippery that is the essence of the English seaside resort.

The West Pier story closely follows the changing fortunes of the English seaside holiday. It began simply as a promenade pier where visitors could enjoy the thrill of walking on water; it was the place for the Victorian middle classes to socialise and exhibit their wealth, to see and be seen, to take in the sea air and admire the panoramic views of the land. By WW1 it had evolved into a pleasure pier with a great variety of seaside entertainment both indoors and out. Throughout the twenties it was immensely popular with attractions ranging from paddle steamer excursions, daring high divers and bathing from the pier head to military bands, recitals by the pier’s resident orchestra in the Concert Hall and an all-year-round programme of plays, pantomimes and ballets in the Theatre.

During WWII, the Pier was closed and mined for security reasons and sections were dismantled to prevent enemy landings. When the mines were removed and the pier reopened, after the repair of its war wounds, it completed its evolution into a funfair pier. The Theatre was converted into a restaurant on one floor and on the other the ‘Laughter Land’ games pavilion. The Concert Hall became a tea room, and the delights of the dodgems, helter-skelter, ghost train and miniature racing track could be enjoyed by all.

The pier was shut to the public in 1975 as it was deemed unsafe. A huge storm in December 2002 resulted in the dramatic collapse of the south east corner of the Concert Hall; in March 2003 the Pavilion was destroyed in an arson attack, and in May 2003 the Concert Hall was also burnt out deliberately. 2003 was a catastrophic year for the West Pier and by December 2003, a report concluded that despite the significant damage, given the wealth of salvaged material from the pier and the considerable photographic and video archive, repair and reconstruction of the pier was still viable. Unfortunately funding was not available.

The collapsed Concert Hall, being close to the beach, became a public hazard and in 2010 was removed. However, the skeletal ruin of the pier Pavilion has become an iconic feature of Brighton’s seafront. Its unique desolate beauty makes it much discussed, wondered about and photographed. The Pier has been too dangerous to access since the fires of 2003 and cannot be maintained. Over the coming years it will be reclaimed by nature and will inevitably degenerate and decay. The Trust has no intention of removing the remains unless overwhelming safety issues arise.

In 2006, planning permission was granted to the creators of the London eye to build the i360, an observation tower. It will be sited on the root-end of the pier and will open an exciting new chapter for the West Pier. This new landmark, which will be tied in with the original pier, has now commenced construction. At 175 metres high, and with an observation pod rising to 141 metres, the i360 will be Britain's highest observation tower outside London – taller even than the London Eye. The i360 follows in the spirit of the original pier, inviting visitors to "walk on air" and gain a different perspective of the city, just as they "walked on water" in the past and viewed the city from the sea. Chairman of the Brighton West Pier Trust, which owns the site of the former pier “believes that the Brighton i360 – a 'vertical pier' – is entirely in the spirit of the original pier's history and the best option to replicate its success and ethos." The i360 will restore parts of the original pier to their former glory, including the Victorian tollbooths. Parts of the cast iron supporting structure will be reused in the new visitor centre and an exhibition will enable visitors to learn about the pier's history. The cast iron structure off shore, known as the sea island, will stay but the wreckage of the derelict pier on the beach will be removed. A proportion of ticket revenues from the i360 will also go to the West Pier Trust charity, enabling it to continue promoting the pier's unique heritage.

This part of the plan really appeals to be - in the evenings, the Brighton i360 will transform into the Sky Bar – a chic, modern and accessible venue in which to relax and enjoy a glass of champagne, wine or a cocktail while taking in the stunning night-time views. The ride will be extended to 30 minutes to allow people plenty of time to enjoy their drink!!

The changing weather over a 3 day period is reflected in the photos I took of this fascinating and haunting structure – it looks quite eerie in the fog.

 

Rathmines is a suburb on the southside of Dublin, about 3 kilometres south of the city centre. It effectively begins at the south side of the Grand Canal and stretches along the Rathmines Road as far as Rathgar to the south, Ranelagh to the east and Harold's Cross to the west.

 

Rathmines is well-known across Ireland as part of a traditionally known "flatland" - providing rented accommodation to newly arrived junior civil servants and third level students coming from outside the city since the 1930s. In more recent times, Rathmines has diversified its housing stock and many houses have been gentrified by the wealthier beneficiaries of Ireland's economic boom of the 1990s. Rathmines, nonetheless, is often said to have a cosmopolitan air, and has a diverse international population and has always been home to groups of new immigrant communities and indigenous ethnic minorities.

THE AGE OF FLOWERING PLANTS

 

ANGIOSPERM means "seed borne in vessel," while GYMNOSPERM means "naked seed," a reference to the lack of protective structure enveloping the seed. One reason that flowering plants were able to diversify so dramatically and spread during the Cretaceous and Cenozoic, or modern, the era was the evolution of new structures and tissues such as the carpel, a womb-like vessel that encloses angiosperm seeds and endosperm, a placenta-like tissue that nourishes the young plant as it develop within the seed, Today, angiosperm dominate terrestrial life on the planet. At an estimated 422,000 species, they compose by far the largest group of plants. They grow in greater range of environments, exhibits a wider range of growth habits, and display more variation in form than any living group of plants. In size, angiosperm range from tiny duckweed to eucaplytuses more than 330 ft (100 m) tall. The explosion of angiosperm diversity has gone hand in hand with the proliferation of insect, birds, and other animals that pollinate their flowers, disperse their fruits and seeds, and eat their leaves.

