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Contributing some Cat Love to the Internet by Vincent

St Luke’s Church Maidstone by John K Thorne

883/9/384 ST LUKE'S ROAD 02-AUG-74 (Southwest side) CHURCH OF ST LUKE

II 1896-7 by W H Seth-Smith. 1971-2 baptistry largely demolished and new foyer and church hall built. Parish lounge 1982.

MATERIALS: Semi-coursed ragstone rubble from Vinters' quarries. The dressings and internal stone work are of Monks Park stone. Roofs covered with red clay Broseley tiles. Oak shingles on the bell-turret.

PLAN: Nave, chancel, N and S aisles, N transept/organ chamber, N and S vestries, octagonal turret (N). (The church is oriented to the NE and all directions given here are liturgical).

EXTERIOR: St Luke's is built in Free-style Gothic of a kind popular at the end of the C19 but more often associated with nonconformist chapels rather than Anglican churches. The principal façade is on the N where there is a large catslide roof covering both nave and aisle. The aisle has a plain parapet and is divided into bays by buttresses with offsets and broad windows which span the entire width of the bays: they are of four lights and have freely-treated Perpendicular tracery under depressed heads. In the angle of the aisle and N transept/organ chamber is an octagonal turret with a timber top stage which is capped by a concave-sided, shingled spirelet. The transept/organ chamber has a five-light N window with inventive tracery fusing Perpendicular with Kentish-style tracery of the early C14. The chancel too has an inventive E window with a pair of thick mullions dividing it into three lights and with an Art Nouveau interpretation of Perpendicular in the tracery. The S elevation of the nave and aisle is similar to that on the N. Towards the W end of the nave a small lead-covered cupola straddles the roof. The W window is broad and, with its pair of thick pierced mullions, derives from the large E and W windows in churches by Norman Shaw and J D Sedding and combines Perpendicular and Decorated details.

INTERIOR: The walls are plastered and whitened. Between the nave and aisles there are unusually treated three-bay arcades. These have round arches with fleurons placed round a hollow moulding and pairs of square capitals to pairs of round columns set on a high rectangular base. The capitals have stylised foliage at the corners which taper down through inverted half pyramids into the piers. The stone carving in chancel is by a Mr Aumonier and in body of the church by Gilbert Seale. The chancel arch too is round and is carried on semi-circular responds. The nave roof is arch-braced to a collar which carries a crown post and raked struts; in the tower lower tiers of the roof are short, curved wind-braces. The aisle roofs are plain lean-tos. The chancel has a semi-circular ceiling divided up into panels. On the S side of the chancel is an attractive mural of c1918 by Ivor Hutchins depicting the Tree of Life, Garden of Eden etc, in the style of Italian quattrocentro artists.

PRINCIPAL FIXTURES: Although the original seating in the nave and chancel has been almost entirely removed, there are still some fixtures of interest from the late C19 and early C20. The altar rails are by W. Bainbridge Reynolds and have metal cartouche-like detail. The organ case is particularly inventive and is to Seth-Smith's design with a depressed arch over the console and above this three curved towers of pipes with flats between. The reredos was made by Jones and Willis and was also probably designed by Seth-Smith and has rectangular traceried panels bearing gilded texts. The teak pulpit is in Free-style Gothic with pierced traceried sides and was designed by Seth-Smith and Monro, and dedicated in 1911 (carving by E J Bottle of Harrietsham). The war memorial tablet of 1920 in the N aisle is also by Seth-Smith and Monro. The pulpit is a conventional, plain octagonal piece. A few items of pews and chancel stallwork remain, such as a reading desk with an open traceried frontal but not in their original positions.

HISTORY: St Luke's parish was created out of those of St Paul and Holy Trinity and came into existence on 20 August 1895. The foundation stone of the church was laid on 21 October 1896 and the consecration took place on 10 September 1897. The architect was W Howard Seth-Smith (1858-1928). He had been articled to the London architects Habershon and Pite and commenced practice in 1879. He went into partnership with A R G Fenning and, from 1905, with W E Monro. He was President of the Society of Architects in 1888-91 and of the Architectural Association 1900-2. He enjoyed an extensive practice with commissions in London, Kent, Buckinghamshire, Gloucestershire and elsewhere. The key to his gaining the commission for St Luke's seems to be that he was the son-in-law of Col. H B Urmston, one of the leading figures in the early history of the church. The contractors for the building were G E Wallis and Sons. The site was given by Mrs Whatman and Messrs Fremlin Brothers, the local brewers, contributed generously to the building costs. In 1971-2 the W baptistry was largely demolished and a new foyer and church hall built. The parish lounge dates from 1982. In the early 1990s plans to remove the pews led to a consistory court in 1993. The chancellor upheld the objections but an appeal to the Court of Arches overturned this judgement and the pews were removed and the church carpeted.

The style of the building is unusual. John Newman in the Buildings of England volume covering Maidstone describes it as 'an all-out Art Nouveau affair, expensive, designed with the intensest care for details, but absolutely no delicacy of feeling.' This is rather a hard judgement and his strong emphasis on 'Art Nouveau' as the descriptor has been followed by others, such as Homan. There are certainly features that could aptly be described as Art Nouveau, such as the treatment of the E window and the organ case bit it seems more appropriate to see this as a building in Free-style Gothic of the kind popular around 1900 and used in many nonconformist churches and chapels. It is certainly an eclectic blend of architectural ideas and details.

SOURCES: Anon., The History of St Luke's Church 1897-1997 [1997], 12pp. Anon., The History of St Luke's Church since 1897 [c2005], 22pp. Roger Homan, The Victorian Churches of Kent, 1984, p 72. John Newman, The Buildings of England: West Kent and the Weald, 1980, pp 383-4. Antonia Brodie et al, Directory of British Architects 1834-1914, vol 2, 2001, p 579

REASONS FOR DESIGNATION: The church of St Luke, Maidstone, is designated at Grade II for the following principal reasons: * It is of special interest as an Anglican church built in Free-style Gothic at the end of the C19, blending a variety of architectural forms and details, and as such is unusual. * Despite the removal of nearly all the seating which has considerably affected the character of the building, it does still retain some late C19 and early C20 fittings and decoration of special interest, such as the mural.

Supergirl | Coca-Cola by dynamo.photography

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Wet plate process)

This deteriorated dry plate portrait of Theodore Roosevelt is similar to a wet plate image but has substantial differences.

The collodion process is an early photographic process.

Contents

1 Description

2 History

2.1 21st century

3 Advantages

4 Disadvantages

5 Use

6 Search for a dry collodion process

7 Collodion emulsion

8 Collodion emulsion preparation example

9 See also

10 References

11 External links

Description

Collodion process, mostly synonymous with the "collodion wet plate process", requires the photographic material to be coated, sensitized, exposed and developed within the span of about fifteen minutes, necessitating a portable darkroom for use in the field. Collodion is normally used in its wet form, but can also be used in humid ("preserved") or dry form, at the cost of greatly increased exposure time. The latter made the dry form unsuitable for the usual portraiture work of most professional photographers of the 19th century. The use of the dry form was therefore mostly confined to landscape photography and other special applications where minutes-long exposure times were tolerable.[citation needed]

History

The collodion process is said to have been invented in 1851, almost simultaneously, by Frederick Scott Archer and Gustave Le Gray. During the subsequent decades, many photographers and experimenters refined or varied the process. By the end of the 1850s it had almost entirely replaced the first practical photographic process, the daguerreotype.

During the 1880s the collodion process, was largely replaced by gelatin dry plates—glass plates with a photographic emulsion of silver halides suspended in gelatin. The dry gelatin emulsion was not only more convenient, but it could also be made much more sensitive, greatly reducing exposure times.

One collodion process, the tintype, was in limited use for casual portraiture by some itinerant and amusement park photographers as late as the 1930s, and the wet plate collodion process was still in use in the printing industry in the 1960s for line and tone work (mostly printed material involving black type against a white background) since it was much cheaper than gelatin film in large volumes.[citation needed]

21st century

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The wet plate collodion process has undergone a revival as a historical technique over the past few decades. There are several practising ambrotypists and tintypists who regularly set up and make images at Civil War re-enactments. Fine art photographers use the process and its handcrafted individuality for gallery showings and personal work. There are several makers of reproduction equipment. The process is taught in workshops around the world and several workbooks and manuals are in print. Many artists work with collodion around the globe, including traveling photographer Craig Murphy, Kurt Grüng, Sally Mann, and Ben Cauchi. Other artists to note are Luther Gurlach, James Walker[disambiguation needed], Stephen Burkeman, Sam Davis, Quinn Jacobson and Ken Merfeld. There are many more as well that have contributed to bringing this process forward to a modern age.

Advantages

A portable photography studio in 19th century Ireland. The wet collodion process sometimes gave rise to portable darkrooms, as photographic images needed to be developed while the plate was still wet.

The collodion process produced a negative image on a transparent support (glass). This was an improvement over the calotype process, invented by William Henry Fox Talbot, which relied on paper negatives, and the daguerreotype, which produced a one-of-a-kind positive image and could not be replicated. The collodion process, thus combined desirable qualities of the calotype process (enabling the photographer to make a theoretically unlimited number of prints from a single negative) and the daguerreotype (creating a sharpness and clarity that could not be achieved with paper negatives). Collodion printing was typically done on albumen paper.

The collodion process had other advantages, especially in comparison with the daguerreotype. It was a relatively inexpensive process. The polishing equipment and fuming equipment needed for the daguerreotype could be dispensed with entirely. The support for the images was glass, which was far less expensive than silver-plated copper, and was more durable than paper negatives. It was also fast for the time, requiring only seconds for exposure.

Disadvantages

The wet collodion process had a major disadvantage. The entire process, from coating to developing, had to be done before the plate dried. This gave the photographer no more than 10 minutes to complete everything. This made it inconvenient for field use, as it required a portable darkroom. The plate dripped silver nitrate solution, causing stains and troublesome build-ups in the camera and plate holders.[citation needed]

The silver nitrate bath was also a source of problems. It gradually became saturated with alcohol, ether, iodide and bromide salts, dust, and various organic matter. It would lose effectiveness, causing plates to mysteriously fail to produce an image.[citation needed]

As with all preceding photographic processes, the wet-collodion process was sensitive only to blue light. Warm colours appear dark, cool colours uniformly light. A sky with clouds is impossible to render, as the spectrum of white clouds contains about as much blue as the sky. Lemons and tomatoes appear a shiny black, and a blue and white tablecloth appears plain white. Victorian sitters who in collodion photographs look as if they are in mourning might have been wearing bright yellow or pink.[1]

Use

"A Veteran with his Wife", taken by an anonymous photographer, shows a British veteran of the Napoleonic era Peninsular Wars. It is a hand-tinted ambrotype using the set collodion positive process, made circa 1860.

Despite its disadvantages, wet plate collodion became enormously popular. It was used for portraiture, landscape work, architectural photography and art photography.[citation needed] The world's largest wet process collodion glass plate negatives known to survive, measuring 53 inches (1.35 m) x 37 inches (0.94 m), are held at the State Library of New South Wales.[2][3][4]

The wet plate process is used by a number of artists and experimenters who prefer its aesthetic qualities to those of the more modern gelatin silver process.[citation needed] World Wet Plate Day is staged annually in May for contemporary practitioners.[5]

Search for a dry collodion process

The extreme inconvenience of exposing wet collodion in the field led to many attempts to develop a dry collodion process, which could be exposed and developed some time after coating. A large number of methods were tried, though none was ever found to be truly practical and consistent in operation. Well-known scientists such as Joseph Sidebotham, Richard Kennett, Major Russell and Frederick Charles Luther Wratten attempted, but never met with good results.[citation needed]

Typically, methods involved coating or mixing the collodion with a substance that prevented it from drying quickly. As long as the collodion remained at least partially wet, it retained some of its sensitivity. Common processes involved chemicals such as glycerin, magnesium nitrate, tannic acid and albumen. Others involved more unlikely substances, such as tea, coffee, honey, beer and seemingly unending combinations thereof.[citation needed]

Many methods worked to an extent; they allowed the plate to be exposed hours, or even days, after coating. They all possessed the chief disadvantage, that they rendered the plate extremely slow. An image could require anywhere from three to ten times more exposure on a dry plate than on a wet plate.[citation needed]

Collodion emulsion

In 1864 W. B. Bolton and B. J. Sayce published an idea for a process that would revolutionize photography. They suggested that sensitive silver salts be formed in a liquid collodion, rather than being precipitated, in-situ, on the surface of a plate. A light-sensitive plate could then be prepared by simply flowing this emulsion across the surface of a glass plate; no silver nitrate bath was required.

This idea was soon brought to fruition. First, a printing emulsion was developed using silver chloride. These emulsions were slow, and could not be developed, so they were mostly used for positive printing. Shortly later, silver iodide and silver bromide emulsions were produced. These proved to be significantly faster, and the image could be brought out by development.

The emulsions also had the advantage that they could be washed. In the wet collodion process, silver nitrate reacted with a halide salt; potassium iodide, for example. This resulted in a double replacement reaction. The silver and iodine ions in solution reacted, forming silver iodide on the collodion film. However, at the same time, potassium nitrate also formed, from the potassium ions in the iodide and the nitrate ions in the silver. This salt could not be removed in the wet process. However, with the emulsion process, it could be washed out after creation of the emulsion.

The speed of the emulsion process was unremarkable. It was not as fast as the ordinary wet process, but was not nearly as slow as the dry plate processes. Its chief advantage was that each plate behaved the same way. Inconsistencies in the ordinary process were rare.

Collodion emulsion preparation example

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Below is an example of the preparation of a collodion emulsion, from the late 19th century. The language has been adapted to be more modern, and the units of measure have been converted to metric.

4.9 grams of pyroxylin are dissolved in 81.3 ml of alcohol, 148 ml of ether.

13 grams of zinc bromide are dissolved in 29.6 ml of alcohol. Four or five drops of nitric acid are added. This is added to half the collodion made above.

21.4 grams of silver nitrate are dissolved in 7.4 ml of water. 29.6 ml of alcohol are added. This is then poured into the other half of the collodion; the brominized collodion dropped in, slowly, while stirring.

The result is an emulsion of silver bromide. It is left to ripen for 10 to 20 hours, until it attains a creamy consistency. It may then be used or washed, as outlined below.

To wash, the emulsion is poured into a dish and the solvents are evaporated until the collodion becomes gelatinous. It is then washed with water, followed by a washing in alcohol. After washing, it is redissolved in a mixture of ether and alcohol and is then ready for use.

Emulsions created in this manner could be used wet, but they were often coated on the plate and preserved in similar ways to the dry process.

Collodion emulsion plates were developed in an alkaline developer, not unlike those in common use today. An example formula follows.

Part A: Pyrogallic acid 96 g Alcohol 1 oz.

Part B: Potassium bromide 12 g Distilled Water 30 ml

Part C: Ammonium carbonate 80 g Water 30 ml

When needed for use, mix 0.37 ml of A, 2.72 ml of B and 10.9 ml of C. Flow this over the plate until developed. If a dry plate is used, first wash the preservative off in running water.[citation needed]

Asia - Cambodia by RURO photography

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Various factors contribute to Cambodian culture including Theravada Buddhism, Hinduism, French Colonialism, Angkorian culture, and modern globalization. The Cambodian Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts is responsible for promoting and developing Cambodian culture. Cambodian culture not only includes the culture of the lowland ethnic majority, but also some 20 culturally distinct hill tribes colloquially known as the Khmer Loeu, a term coined by Norodom Sihanouk to encourage unity between the highlanders and lowlanders. Rural Cambodians wear a krama scarf which is a unique aspect of Cambodian clothing. Khmer culture, as developed and spread by the Khmer empire, has distinctive styles of dance, architecture and sculpture, which have been exchanged with neighbouring Laos and Thailand through the history. Angkor Wat (Angkor means "city" and Wat "temple") is the best preserved example of Khmer architecture from the Angkorian era and hundreds of other temples have been discovered in and around the region.

Traditionally, the Khmer people have a unique method of recording information on Tra leaf. Tra leaf books record information on legends of the Khmer people, the Ramayana, the origin of Buddhism and other prayer book series. They are greatly taken care of and wrapped in cloth as to protect from moisture and the jungle climate. Bonn Om Teuk (Festival of Boat Racing), the annual boat rowing contest, is the most attended Cambodian national festival. Held at the end of the rainy season when the Mekong river begins to sink back to its normal levels allowing the Tonle Sap River to reverse flow, approximately 10% of Cambodia's population attends this event each year to play games, give thanks to the moon, watch fireworks, and attend the boat race in a carnival-type atmosphere.Popular games include cockfighting, soccer, and kicking a sey, which is similar to a footbag. Based on the classical Indian solar calendar and Theravada Buddhism, the Cambodian New Year is a major holiday that takes place in April. Recent artistic figures include singers Sinn Sisamouth and Ros Sereysothea (and later Meng Keo Pichenda), who introduced new musical styles to the country.

West Plains Bank and W.J. & Ed Smith Building (West Plains, Missouri) by courthouselover

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The red structure on the left is the former West Plains Bank. It stands at 107 Washington Avenue and was built in 1883. The yellow structure on the right is the J.W. and Ed Smith Building. It stands at 109-113 Washington Avenue, and was built in 1894 by W.J. Smith.

Both feature Italianate style, and both were individually listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2001. They are also contributing properties to the Courthouse Square Historic District, which was listed in 2003.

West Plains is a charming Missouri Ozarks town that serves as the seat of Howell County.

EPB in Dorset: The Southern Electric Group's 'EPB to the Sea' Railtour by Nic Joynson

15 6

The Southern Electric Group's 'EPB to the Sea' railtour provides the rare site of a suburban electric unit at the south western extent of the 3rd rail network.

Running as 1Z40 from London Victoria, the tour ran via Reading, Virginia Water, Byfleet Junction, Eastleigh, Fareham and Southampton to Weymouth, returning via Fareham, Portsmouth Harbour, Chichester, Horsham, Leatherhead and Sutton. 4-EPB No. 5623 leads and out of sight is a 4-CEP unit.

