Frankreich / Île-de-France - Schloss Versailles

 

Queen's hamlet

 

Weiler der Königin

 

The Palace of Versailles (/vɛərˈsaɪ, vɜːrˈsaɪ/ vair-SY, vur-SY; French: château de Versailles [ʃɑto d(ə) vɛʁsɑj]) is a former royal residence commissioned by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, about 18 kilometres (11 mi) west of the city centre of Paris, in the Yvelines department of Île-de-France region in France.

 

The palace is owned by the government of France and since 1995 has been managed, under the direction of the French Ministry of Culture, by the Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. About 15,000,000 people visit the palace, park, or gardens of Versailles every year, making it one of the most popular tourist attractions in the world.

 

Louis XIII built a hunting lodge at Versailles in 1623. His successor, Louis XIV, expanded the château into a palace that went through several expansions in phases from 1661 to 1715. It was a favourite residence for both kings, and in 1682, Louis XIV moved the seat of his court and government to Versailles, making the palace the de facto capital of France. This state of affairs was continued by Kings Louis XV and Louis XVI, who primarily made interior alterations to the palace, but in 1789 the royal family and French court returned to Paris. For the rest of the French Revolution, the Palace of Versailles was largely abandoned and emptied of its contents, and the population of the surrounding city plummeted.

 

Napoleon, following his coronation as Emperor, used the subsidiary palace, Grand Trianon, as a summer residence from 1810 to 1814, but did not use the main palace. Following the Bourbon Restoration, when the king was returned to the throne, he resided in Paris and it was not until the 1830s that meaningful repairs were made to the palace. A museum of French history was installed within it, replacing the courtiers' apartments of the southern wing.

 

The palace and park were designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979 for its importance as the centre of power, art, and science in France during the 17th and 18th centuries. The French Ministry of Culture has placed the palace, its gardens, and some of its subsidiary structures on its list of culturally significant monuments.

 

History

 

In 1623, Louis XIII, king of France, built a hunting lodge on a hill in a favourite hunting ground, 19 kilometres (12 mi) west of Paris, and 16 kilometres (10 mi) from his primary residence, the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The site, near a village named Versailles, was a wooded wetland that Louis XIII's court scorned as being generally unworthy of a king; one of his courtiers, François de Bassompierre, wrote that the lodge "would not inspire vanity in even the simplest gentleman". From 1631 to 1634, architect Philibert Le Roy replaced the lodge with a château for Louis XIII, who forbade his queen, Anne of Austria, from staying there overnight, even when an outbreak of smallpox at Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1641 forced Louis XIII to relocate to Versailles with his three-year-old heir, the future Louis XIV.

 

When Louis XIII died in 1643, Anne became Louis XIV's regent, and Louis XIII's château was abandoned for the next decade. She moved the court back to Paris, where Anne and her chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin, continued Louis XIII's unpopular monetary practices. This led to the Fronde, a series of revolts against royal authority from 1648 to 1653 that masked a struggle between Mazarin and the princes of the blood, Louis XIV's extended family, for influence over him. In the aftermath of the Fronde, Louis XIV became determined to rule alone. Following Mazarin's death in 1661, Louis XIV reformed his government to exclude his mother and the princes of the blood, moved the court back to Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and ordered the expansion of his father's château at Versailles into a palace.

 

Louis XIV had hunted at Versailles in the 1650s, but did not take any special interest in Versailles until 1661. On 17 August 1661, Louis XIV was a guest at a sumptuous festival hosted by Nicolas Fouquet, the Superintendent of Finances, at his palatial residence, the Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte. Louis XIV was impressed by the château and its gardens, which were the work of Louis Le Vau, the court architect since 1654, André Le Nôtre, the royal gardener since 1657, and Charles Le Brun, a painter in royal service since 1647. Vaux-le-Vicomte's scale and opulence led him to imprison Fouquet that September, as he had also built an island fortress and a private army. But Louis XIV was also inspired by Vaux-le-Vicomte, and he recruited its authors for his own projects. Louis XIV replaced Fouquet with Jean-Baptiste Colbert, a protégé of Mazarin and enemy of Fouquet, and charged him with managing the corps of artisans in royal employment. Colbert acted as the intermediary between them and Louis XIV, who personally directed and inspected the planning and construction of Versailles.

 

Construction

 

Work at Versailles was at first concentrated on gardens, and through the 1660s, Le Vau only added two detached service wings and a forecourt to the château. But in 1668–69, as a response to the growth of the gardens, and the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), Louis XIV decided to turn Versailles into a full-scale royal residence. He vacillated between replacing or incorporating his father's château, but settled on the latter by the end of the decade, and from 1668 to 1671, Louis XIII's château was encased on three sides in a feature dubbed the enveloppe. This gave the château a new, Italianate façade overlooking the gardens, but preserved the courtyard façade, resulting in a mix of styles and materials that dismayed Louis XIV and that Colbert described as a "patchwork". Attempts to homogenize the two façades failed, and in 1670 Le Vau died, leaving the post of First Architect to the King vacant for the next seven years.

 

Le Vau was succeeded at Versailles by his assistant, architect François d'Orbay. Work at the palace during the 1670s focused on its interiors, as the palace was then nearing completion, though d'Orbay expanded Le Vau's service wings and connected them to the château, and built a pair of pavilions for government employees in the forecourt. In 1670, d'Orbay was tasked by Louis XIV with designing a city, also called Versailles, to house and service Louis XIV's growing government and court. The granting of land to courtiers for the construction of townhouses that resembled the palace began in 1671. The next year, the Franco-Dutch War began and funding for Versailles was cut until 1674, when Louis XIV had work begun on the Ambassadors' Staircase, a grand staircase for the reception of guests, and demolished the last of the village of Versailles.

 

Following the end of the Franco-Dutch War with French victory in 1678, Louis XIV appointed as First Architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart, an experienced architect in Louis XIV's confidence, who would benefit from a restored budget and large workforce of former soldiers. Mansart began his tenure with the addition from 1678 to 1681 of the Hall of Mirrors, a renovation of the courtyard façade of Louis XIII's château, and the expansion of d'Orbay's pavilions to create the Ministers' Wings in 1678–79. Adjacent to the palace, Hardouin-Mansart built a pair of stables called the Grande and Petite Écuries from 1679 to 1682 and the Grand Commun, which housed the palace's servants and general kitchens, from 1682 to 1684. Hardouin-Mansart also added two entirely new wings in Le Vau's Italianate style to house the court,[75] first at the south end of the palace from 1679 to 1681 and then at its north end from 1685 to 1689.

 

War and the resulting diminished funding slowed construction at Versailles for the rest of the 17th century. The Nine Years' War, which began in 1688, stopped work altogether until 1698. Three years later, however, the even more expensive War of the Spanish Succession began and, combined with poor harvests in 1693–94 and 1709–10, plunged France into crisis. Louis XIV thus slashed funding and cancelled some of the work Hardouin-Mansart had planned in the 1680s, such as the remodelling of the courtyard façade in the Italianate style. Louis XIV and Hardouin-Mansart focused on a permanent palace chapel, the construction of which lasted from 1699 to 1710.

 

Louis XIV's successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI, largely left Versailles as they inherited it and focused on the palace's interiors. Louis XV's modifications began in the 1730s, with the completion of the Salon d'Hercule, a ballroom in the north wing, and the expansion of the king's private apartment, which required the demolition of the Ambassadors' Staircase. In 1748, Louis XV began construction of a palace theatre, the Royal Opera of Versailles at the northernmost end of the palace, but completion was delayed until 1770; construction was interrupted in the 1740s by the War of the Austrian Succession and then again in 1756 with the start of the Seven Years' War. These wars emptied the royal treasury and thereafter construction was mostly funded by Madame du Barry, Louis XV's favourite mistress. In 1771, Louis XV had the northern Ministers' Wing rebuilt in Neoclassical style by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, his court architect, as it was in the process of falling down. That work was also stopped by financial constraints, and it remained incomplete when Louis XV died in 1774. In 1784, Louis XVI briefly moved the royal family to the Château de Saint-Cloud ahead of more renovations to the Palace of Versailles, but construction could not begin because of financial difficulty and political crisis. In 1789, the French Revolution swept the royal family and government out of Versailles forever.

 

Role in politics and culture

 

The Palace of Versailles was key to Louis XIV's politics, as an expression and concentration of French art and culture, and for the centralization of royal power. Louis XIV first used Versailles to promote himself with a series of nighttime festivals in its gardens in 1664, 1668, and 1674, the events of which were disseminated throughout Europe by print and engravings. As early as 1669, but especially from 1678, Louis XIV sought to make Versailles his seat of government, and he expanded the palace so as to fit the court within it. The moving of the court to Versailles did not come until 1682, however, and not officially, as opinion on Versailles was mixed among the nobility of France.

 

By 1687, however, it was evident to all that Versailles was the de facto capital of France, and Louis XIV succeeded in attracting the nobility to Versailles to pursue prestige and royal patronage within a strict court etiquette, thus eroding their traditional provincial power bases. It was at the Palace of Versailles that Louis XIV received the Doge of Genoa, Francesco Maria Imperiale Lercari in 1685, an embassy from the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1686, and an embassy from Safavid Iran in 1715.

 

Louis XIV died at Versailles on 1 September 1715 and was succeeded by his five-year-old great-grandson, Louis XV,[78][106] then the duke of Anjou, who was moved to the Château de Vincennes and then to Paris by Louis XV's regent, Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. Versailles was neglected until 1722, when Philippe II removed the court to Versailles to escape the unpopularity of his regency, and when Louis XV began his majority. The 1715 move, however, broke the cultural power of Versailles, and during the reign of Louis XVI, courtiers spent their leisure in Paris, not Versailles.

 

During Christmas 1763, Mozart and his family visited Versailles and dined with the King. The 7-year-old Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart played several works during his stay and later dedicated his first two harpsichord sonatas, published in 1764 in Paris, to Madame Victoria, daughter of Louis XV.

 

In 1783, the palace was the site of the signing of the last two of the three treaties of the Peace of Paris (1783), which ended the American Revolutionary War. On 3 September, British and American delegates, led by Benjamin Franklin, signed the Treaty of Paris at the Hôtel d'York (now 56 Rue Jacob) in Paris, granting the United States independence. On 4 September, Spain and France signed separate treaties with Britain at the Palace of Versailles, formally ending the war.

 

The King and Queen learned of the Storming of the Bastille in Paris on 14 July 1789, while they were at the palace, and remained isolated there as the Revolution in Paris spread. The growing anger in Paris led to the Women's March on Versailles on 5 October 1789. A crowd of several thousand men and women, protesting the high price and scarcity of bread, marched from the markets of Paris to Versailles. They took weapons from the city armoury, besieged the palace, and compelled the King and royal family and the members of the National Constituent Assembly to return with them to Paris the following day.

 

As soon as the royal family departed, the palace was closed. In 1792, the National Convention, the new revolutionary government, ordered the transfer of all the paintings and sculptures from the palace to the Louvre. In 1793, the Convention declared the abolition of the monarchy and ordered all of the royal property in the palace to be sold at auction. The auction took place between 25 August 1793 and 11 August 1794. The furnishings and art of the palace, including the furniture, mirrors, baths, and kitchen equipment, were sold in seventeen thousand lots. All fleurs-de-lys and royal emblems on the buildings were chambered or chiselled off. The empty buildings were turned into a storehouse for furnishings, art and libraries confiscated from the nobility. The empty grand apartments were opened for tours beginning in 1793, and a small museum of French paintings and art school was opened in some of the empty rooms.

 

By virtue of an order issued by the Versailles district directorate in August 1794, the Royal Gate was destroyed, the Cour Royale was cleared and the Cour de Marbre lost its precious floor.

 

19th century – history museum and government venue

 

When Napoleon became Emperor of the French in 1804, he considered making Versailles his residence but abandoned the idea because of the cost of the renovation. Prior to his marriage with Marie-Louise in 1810, he had the Grand Trianon restored and refurnished as a springtime residence for himself and his family, in the style of furnishing that it is seen today.

 

In 1815, with the final downfall of Napoleon, Louis XVIII, the younger brother of Louis XVI, became king, and considered returning the royal residence to Versailles, where he had been born. He ordered the restoration of the royal apartments, but the task and cost was too great. Louis XVIII had the far end of the south wing of the Cour Royale demolished and rebuilt (1814–1824) to match the Gabriel wing of 1780 opposite, which gave greater uniformity of appearance to the front entrance. Neither he nor his successor Charles X lived at Versailles.

 

The French Revolution of 1830 brought a new monarch, Louis-Philippe to power, and a new ambition for Versailles. He did not reside at Versailles but began the creation of the Museum of the History of France, dedicated to "all the glories of France", which had been used to house some members of the royal family. The museum was begun in 1833 and inaugurated on 30 June 1837. Its most famous room is the Galerie des Batailles (Hall of Battles), which lies on most of the length of the second floor of the south wing. The museum project largely came to a halt when Louis Philippe was overthrown in 1848, though the paintings of French heroes and great battles still remain in the south wing.

 

Emperor Napoleon III used the palace on occasion as a stage for grand ceremonies. One of the most lavish was the banquet that he hosted for Queen Victoria in the Royal Opera of Versailles on 25 August 1855.

 

During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, the palace was occupied by the general staff of the victorious German Army. Parts of the château, including the Hall of Mirrors, were turned into a military hospital. The creation of the German Empire, combining Prussia and the surrounding German states under William I, was formally proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors on 18 January 1871. The Germans remained in the palace until the signing of the armistice in March 1871. In that month, the government of the new Third French Republic, which had departed Paris during the war for Tours and then Bordeaux, moved into the palace. The National Assembly held its meetings in the Opera House.

 

The uprising of the Paris Commune in March 1871, prevented the French government, under Adolphe Thiers, from returning immediately to Paris. The military operation which suppressed the Commune at the end of May was directed from Versailles, and the prisoners of the Commune were marched there and put on trial in military courts. In 1875 a second parliamentary body, the French Senate, was created and held its meetings for the election of a President of the Republic in a new hall created in 1876 in the south wing of the palace. The French Senate and National Assembly continue to meet in the palace in joint session on special occasions, such as the amendment of the Constitution of France.

 

20th century

 

The end of the 19th and the early 20th century saw the beginning of restoration efforts at the palace, first led by Pierre de Nolhac, poet and scholar and the first conservator, who began his work in 1892. The conservation and restoration were interrupted by two world wars but have continued until the present day.

 

The palace returned to the world stage in June 1919, when, after six months of negotiations, the Treaty of Versailles, formally ending the First World War, was signed in the Hall of Mirrors. Between 1925 and 1928, the American philanthropist and multi-millionaire John D. Rockefeller, Jr. gave $2,166,000, the equivalent of about 38 million dollars in 2024, to restore and refurbish the palace.

 

More work took place after World War II, with the restoration of the Royal Opera of Versailles. The theatre was reopened in 1957, in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.

 

In 1978, parts of the palace were heavily damaged in a bombing committed by Breton terrorists.

 

Starting in the 1950s, when the museum of Versailles was under the directorship of Gérald van der Kemp, the objective was to restore the palace to its state – or as close to it as possible – in 1789 when the royal family left the palace. Among the early projects was the repair of the roof over the Hall of Mirrors; the publicity campaign brought international attention to the plight of post-war Versailles and garnered much foreign money including a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation.

 

One of the more costly endeavours for the museum and the French Fifth Republic has been to repurchase as much of the original furnishings as possible. Consequently, because furniture with a royal provenance – and especially furniture that was made for Versailles – is a highly sought-after commodity on the international market, the museum has spent considerable funds on retrieving much of the palace's original furnishings.

 

21st century

 

In 2003, a new restoration initiative – the "Grand Versailles" project – was started, which began with the replanting of the gardens, which had lost over 10,000 trees during Cyclone Lothar on 26 December 1999. One part of the initiative, the restoration of the Hall of Mirrors, was completed in 2006. Another major project was the further restoration of the backstage areas of the Royal Opera of Versailles in 2007 to 2009.

 

The Palace of Versailles is currently owned by the French state. Its formal title is the Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. Since 1995, it has been run as a Public Establishment, with an independent administration and management supervised by the French Ministry of Culture.

 

The grounds of the palace hosted the equestrian competition during the 2024 Summer Olympics.

 

The Queen's hamlet and Theatre

 

Near the Trianons are the French pavilion, built by Gabriel in 1750 between the two residences, and the Queen's Theatre and Queen's Hamlet, built by architect Richard Mique in 1780 and from 1783 to 1785 respectively. These were both built at the behest of Marie Antoinette; the theatre, hidden in the gardens, indulged her appreciation of opera and is absolutely original, and the hamlet to extend her gardens with rustic amenities. The building scheme of the Queen's Hamlet includes a farmhouse (the farm was to produce milk and eggs for the queen), a dairy, a dovecote, a boudoir, a barn that burned down during the French Revolution, a mill and a tower in the form of a lighthouse.

 

Modern political and ceremonial functions

 

The palace still serves political functions. Heads of state are regaled in the Hall of Mirrors; the bicameral French Parliament—consisting of the Senate (Sénat) and the National Assembly (Assemblée nationale)—meet in joint session (a congress of the French Parliament) in Versailles to revise or otherwise amend the French Constitution, a tradition that came into effect with the promulgation of the 1875 Constitution. For example, the Parliament met in joint session at Versailles to pass constitutional amendments in June 1999 (for domestic applicability of International Criminal Court decisions and for gender equality in candidate lists), in January 2000 (ratifying the Treaty of Amsterdam), in March 2003 (specifying the "decentralized organization" of the French Republic), and in March 2024 (to enshrine the freedom of women to have recourse to abortion).

 

In 2009, President Nicolas Sarkozy addressed the Great Recession before a congress in Versailles, the first time that this had been done since 1848, when Louis Napoleon Bonaparte gave an address before the French Second Republic. Following the November 2015 Paris attacks, President François Hollande gave a speech before a rare joint session of parliament at the Palace of Versailles. This was the third time since 1848 that a French president addressed a joint session of the French Parliament at Versailles. The president of the National Assembly has an official apartment at the Palace of Versailles. In 2023 a state visit by Charles III to France included a state banquet at the Palace.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Das Schloss Versailles (französisch château de Versailles) in der gleichnamigen Nachbarstadt von Paris ist eine der größten Palastanlagen Europas und war von der Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ausbruch der Französischen Revolution die Hauptresidenz der Könige von Frankreich. Der Barockbau, dessen größte Ausdehnung mehr als einen halben Kilometer beträgt, gilt als ein Höhepunkt europäischer Palastarchitektur und diente vom 17. bis zum 19. Jahrhundert als Vorbild für zahlreiche weitere Schlossbauten.

 

Ursprünglich von Philibert Le Roy als Jagdschloss für König Ludwig XIII. errichtet, wurde die Anlage ab 1661 unter Ludwig XIV. durch Louis Le Vau, François II d’Orbay, Jules Hardouin-Mansart und Robert de Cotte in mehreren Phasen um- und ausgebaut. Die Innenausstattung schuf Charles Lebrun, die berühmten Gartenanlagen, die aus einem Jagdpark hervorgingen, stammen von André Le Nôtre. Erst 1682 war der Riesenbau so weit vorangeschritten, dass der „Sonnenkönig“ mit seinem Hofstaat von Schloss Saint-Germain-en-Laye nach Versailles umziehen konnte. In seiner Zeit als Residenz war der Palast fast durchgehend von einem mehrere tausend Personen umfassenden Hofstaat bewohnt und bildete das kulturelle und große politische Zentrum Frankreichs.

 

Seit dem 19. Jahrhundert wird das Schloss als Museum genutzt. Es steht heute für Besucher offen, ebenso wie die weitläufigen Gartenanlagen und wie die drei weiteren im Park befindlichen Lustschlösser Grand Trianon, Petit Trianon und Hameau de la Reine. Während der Mittelbau mit den Staatssälen des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts in der ursprünglichen Form zu sehen ist, beherbergen die großen Seitenflügel das im 19. Jahrhundert eingerichtete Museum der Geschichte Frankreichs. 1979 wurde Schloss Versailles in die Liste des UNESCO-Weltkulturerbes aufgenommen.

 

Das Schlossgebäude

 

Das Bauwerk

 

Der Ursprung: Ein kleines Jagdschloss

 

Der Ort Versailles vor den Toren der Hauptstadt Paris wurde 1038 erstmals urkundlich erwähnt. Der Wortstamm – versare, d. h. umgraben, umwenden – lässt seine ursprüngliche Bedeutung noch erkennen und verweist auf das kleine Bauerndorf und seine Äcker, die einst hier lagen.[3] Im Dorf Versailles befanden sich im 17. Jahrhundert ein verfallenes kleines Schloss und eine Mühle. Die Ländereien und das Anwesen gehörten zum größten Teil der ansässigen Familie Gondi, ein kleinerer Teil befand sich in königlichem Besitz. Ludwig XIII., der das wildreiche Gebiet der Galie häufig bei Jagdausflügen aufsuchte, nächtigte gelegentlich in dem mittelalterlichen Versailler Schloss und sogar in der Mühle.

