+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

Latil was a French automaker specializing in heavy duty vehicles, such as trucks, tractors and buses. Beyond the design and production of vehicles for civil use, Latil also built after World War I a number of military vehicles. For instance, in 1911, Latil designed and built its first four-wheel drive vehicle. This type of vehicle interested the French Army in 1913 for its ability to tow heavy artillery on every field and the TAR (Tracteur d'Artillerie Roulante) was built.

 

Beyond a number of field tractors, Latil also designed and built an armed combat vehicle for the French Army, the armored AMD-37 scout car. The origins of this design can be traced back until December 1931, when the French Cavalry conceived a plan for the future production of armored fighting vehicles. One of the classes foreseen was that of an Automitrailleuse de Découverte (AMD), a specialized long range reconnaissance vehicle. The specifications were formulated on 22 December 1931, changed again on 18 November 1932 and finally approved on 9 December 1932. They called for a weight of 4 metric tons (4.0 t), a range of 400 kilometers (250 mi), a road speed of 70 km/h, a cruising speed of 40 km/h, a turning circle of 12 meters (39 ft), 5–8 mm armor, a 20 mm gun and a 7.5 mm machine gun.

 

In 1933, several competing companies responded (including Latil, Renault, Panhard and Berliet) with their proposals. Being rooted in rather heavy machinery, Latil proposed two designs: one was a 4x4 vehicle which would meet the required specification profile, but it was eventually rejected due to poor off-road performance in favor of the Panhard design, which would become the highly successful Panhard 178.

The other proposal fell outside of the specification limits. It was a bigger and much heavier 8x8 design, certainly influenced by the German SdKfz. 232 heavy scout car family. However, despite falling outside of the requirements, the Commission de Vincennes was impressed enough to order a prototype of this vehicle.

 

The Latil prototype had basically a conservative layout and was ready in October 1933. It was presented to the Commission de Vincennes in January 1934 under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1934 (AMD-34). The AMD-34 was, despite its 8x8 chassis and tank-like silhouette, based on modified Latil truck elements. Onto the ladder frame chassis, a hull made of screwed cast armor elements with a maximum thickness of 25 mm was mounted. The leaf spring suspension as well as the all-wheel drive were based on components of Latil’s heavy duty trucks. The eight large and steerable wheels were spaced apart as far as possible, with almost no overhang at the front and at the rear for a very good off-road performance and climbing capability. The crew consisted of three men: a driver and a radio operator, who both sat in the front of the hull, plus the commander, who, beyond directing the vehicle, also had to operate the weapons. The radio operator also had to support the commander as loader in the event of combat.

 

Power came from a water-cooled V8 petrol engine, an uprated version of Latil’s own V3 truck engine from 1933, with an output of 180 hp (132 kW). The engine was in the rear of the hull, separated from the fighting compartment at the front by a firewall bulkhead, and flanked side-by-side with two self-sealing fuel tanks with the large capacity of 80 and 320 liters capacity (the smaller tank fueled the engine and was constantly replenished from the bigger tank). A novel feature was an automatic fire extinguishing system, which used several tanks placed at critical spots of the vehicle, containing methyl bromide. The vehicle’s armament was mounted in a standardized, cast APX-R turret (which was also used on several light tanks like the Renault R-35) and consisted of a short-barreled Puteaux 37mm/L21 SA 18 gun as well as a coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun. 42 armor-piercing and 58 high explosive rounds were typically carried, plus 2.500 rounds for the machine gun.

 

The hexagonal turret had a 30 mm thick, domed rotatable cupola with vertical vision slits. It had to be either hand cranked or moved about by the weight of the commander. The rear of the turret had a hatch that hinged down which could be used as a seat to improve observation. Driver and radio operator (who had an ER 54 radio set available) had no hatches on their own. They entered the vehicle through a relatively large door on the vehicle’s left side.

 

After testing between 9 January and 2 February 1934 and comparison with the lighter 4 ton types, the AMR-34 was, despite its weight of almost 10 tons, accepted by the commission on 15 February under the condition some small modifications were carried out. In the autumn, the improved prototype was tested by the Cavalry and in late 1934 the type was accepted under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1935, better known under its handle “AMD-35”. Production started on a small scale in 1935 and by the end of the year the first AMD-35’s reached the Cavalry units. After complaints about reliability, such as cracking gun sights, and overheating, between 29 June and 2 December 1936 a new test program took place, resulting in many more detail modifications, including the fitting of a silencer, a ventilator on the turret and in the main cabin and a small, round hatch for the driver which allowed a better field of view when the crew did not have to work under armor cover.

The main weapon was also changed into a SA 38 37mm cannon with a longer (L33) barrel, since the original Puteaux cannon had only a very poor armor penetration of 12 mm at 500 meters. In this form, the vehicle was re-designated AMD-37. Several older vehicles were updated with this weapon, too, or they received a 25mm (0.98 in) SA35 L47.2 or L52 autocannon.

 

Overall, the AMD-37 proved to be an effective design. The eight-wheel armored car with all-wheel-drive and all-wheel-steering had a very good performance on- and off-road, even though with certain limits due to the vehicle’s weight and resulting ground pressure. The cabin was relatively spacious and comfortable, so that long range missions of 500 km (319 ml) and more could be endured well by the crews.

 

However, several inherent flaws persisted. One problem (which the AMD-37 shared with almost every French combat vehicle from the pre-WWII era) was that the commander was overburdened with tasks, especially under stressful combat conditions. The French Cavalry did not see this as a major flaw: A commander was supposed to acquire such a degree of dexterity that his workload did not negate the lack of need to coordinate the actions of two or even three men in a larger turret crew or the advantage of a quicker reaction because of a superior rotation speed. At first, a two-man-turret was required, but when it transpired that this would reduce the armor protection, it was abandoned in favor of thicker steel casts. However, the AMD-37’s armor level was generally relatively low, and hull’s seams offered attackers who knew where to aim several weak points that allowed even light hand weapons to penetrate the armor. Another tactical flaw associated with the turret was the hatchless cupola, forcing the commander to fight buttoned-up or leave the vehicle’s armor protection for a better field of view.

 

Operationally, though, the AMD-37 suffered from poor mechanical reliability: the suspension units were complicated and, since they were based on existing civil truck elements, too weak for heavy off-road operations under military conditions. The AMD-37’s weight of almost 10 tons (the comparable German SdKfz 231 was bigger but weighed only 8.3 tons) did not help, either. In consequence, the AMD-37 demanded enormous maintenance efforts, especially since the cast armor modules did not allow an easy access to the suspension and engine.

 

On 10 May 1940, on the eve of the German invasion in mainland France, the AMD-37 was part of 14 Divisions Légères Mécaniques (Mechanized Light Divisions; "light" meaning here "mobile", they were not light in the sense of being lightly equipped) battalions, each fielding dedicated reconnaissance groups with four to ten vehicles, which also comprised light Panhard 178 scout cars.

45 French AMD-37s were in Syria, a mandate territory, and 30 more were based in Morocco. The tanks in Syria would fight during the allied invasion of that mandate territory in 1941 and then partly be taken over by the Free French 1e CCC, those in North Africa during Operation Torch in November 1942.

The majority of AMD-37s in Western Europe fell into German hands, though: 78 were used as “Panzerkampfwagen 37R(f)” and mainly used in second line units for policy and security duties or for driver training. A small number of these German vehicles were sent to Finland, fighting on the Eastern Front, where they were outclassed by Soviet KV-1s and T-34s and quickly destroyed or abandoned.

 

Plans to augment the AMD-35’s armament with a bigger turret and a more powerful 47mm SA 35 gun (basically the same turret fitted to the SOMUA S-35 medium tank and the heavy Char B1bis) or an additional machine in the front bow for the radio operator were, due to the German invasion, never carried out.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Three (commander, radio operator/loader, driver)

Weight: 9,600 kg (21,145 lb)

Length: 5.29 m (17 ft 4 in)

Width: 2.52 m (8 ft 3 in)

Height: 2.44 metres (8 ft ½ in)

Suspension: Wheeled (Tires: 270–20, bulletproof), with leaf springs

Wading depth: 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in)

Trench crossing capability: 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in)

Ground clearance: 350 mm (13 3/4 in)

Climbing capability: 30°

Fuel capacity: 400 l

 

Armor:

9-30 mm (.35-1.18 in) cast steel

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 75 km/h (47 mph) on road, 55 km/h (34 mph) off-road

Operational range: 600 km (375 mi) on road

Power/weight: 18,7 PS/t

 

Engine:

Water-cooled Latil V8 gasoline engine with 7.336 cm³ displacement and 180 hp (132 kW) output

Transmission:

Latil gearbox with 4 forward and 1 reverse gears, eight-wheel drive and steering

 

Armament:

1× Puteaux 37mm/L33 SA 18 gun with 100 rounds

1× coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun with 2.500 rounds

  

The kit and its assembly:

This build was inspired by a drawing that I came across at DeviantArt a while ago, created by someone called MedJoe:

www.deviantart.com/medjoe/art/Autoblinde-SOMUA-S35bis-679...

The picture showed a Somua S-35 tank, set on eight wheels that heavily resembled those of the SdKfz. 234/2 “Puma”, in French colors and markings and designated S-35bis. I found the idea weird (since a full-fledged S-35 would certainly have at 20 tons been too heavy for a wheeled chassis), but the overall look of this combo was very convincing to me. I kept the idea in the back of my mind, until I came across a cheap Heller Somua S-35 in 1:72 scale and decided to take the concept to the (model) hardware stage and offer a personal interpretation.