I posted this as a question: well done to Philip Swann for identifying the tour (and contributing much of the caption!) and [https://www.flickr.com/photos/jwht] for identifying the rather nondescript location.

More Lady Diva as Photo Art by LD's Slave Carl

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Contributed by an admirer

Happy Back to the Future Day by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

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Great Scott, This is Heavy!

You might see a DeLorean zipping around Greenbelt, Maryland, on Oct. 21, 2015, the day Marty McFly and Doc Brown arrive from 1985 in "Back to the Future, Part II," but don't look for flaming tread marks in its wake.

The DeLorean DMC-12, commonly seen on the roads of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, is better known for the version that starred as a plutonium-powered time machine in the “Back to the Future” trilogy.

After some investigation, Goddard’s Office of Communications found the owner of the stainless steel, gull-winged, two-door coupe. Goddard software test engineer, Brendan Rebo bought the 1982 DeLorean off eBay about four and a half years ago. “The car attracts a lot more attention than I expected,” Rebo admitted. “I hear a lot of jokes about whether or not I’ve reached 88 miles per hour yet.”

As “Back to the Future” fans around the world celebrate today, Rebo also celebrates his birthday.

While the second film predicted technology, such as flying cars, that doesn’t yet exist, people can still marvel at the classic car and movie reference.

Credit: NASA/Goddard/Rebecca Roth

NASA image use policy.

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center enables NASA’s mission through four scientific endeavors: Earth Science, Heliophysics, Solar System Exploration, and Astrophysics. Goddard plays a leading role in NASA’s accomplishments by contributing compelling scientific knowledge to advance the Agency’s mission.

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111/200 - Tay Villager [Explore] by Evan Robinson

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This picture is #11 in Round Two of my 100 Strangers project.

Facebook | Website

Vietnam has a wide variety of ethnic minority groups, the largest of which is the Tay people. During a recent holiday to the northern part of the country, I had the unique experience of attending a local Tay funeral in the mountain village of Trung.

As we arrived at the village for a guided walk, our tour guide, Ha, became quite animated. He explained that just to the side of the road a funeral was taking place. We were strongly encouraged to bring our cameras, take a closer look and even join the gathering.

Personally, I was quite apprehensive about intruding on what is commonly viewed as a deeply emotional and personal ceremony in Western cultures. However, Ha insisted that everything would be okay and he even seemed intrigued by the local Tay customs which he had not witnessed before.

The group was very welcoming to my parents, girlfriend and me. They made room for us to join them at a communal table, shared tea with us and even made friendly jokes (translated for us by Ha). We learned that the deceased was a young man in his 30’s and had only passed away that morning. Everyone in the village would eventually attend to pay their respects and contribute to the gathering.

Relatives of the deceased were easily identified by the white cloth wrapped around their heads. There was also a small shrine nearby where offerings were being made and prayers were being said.

Ha encouraged us to take photographs and after he had provided a great deal of reassurance, I still requested that he explicitly ask if I could take some individual portraits. My stranger readily agreed to a portrait and was one of two relatives of the deceased. He joined the larger group after paying his respects at the shrine and was understandably melancholy and more reserved than the rest of the group; the expression in his eyes really drew me in.

Having really pushed the boundaries of my comfort zone, I could not bring myself ask too much of my subject. Therefore, I made do with the lighting and background that was available. As a result, I’ve taken a very different approach for post-processing which is a whole new area of exploration for me.

While I have no problems interrupting people at work or while they are eating to ask for a portrait, it was very challenging to overcome my fear of insulting the bereaved. Many thanks to Ha for translating and encouraging me to take pictures in the first place, as it turns out everyone was very accomodating.

Constructive criticism is welcome and appreciated!

To find out more about the project, visit the 100 Strangers Flickr Group

You can see my original 100 Strangers here and round two in this set.

Rogue Odyssey: Shipyard and temples by Vaionaut

The modules I contributed to our Rogue Odyssey display were located on the coast of Athens. For these I built a shipyard with a large Greek galley as well as a small town square with an olive tree in the middle, an adjoining temple and a round pavilion on the cliffs. For more detail shots have a look at my instagram.

The shipyard was mainly inspired by Assassin's Creed: Odyssey. Here, a special challenge was that the structure should rise very slightly inland. It was also the first time I built a ship. It had to be stable enough for transportation and at the same time offer an open lower deck with enough space for 20 rowers.

For the temple and the pavilion, I tried different techniques for the columns, decorations and roofs. Experimenting with various parts, offsets and angles was really lots of fun, but also a bit tricky. Furthermore, the oblique integration of the temple and especially the dock into the landscape was not without its challenges, as this required appropriate recesses in the terrain - and even in the water surface.

I am also happy and grateful that the coordination with my neighbors in the collab was such smooth. In the foreground you can see the busy streets of Athens, which were built by Elias (Brickleas). At the town square, Robert (hellboy) continued the city of Athens and built a theater on the hillside. Behind my temple, Eugen (colognebrick) placed a villa for the upper classes. From the town square, there were also stairs between Elias' and Robert's modules leading up to the Acropolis, realized by Kevin (Kevin J. Walter). In the background there is Mount Olympus, which was raised by Markus (rolli). Not directly next to me, but beautifully visible in the back, is a vineyard, which Martin (Mgibarian): has lovingly designed in great detail.

Many thanks also to everyone who helped in various ways, whether it was the great teamwork in the planning, the creation one of all these fantastic collab modules or supporting us with the set-up and take-down on site!

Street scene | Kolkata | India by dynamo.photography

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++++++++++ FROM WKIPEDIA +++++++++

Kolkata /koʊlˈkɑːtə/ ([kolkata] (About this soundlisten), also known as Calcutta /kælˈkʌtə/, the official name until 2001) is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. Located on the east bank of the Hooghly River approximately 75 kilometres (47 mi) west of the border with Bangladesh, it is the principal commercial, cultural, and educational centre of East India, while the Port of Kolkata is India's oldest operating port and its sole major riverine port. The city is widely regarded as the "cultural capital" of India, and is also nicknamed the "City of Joy".[1][2][3].According to the 2011 Indian census, it is the seventh most populous city. the city had a population of 4.5 million, while the population of the city and its suburbs was 14.1 million, making it the third-most populous metropolitan area in India. Recent estimates of Kolkata Metropolitan Area's economy have ranged from $60 to $150 billion (GDP adjusted for purchasing power parity) making it third most-productive metropolitan area in India, after Mumbai and Delhi.[11][12][13]

In the late 17th century, the three villages that predated Calcutta were ruled by the Nawab of Bengal under Mughal suzerainty. After the Nawab granted the East India Company a trading licence in 1690,[15] the area was developed by the Company into an increasingly fortified trading post. Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah occupied Calcutta in 1756, and the East India Company retook it the following year. In 1793 the East India company was strong enough to abolish Nizamat (local rule), and assumed full sovereignty of the region. Under the company rule, and later under the British Raj, Calcutta served as the capital of British-held territories in India until 1911, when its perceived geographical disadvantages, combined with growing nationalism in Bengal, led to a shift of the capital to New Delhi. Calcutta was the centre for the Indian independence movement; it remains a hotbed of contemporary state politics. Following Indian independence in 1947, Kolkata, which was once the centre of modern Indian education, science, culture, and politics, suffered several decades of economic stagnation.

As a nucleus of the 19th- and early 20th-century Bengal Renaissance and a religiously and ethnically diverse centre of culture in Bengal and India, Kolkata has local traditions in drama, art, film, theatre, and literature. Many people from Kolkata—among them several Nobel laureates—have contributed to the arts, the sciences, and other areas. Kolkata culture features idiosyncrasies that include distinctively close-knit neighbourhoods (paras) and freestyle intellectual exchanges (adda). West Bengal's share of the Bengali film industry is based in the city, which also hosts venerable cultural institutions of national importance, such as the Academy of Fine Arts, the Victoria Memorial, the Asiatic Society, the Indian Museum and the National Library of India. Among professional scientific institutions, Kolkata hosts the Agri Horticultural Society of India, the Geological Survey of India, the Botanical Survey of India, the Calcutta Mathematical Society, the Indian Science Congress Association, the Zoological Survey of India, the Institution of Engineers, the Anthropological Survey of India and the Indian Public Health Association. Though home to major cricketing venues and franchises, Kolkata differs from other Indian cities by giving importance to association football and other sports.

Etymology

The word Kolkata derives from the Bengali term Kôlikata (Bengali: কলিকাতা) [ˈkɔlikat̪a], the name of one of three villages that predated the arrival of the British, in the area where the city eventually was to be established; the other two villages were Sutanuti and Govindapur.[16]

There are several explanations about the etymology of this name:

The term Kolikata is thought to be a variation of Kalikkhetrô [ˈkalikʰːet̪rɔ] (Bengali: কালীক্ষেত্র), meaning "Field of [the goddess] Kali". Similarly, it can be a variation of 'Kalikshetra' (Sanskrit: कालीक्षेत्र, lit. "area of Goddess Kali").

Another theory is that the name derives from Kalighat.[17]

Alternatively, the name may have been derived from the Bengali term kilkila (Bengali: কিলকিলা), or "flat area".[18]

The name may have its origin in the words khal [ˈkʰal] (Bengali: খাল) meaning "canal", followed by kaṭa [ˈkata] (Bengali: কাটা), which may mean "dug".[19]

According to another theory, the area specialised in the production of quicklime or koli chun [ˈkɔlitɕun] (Bengali: কলি চুন) and coir or kata [ˈkat̪a] (Bengali: কাতা); hence, it was called Kolikata [ˈkɔlikat̪a] (Bengali: কলিকাতা).[18]

Although the city's name has always been pronounced Kolkata [ˈkolkat̪a] (Bengali: কলকাতা) or Kôlikata [ˈkɔlikat̪a] (Bengali: কলিকাতা) in Bengali, the anglicised form Calcutta was the official name until 2001, when it was changed to Kolkata in order to match Bengali pronunciation.[20] (It should be noted that "Calcutt" is an etymologically unrelated place name found at several locations in England.)

History

The discovery and archaeological study of Chandraketugarh, 35 kilometres (22 mi) north of Kolkata, provide evidence that the region in which the city stands has been inhabited for over two millennia.[21][22] Kolkata's recorded history began in 1690 with the arrival of the English East India Company, which was consolidating its trade business in Bengal. Job Charnock, an administrator who worked for the company, was formerly credited as the founder of the city;[23] In response to a public petition,[24] the Calcutta High Court ruled in 2003 that the city does not have a founder.[25] The area occupied by the present-day city encompassed three villages: Kalikata, Gobindapur, and Sutanuti. Kalikata was a fishing village; Sutanuti was a riverside weavers' village. They were part of an estate belonging to the Mughal emperor; the jagirdari (a land grant bestowed by a king on his noblemen) taxation rights to the villages were held by the Sabarna Roy Choudhury family of landowners, or zamindars. These rights were transferred to the East India Company in 1698.[26]:1

In 1712, the British completed the construction of Fort William, located on the east bank of the Hooghly River to protect their trading factory.[27] Facing frequent skirmishes with French forces, the British began to upgrade their fortifications in 1756. The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, condemned the militarisation and tax evasion by the company. His warning went unheeded, and the Nawab attacked; he captured Fort William which led to the killings of several East India company officials in the Black Hole of Calcutta.[28] A force of Company soldiers (sepoys) and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the following year.[28] Per the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad following the battle of Buxar, East India company was appointed imperial tax collector of the Mughal emperor in the province of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, while Mughal-appointed Nawabs continued to rule the province.[29] Declared a presidency city, Calcutta became the headquarters of the East India Company by 1773.[30] In 1793, ruling power of the Nawabs were abolished and East India company took complete control of the city and the province. In the early 19th century, the marshes surrounding the city were drained; the government area was laid out along the banks of the Hooghly River. Richard Wellesley, Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William between 1797 and 1805, was largely responsible for the development of the city and its public architecture.[31] Throughout the late 18th and 19th century, the city was a centre of the East India Company's opium trade.[32]

By the 1850s, Calcutta had two areas: White Town, which was primarily British and centred on Chowringhee and Dalhousie Square; and Black Town, mainly Indian and centred on North Calcutta.[33] The city underwent rapid industrial growth starting in the early 1850s, especially in the textile and jute industries; this encouraged British companies to massively invest in infrastructure projects, which included telegraph connections and Howrah railway station. The coalescence of British and Indian culture resulted in the emergence of a new babu class of urbane Indians, whose members were often bureaucrats, professionals, newspaper readers, and Anglophiles; they usually belonged to upper-caste Hindu communities.[34] In the 19th century, the Bengal Renaissance brought about an increased sociocultural sophistication among city denizens. In 1883, Calcutta was host to the first national conference of the Indian National Association, the first avowed nationalist organisation in India.[35]

Bengali billboards on Harrison Street. Calcutta was the largest commercial centre in British India.

The partition of Bengal in 1905 along religious lines led to mass protests, making Calcutta a less hospitable place for the British.[36][37] The capital was moved to New Delhi in 1911.[38] Calcutta continued to be a centre for revolutionary organisations associated with the Indian independence movement. The city and its port were bombed several times by the Japanese between 1942 and 1944, during World War II.[39][40] Coinciding with the war, millions starved to death during the Bengal famine of 1943 due to a combination of military, administrative, and natural factors.[41] Demands for the creation of a Muslim state led in 1946 to an episode of communal violence that killed over 4,000.[42][43][44] The partition of India led to further clashes and a demographic shift—many Muslims left for East Pakistan (present day Bangladesh), while hundreds of thousands of Hindus fled into the city.[45]

During the 1960s and 1970s, severe power shortages, strikes, and a violent Marxist–Maoist movement by groups known as the Naxalites damaged much of the city's infrastructure, resulting in economic stagnation.[46] The Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 led to a massive influx of thousands of refugees, many of them penniless, that strained Kolkata's infrastructure.[47] During the mid-1980s, Mumbai (then called Bombay) overtook Kolkata as India's most populous city. In 1985, prime minister Rajiv Gandhi dubbed Kolkata a "dying city" in light of its socio-political woes.[48] In the period 1977–2011, West Bengal was governed from Kolkata by the Left Front, which was dominated by the Communist Party of India (CPM). It was the world's longest-serving democratically elected communist government, during which Kolkata was a key base for Indian communism.[49][50][51] In the West Bengal Legislative Assembly election, 2011, Left Front was defeated by the Trinamool Congress. The city's economic recovery gathered momentum after the 1990s, when India began to institute pro-market reforms. Since 2000, the information technology (IT) services sector has revitalised Kolkata's stagnant economy. The city is also experiencing marked growth in its manufacturing base.[52]

Geography

Spread roughly north–south along the east bank of the Hooghly River, Kolkata sits within the lower Ganges Delta of eastern India approximately 75 km (47 mi) west of the international border with Bangladesh; the city's elevation is 1.5–9 m (5–30 ft).[53] Much of the city was originally a wetland that was reclaimed over the decades to accommodate a burgeoning population.[54] The remaining undeveloped areas, known as the East Kolkata Wetlands, were designated a "wetland of international importance" by the Ramsar Convention (1975).[55] As with most of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the soil and water are predominantly alluvial in origin. Kolkata is located over the "Bengal basin", a pericratonic tertiary basin.[56] Bengal basin comprises three structural units: shelf or platform in the west; central hinge or shelf/slope break; and deep basinal part in the east and southeast. Kolkata is located atop the western part of the hinge zone which is about 25 km (16 mi) wide at a depth of about 45,000 m (148,000 ft) below the surface.[56] The shelf and hinge zones have many faults, among them some are active. Total thickness of sediment below Kolkata is nearly 7,500 m (24,600 ft) above the crystalline basement; of these the top 350–450 m (1,150–1,480 ft) is Quaternary, followed by 4,500–5,500 m (14,760–18,040 ft) of Tertiary sediments, 500–700 m (1,640–2,300 ft) trap wash of Cretaceous trap and 600–800 m (1,970–2,620 ft) Permian-Carboniferous Gondwana rocks.[56] The quaternary sediments consist of clay, silt, and several grades of sand and gravel. These sediments are sandwiched between two clay beds: the lower one at a depth of 250–650 m (820–2,130 ft); the upper one 10–40 m (30–130 ft) in thickness.[57] According to the Bureau of Indian Standards, on a scale ranging from I to V in order of increasing susceptibility to earthquakes, the city lies inside seismic zone III.[58]

Urban structure

Howrah Bridge from the western bank of the Ganges

The Kolkata metropolitan area is spread over 1,886.67 km2 (728.45 sq mi)[59]:7 and comprises 3 municipal corporations (including Kolkata Municipal Corporation), 39 local municipalities and 24 panchayat samitis, as of 2011.[59]:7 The urban agglomeration encompassed 72 cities and 527 towns and villages, as of 2006.[60] Suburban areas in the Kolkata metropolitan area incorporate parts of the following districts: North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Howrah, Hooghly, and Nadia.[61]:15 Kolkata, which is under the jurisdiction of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC), has an area of 185 km2 (71 sq mi).[60] The east–west dimension of the city is comparatively narrow, stretching from the Hooghly River in the west to roughly the Eastern Metropolitan Bypass in the east—a span of 9–10 km (5.6–6.2 mi).[62] The north–south distance is greater, and its axis is used to section the city into North, Central, and South Kolkata. East Kolkata is also a section.

North Kolkata is the oldest part of the city. Characterised by 19th-century architecture, dilapidated buildings, overpopulated slums, crowded bazaars, and narrow alleyways, it includes areas such as Shyambazar, Hatibagan, Maniktala, Kankurgachi, Rajabazar, Shobhabazar, Shyampukur, Sonagachi, Kumortuli, Bagbazar, Jorasanko, Chitpur, Pathuriaghata, Cossipore, Kestopur, Sinthee, Belgachia, Jorabagan, and Dum Dum.[63]:65–66 The northern suburban areas like Baranagar, Durganagar, Noapara, Dunlop, Dakshineswar, Nagerbazar, Belghoria, Agarpara, Sodepur, Madhyamgram, Barasat, Birati, Khardah up to Barrackpur are also within the city of Kolkata (as a metropolitan structure).