 

1623 ließ sich der König anstelle der Mühle ein kleines Jagdhaus errichten, in dem er 1624 das erste Mal übernachtete. Dieser gelegentlich als Kartenschloss verspottete Ansitz war so klein, dass er nicht einmal Räumlichkeiten für die Königin enthielt. François de Bassompierre bezeichnete das Jagdhaus als „ein armseliges Schloss, bei dem nicht mal ein einfacher Edelmann Neid empfindet“. Nachdem der König Ländereien der Gondi in Versailles hinzu erworben hatte, ließ er das Gebäude von 1631 bis 1634 durch Philibert Le Roy zu einem dreiflügeligen Jagdschloss erweitern. Das verfallene alte Schloss wurde später abgetragen. Das von einem Graben umgebene, aus Backstein erbaute und mit Sandsteinelementen gegliederte neue Versailler Schloss wurde im Stil des frühen französischen Barock errichtet. Dieses Jagdschloss bildet bis heute den Kern der Anlage, es umschließt den Marmorhof, den letzten und kleinsten der drei Ehrenhöfe, die der Stadtseite des Palastes vorgelagert sind. Nach dem Tode Ludwig XIII. ging das Gebäude als Teil des Erbes an seinen Sohn und Nachfolger Ludwig XIV. über. Der junge König residierte nach seiner Regierungsübernahme 1661 regelmäßig in Versailles, das ihm zunächst vor allem als Lustschloss und Sommersitz diente und in dem er große Hoffeste ausrichten ließ.

 

Den entscheidenden Impuls zum Ausbau des Palastes lieferte wohl der Finanzminister Nicolas Fouquet. Dieser ließ sich mit Vaux-le-Vicomte ein aufsehenerregendes Schloss erbauen, das nicht nur die Kunst des höfischen Barock in Frankreich nachhaltig prägen sollte, sondern auch den Zorn des Königs erregte. Ludwig XIV. vermutete, dass Fouquet die Pracht zu einem Großteil mit dem Griff in die Staatskasse finanzierte. Er warf seinem Minister Untreue vor und ließ ihn verhaften. Das in Vaux geschaffene Gesamtkunstwerk aus Bauarchitektur und Gartenkunst bestätigte den König in seinem Vorhaben, sich eine zeitgemäße Residenz errichten zu lassen. Er zog Fouquets Architekten und Künstler zu Rate und beauftragte sie schließlich mit dem Ausbau des kleinen Schlosses seines Vaters.

 

Ausbau zum Residenzschloss

 

Entgegen dem Ratschlag des Finanzministers Colbert, der aus Kosten- und Prestigegründen einen Neubau empfahl, weigerte sich Ludwig XIV. für die Versailler Residenz das alte Jagdschloss aufzugeben und so wurde das den späteren Marmorhof umschließende Gebäude im Laufe der Zeit umgebaut und in mehreren Abschnitten in den Neubau integriert. Der König schrieb in seinen Memoiren sogar, selbst wenn das alte Schloss hätte abgerissen werden müssen, so hätte er es ganz genauso wieder errichten lassen, wie es war. Nach anfänglichen kleineren Umbauten ab 1661 bildete der Aachener Frieden von 1668 den Auftakt zu einer ersten Erweiterung des Schlosses. Der U-förmige Mittelbau Ludwigs XIII., Kern des heutigen Corps de Logis, erhielt von 1668 bis 1671 durch Le Vau die enveloppé. Dabei handelte es sich um eine bauliche, sogenannte Ummantelung des alten Schlosses durch zwei neue, äußere Trakte. Die südlichen Flügel der Ummantelung nahmen die Paradezimmer der Königin auf, die nördlichen jene des Königs. Dieser Bau besaß anstelle der späteren Spiegelgalerie noch eine große Terrasse über den gartenseitigen Arkaden des Erdgeschosses.

 

1677 verkündete der König, Versailles zum künftigen Regierungssitz zu bestimmen. Der damit verbundene Ausbau des Palastes begann im Zuge des Friedens von Nimwegen, der Umzug des Hofstaats erfolgte ab dem 5. Mai 1682. Von 1678 bis 1684 wurde die Terrasse des Corps de Logis samt den ihr benachbarten Salons durch Jules Hardouin-Mansart über- und umgebaut und die Spiegelgalerie, sowie die Salons des Krieges und des Friedens installiert. Die ursprünglich waagerechten Fensterabschlüsse des ersten Stockwerkes wurden durch Rundbogenfenster ersetzt, die mit den Spiegeln der großen Galerie korrespondierten. Mit diesen Baumaßnahmen erhielt die Gartenfassade des Hauptgebäudes ihre heutige Gestalt.

 

Um Platz für den Hofstaat zu schaffen, wurden gleichzeitig mit den Erweiterungen am Corps de Logis 1678 die Arbeiten am Südflügel und ab 1685 die am Nordflügel begonnen. Mansart plädierte zudem dafür, das Schloss um ein weiteres Stockwerk zu erhöhen, um so mehr Wohnraum zu erhalten, was der König jedoch aus unbekannten Gründen ablehnte. Beide Flügelbauten bestehen aus jeweils zwei parallel zueinander errichteten langen Gebäuderiegeln, je einer auf der Garten- und einer auf der Stadtseite. Diese sind durch Querbauten mehrfach miteinander verbunden und beinhalten so eine Anzahl kleinerer Lichthöfe. Der Südflügel war 1684 weitgehend fertig gestellt, der später begonnene Nordflügel fünf Jahre darauf. Die Arbeiten an dessen stadtseitig gelegenem Trakt wurden wegen der Kosten des Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieges jedoch eingestellt und der Bau erst im 19. Jahrhundert vollendet. Für den Bau des Nordflügels musste die Thetis-Grotte, ein mit Statuen geschmücktes Brunnenhaus von 1664, abgerissen werden. Die darin ausgestellten Skulpturen befinden sich heute zum Teil im sogenannten Boskett des Apollo-Bades im Park des Schlosses. Auf dem Standort der Thetis-Grotte erhebt sich der Bau der 1710 durch Robert de Cotte fertiggestellten Schlosskapelle, deren Zugang durch den Nordflügel erfolgt.

 

Die Flügel des Versailler Schlosses und seiner Nebengebäude gruppieren sich um drei in einer Achse gelegene Hofplätze, die zusammen eine weitgehend zusammenhängende Fläche bilden und vom Zentrum des Schlosses in Richtung der Stadt führen. Den Ausgangspunkt bildet der kleine Marmorhof (Cour de Marbre) des umbauten Jagdschlosses, auf diesen folgt der von den Verlängerungstrakten des Corps de Logis umgebene Königshof (Cour Royale) und schließlich der große Platz des Ministerhofs (Cour des Ministres) mit den freistehenden Ministerflügeln. Da Versailles nicht nur königliche Residenz, sondern auch Regierungssitz war, wurde mit diesen Gebäuden Platz für die Hofbeamten geschaffen. Den Höfen stadtseitig gegenüber stehen der kleine und der große Marstall, umfangreiche Gebäude für die Pferde und den Fuhrpark der königlichen Familie. Östlich, vom Südflügel des Schlosses und dem südlichen Ministertrakt begrenzt, befindet sich außerdem das vierflügelige Grand Commun, ein solitär stehender Wirtschaftsbau von 1682, der die Schlossküchen und Bedienstetenwohnungen für über 1.000 Hofangestellte enthielt.

 

Nach dem Umzug des Hofes 1682 arbeiteten zeitweise über 22.000 Menschen an und in Versailles, nach den Angaben eines Zeitgenossen erreichte die Zahl der Arbeiter im Jahr 1685 sogar 36.000. Zum Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts war Versailles in seinen heutigen Dimensionen weitgehend fertiggestellt; die Gartenfassade ist 570 Meter breit.

 

Stilistische Einordnung

 

Das Äußere des Schlosses ist in zwei verschiedenen Stilformen gehalten, die zudem durch die unterschiedliche Addition der einzelnen Baukörper einen konträren Eindruck vermitteln. Die Stadtfassaden bestehen aus zahlreichen Einzelgebäuden, so dass sich dem Betrachter erst beim näheren Hinsehen erschließt, dass sie alle gemeinsam ein großes, zusammenhängendes Gebäude bilden. Die Fassaden des Schlosses folgen hier dem älteren Stil des ursprünglichen Jagdschlosses rund um den Marmorhof und entsprechen noch dem frühen französischen Barock. Sie sind aus rotem Ziegelstein errichtet, der mit Sandsteinelementen gegliedert ist, die Baukörper tragen sichtbare Mansarddächer.

 

Die Gartenfassaden des Schlosses sind im Stil des für Frankreich typischen klassizistischen Barocks gestaltet und gehen damit auf die Vorgabe von Le Vaus Ummantelung zurück. Horizontale Linien dominieren das Bauwerk und nur risalitartig hervorspringende Portale lockern die strengen Sandsteinfassaden auf. Die abschließende Balustrade des Obergeschosses ist mit steinernen Vasen und Trophäendarstellungen dekoriert und verbirgt hinter sich flache Dächer. Die Gartenfassade fasst die Gebäudeteile zu einem großen Block zusammen, dessen Breitenwirkung durch die horizontale Gliederung noch gesteigert wird.

 

Die verschiedenen Baustile des Schlosses, die majestätisch-monotone Garten- und die kleinteiligeren Stadtfassaden riefen nicht nur Bewunderung, sondern auch Kritik hervor. Versailles steht im völligen Kontrast zu den anderen Barockschlössern Frankreichs, die zumeist nicht nur kleiner, sondern wie Vaux-le-Vicomte oder Maisons-Laffitte auch im Pavillonsystem errichtet wurden. In der Kunstgeschichte werden insbesondere die Gartenfassaden zwar häufig als überwältigend in ihrer Wirkung, aber auch als eintönig beschrieben, Colbert nannte das Schloss einen „Mann mit großen Armen und einem dicken Kopf.“ Der Herzog Saint-Simon bezeichnete den Kontrast der Baustile als „schönes und häßliches, das zusammengenäht wurde“ und über das hinter der Attika verborgene Flachdach schrieb er „man glaubt einen abgebrannten Palast zu sehen, dem das obere Stockwerk und das Dach fehlen.“ Die Kapelle wurde als Riesenkatafalk verspottet und Voltaire bezeichnete sie als einen „erstaunlichen Firlefanz“.

 

Zur Zeit Ludwigs XV. wurde eine als grand dessin bezeichnete Neugestaltung der Stadtseite im Stil des Klassizismus erwogen. Die alten Fassaden dort sollten, den Gartenfassaden ähnlich, mit Haustein überbaut werden. Auch war über dem Hauptgebäude eine Kuppel geplant. Die Leitung dieses Projekts übernahm Ange-Jacques Gabriel. Letztlich erfolgte aus finanziellen Gründen jedoch ab 1771 nur der Umbau eines zu dieser Zeit baufälligen, stadtwärts gerichteten Trakts, der seit jener Zeit Gabrielflügel genannt wird. Der Pavillon des gegenüberliegenden Gebäudes, des Dufourflügels, wurde erst um 1820 angepasst und die Symmetrie der Hoffassade knapp ein halbes Jahrhundert nach Beginn der Umbauarbeiten halbwegs wiederhergestellt. Die parallel gegenüberstehenden Gebäudeteile tragen noch heute verschiedene Fassadenstile. 1780 durch Étienne-Louis Boullée vorgelegte Pläne zu einer vollständigen Neugestaltung des Schlosses im Sinne der Revolutionsarchitektur wurden nicht realisiert.

 

Symbolik und Kosten

 

Symbolik des Schlosses

 

Neben der offensichtlichen Zurschaustellung von Luxus und Reichtum diente das Schloss auch einer subtileren Darstellung des Ruhms und der Macht des Königtums. Die unter Ludwig XIV. angelegten Staatsräume und Säle verherrlichen den Sonnenkönig. Die Dekoration des Stucks und die Themen der Gemälde sind auf seine wirtschaftlichen und politischen Erfolge abgestimmt und künden von seinen Feldzügen und Siegen.[ Eine große Rolle nahmen außerdem die römische und die griechische Mythologie ein, mit deren Motiven die oberen Gesellschaftsschichten des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts wohlvertraut waren. Die Mythologie wurde als Gleichnis eingesetzt und Ludwig XIV. wiederholt als Gott Apollon dargestellt, was der Hofgesellschaft zahlreiche Interpretationen ermöglichte. Die Darstellung als antiker Gott der Sonne und des Lichts verlieh Ludwig XIV. zudem die Aura eines mystischen, höchsten Wesens, ohne zugleich mit der Kirche in Widerspruch zu geraten – denn den Rang des Königs mit dem christlichen Gott gleichzusetzen, war auch im absolutistischen, aber immer noch katholisch geprägten Frankreich unmöglich und wäre einem Sakrileg gleichgekommen. Der Vergleich mit Apollon dagegen bekräftigte seinen Ruf als Sonnenkönig.

 

Kosten und Finanzierung

 

Obwohl der französische Haushaltsplan immense Ausgaben für das Schloss vorsah, war das Geld in Versailles immer knapp und die Bauphasen konnten nur in den Friedenszeiten zwischen den Reunionskriegen vorangetrieben werden. Nachdem Ludwig XIV. den Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg begonnen hatte, musste er 1689 sogar das berühmte Silbermobiliar der Spiegelgalerie verkaufen und einschmelzen, um die Kriegsausgaben zu bestreiten. Viele geplante Bauvorhaben, wie der oben beschriebene Umbau der Stadtfassaden, konnten aus Kostengründen nicht in Angriff genommen werden. Fast alle Aufträge wurden ausgeschrieben, Voranschläge unbedingt eingehalten und die Armee in Friedenszeiten zu Bauarbeiten herangezogen. Der Sonnenkönig selbst sagte: „… am liebsten wird mir immer alles sein, was möglichst schön ist und wenig kostet“. Was den meisten Betrachtern als unglaublicher Luxus erschien, war in Wirklichkeit so kostengünstig wie nur möglich gebaut, was zur Folge hatte, dass die Kamine oft nicht zogen, die Fenster nicht richtig schlossen und das Leben dort im Winter sehr unkomfortabel war.

 

Bereits zwischen 1661 und 1663 waren mehr als 1.500.000 Livres für das Schloss ausgegeben worden. Der erste Bau Ludwigs XIII. hatte insgesamt gerade einmal 300.000 Livres verbraucht, wovon 213.000 auf das Schloss verwendet und weitere 82.000 für die Gärten benötigt wurden. Im Zeitraum von 1664 bis 1688 wurde jährlich durchschnittlich eine Million Livres in Versailles verbaut. Der französische Staatshaushalt verfügte in den 1680er Jahren über ein Budget von etwa 110 Millionen Livres, wovon Ludwig nach dem Frieden von Nimwegen 15 Millionen für seine Bautätigkeiten genehmigt bekam. Bis zum Tode des Sonnenkönigs sollen 300 Millionen Livres in die Versailler Schlösser, den Park, die Ausstattung und den Unterhalt geflossen sein. Fünfzig bis sechzig Millionen allein für das Mobiliar und zwei Millionen für den Bau des Eure-Kanals. Bescheiden nimmt sich dagegen die Leibpension für die bei Unfällen verstorbenen Arbeiter aus, deren Familien im Schnitt 40 bis 100 Livres als Hinterbliebenenrente erhielten.

 

Die Trianonschlösser und der Weiler

 

Im Park von Versailles befinden sich mehrere Lustschlösser: das Grand Trianon, das Petit Trianon sowie das Hameau de la Reine (deutsch: Weiler der Königin).

 

Das weitläufige Gartenschloss Grand Trianon (großes Trianon) oder Trianon de marbre (Marmor-Trianon) stammt noch aus der Zeit Ludwigs XIV. Es war ursprünglich dem König und seiner Familie vorbehalten, doch im Laufe der Jahre wurde es auch dem weiteren Hofstaat zugänglich gemacht. Das benachbarte Petit Trianon (kleines Trianon) ist ein Werk, das Ludwig XV. für seine Mätresse Madame de Pompadour erbauen ließ. Diese starb jedoch vor der Vollendung des kleinen, klassizistischen Schlösschens. Nachdem sein Nachfolger Ludwig XVI. es Marie-Antoinette geschenkt hatte, wurde es durch sie prunkvoll ausgestattet und ein neuer Gartenbereich angelegt, in dem auch ein kleines Theater seinen Platz fand. Die Königin ließ sich hier zudem, einer damaligen Mode folgend, ein künstliches Dorf, den so genannten Weiler der Königin mit augenscheinlich windschiefen Häusern errichten, die aber in Wirklichkeit prunkvolle Dekoration für die Schäferspiele der Herrscherin waren.

 

All diese Gebäude wurden eine halbe Fußstunde entfernt vom Hauptschloss errichtet, um den Königen Entspannung und Erholung abseits des überfüllten Palastes zu bieten. Versailles war zudem in ein ganzes Netzwerk von kleineren Schlössern eingebunden. Noch im Ort selbst befand sich das Schloss Clagny, welches Madame de Montespan gewidmet war (und bereits 1769 der Spitzhacke zum Opfer fiel), und nur eine halbe Wegstunde zu Pferde entfernt befand sich das Schloss von Marly, das mit seinen Gärten und Wasserspielen zu den berühmtesten Lustschlössern des ausgehenden 17. Jahrhunderts gehörte. Ebenfalls in Reichweite lagen die königlichen Residenzen Saint-Germain-en-Laye und Saint-Cloud.

 

Geschichtlicher Überblick

 

17. und 18. Jahrhundert: Das Ancien Régime

 

Die Residenz des Sonnenkönigs und seiner Nachfolger

 

Frankreich war im 17. Jahrhundert der mächtigste Staat Europas und unter dem Wirken des Sonnenkönigs zum kulturellen, wirtschaftlichen und politischen Zentrum des Kontinents geworden. Das Schloss des Königs war ein Ausdruck der Leistungsfähigkeit Frankreichs und ein Symbol seiner Größe und Stärke. Die geordnete Natur der Parkanlagen war ein Spiegelbild der Ordnung, die Ludwig XIV. dem Land brachte.

 

Nachdem er als Kind die Gefahr der Fronde in Paris am eigenen Leib erleben musste, konnte sich der König nie für die französische Hauptstadt begeistern, er liebte dagegen das kleine Jagdschloss seines Vaters. Dort konnte er einen angemessen repräsentativen und weitläufigen neuen Palast erbauen, der zudem so im engen Paris undenkbar gewesen wäre. Der Entschluss, den Hof 1682 aus dem Palais du Louvre und dem Tuilerienpalast sowie dem bis 1682 zumeist bewohnten Schloss Saint-Germain-en-Laye hierher zu verlegen, sollte Frankreichs Geschichte für viele Jahre prägen. Hier vollendete Ludwig XIV. den Regierungsstil, den man später als Absolutismus bezeichnete. Der König wollte weitere Aufstände wie die Fronde verhindern, er schnitt die Aristokratie von ihrer alten Aufgabe der Provinzverwaltung ab und setzte Beamte dafür ein, die Mitglieder des Adels wurden dagegen an den Hof geholt. Eine mögliche Opposition aus der Ferne gegen ihn, wie sie zum Beispiel seinem Vater widerfuhr, wurde somit erschwert. Die Angehörigen des Adels wurden politisch entmachtet und im Gegenzug mit kostbaren Geschenken und prunkvollen Festen entschädigt. Der einst mächtige hohe Adel Frankreichs verließ bereitwillig seine Schlösser in den Provinzen, nur wenige konnten es sich leisten, dauerhaft eigene Hofgesellschaften zu unterhalten. Um auf der Höhe der Zeit zu sein und den neuesten Moden des Hofes folgen zu können, verschuldeten sich die Aristokraten oder erhielten willkürliche Renten vom König.

 

Eine Wohnung in Versailles zugewiesen zu bekommen, war ein bedeutendes Privileg, das zudem die Illusion vermittelte, im Zentrum der Macht an der Regierung beteiligt zu sein. Wer zu den Logeants, den im Schloss Wohnenden gehörte, stand im Rang über den Galopins, den Kutschierenden, die Abends zurück in ihre Stadtwohnungen nach Paris mussten. Innerhalb des Hoflebens übernahm das Hofzeremoniell eine bedeutende Rolle; im Prinzip unbedeutende Hofämter standen symbolisch für politischen Einfluss. Lediglich bei Hofe konnten Posten, Titel und Ämter errungen werden, und wer sich vom Sonnenkönig distanzierte, lief Gefahr, Vorrechte und Rang zu verlieren. Aus diesem Grund hielt sich die Aristokratie so gut wie ständig um ihren König auf und versuchte, ihm gefällig zu sein. Das sorgte dafür, dass zeitweise mehrere Tausend Menschen zugleich das Schloss bewohnten.