 

PLANT - The ultimate visual reference to plants and flowers of the world JANET MARINELLI

 

Mindanao Tourist Destinations Local/Travel Website and Angelique Ross Kaamiño/TravelEscapade TRAVEL Leisure Cebu/CdO/Butuan

 

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BLUE-CAPPED WOOD-KINGFISHER (Actenoides hombroni) - Female.

Rare endemic of Mindanao.

Taken at Cinchona Forest Reserve, Mt. Kitanglad, Mindanao on 3/22/15.

Canon 1DX camera, 600 mm lens, 1.4x TC, tripod. 840 mm, F/5.6, ISO-1600, 1/125 second, from 28 meters.

 

by: Ramon Quisumbing

 

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Lost Einsteins: Diversifying Innovation

Amy Brachio, Global Deputy Vice-Chair, EY, USA. Kevin Frey, Chief Executive Officer, Generation Unlimited, UNICEF, Generation Unlimited, USA. Tomas Lamanauskas, Deputy Secretary-General-elect, International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Geneva

Maria Leptin, President, European Research Council, Belgium. Magdalena Skipper, Editor-in-Chief, Nature, United Kingdom

 

Tuesday 2 May 2023

14.45 - 15.30

Stakeholder Dialogue

World Economic Forum Headquarters, Eiger

Copyright: World Economic Forum/Jean-Luc Auboeuf

The Growth Summit: Jobs and Opportunity for All 2023 in Geneva, Switzerland

  

Lost Einsteins: Diversifying Innovation

Amy Brachio, Global Deputy Vice-Chair, EY, USA. Kevin Frey, Chief Executive Officer, Generation Unlimited, UNICEF, Generation Unlimited, USA. Tomas Lamanauskas, Deputy Secretary-General-elect, International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Geneva

Maria Leptin, President, European Research Council, Belgium. Magdalena Skipper, Editor-in-Chief, Nature, United Kingdom

 

Tuesday 2 May 2023

14.45 - 15.30

Stakeholder Dialogue

World Economic Forum Headquarters, Eiger

Copyright: World Economic Forum/Jean-Luc Auboeuf

The Growth Summit: Jobs and Opportunity for All 2023 in Geneva, Switzerland

  

In an effort to diversify business models, Galactic Handling and Logistics has expanded into the more 'touristy' parts of the galaxy. At these locations, such as the pleasure planet of Arcadia XII, regular business cycles are replaced by more seasonal variation.

 

To maintain profitability in these locations, we provide services we are not traditionally associated with, such as guided tours and hotel guest shuttle transport, in addition to hotel and restaurant logistics.

La costruzione della Chiesa Madre risale probabilmente all’età normanna sotto il Conte Ruggero; era costume normanno infatti erigere la chiesa accanto alla torre di difesa. Il luogo scelto fu il Piano della Cuba ( attuale Piazza Umberto), a memoria, forse, di una chiesetta a cupola già esistente nel sito dell’attuale chiesa Madre. Si presume che la prima costruzione fosse ad unica navata senza cappelle laterali e senza abside. La successiva costruzione si attuò tramite un progetto d’ampliamento e ristrutturazione voluti dal duca Francesco II Moncada tra il 1572 e il 1592. Fu costruita la navata, l’abside e le due cappelle laterali, le volte delle tre navate erano in legno intagliato detto “Tetto a Rosario”. Nel 1750 vi si aggiunse la cupola, rivestita da brillanti mattoni di Valenza.

 