 

Work started when I was able to acquire a sprue from a Plastic Soldier SdKfz. 231 kit, which provided a total of nine wheels in a suitable size and style, as well as suspension elements.

 

Building the hull was a straightforward affair: The Heller S-35 was built OOB, just the parts for the tracked suspension were left away. Some details and attachment points in the lower hull sections had to be removed, too. From the SdKfz. 232 I took the leaf spring suspension parts (these came as two frames for four wheels each, rather crude and solid parts) and cut the outer leaf spring packs off, so that their depth was reduced but the attachment points for the wheels were still there. These were simply glued into the space for the former tracks, similar to the drawing. This resulted in a slightly wide track, but narrowing the lower hull for a better look would have been a complicated affair, so I stuck with the simple solution. It does not look bad, though.

 

In order to make the vehicle’s role as a scout car more plausible and to avoid a head-heavy look, I decided to replace the original S-35 turret with a smaller APX turret from a Renault R-35. I found a suitable resin donor at ModelTrans, which was easily integrated to the S-35 hull. I perfectly fits into the S-35’s rounded cast armor style, which is so typical for many early French WWII tanks. Unfortunately, the resin R-35 turret had an air bubble at the rear, which had to be filled with putty. In order to differentiate the turret a little and modernize it, I added a longer gun barrel – in this case a piece from a hollow steel needle.

 

Other small mods include a pair of scratched rear-view mirrors for the driver, the spare wheel at the front (certainly not the best position, but the only place that was available and practical, and other armored vehicles of the time like the British Humber scout car also carried a spare wheel at the front) and an antenna at the rear, made from heated black sprue material.

  

Painting and markings:

This was not easy and it took a while to settle on a design. There were rather gaudy camouflage designs in the French army, but due to the model’s small scale I did not want a too complex design. I eventually decided to apply a rather simple scheme, inspired by the painting suggestions from the Heller kit: a disruptive two-tone scheme in a pale beige tone and a rather bluish dark green, which was confirmed through museum tanks. An odd quirk of the Heller kit is that the instructions and the box art show the same camouflage, but in inverted colors!?

 

I stuck to Heller’s suggestions and decided to follow the box art camouflage, which uses dark green (Humbrol 30) as basic color with light sand blotches (Humbrol 103) on top, which I found more appropriate for the middle European theatre of operations. I assume that these two tones were in real life separated by very narrow black or dark brown lines for more contrast – but I did not try this stunt on the small 1:72 scale model, it would IMHO have looked rather awkward. And there are French vehicles of the era that show these colors without any additional lines, too.

 

Markings/decals were mostly puzzled together from the scrap box, since the Heller decals turned out to be rather stiff and lack any adhesion to the model. I only used the “license plates”, which were fixed to the model with acrylic varnish, the rest are spares.

 

The kit received an overall washing with dark brown and a careful dry-brushing treatment with light grey.

After the final coat of matt varnish had been applied and all parts assembled, I dusted the lower areas with a dull grey-brown mix of artist pigments, simulating dust.

  

An experimental build, since drawing a whif is easier than actually building it, where parts have to fit somehow and you cannot change the size of them. Even though the resulting 8x8 scout car looks a little weird with its minimal overhang at the front and the rear, I like the result a lot – it looks very plausible to me. I also think that the smaller turret underlines the vehicle’s role as a rather lightly armed reconnaissance vehicle. It lowers the size and the silhouette, and subdues the S-35 origin – but without neglecting the typical French cast armor look. Certainly not a 1:1 copy of the inspiring drawing, but true to the original idea.

 

Think French automakers, and you think Peugeot, Renault and Citroen. For a great many years these three marques have dominated French sales and production.

 

France though, has a long history of car making, innovation, styling and coachbuilding. Unfortunately, like in many countries, most of this activity was severely hampered by WWII, and what was left struggled to find their feet in the 1950s and 1960s.

 

France, now part of the common European market, was more isolationist in the 1950s. If you wanted to sell cars in France you probably had to build cars in France. For a car-maker like Ford, this meant a French manufacturing arm combined with a design and engineering centre - Ford of France. Contrary to popular modern wisdom, Ford of France models were significantly different to those made in Germany and England - the two other large European car markets. Ultimately the market forces and logic corrected this oversight, and Ford of France's assets were sold to rival Simca in 1954.

 

Prior to this date though, Ford France produced this gem, the Comète. The Comète was based on the platform of the Ford Vedette, a range of cars bearing a resemblance to a 8/10ths scale Mercury from 1948. The Comète deployed a shorter wheelbase, and used the Vedette's Aquilon V8 engine, first at 2.2 litres (1951), 2.4 litres (1952) and switched to the Ford truck Mistral V8 of 3.9 litres for 1953-1954. The Mistral provided a big uplift in power and torque, but was ill-favoured due to its commercial vehicle roots, and secondly, the taxation regime for automobiles in France had strong disincentive for engine capacities over 2.0 litres.

 

Of further interest, the Comète had its body built by the Facel concern, who would later go on to make their own high-end luxury cars using large capacity Chrysler V8s (the Facel Vega).

 

In all, this is a handsome car, and very powerful for the period. The car is rare, and surviving examples have a strong following.

 

Read more on wikipedia:

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Com%C3%A8te

 

This Lego Miniland-scale 1954 Ford Comète Monte Carlo has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 115th Build Challenge, - "The French Connection", - for cars from France.

  

The Citroën XM is an executive car that was produced by the French automaker Citroën between 1989 and 2000. The XM was voted 1990 European Car of the Year.

 

Design:

 

The angular, dart-like Bertone design was a development of Marcello Gandini's Citroën BX concept. It was a longer car with a longer, inclined nose, more refined details and with headlamps that were very much slimmer than the norm (Gandini's own XM proposal was rejected as looking too much like an Opel). The design process of the car was described in the journal Car Styling. In the article Citroen's design chief, Art Blakeslee, explained the appearance of the car, saying "I believe the XM is a modern and dynamic shape, with unique styling elements such as the very long, low hood, the extensive use of glass and the kick-up in the belt line". In the book Citroen XM another Citroen designer, Daniel Abramson, explained: "We lowered the belt line to give the shape a stronger image. It is purely a 'design statement' that is not functional and does nothing for the aerodynamics of the vehicle. We wanted a car that looks good from every angle". Abramson is also reported as saying that they "picked three areas to emphasise: 1) A very aggressive look ("Almost sinister"), 2) Lots of glass to create a greenhouse effect, and 3) An aerodynamic accent based on fact (low drag)".

 

There were many advances, most apparently designed to counteract the main criticisms of its predecessor. The CX leaned in corners, so the XM had active electronic management of the suspension; the CX rusted, so the XM had a partially galvanised body shell (most surviving XMs have very little corrosion); the CX was underpowered, so the XM offered the option of a 3.0 L V6 engine – the first V6 in a Citroën since the Maserati-engined SM of 1970.

 

Ventilation was markedly more effective in the XM. Rear accommodation in the XM was improved over the CX in both width, legroom and height. In particular the rear passengers were seated higher than those in the front in order to afford a good view out, important for a vehicle which would operate in French government service. The XM shared a floorpan with the Peugeot 605, and the two models fared similarly in both teething problems and market acceptance. Unlike the 605 sedan design, the XM was a liftback design - a feature thought to be desirable in certain European markets.

 

History:

 

Launched on 23 May 1989, the XM was the modern iteration of the Big Citroën, a replacement for the Citroën CX. It was intended to compete against vehicles like the Audi 100 and BMW's 5-series in a sector that accounted for 14.2% of the European market. Citroen was quoted as saying that the car was supposed to "take what Citroen means and make it acceptable". The car's initial reception was positive. The XM won the prestigious European Car of the Year award for 1990 (gaining almost twice as many votes as the second, the Mercedes-Benz SL) and went on to win a further 14 awards that year.

 

The anticipated annual sales were 450 cars a day in the first full year of production, or 160,000 units a year. Sales never reached this level for a variety of reasons. The market for executive cars made by mainstream manufacturers was in decline as customers opted for offerings from more prestigious marques such as BMW and Mercedes-Benz; in parallel customers were placing a higher priority on speed and handling rather than ride comfort which was Citroen's specialty. The XM was underdeveloped at launch which resulted in reliability problems; the vehicle as designed was inconsistent in its abilities. The XM's styling was also controversial and alienated those who desired a more conventional three box sedan. Most subjective of all was the matter of the XM not living up to the expectations created by its forerunner the Citroen DS, despite that car having been launched in an era of national markets, of different demands and standards, an era when there was more scope for large advances in engineering and design than were possible in 1989.

 

The XM inherited a loyal global customer base of executive class customers and a clear brand image, but did not enjoy the commercial success and iconic status of its predecessors, the CX and the DS, which both raised the bar of automotive performance for other manufacturers. Export markets experienced lower sales from the outset, partly due to the XM's pricing. The least expensive XM was nearly 50% more expensive at the time of launch than the corresponding CX. Whilst strong at first home market sales also declined, after the mechanical issues of the first few model years became known. The problem was caused by defective electrical connectors. Cost-cutting on the components was needed since the parent company was in financial difficulty at the time of the design of the XM. Between 1980 and 1984 the company lost $1.5 billion.