 

Für die französische Gesellschaft bedeutete der Wandel des Zweiten Standes vom Land- zum Hofadel auf Dauer eine schwere Belastung. Von ihren alten Pflichten und Aufgaben weitgehend entbunden, fristete der französische Adel bald ein dekadentes Dasein. Während der Dritte Stand die Steuerlast und die Arbeit zu tragen hatte, konnte – beziehungsweise musste – sich der Adel dem Müßiggang hingeben. Dieser Umstand sollte über hundert Jahre später einer der Auslöser der Französischen Revolution werden.

 

Leben im Schloss

 

Ludwig XIV. führte einen streng geregelten Tagesablauf, beginnend mit dem Lever (ca. 8 Uhr), einem feierlichen Staatsakt, dem Dutzende Familienangehörige und Mitglieder des Hofstaats beiwohnen mussten, ferner auswärtige Besucher und Gesandte sowie besonders auszuzeichnende Persönlichkeiten, die der König selbst täglich aussuchte. Es folgte die Arbeit im Kabinett (ca. 2 Stunden). Der ganze Tag war vom Hofzeremoniell durchgetaktet, dazu gehörten Jagden und Ausfahrten sowie Besuche und Theateraufführungen. Zu diesen Anlässen war er zu jeder Zeit von Würdenträgern umgeben. Zur späten Stunde wurde ein Hofball abgehalten. Gunstbeweise verteilte er durch Gewährung kleiner zeremonieller Aufgaben oder Vorrechte, er gestattete oder entzog Einzelnen die Teilnahme an bestimmten Zeremonien oder Festlichkeiten und wusste auf diese Weise den gesamten französischen Adel meisterhaft zu beherrschen und in Schach zu halten.

 

Nach dem Tode Ludwigs XIV. 1715 und der Regentschaft Philipp II. im Namen von Ludwig XV., der zu dieser Zeit noch ein Kind war, verließ der Hof den riesigen Palast und begab sich bis 1723 nach Paris, wo die Adligen sich aber vom Hof des Regenten im Palais Royal (oder auf seinem Schloss Saint-Cloud) teilweise fernhielten und stattdessen ihre eigenen Salons in ihren Hôtels particuliers im Marais oder im Faubourg Saint-Germain führten. Unter den Nachfolgern des Sonnenkönigs verlor Versailles seine umfassende zentralistische Bedeutung und die Gesellschaft traf sich nun zunehmend auch wieder in den Landschlössern des Adels oder den Pariser Hôtels. Dennoch residierten auch Ludwig XV. und Ludwig XVI. in Versailles, so dass das Schloss ab 1682 nur mit kurzen Unterbrechungen fast ständig von der Königsfamilie bewohnt war. Obwohl öfter Ausflüge in die vielen weiteren Schlösser rund um Paris unternommen wurden, blieb Versailles immer Regierungssitz und Mittelpunkt des höfischen Frankreichs.

 

Am Ende des Ancien Régime umfasste der Hofstaat rund 10.000 Personen, von denen bis zu 5.000 direkt im Schloss lebten. Die eigentlichen Höflinge machten davon rund 1.000 Personen aus, hinzu kamen Kammerfrauen, Köche, Leibwachen und andere Bedienstete. Der Palast war eine Stadt unter einem großen Dach, mit Wohnungen, Arbeitsräumen und Vergnügungsstätten. Auf den Gängen und Höfen ließen sich Händler nieder. Das Schloss war fast ständig überbelegt, und die Aristokratie, so sie nicht zur königlichen Familie gehörte, war zum Teil verarmt und hauste sogar in den engen Dachkammern der oberen Geschosse oder im benachbarten Grand Commun, da Ludwig XIV. seiner Ehre wegen jedem einen Schlafplatz bieten wollte. Victor Hugo bezeichnete das Schloss später als eine einzige Höflingskaserne. Der Palast war nicht allein dem Adel vorbehalten: Zugang hatte auch das gewöhnliche Volk, die Neugierigen wurden von den Bewohnern als Voyeux bezeichnet. Je höher der Rang des Besuchers war, desto weiter durfte er in das Innere des Schlosses gelangen. Der englische Reisende Arthur Young berichtete in seiner Schrift Reise durch Frankreich in den Jahren 1787, 1788, 1789 und 1792 über Versailles: „Es war höchst belustigend, wenn Strolche in den ärmlichsten Lumpen unbeobachtet durch den Palast […] spazierten.“ Der freie Zugang zum Schloss bedeutete jedoch nicht zugleich Kontakt mit den hier lebenden Personen. Wer als Bittsteller kam oder auf ein Amt hoffte, musste offiziell bei Hofe vorgestellt werden, wozu man neben einem verbrieften Titel üblicherweise die Fürsprache eines bereits etablierten Höflings benötigte. Als etabliert galt, wer über eines der zahlreichen käuflichen Hofämter verfügte, die, je nach Bedeutung des Amts, vom König oder dem Haushofmeister vergeben wurden.

 

Trotz der prunkvollen Ausstattung war Versailles ein unkomfortables Schloss. Die en filade gereihten, zugigen und hohen Räume ließen sich schlecht heizen, und Madame de Maintenon beklagte, „man erträgt lieber die Zugluft durch die Türen […], man muss in Symmetrie zugrunde gehen“. Im strengen Winter 1709 platzten sogar Likörflaschen durch die Kälte. Die große Spiegelgalerie besaß keine Kamine, und auch das zentrale Schlafzimmer Ludwigs XIV. war so kalt, dass Ludwig XV. ein privates Schlafzimmer im Nordtrakt des Corps de Logis einrichten ließ, das er nach der Zeremonie des Coucher zum Schlafen aufsuchte und morgens rechtzeitig zum Lever wieder verließ.

 

Es gab, wie damals in ganz Europa üblich, im Schloss weder fließendes Wasser noch fest installierte Toiletten. Man verrichtete die Notdurft in Leibstühle und Nachttöpfe, deren Inhalte von der Dienerschaft in bis zu 29 Sickergruben in der Umgebung des Schlosses ausgeleert wurden. Ludwig XVI. ließ sich Frankreichs erstes Wasserklosett mit Toilettenspülung einbauen. Das Schloss hatte wiederholt mit Ratten- und Mäuseplagen zu kämpfen und einmal jährlich begab sich der Hof nach Fontainebleau, damit der Versailler Palast in dieser Zeit von Grund auf gereinigt werden konnte. Der Körperpflege wurde im 17. Jahrhundert zwar noch kein übermäßiger Stellenwert zugeschrieben, doch bereits Ludwig XIV. ließ sich im Untergeschoss des Corps de Logis mehrere Zimmer umfassende Badegemächer einrichten. Im Laufe des 18. Jahrhunderts fanden sich auch zunehmend Baderäume in den Appartements der königlichen Familienmitglieder, während sich die übrigen Schlossbewohner weiterhin mit feuchten Tüchern und Waschschüsseln behelfen mussten.

 

Die Versorgung des Hofstaats mit Nahrungsmitteln und Getränken beschäftigte eine Anzahl von mehreren hundert Angestellten. Die Mitglieder der königlichen Familie und Höflinge von hohem Rang wurden als commensaux, als Tischgenossen des Königs betrachtet und aus seiner Küche versorgt.[80] Verschiedene Höflinge hatten die Verpflichtung, offene Tafeln zur Verkostung weiterer Schlossbewohner zu halten, andere Hofangestellte erhielten für ihre bouche eine finanzielle Entschädigung, mussten sich um die Versorgung allerdings selbst kümmern. Die Mahlzeiten stammten zum Teil aus den Wirtshäusern in der Umgebung des Schlosses, zum Teil aus selbst organisierten Küchen, von denen sich im Laufe der Zeit immer mehr in den Höfen und unter den Dächern des Schlosses einfanden.

 

Das Leben bei Hof bedeutete Verzicht auf Privatsphäre. Die Königsfamilie nahm selbst gewöhnliche Mahlzeiten vor Publikum ein und auch die Niederkünfte der Königinnen waren innerhalb der Hofgesellschaft traditionell öffentliche Ereignisse – so sehr, dass Marie-Antoinette während der Geburt ihres ersten Kindes in Lebensgefahr geriet, als sich zu viele Menschen in ihrem Schlafzimmer aufhielten. Schon unter den Vorgängern des Sonnenkönigs gab es strenge Riten zur Verherrlichung der französischen Herrscher, doch um das Schloss Versailles und Ludwig XIV. wurde eine beispiellose Abfolge von Zeremonien entwickelt. Die Etikette regelte und beschrieb jeden Vorgang, von großen Festlichkeiten und Empfängen bis hin zu so alltäglichen Dingen wie dem Mittagsmahl. Auch für den Fall von Krankheit und Tod gab es vorgeschriebene Regeln, und als Ludwig XV. 1774 im Trianon an den Pocken erkrankte, wurde er eilig ins Versailler Schloss gebracht, um dort unter den Augen des Hofs zu sterben. Die Bedeutung dieses Systems kann heute nicht mehr annähernd nachvollzogen werden. Dem König widerfuhr eine nahezu göttliche Verehrung und entrückte diesen, durchaus beabsichtigt, vom Volk und unterstrich seine übergeordnete Stellung. Dem König zu dienen bedeutete, Frankreich zu dienen. Ihm beim Aufstehen, beim Lever behilflich zu sein, ihm einfach nur das Wasser oder das Hemd zu reichen, galt als allergrößte Ehre, die über Aufstieg und Fall bei Hofe entscheiden konnte. Ob man in der Gegenwart des Königs stehen, sitzen oder sprechen durfte und selbst durch welche Tür man sein Schlafzimmer betrat, war ein für alle Anwesenden sichtbares Zeichen des eigenen Rangs. Ludwig XIV. schrieb in seinen Memoiren „Im übrigen ist es eine der hervorragendsten Wirkungen unserer Macht, einer Sache, die an sich keinen Wert hat, einen unbezahlbaren Preis zuzuordnen.“

 

Die Etikette galt nicht nur im Umgang mit dem König, sondern auch für jeden Herzog, jeden Prinzen, jeden Höfling. Das Protokoll regelte den Umgang miteinander und wies jedem Mitglied des Hofs einen für alle sichtbaren Platz innerhalb dieser Gesellschaft zu. Das uralte System der höfischen Etikette wurde auch unter den Nachfolgern des Sonnenkönigs kaum verändert. Ein Beispiel für das streng geregelte Hofzeremoniell ist folgende Anekdote, die durch Madame Campan, die Kammerfrau der Königin überliefert wurde und die Marie-Antoinettes Alltag im Schloss beschrieb:

 

„Das Lever der Königin vollzog sich analog dem Lever des Königs. Die Hofdame vom Dienst hatte das Recht, der Königin beim Ankleiden das Hemd zu reichen. Die Palastdame zog ihr den Unterrock und das Kleid an. Kam aber zufällig eine Prinzessin der königlichen Familie dazu, so stand dieser das Recht zu, der Königin das Hemd überzuwerfen. Einmal also war die Königin gerade von ihren Damen ganz ausgekleidet worden. Ihre Kammerfrau hielt das Hemd und hatte es soeben der Hofdame präsentiert, als die Herzogin von Orléans eintrat. Die Hofdame gab das Hemd der Kammerfrau zurück, die es gerade der Herzogin übergeben wollte, als die ranghöhere Gräfin von Provence dazukam. Nun wanderte das Hemd wieder zu der Kammerfrau zurück, und erst aus den Händen der Gräfin von Provence empfing es endlich die Königin. Sie hatte die ganze Zeit nackt, wie Gott sie geschaffen hat, dabeistehen und zusehen müssen, wie die Damen sich mit ihrem Hemd überkomplimentierten.“

 

– Madame Campan

 

Die französische Revolution

 

Am 5. Mai 1789 traten im Grande Salle des Menus Plaisirs die Generalstände zusammen. Damit begann die konstitutionelle Phase der Französischen Revolution. Der König, dem nach der Verfassung die Einberufung und Entlassung der Generalstände zustand, ließ den Sitzungssaal aus politischen Gründen schließen. Die Abgeordneten des Dritten Standes, die sich mittlerweile zur Nationalversammlung erklärt hatten, zogen sich darauf in das außerhalb des Schlossgeländes liegende Ballhaus zurück. Dort leisteten sie am 20. Juni den Ballhausschwur „… sich niemals zu trennen, bis der Staat eine Verfassung hat …“.

 

Ludwig XVI. und Marie-Antoinette bewohnten das Schloss samt ihrer Familie und dem Hofstaat bis zum 5. Oktober 1789. An diesem Tag stürmten die Poissarden das Schloss und zwangen den König und seine Familie tags darauf, Versailles für immer zu verlassen und nach Paris in den Tuilerien-Palast zu ziehen. Das Schloss wurde von den Revolutionären in den folgenden Jahren zum Teil geplündert und stand weitgehend leer.

 

Das 19. Jahrhundert

 

Nach der Revolution

 

Nach der Revolution konnte das Schloss nur notdürftig erhalten werden. Napoléon erwog, den Palast wieder als Residenz herzurichten, doch wurden die Pläne nie umgesetzt und der Kaiser der Franzosen begnügte sich damit, das Grand Trianon für Wohnzwecke umzugestalten. Seit der Regierung Louis-Philippes I. dagegen wurden die Räume des Schlosses wiederhergestellt, sowie ein historisches Nationalmuseum eingerichtet und mit Büsten, Porträts, Schlachtenbildern und anderen Kunstwerken von vorwiegend historischem Wert ausgeschmückt (darunter Meisterwerke von Horace Vernet, Eugène Delacroix, Ary Scheffer, Adolphe Yvon, James Pradier). In dieser Epoche wurden große Veränderungen im Nord- und Südflügel vorgenommen, Museumsräume in den ehemaligen Appartements eingerichtet und der große Schlachtensaal und die sogenannten Kreuzfahrer- und die Afrikasäle installiert. In diesen historistischen Museumsräumen wurden die französische und die europäische Geschichte thematisiert.

 

Der Gartenarchitekt Gabriel Thouin präsentierte 1820 in seinem Werk Plans raisonnés de toutes les espèces de jardins einen Vorschlag zur teilweisen Umgestaltung und Einbettung des (im Kernbereich geometrisch belassenen) Schlossparks in einen noch größeren Landschaftsgarten, der jedoch nicht umgesetzt wurde. Der deutsche Gartenarchitekt Peter Joseph Lenné wurde bei seinen Entwürfen durch den Plan Thouins beeinflusst.

 

Zweite Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts

 

Eine besondere Bedeutung gewann das Schloss für die deutsch-französische Geschichte. Vom 5. Oktober 1870 bis 13. März 1871 war es im Deutsch-Französischen Krieg Sitz des großen Hauptquartiers der deutschen Armeen. Im Spiegelsaal des Schlosses fand am 18. Januar 1871 mit der Ausrufung König Wilhelms I. von Preußen zum deutschen Kaiser Wilhelm I. die Gründung des Deutschen Reiches statt. Dieser Ort war im Sinn einer historischen Gerechtigkeit ausgewählt worden, da viele Deckengemälde die Feldzüge und Eroberungen Ludwigs XIV. in Deutschland verherrlichten. Die besiegten Franzosen hingegen sahen in dem Akt jedoch nur eine Demütigung ihres Königtums.

 

Die Friedenspräliminarien wurden am 26. Februar 1871 in Versailles unterzeichnet. Am 10. März 1871 verlegte die Nationalversammlung den Regierungssitz von Bordeaux nach Versailles; erst 1879 wurde er wieder nach Paris verlegt. Seit der Dritten Republik trat der Kongress des Parlaments in Versailles zusammen. Für diesen Zweck wurde ein Kongresssaal in den mittleren Lichthof des Südflügels eingebaut. Von 1879 bis 1953 wurden hier die Präsidenten der Republik gemeinsam von Abgeordneten und Senatoren gewählt. Auch heute tritt der Kongress bei Verfassungsänderungen zur Unterstreichung deren Bedeutsamkeit hier zusammen, das Schloss selbst dient oft als Ort von Staatsempfängen.

 

Das 20. Jahrhundert und die Gegenwart

 

Vom Versailler Vertrag zur Nachkriegszeit

 

Nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg wurde der Friedensvertrag, den das unterlegene deutsche Reich 1919 unterschreiben musste, im Versailler Schloss verhandelt. Die Franzosen wählten den Ort als Revanche für die Kaiserproklamation von 1871. Im Grand Trianon wurde der Vertrag von Trianon ausgehandelt. Die Bedingungen des Versailler Vertrages, die Deutschland eine Alleinschuld am Krieg anlasteten, werden als eine der Ursachen für den politischen Aufstieg der Nationalsozialisten betrachtet. Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg wurden Versailles und sein Schloss eine Stätte der deutsch-französischen Aussöhnung. Davon zeugten auch die Feierlichkeiten anlässlich der 40. Wiederkehr der Unterzeichnung des Élysée-Vertrages vom 22. Januar 1963 (2003) in der Schlachtengalerie.

 

Am 26. Juni 1978 verübten bretonische Separatisten einen Sprengstoffanschlag auf das Schloss, das ihrer Meinung nach als Symbol für den französischen Zentralismus stand. Nach 2:00 Uhr nachts explodierte ein Sprengsatz, der die Einrichtung in drei Sälen vollständig zerstörte und in sieben anderen schwere Verwüstungen anrichtete. Der entstandene Sachschaden wurde auf fünf Millionen Francs geschätzt. 1979 erfolgte die Aufnahme in die Liste des UNESCO-Weltkulturerbes. 1982 diente das Schloss als Kulisse für den Weltwirtschaftsgipfel der G7.

 

Das Schloss heute

 

Das Schloss mit seinen Gartenanlagen, Museen und Parkschlössern ist für Besucher geöffnet und zugleich das meistbesuchte Schloss Frankreichs, es zählt damit zu den größten Touristenmagneten des Landes. Rund um den Palast, seine Pflege und Verwaltung sind um die 900 Personen beschäftigt. Versailles samt seiner Museen wird von einer staatlichen Betreibergesellschaft geführt. Von 2002 bis 2007 war die spätere französische Kulturministerin Christine Albanel Geschäftsführerin des Établissement public de Versailles, ihre Amtszeit stand in der Kritik, da Albanel keine kunstwissenschaftliche Erfahrung besaß und ihr zeitweise ein Ausverkauf des französischen Nationaldenkmals vorgeworfen wurde. Gegenwärtiger Geschäftsführer ist Jean-Jacques Aillagon.

 

Für die Besichtigung der verschiedenen Museen, der Sonderausstellungen und der Gartenanlagen wird ein Eintrittsgeld verlangt, EU-Bürger unter 26 Jahren und Behinderte sind davon ausgenommen. Aufgrund der weltweiten Bekanntheit von Versailles gehören Schloss und Gärten für viele Frankreich- und Paris-Touristen zum Pflichtprogramm, im Jahr 2022 wurden fast 7 Millionen Besucher gezählt. Gäste müssen unter Umständen mit langen Warteschlangen an den Kassen, besonders im Sommer und an den Wochenenden, rechnen.

 

In der Schlossanlage und den Gärten fanden und finden zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts umfangreiche Restaurierungsarbeiten statt, die bis heute (2022) andauern. Für das Projekt stellte die Regierung unter Jacques Chirac 2003 rund 390 Millionen Euro zur Verfügung. In einem ersten Abschnitt wurden u. a. die Deckengemälde im Spiegelsaal restauriert, die im Juni 2007 fertiggestellt und der Öffentlichkeit übergeben wurden. Andere fundamentale Etappen der Restaurierungskampagne waren das Bassin de Latone und einige Boskette im Park sowie Dachstuhl, Fenster und das Äußere der Schlosskapelle (Chapelle Royale). Letztere wurde im April 2021 fertiggestellt.

 

Während der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2024 in Paris wurden auf den Außenanlagen des Schlosses die Reitsportwettbewerbe sowie die Entscheidungen im Modernen Fünfkampf ausgetragen.

 

(Wikipedia)

"When you receive this a bank robbery will have been committed by me," Verone wrote in the letter. "This robbery is being committed by me for one dollar. I am of sound mind but not so much sound body."

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.........***** All images are copyrighted by their respective authors .........

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.....item 1).... Yahoo! News ... THE LOOKOUT ... Man robs bank to get medical care in jail

 

2 hrs 55 mins ago.......Tuesday June 21, 2011

 

By Zachary Roth

 

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img code photo.. James Richard Verone ..... a 59-year-old convenience store clerk, walked into a Gaston, North Carolina Bank

 

mit.zenfs.com/102/2011/06/James-Verone.jpg

 

(Photo: Ben Goff/The Gaston Gazette)

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news.yahoo.com/s/yblog_thelookout/20110621/ts_yblog_thelo...