Adrano is a town and comune in the province of Catania on the east coast of Sicily.It is situated around 41 km northwest of Catania, which is also the capital of the province to which Adrano belongs. It lies near the foot of Mount Etna, at the confluence of the Simeto and Salso rivers. It is the commercial center for a region where olives and citrus fruit are grown. Neighbouring towns include: Biancavilla, Bronte, Paternò, Randazzo, Santa Maria di Licodia and Centuripe.The founding of the town and the pre-Christian .The settlement was founded by Dionysius the Elder around 400 BC, intending to strengthen Syracusan power in the region. He named the town Adranon in honour of Adranus a deity of Phoenician origin.In 344 BC the troops of Timoleon fought the forces of the Syracusan commander Iketas of Leontini near Adrano. During the following years, Adrano was frequently harried by Campanian mercenaries, called the Mamertinians.The Romans conquered the growing township in 263 BC and declared it a civitas stipendiaria, obliging it to pay a costly tribute to Rome. The consul Valerius ravaged the town, enslaved the inhabitants and sold them as workers and slaves to the aratores residing in the near city of Centuripe. In 137 BC, Eunus led an unsuccessful slave revolt against the Roman suppressors, and from then on, Adrano was nothing more than part of Centuripe.The township was pillaged several times by Germanic tribes during the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Only through the reign of Theodoric the Great (495-526), the conditions improved due to the administration by Cassiodorus. In the mid-6th century it was conquered by the Eastern Roman Empire.Around 950, the Arab Musa occupied the city of Centuripe and its vicinity, and thenceforth Adrano became part of the emirate of Sicily. The ruined town of slaves meanwhile was little more than a settlement of various primitive shacks, but the Islamic occupants, which showed to be quite tolerant towards the Sicilians and very skillful farmers, build up a functioning infrastructure around Adrano. Several of their buildings and structures, like the Ponte dei Saraceni (Bridge of the Saracenes) can still be visited around the region.The Arabs reigned the region until in 1075 the Normans, led by Hugo of Yersey, succeeded in conquering the region against the resistance of Caid Albucazar. Adrano became part of the Diocese of Catania, administered by the monk Ansgerius. The citizens of the prospering township continued the successful agricultural and economic work the Arabs had initiated. Therefore, the Norman era was enormously influenced by winegrowing, leather work and silk manufacturing.The arrival of the Hohenstaufen around the end of the 12th century brought enduring difficulties and disputes over Sicily and its inhabitants. The remaining Arabs were vehemently pursued by the administration, which forced them to gather inside the fortresses of Troina, Entella and Centuripe, offering armed resistance. The insurrection was ended violently, and the survivors were massacred or kidnapped. Pope Clement IV made Charles of Anjou king of Sicily in 1265, which ended the Hohenstaufen rule of southern Italy. During that time, Adrano was rather a small settlement of hunters, and the number of inhabitants had decreased from 1,000 to 300.In 1282, the Sicilian Vespers ended the French reign in Sicily, and Peter III of Aragon became king. The following years were characterized by constant conflicts between the residing farmers and the Bourgeoisie of the region. Adrano fell to the property of the Catalonian landholder Garzia de Linguida, and eventually, in 1286, to the ownership of Luca Pellegrino. The estates and soils of the region were subject to immense disputes between several landowners and noblemen in the following time until the 15th century.From the 15th century on, Sicily was reigned by the socalled vice kings. Between 1412 and 1515, Adrano was under administration by the Moncada family. Giovan Tommaso Moncada (1466–1501) renovated the Norman castle and fortified it. He allowed a couple of refugees from the northern Greek region of Epirus to settle down in the vicinity of Adrano, which is how the town of Biancavilla was founded. The relatives of earl Moncada build many manors (socalled palazzi) in the centre of the town, among which is the latter town hall, and the centre of the city, the piazza, became popular meeting place for the residents, who meanwhile numbered around 6,000. Around the same time began the construction of the Monastero di Santa Lucia (Monastery of St Lucy). In 1693, a severe earthquake inflicted heavy damage to the town.Since the beginning of the 18th century and until around 1820, Adrano suffered from enduring riots and changes taking place in Italy and particularly Sicily, as was the Risorgimento. Adrano became the main administrative town of the vicinity in 1819 and hosted the local court.Giuseppe Garibaldi landed in Sicily in 1860 and many reforms took place. On July 1, 1860, a town council was installed in Adrano, and don Lorenzo Ciancio was made chairman. The famous Teatro Bellini (Bellini theatre) dates from that time and testifies to the various diversifications the city underwent in that very period. A hospital was instituted as well, and meanwhile Adrano was considered the wealthiest town in the region. The Romans changed the name of the township into Hadranum; during the occupation by the Arabs it was called Adarnu or sometimes Adarna, while the Normans referred to it as Adernio and Adriano. Until 1929 its official name was Adernò, until eventually it was changed into Adrano. Several elder inhabitants of the town still call it Adernò.

 

Adrano è un comune italiano di 36.526 abitanti della provincia di Catania in Sicilia.Il suo territorio si trova nel Parco dell'Etna.Adrano si estende alle pendici sud-occidentali dell'Etna, in una zona collinare che affianca la Piana di Catania ad est ed il fiume Simeto ad ovest. La città è situata ad un'altezza di 560 metri sul livello del mare, ha una superficie di 8.251 ettari e dista 35 km dal comune di Catania.L'attuale toponimo risale al 1929 e riprende quello della città di Adranon fondata da Dionigi il Vecchio di Siracusa nel 400 a.C. e dedicata ad Adranos, dio siculo della guerra.I romani tradussero il nome in Hadranum, gli arabi ribattezzarono la città Adarna, i normanni la chiamarono Adernio, e gli angioini Adernò.Secondo uno studioso del XIX secolo, Giovanni Sangiorgio Mazza, il tiranno siracusano avrebbe tuttavia fondato Adranon su un più antico centro siculo, identificabile con l'antica Inessa, in seguito denominata Aitna (Diodoro Siculo, Bibliotheca historica, 11, 76, 1), alla quale apparterrebbe il tempio del dio Adrano. Inessa protrebbe essere il nome con cui i siculi chiamavano l'Etna.