Central Kolkata

Central Kolkata hosts the central business district. It contains B. B. D. Bagh, formerly known as Dalhousie Square, and the Esplanade on its east; Strand Road is on its west.[64] The West Bengal Secretariat, General Post Office, Reserve Bank of India, High Court, Lalbazar Police Headquarters, and several other government and private offices are located there. Another business hub is the area south of Park Street, which comprises thoroughfares such as Chowringhee, Camac Street, Wood Street, Loudon Street, Shakespeare Sarani, and A. J. C. Bose Road.[65] The Maidan is a large open field in the heart of the city that has been called the "lungs of Kolkata"[66] and accommodates sporting events and public meetings.[67] The Victoria Memorial and Kolkata Race Course are located at the southern end of the Maidan. Other important areas of Central Kolkata are Park Circus, Burrabazar, College Street, Sealdah, Taltala, Janbazar, Bowbazar, Entally, Chandni Chowk, Lalbazar, Chowringhee, Dharmatala, Tiretta Bazar, Bow Barracks, Mullick Bazar, Park Circus, Babughat etc. Among the other parks are Central Park in Bidhannagar and Millennium Park on Strand Road, along the Hooghly River.

South Kolkata

South Kolkata developed after India gained independence in 1947; it includes upscale neighbourhoods such as Ballygunge, Alipore, New Alipore, Lansdowne, Bhowanipore, Kalighat, Dhakuria, Gariahat, Tollygunge, Naktala, Jodhpur Park, Lake Gardens, Golf Green, Jadavpur, Garfa, Kalikapur, Haltu, Nandi Bagan, Santoshpur, Baghajatin, Garia, Ramgarh, Raipur, Kanungo Park, Ranikuthi, Bikramgarh, Bijoygarh, Bansdroni and Kudghat.[16] Outlying areas of South Kolkata include Garden Reach, Khidirpur, Metiabruz, Taratala, Majerhat, Budge Budge, Behala, Sarsuna, Barisha, Parnasree Pally, Thakurpukur, Maheshtala and Joka. The southern suburban neighbourhoods like Mahamayatala, Pratapgarh, Kamalgazi, Narendrapur, Sonarpur, Subhashgram and Baruipur are also within the city of Kolkata (as metropolitan, urban agglomeration area). Fort William, on the western part of the city, houses the headquarters of the Eastern Command of the Indian Army;[68] its premises are under the jurisdiction of the army.

East Kolkata

East Kolkata is largely composed of newly developed areas and neighbourhoods of Saltlake, Rajarhat, Tangra, Topsia, Kasba, Anandapur, Mukundapur, Picnic Garden, Beleghata, Ultadanga, Phoolbagan, Kaikhali, Lake Town, etc. Two planned townships in the greater Kolkata region are Bidhannagar, also known as Salt Lake City and located north-east of the city; and Rajarhat, also called New Town and sited east of Bidhannagar.[16][69] In the 2000s, Sector V in Bidhannagar developed into a business hub for information technology and telecommunication companies.[70][71] Both Bidhannagar and New Town are situated outside the Kolkata Municipal Corporation limits, in their own municipalities.[69]

Climate

Kolkata is subject to a tropical wet-and-dry climate that is designated Aw under the Köppen climate classification. According to a United Nations Development Programme report, its wind and cyclone zone is "very high damage risk".[58]

Temperature

The annual mean temperature is 26.8 °C (80.2 °F); monthly mean temperatures are 19–30 °C (66–86 °F). Summers (March–June) are hot and humid, with temperatures in the low 30s Celsius; during dry spells, maximum temperatures often exceed 40 °C (104 °F) in May and June.[72] Winter lasts for roughly two-and-a-half months, with seasonal lows dipping to 9–11 °C (48–52 °F) in December and January. May is the hottest month, with daily temperatures ranging from 27–37 °C (81–99 °F); January, the coldest month, has temperatures varying from 12–23 °C (54–73 °F). The highest recorded temperature is 43.9 °C (111.0 °F), and the lowest is 5 °C (41 °F).[72] The winter is mild and very comfortable weather pertains over the city throughout this season. Often, in April–June, the city is struck by heavy rains or dusty squalls that are followed by thunderstorms or hailstorms, bringing cooling relief from the prevailing humidity. These thunderstorms are convective in nature, and are known locally as kal bôishakhi (কালবৈশাখী), or "Nor'westers" in English.[73]

Rains brought by the Bay of Bengal branch of the south-west summer monsoon[74] lash Kolkata between June and September, supplying it with most of its annual rainfall of about 1,850 mm (73 in). The highest monthly rainfall total occurs in July and August. In these months often incessant rain for days brings live to a stall for the city dwellers. The city receives 2,528 hours of sunshine per year, with maximum sunlight exposure occurring in March.[75] Kolkata has been hit by several cyclones; these include systems occurring in 1737 and 1864 that killed thousands.[76][77]

Environmental issues

Pollution is a major concern in Kolkata. As of 2008, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide annual concentration were within the national ambient air quality standards of India, but respirable suspended particulate matter levels were high, and on an increasing trend for five consecutive years, causing smog and haze.[80][81] Severe air pollution in the city has caused a rise in pollution-related respiratory ailments, such as lung cancer.[82]

Economy

Kolkata is the main commercial and financial hub of East and North-East India[61] and home to the Calcutta Stock Exchange.[83][84] It is a major commercial and military port, and is the only city in eastern India, apart from Bhubaneswar to have an international airport. Once India's leading city, Kolkata experienced a steady economic decline in the decades following India's independence due to steep population increases and a rise in militant trade-unionism, which included frequent strikes that were backed by left-wing parties.[52] From the 1960s to the late 1990s, several factories were closed and businesses relocated.[52] The lack of capital and resources added to the depressed state of the city's economy and gave rise to an unwelcome sobriquet: the "dying city".[85] The city's fortunes improved after the Indian economy was liberalised in the 1990s and changes in economic policy were enacted by the West Bengal state government.[52]

Flexible production has been the norm in Kolkata, which has an informal sector that employs more than 40% of the labour force.[16] One unorganised group, roadside hawkers, generated business worth ₹ 8,772 crore (US$ 2 billion) in 2005.[86] As of 2001, around 0.81% of the city's workforce was employed in the primary sector (agriculture, forestry, mining, etc.); 15.49% worked in the secondary sector (industrial and manufacturing); and 83.69% worked in the tertiary sector (service industries).[61]:19 As of 2003, the majority of households in slums were engaged in occupations belonging to the informal sector; 36.5% were involved in servicing the urban middle class (as maids, drivers, etc.), and 22.2% were casual labourers.[87]:11 About 34% of the available labour force in Kolkata slums were unemployed.[87]:11 According to one estimate, almost a quarter of the population live on less than 27 rupees (equivalent to 45 US cents) per day.[88] As of 2010, Kolkata, with an estimated gross domestic product (GDP) by purchasing power parity of 150 billion dollars, ranked third among South Asian cities, after Mumbai and Delhi.[89] Kolkata's GDP in 2014 was Rs 1.84 trillion, according to a collaborative assessment by multiple universities and climate agencies.[90] As in many other Indian cities, information technology became a high-growth sector in Kolkata starting in the late 1990s; the city's IT sector grew at 70% per annum—a rate that was twice the national average.[52] The 2000s saw a surge of investments in the real estate, infrastructure, retail, and hospitality sectors; several large shopping malls and hotels were launched.[91][92][93][94][95] Companies such as ITC Limited, CESC Limited, Exide Industries, Emami, Eveready Industries India, Lux Industries, Rupa Company, Berger Paints, Birla Corporation and Britannia Industries are headquartered in the city. Philips India, PricewaterhouseCoopers India, Tata Global Beverages, Tata Steel have their registered office and zonal headquarters in Kolkata. Kolkata hosts the headquarters of three major public-sector banks: Allahabad Bank, UCO Bank, and the United Bank of India; and a private bank Bandhan Bank. Reserve Bank of India has its eastern zonal office in Kolkata, and India Government Mint, Kolkata is one of the four mints in India.

Panoramic view of the Down town Sector V one of the major IT hubs of Kolkata as seen from the lakes surrounding Bidhannagar. Major Buildings such as Technopolis, Godrej Waterside, TCS Lords, Eden and Wanderers Park, Gobsyn Crystal, South City Pinnacle, RDB Boulevard, West Bengal Electronics Industry Development Corporation (WEBEL) Bhawan can be seen.

Demographics

See also: Health care in Kolkata

A big building in cream colour with many columns and a portico

Calcutta Medical College, the second institution in Asia to teach modern medicine(after 'Ecole de Médicine de Pondichéry')

IPGMER and SSKM Hospital, Kolkata is the largest hospital in West Bengal and one of the oldest in Kolkata.

As of 2011, the health care system in Kolkata consists of 48 government hospitals, mostly under the Department of Health & Family Welfare, Government of West Bengal, and 366 private medical establishments;[177] these establishments provide the city with 27,687 hospital beds.[177] For every 10,000 people in the city, there are 61.7 hospital beds,[178] which is higher than the national average of 9 hospital beds per 10,000.[179] Ten medical and dental colleges are located in the Kolkata metropolitan area which act as tertiary referral hospitals in the state.[180][181] The Calcutta Medical College, founded in 1835, was the first institution in Asia to teach modern medicine.[182] However, These facilities are inadequate to meet the healthcare needs of the city.[183][184][185] More than 78% in Kolkata prefer the private medical sector over the public medical sector,[117]:109 due to the poor quality of care, the lack of a nearby facility, and excessive waiting times at government facilities.[117]:61

According to the Indian 2005 National Family Health Survey, only a small proportion of Kolkata households were covered under any health scheme or health insurance.[117]:41 The total fertility rate in Kolkata was 1.4, The lowest among the eight cities surveyed.[117]:45 In Kolkata, 77% of the married women used contraceptives, which was the highest among the cities surveyed, but use of modern contraceptive methods was the lowest (46%).[117]:47 The infant mortality rate in Kolkata was 41 per 1,000 live births, and the mortality rate for children under five was 49 per 1,000 live births.[117]:48

Among the surveyed cities, Kolkata stood second (5%) for children who had not had any vaccinations under the Universal Immunization Programme as of 2005.[117]:48 Kolkata ranked second with access to an anganwadi centre under the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) programme for 57% of the children between 0 and 71 months.[117]:51 The proportion of malnourished, anaemic and underweight children in Kolkata was less in comparison to other surveyed cities.[117]:54–55

About 18% of the men and 30% of the women in Kolkata are obese—the majority of them belonging to the non-poor strata of society.[117]:105 In 2005, Kolkata had the highest percentage (55%) among the surveyed cities of anaemic women, while 20% of the men in Kolkata were anaemic.[117]:56–57 Diseases like diabetes, asthma, goitre and other thyroid disorders were found in large numbers of people.[117]:57–59 Tropical diseases like malaria, dengue and chikungunya are prevalent in Kolkata, though their incidence is decreasing.[186][187] Kolkata is one of the districts in India with a high number of people with AIDS; it has been designated a district prone to high risk.[188][189]

As of 2014, because of higher air pollution, the life expectancy of a person born in the city is four years fewer than in the suburbs.[190]

Education

Kolkata's schools are run by the state government or private organisations, many of which are religious. Bengali and English are the primary languages of instruction; Urdu and Hindi are also used, particularly in central Kolkata.[191][192] Schools in Kolkata follow the "10+2+3" plan. After completing their secondary education, students typically enroll in schools that have a higher secondary facility and are affiliated with the West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education, the ICSE, or the CBSE.[191] They usually choose a focus on liberal arts, business, or science. Vocational programs are also available.[191] Some Kolkata schools, for example La Martiniere Calcutta, Calcutta Boys' School, St. James' School (Kolkata), St. Xavier's Collegiate School, and Loreto House, have been ranked amongst the best schools in the country.[193]

Indian Institute of Foreign Trade

As of 2010, the Kolkata urban agglomeration is home to 14 universities run by the state government.[194] The colleges are each affiliated with a university or institution based either in Kolkata or elsewhere in India. Aliah University which was founded in 1780 as Mohammedan College of Calcutta is the oldest post-secondary educational institution of the city.[195] The University of Calcutta, founded in 1857, is the first modern university in South Asia.[196] Presidency College, Kolkata (formerly Hindu College between 1817 and 1855), founded in 1855, was one of the oldest and most eminent colleges in India. It was affiliated with the University of Calcutta until 2010 when it was converted to Presidency University, Kolkata in 2010. Bengal Engineering and Science University (BESU) is the second oldest engineering institution of the country located in Howrah.[197] An Institute of National Importance, BESU was converted to India's first IIEST. Jadavpur University is known for its arts, science, and engineering faculties.[198] The Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, which was the first of the Indian Institutes of Management, was established in 1961 at Joka, a locality in the south-western suburbs. Kolkata also houses the prestigious Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, which was started here in the year 2006.[199] The West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences is one of India's autonomous law schools,[200][201] and the Indian Statistical Institute is a public research institute and university. State owned Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology, West Bengal (MAKAUT, WB), formerly West Bengal University of Technology (WBUT) is the largest Technological University in terms of student enrollment and number of Institutions affiliated by it. Private institutions include the Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Educational and Research Institute and University of Engineering & Management (UEM).

Notable scholars who were born, worked or studied in Kolkata include physicists Satyendra Nath Bose, Meghnad Saha,[202] and Jagadish Chandra Bose;[203] chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy;[202] statisticians Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis and Anil Kumar Gain;[202] physician Upendranath Brahmachari;[202] educator Ashutosh Mukherjee;[204] and Nobel laureates Rabindranath Tagore,[205] C. V. Raman,[203] and Amartya Sen.[206]

Kolkata houses many premier research institutes like Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS), Indian Institute of Chemical Biology (IICB), Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Bose Institute, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics (SINP), All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute (CGCRI), S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences (SNBNCBS), Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management (IISWBM), National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Kolkata, Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC) and Indian Centre for Space Physics. Nobel laureate Sir C. V. Raman did his groundbreaking work in Raman effect in IACS.

Culture

Kolkata is known for its literary, artistic, and revolutionary heritage; as the former capital of India, it was the birthplace of modern Indian literary and artistic thought.[207] Kolkata has been called the "City of Furious, Creative Energy"[208] as well as the "cultural [or literary] capital of India".[209][210] The presence of paras, which are neighbourhoods that possess a strong sense of community, is characteristic of the city.[211] Typically, each para has its own community club and, on occasion, a playing field.[211] Residents engage in addas, or leisurely chats, that often take the form of freestyle intellectual conversation.[212][213] The city has a tradition of political graffiti depicting everything from outrageous slander to witty banter and limericks, caricatures, and propaganda.[214][215]

Kolkata has many buildings adorned with Indo-Islamic and Indo-Saracenic architectural motifs. Several well-maintained major buildings from the colonial period have been declared "heritage structures";[216] others are in various stages of decay.[217][218] Established in 1814 as the nation's oldest museum, the Indian Museum houses large collections that showcase Indian natural history and Indian art.[219] Marble Palace is a classic example of a European mansion that was built in the city. The Victoria Memorial, a place of interest in Kolkata, has a museum documenting the city's history. The National Library of India is the leading public library in the country while Science City is the largest science centre in the Indian subcontinent.[220]

The popularity of commercial theatres in the city has declined since the 1980s.[221]:99[222] Group theatres of Kolkata, a cultural movement that started in the 1940s contrasting with the then-popular commercial theatres, are theatres that are not professional or commercial, and are centres of various experiments in theme, content, and production;[223] group theatres use the proscenium stage to highlight socially relevant messages.[221]:99[224] Chitpur locality of the city houses multiple production companies of jatra, a tradition of folk drama popular in rural Bengal.[225][226] Kolkata is the home of the Bengali cinema industry, dubbed "Tollywood" for Tollygunj, where most of the state's film studios are located.[227] Its long tradition of art films includes globally acclaimed film directors such as Academy Award-winning director Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, Mrinal Sen, Tapan Sinha, and contemporary directors such as Aparna Sen, Buddhadeb Dasgupta, Goutam Ghose and Rituparno Ghosh.[228]

During the 19th and 20th centuries, Bengali literature was modernised through the works of authors such as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Rabindranath Tagore, Kazi Nazrul Islam, and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay.[229] Coupled with social reforms led by Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, and others, this constituted a major part of the Bengal Renaissance.[230] The middle and latter parts of the 20th century witnessed the arrival of post-modernism, as well as literary movements such as those espoused by the Kallol movement, hungryalists and the little magazines.[231] Large majority of publishers of the city is concentrated in and around College Street, "... a half-mile of bookshops and bookstalls spilling over onto the pavement", selling new and used books.[232]

Kalighat painting originated in 19th century Kolkata as a local style that reflected a variety of themes including mythology and quotidian life.[233] The Government College of Art and Craft, founded in 1864, has been the cradle as well as workplace of eminent artists including Abanindranath Tagore, Jamini Roy, and Nandalal Bose.[234] The art college was the birthplace of the Bengal school of art that arose as an avant garde and nationalist movement reacting against the prevalent academic art styles in the early 20th century.[235][236] The Academy of Fine Arts and other art galleries hold regular art exhibitions. The city is recognised for its appreciation of Rabindra sangeet (songs written by Rabindranath Tagore) and Indian classical music, with important concerts and recitals, such as Dover Lane Music Conference, being held throughout the year; Bengali popular music, including baul folk ballads, kirtans, and Gajan festival music; and modern music, including Bengali-language adhunik songs.[237][238] Since the early 1990s, new genres have emerged, including one comprising alternative folk–rock Bengali bands.[237] Another new style, jibonmukhi gaan ("songs about life"), is based on realism.[221]:105 Key elements of Kolkata's cuisine include rice and a fish curry known as machher jhol,[239] which can be accompanied by desserts such as roshogolla, sandesh, and a sweet yoghurt known as mishti dohi. Bengal's large repertoire of seafood dishes includes various preparations of ilish, a fish that is a favourite among Calcuttans. Street foods such as beguni (fried battered eggplant slices), kati roll (flatbread roll with vegetable or chicken, mutton, or egg stuffing), phuchka (a deep-fried crêpe with tamarind sauce) and Indian Chinese cuisine from Chinatown are popular.[240][241][242][243]

Though Bengali women traditionally wear the sari, the shalwar kameez and Western attire is gaining acceptance among younger women.[244] Western-style dress has greater acceptance among men, although the traditional dhoti and kurta are seen during festivals. Durga Puja, held in September–October, is Kolkata's most important and largest festival; it is an occasion for glamorous celebrations and artistic decorations.[245][246] The Bengali New Year, known as Poila Boishak, as well as the harvest festival of Poush Parbon are among the city's other festivals; also celebrated are Kali Puja, Diwali, Holi, Jagaddhatri Puja, Saraswati Puja, Rathayatra, Janmashtami, Maha Shivratri, Vishwakarma Puja, Lakshmi Puja, Ganesh Chathurthi, Makar Sankranti, Gajan, Kalpataru Day, Bhai Phonta, Maghotsab, Eid, Muharram, Christmas, Buddha Purnima and Mahavir Jayanti. Cultural events include the Rabindra Jayanti, Independence Day(15 August), Republic Day(26 January), Kolkata Book Fair, the Dover Lane Music Festival, the Kolkata Film Festival, Nandikar's National Theatre Festival, Statesman Vintage & Classic Car Rally and Gandhi Jayanti.