 

Some people who need medical care but can't afford it go to the emergency room. Others just hope they'll get better. James Richard Verone robbed a bank.

 

Earlier this month, Verone (pictured), a 59-year-old convenience store clerk, walked into a Gaston, N.C., bank and handed the cashier a note demanding $1 and medical attention. Then he waited calmly for police to show up.

 

He's now in jail and has an appointment with a doctor this week.

 

Verone's problems started when he lost the job he'd held for 17 years as a Coca Cola deliveryman, amid the economic downturn. He found new work driving a truck, but it didn't last. Eventually, he took a part-time position at the convenience store.

 

But Verone's body wasn't up to it. The bending and lifting made his back ache. He had problems with his left foot, making him limp. He also suffered from carpal tunnel syndrome and arthritis.

 

Then he noticed a protrusion on his chest. "The pain was beyond the tolerance that I could accept," Verone told the Gaston Gazette. "I kind of hit a brick wall with everything."

 

Verone knew he needed help--and he didn't want to be a burden on his sister and brothers. He applied for food stamps, but they weren't enough either.

 

So he hatched a plan. On June 9, he woke up, showered, ironed his shirt. He mailed a letter to the Gazette, listing the return address as the Gaston County Jail.

 

"When you receive this a bank robbery will have been committed by me," Verone wrote in the letter. "This robbery is being committed by me for one dollar. I am of sound mind but not so much sound body."

Then Verone hailed a cab to take him to the RBC Bank. Inside, he handed the teller his $1 robbery demand.

 

"I didn't have any fears," said Verone. "I told the teller that I would sit over here and wait for police."

The teller was so frightened that she had to be taken to the hospital to be checked out. Verone, meanwhile, was taken to jail, just as he'd planned it.

 

Because he only asked for $1, Verone was charged with larceny, not bank robbery. But he said that if his punishment isn't severe enough, he plans to tell the judge that he'll do it again. His $100,000 bond has been reduced to $2,000, but he says he doesn't plan to pay it.

 

In jail, Verone said he skips dinner to avoid too much contact with the other inmates. He's already seen some nurses and is scheduled to see a doctor on Friday. He said he's hoping to receive back and foot surgery, and get the protrusion on his chest treated. Then he plans to spend a few years in jail, before getting out in time to collect Social Security and move to the beach.

 

Verone also presented the view that if the United States had a health-care system which offered people more government support, he wouldn't have had to make the choice he did.

 

"If you don't have your health you don't have anything," Verone said.

 

The Affordable Care Act, President Obama's health-care overhaul passed by Congress last year, was designed to make it easier for Americans in situations like Verone's to get health insurance. But most of its provisions don't go into effect until 2014.

 

As it is, Verone said he thinks he chose the best of a bunch of bad options. "I picked jail."

 

(Photo: Ben Goff/The Gaston Gazette)

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.....item 2A).... youtube video ... The Obsolete Man (part 1) Parts 2 & 3 are on my page ... 8:39 minutes ... tresomme12

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=57zZwpbtkDs

 

The Twilight Zone episode with Burgess Meredith playing a character who defies a totalitarian government.

 

A man is rich in proportion to the number of things he can afford to let alone.

Henry David Thoreau

 

Any fool can make a rule, and any fool will mind it.

Henry David Thoreau

 

As if you could kill time without injuring eternity.

Henry David Thoreau

 

Be true to your work, your word, and your friend.

Henry David Thoreau

 

Books are the carriers of civilization. Without books, history is silent, literature dumb, science crippled, thought and speculation at a standstill. I think that there is nothing, not even crime, more opposed to poetry, to philosophy, ay, to life itself than this incessant business.

Henry David Thoreau

 

Category:

Film & Animation

 

Tags:

Pinnacle Studio Ultimate twilight zone obsolete man God Psalm totalitarianism death penalty Burgess Meredith

License:

 

Standard YouTube License

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.....item 2B).... youtube video ... The Obsolete Man ( part 2) ... 9:22 minutes ... tresomme12

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=t3wL5RBC4bA&feature=related

 

Obsolete man continued

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.....item 2C).... youtube video ... The Obsolete Man (part 3) ... 5:49 minutes ... tresomme12

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=rDn3tcPiMRA&feature=related

 

The obsolete Man part 3

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I didn't give away the ending, so you'll have to watch it yourself. Great spooky film.Starring Vincent Price, Agnes Moorehead, Gavin Gordon, John Sutton, Lenita Lane, Elaine Edwards, and Darla Hood. Directed by Crane Wilbur.

Murder-mystery writer Cornelia van Gorder [Agnes Moorehead] has leased a large country house called "The Oaks". After being in the house for only a few days, Cornelia's longtime maid, Lizzie Allen [Lenita Lane], informs her that the servants are upset over rumors they have heard about the murders committed in the house last winter by the archcriminal who goes by the name of The Bat. They fear he is back, and they're also concerned about rabid bats that have supposedly been released by The Bat. That's hysterical nonsense, Cornelia says as she heads into Zenith to conduct some business at the Zenith City bank. She has another surprise when vice-president and head cashier of the bank, Victor Bailey [Mike Steele], mentions that the bank president and owner of The Oaks, John Fleming [Harvey Stephens], once said that he would never rent the house. Again, Cornelia is not concerned since she rented the house from his nephew, Mark Fleming [John Bryant].

 

As Cornelia chats with Victor's wife Dale [Elaine Edwards] and Lieutenant "Andy" Anderson [Gavin Gordon],a detective with the Zenith City Police Department and a member of the board of directors of the Zenith Bank, Victor is informed that the bank has been looted of over $1,000,000 in bonds and negotiable securities. Since the only two people with access to the vault are Victor himself and bank president John Fleming, who is currently away on a hunting trip in the Northwoods, Victor is arrested and attempts are made to contact Fleming.

 

Meanwhile, at his lodge in the Northwoods, John Fleming informs his hunting partner and physician, Doctor Malcolm Wells [Vincent Price], that he has just embezzled over $1,000,000 from the bank and he needs help in covering it up. His plan is to murder their hunting guide and disfigure the body enough that Wells can pass it off as Fleming. After "Fleming" is declared dead and buried, the two of them will split the million. The money is currently hidden in the Fleming family crypt in Zenith, he explains. Wells recalls a time, however, when Fleming was very sick and, in fever, talked about hiding the money in a hidden room in The Oaks. When Fleming announces that, if Wells doesn't go for the deal, he'll kill Wells and call it a "hunting accident," Wells turns his shotgun on Fleming.

 

I ain't afraid of ghosts, Lizzie tells Cornelia when they read in the paper of John Fleming's death. Although the rest of the staff, except for Warner [John Sutton], the chauffeur, have quit their jobs, Lizzie intends to stay with "Miss Corny" under any circumstances. Because there's a storm brewing, Lizzie and Cornelia check to be sure all the doors and windows are shut. Lizzie suddenly sees a black-clawed hand reach through the front door, just about to grab Cornelia's throat. Lizzie's screams scare him off; Cornelia calls the police. They send someone over to check the grounds, but no one is found.

 

Cornelia and Lizzie go upstairs and lock themselves in a bedroom. Meanwhile, The Bat has cut a hole in the front-door window, unlocked the door, and entered the house. As Cornelia and Lizzie try to sleep, he opens the transom into their room and releases a bat that flits around for a moment, lands on Lizzie's arm, and bites her. Concerned that the bat may be rabid, Cornelia phones Dr Wells. He's in his laboratory conducting an experiment (on a bat!), but he comes over to look at Lizzie. He dresses her arm and gives her a sleeping pill. After examining the bat, he proclaims that it doesn't look sick but that he won't know for sure until he examines its brain under a microscope. Meanwhile, Lt Andy has taken advantage of Dr Wells' absence and let himself into the lab where he snoops around and notices the experimental bat and a figure of a large bat in one of the windows. Andy then drives over to The Oaks, arriving just as Wells is leaving. Andy points out the hole in the glass where The Bat gained entrance and assures Cornelia that an officer will keep watch on the house for the rest of the night.

 

Several days/weeks? have gone by, and Victor Bailey's trial is coming up. His secretary, Judy Hollister [Darla Hood], apparently has some information that will help to acquit him, so people are beginning to suspect that John Fleming robbed his own bank. Lt Anderson, concerned that his holdings at the bank will be wiped out if the money isn't found, pays a visit to Mark Fleming. Mark reveals that he hasn't received a dime of his inheritance from his uncle because the money is nowhere to be found. Meanwhile, Cornelia has managed to retain John Fleming's old maid, Jane Patterson [Riza Royce]. When Dr Wells, Dale Bailey, and Judy Hollister drop by for tea, they all discuss the possibility that it was John Fleming who actually robbed the bank. Cornelia suggests that Fleming may have hidden the money in The Oaks, and Dale phones Mark to see whether there are any floorplans of the house. Mark isn't sure why she would want the floorplan, so Lt Andy suggests that maybe Uncle John DID steal the money and hid it in the house. Mark agrees to come over that evening and help look for the plans.

 

Come over Mark does, but he lets himself into the house with his own key while Cornelia, Dale, and Judy are eating dinner. He moves aside a grandfather clock and opens a panel to a secret closet. While he looks over the floorplans, The Bat enters the house and sneaks up behind, clobbers Mark, and makes off with the floorplans. After dinner, Cornelia is amazed to hear the grandfather clock striking the hour, when it hasn't done so in years. They notice that the clock has been moved, then Dale sees the panel behind it. They open the panel to find Mark Fleming...dead. Lt Anderson and Dr Wells are notified after the police are called. After seeing the claw marks on Mark's throat, Anderson proclaims it the work of The Bat.

 

Later that night, after the police have combed the house for clues and Mark's body has been taken to the morgue, Lt Anderson remains to make sure all the windows and doors are locked. As he checks the rooms, he doesn't notice that Warner is watching him. After the ladies have gone to sleep, Cornelia and Lizzie in one room, Judy and Dale in another, The Bat comes in through the unlocked front door. First, he cuts the phone line. He then goes up to the third floor and into a storage room where he starts tapping on the walls. The noise wakes up Judy and Dale. Thinking she may be able to find the hidden money and clear her husband, Dale sneaks up to the third floor. The Bat locks her in the room and runs downstairs. On the way down, he runs into Judy and kills her, then he flees out the front door, after first being struck in the neck by a poker thrown by Cornelia.

 

Shortly thereafter, Lt Andy comes in the front door. He explains that he was chasing someone on the grounds and asks as to the whereabouts of Warner the chauffeur. Warner suddenly comes in the front door and explains that he was following Anderson when he was suddenly hit on the head. It's then that Anderson remembers seeing a wanted poster with Warner's picture on it, but Warner says that he was tried and acquitted. He vehemently denies being The Bat. Suddenly, Dr Wells walks in the front door. He had an accident about a mile down the road, he says, and walked back to the house to use the phone. Andy notices blood on Wells' neck. Hmmm, could Dr Wells be The Bat?

 

Several nights later, after the house had been searched from top to bottom without finding any money or a hidden room, Cornelia decides to conduct an investigation of her own. When the detective on duty falls asleep in his chair, Cornelia goes up to the third floor to look around in the storage room where The Bat was tapping on the walls. Measuring the distance between the storage room and the room next to it, Cornelia notices a loss of about five feet between the two rooms. She pounds on the walls, then on the panels of a fireplace. Suddenly, one of the panels opens up, revealing a switch that allows the fireplace to swing open. Cornelia has found the hidden room. It is empty, except for a safe in the wall. As she kneels before the safe, the fireplace swings closed, trapping her in the room.

 

Meanwhile, The Bat has gone to Dr Wells' lab where he hangs a note on the wall. It says: "Here lies The Bat -- threatened with exposure he destroyed himself." As The Bat turns around, Wells walks into the room with his gun drawn. The doctor taunts The Bat with the fact that he knows where the money is hidden and that he's going to shoot The Bat and put his own sign on his own chest. Just as Wells cocks the gun, The Bat leaps at him. They struggle, the gun goes off, and it is Wells who is shot.

 

Cornelia's pounding on the walls wakes Lizzie, who notices that Cornelia's bed is empty. She goes down to the parlor and tries to wake up Detective Davenport [Robert Williams], only to find him drugged into sleep. Lizzie wakes the maid who goes to get Warner, only to find him missing. The detective calls headquarters to alert Lt Anderson only to find that he's been sent to investigate the death of Dr Wells. The three of them -- Lizzie, Jane, and Davenport -- look outside for Cornelia, but she doesn't answer their calls. Suddenly, Lizzie notices a light on the third floor and redirects everyone up there. The air in the hidden room is rapidly depleting. Cornelia can barely manage call out. She tells them to hit the panels over the fireplace and then passes out. Lizzie gives each panel a pound, finds the switch, and opens the fireplace just in the nick of time.

 

Outside the house, The Bat is slinking around in the bushes. He has started the garage on fire, but Cornelia is wise to him. That fire was set to get us out of the house, she tells everyone. Instead of leaving, they turn out the lights and wait. A few minutes later, The Bat appears. When The Bat enters the hidden room, Davenport fires a shot. But The Bat is quicker and shoots Davenport. He then turns to the ladies who are hiding behind some boxes. Just as he's about to open fire on the ladies, he is shot from behind. Warner enters the room, his gun smoking. They remove the hood from over the Bat's face to find ...

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on authentic facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The Austrian Air Force in its current form was created in May 1955 by the victorious Allied powers, subject to restrictions on its use of guided missiles. The Austrian State Treaty of 1955 committed Austria to permanent neutrality. Pilot training started out with a four Yak-11 Moose and four Yak-18 Max aircraft donated by the Soviet Union, and Austria purchased further light trainer types under the Military Assistance Program. Until 1960 Austria purchased training and support aircraft under the MAP, but no modern fighter aircraft; the role of a fighter was rather inadequately filled by thirty already outdated Saab 29 Tunnan, bought second-hand from the Swedish Air Force in the early 1960s which equipped two fighter bomber squadrons.

 

To expand its capabilities and modernize the fleet, Austria purchased from 1970 on a total of 40 Saab 105 lightweight multi-role aircraft from Sweden with the intention to deploy them in trainer, reconnaissance, ground attack and even interception roles. As it became clear in the 1980s that the light sub-sonic aircraft were inadequate for air combat and airspace interdiction, Austria started looking for a more capable aircraft. In 1984, Austria had devised a two-phase solution to its problem: buying 30 interim aircrafts cheaply as a stopgap and then trading them back for a new generation aircraft in the early or mid-Nineties.

 

International response was quick and manifold: Bristol Aerospace offered initially ex RAF Jaguars to be replaced by Tornado F.3 or even Eurofighters; Saab-Scania offered between 24 and 30 former Royal Swedish Air Force J 35D Draken, followed by Saab J 39 Gripen as future substitutes; General-Electric suggested downgraded F-16/79 or F-16A for phase one and an option for the same aircraft in a more modern variant for phase two; Northrop’s numberF-5E was another alternative for phase one. Dassault was also present with refurbished Mirage III initially, followed by Mirage 2000.

 

Finding the most suitable option in this mass was not easy, and eventually a surprising deal materialized: In 1985 the contract for the sale of twenty-four Lightning F.56 fighters plus four T.55 trainers was signed by the SPÖ/FPÖ government under Fred Sinowatz. The background: Saudi Arabia had been operating thirty-four F.53 single-seaters and six T.55 trainers since 1967 and was about to retire its fleet, which was still in very good condition and with a reasonable number of flying hours left on many airframes. The aircraft would be refurbished directly at BAe in Great Britain with the option to switch to the Tornado ADV or its successor, the Eurofighter Typhoon, later.

 

The Lightning F.53 was an export version of the RAF’s F.6, but with a multi-role mission profile in mind that included, beyond the primary interceptor mission with guided missiles or internal guns, the capability to carry out interdiction/ground attacks and reconnaissance missions. To carry a suitable ordnance load, the F.53 featured additional underwing pylons for bombs or unguided rocket pods. Instead of the standard Firestreak/Red Top AAM missile station in the lower front fuselage, two retractable panniers with a total of forty-four unguided 50 mm rockets, which were effective against both ground and aerial targets, could be installed, or, alternatively, two camera packs (one with five cameras and another with a rotating camera mount) was available for tactical photo reconnaissance missions. Overwing hardpoints, adapted from the Lightning F.6, allowed to carry auxiliary fuel tanks to increase range/endurance, additional rocket pods or even retarded bombs.

The Lightning T.55 was also an export variant, a two-seat side-by-side training aircraft, and virtually identical to the T.5, which itself was based on the older F.3 fighter variant, and fully combat-capable.

 

The Saudi Arabian multi-role F.53s had served in the ground-attack and reconnaissance roles as well as an air defense fighter, with Lightnings of No. 6 Squadron RSAF carrying out ground-attack missions using rockets and bombs during a border dispute with South Yemen between December 1969 and May 1970. Saudi Arabia received Northrop F-5E fighters from 1971, which resulted in the Lightnings relinquishing the ground-attack mission, concentrating on air defense, and to a lesser extent, reconnaissance. Until 1982, Saudi Arabia's Lightnings were mainly operated by 2 and 6 Squadron RSAF (although a few were also used by 13 Squadron RSAF), but when 6 Squadron re-equipped with the F-15 Eagle from 1978 on, all the remaining aircraft were concentrated and operated by 2 Squadron at Tabuk. In 1985, as part of the agreement to sell the Panavia Tornado (both IDS and ADV versions) to the RSAF, the Lightnings were traded in to British Aerospace, returned to Warton for refurbishment and re-sold to Austria.

 

While the Saudi Arabian Lightnings’ hardware was in very good shape, the Austrian Bundesluftwaffe requested some modifications, including a different missile armament: instead of the maintenance-heavy British Firestreak/Red Top AAMs, the Lightnings were to be armed with simpler, lighter and more economical IR-guided AIM-9 Sidewinder AAMs which were already in the Austrian Air Force’s inventory. Two of these missiles were carried on single launch rails on the lower forward fuselage; an additional pair of Sidewinders could also be carried on the outer underwing stations, for a total of four. The F.53s’ optional retractable unguided rocket panniers were dropped altogether in favor of a permanent avionics bay for the Sidewinders in its place. However, to carry out tactical reconnaissance tasks (formerly executed by J 29Fs with a removable camera pod instead of the portside gun bay), four Austrian Lightnings frequently had one of the optional camera compartments installed, thereby losing the capability to deploy Sidewinders, though.

 

Among other things, the machines were furthermore upgraded with new bird strike-proof cockpit glazing, avionics were modernized, and several other minor customer requests were adopted, like a 0.6-megacandela night identification light. This spotlight is mounted in the former portside gun bay in front of the cockpit, and an anti-glare panel was added under the windscreen.

The fixed in-flight refueling probe was deleted, as this was not deemed necessary anymore since the Lightnings would exclusively operate within neutral Austria’s borders. The probes could, however, be re-installed, even though the Austrian pilots would not receive on-flight refueling training. The Lightnings' optional 260 imp gal overwing tanks were retained since they were considered to be sufficient for extended subsonic air patrols or eventual ferry flights.

 

The refurbished Lightnings were re-designated F.56 and delivered in batches of four between 1987 and 1989 to the Austrian Air Force’s 1st and then 2nd Fighter Squadrons, carrying a grey air superiority paint scheme. At that time, the airframes had between 1,550 and 2,800 flight hours and all had a general overhaul behind them. In 1991, the Lightings were joined by eighteen German ex-NVA-LSK MiG-23s, which were transferred to Austrian Air Force's ‘Fliegerwerft B’ at Nittner Air Base, where they'd be overhauled and updated with NATO-compatible equipment. As MiG-23Ö they were exclusively used as interceptors, too.

 

Shortly after their introduction, the Austrian Lightnings saw their first major use in airspace interdiction starting 1991 during the Yugoslav Wars, when Yugoslav MiG-21 fighters frequently crossed the Austrian border without permission. In one incident on 28 June a MiG-21 penetrated as far as Graz, causing widespread demands for action. Following repeated border crossings by armed aircraft of the Yugoslav People's Army, changes were suggested to the standing orders for aircraft armament.