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=KMwnGwlZYlA

Bangladeshi farmer Gopal Mohanta scoops up maize flour, produced from his own maize crop, as he prepares feed for his livestock. He did not previously have animals, but was able to buy them thanks to a dramatic improvement in his livelihood after he began to work with CIMMYT. He now grows a variety of crops that meet the family's food and feed needs, and each day he and his wife mix up a balanced meal for their animals.

 

The family's fortunes began to change when Mohanta attended a farmer training session provided by CIMMYT in collaboration with partners in Bangladesh. This opened a door for him to take advantage of a range of resources from CIMMYT and its partners—including seed, technologies, and practices—and to combine these with his own hard work and talent.

 

One of the changes Mohanta made was to plant a more diverse range of crops, and in 2005 he planted maize for the first time, using improved seed based on CIMMYT materials. He achieves high yields of 12-13 t/ha, which he is able to sell at a good profit, as a growing market is fueling high and stable maize prices in Bangladesh. As well as being able to invest in livestock and other farm diversification, such as a pond stocked with fish, the increased income has brought other benefits for the family. Mohanta and his wife have built a new, larger house and are able to provide a better education for their two children.

 

The family has come a long way, providing a shining example of what is possible to others in their community of Boiragee, Dinajpur. However, the success story is far from over; looking to the future, Mohanta plans to buy more land and to plant more crops.

 

Photo credit: S. Mojumder/Drik/CIMMYT.

 

For the latest on CIMMYT in Bangladesh, see CIMMYT's blog at: blog.cimmyt.org/?tag=bangladesh.

Lost Einsteins: Diversifying Innovation

Amy Brachio, Global Deputy Vice-Chair, EY, USA. Kevin Frey, Chief Executive Officer, Generation Unlimited, UNICEF, Generation Unlimited, USA. Tomas Lamanauskas, Deputy Secretary-General-elect, International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Geneva

Maria Leptin, President, European Research Council, Belgium. Magdalena Skipper, Editor-in-Chief, Nature, United Kingdom

 

Tuesday 2 May 2023

14.45 - 15.30

Stakeholder Dialogue

World Economic Forum Headquarters, Eiger

Copyright: World Economic Forum/Jean-Luc Auboeuf

The Growth Summit: Jobs and Opportunity for All 2023 in Geneva, Switzerland

  

Photo by Eddie Negrete

THE Africa Universities Forum

12 June 2019

Johannesburg, South Africa

#THEAfrica

The landscape with colourful diversified floating gardens has a unique aesthetic view. Dealing with nature and human needs, floating garden are integrated and sustainable in the Bengali landscape. In summer, flowers of water hyacinth bloom on the water. Contrast between light purple of flowers and deep green of leaves creates beautiful scenery.

 

Photo credit must be given: Photo courtesy of GIAHS (Floating Garden Agricultural Practices, Bangladesh). Editorial use only.

 

More information:

GIAHS - Floating Garden Agricultural Practices, Bangladesh

Biloxi, Mississippi, circa 1995.

50th Anniversary March on Washington

Nikon N90s

Ilford Delta 400

50mm

In 1925 Dunlop opened its Aerospace Division to meet the increasing demand for aircraft tyres and supporting rubber products.

 

This badge signposts Dunlop's diversification into the aviation market with a 'flying winged tyre' superimposed against a classic shield background. The focal point of this badge is the aircraft tyre, rendered in a sublime light blue against a dark red backdrop. It has a strong graphic presence with a refined and understated 'Dunlop' header.

 

Although Dunlop's core business was linked to tyres for the motoring industry, the 1920s witnessed further diversification into other markets. Tyre companies such as Michelin and Pirelli were adding to sales competition and the need to explore other markets and products became a key strategy.

 

For example, in 1925 Dunlop acquired the Charles Mackintosh Group resulting in the Dunlop brand being applied to footwear and textiles. Developments in latex foam material for mattresses announced the arrival of 'Dunlopillo' and additional products linked to latex were added to the Dunlop portfolio. This involved Dunlop becoming a stakeholder in the 'sports' market with products such as golf balls and tennis racquets.

 

Photography, layout and design: Argy58

 

(This image also exists as a high resolution jpeg and tiff - ideal for a variety of print sizes

e.g. A4, A3, A2 and A1. The current uploaded format is for screen based viewing only: 72pi)

Bangladeshi farmer Gopal Mohanta fetches water as part of his daily task of feeding and watering his livestock. He did not previously have animals, but was able to buy them thanks to a dramatic improvement in his livelihood after he began to work with CIMMYT. He grows a variety of crops that meet the family's food and feed needs, and each day he and his wife mix up a balanced meal for their animals.

 

The family's fortunes began to change when Mohanta attended a farmer training session provided by CIMMYT in collaboration with partners in Bangladesh. This opened a door for him to take advantage of a range of resources from CIMMYT and its partners—including seed, technologies, and practices—and to combine these with his own hard work and talent.