Media

See also: Kolkata in the media and List of Bengali-language television channels

A five storied building in cream colour with multiple columns in front

Akashvani Bhawan, the head office of state-owned All India Radio, Kolkata

The first newspaper in India, the Bengal Gazette started publishing from the city in 1780.[247] Among Kolkata's widely circulated Bengali-language newspapers are Anandabazar Patrika, Bartaman, Sangbad Pratidin, Aajkaal, Dainik Statesman and Ganashakti.[248] The Statesman and The Telegraph are two major English-language newspapers that are produced and published from Kolkata. Other popular English-language newspapers published and sold in Kolkata include The Times of India, Hindustan Times, The Hindu, The Indian Express, and the Asian Age.[248] As the largest trading centre in East India, Kolkata has several high-circulation financial dailies, including The Economic Times, The Financial Express, Business Line, and Business Standard.[248][249] Vernacular newspapers, such as those in the Hindi, Urdu, Gujarati, Odia, Punjabi, and Chinese languages, are read by minorities.[248][103] Major periodicals based in Kolkata include Desh, Sananda, Saptahik Bartaman, Unish-Kuri, Anandalok, and Anandamela.[248] Historically, Kolkata has been the centre of the Bengali little magazine movement.[250][251]

All India Radio, the national state-owned radio broadcaster, airs several AM radio stations in the city.[252] Kolkata has 12 local radio stations broadcasting on FM, including two from AIR.[253] India's state-owned television broadcaster, Doordarshan, provides two free-to-air terrestrial channels,[254] while a mix of Bengali, Hindi, English, and other regional channels are accessible via cable subscription, direct-broadcast satellite services, or internet-based television.[255][256][257] Bengali-language 24-hour television news channels include ABP Ananda, Tara Newz, Kolkata TV, 24 Ghanta, News Time and Channel 10.[258]

Sports

See also: Football in Kolkata, Kolkata Marathon, and Kolkata derby

Salt Lake Stadium during Indian Super League opening ceremony

The most popular sports in Kolkata are football and cricket. Unlike most parts of India, the residents show significant passion for football.[259] The city is home to top national football clubs such as Mohun Bagan A.C., East Bengal F.C., Prayag United S.C., and the Mohammedan Sporting Club.[260][261] Calcutta Football League, which was started in 1898, is the oldest football league in Asia.[262] Mohun Bagan A.C., one of the oldest football clubs in Asia, is the only organisation to be dubbed a "National Club of India".[263][264] Football matches between Mohun Bagan and East Bengal, dubbed as the Kolkata derby, witness large audience attendance and rivalry between patrons.[265]

A Twenty20 cricket match between Kolkata Knight Riders and Pune Warriors during Indian Premier League at the Eden Gardens

As in the rest of India, cricket is popular in Kolkata and is played on grounds and in streets throughout the city.[266][267] Kolkata has the Indian Premier League franchise Kolkata Knight Riders; the Cricket Association of Bengal, which regulates cricket in West Bengal, is also based in the city. Kolkata also has an Indian Super League franchise known as Atlético de Kolkata. Tournaments, especially those involving cricket, football, badminton, and carrom, are regularly organised on an inter-locality or inter-club basis.[211] The Maidan, a vast field that serves as the city's largest park, hosts several minor football and cricket clubs and coaching institutes.[268]

Eden Gardens, which has a capacity of 68,000 as of 2017,[269] hosted the final match of the 1987 Cricket World Cup. It is home to the Bengal cricket team and the Kolkata Knight Riders.

The multi-use Salt Lake Stadium, also known as Yuva Bharati Krirangan, is India's largest stadium by seating capacity. Most matches of the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup were played in the Salt Lake Stadium including both Semi-Final matches and the Final match. Kolkata also accounted for 45% of total attendance in 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup with an average of 55,345 spectators.[270] The Calcutta Cricket and Football Club is the second-oldest cricket club in the world.[271][272]

Kolkata's Netaji Indoor Stadium served as host of the 1981 Asian Basketball Championship, where India's national basketball team finished 5th, ahead of teams that belong to Asia's basketball elite, such as Iran. The city has three 18-hole golf courses. The oldest is at the Royal Calcutta Golf Club, the first golf club built outside the United Kingdom.[273][274] The other two are located at the Tollygunge Club and at Fort William. The Royal Calcutta Turf Club hosts horse racing and polo matches.[275] The Calcutta Polo Club is considered the oldest extant polo club in the world.[276][277][278] The Calcutta Racket Club is a squash and racquet club in Kolkata. It was founded in 1793, making it one of the oldest rackets clubs in the world, and the first in the Indian subcontinent.[279][280] The Calcutta South Club is a venue for national and international tennis tournaments; it held the first grass-court national championship in 1946.[281][282] In the period 2005–2007, Sunfeast Open, a tier-III tournament on the Women's Tennis Association circuit, was held in the Netaji Indoor Stadium; it has since been discontinued.[283][284]

The Calcutta Rowing Club hosts rowing heats and training events. Kolkata, considered the leading centre of rugby union in India, gives its name to the oldest international tournament in rugby union, the Calcutta Cup.[285][286][287] The Automobile Association of Eastern India, established in 1904,[288][289] and the Bengal Motor Sports Club are involved in promoting motor sports and car rallies in Kolkata and West Bengal.[290][291] The Beighton Cup, an event organised by the Bengal Hockey Association and first played in 1895, is India's oldest field hockey tournament; it is usually held on the Mohun Bagan Ground of the Maidan.[292][293] Athletes from Kolkata include Sourav Ganguly and Pankaj Roy, who are former captains of the Indian national cricket team; Olympic tennis bronze medallist Leander Paes, golfer Arjun Atwal, and former footballers Sailen Manna, Chuni Goswami, P. K. Banerjee, and Subrata Bhattacharya.

Contributing 2 send the Messenger [Fanush] by Kazi Arefin

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It was captured during Pavarana Purnima festival. Pavarana is a Buddhist holy day celebrated on the full moon of the eleventh lunar month. It marks the end of the month of Vassa, sometimes called "Buddhist Lent." This day marks the end of the rainy season in some Asian countries like Thailand, where Theravada Buddhism is practiced. On this day, each monk (Pali: bhikkhu) must come before the community of monks (Sangha) and atone for an offense he may have committed during the Vassa.

In Bangladesh Buddhist devotees fly Fanush (Hot Air Balloon) to honor Lord Buddha and all the departed soul during the eve of Pavarana Purnima.

Here in this picture a devotee was contributing to fire that Fanush.

Place : Buddhist Pavarana Purnima Festival, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Camera : D90.

Date : 22 Oct, 2010.

Please don't use this image anywhere without my permission.

SETS:

Thanks in advance 4 checking my Photostream...:)

Please don't use any type of graphics or image when commenting in my uploads & also don't send any invitations please.

Sound Lines - Fiddle Photo of the Day #12 by photo fiddler

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Many things contribute to a violin's sound. One of the more important is the spruce top. The denser the lines, the better the sound, usually...

Jay Avenue and West 30th Street, Ohio City, Cleveland, OH by Warren LeMay

Built circa 1900, this “Free Classic”-variant Queen Anne-style house with Colonial Revival-style elements features a wooden clapboard-clad exterior, a hipped roof, an octagonal corner tower, two-story bay windows on the front and side facades, decorative trim panels at the top of the corner tower, hipped dormers, double-hung windows, a wrap-around front porch with a hipped roof, decorated gable over the front entrance, ionic columns, and a stone block railing, a Palladian window over the front door, a front door with decorative sidelights, and a stone block base. The house is a contributing structure in the Ohio City Preservation District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989.

More Lady Diva as Photo Art by LD's Slave Carl

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Contributed by an admirer

XE3A5981 - Plaza de los Aljibes - Aljibes Square (Granada) by Enrique RG

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De izquierda a derecha la Torre Quebrada y la Torre del Homenaje.

From left to right the Broken Tower and the Homage Tower.

La Plaza de los aljibes, se ha convertido, en un gran distribuidor a cielo abierto, donde los turistas hacen cola para entrar a visitar los palacios nazaríes o la Alcazaba alhambreña, por el jardín de los Adarves. Pocos son los que se detienen a conocer su historia. Eso sí, a media mañana se hace imposible conseguir un asiento en los bancos pétreos que bordean la placeta.

Antes de la conquista cristiana, donde ahora se encuentra la plaza de los Aljibes, había una gran barranquera que separaba el recinto militar (la Alcazaba), de la zona residencial.

En 1494, Iñigo López de Mendoza, conde de Tendilla decidió allanar el terreno, y construir un gran aljibe, que aseguraba el suministro de agua tanto del recinto palatino como de gran parte de la ciudad.

El aljibe que centra la plaza cuenta con unas impresionantes dimensiones, está considerado como uno de los mayores de su época. Es de planta rectangular, mide 34 metros de largo por 6 de ancho, por 8 de alto, y es capaz de albergar más de 1630 metros cúbicos de agua, 5 veces más que el aljibe del Rey.

Cuenta con dos naves abovedadas, reforzadas con arcos, comunicadas entre sí mediante puertas de medio punto. A la izquierda de la escalera de entrada hay un zaguán con bóveda esquifada, destinado a recoger el agua de la Acequia del Rey. Desde allí pasa directamente al interior del aljibe.

A finales del siglo XIX, la Plaza de los Aljibes fue testigo durante muchos atardeceres, de como Washington Irving se sentaba junto a Mateo Giménez, quien le contaba las viejas historias que más tarde el norteamericano escribiría en su celebre obra: Cuentos de la Alhambra.

Washington Irving contó sobre la explanada de los aljibes: “En el pozo (de la plaza de los Aljibes) existe una especie de tertulia perpetua, que se prolonga todo el santo día, formada por los inválidos, las viejas y otros curiosos desocupados de la fortaleza, que se sientan en los bancos de piedra bajo un toldo extendido sobre el pozo para resguardar del sol al encargado. Allí se pierde el tiempo charlando de los sucesos de la fortaleza, se pregunta a todo aguador que llega las noticias de la ciudad y se hacen largos comentarios sobre cuanto se ve y oye. No hay hora del día en que no se anden por allí comadres y criadas holgazanas en interminable cuchicheo, con el cántaro en la cabeza o en la mano, deseosas de oír el último chisme de aquella buena gente.”

Una placa realizada de azulejos, y colocada en uno de sus laterales, nos recuerda que en esta plaza se celebró, en 1922, el primer concurso de Cante Jondo, los autos sacramentales en 1927, el primer festival de Música y Danza de Granada, en 1952, y la conmemoración del 25º aniversario de dicho festival, en 1976.

El certamen de Cante Jondo se realizó el 13 y 14 de junio de 1922, aprovechando las fiestas del Corpus. Tuvo sus orígenes en las actividades y tertulias de “El Polinario”, donde el maestro Manuel de Falla, Federico García Lorca, y Fernando de los Ríos, entre otros, eran asiduos partícipes. Fue promovido por el ayuntamiento, que aportó 12.000 pesetas, y el Centro Artístico, Literario y Científico de Granada. Contó con la inestimable colaboración de Ángel Barrios, Antonio Gallego Burín, Andrés Segovia, y, en general, de toda la intelectualidad granadina del momento.

El escenario fue ideado por Zuloaga y el cartel del concurso, lo diseño Manuel Ángeles Ortiz, amigo de Lorca, uno de los discípulos más queridos de Picasso.

rinconesdegranada.com/plaza-de-los-aljibes

The Plaza de los Aljibes has become a large open-air distributor, where tourists queue to enter to visit the Nasrid palaces or the Alcazaba Alhambreña, through the garden of the Adarves. Few stop to learn about its history. However, by mid-morning it is impossible to get a seat on the stone benches that line the square.

Before the Christian conquest, where the Plaza de los Aljibes is now located, there was a large ravine that separated the military enclosure (the Alcazaba) from the residential area.

In 1494, Iñigo López de Mendoza, Count of Tendilla, decided to level the land and build a large cistern, which ensured the water supply for both the palatine enclosure and a large part of the city.

The cistern at the centre of the square is of impressive dimensions and is considered to be one of the largest of its time. It is rectangular in shape, 34 m long by 6 m wide by 8 m high, and is capable of holding more than 1630 cubic metres of water, five times more than the King's cistern.

It has two vaulted naves, reinforced with arches, connected by semicircular doors. To the left of the entrance staircase, there is a hallway with an arched vault, used to collect the water from the Acequia del Rey (the King's irrigation channel). From there it passes directly into the interior of the cistern.

At the end of the 19th century, the Plaza de los Aljibes witnessed many an evening as Washington Irving sat next to Mateo Giménez, who told him the old stories that the American would later write about in his famous work: Tales of the Alhambra.

Washington Irving told about the esplanade of the cisterns: “In the well (in the Plaza de los Aljibes) there is a sort of perpetual gathering, which goes on all day long, made up of invalids, old women and other curious people who are not in the fortress, who sit on the stone benches under an awning stretched over the well to protect the attendant from the sun. There, time is wasted chatting about the events of the fortress, every water carrier who comes along is asked about the news of the town and long comments are made about everything that is seen and heard. There is not an hour of the day that goes by without the idle wives and maids in endless whispering, with their pitchers on their heads or in their hands, eager to hear the latest gossip from these good people.”

A tile plaque, placed on one of its sides, reminds us that the first Cante Jondo contest was held in this square in 1922, the autos sacramentales in 1927, the first Granada Music and Dance Festival in 1952, and the commemoration of the 25th anniversary of this festival in 1976.

The Cante Jondo festival was held on 13 and 14 June 1922, taking advantage of the Corpus Christi festivities. It had its origins in the activities and gatherings of "El Polinario", where the maestro Manuel de Falla, Federico García Lorca, and Fernando de los Ríos, among others, were regular participants. It was promoted by the Town Hall, which contributed 12,000 pesetas, and the Artistic, Literary and Scientific Centre of Granada. It had the invaluable collaboration of Ángel Barrios, Antonio Gallego Burín, Andrés Segovia and, in general, all the intellectuals of Granada at the time.

The stage was designed by Zuloaga and the poster for the competition was designed by Manuel Ángeles Ortiz, a friend of Lorca and one of Picasso's most beloved disciples.

Route de Nîmes, December 2014 by Stanley Bloom

TUMBLR | WEBSITE | INSTAGRAM | MUSIC

curator of New Landscape Stories pool.

As I mentioned in my last post, I will talk about my photographs, share ideas, thoughts, or master's assignments.

Leading that inspiring road to Nîmes, south France, under a great sun, I was stopped by this lonely tree with a white collar, seems pretty comfortable in the road signaling.

With time, I unconsciously started to build my own iconography, by being attracted by various subjects. For example : doors/windows, big (colored) walls, shadow/light frame, hose pipes, cypress (as this photograph), roads, electric wire… This is obviously not the only ingredient to develop a style, I think it's more some kind of tool in order to contribute to an idea, a emotion or a mood… But I feel it has a major influence to convey an identity that people will recognize. However, without shooting a single subject only, trying to sequence them and create a narrative flow.

NASA's IceBridge Mission Contributes to New Map of Antarctica by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

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A new dataset called Bedmap2 gives a clearer picture of Antarctica from the ice surface down to the bedrock below. Bedmap2 is a significant improvement on the previous collection of Antarctic data—known as Bedmap—that was produced more than 10 years ago. The product was a result of work led by the British Antarctic Survey, where researchers compiled decades worth of geophysical measurements, such as surface elevation measurements from NASA's Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite, known as ICESat, and ice thickness data collected by Operation IceBridge.

To read more go to: 1.usa.gov/17p6pdM

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Naked Flickering by JOHN LLOYD

124 26

There was a flickr group called Naked Flickring. It seems to have been started around 2005 by someone who liked to be naked while on the web. There were others, so we contributed our pictures. This group seems to have ended, but the pictures are still here. Pictures of nakedness seems to have blossomed into the millions. Glad to have done my part.

England / Devon - South West Coast Path by Michael Kemper

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On the way from Speke's Mill Mouth to Hartland Quay.

Auf dem Weg von Speke's Mill Mouth nach Hartland Quay.

The South West Coast Path is England's longest waymarked long-distance footpath and a National Trail. It stretches for 630 miles (1,014 km), running from Minehead in Somerset, along the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, to Poole Harbour in Dorset. Since it rises and falls with every river mouth, it is also one of the more challenging trails. The total height climbed has been calculated to be 114,931 ft (35,031 m), almost four times the height of Mount Everest. It has been voted 'Britain's Best Walking route' twice in a row by readers of the Ramblers Walk magazine, and regularly features in lists of the world's best walks.

The final section of the path was designated as a National Trail in 1978. Many of the landscapes which the South West Coast Path crosses have special status, either as a national park or one of the heritage coasts. The path passes through two World Heritage Sites: the Dorset and East Devon Coast, known as the Jurassic Coast, was designated in 2001, and the Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape in 2007.