 

With more and more practice and frequent interceptions one of the Lightning's basic flaws became apparent: its low range. Even though the Lightning had a phenomenal acceleration and rate of climb, this was only achieved in a relatively clean configuration - intercepting intruders was one thing but escorting them back to the Austrian border or an assigned airfield, as well as standing air patrols, were a different thing. With more tactical experience, the overwing tanks were taken back into service, even though they were so draggy that their range benefit was ultimately zero when the aircraft would use its afterburners during a typical interception mission. Therefore, the Austrian QRA Lightnings were typically operated in pairs: one clean and only lightly armed (typically with the guns and a pair of AIM-9s), to make a quick approach for visual intruder identification and contact, while a second aircraft with extra fuel would follow at high subsonic speed and eventually take over and escort the intruder. Airspace patrol was primarily executed with the MiG-23Ö, because it had a much better endurance, thanks to its VG wings, even though the Floggers had a poor service record, and their maintenance became ever more complicated.

 

After more experience, the Austrian Lightnings received in 1992 new ALR-45 radar detectors in a fairing on the fin top as well as chaff and flare dispenser systems, and the communication systems were upgraded, too. In 2004 the installation of Garmin 295 moving map navigation devices followed, even though this turned out to be a negligible update: on December 22, 2005, the active service life and thus military use of the Lightnings in general ended, and Austria was the last country to decommission the type, more than 50 years after the first flight of the prototype on August 4, 1954.

The Austrian Lightnings’ planned service period of 10 years was almost doubled, though, due to massive delays with the Eurofighter’s development: In 2002, Austria had already selected the Typhoon as its new “Phase II” air defense aircraft, having beaten the F-16 and the Saab Gripen in competition, and its introduction had been expected to occur from early 2005 on, so that the Lightnings could be gradually phased out. The purchase of 18 Typhoons was agreed on 1 July 2003, but it would take until 12 July 2007 that the first Typhoon would eventually be delivered to Zeltweg Air Base and formally enter service with the Austrian Air Force. This operational gap had to be bridged with twelve F-5E leased from Switzerland for EUR 75 mio., so that Quick Reaction Alert (QRA) duties for the Austrian airspace could be continued.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: 1

Length: 55 ft 3 in (16.84 m)

Wingspan: 34 ft 10 in (10.62 m)

Height: 19 ft 7 in (5.97 m)

Wing area: 474.5 sq ft (44.08 m²)

Empty weight: 31,068 lb (14,092 kg) with armament and no fuel

Gross weight: 41,076 lb (18,632 kg) with two AIM-9B, cannon, ammunition, and internal fuel

Max takeoff weight: 45,750 lb (20,752 kg)

 

Powerplant:

2× Rolls-Royce Avon 301R afterburning turbojet engines,

12,690 lbf (56.4 kN) thrust each dry, 16,360 lbf (72.8 kN) with afterburner

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: Mach 2.27 (1,500 mph+ at 40,000 ft)

Range: 738 nmi (849 mi, 1,367 km)

Combat range: 135 nmi (155 mi, 250 km) supersonic intercept radius

Range: 800 nmi (920 mi, 1,500 km) with internal fuel

1,100 nmi (1,300 mi; 2,000 km) with external overwing tanks

Service ceiling: 60,000 ft (18,000 m)

Zoom ceiling: 70,000 ft (21,000 m)

Rate of climb: 20,000 ft/min (100 m/s) sustained to 30,000 ft (9,100 m)

Zoom climb: 50,000 ft/min

Time to altitude: 2.8 min to 36,000 ft (11,000 m)

Wing loading: 76 lb/sq ft (370 kg/m²) with two AIM-9 and 1/2 fuel

Thrust/weight: 0.78 (1.03 empty)

 

Armament:

2× 30 mm (1.181 in) ADEN cannon with 120 RPG in the lower fuselage

2× forward fuselage hardpoints for a single AIM-9 Sidewinder AAM each

2× underwing hardpoints for 1.000 lb (454 kg) each

2× overwing pylon stations for 2.000 lb (907 kg each),

typically occupied with 260 imp gal (310 US gal; 1,200 l) ferry tanks

  

The kit and its assembly:

This was another submission to the “Hunter, Lightning and Canberra” group build at whatifmodellers.com in 2022 and intended as a rather simple build since it was based on an alternate reality plot: the weird story that Austria was offered a revamped fleet of ex-Saudi Arabian Lightnings is true(!), but the decision eventually fell in favor of revamped Saab J 35Ds from Sweden. For this what-if build I used the real historic timeline, replaced the aircraft, and built both story and model around this – and the result became the BAC Lightning F.56 in Austrian Air Force service.

 

Initially I wanted to use an Airfix BAC Lightning in The Stash™, a really nice model kit and a relatively new mold, but it turned out to be the kit’s F.2A variant. While very similar to the F.6, changing it into a F.53 analogue with the OOB parts turned out to be too complex for my taste. For instance, the F.2A kit lacks the ventral gun bay (it just comes with the auxiliary tank option since the guns are already located in front of the cockpit) and the cable conduits on the lower flanks. Procuring a suitable and priceworthy Airfix F.6 turned out to be impossible, but then I remembered a Hasegawa Lightning F.6 in The Stash™ that I had shot at ev!lbay many moons ago for a laughable price and without a concrete plan. However, this kit is pretty old: it has raised (yet quite fine, less robust than the Matchbox kit) panel lines and even comes with a pilot figure, but also many weak spots like the air intake and the jet exhausts that end in flat walls after some millimeters depth and a very basic cockpit. But for this rather simple what-if project the kit appeared to be a suitable basis, and it would eventually find a good use.

 

The Hasegawa Lightning was basically built OOB, even though I made some cosmetic amendments like a better seat for the pilot, hydraulic fluid lines on the landing gear made from wire or opening the flat walls inside of the air intake opening and the jet nozzles. Behind the radome, a simple splitter plate was added as well as a recessed bulkhead in front of an implanted Me 262 cockpit tub (the Hasegawa kit just offers a bare floor panel, nothing else!), the afterburners were extended inwards with parts from a Matchbox A.W. Meteor night fighter.

 

The Red Top AAMs and the in-flight refueling probe were omitted. Instead, I added extra F.53-style forward-swept pylons under the outer wings, scratched from 1.5 mm styrene sheet due to their odd, raked shape, and I added Sidewinder launch rails plus suitable missiles from a Hasegawa air-to-air weapons set to all four stations. After long consideration I also retained the ‘overburger’ tanks, partly because of the unique layout on the Lightning, and also because of operational considerations.

Chaff dispensers were scratched from styrene profiles and placed at the fin’s base. A fairing for the retrofitted radar warning sensor was added to the fin tip, created from 1.5 mm styrene sheet.

  

Painting and markings:

To reflect the “alternate reality” role of the Lightning I gave the model a livery similar to the Saab J 35Ö that were actually procured: an adaptation of the USAF “Egypt One” scheme, carried primarily by the USAF F-16s. Adapting this simple three-tone camouflage from the flat F-16 to the Draken was easy and straightforward, but applying it to a Lightning with its many vertical surfaces turned out to be a tough challenge. I eventually came up with a paint scheme that reminds of the late RAF low-viz Lightning liveries, which existed in a wide range of patterns and graduations of grey.

 

The colors were authentic, FS 36118, 36270 and 36375 (using Humbrol 125, 126 and 127), and I decided to emphasize the camouflage of the flanks against the horizon, so that the vertical surfaces and the fin became FS 36270. The undersides of wings, stabilizers and fuselage became FS 36375. The dark FS 36118 was only applied to the upper sides of the wings and the stabilizer, and to a high dorsal section, starting at the wing roots. As a small contrast, the tank area on the spine was painted in light grey, simulating unpainted fiber glass. The radome was painted with a streaky mix of Humbrol 155 and 56.

 

As usual, the model received a light black ink washing, some post-panel-shading in lighter tones, and, due to the raised panel lines, was very lightly rubbed with graphite. The cockpit interior was painted in medium grey (Revell 47) with an olive drab fabric fairing behind the black pilot seat, which received ejection handles made from thin wire as eye candy. The landing gear and the respective wells were painted in Humbrol 56 (Aluminum Dope).

 

The decals are a wild mix: The fuselage roundels are actually wing markings from a Hasegawa J 35OE, as well as the huge orange "06" on the wings (I could not resist; they will later be partly obscured by the overwing tanks, but the heck with it!). The roundels on the wings come from a generic TL Modellbau sheet - I found that I needed larger markings than those on the Draken.

Both unit and individual aircraft identifiers are single black DIN font digits, also from TL Modellbau. The unit badges on the fin are authentic, even though from an earlier era: they came from an Austrian J 29 of Fliegerregiment 2 from a PrintScale sheet, and all stencils were taken from the OOB low-viz RAF markings sheet, plus four small warning triangles for the underwing pylons.

  

A ‘what-if’ model in the purest sense, since this model depicts what could really have been: ex Saudi-Arabian export BAC Lightnings over the Austrian Alps! However, refurbished Saab J 35D Draken made the race (and later followed by the Eurofighter Typhoon at ‘Stage 2’), so that this Lightning remains fictional. It does not look bad in the ‘Egypt One’ paint scheme, though, better than expected!

Gautama Buddha

place of birth: Lumbini in todays Nepal

place of meditation and enlightenment: Bodgaya

place of death: Kushinagar

 

It is possible to visit all three historical places of Gautama Buddha in one day. I did so.

______________________________________________

 

Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama, Shakyamuni, or simply the Buddha, was a sage on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in northeastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.

 

The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in a Yuga era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of the present age. Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the śramaṇa movement common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kosala.

 

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.

 

CONTENTS

HISTORICAL SIDDHARTA GAUTAMA

Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajasattu, who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain tirthankara. Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, the Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential śramaṇa schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jainism, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahavira, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints the Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by. Indeed, Sariputta and Moggallāna, two of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, were formerly the foremost disciples of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, the skeptic. There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques. While the general sequence of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" is widely accepted, there is less consensus on the veracity of many details contained in traditional biographies.

 

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE. More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death. These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.

 

The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE. It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch. According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in the Shakya capital of Kapilavastu, which may have been in either present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India. He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagar.

 

No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One Edict of Asoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edicts mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Maurya era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Gāndhārī language using the Kharosthi script on twenty-seven birch bark manuscripts and date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.

 

TRADITIONAL BIOGRAPHIES

BIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES

The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā. Of these, the Buddhacarita is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE. The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE. The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE. The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra, and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. The Nidānakathā is from the Theravada tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century by Buddhaghoṣa.

 

From canonical sources, the Jataka tales, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts. The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from the Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.

 

NATURE OF TRADITIONAL DEPICTIONS

In the earliest Buddhists texts, the nikāyas and āgamas, the Buddha is not depicted as possessing omniscience (sabbaññu) nor is he depicted as being an eternal transcendent (lokottara) being. According to Bhikkhu Analayo, ideas of the Buddha's omniscience (along with an increasing tendency to deify him and his biography) are found only later, in the Mahayana sutras and later Pali commentaries or texts such as the Mahāvastu. In the Sandaka Sutta, the Buddha's disciple Ananda outlines an argument against the claims of teachers who say they are all knowing while in the Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta the Buddha himself states that he has never made a claim to being omniscient, instead he claimed to have the "higher knowledges" (abhijñā). The earliest biographical material from the Pali Nikayas focuses on the Buddha's life as a śramaṇa, his search for enlightenment under various teachers such as Alara Kalama and his forty five year career as a teacher.

 

Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supra-mundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma". Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

 

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist. British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure. Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.

 

BIOGRAPHY

CONCEPTION AND BIRTH

The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, in present-day Nepal to be the birthplace of the Buddha. He grew up in Kapilavastu. The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India, or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal. Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.

 

Gautama was born as a Kshatriya, the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan", whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Maya (Māyādevī), Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side, and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

 

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak. Buddha's Birthday is called Buddha Purnima in Nepal and India as he is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great sadhu. By traditional account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. Kondañña, the youngest, and later to be the first arhat other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.

 

While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Suryavansha (Solar dynasty) of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

 

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition. The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic. The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the śramanic Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.

 

EARLY LIFE AND MARRIAGE

Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati. By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.

 

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account, she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.

 

RENUNCIATION AND ASCETIC LIFE

At the age of 29, the popular biography continues, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome aging, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.

 

Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a mendicant. It's said that, "the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods" to prevent guards from knowing of his departure.

 

Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment.

 

He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation. After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice, and moved on to become a student of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rāmaputra). With him he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.

 

Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha was rescued by a village girl named Sujata and she gave him some payasam (a pudding made from milk and jaggery) after which Siddhartha got back some energy. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's ploughing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhāna.

 

AWAKENING

According to the early Buddhist texts, after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way - a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata. Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.

 

Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree - now known as the Bodhi tree - in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth. Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment. According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

 

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths", which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states, or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

 

According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) - a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons - immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.

 

FORMATION OF THE SANGHA

After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan - who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

 

He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.

 

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.

 

TRAVELS AND TEACHING

For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.

 

The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.

 

The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

 

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

 

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:

 

"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."

 

The Buddha is said to have replied:

 

"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."

 

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.

 

Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

 

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.

 

MAHAPARINIRVANA

According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha. Mettanando and Von Hinüber argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning. The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns.

 

Waley suggests that Theravadin's would take suukaramaddava (the contents of the Buddha's last meal), which can translate as pig-soft, to mean soft flesh of a pig. However, he also states that pig-soft could mean "pig's soft-food", that is, after Neumann, a soft food favoured by pigs, assumed to be a truffle. He argues (also after Neumann) that as Pali Buddhism was developed in an area remote to the Buddha's death, the existence of other plants with suukara- (pig) as part of their names and that "(p)lant names tend to be local and dialectical" could easily indicate that suukaramaddava was a type of plant whose local name was unknown to those in the Pali regions. Specifically, local writers knew more about their flora than Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa who lived hundreds of years and kilometres remote in time and space from the events described. Unaware of an alternate meaning and with no Theravadin prohibition against eating animal flesh, Theravadins would not have questioned the Buddha eating meat and interpreted the term accordingly.

 

Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Kuśināra (present-day Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. The Buddha, however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king that resounded with joy:

 

44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds - the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of "Eat, drink, and be merry!"

 

The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All composite things (Saṅkhāra) are perishable. Strive for your own liberation with diligence" (Pali: 'vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā'). His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present.

 

According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa, the coronation of Emperor Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of the Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese (十八部論 and 部執異論), the coronation of Emperor Aśoka is 116 years after the death of the Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign of Emperor Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, the date of the Buddha's death is 13 May 544 BCE. whereas in Thai tradition it is 11 March 545 BCE.

 

At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two chief disciples Maudgalyayana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha.

 

While in the Buddha's days he was addressed by the very respected titles Buddha, Shākyamuni, Shākyasimha, Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana as Arihant, Bhagavā/Bhagavat/Bhagwān, Mahāvira, Jina/Jinendra, Sāstr, Sugata, and most popularly in scriptures as Tathāgata.

 

BUDDHA AND VEDAS

Buddha's teachings deny the authority of the Vedas and consequently [at least atheistic] Buddhism is generally viewed as a nāstika school (heterodox, literally "It is not so") from the perspective of orthodox Hinduism.

 

RELICS

After his death, Buddha's cremation relics were divided amongst 8 royal families and his disciples; centuries later they would be enshrined by King Ashoka into 84,000 stupas. Many supernatural legends surround the history of alleged relics as they accompanied the spread of Buddhism and gave legitimacy to rulers.

 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

An extensive and colorful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the 32 Signs of the Great Man".

 

The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive." (D, I:115)

 

"It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant." (A, I:181)

 

A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by the Buddha's physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances.

 

Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikaya's Lakkhaṇa Sutta (D, I:142). In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, Narasīha Gāthā ("The Lion of Men").

 

Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.

 

NINE VIRTUES

Recollection of nine virtues attributed to the Buddha is a common Buddhist meditation and devotional practice called Buddhānusmṛti. The nine virtues are also among the 40 Buddhist meditation subjects. The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the Tipitaka, and include:

 

- Buddho – Awakened

- Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened

- Vijja-carana-sampano – Endowed with higher knowledge and ideal conduct.

- Sugato – Well-gone or Well-spoken.

- Lokavidu – Wise in the knowledge of the many worlds.

- Anuttaro Purisa-damma-sarathi – Unexcelled trainer of untrained people.

- Satthadeva-Manussanam – Teacher of gods and humans.

- Bhagavathi – The Blessed one

- Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is "one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is completely liberated through final knowledge."

 

TEACHINGS

TRACING THE OLDEST TEACHINGS

Information of the oldest teachings may be obtained by analysis of the oldest texts. One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pali Canon and other texts. The reliability of these sources, and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute. According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.

 

According to Schmithausen, three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:

 

"Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials;"

"Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism;"

"Cautious optimism in this respect."

 

DHYANA AND INSIGHT

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight. Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36

 

CORE TEACHINGS

According to Tilmann Vetter, the core of earliest Buddhism is the practice of dhyāna. Bronkhorst agrees that dhyana was a Buddhist invention, whereas Norman notes that "the Buddha's way to release [...] was by means of meditative practices." Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development.

 

According to the Mahāsaccakasutta, from the fourth jhana the Buddha gained bodhi. Yet, it is not clear what he was awakened to. "Liberating insight" is a later addition to this text, and reflects a later development and understanding in early Buddhism. The mentioning of the four truths as constituting "liberating insight" introduces a logical problem, since the four truths depict a linear path of practice, the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating:

 

[T]hey do not teach that one is released by knowing the four noble truths, but by practicing the fourth noble truth, the eightfold path, which culminates in right samadhi.

 

Although "Nibbāna" (Sanskrit: Nirvāna) is the common term for the desired goal of this practice, many other terms can be found throughout the Nikayas, which are not specified.

 

According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term "the middle way". In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold path.

 

According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the four truths became a substitution for prajna, or "liberating insight", in the suttas in those texts where "liberating insight" was preceded by the four jhanas. According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight". Gotama's teachings may have been personal, "adjusted to the need of each person."

 

The three marks of existence may reflect Upanishadic or other influences. K.R. Norman supposes that these terms were already in use at the Buddha's time, and were familiar to his listeners.

 

The Brahma-vihara was in origin probably a brahmanic term; but its usage may have been common to the Sramana traditions.

  

LATER DEVELOPMENTS

In time, "liberating insight" became an essential feature of the Buddhist tradition. The following teachings, which are commonly seen as essential to Buddhism, are later formulations which form part of the explanatory framework of this "liberating insight":

 

- The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and fear of annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish this;

- The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration;

- Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process.

 

OTHER RELIGIONS

Some Hindus regard Gautama as the 9th avatar of Vishnu. The Buddha is also regarded as a prophet by the Ahmadiyya Muslims and a Manifestation of God in the Bahá'í Faith. Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Lao Tzu.

 

The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisattva via Arabic Būdhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph. The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha. Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November) — though not in the Roman Missal — and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August).

 

Disciples of the Cao Đài religion worship the Buddha as a major religious teacher. His image can be found in both their Holy See and on the home altar. He is revealed during communication with Divine Beings as son of their Supreme Being (God the Father) together with other major religious teachers and founders like Jesus, Laozi, and Confucius.

 

In the ancient Gnostic sect of Manichaeism the Buddha is listed among the prophets who preached the word of God before Mani.

 

WIKIPEDIA

GOVERNOR TOMBLIN DELIVERS STATE OF THE STATE ADDRESS

 

Address highlights top priorities and key pieces of legislation

 

CHARLESTON, W.Va. (January 13, 2016) - Gov. Earl Ray Tomblin today delivered the 2016 State of the State Address in the House Chamber at the State Capitol Complex.

  

Gov. Tomblin's remarks included an overview of new programs and initiatives related to his top priorities as governor, as well as a number of new pieces of legislation he plans to introduce during the 2016 Legislative Session.

  

Since becoming governor in November 2010, Gov. Tomblin has focused on issues such as workforce development, combatting substance abuse, responsible fiscal policies and job creation. Following are highlights from the State of the State speech and other legislative initiatives of Gov. Tomblin.

 

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

 

Gov. Tomblin has worked to create a positive business climate now and for decades to come, and he remains committed to working with business and industry leaders from a variety of industries to create new investments and bring jobs to West Virginia. Companies from across the nation and around the world are noticing the changes the state has made, and nationally and internationally recognized companies - including Macy's Amazon, Quad Graphics, Hino Motors, Diamond Electric, Toyota and Procter and Gamble - have chosen to locate, expand and invest in West Virginia.

  

Tonight, Gov. Tomblin added another company to the list of those that have committed to West Virginia. During the address, Gov. Tomblin announced polymer additive manufacturer Addivant has decided to stay and expand operations in Morgantown, saving nearly 100 jobs and adding at least $12 million in new investments and additional opportunities for employment.

  

While these large investments are a vital part of West Virginia's long-term success, Gov. Tomblin is also committed to ensuring small business owners have a chance to excel and grow. Tonight, Gov. Tomblin introduced the Self-Employment Assistance Act, designed to make it easier for unemployed West Virginians to get the help they need to open a business. The act allows entrepreneurs to continue receiving unemployment benefits while establishing their new business. This helps owners reinvest in their new venture and employees, while also providing a steady source of financial support for their families.