 

One of the changes Mohanta made was to plant a more diverse range of crops, and in 2005 he planted maize for the first time, using improved seed based on CIMMYT materials. He achieves high yields of 12-13 t/ha, which he is able to sell at a good profit, as a growing market is fueling high and stable maize prices in Bangladesh. As well as being able to invest in livestock and other farm diversification, such as a pond stocked with fish, the increased income has brought other benefits for the family. Mohanta and his wife have built a new, larger house and are able to provide a better education for their two children.

 

The family has come a long way, providing a shining example of what is possible to others in their community of Boiragee, Dinajpur. However, the success story is far from over; looking to the future, Mohanta plans to buy more land and to plant more crops.

 

Photo credit: S. Mojumder/Drik/CIMMYT.

 

For the latest on CIMMYT in Bangladesh, see CIMMYT's blog at: blog.cimmyt.org/?tag=bangladesh.

SALEM, Ore. – Husband and wife duo Chris and Elizabeth Miller believe that diversifying their farm is the key to success. That’s why their certified organic farm, Minto Island Growers, includes a Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) component, in addition to a farm stand, food truck, and service at the Salem Saturday Market. The farm has been in the family since the 1970s. Since 2010, Chris and Elizabeth have worked with the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) to obtain financial incentives and conservation assistance to help them maximize the potential of their organic operation. With funding from the NRCS organic initiative, the Miller’s have upgraded their irrigation equipment to save energy and labor costs; installed a seasonal high tunnel to expand the crop production season; planted cover crops, and more. NRCS photos by Tracy Robillard.

Bangladeshi farmer Gopal Mohanta mixes together different feed items as he gets ready to feed his livestock. He did not previously have animals, but was able to buy them thanks to a dramatic improvement in his livelihood after he began to work with CIMMYT. He now grows a variety of crops that meet the family's food and feed needs, and each day he and his wife mix up a balanced meal for their animals.

 

The family's fortunes began to change when Mohanta attended a farmer training session provided by CIMMYT in collaboration with partners in Bangladesh. This opened a door for him to take advantage of a range of resources from CIMMYT and its partners—including seed, technologies, and practices—and to combine these with his own hard work and talent.

 

One of the changes Mohanta made was to plant a more diverse range of crops, and in 2005 he planted maize for the first time, using improved seed based on CIMMYT materials. He achieves high yields of 12-13 t/ha, which he is able to sell at a good profit, as a growing market is fueling high and stable maize prices in Bangladesh. As well as being able to invest in livestock and other farm diversification, such as a pond stocked with fish, the increased income has brought other benefits for the family. Mohanta and his wife have built a new, larger house and are able to provide a better education for their two children.

 

The family has come a long way, providing a shining example of what is possible to others in their community of Boiragee, Dinajpur. However, the success story is far from over; looking to the future, Mohanta plans to buy more land and to plant more crops.

 

Photo credit: S. Mojumder/Drik/CIMMYT.

 

For the latest on CIMMYT in Bangladesh, see CIMMYT's blog at: blog.cimmyt.org/?tag=bangladesh.

The buildings of the former rail-served creamery at Lostwithiel stand as a monument to the area's rich dairy farming past whilst much of the surrounding land is now given over to solar farming. 66175 passes Milltown with 6G08 1629 Goonbarrow-Fowey.

The king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is a venomous snake endemic to Asia. The sole member of the genus Ophiophagus, it is not taxonomically a true cobra, despite its common name and some resemblance. With an average length of 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) and a record length of 5.85 m (19.2 ft), it is the world's longest venomous snake. The species has diversified colouration across habitats, from black with white stripes to unbroken brownish grey. The king cobra is widely distributed albeit not commonly seen, with a range spanning from the Indian Subcontinent through Southeastern Asia to Southern China. It preys chiefly on other snakes, including those of its own kind. This is the only ophidian that constructs an above-ground nest for its eggs, which are purposefully and meticulously gathered and protected by the female throughout the incubation period.

 

The threat display of this elapid includes spreading its neck-flap, raising its head upright, making eye contact, puffing, hissing and occasionally charging. Given the size of the snake, it is capable of striking at a considerable range and height, sometimes sustaining a bite. Envenomation from this species is medically significant and may result in a rapid fatality unless antivenom is administered in time. Despite the species' fearsome reputation, altercations usually only arise from an individual inadvertently exposing itself or being cornered.

 

Threatened by habitat destruction, it has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2010. Regarded as the national reptile of India, it has an eminent position in the mythology and folk traditions of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar.

 

Taxonomy

The king cobra is also referred to by the common name "hamadryad", especially in older literature. Hamadryas hannah was the scientific name used by Danish naturalist Theodore Edward Cantor in 1836 who described four king cobra specimens, three captured in the Sundarbans and one in the vicinity of Kolkata. Naja bungarus was proposed by Hermann Schlegel in 1837 who described a king cobra zoological specimen from Java. In 1838, Cantor proposed the name Hamadryas ophiophagus for the king cobra and explained that it has dental features intermediate between the genera Naja and Bungarus. Naia vittata proposed by Walter Elliot in 1840 was a king cobra caught offshore near Chennai that was floating in a basket. Hamadryas elaps proposed by Albert Günther in 1858 were king cobra specimens from the Philippines and Borneo. Günther considered both N. bungarus and N. vittata a variety of H. elaps. The genus Ophiophagus was proposed by Günther in 1864. The name is derived from its propensity to eat snakes.