In the 1990s it was thought that the path brought £150 million into the area each year, but new research in 2003 indicated that it generated around £300 million a year in total, which could support more than 7,500 jobs. This research also recorded that 27.6% of visitors to the region came because of the Path, and they spent £136 million in a year. Local people took 23 million walks on the Path and spent a further £116 million, and other visitors contributed the remainder. A further study in 2005 estimated this figure to have risen to around £300 million. Following investment through the Rural Development Programme for England, more detailed research was undertaken in 2012, and this found the annual spend by walkers to have risen to £439 million which sustains 9771 full-time equivalent jobs.

The path originated as a route for the Coastguard to walk from lighthouse to lighthouse patrolling for smugglers. They needed to be able to look down into every bay and cove: as a result, the path closely hugs the coast providing excellent views but rarely the most direct path between two points. The South West Coast Path is no longer used by the Coastguard but it has been transformed from a practical defence system into a resource for recreational walkers. The path is covered by England's right-of-way laws, as amended by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, which keep historic footpaths open to the public even when they pass through private property. Sections of the path are maintained by the National Trust, which owns parts of the coast.

The path is a designated National Trail, largely funded by Natural England. It was created in stages, with its final section, Somerset and North Devon, opening in 1978. It is maintained by a dedicated South West Coast Path Team.

The South West Coast Path Association, a registered charity, exists to support the interests of users of the path. The Association was formed in 1973 and since then it has campaigned for improvements to the path and undertakes considerable fundraising to help care for and improve the path. Its services include accommodation guides and completion certificates.

The route is described here anticlockwise, from Minehead to Poole. The distance and total ascent between any two points, in either direction, can be obtained from The South West Coast Path Association Distance Reckoner. A survey carried out in 1999 and 2000 found that at that time the path had 2,473 signposts or waymarks, and included 302 bridges, 921 stiles, and 26,719 steps. In practice, any such calculation is soon out of date because of path diversions due to landslips or access changes.

Many walkers take about eight weeks to complete the path, often dividing this into sections walked over several years. In contrast, a team of six Royal Marines, taking turns in pairs to run two-hour sections, completed the path in six days in 2004 and in 2012 a runner ran the entire path in 16 days, 9 hours and 57 minutes. New records for completing the path were set on 11 May 2013, when two runners completed the trail in 14 days, 14 hours and 45 minutes and 23 April 2015, when a runner completed the trail in 14 days, 8 hours and 2 minutes. This record was however quickly broken by Mark Berry, who ran it in 11 days, 8 hours and 15 minutes. On 24 May 2016 outdoor journalist and GB ultra runner Damian Hall set a new fastest known time of 10 days, 15 hours and 18 minutes.

(Wikipedia)

Der South West Coast Path ist Großbritanniens längster ausgeschilderter Fernwanderweg und ein National Trail. Er verläuft über 1.014 km (630 Meilen) von Minehead in Somerset entlang der Küsten von Devon und Cornwall nach Poole Harbour in Dorset.

Da er bei jeder Flussmündung steigt und fällt, gilt er als eine vergleichsweise anstrengende Langstreckenwanderung. Die zu erklimmende Gesamthöhe wurde mit 35.031 m (114.931 ft) berechnet, fast das Vierfache der Höhe des Mount Everest.

Der letzte Abschnitt des Weges wurde 1978 als National Trail anerkannt. Viele der Landschaften, die der South West Coast Path durchquert, haben einen Sonderstatus, entweder als Nationalpark oder als Heritage Coast. Der Weg führt durch zwei UNESCO-Welterbe-Stätten: Die Küste von Dorset und East Devon, die als Jurassic Coast bekannt ist, bekam im Jahr 2001 den UNESCO-Welterbe-Status, und die Bergbaulandschaft von Cornwall und West Devon im Jahr 2007.

In den 1990er Jahren hat man berechnet, dass der Weg jährlich jeweils 15.000.000 £ für die Region eingebracht hat, aber neuere Untersuchungen haben im Jahr 2003 darauf hingewiesen, dass insgesamt rund 300.000.000 £ pro Jahr erzeugt werden, was mehr als 7.500 Arbeitsplätze unterstützt. Diese Arbeit dokumentiert auch, dass 27,6 % der Besucher wegen dieses Weges in die Region kamen und 136.000.000 £ pro Jahr dort ausgaben. Die örtliche Bevölkerung hat 23 Millionen Spaziergänge auf dem Weg gemacht und gab weitere 116.000.000 £ aus, und andere Besucher trugen den Rest bei. Eine weitere Studie im Jahr 2005 schätzte, dass diese Zahl inzwischen auf rund 300.000.000 £ angestiegen sei.

Der Weg wurde für die Coast Guard angelegt, um im Kampf gegen Schmuggler zu Fuß von Leuchtturm zu Leuchtturm zu patrouillieren. Die Küstenwächer mussten in der Lage sein, einen Blick nach unten in jede Bucht zu werfen. Als Ergebnis schmiegt sich der Weg eng an die Küste an und bietet eine hervorragende Aussicht, aber nur selten einen direkten Weg zwischen zwei Punkten. Der South West Coast Path wird von der Küstenwache nicht mehr zur Schmugglerabwehr verwendet, sondern hat sich in ein Angebot für Freizeit-Wanderer verwandelt.

Der Pfad wird durch ein öffentliches Wegerecht abgedeckt, aktuell durch den Countryside and Rights of Way Act, das historische Wanderwege für die Öffentlichkeit zugänglich hält, auch wenn sie über Privateigentum führen. Abschnitte des Weges werden durch den National Trust gepflegt, der Teile der Küstengrundstücke besitzt.

Der Pfad ist ein ausgewiesener National Trail, der weitgehend von Natural England finanziert wird. Er wurde in Etappen erstellt, mit der Eröffnung des letzten Abschnitts in Somerset und North Devon im Jahr 1978. Er wird von einem engagierten South West Coast Path Team betreut.

Die South West Coast Path Association existiert, um die Interessen der Nutzer des Weges zu unterstützen. Der eingetragene Verein wurde 1973 gegründet und ist seither um Verbesserungen des Weges bemüht. Die Dienstleistungen umfassen unter anderem Unterkunftsvermittlung, Führer und Abschluss-Zertifikate.

(Wikipedia)

J-Tac Concept IRCD by R4mos

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The Individual Research and Combat Device is designed to help the operator get the most from the environment serving not only as a weapon but as an extension of the user's own body.

The IRCD features the J-Tac's TAT-5 (Telemetry Aiming Tool). Inspired by technology made for space probes, this small computer makes readings of the surrounding area, indicating levels of H2O, O2, C and other elements. This way, the operators can find not only hostile individuals but important resources for the exploration mission. The readings are constantly updated and the data is sent to the main research center, contributing for further reconnaissance of the ambient. The TAT-5 also works as a red dot sight unit and has a built in compass.

Due to concerns with ammo, J-Tac installed an ultra sonic repellent in the stock, similar to the one used against bats but with more efficiency. It's able to stun the creatures living in the forest due to their enhanced hearing, allowing an emergency escape if ammo runs out. It's battery lasts for 2 hours, leaving the soldiers with plenty of time for a back-up plan.

The IRCD can be used for a great number of roles from Assault Squads to Security Teams due to its folding and collapsible stock and barrel extension.

Sorry for any mistakes. I'm not used to a more formal and technical language.

The Disaster Artist 2/2- Gotham Central by Killer Moth

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A special credit to this issue goes to Lord Allo, who contributed to and provided a couple of my favourite Injustice League moments in this issue. Enjoy.

==GCPD. Major Crimes Precinct==

"Yo, Mac, Sarge said you're the go-to for the Kyle case?"

Macdonald looked up from her desk, smirking. "Sure am. Been chasing that one for years. Reports can't seem to decide whether he's dead, alive or something in-between-"

"-Need those files on the Arkham escapees. Crane and Dent may be in custody, but that doesn't mean we get to rest easy. Joker, Day, and a dozen others are still in the wind," Captain Sawyer yelled, drowning them out, as she exited her office.

"Yes, Captain," the bullpen replied in chorus, as the station erupted into a flurry of activity. On the balcony above, a couple more officers talked to one another. The first approaching his superior, report in hand. "Sir, I need a signature on the Radium gear before we can transport it, anyone know where the DA's hiding?"

"That's a negative, kid. Forensics wanted to go over the toxicity levels one last time before they let them go. No stone unturned kinda deal-" Sarge explains, as he makes his way towards the break room.

Down the hall, three more cops stood outside the interview room, coffees in hand. Behind the glass, the inmate, had been yammering all morning, a high pitched melody echoing throughout the room. "Frabjous Day, callooh callay! The time is now, the world shall pay.

Societies are on the move with leagues in hot pursuit! Their armies dream of winning, with a world beneath their boot!

Other factions chart a course- the base atop the hill. Men once filled with honour, care only who they kill."

"What's his problem?" a cop asks, peering into the interview room. Inside, the small, red haired man taps his fingers on the table, singing tunelessly to himself.

"Who, Tetch? Some rookie forgot to take his hat off when he booked him. The wee bastard mind controlled him into raiding the kitchens. Stole all our teabags. Think he got a sugar rush, or something," a second cop explains.

"Teabags? Why not the armoury? Why not free himself?"

"Paranoid schizo, Tom. I'll sleep easy when they open another loony bin," the third cop mutters.

"Like that'll happen, Nate. Their last one nearly killed all the inmates."

"If it works, it works," Nate mutters as he walks past the interview room. "Chandler, let me know if you need some back-up in there," he calls back to his partner.

"He's four foot tall, Nate, I think I'll manage," she smiles back, opening the door. Hatter gazes up at her, and joyfully bursts into song once more.

"Assassins! Misfits! Knights and Thugs, across Earth far and wide! But no one could forever live, and many of them died!

Darkness grew in hearts of men, promises were made! The bug, now just a widower knew vengeance must be paid.

The Caped Crusader, pointed ears, remembered his first vow. Though evil's power grew and grew, never would he bow.

The Merc to once have broke the bat, had a heart now snapped in two. He thought about the daughter, and his attempts to woo.

Disaster rose, his powers grew, forgotten he may be. But now he yearned for his own seat, and, just in time for tea."

Outside, the main door opens, pushed inwards by an invisible hand. Making their way past cop after cop, the unseen figure arrives at the evidence room, a home run, he thinks. But just as he steps through the doorframe, the metal detector sets off, and a loud, ear piercing siren erupts throughout the precinct. He looks down to the ground, and mutters under his breath, as the cops swarm his way.

"Shit."

=====Star City====

Far from the hustle and bussle of the Financial District, Starling Court Drive is situated in the middle of suburbia. The people are kind, honest, unassuming and unsuspecting. The perfect cover for any supervillain hoping to maintain a low profile.

William Tockman was one such man. He exits his house at 10:30 exactly- as he did every day, his red dressing gown draped around his shoulders, a cup of hot cocoa in his hand. He walks down the driveway and opens his mailbox, wrapping the contents under his free arm: bills, bills and the newest issue of his favourite clock magazine (His newest German antique was coming along wonderfully).

Across the road, exiting a shabby old ford, three gaudily dressed men slam the car door closed, and proceed to bicker with each other.

"Hey King," their leader, Disaster, yells cheerily.

Tockman looks at the trio, then at his watch- waving, then promptly running back inside.

“Cmon man, let us in! We just wanna talk!” Disaster calls out, rapping at the door impatiently.

“I haven’t the time!” Tockman exclaims, now barricading the door with whatever he can find.

“Of course you do, man, you always have the time, it’s your thing!” Disaster fires back indignantly.

“Right right, I’m looking at the clock now, it says it’s time to leave me the fuck alone o’clock!” Tockman bellows.

Cluemaster pauses, letting go off the doorknob. “He said ‘o’clock’, Maj., that’s solid proof of the time. Let’s go get a burger or something,” he mutters sheepishly.

“Shut up Artie, and help me kick this idiot’s door in.”

With a single strike the door falls off it's hinges. Big Sir beams at Disaster proudly. It's not returned. Tockman sighs to himself, just add that to the list of repairs... The trio push him aside, track dirt across the floor, and make themselves comfortable on his coach. The group finally static, he gets a good look at Cluemaster.

"Good god, Arthur, what happened to your face?"

"Plane crash," he mutters.

"Ah. Again?"

"No, no, this time it was Black Adam."

Tockman lowers his glasses, confused. "What was he doing flying a plane? The man can fly!"

"No, really- Did you text Multi Man?" Cluemaster asks Disaster, desperate to change the subject to something other than his latest embarrassment.

"I did he hasn't- Wait, hang on that's him now."

"Give me that, it's... a YouTube link."

"Well, dammit man, spit it out, what did he want?" Disaster yells expectantly.

Cluemaster braces himself, clicks the link, and the noise of Rick Astley fills the room.

-----

Disaster sits down in the kitchen, now a makeshift confessional, camera aimed at his face. "Multi-Man... Has been getting into memes. Old memes. It's harmless, really. Well, physically. Mentally, it's very, very draining."

------

"You brought a camera crew..." Tockman scowls.

"I *bought* a camera crew! You remember Bruce don't you? Bruce is heavy into cinematography!"

"I, uh, I wouldn't say "heavy," I mean, I dabble, I guess-" The once mighty Bruce stammers.

"Sure he is! Don't you get it, King, I want the final, brilliant downfall of the JLI to be televised. Live! On Netflix."

...

"Major, the JLI has been disbanded for years."

...

"I... I did not know that," Disaster pauses, as he returns to the kitchen confessional.

"Well how was I supposed to know, Bruce? I was in community service! Big Sir traded my TV for some magic beans Queen of Fables gave him, and- What? Oh, no, I don't know how Netflix works. Ironically it's the one thing Big Sir's good at. His password's pasword. With one "S" "

=The Headquarters of the Secret Society=

"The armies are ready," Kuttler says, as he struggles to keep up with Bane. He's wearing his costume- *that* he hadn't worn in a while. It was heavier than he remembered.

"Good, we depart in an hour. First, I need to make a stop in Gotham," he replies, as they enter his quarters. It's sparse, filled mainly with training equipment, books, a couple of chairs, and a small television.

"An hour? What could we possibly need now?" Kuttler asks, as the two sit down.

"Who. A useful distraction."

With that, Kuttler immediately knows who he's talking about. He sighs, and places his glasses on the desk. "Bane, I'm all for power, control, order. But I also want to *live.* You've seen the files, after what he pulled with the Walker kids-on our watch I might add-"

Bane raises a hand to stop him. "Walker will come for Ra's. When he does, with his band of Outcasts-"

"-Misfits."

"-Rejects... we will need someone to occupy them," he mutters calmly.

"Zod's in the brig, guarded by Corben and Jones. I can fetch him. He could rip them *all* in half," Noah interjects

"Excessive."

"From you, Bane, that's a compliment. I'll inform the council. But, by now, The Justice League will be right on our tails... I'd like to be free, too, when this is all said and done. I'd say unharmed, but I suppose that's an... impossibility." Kuttler trails off, as he looks at the TV screen, and reaches for the remote.

"-interrupt this broadcast to bring you to the GCPD Cauldron Precinct, where, just ten minutes ago, a hail of gunfire was reported from within- No reported casualties yet, but-"

A frown appears on Bane's face. His confidence falters. "Get me Tetch on the line."

======GCPD=======

"I need a run down on everything that was in that evidence room, understand? Guns, gizmos, you name it. This skel thinks they can bust into our house, they've got another thing coming."

"One for every freak in Gotham, ma'am," a young cop yells feverishly. "Freeze rays, shock gloves, think we've got one of Quakemaster's drills in there. But ain't none of them got any juice in them."

"Not good enough officer, we need a list, and we need it now. Sooner we know what we're up against, the... better." She runs her hand against the wall where Pinkey'd been shot. Webs-?

"Listen up people, we've reason to believe that Black Spider, aka Johnny LaMonica has infiltrated our precinct. Already, six of our brothers have been incapacitated. Let's not let him get anyone else."

Blam. Blam. Another two down.

"Boss, I just got off my cell. Blackgate says he's been in isolation for months."

"Call him again. Could be a shape-shifter. Probson, I want the files on Needham. Webs, knives, all of it. Probson-?"

Sawyer turns around. Strung up against the wall.

"They're not webs... They're cocoons," the voice mutters, as he pins her to the wall.

====Star City====

Disaster sits at Tockman's computer, trying to break the dozens of firewalls Netflix has set up. All around him, King's clocks tick, making it hard for him to concentrate. "Could you maybe turn those clocks down? Do you even have to have so many?"

Sir nods in agreement. "Big Sir stop the ticker," he smiles, as he rips a clock off the wall, and tries taking the battery out without breaking it. At this, King leaps from his armchair, and starts wrestling it out of Sir's enormous fist.

"No, you brute, if even one of those clocks is a second out of place, the entire space time equilibrium will become imbalanced!"

...

Cluemaster leans back in his chair. "You're shitting us," he remarks tiredly.

"Time is my life, dammit!" yells King in-between screams of exertion.

"Ach, Sir, leave King alone and give me a hand, will you?" Disaster calls back, agitated.

"Coming Major," Sir replies cheerily, as he marches towards the computer, clock still in his hand.

"Give me that," Tockman hisses, successfully snatching it from Sir's hands now that his attention has been diverted.

“Big Sir also has YouTube. Free to upload. Maybe easier?”

“Shut up, Big Sir, let me think!” Disaster screams, battling with Netflix *and* Tockman's poor WiFi.

“Perhaps it *is* time we gave YouTube our consideration. It would only take five minutes and twenty three seconds," Tockman suggests, still panting, as he examines his clock.

“Now we’re talking. Good idea, King, now the world will see the Justice League brought to its knees! And we won’t even have to wait for a submission process!”

Artie turns to Big Sir, his massive arms now wrapped around him passionately. “What’s the password to your YouTube account, Biggie?”

“Pasword. One S”

--------

Once more, Disaster takes a seat at the kitchen, Artie at his side- their work done for now. "Sir said that the Society was rendezvousing at this place called "Panda or Rat." I think it's Chinese or something."

Artie turns to him, defeated. "Nanda Parbat... I told you, he means *Nanda* Parbat."

Disaster looks away from the camera, as the cogs turn in his head. "That, makes a little bit more sense. Here, I thought it was a Takeaway."