 

In mid-1994, the XM was revised in order to improve competitiveness. All models were fitted with driver's airbag (signalling the end of the single-spoke steering wheel), belt-pretensioners, a redesigned dashboard and upper door casings. The suspension was redesigned to reduce roll, pitch and dive. Most noticeable was the adoption of a passive rear-steering system similar to that on the Citroen Xantia. This sharpened the "steering without inducing a nervous twitch." Power output on the turbocharged motor was increased to 150 bhp (112 kW; 152 PS) from 145 bhp (108 kW; 147 PS) at 4400 rpm. This allowed the car to develop more torque at much lower revs.

 

By the mid-1990s, it was apparent that the XM's image meant it was less desirable than German products such as the BMW 5 Series. The view of the XM as commercially unsuccessful is reported by Compucars, the used car website, along with numerous other period commentaries. Production ended in June 2000.

 

With total sales over its lifetime of just 330,000 units in more than 10 years, and the fact that its replacement took 5 years to arrive, the XM might be considered a failure. This was the case particularly in the United Kingdom market, where demand was reduced to a virtual trickle by the late 1990s. But despite its common roots with the Peugeot 605, the XM may still emerge as a collectible car, as the DS and CX both did.

 

[Text taken from Wikipedia]

 

The Citroen XM joins my recent Citroen Traction Avant, along with the Citroen DS and CX in my large Citroen collection.

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

Latil was a French automaker specializing in heavy duty vehicles, such as trucks, tractors and buses. Beyond the design and production of vehicles for civil use, Latil also built after World War I a number of military vehicles. For instance, in 1911, Latil designed and built its first four-wheel drive vehicle. This type of vehicle interested the French Army in 1913 for its ability to tow heavy artillery on every field and the TAR (Tracteur d'Artillerie Roulante) was built.

 

Beyond a number of field tractors, Latil also designed and built an armed combat vehicle for the French Army, the armored AMD-37 scout car. The origins of this design can be traced back until December 1931, when the French Cavalry conceived a plan for the future production of armored fighting vehicles. One of the classes foreseen was that of an Automitrailleuse de Découverte (AMD), a specialized long range reconnaissance vehicle. The specifications were formulated on 22 December 1931, changed again on 18 November 1932 and finally approved on 9 December 1932. They called for a weight of 4 metric tons (4.0 t), a range of 400 kilometers (250 mi), a road speed of 70 km/h, a cruising speed of 40 km/h, a turning circle of 12 meters (39 ft), 5–8 mm armor, a 20 mm gun and a 7.5 mm machine gun.

 

In 1933, several competing companies responded (including Latil, Renault, Panhard and Berliet) with their proposals. Being rooted in rather heavy machinery, Latil proposed two designs: one was a 4x4 vehicle which would meet the required specification profile, but it was eventually rejected due to poor off-road performance in favor of the Panhard design, which would become the highly successful Panhard 178.

The other proposal fell outside of the specification limits. It was a bigger and much heavier 8x8 design, certainly influenced by the German SdKfz. 232 heavy scout car family. However, despite falling outside of the requirements, the Commission de Vincennes was impressed enough to order a prototype of this vehicle.

 

The Latil prototype had basically a conservative layout and was ready in October 1933. It was presented to the Commission de Vincennes in January 1934 under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1934 (AMD-34). The AMD-34 was, despite its 8x8 chassis and tank-like silhouette, based on modified Latil truck elements. Onto the ladder frame chassis, a hull made of screwed cast armor elements with a maximum thickness of 25 mm was mounted. The leaf spring suspension as well as the all-wheel drive were based on components of Latil’s heavy duty trucks. The eight large and steerable wheels were spaced apart as far as possible, with almost no overhang at the front and at the rear for a very good off-road performance and climbing capability. The crew consisted of three men: a driver and a radio operator, who both sat in the front of the hull, plus the commander, who, beyond directing the vehicle, also had to operate the weapons. The radio operator also had to support the commander as loader in the event of combat.

 

Power came from a water-cooled V8 petrol engine, an uprated version of Latil’s own V3 truck engine from 1933, with an output of 180 hp (132 kW). The engine was in the rear of the hull, separated from the fighting compartment at the front by a firewall bulkhead, and flanked side-by-side with two self-sealing fuel tanks with the large capacity of 80 and 320 liters capacity (the smaller tank fueled the engine and was constantly replenished from the bigger tank). A novel feature was an automatic fire extinguishing system, which used several tanks placed at critical spots of the vehicle, containing methyl bromide. The vehicle’s armament was mounted in a standardized, cast APX-R turret (which was also used on several light tanks like the Renault R-35) and consisted of a short-barreled Puteaux 37mm/L21 SA 18 gun as well as a coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun. 42 armor-piercing and 58 high explosive rounds were typically carried, plus 2.500 rounds for the machine gun.

 

The hexagonal turret had a 30 mm thick, domed rotatable cupola with vertical vision slits. It had to be either hand cranked or moved about by the weight of the commander. The rear of the turret had a hatch that hinged down which could be used as a seat to improve observation. Driver and radio operator (who had an ER 54 radio set available) had no hatches on their own. They entered the vehicle through a relatively large door on the vehicle’s left side.

 

After testing between 9 January and 2 February 1934 and comparison with the lighter 4 ton types, the AMR-34 was, despite its weight of almost 10 tons, accepted by the commission on 15 February under the condition some small modifications were carried out. In the autumn, the improved prototype was tested by the Cavalry and in late 1934 the type was accepted under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1935, better known under its handle “AMD-35”. Production started on a small scale in 1935 and by the end of the year the first AMD-35’s reached the Cavalry units. After complaints about reliability, such as cracking gun sights, and overheating, between 29 June and 2 December 1936 a new test program took place, resulting in many more detail modifications, including the fitting of a silencer, a ventilator on the turret and in the main cabin and a small, round hatch for the driver which allowed a better field of view when the crew did not have to work under armor cover.

The main weapon was also changed into a SA 38 37mm cannon with a longer (L33) barrel, since the original Puteaux cannon had only a very poor armor penetration of 12 mm at 500 meters. In this form, the vehicle was re-designated AMD-37. Several older vehicles were updated with this weapon, too, or they received a 25mm (0.98 in) SA35 L47.2 or L52 autocannon.

 

Overall, the AMD-37 proved to be an effective design. The eight-wheel armored car with all-wheel-drive and all-wheel-steering had a very good performance on- and off-road, even though with certain limits due to the vehicle’s weight and resulting ground pressure. The cabin was relatively spacious and comfortable, so that long range missions of 500 km (319 ml) and more could be endured well by the crews.

 

However, several inherent flaws persisted. One problem (which the AMD-37 shared with almost every French combat vehicle from the pre-WWII era) was that the commander was overburdened with tasks, especially under stressful combat conditions. The French Cavalry did not see this as a major flaw: A commander was supposed to acquire such a degree of dexterity that his workload did not negate the lack of need to coordinate the actions of two or even three men in a larger turret crew or the advantage of a quicker reaction because of a superior rotation speed. At first, a two-man-turret was required, but when it transpired that this would reduce the armor protection, it was abandoned in favor of thicker steel casts. However, the AMD-37’s armor level was generally relatively low, and hull’s seams offered attackers who knew where to aim several weak points that allowed even light hand weapons to penetrate the armor. Another tactical flaw associated with the turret was the hatchless cupola, forcing the commander to fight buttoned-up or leave the vehicle’s armor protection for a better field of view.

 

Operationally, though, the AMD-37 suffered from poor mechanical reliability: the suspension units were complicated and, since they were based on existing civil truck elements, too weak for heavy off-road operations under military conditions. The AMD-37’s weight of almost 10 tons (the comparable German SdKfz 231 was bigger but weighed only 8.3 tons) did not help, either. In consequence, the AMD-37 demanded enormous maintenance efforts, especially since the cast armor modules did not allow an easy access to the suspension and engine.

 

On 10 May 1940, on the eve of the German invasion in mainland France, the AMD-37 was part of 14 Divisions Légères Mécaniques (Mechanized Light Divisions; "light" meaning here "mobile", they were not light in the sense of being lightly equipped) battalions, each fielding dedicated reconnaissance groups with four to ten vehicles, which also comprised light Panhard 178 scout cars.

45 French AMD-37s were in Syria, a mandate territory, and 30 more were based in Morocco. The tanks in Syria would fight during the allied invasion of that mandate territory in 1941 and then partly be taken over by the Free French 1e CCC, those in North Africa during Operation Torch in November 1942.

The majority of AMD-37s in Western Europe fell into German hands, though: 78 were used as “Panzerkampfwagen 37R(f)” and mainly used in second line units for policy and security duties or for driver training. A small number of these German vehicles were sent to Finland, fighting on the Eastern Front, where they were outclassed by Soviet KV-1s and T-34s and quickly destroyed or abandoned.