 

Naja ingens proposed by Alexander Willem Michiel van Hasselt in 1882 was a king cobra captured near Tebing Tinggi in northern Sumatra.

 

Ophiophagus hannah was accepted as the valid name for the king cobra by Charles Mitchill Bogert in 1945 who argued that it differs significantly from Naja species. A genetic analysis using cytochrome b, and a multigene analysis showed that the king cobra was an early offshoot of a genetic lineage giving rise to the mambas, rather than the Naja cobras.

 

A phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA showed that specimens from Surattani and Nakhon Si Thammarat Provinces in southern Thailand form a deeply divergent clade from those from northern Thailand, which grouped with specimens from Myanmar and Guangdong in southern China.

 

Description

 

Scales of the king cobra

 

A baby king cobra showing its chevron pattern on the back

The king cobra's skin is olive green with black and white bands on the trunk that converge to the head. The head is covered by 15 drab coloured and black edged shields. The muzzle is rounded, and the tongue black. It has two fangs and 3–5 maxillar teeth in the upper jaw, and two rows of teeth in the lower jaw. The nostrils are between two shields. The large eyes have a golden iris and round pupils. Its hood is oval shaped and covered with olive green smooth scales and two black spots between the two lowest scales. Its cylindrical tail is yellowish green above and marked with black. It has a pair of large occipital scales on top of the head, 17 to 19 rows of smooth oblique scales on the neck, and 15 rows on the body. Juveniles are black with chevron shaped white, yellow or buff bars that point towards the head. Adult king cobras are 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) long. The longest known individual measured 5.85 m (19.2 ft). Ventral scales are uniformly oval shaped. Dorsal scales are placed in an oblique arrangement.

 

The king cobra is sexually dimorphic, with males being larger and paler in particular during the breeding season. Males captured in Kerala measured up to 3.75 m (12.3 ft) and weighed up to 10 kg (22 lb). Females captured had a maximum length of 2.75 m (9 ft 0 in) and a weight of 5 kg (11 lb). The largest known king cobra was 5.59 m (18 ft 4 in) long and captured in Thailand. It differs from other cobra species by size and hood. It is larger, has a narrower and longer stripe on the neck.

 

Distribution and habitat

The king cobra has a wide distribution in South and Southeast Asia. It occurs up to an elevation of 2,000 m (6,600 ft) from the Terai in India and southern Nepal to the Brahmaputra River basin in Bhutan and northeast India, Bangladesh and to Myanmar, southern China, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.

 

In northern India, it has been recorded in Garhwal and Kumaon, and in the Shivalik and terai regions of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. In northeast India, the king cobra has been recorded in northern West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. In the Eastern Ghats, it occurs from Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh to coastal Odisha, and also in Bihar and southern West Bengal, especially the Sundarbans. In the Western Ghats, it was recorded in Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra, and also in Gujarat. It also occurs on Baratang Island in the Great Andaman chain.

 

Behaviour and ecology

  

Captive king cobras with their hoods extended

Like other snakes, a king cobra receives chemical information via its forked tongue, which picks up scent particles and transfers them to a sensory receptor (Jacobson's organ) located in the roof of its mouth. When it detects the scent of prey, it flicks its tongue to gauge the prey's location, with the twin forks of the tongue acting in stereo. It senses earth-borne vibration and detects moving prey almost 100 m (330 ft) away.

 

Following envenomation, it swallows its prey whole. Because of its flexible jaws, it can swallow prey much larger than its head. It is considered diurnal because it hunts during the day, but has also been seen at night, rarely.

 

Diet

King cobra in Pune

King cobra in Pune, India

The king cobra is an apex predator and dominant over all other snakes except large pythons. Its diet consists primarily of other snakes and lizards, including Indian cobra, banded krait, rat snake, pythons, green whip snake, keelback, banded wolf snake and Blyth's reticulated snake. It also hunts Malabar pit viper and hump-nosed pit viper by following their odour trails. In Singapore, one was observed swallowing a clouded monitor. When food is scarce, it also feeds on other small vertebrates, such as birds, and lizards. In some cases, the cobra constricts its prey using its muscular body, though this is uncommon. After a large meal, it lives for many months without another one because of its slow metabolic rate.

 

Defence

 

A king cobra in its defensive posture (mounted specimen at the Royal Ontario Museum)

The king cobra is not considered aggressive. It usually avoids humans and slinks off when disturbed, but is known to aggressively defend incubating eggs and attack intruders rapidly. When alarmed, it raises the front part of its body, extends the hood, shows the fangs and hisses loudly. Wild king cobras encountered in Singapore appeared to be placid, but reared up and struck in self defense when cornered.