=======GCPD=====

One cop left... The cloaking tech did wonders, it must be said, the figure thought. The kid was young, no older than... Simon. His breath trickled down the boy's neck. Though he couldn't see him, the kid knew he was right behind him, an invisible gun pressed into the back on his head.

"I want everything you have on the Dan Twag case, his gear, his assets, everything he stole."

The boy stammered, as he turned around. "Y-you mean the moth gear? Why... Why would anyone want that."

The voice sighed, as it deactivated the cloaking tech. "Call it, uh, personal reasons. Where are they?"

The boy fell out of his seat, backing slowly away from the purple clad assailant. "Oh, jeez, I didn't mean, I- The impound lot, it's by Port Addams!"

"Thanks."

...

"Are you going to kill me?" The cop stuttered suddenly.

Drury was taken aback. He'd not... He'd never... He looked at the bullpen, dozens of incapacitated officers. In one corner, The Mad Hatter squealed in delight, a phone in one hand, a cup of tea in the other. He lowered the gun, and whispered, maybe to the kid, maybe to himself, in reassurance.

"I- no. Never."

The cop had closed his eyes as soon as he'd seen Drury. When he felt safe enough to open them again, Killer Moth was gone, leaving just him and Tetch, singing to himself.

====Van Cleer Manor, later====

"You can't go in there."

Gar stood guard at the door, flamethrower in hand. In the basement, Drury remained hard at work. Though he'd not told him where he'd got the new gear, to Gar it didn't matter. He had a drive, something he'd not had in weeks. That had to mean something.

Gaige stared at him for a moment, then, with alarming strength, he flung him- and the door aside. "Fuck off Freddy. Walker, I'm coming in. Put down your hankie, zip up your trousers and turn off A Bug's Life!"

"Ah, Gaige," Drury murmured, blowtorch in hand, a large piece of metal propped up by Rigger.

"I don't care what you've been told, an AC/DC montage isn't going to make you a badass. That requires training, perseverance and an attention span longer than your namesake- Is that kinetic armour?" Gaige pauses, as he examines his son in-laws' handiwork.

"I mastered in electrical engineering, how do you think I built the car?"

"To be frank, I thought you had it commissioned," Gaige murmurs.

Drury turns around, as he rests the metal against the wall. "Oh, and who'd I commission to slap a big Moth face and half a dozen stripes of pink and yellow to a Roll's Royce? ...Don't answer that."

"Lady Gaga?"

"I said don't answer that, Gar."

...

Gaige stammers- a rarity, as he ponders Drury's words. "Wait, fuck... A Royce? That mother fucking eyesore was once a Roll's Royce? ...I've seen a Doll-o-Tron in progress... But that, that's the most disgusting transformation I've ever heard of! Fuck! How the hell did you even get a Roll's Royce?!"

"Probably the same place he got the house."

"*Cough* The Mob *Cough*" Chancer interjects, as he finishes loading their guns onto a cart.

"I got the house for dirt cheap really, the money was just for refurbishments," Drury says, trying to ignore Gaige's shrieks of utter disbelief.

"Hang on, you had the chance to make a spy car and you didn't choose an Aston Martin? Shame," Sharpe muses.

"I've told you, not all Aston Martins come equipped with machine guns and scuba gear," Chuck adds, as he finishes sketching some new kite designs.

"How'd you know, Working Class, you've never set foot in one," Chancer shoots back, as The Misfits start bickering with one another. The last to arrive, Ten, taps Drury on the shoulder, as he glances at the various guns, swords and kites.

"Drury, can I talk to you?"

"Ten, we can re-enact Riverdale later, right now I'm kinda busy," Drury mutters.

"It's important, please. Riverdale-?"

"Oh, right, prison. Best you don't know."

Ten cocks his head to one side, confused. "Right. Anyway, Drury, what I wanted to say was... I know what it's like. The allure of vengeance, to hurt those who hurt you.

When Deacon Blackfire had me drink his elixir, each word he spoke made it seem oh so... appealing. Beautiful. I had Harry Simms at my mercy, and if I hadn't fought his programming... He'd be dead, and I'd be left with nothing. Are you *sure* this is what you want?"

Drury looks at him, and whispers coldly "More than anything."

Needham's the next to speak. "Revenge... Ha. Revenge doesn't make it better. I tried. Had Sionis dead to rights. But the thing is, killing him wouldn't bring my family back, and killing Ra's won't bring back yours,"

"Ra's is staying alive somehow, if I find that machine, I don't know, maybe I could."

Ten places his hand on his shoulder, the Misfits are all looking at them now. "Drury! She's gone."

...

"I can save Norbert, I have to save Norbert," Drury repeats to himself.

"Then save him for god's sake! You don't need to fight Ra's to do that," Reardon pleads.

...

Drury nudges past Ten, and stares Needham dead in the eye. "You. You should've killed Roman. Think about all the other families he's killed. Think of everyone Simms will keep hurting. Tell me, how did mercy work out for Roman? He threw Chuck off a building."

At this Needham, punches Drury in the face, blood pouring from his nose. As he tries to get up, he trips him over again. "Bam. Punch to the gut. You're disorientated, barely on your feet. Bam. Strike to the throat, you can't breathe, you're choking. Bam. Sword in your chest, blood on the floor. Miranda was a fighter, trained by Ra's himself. You aren't. She couldn't have lasted, what, three minutes? You won't even last one. It doesn't matter how vengeful you are, you fight the Demon's Head and you're done."

"You got a point to this-?" Drury wheezes, as Gar rushes to his aid.

"Yeah. Your path of self-destruction only ends one way. I know, I lived it. You want to save your brother? Avenge your wife? Then you'll need all of us."

Drury looked up at Needham. At Chancer and Rigger. Chuck and Gar. Gaige... The Misfits, his Misfits stood assembled... Maybe Ten was right. Maybe this was a suicide mission, but they, *they* believed in him, just like she did. And that, that was all he needed.

"The game was set, the players poised, the battle had begun!

The Moth sat with his Misfits, for his colleagues, this was fun.

The Bat prepared to fight a war he'd prepped for like the rest.

The Luchador stood in the sun, his armies were the best.

The Major led his underlings, though folly was his quest

The Demon in his quarters smirked, and so began the test."

Pinhole Photography Day.... 116/365 by Marie Carr

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Here is one of many I took that day. Although I'm not sure if this is what I'm going to contribute to the WPPD site since i shot some on colour too that I haven't gotten developed yet!

Website /Facebook / Twitter / Pinterest / Blog / Instagram / 500px

Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS) [video] by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

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MMS Spacecraft Animation

The Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS) mission is a Solar Terrestrial Probes mission comprising four identically instrumented spacecraft that will use Earth's magnetosphere as a laboratory to study the microphysics of three fundamental plasma processes: magnetic reconnection, energetic particle acceleration, and turbulence. These processes occur in all astrophysical plasma systems but can be studied in situ only in our solar system and most efficiently only in Earth's magnetosphere, where they control the dynamics of the geospace environment and play an important role in the processes known as "space weather."

Learn more about MMS at www.nasa.gov/mms

Credit NASA/Goddard

The Magnetospheric Multiscale, or MMS, will study how the sun and the Earth's magnetic fields connect and disconnect, an explosive process that can accelerate particles through space to nearly the speed of light. This process is called magnetic reconnection and can occur throughout all space.

NASA image use policy.

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Coneflower by Tommie

9 3

Contributed to Floral Friday

The City of Liverpool in Merseyside, England - September 2012 by Saffy H

24 66

Liverpool is a city and metropolitan borough of Merseyside, England, United Kingdom along the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary. It was founded as a borough in 1207 and was granted city status in 1880. It is the fourth most populous British city, and third most populous in England, with a 2011 population of 466,400[3] and is at the centre of a wider urban area, the Liverpool City Region, which has a population of around 2 million people.[4]

Historically a part of Lancashire, the urbanisation and expansion of Liverpool were both largely brought about by the city's status as a major port. By the 18th century, trade from the West Indies, Ireland and mainland Europe coupled with close links with the Atlantic Slave Trade furthered the economic expansion of Liverpool. By the early 19th century, 40% of the world's trade passed through Liverpool's docks, contributing to Liverpool's rise as a major city. Liverpool is also well known for its inventions and innovations, particularly in terms of infrastructure, transportation and general construction. Railways, ferries and the skyscraper were all pioneered in the city.

Inhabitants of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians but are also colloquially known as "Scousers", in reference to the local dish known as "scouse", a form of stew. The word "Scouse" has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect.[5] Liverpool's status as a port city has contributed to its diverse population, which, historically, were drawn from a wide range of peoples, cultures, and religions, particularly those from Ireland. The city is also home to the oldest Black African community in the country and the oldest Chinese community in Europe.

Labelled the World Capital City of Pop by Guinness World Records, Liverpool has produced a wealth of musical talent since the mid-20th century. The popularity of The Beatles, Billy Fury, Gerry and the Pacemakers and the other groups from the Merseybeat era, and later bands such as Echo & the Bunnymen and Frankie Goes to Hollywood, contributes to Liverpool's status as a tourist destination; tourism forms a significant part of the city's modern economy. The city celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2007, and it held the European Capital of Culture title together with Stavanger, Norway, in 2008.[6]

Liverpool is noted for its rich architectural heritage and is home to many buildings regarded as amongst the greatest examples of their respective styles in the world. Several areas of the city centre were granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCO in 2004. Referred to as the Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City, the site comprises six separate locations in the city including the Pier Head, Albert Dock and William Brown Street and includes many of the city's most famous landmarks.[7]

Liverpool is also well known for its strong sporting identity. The city is home of two Premier League football clubs, Liverpool F.C. and Everton F.C.. Matches between the two clubs are known as the Merseyside derby. The world-famous Grand National also takes places annually at Aintree Racecourse on the outskirts of the city.

History

Early history

King John's letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, but by the middle of the 16th century the population was still only around 500. The original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter, making it a borough. The original seven streets were laid out in a H shape: Bank Street (now Water Street), Castle Street, Chapel Street, Dale Street, Juggler Street (now High Street), Moor Street (now Tithebarn Street) and Whiteacre Street (now Old Hall Street).

In the 17th century there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for the town were waged during the English Civil War, including an eighteen-day siege in 1644. In 1699 Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament, that same year its first slave ship, Liverpool Merchant, set sail for Africa. As trade from the West Indies surpassed that of Ireland and Europe, and as the River Dee silted up, Liverpool began to grow. The first commercial wet dock was built in Liverpool in 1715.[8][9] Substantial profits from the slave trade helped the town to prosper and rapidly grow, although two prominent local men, William Roscoe and Edward Rushton, were at the forefront of the abolitionist movement.

In the early 19th century Liverpool played a major role in the Antarctic sealing industry, in recognition of which Liverpool Beach in the South Shetland Islands is named after the city.[10]

By the start of the 19th century, 40% of the world's trade was passing through Liverpool and the construction of major buildings reflected this wealth. In 1830, Liverpool and Manchester became the first cities to have an intercity rail link, through the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The population continued to rise rapidly, especially during the 1840s when Irish migrants began arriving by the hundreds of thousands as a result of the Great Famine. By 1851, approximately 25% of the city's population was Irish-born. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Liverpool was drawing immigrants from across Europe. This is evident from the diverse array of religious buildings located across the city, many of which are still in use today. The Deutsche Kirche Liverpool, Greek Orthodox Church of St Nicholas, Gustav Adolfus Kyrka, Princes Road Synagogue and St. Peter's Roman Catholic Church were all established in the late 1800s to serve Liverpool's growing German, Greek, Jewish, Nordic and Polish communities respectively.

20th century

The Housing Act 1919 resulted in mass council housing building across Liverpool during the 1920s and 1930s. Thousands of families were rehoused from the inner-city to new suburban housing estates, based on the pretext that this would improve their standard of living, though this is largely subjective. A large number of private homes were also built during this era. The process continued after the Second World War, with many more new housing estates being built in suburban areas, while some of the older inner city areas were also redeveloped for new homes. The Great Depression of the early 1930s saw unemployment in the city peak at around 30%.

During the Second World War there were 80 air-raids on Merseyside, killing 2,500 people and causing damage to almost half the homes in the metropolitan area. Significant rebuilding followed the war, including massive housing estates and the Seaforth Dock, the largest dock project in Britain. Much of the immediate reconstruction of the city centre has been deeply unpopular, and was as flawed as much town planning renewal in the 1950s and 1960s – the portions of the city's heritage that survived German bombing could not withstand the efforts of urban renewal. Since 1952 Liverpool has been twinned with Cologne, Germany, a city which also experienced severe aerial bombing during the war.

Like most British cities and industrialised towns, Liverpool became home to a significant number of Commonwealth immigrants after World War II, mostly settling in older inner city areas such as Toxteth. However, a significant West Indian black community had existed in the city as long ago as the first two decades of the 20th century.

In the 1960s Liverpool was the centre of the "Merseybeat" sound which became synonymous with The Beatles and fellow Liverpudlian rock bands.

From the mid-1970s onwards Liverpool's docks and traditional manufacturing industries went into sharp decline. The advent of containerisation meant that the city's docks became largely obsolete. By the early 1980s unemployment rates in Liverpool were once again among the highest in the UK,[11] standing at 17% by January 1982 - although this was just over half of the level of unemployment that was affecting the city in an economic downturn 50 years previously.[12]

In recent years, Liverpool's economy has recovered and has experienced growth rates higher than the national average since the mid-nineties.

At the end of the 20th century Liverpool was concentrating on regeneration, a process which still continues today.

Previously part of Lancashire, and a county borough from 1889, Liverpool became in 1974 a metropolitan borough within the newly created metropolitan county of Merseyside.

21st century

To celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II in 2002, the conservation charity Plantlife organised a competition to choose county flowers; the sea-holly was Liverpool's final choice.

Capitalising on the popularity of 1960s rock groups, such as The Beatles, as well as the city's world-class art galleries, museums and landmarks, tourism has also become a significant factor in Liverpool's economy.

In 2004, property developer Grosvenor started the Paradise Project, a £920 m development centred on Paradise Street, which involved the most significant changes to Liverpool's city centre since the post-war reconstruction. Renamed 'Liverpool ONE', the centre opened in May 2008.

In 2007, the city celebrated the 800th anniversary of the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, for which a number of events were planned. Liverpool is a joint European Capital of Culture for 2008. The main celebrations, in September 2008, included La Princesse, a large mechanical spider which is 20 metres high and weighs 37 tonnes, and represents the "eight legs" of Liverpool: honour, history, music, the Mersey, the ports, governance, sunshine and culture. La Princesse roamed the streets of the city during the festivities, and concluded by entering the Queensway Tunnel.

Spearheaded by the multi-billion Liverpool ONE development, regeneration has continued on an unprecedented scale through to the start of the early 2010s in Liverpool. Some of the most significant regeneration projects to have taken place in the city include the new Commercial District, King's Dock, Mann Island, the Lime Street Gateway, the Baltic Triangle, RopeWalks and the Edge Lane Gateway. All projects could however soon be eclipsed by the Liverpool Waters scheme which if built will cost in the region of £5.5billion and be one of the largest megaprojects in the UK's history. Liverpool Waters is a mixed use development which will contain one of Europe's largest skyscraper clusters. The project received outline planning permission in 2012, despite fierce opposition from the likes of UNESCO who claim it will have a damaging effect on Liverpool's World Heritage status.

Second city of Empire

For periods during the 19th century the wealth of Liverpool exceeded that of London itself,[13] and Liverpool's Custom House was the single largest contributor to the British Exchequer.[14] Liverpool's status can be judged from the fact that it was the only British city ever to have its own Whitehall office.[15]

The first United States consul anywhere in the world, James Maury, was appointed to Liverpool in 1790, and remained in office for 39 years.

As early as 1851 the city was described as "the New York of Europe"[16] and its buildings, constructed on a heroic, even megalomaniacal scale stand witness to the supreme confidence and ambition of the city at the turn of the 20th century.

Liverpool was also the site of the UK's first provincial airport, operating from 1930.

Elgar's Pomp and Circumstance March No.1, often seen as Britain's Imperial anthem, was dedicated by the composer to the Liverpool Orchestral Society and had its premiere in the city in October 1901.

During the Second World War, the critical strategic importance of Liverpool was recognised by both Hitler and Churchill, with the city suffering a blitz second only to London's,[17] and the pivotal Battle of the Atlantic being planned, fought and won from Liverpool.[18]

Inventions and innovations

Railways, transatlantic steamships, municipal trams,[19] electric trains[20] were all pioneered in Liverpool as modes of mass transit. In 1829 and 1836 the first railway tunnels in the world were constructed under Liverpool. From 1950–51, the world's first scheduled passenger helicopter service ran between Liverpool and Cardiff.[21]

The first School for the Blind,[22] Mechanics' Institute,[23] High School for Girls,[24][25] council house[26] and Juvenile Court[27] were all founded in Liverpool. The RSPCA,[28] NSPCC,[29] Age Concern,[30] Relate, Citizen's Advice Bureau[31] and Legal Aid all evolved from work in the city.

In the field of public health, the first lifeboat station, public baths and wash-houses,[32] sanitary act,[33] medical officer for health, district nurse, slum clearance,[34] purpose-built ambulance,[35] X-ray medical diagnosis,[36] school of tropical medicine, motorised municipal fire-engine,[37] free school milk and school meals,[38] cancer research centre,[39] and zoonosis research centre[40] all originated in Liverpool. The first British Nobel Prize was awarded in 1902 to Ronald Ross, professor at the School of Tropical Medicine, the first school of its kind in the world.[41] Orthopaedic surgery was pioneered in Liverpool by Hugh Owen Thomas,[42] and modern medical anaesthetics by Thomas Cecil Gray.