 

Plans to augment the AMD-35’s armament with a bigger turret and a more powerful 47mm SA 35 gun (basically the same turret fitted to the SOMUA S-35 medium tank and the heavy Char B1bis) or an additional machine in the front bow for the radio operator were, due to the German invasion, never carried out.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Three (commander, radio operator/loader, driver)

Weight: 9,600 kg (21,145 lb)

Length: 5.29 m (17 ft 4 in)

Width: 2.52 m (8 ft 3 in)

Height: 2.44 metres (8 ft ½ in)

Suspension: Wheeled (Tires: 270–20, bulletproof), with leaf springs

Wading depth: 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in)

Trench crossing capability: 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in)

Ground clearance: 350 mm (13 3/4 in)

Climbing capability: 30°

Fuel capacity: 400 l

 

Armor:

9-30 mm (.35-1.18 in) cast steel

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 75 km/h (47 mph) on road, 55 km/h (34 mph) off-road

Operational range: 600 km (375 mi) on road

Power/weight: 18,7 PS/t

 

Engine:

Water-cooled Latil V8 gasoline engine with 7.336 cm³ displacement and 180 hp (132 kW) output

Transmission:

Latil gearbox with 4 forward and 1 reverse gears, eight-wheel drive and steering

 

Armament:

1× Puteaux 37mm/L33 SA 18 gun with 100 rounds

1× coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun with 2.500 rounds

  

The kit and its assembly:

This build was inspired by a drawing that I came across at DeviantArt a while ago, created by someone called MedJoe:

www.deviantart.com/medjoe/art/Autoblinde-SOMUA-S35bis-679...

The picture showed a Somua S-35 tank, set on eight wheels that heavily resembled those of the SdKfz. 234/2 “Puma”, in French colors and markings and designated S-35bis. I found the idea weird (since a full-fledged S-35 would certainly have at 20 tons been too heavy for a wheeled chassis), but the overall look of this combo was very convincing to me. I kept the idea in the back of my mind, until I came across a cheap Heller Somua S-35 in 1:72 scale and decided to take the concept to the (model) hardware stage and offer a personal interpretation.

 

Work started when I was able to acquire a sprue from a Plastic Soldier SdKfz. 231 kit, which provided a total of nine wheels in a suitable size and style, as well as suspension elements.

 

Building the hull was a straightforward affair: The Heller S-35 was built OOB, just the parts for the tracked suspension were left away. Some details and attachment points in the lower hull sections had to be removed, too. From the SdKfz. 232 I took the leaf spring suspension parts (these came as two frames for four wheels each, rather crude and solid parts) and cut the outer leaf spring packs off, so that their depth was reduced but the attachment points for the wheels were still there. These were simply glued into the space for the former tracks, similar to the drawing. This resulted in a slightly wide track, but narrowing the lower hull for a better look would have been a complicated affair, so I stuck with the simple solution. It does not look bad, though.

 

In order to make the vehicle’s role as a scout car more plausible and to avoid a head-heavy look, I decided to replace the original S-35 turret with a smaller APX turret from a Renault R-35. I found a suitable resin donor at ModelTrans, which was easily integrated to the S-35 hull. I perfectly fits into the S-35’s rounded cast armor style, which is so typical for many early French WWII tanks. Unfortunately, the resin R-35 turret had an air bubble at the rear, which had to be filled with putty. In order to differentiate the turret a little and modernize it, I added a longer gun barrel – in this case a piece from a hollow steel needle.

 

Other small mods include a pair of scratched rear-view mirrors for the driver, the spare wheel at the front (certainly not the best position, but the only place that was available and practical, and other armored vehicles of the time like the British Humber scout car also carried a spare wheel at the front) and an antenna at the rear, made from heated black sprue material.

  

Painting and markings:

This was not easy and it took a while to settle on a design. There were rather gaudy camouflage designs in the French army, but due to the model’s small scale I did not want a too complex design. I eventually decided to apply a rather simple scheme, inspired by the painting suggestions from the Heller kit: a disruptive two-tone scheme in a pale beige tone and a rather bluish dark green, which was confirmed through museum tanks. An odd quirk of the Heller kit is that the instructions and the box art show the same camouflage, but in inverted colors!?

 

I stuck to Heller’s suggestions and decided to follow the box art camouflage, which uses dark green (Humbrol 30) as basic color with light sand blotches (Humbrol 103) on top, which I found more appropriate for the middle European theatre of operations. I assume that these two tones were in real life separated by very narrow black or dark brown lines for more contrast – but I did not try this stunt on the small 1:72 scale model, it would IMHO have looked rather awkward. And there are French vehicles of the era that show these colors without any additional lines, too.

 

Markings/decals were mostly puzzled together from the scrap box, since the Heller decals turned out to be rather stiff and lack any adhesion to the model. I only used the “license plates”, which were fixed to the model with acrylic varnish, the rest are spares.

 

The kit received an overall washing with dark brown and a careful dry-brushing treatment with light grey.

After the final coat of matt varnish had been applied and all parts assembled, I dusted the lower areas with a dull grey-brown mix of artist pigments, simulating dust.

  

An experimental build, since drawing a whif is easier than actually building it, where parts have to fit somehow and you cannot change the size of them. Even though the resulting 8x8 scout car looks a little weird with its minimal overhang at the front and the rear, I like the result a lot – it looks very plausible to me. I also think that the smaller turret underlines the vehicle’s role as a rather lightly armed reconnaissance vehicle. It lowers the size and the silhouette, and subdues the S-35 origin – but without neglecting the typical French cast armor look. Certainly not a 1:1 copy of the inspiring drawing, but true to the original idea.

 

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

Latil was a French automaker specializing in heavy duty vehicles, such as trucks, tractors and buses. Beyond the design and production of vehicles for civil use, Latil also built after World War I a number of military vehicles. For instance, in 1911, Latil designed and built its first four-wheel drive vehicle. This type of vehicle interested the French Army in 1913 for its ability to tow heavy artillery on every field and the TAR (Tracteur d'Artillerie Roulante) was built.

 

Beyond a number of field tractors, Latil also designed and built an armed combat vehicle for the French Army, the armored AMD-37 scout car. The origins of this design can be traced back until December 1931, when the French Cavalry conceived a plan for the future production of armored fighting vehicles. One of the classes foreseen was that of an Automitrailleuse de Découverte (AMD), a specialized long range reconnaissance vehicle. The specifications were formulated on 22 December 1931, changed again on 18 November 1932 and finally approved on 9 December 1932. They called for a weight of 4 metric tons (4.0 t), a range of 400 kilometers (250 mi), a road speed of 70 km/h, a cruising speed of 40 km/h, a turning circle of 12 meters (39 ft), 5–8 mm armor, a 20 mm gun and a 7.5 mm machine gun.

 

In 1933, several competing companies responded (including Latil, Renault, Panhard and Berliet) with their proposals. Being rooted in rather heavy machinery, Latil proposed two designs: one was a 4x4 vehicle which would meet the required specification profile, but it was eventually rejected due to poor off-road performance in favor of the Panhard design, which would become the highly successful Panhard 178.

The other proposal fell outside of the specification limits. It was a bigger and much heavier 8x8 design, certainly influenced by the German SdKfz. 232 heavy scout car family. However, despite falling outside of the requirements, the Commission de Vincennes was impressed enough to order a prototype of this vehicle.

 

The Latil prototype had basically a conservative layout and was ready in October 1933. It was presented to the Commission de Vincennes in January 1934 under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1934 (AMD-34). The AMD-34 was, despite its 8x8 chassis and tank-like silhouette, based on modified Latil truck elements. Onto the ladder frame chassis, a hull made of screwed cast armor elements with a maximum thickness of 25 mm was mounted. The leaf spring suspension as well as the all-wheel drive were based on components of Latil’s heavy duty trucks. The eight large and steerable wheels were spaced apart as far as possible, with almost no overhang at the front and at the rear for a very good off-road performance and climbing capability. The crew consisted of three men: a driver and a radio operator, who both sat in the front of the hull, plus the commander, who, beyond directing the vehicle, also had to operate the weapons. The radio operator also had to support the commander as loader in the event of combat.

 

Power came from a water-cooled V8 petrol engine, an uprated version of Latil’s own V3 truck engine from 1933, with an output of 180 hp (132 kW). The engine was in the rear of the hull, separated from the fighting compartment at the front by a firewall bulkhead, and flanked side-by-side with two self-sealing fuel tanks with the large capacity of 80 and 320 liters capacity (the smaller tank fueled the engine and was constantly replenished from the bigger tank). A novel feature was an automatic fire extinguishing system, which used several tanks placed at critical spots of the vehicle, containing methyl bromide. The vehicle’s armament was mounted in a standardized, cast APX-R turret (which was also used on several light tanks like the Renault R-35) and consisted of a short-barreled Puteaux 37mm/L21 SA 18 gun as well as a coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun. 42 armor-piercing and 58 high explosive rounds were typically carried, plus 2.500 rounds for the machine gun.

 

The hexagonal turret had a 30 mm thick, domed rotatable cupola with vertical vision slits. It had to be either hand cranked or moved about by the weight of the commander. The rear of the turret had a hatch that hinged down which could be used as a seat to improve observation. Driver and radio operator (who had an ER 54 radio set available) had no hatches on their own. They entered the vehicle through a relatively large door on the vehicle’s left side.