 

The king cobra can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. When raising its body, the king cobra can still move forward to strike with a long distance, and people may misjudge the safe zone. It can deliver multiple bites in a single attack.

 

Growling hiss

The hiss of the king cobra is a much lower pitch than many other snakes and many people thus liken its call to a "growl" rather than a hiss. While the hisses of most snakes are of a broad-frequency span ranging from roughly 3,000 to 13,000 Hz with a dominant frequency near 7,500 Hz, king cobra growls consist solely of frequencies below 2,500 Hz, with a dominant frequency near 600 Hz, a much lower-sounding frequency closer to that of a human voice. Comparative anatomical morphometric analysis has led to a discovery of tracheal diverticula that function as low-frequency resonating chambers in king cobra and its prey, the rat snake, both of which can make similar growls.

 

Reproduction

 

A captive juvenile king cobra in its defensive posture

The female is gravid for 50 to 59 days.The king cobra is the only snake that builds a nest using dry leaf litter, starting from late March to late May. Most nests are located at the base of trees, are up to 55 cm (22 in) high in the centre and 140 cm (55 in) wide at the base. They consist of several layers and have mostly one chamber, into which the female lays eggs. Clutch size ranges from 7 to 43 eggs, with 6 to 38 eggs hatching after incubation periods of 66 to 105 days. Temperature inside nests is not steady but varies depending on elevation from 13.5 to 37.4 °C (56.3 to 99.3 °F). Females stay by their nests between two and 77 days. Hatchlings are between 37.5 and 58.5 cm (14.8 and 23.0 in) long and weigh 9 to 38 g (0.32 to 1.34 oz).

 

The venom of hatchlings is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked, but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed.

 

The average lifespan of a wild king cobra is about 20 years.

 

Venom

Venom of the king cobra, produced by the postorbital venom glands, consists primarily of three-finger toxins (3FTx) and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs).

 

Of all the 3FTx, alpha-neurotoxins are the predominant and most lethal components when cytotoxins and beta-cardiotoxins also exhibit toxicological activities. It is reported that cytotoxicity of its venom varies significantly, depending upon the age and locality of an individual. Clinical cardiotoxicity is not widely observed, nor is nephrotoxicity present among patients bitten by this species, presumably due to the low abundance of the toxins.

 

SVMPs are the second most protein family isolated from the king cobra's venom, accounting from 11.9% to 24.4% of total venom proteins. The abundance is much higher than that of most cobras which is usually less than 1%. This protein family includes principal toxins responsible for vasculature damage and interference with haemostasis, contributing to bleeding and coagulopathy caused by envenomation of vipers. While there are such haemorrhagins isolated from the king cobra's venom, they only induce species-sensitive haemorrhagic and lethal activities on rabbits and hares, but with minimal effects on mice. Clinical pathophysiology of the king cobra's SVMPs has yet to be well studied, although its substantial quantity suggests involvement in tissue damage and necrosis as a result of inflammatory and proteolytic activities, which are instrumental for foraging and digestive purposes.

 

Ohanin, a minor vespryn protein component specific to this species, causes hypolocomotion and hyperalgesia in experimental mice. It is believed that it contributes to neurotoxicity on the central nervous system of the victim.

 

Clinical Management

King cobra's envenomation may result in a rapid fatality, as soon as 30 minutes following a bite. Local symptoms include dusky discolouration of skin, edema and pain; in severe cases swelling extends proximally with necrosis and tissue sloughing that may require amputation. Onset of general symptoms follows while the venom is targeting the victim's central nervous system, resulting in blurred vision, vertigo, drowsiness, and eventually paralysis. If not treated promptly, it may progress to cardiovascular collapse and subsequently coma. Death soon follows due to respiratory failure.

 

Polyvalent antivenom of equine origin is produced by Haffkine Institute and King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research in India. A polyvalent antivenom produced by the Thai Red Cross Society can effectively neutralise venom of the king cobra. In Thailand, a concoction of turmeric root has been clinically shown to create a strong resilience against the venom of the king cobra when ingested. Proper and immediate treatments are critical to avoid death. Successful precedents include a client who recovered and was discharged in 10 days after being treated by accurate antivenom and inpatient care.

 

It can deliver up to 420 mg venom in dry weight (400–600 mg overall) per bite, with a LD50 toxicity in mice of 1.28 mg/kg through intravenous injection, 1.5 to 1.7 mg/kg through subcutaneous injection, and 1.644 mg/kg through intraperitoneal injection. For research purposes, up to 1 g of venom was obtained through milking

 

Threats

In Southeast Asia, the king cobra is threatened foremost by habitat destruction owing to deforestation and expansion of agricultural land. It is also threatened by poaching for its meat, skin and for use in traditional Chinese medicine.

 

Conservation

The king cobra is listed in CITES Appendix II. It is protected in China and Vietnam. In India, it is placed under Schedule II of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Killing a king cobra is punished with imprisonment of up to six years. In the Philippines, king cobras (locally known as banakon) are included under the list of threatened species in the country. It is protected under the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (Republic Act No. 9147), which criminalises the killing, trade, and consumption of threatened species with certain exceptions (like indigenous subsistence hunting or immediate threats to human life), with a maximum penalty of two years imprisonment and a fine of ₱20,000.