 

WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT

 

In working to bring new investments and create jobs, Gov. Tomblin has also made it a top priority to ensure these jobs are filled by skilled and well-trained West Virginians. With the help of his Workforce Planning Council, Gov. Tomblin has established new workforce development programs and strengthened existing initiatives to meet the needs of business and industry operating here. The state has received more than $40 million in federal grant funding to support Workforce West Virginia operations across the state, helping coal miners, their families, and those who have exhausted their unemployment benefits find careers in growing industries.

  

Through a collaborative partnership among business, industry, education and labor leaders, Gov. Tomblin has established a new Regional Job Matching Database, an online source for both educational program listings and employment opportunities available close to people's homes. This database will help match students with training programs in critical needs areas and connect them with employers seeking those same skills.

  

In addition, Gov. Tomblin also plans to introduce legislation that will expand the West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources' (WVDHHR) Temporary Assistance to Need Families (TANF) pilot program. Through a partnership with the WVDHHR and Southern West Virginia Community and Technical College, the pilot program was designed to help West Virginians already receiving TANF benefits enroll in college courses, get access to financial aid and work with advisors to begin a new career path to support themselves and their families. With this program expansion, more West Virginians will receive the help and support they need to become productive, successful members of their local communities.

 

STRENGTHENING SOUTHERN WEST VIRGINIA

 

Gov. Tomblin has dedicated much of his public service to supporting West Virginia's coal miners and their families. In recent years, both the state and nation have experienced unprecedented downturns in this industry, adversely affecting local operations and devastating the lives of many hardworking West Virginians.

 

Tonight, Gov. Tomblin highlighted ongoing efforts to support and strengthen all those affected by the downturn in the coal industry. The state has submitted an application to the National Disaster Resilience Competition (NDRC), seeking more than $140 million in funding from the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development. This competition has the potential to help Boone, Lincoln, Logan, Mingo, McDowell and Wyoming counties adjust, adapt and advance their communities. If successful, funding will be allocated to help repair and rebuild aging infrastructure, promote land use planning and hazard reduction efforts and stimulate housing and economic development in the region.

  

Gov. Tomblin tonight also announced plans to develop of the largest industrial site in West Virginia history - the former Hobet surface mine in Boone and Lincoln counties. At 12,000 acres, this property is large enough to fit every major economic development project in recent history - with thousands of acres left over. The state is working in partnership with local landowners, Marshall University, West Virginia University and the Virginia Conservation Legacy Fund to find ways to re-develop this site and diversify southern West Virginia's economy.

 

ENERGY

 

In working to ensure West Virginia's energy sector is strong and diverse, Gov. Tomblin has also worked hard to support development of West Virginia's abundant Marcellus, Utica and Rogersville shale formations. Tonight, Gov. Tomblin stressed the need to create the processing and pipeline infrastructure necessary to ensure this industry's continued growth now and for years to come, highlighting major investment projects such as the Columbia Gas Mountaineer Xpress pipeline.

  

Gov. Tomblin also announced that while the Department of Environmental Protection continues to work on a feasibility study related to the state's Clean Power Plan Submission, it's likely that plan will include items such as reforestation and replacement of boilers to improve the efficiency of existing coal-fired power plans.

 

TACKLING SUBSTANCE ABUSE

 

Gov. Tomblin has made combatting the state's substance abuse epidemic a top priority of his administration. As communities and families across West Virginia continue to battle substance abuse from a number of fronts, Gov. Tomblin has invested a significant amount of time and funding to strengthen community-based treatment options and programs to give those struggling hope and get them on the road to recovery.

  

Tonight, Gov. Tomblin introduced legislation to support ongoing substance abuse efforts. He announced new licensing requirements for Suboxone and Methadone clinics, requiring medication-assisted treatment facilities to provide comprehensive therapies in coordination with medication to help to treat the root causes behind addictions, rather than simply supplying a short-term fix.

  

In addition, Gov. Tomblin introduced legislation to expand the Opioid Antagonist Act of 2015, making opioid antagonists, such as Narcan, available to any West Virginian without a prescription. This new legislation requires pharmacists to train those who receive this drug on how to administer opioid antagonists and helps the state track those receiving Narcan to help better focus state resources in areas hardest hit by opioid overdoses.

 

JUVENILE JUSTICE

 

Gov. Tomblin's juvenile justice reforms have also made a significant impact on our state's youth, as he has worked to improve outcomes for those currently in the juvenile justice system and provide early-intervention care to at-risk students to keep them in the classroom and out of the courtroom. During his address, Gov. Tomblin touted the success of 2015's Juvenile Justice Reform, specifically highlighting positive results of the truancy diversion program.

  

He also announced the Division of Juvenile Services has reduced the number of kids being sent to out-of-home placements by more than one-third and reduced the number of detention beds by more than 40 percent. So far the state has saved $6 million, and the Division of Juvenile Services is confident West Virginia can double that savings in coming years.

 

EDUCATION

 

Ensuring students remain in the classroom for 180 days of learning is just one of Gov. Tomblin's education priorities, as he is equally committed to ensuring West Virginia's education system stands ready to provide students with the thorough and efficient education they deserve. In addition, they should receive new learning opportunities that supply the skills and hands-on experience they need achieve long-term success in West Virginia.

  

To improve upon West Virginia's educational offerings, Gov. Tomblin has created the Innovation in Education Grant Program, which will not only supply students with special skills and hands-on training, but will also give them the opportunity to compete among their peers on a national and world-wide scale. This new program is designed to reward teachers and schools in West Virginia for innovation and creativity in the classroom. The reallocation of $2.8 million in existing West Virginia Department of Education money will support new classroom offerings that are designed to help students develop and gain these skills in high-demand fields, such as science, technology, engineering, math and entrepreneurship.

 

FISCAL RESPONSIBILITY

 

Throughout his administration, Gov. Tomblin has made sure to enact and uphold fiscally responsible policies. He understands the state is experiencing significant budget challenges, but remains committed to making difficult choices now that will help ensure West Virginia has a bright future now and for years to come.

 

Gov. Tomblin tonight introduced legislation to pay off West Virginia's old workers' compensation debt more than a decade ahead of schedule. This also will remove additional severance taxes on coal and natural gas industries earlier than anticipated, providing much-needed relief for energy businesses struggling with low prices.

  

In helping to ensure West Virginia's tax base is both stable and diverse, Gov. Tomblin tonight also proposed raising the state's tobacco tax by 45 cents to a total of $1 a pack. This increase will not only help discourage West Virginians from smoking or using tobacco products, it will also provide $71.5 million annually to support health-related costs. $43 million of this revenue will help fund PEIA, ensuring public employees do not see the dramatic benefit reductions initially proposed.

  

Gov. Tomblin also proposed legislation to eliminate a sale tax exemption that will bring our state's telecommunications tax in line with 41 other states across the country. This legislation will place the same 6 percent sales tax on cell phone and phone line usage and generate $60 million annually.

  

With these proposed changes, the 2017 budget Gov. Tomblin presented uses no money from the state's Rainy Day Fund and in fact predicts surpluses beginning in 2019.

  

Gov. Tomblin will also introduce the following pieces of legislation:

  

Workforce Innovation & Opportunity Act (WIOA) Reporting Update

 

Updates current West Virginia code to reflect 2014 federal law for compliance and continuation of federal funding from the U.S. Department of Labor.

 

Authorizes information sharing by Workforce West Virginia with the state agencies responsible for vocational rehabilitation, employment and training to better align the workforce system with education and economic development in an effort to create a collective response to economic and labor market challenges on the national, state and local levels.

 

West Virginia Workforce Development Board Updates

 

Updates the composition of the West Virginia Workforce Investment Council and changes its name to the West Virginia Workforce Development Board to comply with WIOA.

 

Borrowing from Rainy Day for Unemployment Compensation Fund

 

Authorizes borrowing in amount up to $25 million to provide additional funds for unemployment compensation.

 

Controlled Substances Monitoring Program (CSMP) Update Bill:

 

Requires practitioners (doctors, pharmacists and others) to register for the CSMP to obtain or renew a license.

 

Creates an administrative fine of $1,000 for failure to register for the CSMP, as well as an administrative fine of $500 for failure to access the CSMP as required.

 

Certificate of Need Exemption for Out-Patient Behavioral Health Community-Based Services

 

Exempts community-based behavioral health care facilities, programs or services from the certificate of need process contained in W.Va. Code 16-2D-1 et seq.

 

811 - One Call System

 

Makes underground pipelines of 4" in diameter and greater subject to "call before you dig" reporting if not otherwise required by state or federal law. Applies to gas, oil or any hazardous substance pipelines.

 

Membership in 811 requires an entity to provide mapping data indicating where their underground pipelines are located and to respond within the specified time periods when notified by the 811 administrator and be able to mark its underground pipes.

 

15 Minutes Rule

 

Requires that drilling, production and pipeline activities are subject to the state's 15-minute emergency notification law (WV Code 15-5B-3a (b)(1)).

 

Provisions apply to emergency events that involve a death or serious injuries, unplanned ignitions, fires or explosions and similar serious emergency events (confirmed emergencies) at drilling, production and pipeline sites.

 

Notification must be provided within 15 minutes to the West Virginia Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management and include preliminary information regarding the nature and extent of the emergency event, any existence or non-existence of threats to public health, substances involved or released and designated principal contact information.

 

Transportation Network Company Bill (TNC) - Uber/Lyft

 

Authorizes TNCs to operate in West Virginia by obtaining a permit from DMV.

 

Requires automobile insurance and uninsured and underinsured motorist coverage.

 

Requires a zero tolerance for drug and alcohol policy.

 

Requires TNCs to have a nondiscrimination policy and comply with nondiscrimination laws.

 

Office of Coalfield Community Development Bill

 

Continues the Office of Coalfield Community Development in Commerce (previously in Division of Energy)

 

Air Ambulance Bill

 

Provides air transportation or related emergency or treatment services providers operating in West Virginia from collecting more for service from PEIA covered persons than the currently allowable Medicare reimbursement rate.

 

Repeal Behavioral Health Severance & Privilege Tax

 

Eliminates the behavioral health severance and privilege tax and limits the sales tax exemption on durable medical goods to those purchased for home use only.

 

The change is believed to be revenue neutral and will help ensure continued federal matching funds for Medicaid and Medicare.

 

Reduce Required Annual Severance Tax Deposit to Infrastructure Bond Fund

 

Reduces the amount of severance tax proceeds deposited into the West Virginia Infrastructure General Obligation Debt Service Fund for payment of debt service on such bonds from $22.5 million annually to an amount equal to annual debt service, not to exceed $22.25 million annually.

 

Personal Income Tax update

 

Updates the Personal Income Tax code to be in compliance with federal tax laws

 

CNIT Update & Revised Filing Date

 

Updates the Corporate Net Income Tax code to be in compliance with federal tax laws.

 

Intermodal

 

Terminates funding of the Special Railroad and Intermodal Enhancement Fund beginning January 1, 2016. The source of funding is corporate net income taxes.

 

Racetrack and Historic Hotel Modernization Funds Cessation

 

Ends the Licensed Racetrack Modernization Fund and Historic Hotel Modernization Fund and moves all funds currently in such funds to the General Revenue Fund.

 

Cessation of Deposit into Road Fund from Sales Tax for FY2016

 

Eliminates for fiscal year 2016 the deposit of sales tax proceeds into the State Road Fund from sales of construction and maintenance materials acquired by a second party for use in the construction or maintenance of a highway project.

 

Such sales tax proceeds will be deposited into the General Revenue Fund in lieu of the State Road Fund.

 

State Aid Formula Changes

 

Eliminates the Growth County School Facilities Act, which allowed growth county boards of education to designate general fund revenues from new construction (increasing property taxes) for placement in a growth county school facilities act fund.

 

Adjusts the formulas for the foundation allowance for both professional educators and service personnel.

 

Adjusts and eliminates certain adjustments to the foundation allowance for transportation costs (increasing bus life from 12 to 15 years and mileage from 180,000 to 225,000 miles).

 

Adjusts the calculation for the foundation allowance to improve instructional programs.

 

Eliminates certain restrictions in the computation of the local share applicable to growth county schools.

 

Infrastructure Fund Excess Lottery Deposit Reduction

 

Decreases the annual deposit of Excess Lottery revenues to the Infrastructure Fund from $40 million to $30 million for fiscal year 2017.

 

Increases the percentage of funds that may be disbursed from the Infrastructure Fund in the form of grants from 20% to 50% for fiscal year 2017.

 

SBA Deposit Reduction

 

Decreases for fiscal year 2017 the annual deposit of sales tax proceeds into the School Building Authority's School Major Improvement Fund from $5 million to $4 million (was reduced for FY16 to $3 million).

 

Decreases for fiscal year 2017 the School Building Authority's School Construction Fund from $27,216,996 to $24,216,996 (was reduced for FY16 to $21,216,996).

  

Photos available for media use. All photos should be attributed “Photo courtesy of Office of the Governor.”

Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama, Shakyamuni, or simply the Buddha, was a sage on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in northeastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.

 

The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in a Yuga era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of the present age. Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the śramaṇa movement common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kosala.

 

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.

 

CONTENTS

HISTORICAL SIDDHARTA GAUTAMA

Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajasattu, who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain tirthankara. Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, the Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential śramaṇa schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jainism, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahavira, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints the Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by. Indeed, Sariputta and Moggallāna, two of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, were formerly the foremost disciples of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, the skeptic. There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques. While the general sequence of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" is widely accepted, there is less consensus on the veracity of many details contained in traditional biographies.

 

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE. More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death. These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.

 

The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE. It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch. According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in the Shakya capital of Kapilavastu, which may have been in either present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India. He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagar.

 

No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One Edict of Asoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edicts mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Maurya era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Gāndhārī language using the Kharosthi script on twenty-seven birch bark manuscripts and date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.

 

TRADITIONAL BIOGRAPHIES

BIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES

The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā. Of these, the Buddhacarita is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE. The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE. The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE. The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra, and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. The Nidānakathā is from the Theravada tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century by Buddhaghoṣa.

 

From canonical sources, the Jataka tales, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts. The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from the Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.

 

NATURE OF TRADITIONAL DEPICTIONS

In the earliest Buddhists texts, the nikāyas and āgamas, the Buddha is not depicted as possessing omniscience (sabbaññu) nor is he depicted as being an eternal transcendent (lokottara) being. According to Bhikkhu Analayo, ideas of the Buddha's omniscience (along with an increasing tendency to deify him and his biography) are found only later, in the Mahayana sutras and later Pali commentaries or texts such as the Mahāvastu. In the Sandaka Sutta, the Buddha's disciple Ananda outlines an argument against the claims of teachers who say they are all knowing while in the Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta the Buddha himself states that he has never made a claim to being omniscient, instead he claimed to have the "higher knowledges" (abhijñā). The earliest biographical material from the Pali Nikayas focuses on the Buddha's life as a śramaṇa, his search for enlightenment under various teachers such as Alara Kalama and his forty five year career as a teacher.

 

Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supra-mundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma". Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

 

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist. British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure. Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.

 

BIOGRAPHY

CONCEPTION AND BIRTH

The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, in present-day Nepal to be the birthplace of the Buddha. He grew up in Kapilavastu. The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India, or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal. Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.

 

Gautama was born as a Kshatriya, the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan", whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Maya (Māyādevī), Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side, and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

 

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak. Buddha's Birthday is called Buddha Purnima in Nepal and India as he is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great sadhu. By traditional account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. Kondañña, the youngest, and later to be the first arhat other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.

 

While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Suryavansha (Solar dynasty) of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

 

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition. The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic. The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the śramanic Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.

 

EARLY LIFE AND MARRIAGE

Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati. By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.

 

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account, she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.

 

RENUNCIATION AND ASCETIC LIFE

At the age of 29, the popular biography continues, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome aging, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.

 

Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a mendicant. It's said that, "the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods" to prevent guards from knowing of his departure.

 

Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment.

 

He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation. After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice, and moved on to become a student of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rāmaputra). With him he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.

 

Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha was rescued by a village girl named Sujata and she gave him some payasam (a pudding made from milk and jaggery) after which Siddhartha got back some energy. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's ploughing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhāna.

 

AWAKENING

According to the early Buddhist texts, after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way - a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata. Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.

 

Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree - now known as the Bodhi tree - in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth. Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment. According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

 

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths", which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states, or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

 

According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) - a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons - immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.

 

FORMATION OF THE SANGHA

After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan - who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

 

He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.

 

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.

 

TRAVELS AND TEACHING

For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.

 

The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.

 

The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

 

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

 

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:

 

"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."

 

The Buddha is said to have replied:

 

"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."

 

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.

 

Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

 

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.

 

MAHAPARINIRVANA

According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha. Mettanando and Von Hinüber argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning. The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns.

 

Waley suggests that Theravadin's would take suukaramaddava (the contents of the Buddha's last meal), which can translate as pig-soft, to mean soft flesh of a pig. However, he also states that pig-soft could mean "pig's soft-food", that is, after Neumann, a soft food favoured by pigs, assumed to be a truffle. He argues (also after Neumann) that as Pali Buddhism was developed in an area remote to the Buddha's death, the existence of other plants with suukara- (pig) as part of their names and that "(p)lant names tend to be local and dialectical" could easily indicate that suukaramaddava was a type of plant whose local name was unknown to those in the Pali regions. Specifically, local writers knew more about their flora than Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa who lived hundreds of years and kilometres remote in time and space from the events described. Unaware of an alternate meaning and with no Theravadin prohibition against eating animal flesh, Theravadins would not have questioned the Buddha eating meat and interpreted the term accordingly.

 

Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Kuśināra (present-day Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. The Buddha, however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king that resounded with joy:

 

44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds - the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of "Eat, drink, and be merry!"

 

The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All composite things (Saṅkhāra) are perishable. Strive for your own liberation with diligence" (Pali: 'vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā'). His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present.

 

According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa, the coronation of Emperor Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of the Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese (十八部論 and 部執異論), the coronation of Emperor Aśoka is 116 years after the death of the Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign of Emperor Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, the date of the Buddha's death is 13 May 544 BCE. whereas in Thai tradition it is 11 March 545 BCE.

 

At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two chief disciples Maudgalyayana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha.

 

While in the Buddha's days he was addressed by the very respected titles Buddha, Shākyamuni, Shākyasimha, Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana as Arihant, Bhagavā/Bhagavat/Bhagwān, Mahāvira, Jina/Jinendra, Sāstr, Sugata, and most popularly in scriptures as Tathāgata.

 

BUDDHA AND VEDAS

Buddha's teachings deny the authority of the Vedas and consequently [at least atheistic] Buddhism is generally viewed as a nāstika school (heterodox, literally "It is not so") from the perspective of orthodox Hinduism.

 

RELICS

After his death, Buddha's cremation relics were divided amongst 8 royal families and his disciples; centuries later they would be enshrined by King Ashoka into 84,000 stupas. Many supernatural legends surround the history of alleged relics as they accompanied the spread of Buddhism and gave legitimacy to rulers.

 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

An extensive and colorful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the 32 Signs of the Great Man".

 

The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive." (D, I:115)

 

"It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant." (A, I:181)

 

A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by the Buddha's physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances.

 

Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikaya's Lakkhaṇa Sutta (D, I:142). In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, Narasīha Gāthā ("The Lion of Men").

 

Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.

 

NINE VIRTUES

Recollection of nine virtues attributed to the Buddha is a common Buddhist meditation and devotional practice called Buddhānusmṛti. The nine virtues are also among the 40 Buddhist meditation subjects. The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the Tipitaka, and include:

 

- Buddho – Awakened

- Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened

- Vijja-carana-sampano – Endowed with higher knowledge and ideal conduct.

- Sugato – Well-gone or Well-spoken.

- Lokavidu – Wise in the knowledge of the many worlds.

- Anuttaro Purisa-damma-sarathi – Unexcelled trainer of untrained people.

- Satthadeva-Manussanam – Teacher of gods and humans.

- Bhagavathi – The Blessed one

- Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is "one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is completely liberated through final knowledge."

 

TEACHINGS

TRACING THE OLDEST TEACHINGS

Information of the oldest teachings may be obtained by analysis of the oldest texts. One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pali Canon and other texts. The reliability of these sources, and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute. According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.

 

According to Schmithausen, three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:

 

"Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials;"

"Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism;"

"Cautious optimism in this respect."

 

DHYANA AND INSIGHT

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight. Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36

 

CORE TEACHINGS

According to Tilmann Vetter, the core of earliest Buddhism is the practice of dhyāna. Bronkhorst agrees that dhyana was a Buddhist invention, whereas Norman notes that "the Buddha's way to release [...] was by means of meditative practices." Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development.