 

After testing between 9 January and 2 February 1934 and comparison with the lighter 4 ton types, the AMR-34 was, despite its weight of almost 10 tons, accepted by the commission on 15 February under the condition some small modifications were carried out. In the autumn, the improved prototype was tested by the Cavalry and in late 1934 the type was accepted under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1935, better known under its handle “AMD-35”. Production started on a small scale in 1935 and by the end of the year the first AMD-35’s reached the Cavalry units. After complaints about reliability, such as cracking gun sights, and overheating, between 29 June and 2 December 1936 a new test program took place, resulting in many more detail modifications, including the fitting of a silencer, a ventilator on the turret and in the main cabin and a small, round hatch for the driver which allowed a better field of view when the crew did not have to work under armor cover.

The main weapon was also changed into a SA 38 37mm cannon with a longer (L33) barrel, since the original Puteaux cannon had only a very poor armor penetration of 12 mm at 500 meters. In this form, the vehicle was re-designated AMD-37. Several older vehicles were updated with this weapon, too, or they received a 25mm (0.98 in) SA35 L47.2 or L52 autocannon.

 

Overall, the AMD-37 proved to be an effective design. The eight-wheel armored car with all-wheel-drive and all-wheel-steering had a very good performance on- and off-road, even though with certain limits due to the vehicle’s weight and resulting ground pressure. The cabin was relatively spacious and comfortable, so that long range missions of 500 km (319 ml) and more could be endured well by the crews.

 

However, several inherent flaws persisted. One problem (which the AMD-37 shared with almost every French combat vehicle from the pre-WWII era) was that the commander was overburdened with tasks, especially under stressful combat conditions. The French Cavalry did not see this as a major flaw: A commander was supposed to acquire such a degree of dexterity that his workload did not negate the lack of need to coordinate the actions of two or even three men in a larger turret crew or the advantage of a quicker reaction because of a superior rotation speed. At first, a two-man-turret was required, but when it transpired that this would reduce the armor protection, it was abandoned in favor of thicker steel casts. However, the AMD-37’s armor level was generally relatively low, and hull’s seams offered attackers who knew where to aim several weak points that allowed even light hand weapons to penetrate the armor. Another tactical flaw associated with the turret was the hatchless cupola, forcing the commander to fight buttoned-up or leave the vehicle’s armor protection for a better field of view.

 

Operationally, though, the AMD-37 suffered from poor mechanical reliability: the suspension units were complicated and, since they were based on existing civil truck elements, too weak for heavy off-road operations under military conditions. The AMD-37’s weight of almost 10 tons (the comparable German SdKfz 231 was bigger but weighed only 8.3 tons) did not help, either. In consequence, the AMD-37 demanded enormous maintenance efforts, especially since the cast armor modules did not allow an easy access to the suspension and engine.

 

On 10 May 1940, on the eve of the German invasion in mainland France, the AMD-37 was part of 14 Divisions Légères Mécaniques (Mechanized Light Divisions; "light" meaning here "mobile", they were not light in the sense of being lightly equipped) battalions, each fielding dedicated reconnaissance groups with four to ten vehicles, which also comprised light Panhard 178 scout cars.

45 French AMD-37s were in Syria, a mandate territory, and 30 more were based in Morocco. The tanks in Syria would fight during the allied invasion of that mandate territory in 1941 and then partly be taken over by the Free French 1e CCC, those in North Africa during Operation Torch in November 1942.

The majority of AMD-37s in Western Europe fell into German hands, though: 78 were used as “Panzerkampfwagen 37R(f)” and mainly used in second line units for policy and security duties or for driver training. A small number of these German vehicles were sent to Finland, fighting on the Eastern Front, where they were outclassed by Soviet KV-1s and T-34s and quickly destroyed or abandoned.

 

Plans to augment the AMD-35’s armament with a bigger turret and a more powerful 47mm SA 35 gun (basically the same turret fitted to the SOMUA S-35 medium tank and the heavy Char B1bis) or an additional machine in the front bow for the radio operator were, due to the German invasion, never carried out.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Three (commander, radio operator/loader, driver)

Weight: 9,600 kg (21,145 lb)

Length: 5.29 m (17 ft 4 in)

Width: 2.52 m (8 ft 3 in)

Height: 2.44 metres (8 ft ½ in)

Suspension: Wheeled (Tires: 270–20, bulletproof), with leaf springs

Wading depth: 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in)

Trench crossing capability: 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in)

Ground clearance: 350 mm (13 3/4 in)

Climbing capability: 30°

Fuel capacity: 400 l

 

Armor:

9-30 mm (.35-1.18 in) cast steel

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 75 km/h (47 mph) on road, 55 km/h (34 mph) off-road

Operational range: 600 km (375 mi) on road

Power/weight: 18,7 PS/t

 

Engine:

Water-cooled Latil V8 gasoline engine with 7.336 cm³ displacement and 180 hp (132 kW) output

Transmission:

Latil gearbox with 4 forward and 1 reverse gears, eight-wheel drive and steering

 

Armament:

1× Puteaux 37mm/L33 SA 18 gun with 100 rounds

1× coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun with 2.500 rounds

  

The kit and its assembly:

This build was inspired by a drawing that I came across at DeviantArt a while ago, created by someone called MedJoe:

www.deviantart.com/medjoe/art/Autoblinde-SOMUA-S35bis-679...

The picture showed a Somua S-35 tank, set on eight wheels that heavily resembled those of the SdKfz. 234/2 “Puma”, in French colors and markings and designated S-35bis. I found the idea weird (since a full-fledged S-35 would certainly have at 20 tons been too heavy for a wheeled chassis), but the overall look of this combo was very convincing to me. I kept the idea in the back of my mind, until I came across a cheap Heller Somua S-35 in 1:72 scale and decided to take the concept to the (model) hardware stage and offer a personal interpretation.

 

Work started when I was able to acquire a sprue from a Plastic Soldier SdKfz. 231 kit, which provided a total of nine wheels in a suitable size and style, as well as suspension elements.

 

Building the hull was a straightforward affair: The Heller S-35 was built OOB, just the parts for the tracked suspension were left away. Some details and attachment points in the lower hull sections had to be removed, too. From the SdKfz. 232 I took the leaf spring suspension parts (these came as two frames for four wheels each, rather crude and solid parts) and cut the outer leaf spring packs off, so that their depth was reduced but the attachment points for the wheels were still there. These were simply glued into the space for the former tracks, similar to the drawing. This resulted in a slightly wide track, but narrowing the lower hull for a better look would have been a complicated affair, so I stuck with the simple solution. It does not look bad, though.

 

In order to make the vehicle’s role as a scout car more plausible and to avoid a head-heavy look, I decided to replace the original S-35 turret with a smaller APX turret from a Renault R-35. I found a suitable resin donor at ModelTrans, which was easily integrated to the S-35 hull. I perfectly fits into the S-35’s rounded cast armor style, which is so typical for many early French WWII tanks. Unfortunately, the resin R-35 turret had an air bubble at the rear, which had to be filled with putty. In order to differentiate the turret a little and modernize it, I added a longer gun barrel – in this case a piece from a hollow steel needle.

 

Other small mods include a pair of scratched rear-view mirrors for the driver, the spare wheel at the front (certainly not the best position, but the only place that was available and practical, and other armored vehicles of the time like the British Humber scout car also carried a spare wheel at the front) and an antenna at the rear, made from heated black sprue material.

  

Painting and markings:

This was not easy and it took a while to settle on a design. There were rather gaudy camouflage designs in the French army, but due to the model’s small scale I did not want a too complex design. I eventually decided to apply a rather simple scheme, inspired by the painting suggestions from the Heller kit: a disruptive two-tone scheme in a pale beige tone and a rather bluish dark green, which was confirmed through museum tanks. An odd quirk of the Heller kit is that the instructions and the box art show the same camouflage, but in inverted colors!?

 

I stuck to Heller’s suggestions and decided to follow the box art camouflage, which uses dark green (Humbrol 30) as basic color with light sand blotches (Humbrol 103) on top, which I found more appropriate for the middle European theatre of operations. I assume that these two tones were in real life separated by very narrow black or dark brown lines for more contrast – but I did not try this stunt on the small 1:72 scale model, it would IMHO have looked rather awkward. And there are French vehicles of the era that show these colors without any additional lines, too.

 

Markings/decals were mostly puzzled together from the scrap box, since the Heller decals turned out to be rather stiff and lack any adhesion to the model. I only used the “license plates”, which were fixed to the model with acrylic varnish, the rest are spares.

 

The kit received an overall washing with dark brown and a careful dry-brushing treatment with light grey.

After the final coat of matt varnish had been applied and all parts assembled, I dusted the lower areas with a dull grey-brown mix of artist pigments, simulating dust.

  

An experimental build, since drawing a whif is easier than actually building it, where parts have to fit somehow and you cannot change the size of them. Even though the resulting 8x8 scout car looks a little weird with its minimal overhang at the front and the rear, I like the result a lot – it looks very plausible to me. I also think that the smaller turret underlines the vehicle’s role as a rather lightly armed reconnaissance vehicle. It lowers the size and the silhouette, and subdues the S-35 origin – but without neglecting the typical French cast armor look. Certainly not a 1:1 copy of the inspiring drawing, but true to the original idea.

 

Australia.

British automaker Bentley was founded in 1919 by W.O.Bentley. Rolls Royce took over Bentley in 1931.

The Bentley S2 were produced from 1959-62, featuring the new Rolls-Royce / Bentley L Series V8 engine. Of the 1,863 standard S2 models produced, 15 had H. J. Mulliner & Co. drophead coupe bodies. Of the 57 long-wheelbase cars, five had James Young bodies.