In finance, Liverpool founded the UK's first Underwriters' Association[43] and the first Institute of Accountants. The Western world's first financial derivatives (cotton futures) were traded on the Liverpool Cotton Exchange in the late 1700s.[44]

In the arts, Liverpool was home to the first lending library, athenaeum society, arts centre[45] and public art conservation centre.[46] Liverpool is also home to the UK's oldest surviving classical orchestra, the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra.[47]

In 1864, Peter Ellis built the world's first iron-framed, curtain-walled office building, Oriel Chambers, the prototype of the skyscraper. The UK's first purpose-built department store was Compton House, completed in 1867 for the retailer J.R. Jeffrey, to replace a previous building which had burned down in 1865.[48] It was the largest store in the world at the time.[49]

Between 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival. Devised by John Hulley and Charles Melly, these games were the first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook.[50][51] The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics.[52] In 1865 Hulley co-founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association. Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter.

Shipowner Sir Alfred Lewis Jones introduced the banana to Great Britain in 1884.[53]

In 1897, the Lumière brothers filmed Liverpool,[54] including what is believed to be the world's first tracking shot,[55] taken from the Liverpool Overhead Railway – the world's first elevated electrified railway.

Liverpool inventor Frank Hornby was a visionary in toy development and manufacture and produced three of the most popular lines of toys in the 20th century: Meccano, Hornby Model Railways and Dinky Toys.

In 1999, Liverpool was the first city outside the capital to be awarded blue plaques by English Heritage in recognition of the "significant contribution made by its sons and daughters in all walks of life."

Government

Liverpool has three tiers of government; the Mayor & Local Council, the National Government and the European Parliament. Liverpool is officially governed by a Unitary Authority, as when Merseyside County Council was disbanded civic functions were returned to a district borough level. However several services such as the Police and Fire and Rescue Service, continue to be run at a county-wide level.

Mayor and local council

The City of Liverpool is governed by the Directly elected mayor of Liverpool and Liverpool City Council, and is one of five metropolitan boroughs that combine to make up the metropolitan county of Merseyside. The Mayor is elected by the citizens of Liverpool every four years and is responsible for the day to day running of the council. The council's 90 elected councillors who represent local communities throughout the city, are responsible for scrutininsing the Mayor's decisions, setting the Budget, and policy framework of the city. The Mayor's responsibility is to be a powerful voice for the city both nationally and internationally, to lead, build investor confidence, and to direct resources to economic priorities.[57] The Mayor also exchanges direct dialogue with government ministers and the Prime minister through his seat at the 'Cabinet of Mayors'. Discussions include pressing decision makers in the government on local issues as well as building relationships with the other Directly elected mayors in England and Wales.[58] The current Mayor is Joe Anderson.

The city of Liverpool effectively has two Mayors. As well as the directly elected Mayor, there is the ceremonial 'Lord Mayor' (or civic Mayor) who is elected by the full city council at its annual general meeting in May, and stands for one year in office. The Lord Mayor acts as the 'first citizen' of Liverpool and is responsible for promoting the city, supporting local charities & community groups as well as representing the city at civic events.[59] The current Lord Mayor is Councillor Frank Prendergast.[60]

During the most recent local elections, held in May 2011, the Labour Party consolidated its control of Liverpool City Council, following on from regaining power for the first time in 12 years, during the previous elections in May 2010.[62] The Labour Party gained 11 seats during the election, taking their total to 62 seats, compared with the 22 held by the Liberal Democrats. Of the remaining seats the Liberal Party won three and the Green Party claimed two. The Conservative Party, one of the three major political parties in the UK had no representation on Liverpool City Council.[62][63]

In February 2008, Liverpool City Council was revealed to be the worst-performing council in the country, receiving just a one star rating (classified as inadequate). The main cause of the poor rating was attributed to the council's poor handling of tax-payer money, including the accumulation of a £20m shortfall on Capital of Culture funding.[64]

While Liverpool through most of the 19th and early 20th Century was a municipal stronghold of Toryism, support for the Conservative Party recently has been among the lowest in any part of Britain, particularly since the monetarist economic policies of prime minister Margaret Thatcher after her 1979 general election victory contributed to high unemployment in the city which did not begin to fall for many years.[65] Liverpool is one of the Labour Party's key strongholds; however the city has seen hard times under Labour governments as well, particularly in the Winter of Discontent (late 1978 and early 1979) when Liverpool suffered public sector strikes along with the rest of the United Kingdom but also suffered the particularly humiliating misfortune of having grave-diggers going on strike, leaving the dead unburied.[66]

Parliamentary constituencies and MPs

Liverpool has four parliamentary constituencies entirely within the city, through which Members of Parliament (MPs) are elected to represent the city in Westminster: Liverpool Riverside, Liverpool Walton, Liverpool Wavertree and Liverpool West Derby.[67]

Geography

At 53°24′0″N 2°59′0″W (53.4, −2.98), 176 miles (283 km) northwest of London, located on the Liverpool Bay of the Irish Sea the city of Liverpool is built across a ridge of sandstone hills rising up to a height of around 230 feet (70 m) above sea-level at Everton Hill, which represents the southern boundary of the West Lancashire Coastal Plain.

The Mersey Estuary separates Liverpool from Birkenhead, Wallasey and the Kirby[disambiguation needed] sands to the south west. The boundaries of Liverpool are adjacent to Bootle, Crosby and Maghull in south Sefton to the north, and Kirkby, Huyton, Prescot and Halewood in Knowsley to the east.

Climate

Liverpool experiences a temperate maritime climate, like much of the British Isles, with relatively cool summers and mild winters. Its coastal location and urban situation means diurnal temperature ranges are particularly subdued, ranging from an average of 7.0 °C in May to just 3.8 °C during December. Historically, Bidston Observatory (actually located on the Wirral Peninsula) has provided the longest and most unbroken weather data for the Merseyside area. More recently, the Met Office has operated a weather station at Crosby.

The absolute minimum temperature recorded at Bidston was −12.8 °C (9.0 °F) during January 1881, typically the coldest night of the year should fall to −4 °C (24.8 °F) (1971–2000 average) However, the variability of the local climate was exposed as the weather station at Crosby fell to −17.6 °C (0.3 °F)[70] during December 2010.

The absolute maximum temperature recorded at Bidston was 34.5 °C (94.1 °F) in August 1990 - typically the warmest day of the year should reach 27.5 °C (81.5 °F) (1971–2000 average). The absolute maximum at Crosby is 33.5 °C (92.3 °F), recorded in July 2006.

Demography

Population

At the 2011 UK Census the recorded population of Liverpool was 466,400.[3] Liverpool's population peaked in 1930s with 846,101 recorded in the 1931 census.[78] Since then the city has experienced negative population growth every decade, with at its peak over 100,000 people leaving the city between 1971 and 1981.[79] Between 2001 and 2006 it experienced the ninth largest percentage population loss of any UK unitary authority.[80] The "Liverpool city region", as defined by the Mersey Partnership, includes Wirral, Warrington, Flintshire, Chester and other areas, and has a population of around 2 million.[81] The European Spatial Planning Observation Network defines a Liverpool metropolitan area consisting of the Merseyside metropolitan county, the borough of Halton, Wigan in Greater Manchester, the city of Chester as well as number of towns in Lancashire and Cheshire including Ormskirk and Warrington.[82] Liverpool and Manchester are sometimes considered as one large polynuclear metropolitan area,[83][84][85] or megalopolis.[86]

In common with many cities, Liverpool's population is younger than that of England as a whole, with 42.3 per cent of its population under the age of 30, compared to an English average of 37.4 per cent.[87] 65.1 per cent of the population is of working age.[87]

Ethnicity

As of June 2009, an estimated 91.0 per cent of Liverpool's population was White British, 3.0 per cent Asian or Asian British, 1.9 per cent Black or Black British, 2.0 per cent mixed-race and 2.1 per cent Chinese and other.[2]

Liverpool is home to Britain's oldest Black community, dating to at least the 1730s, and some Black Liverpudlians are able to trace their ancestors in the city back ten generations.[88] Early Black settlers in the city included seamen, the children of traders sent to be educated, and freed slaves, since slaves entering the country after 1722 were deemed free men.[89]

The city is also home to the oldest Chinese community in Europe; the first residents of the city's Chinatown arrived as seamen in the 19th century.[90] The gateway in Chinatown, Liverpool is also the largest gateway outside of China. The city is also known for its large Irish population and its historical Welsh population.[91] In 1813, 10 per cent of Liverpool's population was Welsh, leading to the city becoming known as "the capital of North Wales".[91] Following the start of the Great Irish Famine, two million Irish people migrated to Liverpool in the space of one decade, many of them subsequently departing for the United States.[92] By 1851, more than 20 per cent of the population of Liverpool was Irish.[93] At the 2001 Census, 1.17 per cent of the population were Welsh-born and 0.75 per cent were born in the Republic of Ireland, while 0.54 per cent were born in Northern Ireland,[94] but many more Liverpudlians are of Welsh or Irish ancestry. Liverpool is also noted for its large African-Caribbean,[95] Ghanaian,[96] Indian,[95] Latin American,[97] Malaysian,[98] Somali[99] and Yemeni.[100] communities which number several thousand each.

Religion

The thousands of migrants and sailors passing through Liverpool resulted in a religious diversity that is still apparent today. This is reflected in the equally diverse collection of religious buildings,[101] and two Christian cathedrals.

Christ Church, in Buckingham Road, Tuebrook, is a conservative evangelical congregation and is affiliated with the Evangelical Connexion.[102] They worship using the 1785 Prayer Book, and regard the Bible as the sole rule of faith and practice.

The parish church of Liverpool is the Anglican Our Lady and St Nicholas, colloquially known as "the sailors church", which has existed near the waterfront since 1257. It regularly plays host to Catholic masses. Other notable churches include the Greek Orthodox Church of St Nicholas (built in the Neo-Byzantine architecture style), and the Gustav Adolfus Kyrka (the Swedish Seamen's Church, reminiscent of Nordic styles).

Liverpool's wealth as a port city enabled the construction of two enormous cathedrals, both dating from the 20th century. The Anglican Cathedral, which was designed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott and plays host to the annual Liverpool Shakespeare Festival, has one of the longest naves, largest organs and heaviest and highest peals of bells in the world. The Roman Catholic Metropolitan Cathedral, on Mount Pleasant next to Liverpool Science Park was initially planned to be even larger. Of Sir Edwin Lutyens' original design, only the crypt was completed. The cathedral was eventually built to a simpler design by Sir Frederick Gibberd; while this is on a smaller scale than Lutyens' original design, it still manages to incorporate the largest panel of stained glass in the world. The road running between the two cathedrals is called Hope Street, a coincidence which pleases believers. The cathedral is colloquially referred to as "Paddy's Wigwam" due to its shape.[103][104]

Liverpool contains several synagogues, of which the Grade I listed Moorish Revival Princes Road Synagogue is architecturally the most notable. Princes Road is widely considered to be the most magnificent of Britain's Moorish Revival synagogues and one of the finest buildings in Liverpool.[105] Liverpool has a thriving Jewish community with a further two orthodox Synagogues, one in the Allerton district of the city and a second in the Childwall district of the city where a significant Jewish community reside. A third orthodox Synagogue in the Greenbank Park area of L17 has recently closed, and is a listed 1930s structure. There is also a Lubavitch Chabad House and a reform Synagogue. Liverpool has had a Jewish community since the mid-18th century. The current Jewish population of Liverpool is around 3000.[106]

Liverpool also has an increasing Hindu community, with a Mandir on 253 Edge Lane, Edge Hill, L7 2PH; the Shri Radha Krishna Temple from the Hindu Cultural Organisation, Liverpool based there.[107] The current Hindu population in Liverpool is about 1147.[citation needed] Liverpool also has the Guru Nanak Sikh Gurdwara based at Wellington Avenue, Wavertree, L15 0EJ,[108] and Liverpool's Bahá'í Centre is located on 3 and 5 Langdale Road, Wavertree, L15 3LA.[109]

The city had the earliest mosque in England, and possibly the UK, founded in 1887 by William Abdullah Quilliam, a lawyer who had converted to Islam, and set up in a terraced house on West Derby Road.[110] The building was used as a house of worship until 1908, when it was sold to the City Council and converted into offices.[111] Plans have been accepted to re-convert the building where the mosque once stood into a museum.[112] Currently there are three mosques in Liverpool: the largest and main one, Al-Rahma mosque, in the Toxteth area of the city and a mosque recently opened in the Mossley Hill district of the city. The third mosque was also recently opened in Toxteth and is on Granby Street.

LGBT community

Liverpool has a large lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender/transsexual population, as well as the UK's only official 'gay quarter'. Despite cities such as Manchester and Brighton being historically more noted for their LGBT communities, Liverpool now has an LGBT comparable per capita to that of San Francisco.

Economy

The Economy of Liverpool is one of the largest within the United Kingdom, sitting at the centre of one of the two core economies within the North West of England.[113] In 2006, the city's GVA was £7,626 million, providing a per capita figure of £17,489, which was above the North West average.[114] After several decades of decline, Liverpool's economy has seen somewhat of a revival since the mid-1990s, with its GVA increasing 71.8% between 1995 and 2006 and employment increasing 12% between 1998 and 2006.[114]

In common with much of the rest of the UK today, Liverpool's economy is dominated by service sector industries, both public and private. In 2007, over 60% of all employment in the city was in the public administration, education, health, banking, finance and insurance sectors.[114] Over recent years there has also been significant growth in the knowledge economy of Liverpool with the establishment of the Liverpool Knowledge Quarter in sectors such as media and life sciences.[115] Liverpool's rich architectural base has also helped the city become the second most filmed city in the UK outside of London,[116] including doubling for Chicago, London, Moscow, New York, Paris and Rome.[117][118]

Another important component of Liverpool's economy are the tourism and leisure sectors. Liverpool is the 6th most visited city in the United Kingdom[119] and one of the 100 most visited cities in the world by international tourists.[120] In 2008, during the city's European Capital of Culture celebrations, overnight visitors brought £188m into the local economy,[119] while tourism as a whole is worth approximately £1.3bn a year to Liverpool.[118] The city's new cruise liner terminal, which is situated close to the Pier Head, also makes Liverpool one of the few places in the world where cruise ships are able to berth right in the centre of the city.[121] Other recent developments in Liverpool such as the Echo Arena and Liverpool One have made Liverpool an important leisure centre with the latter helping to lift Liverpool into the top five retail destinations in the UK.[122]

Historically, the economy of Liverpool was centred around the city's port and manufacturing base, although today less than 10% of employment in the city are in these sectors.[114] Nonetheless the city remains one of the most important ports in the United Kingdom, handling over 32.2m tonnes of cargo in 2008.[123] It is also home to the UK headquarters of many shipping lines including Japanese firm NYK and Danish firm Maersk Line.[124][125] Future plans to redevelop the city's northern dock system, in a project known as Liverpool Waters, could see £5.5bn invested in the city over the next 50 years, creating 17,000 new jobs.[126]

Car-manufacturing also takes place in the city at the Halewood plant where the Jaguar X-Type and Land Rover Freelander models are assembled.

Landmarks

Liverpool's history means that there are a considerable variety of architectural styles found within the city, ranging from 16th century Tudor buildings to modern-day contemporary architecture.[127] The majority of buildings in the city date from the late-18th century onwards, the period during which the city grew into one of the foremost powers in the British Empire.[128] There are over 2,500 listed buildings in Liverpool, of which 27 are Grade I listed[129] and 85 are Grade II* listed.[130] The city also has a greater number of public sculptures than any other location in the United Kingdom aside from Westminster[131] and more Georgian houses than the city of Bath.[132] This richness of architecture has subsequently seen Liverpool described by English Heritage, as England's finest Victorian city.[133] The value of Liverpool's architecture and design was recognised in 2004, when several areas throughout the city were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Known as the Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City, the sites were added in recognition of the city's role in the development of international trade and docking technology.[134]

Waterfront and docks

As a major British port, the docks in Liverpool have historically been central to the city's development. Several major docking firsts have occurred in the city including the construction of the world's first enclosed wet dock (the Old Dock) in 1715 and the first ever hydraulic lifting cranes.[135] The best-known dock in Liverpool is the Albert Dock, which was constructed in 1846 and today comprises the largest single collection of Grade I listed buildings anywhere in Britain.[136] Built under the guidance of Jesse Hartley, it was considered to be one of the most advanced docks anywhere in the world upon completion and is often attributed with helping the city to become one of the most important ports in the world. The Albert Dock currently houses a number of restaurants, bars, shops, two hotels as well as the Merseyside Maritime Museum, International Slavery Museum, Tate Liverpool and The Beatles Story. North of the city centre is Stanley Dock, home to the Stanley Dock Tobacco Warehouse, which was at the time of its construction in 1901, the world's largest building in terms of area[137] and today stands as the world's largest brick-work building.[138]

One of the most famous locations in Liverpool is the Pier Head, renowned for the trio of buildings – the Royal Liver Building, the Cunard Building and the Port of Liverpool Building – which sit upon it. Collectively referred to as the Three Graces, these buildings stand as a testament to the great wealth in the city during the late 19th and early 20th century. Built in a variety of architectural styles, they are recognised as being the symbol of Maritime Liverpool, and are regarded by many as contributing to one of the most impressive waterfronts in the world.[139][140][141][142]

In recent years, several areas along Liverpool's waterfront have undergone significant redevelopment. Amongst the notable recent developments are the construction of the Echo Arena Liverpool and BT Convention Centre on Kings Dock, Alexandra Tower and 1 Princes Dock on Princes Dock and Liverpool Marina around Coburg and Brunswick Docks.