 

According to the Mahāsaccakasutta, from the fourth jhana the Buddha gained bodhi. Yet, it is not clear what he was awakened to. "Liberating insight" is a later addition to this text, and reflects a later development and understanding in early Buddhism. The mentioning of the four truths as constituting "liberating insight" introduces a logical problem, since the four truths depict a linear path of practice, the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating:

 

[T]hey do not teach that one is released by knowing the four noble truths, but by practicing the fourth noble truth, the eightfold path, which culminates in right samadhi.

 

Although "Nibbāna" (Sanskrit: Nirvāna) is the common term for the desired goal of this practice, many other terms can be found throughout the Nikayas, which are not specified.

 

According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term "the middle way". In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold path.

 

According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the four truths became a substitution for prajna, or "liberating insight", in the suttas in those texts where "liberating insight" was preceded by the four jhanas. According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight". Gotama's teachings may have been personal, "adjusted to the need of each person."

 

The three marks of existence may reflect Upanishadic or other influences. K.R. Norman supposes that these terms were already in use at the Buddha's time, and were familiar to his listeners.

 

The Brahma-vihara was in origin probably a brahmanic term; but its usage may have been common to the Sramana traditions.

  

LATER DEVELOPMENTS

In time, "liberating insight" became an essential feature of the Buddhist tradition. The following teachings, which are commonly seen as essential to Buddhism, are later formulations which form part of the explanatory framework of this "liberating insight":

 

- The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and fear of annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish this;

- The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration;

- Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process.

 

OTHER RELIGIONS

Some Hindus regard Gautama as the 9th avatar of Vishnu. The Buddha is also regarded as a prophet by the Ahmadiyya Muslims and a Manifestation of God in the Bahá'í Faith. Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Lao Tzu.

 

The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisattva via Arabic Būdhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph. The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha. Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November) — though not in the Roman Missal — and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August).

 

Disciples of the Cao Đài religion worship the Buddha as a major religious teacher. His image can be found in both their Holy See and on the home altar. He is revealed during communication with Divine Beings as son of their Supreme Being (God the Father) together with other major religious teachers and founders like Jesus, Laozi, and Confucius.

 

In the ancient Gnostic sect of Manichaeism the Buddha is listed among the prophets who preached the word of God before Mani.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Photographs taken by Harry Skull Jr.

 

Remarks With Canadian Foreign Minister Cannon

 

Hillary Rodham Clinton

Secretary of State

Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada

 

13 June, 2009

 

FOREIGN MINISTER CANNON: Canada and the United States have committed this morning to amending the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement. This is important for both nations. These inland waters are the largest system of fresh water in the world, a foundation for billions of dollars in trade, shipping, agriculture, recreation, of course, and other sectors. The Government of Canada has taken significant efforts in the past three years to protect the Great Lakes, and today, this joint stewardship of the environment represents a cornerstone of the Canada-United States relationship. This aspect of our long history of collaboration will remain strong as we begin a second century of jointly managing our shared waters. The agreement has been a model of international cooperation and has achieved numerous successes.

 

However, as you know, the Great Lakes are still at risk and need more to be done. So we will be doing that together.

 

The Secretary of State and I also discussed the global economic downturn and the risks of protectionism, cooperation in the Americas, and Afghanistan, as well as Pakistan. Our country’s prosperity and security are inseparable from those of the United States. Americans, as you know, are our closest neighbors, allies, and trading partners.

 

(Via interpreter) Every day, there is trade to a value of $2 billion that cross our common border from Canada. And Canada is the first export market for 35 of 50 of the American states.

 

People are worried by a rising tide of protectionism developing in the United States in various circles, and our government is very concerned, in particular, about the negative impacts of Buy America legislation being felt on Canadian businesses. Now, Canada’s and the United State’s shared history demonstrated we can do great things. When we work together, we are able to, of course, serve our mutual interests. Now, this is crucial as we are engaged in emerging from this crisis, and we want to be able to emerge from this crisis stronger, better, and, of course, in a more prosperous manner.

 

Thank you. Merci.

 

SECRETARY CLINTON: Thank you very much, Minister Cannon.

 

I’ve had a delightful morning here, and I want to thank my Canadian hosts, especially Foreign Minister Cannon, the members of the International Joint Commission, and the many distinguished colleagues from both sides of the border who have made this celebration so memorable.

 

We are celebrating, because the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Boundary Waters Treaty marks a recognition of a ground-breaking agreement, one of the first in the world to recognize the environmental consequences of managing our natural resources, ensuring clean drinking water, protecting the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River system, the Niagara Falls and Niagara River that are such magnificent treasures. So for me, it’s a particular delight both to have been back in Western New York; many friends from Niagara and Erie counties -- I just am delighted to see them, but also to be here in Canada, because Canada is such a trusted ally, a friend, a valued trading partner and a democratic model for the world.

 

This treaty, which we have celebrated, is not a static document. It’s a living instrument of our cooperation and partnership. It has provided an effective framework for the last 100 years, but now we have to take stock of where we are and how we’re going to be proceeding with confidence and effectiveness into the future. As we look at the strong foundation that this treaty has helped to establish between our countries, it’s truly remarkable: $1.6 billion in goods that flow across the border everyday, supporting millions of jobs; the world’s largest energy-trading relationship. I want to underscore that, because I’m not sure that enough Americans know, Minister Cannon, that you are our number one supplier of energy in the world, and we are grateful for that. We collaborate closely on citizen safety and defense, and, as both the Minister and I have noted, we have soldiers serving side-by-side together in Afghanistan to try to prevent the spread of terrorism and extremism.

 

So our common values are deeply rooted. But we have to work together even more closely. After this morning’s ceremony, the Minister and I had a chance to review some of our other important matters. Obviously, we discussed international and global concerns that we are both deeply engaged in, and we discussed our nation’s plan to revise and update the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement to protect the Great Lakes Basin for future generations. We reviewed our joint efforts in Afghanistan and elsewhere around the globe. We discussed the challenges in Pakistan, the Middle East, Iran, and elsewhere. We talked about our equal commitment to our own hemisphere, and I’m very grateful for the Canadian Government and the Minister’s particular emphasis on working with us in Haiti, working to strengthen our relationships with our neighbors to the south.

 

We also have been very focused on ensuring that nothing interferes with the trade between our countries. I deeply respect the Minister’s comments and his concerns, but as President Obama said, nothing in our legislation will interfere with our international trade obligations, including with Canada. But we want to take a hard look, and the Minister and I discussed this, as to what more we can do to ensure that the free flow of trade continues. We consider it to be in the interests of both of our countries and our people.

 

So as always, it’s great to be in Canada, and we deeply appreciate our close working relationship the Minister and I have forged over a relatively short period of time, and we look forward to continuing close collaboration and cooperation. Thank you very much.

 

QUESTION: (Off-mike).

 

SECRETARY CLINTON: We watched closely the enthusiasm and the very vigorous debate and dialogue that occurred in the lead-up to the Iranian elections. We are monitoring the situation as it unfolds in Iran.

 

But we, like the rest of the world, are waiting and watching to see what the Iranian people decide. The United States has refrained from commenting on the election in Iran. We obviously hope that the outcome reflects the genuine will and desire of the Iranian people.

 

FOREIGN MINISTER CANNON: For Canada, on behalf of Canada, Canada is deeply concerned by reports of voting irregularities in the Iranian election. We’re troubled by reports of intimidation of opposition candidate’s offices by security forces. We’ve tasked our embassy officials to – in Tehran to closely monitor the situation, and Canada is calling on Iranian authorities to conduct fair and transparent counting of all ballots.

 

(Via Interpreter) According to (inaudible) irregularities in the Iranian election, we are also deeply concerned with reports according to which there might have been intimidation, intimidation against opposition candidate’s offices, for instance; amongst them would be intimidation by security officials. I therefore asked our people in Tehran and officers in the Canadian embassy to follow the development very closely. And finally, we hope – we hope with a great deal of vigor that the counting of ballots be done transparently and that all the ballots that have been used during this election be indeed counted.

 

QUESTION: Madame Secretary, welcome to Canada.

 

SECRETARY CLINTON: Thank you.

 

QUESTION: Canada’s government and many Canadian businesses have said that our economy and our bilateral relationship is being hurt by the Buy American policy. Secretary Clinton, why is it in there, and if you don’t call it protectionism, what is it? And to Minister Cannon, how deeply is this hurting Canada’s economy and our relationship with the United States?

 

SECRETARY CLINTON: Let me just reiterate that the provision is not being enforced in any way that is inconsistent with our international trade obligations. And we take that very seriously. Obviously, Canada is our number one trading partner. It is a mutually beneficial relationship that we intend to not only nurture, but see grow.

 

And I am well aware of the concerns that there may be elements of the international trade obligations or absences of agreements that should be looked at so that we can promote more procurement and other kinds of trade interactions. And I have assured Minister Cannon that we will take a very close look at that.

 

FOREIGN MINISTER CANNON: Thank you. On – I was able this morning to bring Secretary of State Clinton up-to-date, up-to-speed on the Prime Minister’s visit last week to – with Premier Charest, who, as you know, is the premier responsible for the Council of the Federation. This issue was discussed. As you know, the premiers have agreed to look at the procurement issue as being one of importance. My colleague, Minister Day, as well, did go and travel to the Federation of Canadian Municipalities, so I was able to bring the Secretary of State to – up-to-speed on this issue, and at the same time, get assurances that we would look to find different options to make sure that what we already have built in terms of a solid foundation continue – can continue to flourish and to prevail.

 

So we still have work ahead of us, and we’re looking forward to doing that.

 

(Via interpreter) -- I had the opportunity to indicate to Secretary of State Clinton and bring her up-to-speed on the recent meeting with Premier Charest. Well, as the premiers, members of the Council of the Federation, Premier Charest being the chair, and the commitment from all premiers to look at the whole issue of procurement and public expenditures so that such expenditures be part and parcel of perhaps even an agreement with the Americans.

 

My colleague, Minister Stockwell Day, took the same undertaking with the Canadian Federation of Municipalities. So this enabled me to allude to these events with the Secretary of State, and also enabled me, by the same token, to look at what options might be open to us in upcoming months. As I mentioned a moment ago, there is a very solid basis upon which we can work; indeed, there are other issues to be worked on, but – and that we’ve always been able to reach an agreement with the Americans on a number of topics. I don’t think this impediment is a major one, and we will continue our dialogue.

 

QUESTION: (Off-mike)

 

SECRETARY CLINTON: First, let me say how gratified we were that the United Nations Security Council reached and agreement on a very strong resolution that contains not only new sanctions and the authorization for inspections of ships that may be carrying contraband or weapons of mass destruction or other dangerous technology from North Korea, but that the resolution represented a unified response to the provocative actions that have been taken by the North Koreans over the last several months.

 

This was a tremendous statement on behalf of the world community that North Korea’s pursuit of nuclear weapons and the capacity to deliver those weapons through missiles is not going to be accepted by the neighbors, as well as the greater international community. We intend to work with our partners, including Canada and others, to enforce the provisions of this resolution in a vigorous way, to send a clear message that we intend to do all we can to prevent continued proliferation by the North Koreas.

 

I will add, however, that the North Korean’s continuing provocative actions are deeply regrettable. They have now been denounced by everyone. They have become further isolated, and it is not in the interests of the people of North Korea for that kind of isolation to continue. So the Six-Party Framework, which the North Koreans left, turning their back on the obligations to continue with denuclearization, is still an open opportunity for them to return. And we are going to be consulting closely with our friends and allies, not only in Northeast Asia, but more generally, to determine a way forward in response to further actions.

 

But I think these sanctions and the authorizations included in this resolution give the world community the tools we need to take appropriate action against the North Korean regime.

 

FOREIGN MINISTER CANNON: Canada already, of course, abides by Resolution 1718 that was passed in 2006. And we’ve implemented that resolution and the binding sanctions, of course, that were introduced.

 

We as well are very – and we welcome the additional imposition of – by Resolution 1874. Canada, of course, is very, very pleased that the world community has come together in a united response at the (inaudible) to be able to signal to the international – to North Korea the international community’s determination that their recent conduct is inacceptable. So we’re very pleased by this Security Council resolution, as well.

 

We’re also pleased by the new resolution’s calls upon North Korea to return immediately to the Six-Party Talks and to demand, of course, that these talks that are extremely important in terms of nonproliferation and the use of nuclear weapons get going.

 

(Via interpreter) Canada, of course, is very much abiding by Resolution 1718 that was adopted in 2006, and we are very happy with that recent resolution, adopted by the UN Security Council. Canada will apply with determination all the provisions contained therein. For that matter, we’re delighted to see that the international community has sent a very clear signal to North Korea. And will add, by way of conclusion, that for our part, it’s important that the discussions amongst the six parties resume as quickly as possible, and we’re delighted that this resolution also calls upon the Government of North Korea to go back to the negotiating table, so that we might limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons.

 

QUESTION: (Off-mike).

 

SECRETARY CLINTON: I’m sorry, and what?

 

QUESTION: (Off-mike).

 

SECRETARY CLINTON: First, with respect to our shared border, there is certainly no argument that we each have to take additional security steps, given conditions in the world. I mean, I think we both regret those. We are sorry that we have to respond to them, but nevertheless, that is the reality. And we are doing everything we can in the Obama Administration to listen and work with our Canadian counterparts.

 

There have been several very productive discussions already between our Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security, Janet Napolitano, and her Canadian counterpart. Because we know that we want to maintain this extraordinary relationship that we have with the right amount of security to protect our citizens on both sides, without interfering in the free movement of goods and people that we value so greatly.

 

Sometimes we need to help each other really understand fully the challenges that we are each facing to make sure we achieve that common goal. I would still argue that although we do have law enforcement on our border in greater numbers than we did ten years ago, compared to a border that I know of anywhere, just about, in the world, this is a demilitarized, free, open border with appropriate law enforcement personnel and technology in the interest of protecting our two peoples.

 

So we will work very closely with the Canadian Government, and we will try to solve problems that have arisen between our governments in the past to make sure that we are doing what we need to do with security in a way that does not interfere with all of the other interests that we share.

 

We are both members of the Arctic Council. We, and Canada, with its very extensive presence on the Arctic waters, along with Russia, Norway, and -- Denmark, right? – are the members of the Arctic Council. We want to work closely together. We want to foresee issues and try to resolve them so that they don’t become problems. And we feel, as one of the five nations working with the others, that we have an opportunity here, and we intend to take this very seriously. Obviously, there are questions of sovereignty and jurisdiction that have to be acknowledged and respected, but what we don’t want is for the Arctic to become a free-for-all. If there is going to be greater maritime passageways through the Arctic, if there is going to be more exploration for natural resources, if there are going to be more security issues, I think it’s in the Canadian and the United States’ interests to try to get ahead of those, and try to make sure we know what we’re going to do to resolve them before countries that are not bordering the arctic are making claims, are behaving in ways that will cause us difficulties.

 

FOREIGN MINISTER CANNON: Let me respond by saying at the outset how very pleased I was one of the first initiatives that Secretary of State Clinton took on was to be able to host the Antarctica Joint Arctic Council Meeting in Washington a couple of months ago, which was, I think, a strong indication, once again, of our country’s commitment to not only this border here, but, of course, to our northern border. And what I can say on that is that there are no obstacles. We have been able to manage the issues as it should be between the two neighbors. We, of course, as a country, as well as the United States, Russia, and the other members of the Arctic Council, have agreed to abide by, of course, the United Nations Convention, the Law of the Seas, to go forward and do the mapping. We’ve been able to, as a Canadian Government, assume our responsibilities, assert our responsibilities in terms of sovereignty by our infrastructure programs.

 

So from that perspective, it’s going extraordinarily well, as well as, as Hillary Clinton just mentioned, Peter Van Loan, who, as you know, is our minister responsible for – I was going to say homeland security, but for border crossings and has worked extremely well with the Secretary of State, Secretary Napolitano, over the course of the last several weeks. They’ve established a working relationship, which I feel is something that is extraordinarily good in terms of moving forward. And so I’d say that on that front as well, things are going very, very well.

 

(Via interpreter) Briefly, I would say this: I congratulated Secretary of State Clinton for the initiative she took at the very outset of her mandate, and by convening in Washington a joint meeting between the Arctic Council and the Antarctica Council. At that time, we were able to examine a variety of subjects that arise in the extremities of the globe. And as I mentioned, we were – we have always been able to manage our difficulties in a very positive, healthy manner. That is what exists in the arctic part of our country.

 

We are members of the Arctic Council with three other countries. We are committed into various provisions of the UN Convention on the Law of the Seas. We have also noted, with a great deal of satisfaction and interest, the work that is being done by Minister Peter Van Loan, who is the minister responsible for public safety here in Canada, as well as with the American Secretary for Homeland Security, Mrs. Napolitano, to deal with issues that arise in common to both our countries. In that regard, many steps are being taken. So we’re very happy with the progress that has been made.

 

And I will tell you, by way of conclusion, that the relationship between Canada and the U.S. again continues to shine, and it is a real breath of fresh air and a ray of sunshine for many countries in the world when we want to see how borders should be managed and the relationship between two countries. We are great, great friends.

 

SECRETARY CLINTON: Thank you. Thank you all.

 

FOREIGN MINISTER CANNON: Thank you. Merci.

Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama, Shakyamuni, or simply the Buddha, was a sage on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in northeastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.

 

The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in a Yuga era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of the present age. Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the śramaṇa movement common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kosala.

 

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.

 

CONTENTS

HISTORICAL SIDDHARTA GAUTAMA

Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajasattu, who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain tirthankara. Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, the Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential śramaṇa schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jainism, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahavira, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints the Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by. Indeed, Sariputta and Moggallāna, two of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, were formerly the foremost disciples of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, the skeptic. There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques. While the general sequence of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" is widely accepted, there is less consensus on the veracity of many details contained in traditional biographies.

 

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE. More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death. These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.

 

The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE. It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch. According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in the Shakya capital of Kapilavastu, which may have been in either present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India. He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagar.

 

No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One Edict of Asoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edicts mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Maurya era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Gāndhārī language using the Kharosthi script on twenty-seven birch bark manuscripts and date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.

 

TRADITIONAL BIOGRAPHIES

BIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES

The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā. Of these, the Buddhacarita is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE. The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE. The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE. The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra, and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. The Nidānakathā is from the Theravada tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century by Buddhaghoṣa.

 

From canonical sources, the Jataka tales, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts. The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from the Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.

 

NATURE OF TRADITIONAL DEPICTIONS

In the earliest Buddhists texts, the nikāyas and āgamas, the Buddha is not depicted as possessing omniscience (sabbaññu) nor is he depicted as being an eternal transcendent (lokottara) being. According to Bhikkhu Analayo, ideas of the Buddha's omniscience (along with an increasing tendency to deify him and his biography) are found only later, in the Mahayana sutras and later Pali commentaries or texts such as the Mahāvastu. In the Sandaka Sutta, the Buddha's disciple Ananda outlines an argument against the claims of teachers who say they are all knowing while in the Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta the Buddha himself states that he has never made a claim to being omniscient, instead he claimed to have the "higher knowledges" (abhijñā). The earliest biographical material from the Pali Nikayas focuses on the Buddha's life as a śramaṇa, his search for enlightenment under various teachers such as Alara Kalama and his forty five year career as a teacher.

 

Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supra-mundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma". Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

 

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist. British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure. Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.

 

BIOGRAPHY

CONCEPTION AND BIRTH

The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, in present-day Nepal to be the birthplace of the Buddha. He grew up in Kapilavastu. The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India, or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal. Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.

 

Gautama was born as a Kshatriya, the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan", whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Maya (Māyādevī), Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side, and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

 

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak. Buddha's Birthday is called Buddha Purnima in Nepal and India as he is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great sadhu. By traditional account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. Kondañña, the youngest, and later to be the first arhat other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.

 

While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Suryavansha (Solar dynasty) of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

 

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition. The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic. The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the śramanic Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.

 

EARLY LIFE AND MARRIAGE

Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati. By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.

 

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account, she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.

 

RENUNCIATION AND ASCETIC LIFE

At the age of 29, the popular biography continues, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome aging, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.

 

Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a mendicant. It's said that, "the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods" to prevent guards from knowing of his departure.

 

Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment.

 

He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation. After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice, and moved on to become a student of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rāmaputra). With him he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.

 

Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha was rescued by a village girl named Sujata and she gave him some payasam (a pudding made from milk and jaggery) after which Siddhartha got back some energy. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's ploughing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhāna.

 

AWAKENING

According to the early Buddhist texts, after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way - a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata. Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.

 

Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree - now known as the Bodhi tree - in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth. Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment. According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

 

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths", which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states, or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

 

According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) - a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons - immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.