The S2 Continental had higher performance engines and higher gearing for lighter bodywork. 388 were built, bodied by the same group of coachbuilders as the standard S2.

This Bentley Continental S2 drophead coupe has coachwork by Park Ward. One of only 125 ever built, brought to Australia in the 70's, it is finished in its original colours of Mist Green with Beige hide and a Beige roof.

 

The Peugeot 406 is a large family car made by the French automaker Peugeot from 1995 to 2004. Available in saloon, estate and coupé bodystyles with a choice of petrol or turbodiesel engines, the 406 replaced the Peugeot 405 in Peugeot's lineup, and was itself replaced by the Peugeot 407. It used the same platform as the Citroën Xantia, though without that car's sophisticated hydropneumatic suspension system.

 

The project:

 

The styling of the 406 is heavily influenced by its predecessor, the 405, which began to be phased out from the 406's launch in September 1995, and eventually finished production in Europe in 1997, when the last estate models were discontinued. United Kingdom sales of the 406 began in February 1996.

 

Initially, the car was available with 1.8 L and 2.0 L petrol and 1.9 L turbodiesel engines, followed by a turbocharged 2.0 petrol, 3.0 (2946cc) V6 petrol, and 110 bhp 2.1 L turbodiesel. The diesel versions were very popular, and the 406 became one of Europe's best-selling diesel-powered cars.

 

The 2-door coupé was both designed and manufactured by Italian design studio Pininfarina, with choices of a 2.0 L 4-cylinder engine or a 3.0 L V6, and from 2001, a 2.2 L HDi diesel engine. On later models, a 2.2 L petrol engine was available. Total of 107,633 coupés were made.

 

For its final year on sale in the United Kingdom, the model was simply called the Peugeot Coupé, with the 406 branding dropped from the name.

 

The 406 was notably successful in the United Kingdom, having broken into the key UK fleet sales market, with a high percentage of units becoming company cars and taxis.

 

In 2002, a Peugeot 406 HDi set the world record for the longest distance driven on a single tank of fuel. The car travelled across Australia between Melbourne to Rockhampton, with a total distance of 2,348 km.

 

Facelift:

 

The facelifted 406 sedan was introduced in 1999 and safety, strength and speed enhancements resulted in improved Euro NCAP performance. Where the old 406 had one star and a struck off star, the post facelift models gained 3 stars. The changes included the new and improved EW/DW Engine Family HDI with greater power, torque and fuel efficiency along with increased refinement, making it comparatively quiet for a diesel. A downside was an increase in the car's insurance group from 9 to 12.

 

The exterior look was amended as the 406 featured more pronounced ribs, clear headlights, chrome trim and a new honeycomb grill. The rear lights were finished in red with a strip of the car's paint colour across the centre.

 

The interior was also redesigned to improve comfort and space. New equipment included automated digital climate control/air conditioning on most models except the most basic and a multi-function display for warning messages, trip computer, radio and external temperature. There was a more extensive use of wooden trim, better quality plastics, including soft touch plastics, and in addition some models received electrically folding mirrors, with automatic headlights and wipers. The top-of-the-range Executive model was specified a 10 speaker JBL sound system, electrically adjusted and heated leather seats, a memory position for the seats and mirrors, headlight washer jets, a rear sun blind, thicker carpeting, lights in the sun visors, satellite navigation and ambient lighting.

 

406 ended production in 2004.

 

[Text from Wikipedia]

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peugeot_406

 

This miniland-scale Lego Peugeot 406 Coupe (1996 - Pininfarina) has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 92nd Build Challenge, - "Stuck in the 90's", - all about vehicles from the decade of the 1990s.

 

The Pininfarina-styled Peugeot 406 Coupé is one of my very favourite 1990s cars, particularly the graceful styling.

The Ferrari 250 GT Lusso is a GT car which was manufactured by Italian automaker Ferrari from 1963 to 1964. Sometimes known as the GTL, GT/L or Berlinetta Lusso, it is larger and more luxurious[α] than the 250 GT Berlinetta. The 250 GT Lusso, which was not intended to compete in sports car racing, is considered to be one of the most elegant Ferraris. Keeping in line with the Ferrari "tradition" of that time, the 250 GT Lusso was designed by the Turinese coachbuilder Pininfarina, and bodied by Carrozzeria Scaglietti. Although the interior was more spacious than that of the 250 GT, the 250 GT Lusso remained a two-seat GT coupe, unlike the 250 GTE. The car was manufactured for only eighteen months, from early 1963 to mid 1964, and was the last model of Ferrari 250 GT generation.Auto shows often provide an opportunity for manufacturers to introduce new designs publicly. Ferrari did so at the 1962 Paris Motor Show to unveil, as a prototype, the 250 GT Lusso.[2] The prototype was almost identical to the production version, and only minor details changed thereafter.The new model was a way for Ferrari to fill a void left between the sporty 250 GT SWB and the luxurious 250 GTE 2+2,[6][β] the Lusso met the new demands of the 1960s. Indeed, fans of sporting driving of the time became as fond of civilized designs, that is, comfortable and spacious, as they were of radical sports cars.[3][7] Ferrari did not skimp on details in the GTL, which shows on the scales; weight ranged from 1,020 to 1,310 kg (2,250 to 2,890 lb), depending on equipment.Unusually brief for a Ferrari model, GTL's production began January 1963 and ended August 1964. According to a longstanding American expert on Ferrari, Peter Coltrin, the construction of the 250 GT Lusso must have begun soon after the presentation of the prototype of the Paris Motor Show.Although it was not intended to compete, the 250 GT Lusso made a few appearances in several sporting events in 1964 and 1965, such as the Targa Florio and the Tour de France. The final iteration of the 250 GT series, 351 copies of GT Lusso were produced before being replaced by the Ferrari 275 GTB. (Note nomenclature change due to increase in engine cylinder capacity.)[2] Originally sold for $13,375, the GTL saw sales in 2010 between $400,000 and $500,000, and currently in 2013 values are approaching 4 times this figure.Whats the most beautiful Ferrari ever? For most people it would be difficult to single out just one, but the general consensus points to the golden age of Ferrari designs that started vaguely in the late 1950’s and continued into the early 70’s. Many of the pre-Nixon era cars built sometime after the mid 50’s embody all the traditional Ferrari virtues, with just enough technology to make them almost dependable as daily drivers or fit for the occasional autoshow/ parade appearance. Ferrari 250 GT Sales Brochure One of the most beautiful 60’s era Ferrari is the Pininfarina designed 250 GT Lusso Berlinetta. The Lusso was the end of the line for the crazy popular 250 series that had been scorching race tracks and showrooms alike. The line started in 1959 with the GTO, essentially a race car for the street. Since then, many variations including the Spyder, Monza and Tessarossa have been produced and have all had their special attributes on either a short or long wheelbase. The first Lusso appeared at the 1962 Paris Auto Salon, with production starting in 1963 due to positive public response. The Lusso was special in that it may have been Ferrari’s first luxury GT car by design. The word Lusso itself meant luxury in Italian and the term Berlinetta is often used in Italy to describe coupes.

Ferrari 250 GT Lusso Interior As a luxury GT coupe, the 250 Lusso had no equal in its day (in the looks category). Mechanically, it was rather simple, but had plenty of luxury features like wood trim and leather seats, all to be expected for around $12,000 in 1964. A small space behind the seats accommodated luggage. A four speed manual transmission was the only gearbox officially available. A few cars were said to have been fitted with air conditioning, competition carburetors and a five speed manual transmission. These were rare, as most cars came from the factory equipped alike. The heart of the Lusso was a slightly de-tuned version of the SOHC 3.0 litre V12 used in the GTO. At 250 hp in standard trim, it was designed to accommodate up to Webber three carburetors. An astonishing number in a road going sports car for the 60’s. The lightweight Lusso weighed only 2249 lbs and could reach 60 mph in under 8 seconds and go all the way up to 150mph. It came equipped with power assisted disc brakes all around when it needed to be slowed down.Only 350 or so Lussos were produced by Scaglietti before production ended in 1964. The Lusso had established a reputation for being a fast and comfortable touring car preferred by the rich and celebrities. Famous actor Steve McQueen owned one, a rare dark brown 66 model. Despite the fron independent and ridged live rear suspension, the Lusso was a comfortable highway crusier due in part to the 15 inch Borannio wire wheel/tire combination.Like many sports cars the Lusso was not perfect, but it was insanely beautiful. Problems with smoking and overheasting were said to mar the owner experience, but these issues were reserved for the playboy or occasional actor who would push the car to its limits for extended periods of time. The Lusso was replaced by the technically more impressive 275 GTB, but it arguably was not as successful a design from an aestethic point of view. The Lusso would later be called one of the 10 best sports cars of the 60’s by Sports Car International magazine, securing its place as one of Pininifanari and Ferrari’s best.

autopolis.wordpress.com/2012/06/06/1963-1964-ferrari-250-...

BUYER'S GUIDE

 

REAL GRAND TOURING:

ITALY TO ENGLAND IN A MASERATI LEVANTE

 

July 11, 2017

 

As we headed deep into the Jura Mountains through Switzerland into the heart of France, I wondered what Adolfo Orsi would have made of the Maserati Levante. The Maserati brothers—Alfieri, Bindo, Carlo, Ettore, and Ernesto—of course founded the automaker that bears their name. But it was self-made industrialist and machine tool magnate Orsi, after buying the company from the brothers in 1937 and moving it from Bologna to Modena, who in 1957 launched its first volume-produced gran turismo, the 3500 GT. Orsi loved racing cars. He loved big, fast, elegant road cars. Could he imagine an SUV wearing the iconic trident badge?