Commercial District and Cultural Quarter

Liverpool's historic position as one of the most important trading ports in the world has meant that over time many grand buildings have been constructed in the city as headquarters for shipping firms, insurance companies, banks and other large firms. The great wealth this brought, then allowed for the development of grand civic buildings, which were designed to allow the local administrators to 'run the city with pride'.[143]

The commercial district is centred around the Castle Street, Dale Street and Old Hall Street areas of the city, with many of the area's roads still following their medieval layout. Having developed over a period of three centuries the area is regarded as one of the most important architectural locations in the city, as recognised by its inclusion in Liverpool's World Heritage site.[144] The oldest building in the area is the Grade I listed Liverpool Town Hall, which is located at the top of Castle Street and dates from 1754. Often regarded as the city's finest piece of Georgian architecture, the building is noted as one of the most extravagantly decorated civic buildings anywhere in Britain.[145][146] Also on Castle Street is the Grade I listed Bank of England Building, constructed between 1845 and 1848, as one of only three provincial branches of the national bank.[145] Amongst the other noted buildings in the area are the Tower Buildings, Albion House (the former White Star Line headquarters), the Municipal Buildings and Oriel Chambers,[147] which is considered to be one of the earliest Modernist style buildings ever built.[148]

The area around William Brown Street is referred to as the city's 'Cultural Quarter', owing to the presence of numerous civic buildings, including the William Brown Library, Walker Art Gallery, Picton Reading Rooms and World Museum Liverpool. The area is dominated by neo-classical architecture, of which the most prominent, St George's Hall,[149] is widely regarded as the best example of a neo-classical building anywhere in Europe.[150] A Grade I listed building, it was constructed between 1840 and 1855 to serve a variety of civic functions in the city and its doors are inscribed with "S.P.Q.L." (Latin senatus populusque Liverpudliensis), meaning "the senate and people of Liverpool". William Brown Street is also home to numerous public monuments and sculptures, including Wellington's Column and the Steble Fountain. Many others are located around the area, particularly in St John's Gardens, which was specifically developed for this purpose.[151] The William Brown Street area has been likened to a modern recreation of the Roman Forum.[152]

Other notable landmarks

While the majority of Liverpool's architecture dates from the mid-18th century onwards, there are several buildings that pre-date this time. One of the oldest surviving buildings is Speke Hall, a Tudor manor house located in the south of the city, which was completed in 1598.[153] The building is one of the few remaining timber framed Tudor houses left in the north of England and is particularly noted for its Victorian interior, which was added in the mid-19th century.[154] In addition to Speke Hall, many of the city's other oldest surviving buildings are also former manor houses including Croxteth Hall and Woolton Hall, which were completed in 1702 and 1704 respectively.[155] The oldest building within the city centre is the Grade I listed Bluecoat Chambers,[156] which was built between 1717 and 1718. Constructed in British Queen Anne style,[157][158] the building was influenced in part by the work of Christopher Wren[159] and was originally the home of the Bluecoat School (who later moved to larger site in the south of the city). Since 1908 it has acted as a centre for arts in Liverpool.[157]

Liverpool is noted for having two Cathedrals, each of which imposes over the landscape around it.[160] The Anglican Cathedral, which was constructed between 1904 and 1978, is the largest Cathedral in Britain[161] and the fifth largest in the world. Designed and built in Gothic style, it is regarded as one of the greatest buildings to have been constructed during the 20th century[162] and was described by former British Poet Laureate, John Betjeman, as 'one of the great buildings of the world’.[163] The Roman Catholic Metropolitan Cathedral was constructed between 1962 and 1967 and is noted as one of the first Cathedrals to break the traditional longitudinal design.[164]

In recent years, many parts of Liverpool's city centre have undergone significant redevelopment and regeneration after years of decline. The largest of these developments has been Liverpool One, which has seen almost £1 billion invested in the redevelopment of 42 acres (170,000 m2) of land, providing new retail, commercial, residential and leisure space.[165] Around the north of the city centre several new skyscrapers have also been constructed including the RIBA award winning Unity Buildings and West Tower, which at 140m is Liverpool's tallest building. Many future redevelopment schemes are also planned including Central Village (planning permission granted),[166] the Lime Street gateway (work started)[167] and the highly ambitious Liverpool Waters (early planning stage).[168]

There are many other notable buildings in Liverpool, including the art deco former terminal building of Speke Airport, the University of Liverpool's Victoria Building, (which provided the inspiration for the term Red Brick University), and the Adelphi Hotel, which was in that past considered to be one of the finest hotels anywhere in the world.[169]

The English Heritage National Register of Historic Parks describes Merseyside's Victorian Parks as collectively the "most important in the country".[170] The city of Liverpool has ten listed parks and cemeteries, including three Grade II*, more than any other English city apart from London.[171]

To read more about the Transport, Culture, Education, Media, Sports, Quotes and International Links of Liverpool please click:-

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool

@oceanaircycles keeps posting awesome bike against interesting wall shots in Ventura so I was inspired to contribute #rivbike, #Saluki, against huge tree near the tidal basin. by Tony DeFilippo

More Lady Diva as Photo Art by LD's Slave Carl

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Contributed by an admirer

Radisson Blu Riverside, Göteborg by Anders Bengtsson

68 23

Architect: Reflex Arkitekter

Built in: 2013

Builder: Skanska Sverige AB

Contributing to the ongoing growth and development of Lindholmen Science Park, the Radisson Blu Riverside is a 266 room hotel with additional conference facilities, bar and restaurant with outdoor seating by the Göta river, and a rooftop Spa.

The building’s volume, raised above ground-level, and glimmering façade create a landmark in the surrounding landscape of city and port. The façade is perceived as a sculpture of abstract scale, clad in glimmering scales. The building is oriented towards the centre of Gothenburg, and the glazed end façade facing the estuary becomes a glowing beacon facing the city.

The hotel is planned with sustainability in mind, and designed so as to achieve the internationally-recognised LEED “Gold” certification.

Source: Reflex Arkitekter

Ramsdell (Manistee, Michigan) by courthouselover

6 2

This structure is considered a contributing property to the 1982 listing of the Manistee Central Business District on the National Register of Historic Places.

Manistee, Michigan is a lovely town located on the northeast shore of Lake Michigan in the northwest of the Lower Peninsula. It serves as the seat of Manistee County.

Louisiana, Crowley, Grand Opera House by Earl C. Leatherberry

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The three-story Grand Opera House was built in 1900. The building is located in the Crowley Historic District listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a contributing property

nitrogen trip #4 by Alexander Safonov

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This is old photo of silvertip shark I snapped in Tiputa pass of Rangiroa atoll, Tuamotus, French Polynesia in May, 2006. Taken with compact camera Olympus 3040, no strobes used. Perfect visibility of 40+ meters contributed to the relatively good quality of the photo.

It is one of the first shark pictures I took and I still like it a lot !

Lines: minimalist fine art, taken while walking a dog in the snow. Near Potterton, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. by Paul Fowler

There was more snow sweeping across the fields and in the brief period between the blue sky being overwhelmed and the snow arriving, the sky was totally featureless. I had just long enough to line up the wires and poles. The snow on the poles makes them look much thinner than they really are. This is a colour photo, more or less as shot.

Aberdeenshire (Scottish Gaelic: Siorrachd Obar Dheathain) is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland. It takes its name from the old County of Aberdeen which had substantially different boundaries. Modern Aberdeenshire includes all of what was once Kincardineshire, as well as part of Banffshire. The old boundaries are still officially used for a few purposes, namely land registration and lieutenancy. Aberdeenshire Council is headquartered at Woodhill House, in Aberdeen, making it the only Scottish council whose headquarters are located outside its jurisdiction. Aberdeen itself forms a different council area (Aberdeen City). Aberdeenshire borders onto Angus and Perth and Kinross to the south, Highland and Moray to the west and Aberdeen City to the east. Traditionally, it has been economically dependent upon the primary sector (agriculture, fishing, and forestry) and related processing industries. Over the last 40 years, the development of the oil and gas industry and associated service sector has broadened Aberdeenshire's economic base, and contributed to a rapid population growth of some 50% since 1975. Its land represents 8% of Scotland's overall territory. It covers an area of 6,313 square kilometres

Would anyone like to contribute to my polaroid wall? by India Rose

55 15

I would send two prints to anybody who contributed a polaroid for my wall! : ) Anyone who wants to just flickrmail me! Or you can just comment if you'd rather. I would be eternally grateful and happy!

If you have one you don't want or

whatever the case may be I would love it for my wall! I would be quite happy : ) So a print exchange! But you give me a Polaroid and I give you any two prints of mine you would like!

Thanks!

The World Has Changed by Jason Evans

Thank you Dawne-O, Michael, Pravin, Michelle, Bazz, James, Lucas, Janice, John and Gregg for contributing your ideas, talents and time in helping me with this challenging assignment. And of course thanks Tora-Bean for being such a good boy while we shot it.

Alone by Mark Edwards

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This is an image I took when I was doing the still photography on a short film called WUSS on IMDB www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=6ET6ibK...

Every image tells a story, but some images define a story. This portrait was chosen as the official poster image for the short film WUSS, capturing the essence of its tone and emotion. The expression in his eyes, the subtle tension in his expression/posture, and the cinematic lighting all contribute to a visual that speaks before a single word is spoken.

This image is not just a still, it’s a moment, a feeling, a preview of a larger narrative. Can a single frame capture the weight of a film? This one tries.

More Lady Diva as Photo Art by LD's Slave Carl

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Contributed by an admirer

Old Greenwood Hotel (Eureka, Kansas) by courthouselover

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Built in 1882 and remodeled in 1926, this corner hotel was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006. It is also a contributing property to the 2019 listing of the Eureka Downtown Historic District.

Eureka is the county seat and largest town of Greenwood County in the southern Flint Hills region of southeastern Kansas.

Quiet moment. by Alexandra Rudge

22 258

The Mallard ( /ˈmælɑrd/ or /ˈmælərd/), or Wild Duck (Anas platyrhynchos), is a dabbling duck which breeds throughout the temperate and subtropical Americas, Europe, Asia, and North Africa, and has been introduced to New Zealand and Australia.

The male birds have a bright green or blue head, while the female's is light brown. The Mallard lives in wetlands, eats water plants, and is gregarious. The Mallard is the ancestor of most domestic ducks, and can interbreed with other species of genus Anas. Among close relatives of the Mallard this hybridisation can cause genetic dilution, which is contributing to the decline of rarer species of ducks.

California.

The thinker II by Hugo Carvoeira

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The Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus), Barbary ape, or magot, is a species of macaque unique for its distribution outside Asia and for its vestigial tail. Found in the Atlas Mountains of Algeria and Morocco along with a small population that were introduced from Morocco to Gibraltar, the Barbary macaque is one of the best-known Old World monkey species.

Skull and brain, as illustrated in Gervais' Histoire naturelle des mammifères.

The Barbary macaque is of particular interest because males play an atypical role in rearing young. Because of uncertain paternity, males are integral to raising all infants. Generally, Barbary macaques of all ages and sexes contribute in alloparental care of young.

Macaque diets consist primarily of plants and insects and they are found in a variety of habitats. Males live to a maximum of 25 years while females may live up to 30 years. Besides humans, they are the only free-living primates in Europe. Although the species is commonly referred to as the "Barbary ape", the Barbary macaque is actually a true monkey. Its name refers to the Barbary Coast of North West Africa.

Source: Wikipedia

Rossio Square - Column of Pedro IV by lukedrich_photography

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Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisbon

Lisbon (Portuguese: Lisboa) is the capital and the largest city of Portugal, with an estimated population of 505,526 within its administrative limits in an area of 100.05 km2. Its urban area extends beyond the city's administrative limits with a population of around 2.8 million people, being the 11th-most populous urban area in the European Union. About 3 million people live in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (which represents approximately 27% of the country's population). It is mainland Europe's westernmost capital city and the only one along the Atlantic coast. Lisbon lies in the western Iberian Peninsula on the Atlantic Ocean and the River Tagus. The westernmost areas of its metro area form the westernmost point of Continental Europe, which is known as Cabo da Roca, located in the Sintra Mountains.

Lisbon is recognized as an alpha-level global city by the Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Study Group because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education and tourism. Lisbon is the only Portuguese city besides Porto to be recognized as a global city. It is one of the major economic centres on the continent, with a growing financial sector and one of the largest container ports on Europe's Atlantic coast. Additionally, Humberto Delgado Airport served 26.7 million passengers in 2017, being the busiest airport in Portugal, the 3rd busiest in the Iberian Peninsula and the 20th busiest in Europe, and the motorway network and the high-speed rail system of Alfa Pendular links the main cities of Portugal (such as Braga, Porto and Coimbra) to Lisbon. The city is the 9th-most-visited city in Southern Europe, after Rome, Istanbul, Barcelona, Milan, Venice, Madrid, Florence and Athens, with 3,320,300 tourists in 2017. The Lisbon region contributes with a higher GDP PPP per capita than any other region in Portugal. Its GDP amounts to 96.3 billion USD and thus $32,434 per capita. The city occupies the 40th place of highest gross earnings in the world. Most of the headquarters of multinational corporations in Portugal are located in the Lisbon area. It is also the political centre of the country, as its seat of Government and residence of the Head of State.

Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world, and one of the oldest in Western Europe, predating other modern European capitals such as London, Paris, and Rome by centuries. Julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia, adding to the name Olissipo. Ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, it was captured by the Moors in the 8th century. In 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city and since then it has been a major political, economic and cultural centre of Portugal. Unlike most capital cities, Lisbon's status as the capital of Portugal has never been granted or confirmed officially – by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the Constitution of Portugal.

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossio_Square

Rossio Square is the popular name of the Pedro IV Square (Portuguese: Praça de D. Pedro IV) in the city of Lisbon, in Portugal. It is located in the Pombaline Downtown of Lisbon and has been one of its main squares since the Middle Ages. It has been the setting of popular revolts and celebrations, bullfights and executions, and is now a preferred meeting place of Lisbon natives and tourists alike.

The current name of the Rossio pays homage to Pedro IV, King of Portugal. The Column of Pedro IV is in the middle of the square.

20161027T11-18-45Z-DSCF5279 by Peter Foster

A fine citizen contributes to his chosen society.

Old Sweet Springs, Missouri City Hall by courthouselover

Built in 1891, this Italianate structure stands at 310 South Miller Street and features a pressed metal façade manufactured by the Mesker Bros. Iron Works of Saint Louis. It housed the Sweet Springs City Hall until in later years when it served as the Brick Street Bar. It is a contributing property to the Sweet Springs Historic District, which was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997.

Sweet Springs is a small town located along Interstate 70 between Columbia and Kansas City in southwestern Saline County.

Continental Motors Mk. I Machine Pistol (Alt-Timeline) by Archkyrie - Coffee

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(Comments and Notes welcome)

(current Alt-Timeline up to this point posted on a previous weapon)

Automobile companies contributing to the war effort by aiding in weapons manufacture was not a new thing. Nevertheless, Continental Motors surprised American news agencies when it announced in 1983 that it would be submitting a design for upcoming military weapons trials.

The Mark 1 received much criticism, many papers commented that Continental had gone about building a gun like it was a motor, more fit to be strapped to four wheels then held by two hands. A military officer commented, "I thought we gave our soldiers guns, not clubs." Yet despite the Mark 1's heavy, bulky shape, it proved itself well in the trials. It was certainly not as pretty as the Browning P69, the other front runner of the trials, nor did it have the propaganda appeal of the Browning, but the heavy weight and muzzle device allowed the Continental machine pistol to be easily controlled at a fire rate far higher than the competition.

Cheap to manufacture, high fire rate, and great control made it a serious contender. Ultimately, money would do the talking, and the Army selected the Mark 1 over the far more expensive P69. The Continental Motors Mark 1 would go into service in 1984, as hostilities began to break out once more.

coves by Anna James ♥ ƸӜƷ ♥

18 41

....yes, they are coves, is not a tribute to Mapplethorpe.....just because I like the coves are sensual, and perhaps I'm a transgressive a potential....., and thank you very much to all who have contributed ...

...sí, son calas, no es un homenaje a Mapplethorpe ..... simplemente me gustan las calas son sensuales, y tal vez soy un transgresor en potencia......, muchas gracias a todos los que han contribuido.....

226.365 HFF by Bill Walker

6 3

Haven't contributed to the group lately so I thought I'd stop by...

HFF...

I'll Bleed For You Anyday- 50/52 by Lakshal Perera

1 29

I mentioned in an earlier 52 Weeks shot about a friend who had been diagnosed with Pancreatic Cancer. Since then, she's been through a horrible operation, some serious radiotherapy and a huge amount of weight loss. She has a rare form of cancer which grows aggressively, but thankfully doesn't metastasise (ie. spread throughout the rest of the body). Anyway, for the moment (and hopefully into the distant future), she's doing well, and the doctors are unsure of how her tumour will react to the treatment. We're all hoping for the best, and she's getting on with her life as normal which is great. To top it off, she's put on a few kilos too!

During her operation, she went through a MASSIVE amount of blood. Blood that was donated by people like you and me. Every single person who donates blood helps someone. You're helping unborn children, old people, sick people, rich people, and poor people. Everyone's life is worth it, so do your part and donate. I did it today and trust me, it's not a painful process. The snacks afterwards are worth the trip alone!

In Australia, contact The Red Cross Blood Service on 13 14 95 to make an appointment, or simply visit www.donateblood.com.au/. In other parts of the world, you guys will have your own blood services, it's a wonderful thing you'll be contributing towards so go and do it!

Strobist: 580EX @1/8 into shoot through umbrella below and in front camera, 430 EX @ 1/2 into reflective umbrella behind and above camera.

Croatia by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

71 2

Storms Stir the Adriatic Sea

An intense winter storm raced across the Mediterranean on November 13 and 14, 2004. Gale-force winds sank three ships off Algiers, Algeria, and heavy rain drenched the country. Overnight, the storm moved north to Italy and the Adriatic Sea. Here, the storm halted air, road and sea traffic with winds that gusted up to 200 kilometers per hour (125 mph), according to local media reports. As it swept east across Europe on November 15, the storm cut off power and damaged communities in Croatia on the Adriatic coast and in Romania, where more than 50 centimeters (18 inches) of snow fell.

Two days later, the clouds had cleared enough to give the Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view (SeaWiFS) Sensor aboard the OrbView-2 satellite this clear view of the Adriatic Sea. In the wake of the storm, the waters along the Italian coastline are a milky green where the wind-tossed waves have churned the water, bringing sediment from the sea floor to the surface. Thick clouds of sediment hang in the shallow waters of the Gulf of Venice, but are dissipated in the deeper waters of the Adriatic. Further evidence of the storm can be seen in the mountains of Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, which are capped with snow. In the lower left corner of the image, the craggy Alps are also coated with a white blanket of snow. SeaWiFS obtained this image on November 17, 2004.

High res, read more: earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=5010

Credit: NASA Earth Observatory

NASA image use policy.

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