 

FORMATION OF THE SANGHA

After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan - who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

 

He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.

 

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.

 

TRAVELS AND TEACHING

For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.

 

The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.

 

The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

 

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

 

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:

 

"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."

 

The Buddha is said to have replied:

 

"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."

 

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.

 

Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

 

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.

 

MAHAPARINIRVANA

According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha. Mettanando and Von Hinüber argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning. The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns.

 

Waley suggests that Theravadin's would take suukaramaddava (the contents of the Buddha's last meal), which can translate as pig-soft, to mean soft flesh of a pig. However, he also states that pig-soft could mean "pig's soft-food", that is, after Neumann, a soft food favoured by pigs, assumed to be a truffle. He argues (also after Neumann) that as Pali Buddhism was developed in an area remote to the Buddha's death, the existence of other plants with suukara- (pig) as part of their names and that "(p)lant names tend to be local and dialectical" could easily indicate that suukaramaddava was a type of plant whose local name was unknown to those in the Pali regions. Specifically, local writers knew more about their flora than Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa who lived hundreds of years and kilometres remote in time and space from the events described. Unaware of an alternate meaning and with no Theravadin prohibition against eating animal flesh, Theravadins would not have questioned the Buddha eating meat and interpreted the term accordingly.

 

Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Kuśināra (present-day Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. The Buddha, however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king that resounded with joy:

 

44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds - the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of "Eat, drink, and be merry!"

 

The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All composite things (Saṅkhāra) are perishable. Strive for your own liberation with diligence" (Pali: 'vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā'). His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present.

 

According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa, the coronation of Emperor Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of the Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese (十八部論 and 部執異論), the coronation of Emperor Aśoka is 116 years after the death of the Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign of Emperor Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, the date of the Buddha's death is 13 May 544 BCE. whereas in Thai tradition it is 11 March 545 BCE.

 

At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two chief disciples Maudgalyayana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha.

 

While in the Buddha's days he was addressed by the very respected titles Buddha, Shākyamuni, Shākyasimha, Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana as Arihant, Bhagavā/Bhagavat/Bhagwān, Mahāvira, Jina/Jinendra, Sāstr, Sugata, and most popularly in scriptures as Tathāgata.

 

BUDDHA AND VEDAS

Buddha's teachings deny the authority of the Vedas and consequently [at least atheistic] Buddhism is generally viewed as a nāstika school (heterodox, literally "It is not so") from the perspective of orthodox Hinduism.

 

RELICS

After his death, Buddha's cremation relics were divided amongst 8 royal families and his disciples; centuries later they would be enshrined by King Ashoka into 84,000 stupas. Many supernatural legends surround the history of alleged relics as they accompanied the spread of Buddhism and gave legitimacy to rulers.

 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

An extensive and colorful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the 32 Signs of the Great Man".

 

The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive." (D, I:115)

 

"It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant." (A, I:181)

 

A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by the Buddha's physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances.

 

Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikaya's Lakkhaṇa Sutta (D, I:142). In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, Narasīha Gāthā ("The Lion of Men").

 

Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.

 

NINE VIRTUES

Recollection of nine virtues attributed to the Buddha is a common Buddhist meditation and devotional practice called Buddhānusmṛti. The nine virtues are also among the 40 Buddhist meditation subjects. The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the Tipitaka, and include:

 

- Buddho – Awakened

- Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened

- Vijja-carana-sampano – Endowed with higher knowledge and ideal conduct.

- Sugato – Well-gone or Well-spoken.

- Lokavidu – Wise in the knowledge of the many worlds.

- Anuttaro Purisa-damma-sarathi – Unexcelled trainer of untrained people.

- Satthadeva-Manussanam – Teacher of gods and humans.

- Bhagavathi – The Blessed one

- Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is "one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is completely liberated through final knowledge."

 

TEACHINGS

TRACING THE OLDEST TEACHINGS

Information of the oldest teachings may be obtained by analysis of the oldest texts. One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pali Canon and other texts. The reliability of these sources, and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute. According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.

 

According to Schmithausen, three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:

 

"Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials;"

"Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism;"

"Cautious optimism in this respect."

 

DHYANA AND INSIGHT

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight. Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36

 

CORE TEACHINGS

According to Tilmann Vetter, the core of earliest Buddhism is the practice of dhyāna. Bronkhorst agrees that dhyana was a Buddhist invention, whereas Norman notes that "the Buddha's way to release [...] was by means of meditative practices." Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development.

 

According to the Mahāsaccakasutta, from the fourth jhana the Buddha gained bodhi. Yet, it is not clear what he was awakened to. "Liberating insight" is a later addition to this text, and reflects a later development and understanding in early Buddhism. The mentioning of the four truths as constituting "liberating insight" introduces a logical problem, since the four truths depict a linear path of practice, the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating:

 

[T]hey do not teach that one is released by knowing the four noble truths, but by practicing the fourth noble truth, the eightfold path, which culminates in right samadhi.

 

Although "Nibbāna" (Sanskrit: Nirvāna) is the common term for the desired goal of this practice, many other terms can be found throughout the Nikayas, which are not specified.

 

According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term "the middle way". In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold path.

 

According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the four truths became a substitution for prajna, or "liberating insight", in the suttas in those texts where "liberating insight" was preceded by the four jhanas. According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight". Gotama's teachings may have been personal, "adjusted to the need of each person."

 

The three marks of existence may reflect Upanishadic or other influences. K.R. Norman supposes that these terms were already in use at the Buddha's time, and were familiar to his listeners.

 

The Brahma-vihara was in origin probably a brahmanic term; but its usage may have been common to the Sramana traditions.

  

LATER DEVELOPMENTS

In time, "liberating insight" became an essential feature of the Buddhist tradition. The following teachings, which are commonly seen as essential to Buddhism, are later formulations which form part of the explanatory framework of this "liberating insight":

 

- The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and fear of annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish this;

- The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration;

- Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process.

 

OTHER RELIGIONS

Some Hindus regard Gautama as the 9th avatar of Vishnu. The Buddha is also regarded as a prophet by the Ahmadiyya Muslims and a Manifestation of God in the Bahá'í Faith. Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Lao Tzu.

 

The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisattva via Arabic Būdhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph. The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha. Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November) — though not in the Roman Missal — and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August).

 

Disciples of the Cao Đài religion worship the Buddha as a major religious teacher. His image can be found in both their Holy See and on the home altar. He is revealed during communication with Divine Beings as son of their Supreme Being (God the Father) together with other major religious teachers and founders like Jesus, Laozi, and Confucius.

 

In the ancient Gnostic sect of Manichaeism the Buddha is listed among the prophets who preached the word of God before Mani.

 

WIKIPEDIA

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Religious leaders and chiefs play a vital role in driving positive change throughout communities. So far 2,188 community leaders committed to abandon FGM/C during public ceremonies in Burkina Faso.

 

Father of seven, Chief Naba, led the fight against FGM/C in his community in central Burkina Faso.

 

"Education and talking is important. Cutting women is very bad for them and causes suffering. If women suffer, men also suffer", he says.

 

"It's been a long process, but we've abandoned the practice in our community now".

 

UK aid is supporting peer education through the UNICEF and UNFPA Joint Programme in Burkina Faso and across Africa.

 

The UNICEF-UNFPA Joint Programme has been critical in the creation of networks of influential people that can support the campaign against FGM/C.

 

Find out more about our work: www.gov.uk/government/news/breaking-the-cycle-of-female-g...

 

Take a stand. Pledge to end FGM, child marriage and forced marriage now: www.girlsummitpledge.com/

 

Picture: Jessica Lea/DFID.

by Malcolm Ferdinands

 

UN is pointing the accusing finger at Sri Lanka with NGOs trying to suck the blood out of Sri Lanka . But, the outgoing foreign minister of Sri Lanka Bogollagama who everything is foreign is only committed to bring shame on Sri Lanka with his personal needs and deeds

 

It is reported in the media that a journalist had even questioned the UN Secretary General Ban Ki Moon about the infamous letter sent by Bogollagama to high UN official begging for a job at the UN. The journalist has asked Moon, “And also the Foreign Minister of Sri Lanka, also over the weekend, confirmed that he sought a job for his son with the UN. I wonder if you think that is appropriate, and is such a job going to be given?

 

When Moon tried to side step the question he had persisted and questioned “Do you think that it’s appropriate for the Foreign Minister of a country with which you are dealing with on possible war crimes to be seeking a job for his son with the UN?”

 

Ban Ki Moon had responded as follows “First of all, I am not aware of that particular case of job application of the Foreign Minister’s son. As a matter of fact, any recruitment process will have to be dealt with in a most transparent and objective manner by the selection committee members. That is what the United Nations has been [using] as a principle”

 

What do you make out of it? Here is a man who is displaying huge banners and cutouts using poor taxpayers money saying he ‘won’ the world for Sri Lanka, begging for a job for his son in the UN.

 

A member of the Foreign Services Association said “This man got no shame. He once sent us a circular asking if any of our family members worked for NGO’s. See what he is doing? We are not surprised if he had sold Sri Lanka to the UN.

 

Sri Lanka ’s biggest tragedy today is Bogollagama, a retired senior diplomat said.

 

Shame on you Bogollagama. But, do not shame our country. Even beggars in Lanka wont do what you did.

 

Excerpts from transcript of the UN press conference, Mar 8, 2010:

 

Q:Mr. Secretary-General, late last week you spoke with the President of Sri Lanka, and said that you are going to name a panel, to advise yourself, on accountability. Over the weekend, the President said that you had no right to do it and had a very different read-out of the call than we received, at least the way I hear it. Can you explain what the purpose of the Panel is and when you think you're going to name it? And also the Foreign Minister of Sri Lanka, also over the weekend, confirmed that he sought a job for his son with the UN. I wonder if you think that is appropriate, and is such a job going to be given?

 

SG: As you said, I had a frank and honest exchange of views with President [Mahinda] Rajapaksa, Thursday night, last week, over issues that were of concern to both of us. This included moving forward on political reconciliation, further movement on the condition of internally displaced persons, and the establishment of an accountability process. I am concerned with the lack of progress of the joint statement which both I and President Rajapaksa had agreed during my visit last year. I raised this issue and discussed [it]. I made clear to President Rajapaksa that I intend to move forward on a Group of Experts which will advise me on setting the broad parameters and standards on the way ahead on establishing accountability concerning Sri Lanka. For that purpose, we have agreed that I dispatch [Under-Secretary-General of Political Affairs] Lynn Pascoe in the very near future.

 

Q: Do you think that it's appropriate for the Foreign Minister of a country with which you are dealing with on possible war crimes to be seeking a job for his son with the UN?

 

SG: First of all, I am not aware of that particular case of job application of the Foreign Minister's son. As a matter of fact, any recruitment process will have to be dealt with in a most transparent and objective manner by the selection committee members. That is what the United Nations has been [using] as a principle.

 

24 Comments

 

Not only Bogollagama, every minister is a sucker in SL, sucking the blood of people with their personal needs.

 

Why is this guy not yet fired from his post?

 

If done, all the cabinet ministers and the president should be fired !!!

 

We must decide to vote for any party that will come forward aggressively to eliminate the cancer of corruption and nepotism in the country.

 

Posted by: Justin | March 9, 2010 06:47 AM

      

There are three ministers in this govt who should not see the light of the day in the next parliament.

They are Mervyn Silva, Jeevan Kumaratunga and Rohitha Bogollagama.

Intelligent Betal voters should take note of.

 

Posted by: Channa | March 9, 2010 07:02 AM

      

The country has been made to stand half naked in front

of its friendly world.It's not yet fully naked because

of its past performances, thanks to disciplined leaders.And also we must not forget that bowl carrying

habit is not new for our many professionals and the

rulers.Just one word "corrupt" will fit them all.It's

hard to find a clean one because they are not allowed

to be clean.Buying using and discarding is the order

of the day.Before getting discarded,milk as much as

possible.

To my knowledge,UN rcruitments are carried out on a

country-quota basis.It's this process that this man

might have tried to abuse,if it didn't go through proper channels.

 

Posted by: muzammil | March 9, 2010 09:17 AM

      

In one of elections propaganda materials he claims to have never been accused of ANY wrong doing, mismanagement misuse, corruption of any form. In fact I concede to this statement because people have not bothered to make specific accusations because they have lost count of the number and variety of crimes he and others have committed. It would be futile anyway to make accusations in a lawless land like this, where judiciary of the country and the law enforcing arms have been seriously undermined.

 

Posted by: Kingsley | March 9, 2010 09:40 AM

      

In one of elections propaganda materials he claims to have never been accused of ANY wrong doing, mismanagement misuse, corruption of any form. In fact I concede to this statement because people have not bothered to make specific accusations because they have lost count of the number and variety of crimes he and others have committed. It would be futile anyway to make accusations in a lawless land like this, where judiciary of the country and the law enforcing arms have been seriously undermined.

 

Posted by: Kingsley | March 9, 2010 09:51 AM

      

Boggles has always put family ahead country. When travelling executive class on Sri Lankan he would book the entire row. His children and family would accompany him on offical business to the UN. Yet he was one of the select few of the MR regime and has been given a wide tolerance by the president??

 

Posted by: Citizen | March 9, 2010 10:01 AM

      

I would like to be a Devil's Advocate here: May be F.M Bogollagama was trying to act strategically ( like Lakshaman Kadirgamr used his net work to ban LTTE as a terrorist organisation ) to plant his son in the UN so that there will be " insider trading " type of job the son can do to benefit the regime his father belongs to back home. This way moves by people like Ban Kee Moon and Navee... Pillay to investigate war crimes even in the futre can be nipped in the bud with the help of friendly countries.

Therefore Bogollogama's act is a patriotic act. The Sinhalese nationalists will be proud of his strategic thinking as F.M, though his attempt has come to open.

 

Look at Palitha Kohana, he is making use of all his net work from the UN days to the full advantage of his mother land not Australia.Same with many others in the MR regime. Patriots do not beg. The create wealth for the masses to survive and elites to thrive.

    

Posted by: anonymous | March 9, 2010 10:20 AM

      

I am not sure whether Mr Ferdinades is a professional journalist.

 

UN jobs are mostly for politicians who have been in power.All most all UN heads are ex politicians. Various ambassadors are ex polllies shoved on to the stage by their mates in government.

 

Who ever is lucky enough to get a job there, always put their kith and kin as well. It is a big family corporation. If Ferdenades is a journalist he should know this.

 

There is nothing wrong in Bogollagama asking his friends help to get a job for his son if the son has the bsic qualifications.Most parents do that irrespective of their positions.

 

To make a big deal out of it appears to be nothing but for personal grudges against the man.

  

Posted by: Kukul Charlie | March 9, 2010 03:14 PM

      

Agree with comments by 'anonymous'. Rohitha Bogollagama is trying as a parent to kick start the career of his son. Every parent desires this towards their kids. It so happens that Bogollagama is a high flying FM of Sri Lanka and hence has connections in high places. As a parent, I do believe he has the right to give a kick-start to his son's career.

 

The Indian Vijay Nambiar owes the Sri Lankan Govt and its FM many favors for his actions in the concluding stages of Ealam War IV. So why not help? After all, the UN is not a pargon of virtue; it is riddled with corruption, nepotism, favouritism, lobbyist pressure and what not. The UN ceased to be an impartial organisation many decades ago.

 

If I were Bogollagama's son, I will tell my dad that I wouldn't like to work in an organisation such as the UN which is a big burden on the World community. The current UN leadership, Banjee Moon, Vijay Nambiar, Naveena Pillai have all contributed towards accelarating the UN's downfall.

 

Posted by: Guru Satyadasa | March 9, 2010 05:51 PM

      

Well Mr.Ferdinands, Do you think its very ethical on journalistic point to use demeaning words just because you dont like the FM, I aint a fan of the FM, but if you do some research, many a diplomats/FM's children are infact work for the UN, and its anybody's guess as to how they got in there, I mean not only SriLankan diplomats and FM's but for all over the world. Its no secret.

 

So pls dont try make a mountain out of a mole hill, Boggols has done far worst things....

 

Posted by: Man of the Match | March 9, 2010 06:31 PM

      

Hey Anonymous,

 

you just dispalyed your level of IQ !!

 

Posted by: Happyman | March 9, 2010 06:33 PM

      

Anonymous!!

 

You are smart! let me know if you are looking for a job. Because I am looking for a Donkey.!

 

Posted by: Siripala | March 9, 2010 06:36 PM

      

Question is: Is he a Traitor or Patriot?

 

Posted by: Chandapala | March 9, 2010 06:49 PM

      

This Borukollagamayo has nothing in his head. So If he speaks

 

Posted by: Anonymous | March 9, 2010 06:55 PM

      

Anonymous, you are the person of the year, in the best comedian category.

 

Posted by: Jothi | March 9, 2010 07:13 PM

      

Hey Funnyman Anonymous!

Did any of your friends mention that you need to go to school again? You are a Clown! I hope your generation ends after you.

 

Posted by: Happyman | March 9, 2010 07:19 PM

      

Bogols is a Sri Lankan 100% and therefore his attitude cannot be faulted.The country is in this state because we Sri Lankans think that anything could be done with political influence, money and power. This applies only to Sri Lanka so Bogols must have thought that this happens outside of it as well.I dont think his travels abroad has in anyway broadened his mind.His is a typical frog in the well Sri Lankan attitude.What a treat of a foreign minister he will be more suited for Indigenous medicine or the Like.

 

Posted by: Jazzy | March 9, 2010 07:36 PM

      

The leadership is not in the write way so other people are doing the same need a big change in sri Lanka

 

Posted by: Lalith Abeyratne | March 9, 2010 07:48 PM

      

This is not only the image of the FM-but the entire bunch of 112-they have come into Politics to make the best out of it-imagine the others who have their Children in Foriegn countries incase the Govt. fails to win the elections they have to get their children back-what about those who are apying something like a Rs.150,000/ monthly for their mortgages for luxury properties in Colombo!So they are making every endeavour to win hook or by crook!

The FM wants to find a solution to keep his sion abroad permanently-best is join the UN-For these thinga thety use their brains-

 

Posted by: Anonymous | March 9, 2010 07:56 PM

      

Not only Bogols. Many past Ministers, Chief Justices and Ambassadors got their kith & kin through UN's backdoor while the most qualified were given vague excuses.

Even the current Lankan Ambassador (an Australian citizen) begged for Lankan Ministers interventions to get a UN promotion to Director level. Having failed, he quit the UN and went after MR. That is how the sytem works. "Who knows who" still works both in Sri Lanka and at the UN.

Bogol is another highway robber who travelled the world wasting our poor peoples money. We idiots vote for them. That is what we get.

John

 

Posted by: Anonymous | March 9, 2010 08:49 PM

      

I totally disagree the way Minister Bogollagama attmepted to secure job in the UN for his son. As a Foreign minister he should not have done it. If he begs a job for his son how could he stand in front of the UN for the interests of Sri Lanka.

 

Posted by: Hemantha Warnakulasuriya | March 9, 2010 08:55 PM

      

There is nothing wrong in Bollagama's wish to get his son a job. If he is qualified whats wrong?. I can say most UN recruits are related to past and present politicians in all countries in the world.Its good to have more Sinhalese and there are women like Navar Pillai there too, hell bent on charging our country of war crimes? .What about Fonseka? Mahinda helped his daughters to go to US? What about Hi Corp?

Didnt Chandrika write to Mahinda canvessing her brother Anura for the PM'S Job? Have any of you not try to get your kids a job if you had the influence?

 

Posted by: Ray | March 9, 2010 09:58 PM

      

There is nothing wrong in Bollagama's wish to get his son a job. If he is qualified whats wrong?. I can say most UN recruits are related to past and present politicians in all countries in the world.Its good to have more Sinhalese and there are women like Navar Pillai there too, hell bent on charging our country of war crimes? .What about Fonseka? Mahinda helped his daughters to go to US? What about Hi Corp?

Didnt Chandrika write to Mahinda canvessing her brother Anura for the PM'S Job? Have any of you not try to get your kids a job if you had the influence?

 

Posted by: Ray | March 9, 2010 09:58 PM

      

Bogollagama: You are one most corrupted ministers ever went to the parliament. You are not second to murderer Mervin Silva or serial-killer Anurudha Ratwatte. You are shame to the country. You waste public money as a foreign minister in large scale. Your drunken wife went all the tours with you and wasted a lot of public money. People like you are curse for mother Sri Lanka. Your inefficiency during the last phase of war opens the door to raise the voice of western countries against Sri Lanka. You are one of person in Rajapaksha regime try to erase Sri Lanker from world map. You are curse for the country and please reject this guy from the Parliament election 2010.

 

Posted by: Puran | March 9, 2010 10:50 PM

       

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