 

Orsi would have understood the economics of the Levante. The SUV with a premium badge is a business strategy that’s proven hugely successful for Porsche, which uses profits from the Cayenne and Macan SUVs to fund ongoing development of its sports cars. Premium brands from Bentley to Jaguar to Lamborghini to Rolls-Royce are now following the Porsche model and jumping on the SUV bandwagon; there are even rumors Ferrari is working on an SUV based on next-generation GTC4Lusso hardware.

 

The 3500 GT didn’t stop Maserati from skidding into financial crisis in 1958 after a $3 million deal to supply machine tools to Argentina fell apart with the ousting of dictator Juan Perón. But almost 60 years later, in a world where demand for big GTs is finite and buyers are turning away from sedans, no matter how exotic the badge, the newly launched Levante is already doing the heavy lifting at Maserati, accounting for 38 percent of sales in the U.S. for the first six months of this year. It’s on track to become the company’s best-selling model worldwide. But is it good enough to secure Maserati’s future?

 

To find out, we start in Modena, where Maserati, operating out of a modern glass-curtained structure in front of the factory built by Orsi in the late 1930s, still calls home. This is where the GranTurismo and GranCabrio—both mildly tweaked for the 2018 model year with a new grille and front fascia, an upgraded interior that includes a new infotainment system, and the adoption of the 456-hp and 384-lb-ft version of the 4.7-liter V-8 as standard—are still assembled. After a perfunctory introduction to the Levante, we head out of the courtyard and into the Modena morning traffic. Our first stop is 180 miles to the west, at the Mirafiori factory in Turin, where Maserati’s SUV is made.

 

The E35 autostrada running past Modena is busy and littered with speed cameras, so we run at no more than 85–90 mph, slowing to 80 as we go under the camera gantries. It’s quieter with fewer cameras after we turn onto the E70 toward Turin, and we pick up the pace. The Levante cruises effortlessly at 100 mph, the 424-hp 3.0-liter twin-turbo V-6 under the hood of our S-spec version turning a relaxed 2,400 rpm. It’s a deceptively potent powerplant, this engine, building speed with an elastic surge rather than a sledgehammer shove. At one point the big Maserati is loafing along at an indicated 140 mph.

 

Orsi, whose best Maserati road cars effortlessly ate up highway miles at triple-digit speeds, would have approved.

 

He would have approved, too, of the fact the Levante is made in Italy. That wasn’t the original plan: The Kubang concept that previewed the Levante in 2011 (itself a rework of a 2003 Maserati SUV concept also called Kubang designed by Giugiaro) was originally intended to be based on Jeep Grand Cherokee hardware and built in the U.S. The idea made sense to FCA boss Sergio Marchionne, a razor-sharp financial engineer with little time for the sentimental side of the auto biz. But common sense—and a labor deal with workers in Turin—prevailed, and Levante production was switched to the giant Fiat Mirafiori plant. The Jeep hardware idea went away, too: The Levante rolls on a modified version of the platform that underpins the Quattroporte and Ghibli sedans.

 

Mirafiori is a steel and concrete metaphor for the decline of Fiat as a major automaker. Construction of the factory was started in 1937 to replace the quirky plant a few miles away at Lingotto, where the production line spiraled slowly upward from the ground floor, with completed cars being tested on a rooftop track. That scene in the movie The Italian Job where the three Minis are chased around what looks like a banked NASCAR oval someone built six stories up? Filmed on the roof at Lingotto.

 

In its pomp Mirafiori was the largest industrial complex in Italy and one of the largest auto factories ever built. Sprawling across almost 1,000 acres, with 25 miles of production lines, at its peak it employed 50,000 workers and could build 5,000 cars a day. This year it will build less than one-twentieth that number. Large swathes of Mirafiori are quietly rusting and crumbling, but the area of the plant that’s been refurbished to build the Levante, adjacent to the line for the slow-selling Alfa Romeo MiTo compact, is bright, airy, and gleaming—the very model of a modern auto factory.

 

With 13 available exterior colors, 28 interior color combinations, three available engines—345-hp and 424-hp versions of the gasoline V-6, plus the 271-hp VM Motori 3.0-liter turbodiesel V-6—wheels ranging from 18 inches to 21 inches, and various market-specific pieces of hardware to meet regulations and customer preferences in places as diverse as Shanghai, Seattle, and San Marino, Maserati says it is possible to build 1,583,090,535,606 different variants of the Levante. With production currently pegged at 140 a day, it’s going to take them a long, long time. …

 

The St. Bernard Pass, north of Turin, near the top end of the Aosta Valley, is sports car country. The tarmac squirms and wiggles up and over the third-highest mountain pass in Switzerland, placing a premium on grip and agility, power and torque. The Levante is no sports car, but it has 50/50 front to rear weight distribution and what Maserati claims is the lowest center of gravity in its class. As the road twists and turns, our S model, on the 20-inch wheel/tire combination, offers decent levels of front-end bite, and the mechanical rear differential, working in combination with the all-wheel-drive system that sends 100 percent of the torque to the rear axle until front wheel slip is detected, helps punch the big Maserati out of tight corners. With 428 lb-ft on tap from 1,750 rpm to 5,000 rpm, the twin-turbo V-6 makes impressively light work the Levante’s 4,650-pound heft.

 

If the Levante cost the same per pound as beluga caviar, it would be priced at almost $20 million. I only know this because our dinner in Geneva after the run down from the St. Bernard Pass, hosted by Caviar House & Prunier’s Jean-Pierre Esmilaire, featured some of the company’s finest beluga, straight from a 4-pound tin that apparently retails for about $17,000. That’s a lot of money for fish eggs, no matter how rare the fish or how tasty the eggs. A Levante S specified to a similar level as the one we’re driving would retail for about $95,000 in the U.S., or roughly five-and-a-half 4-pound tins of Caviar House & Prunier beluga. In that context, it’s a value. Back in the real world, it’s merely competitive, retailing Stateside for about the same money as a similarly configured Porsche Cayenne S.

 

Whether it’s caviar or cars, much of what makes a modern luxury brand is carefully managed scarcity combined with a compelling backstory. Maserati has the compelling backstory, starring legendary cars such as Bora, Khamsin, Kyalami and the original Ghibli, with supporting roles from Wilbur Shaw’s back-to-back wins in the 8CTF at the 1939 and 1940 Indy 500s, and a World Formula 1 Championship in 1957 with Juan-Manuel Fangio at the wheel of the glorious 250F, still one of the most beautiful front-engine racing cars ever built.

 

It should have the scarcity, too. Even with Levante in full production—right-hand-drive markets are only now just getting the gasoline engine versions, and a V-8 powered model is reportedly in the wings—company boss Reid Bigland says there is no plan to retail more than 75,000 Maseratis a year. We’ll see if that number holds. Sergio Marchionne certainly won’t back away from the opportunity to sell more high-margin Maseratis if sales of low-margin Fiats and Dodges stutter, and given the fact Porsche last year sold more than 237,000 vehicles worldwide, it would seem he has plenty of headroom to expand the Maserati brand’s footprint without compromising its exclusive image.

 

It comes as no surprise to learn Porsche’s Cayenne was the benchmark against which the Levante was developed, and as we switch back and forth between back roads and autoroutes through Switzerland and France, passing through the heart of Champagne country en route to Calais, there’s time to reflect on how close the Maserati team came to its target.

 

The Levante is an inch narrower than the Porsche, but it rolls on a 4-inch-longer wheelbase. That doesn’t quite translate into the interior room the raw numbers suggest, however, because the Maserati’s dash-to-axle is much more extravagant than the Porsche’s. The Levante doesn’t feel quite as big inside as you’d expect.

 

The Italian twin-turbo V-6 has near identical power and slightly more torque than its German counterpart, and it delivers both with a touch more brio. Both cars have eight-speed automatics with paddle shifters, and here the edge goes to the more maturely calibrated Cayenne transmission. In Sport mode the shifts in the Maserati thump home hard—simply, engineers admit, to impress customers who think that’s how a sports car should be. It’s unnecessary. So, too, is the overly melodramatic snarl from the exhaust.

 

Maserati opted to make air suspension standard across the Levante range, and it was the right call. It enables the ride height to be raised for off-road work and lowered for high-speed freeway running, with five different settings available across a 3.3-inch range. In Sport mode the primary ride is plusher than in the Cayenne, though with the 20-inch wheel/tire setup, the secondary ride can be jittery on broken surfaces. Normal mode ups the comfort level, but there’s more secondary body motion than in, say, a Range Rover Sport, and the diagonal and side-to-side pitching isn’t as well controlled. And although the steering is accurate, there’s not the feedback you want. It all adds up to a chassis that, though fundamentally precise and predictable, can leave the driver feeling oddly detached on occasion.

 

It’s best to drive the Levante like a gran turismo rather than try and hustle it like a sports car. Off the freeways I liked it with the engine and suspension in Normal mode and the transmission in manual, taking the time, as I did in the 3500 GT I once drove, to get the Levante slowed and settled and in the right gear before committing to corners, then clipping the apex and getting back on the gas nice and early. As with those big, old Maserati coupes, less haste equals more speed in the Levante.