 

Cultural significance

The king cobra has an eminent position in the mythology and folklore of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. A ritual in Myanmar involves a king cobra and a female snake charmer. The charmer is a priestess who is usually tattooed with three pictograms and kisses the snake on the top of its head at the end of the ritual. Members of the Pakokku clan tattoo themselves with ink mixed with cobra venom on their upper bodies in a weekly inoculation that they believe would protect them from the snake, though no scientific evidence supports this.

 

It is regarded as the national reptile of India.

The diversified Swire Group’s businesses include financial services, property management, shipping and aviation (including ownership of Cathay Pacific Airways). The Group’s core businesses are concentrated in Asia, notably in Hong Kong and mainland China.

 

John Swire (1787-1847) founded the company in 1816, originally as a modest import-export business in Liverpool, initially trading textiles. This was his Liverpool home, appropriately marked with a commemorative blue plaque, at 33 Hope Street. It is a Grade 1 listed building.

Bangladeshi farmer Gopal Mohanta mixes together different feed items as he gets ready to feed his livestock. He did not previously have animals, but was able to buy them thanks to a dramatic improvement in his livelihood after he began to work with CIMMYT. He now grows a variety of crops that meet the family's food and feed needs, and each day he and his wife mix up a balanced meal for their animals.

 

The family's fortunes began to change when Mohanta attended a farmer training session provided by CIMMYT in collaboration with partners in Bangladesh. This opened a door for him to take advantage of a range of resources from CIMMYT and its partners—including seed, technologies, and practices—and to combine these with his own hard work and talent.

 

One of the changes Mohanta made was to plant a more diverse range of crops, and in 2005 he planted maize for the first time, using improved seed based on CIMMYT materials. He achieves high yields of 12-13 t/ha, which he is able to sell at a good profit, as a growing market is fueling high and stable maize prices in Bangladesh. As well as being able to invest in livestock and other farm diversification, such as a pond stocked with fish, the increased income has brought other benefits for the family. Mohanta and his wife have built a new, larger house and are able to provide a better education for their two children.

 

The family has come a long way, providing a shining example of what is possible to others in their community of Boiragee, Dinajpur. However, the success story is far from over; looking to the future, Mohanta plans to buy more land and to plant more crops.

 

Photo credit: S. Mojumder/Drik/CIMMYT.

 

For the latest on CIMMYT in Bangladesh, see CIMMYT's blog at: blog.cimmyt.org/?tag=bangladesh.

Photo by LendingMemo under CC 2.0

 

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Example: "Image credit LendingMemo.com"

 

LendingMemo is a peer to peer lending website that has been mentioned in major press like CNBC (Aug 27, 2014) and The Wall Street Journal (March 8, 2016).

The landscape with colourful diversified floating gardens has a unique aesthetic view. Dealing with nature and human needs, floating garden are integrated and sustainable in the Bengali landscape. In summer, flowers of water hyacinth bloom on the water. Contrast between light purple of flowers and deep green of leaves creates beautiful scenery.

 

Photo credit must be given: Photo courtesy of GIAHS Floating Garden Agricultural Practices, Bangladesh. Editorial use only.

 

More information:

GIAHS - Floating Garden Agricultural Practices, Bangladesh

Big thanks to park-ward for the correction again! :D

 

Following the dark days of World War I, Rolls Royce only produced one car, the Silver Ghost. In a bid to diversify their portfolio, the company created its first standard body car since the 1905 Rolls Royce 20hp, this one once again carrying the name Rolls Royce 20hp or Twenty.

 

Debuting in 1922, the car in terms of technology was quite basic, but still dished out luxury in spades. The engine was a newly developed 3.1L Inline-6, giving the car a top speed of about 60mph. In traditional standard to car builders at the time, Rolls Royce would provide customers with the chassis and drivetrain before the customers themselves would choose the coachwork that would be built. In 1922 the Chassis alone would cost £1,100 (£48,000 today), whilst a completed Tourer body cost up to £1,600 (£69,000 today). Some of the most famous coachbuilders who produced bodies for Rolls Royce cars are Barker, Park Ward, Thrupp & Maberly, Mulliner and Hooper.

 

Construction of the Twenty lasted until 1929, after which it was replaced by the 20/25hp. Only 2,940 of these cars were built, but they continue to be quite numerous even today in comparison to some later Rolls Royce models. But all in all they were truly the first Rollers to take on the standard design that would later become a staple of their style.

Deputy Managing Director of the IMF Min Zhu leads a panel for the Book Launch: "Breaking the Oil Spell: The Path to Diversification" with panelists Khalid Ali Al Bustani, Zeti Akhtar Aziz, J. Bradford DeLong, Simon Johnson, Reda Cherif and Fuad Hasanov during the 2016 IMF/World Bank Spring Meetings in Washington, D.C. Ryan Rayburn/IMF Photo