 

En route to Calais and the train that will take us under the English Channel to Dover to begin the final leg of our journey to Goodwood and a weekend at the fabulous Festival of Speed, we make a brief stop in front of the eerily deserted pits and grandstands on either side of the busy D27 road, on what was once the start-finish straight of the old grand prix circuit just outside Reims. The first race on this fearsomely fast road course was held here in 1926, and Formula 1 cars raced here until 1966. A Maserati, driven by maestro Fangio, held the outright lap record in 1953.

 

We’ve had almost 900 miles of seat time in the Levante. That’s enough time to consider its strengths and weaknesses. There are things that can be—and need to be—fixed quickly, like the jittery secondary ride (I’d like to try a Levante on 19-inch rims and more compliant tires), the obtuse PRNDL shifter (a fundamental control interface should not be so difficult to use), and the bits and pieces in the interior that have been obviously lifted from the FCA parts bin. The infotainment system also has some strange quirks—the home screen, for example, features dozens of identically sized and colored icons that in our car seemed to change position from time to time for no apparent reason, making finding the function you wanted doubly difficult.

 

Melding the spirit of Maserati with the practicality of an SUV requires a fine balancing act, and for the most part the Levante pulls it off. It’s more than just a transfer of familiar brand iconography to an unfamiliar vehicle format; the Levante works as a Maserati because big, fast, luxurious SUVs have become the gran turismos of the 21st century, the vehicles you buy to take you and your luggage quickly and comfortably across continents, on all roads, in all weather conditions.

 

Adolfo Orsi can rest easy.

 

Article by Angus MacKenzie

 

The Renault 12 is a large family car introduced by French automaker Renault at the Paris Motor Show in October 1969[2] and produced in France till 1980. Available as a saloon (Berline) and estate (Break), it was also produced under licence in many countries around the globe into the early 21st century.

 

In its first few years the 12 received praise from the European press for its spacious, comfortable interior, its styling, its performance and its low fuel consumption. However it fared worse in the North American press: in a test of the 1974 model, Road & Track was critical of the engine's "obtrusive" noise, and called the heavy, non-power steering "a serious design flaw". They also gave it "very poor marks" for the ventilation system.

 

Renault 12 production and sales ended in western Europe in 1980, but the model continued to be produced and sold by Renault affiliates elsewhere. The last R12 was produced in 2000 in Turkey, whereas Romanian automaker Dacia continued producing the R12-based 1310 sedan and estate until 2004 and the R12-based Dacia Pick-Up until December 2006.

 

n 1970, two new variants were introduced. The estate was launched with the same trim levels and engines as in the saloon and a high performance Renault 12 Gordini model was introduced equipped with the all-aluminium 1565 cc block from the R16 TS fitted with two double-barrel Weber carburettors producing 125 PS (92 kW; 123 hp), a reinforced crankshaft, a five speed gearbox, ventilated disc brakes on the front wheels and normal disc brakes on the rear wheels, as well as a tuned suspension. The Gordini was able to reach 185 km/h (115 mph) and was sold with paint schemes comprising a solid pastel colour (there were several to choose from) with double white stripes added on, the most famous combination being French Blue with stripes. 2225 Renault 12 Gordinis were sold in 1971 but after that sales began a free fall. Renault stopped production of the Gordini in 1974 after 5188 had been sold (compared to 11,607 Renault 8 Gordinis).

 

[Text from Wikipedia]

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_12

 

One of my more successful car fixing ventures involved rebuilding a regular R12 engine in a friend's car. The Gordini used the engine from the Renault 16 TS (of which I had two) - aluminium with steel liners. And, a much more complicated powetrain assembly - I always had issues trying to sort out its problems.

The Audi A8 is a four-door, full-size, luxury sedan manufactured and marketed by the German automaker Audi since 1994. Succeeding the Audi V8, and now in its third generation, the A8 has been offered with both front- or permanent all-wheel drive - and in short- and long-wheelbase variants. The first two generations employed the Volkswagen Group D platform, with the current generation deriving from the MLB platform. After the original model's 1994 release, Audi released the second generation in late 2002, and the third and current iteration in late 2009.

 

Notable for being the first mass-market car with an aluminium chassis, all A8 models have used this construction method co-developed with Alcoa and marketed as the Audi Space Frame.

 

A mechanically-upgraded, high-performance version of the A8 debuted in 1996 as the Audi S8. Produced exclusively at Audi's Neckarsulm plant, unlike the donor A8 model, the S8 has been available only in short-wheelbase form and is fitted standard with Audi's quattro all-wheel drive system.

 

FIRST GENERATION (D2, Typ 4D; 1994–2002)

DEVELOPMENT

In 1982, Ferdinand Piëch signed an agreement with Aluminum Company of America. The objective was to design and develop a car that would be substantially lighter than any other vehicles in its class (to compensate for the fact that standard all-wheel drive was around 100 kg heavier than competitors' rear-wheel drive). In the late 1980s, it was decided that the target vehicle would be a successor to the V8 (Typ 4C) flagship introduced in 1988. By 1991, a final design by Chris Bird and Dirk van Braeckel was chosen and frozen for series production in 1992. In September 1993, the Audi Space Frame (ASF) Concept was unveiled at the 1993 Frankfurt Motor Show (IAA) as a D2 Typ 4D prototype in polished aluminum. Pilot production began in December 1993 and development ended in early 1994, at a total cost of $700 million (£418.1 million).

 

INTRODUCTION

The Audi A8 (Typ 4D) was presented in February 1994 and debuted at the 1994 Geneva Auto Show in March, with full-scale factory production commencing in June 1994, although it was not until October 1996, for the 1997 model year that it became available in North America. Unlike its predecessor, the Audi V8 model, which was built on an existing steel platform, the A8 debuted on the then-new Volkswagen Group D2 platform, an all aluminium monocoque, marketed as the "Audi Space Frame" (ASF), which helped to reduce weight and preserve structural rigidity. The saloon/sedan was offered in both the A8 (standard wheelbase), and the A8 L extended or long-wheelbase (LWB) version. The A8 L adds 127 mm of rear legroom. Updates to the car in 1997 included the addition of six interior airbags.

 

In 1997, Audi introduced the first series production ESP Electronic stability control for all-wheel drive vehicles (Audi A8 and Audi A6)– the world's first production cars with both front and rear side airbags.

 

For 1997, the new A8 was available with either front-wheel drive (FWD), or the Torsen-based quattro permanent four-wheel drive. The FWD models are powered by a 2.8-litre V6 engine, producing 142 kilowatts (193 PS; 190 bhp), and a 3.7-litre V8 engine producing 171.5 kilowatts (233 PS; 230 bhp), while the quattro received a 4.2-litre V8 producing 220 kilowatts (299 PS; 295 bhp).

 

The A8 is available with standard luxury amenities, including dual-zone climate control, wood and leather interior trim, 14-way power and heated seats, and an enhanced Bose audio system.

 

In 1999, Audi's flagship received side curtain airbags, new colours, and restructuring of option packages. The North American "warm weather package" added a solar sunroof which allows the interior ventilation fans to run, keeping the interior cool while the car is parked with the engine turned off. Changes to all models included a larger passenger-side mirror, and a first aid kit located in the rear centre armrest.

 

In 1999 for the 2000 model year came a minor front-end restyle, with new, larger, clear headlights, a revised grille, and lower front valance with standard projection fog lamps. On the interior, the seats received a new, horizontal stitch pattern. Also, the 3.7-litre V8 FWD model was dropped, leaving the 2.8 V6 model and the long-wheelbase and short-wheelbase 4.2-litre quattro. These restyled cars also featured revised external door handles and an integrated radio antenna. For 2000, the North American A8 line-up was expanded to include the A8 L.

 

In 2001, Audi introduced its new W12 engine, a compact 6.0-litre unit developed by effectively mating two VR6 engines together at the crankshaft. The engine quickly became available in the A8, though only to European and Asian customers. From its introduction through its discontinuation in 2003, only 750 of the D2 "W12" models were produced. 2001 also marked the debut of the high-performance S8 variant in North American markets.

 

In 2002, the A8 L received standard xenon high-intensity discharge lamp (HID) headlights, and a heated steering wheel. A tyre pressure monitoring system (TPMS), an updated Symphony II stereo, and new exterior colours were also added. For 2002, all A8 variants received a trunk/boot interior release lever to facilitate escape in the event an individual became trapped within.

 

Factory production of this generation ceased at Number 105,092 on August 4, 2002.

 

COUPE (PROTOTYPE)

In 1997, IVM Automotive of Munich, Germany built a two-door Audi A8 Coupé. The car was unveiled at the 1997 Geneva Motor Show. Audi contracted IVM to build the prototype, and was considering production of the vehicle. The coupé had a re-engineered aluminium body, shorter than the production A8 saloon. Like the Mercedes-Benz CL-Class, there was no central "B" pillar, giving the car a seamless design with a gradually sloping roofline. The car included custom leather seats which could seat four. Ultimately, Audi decided not to put the A8 Coupé into production, citing lower-than-expected sales figures for the similar BMW 8 Series and Mercedes-Benz S-Class Coupé. Only one A8 Coupé was ever built. The single prototype, painted in a colour called "Ming Blue pearl", remains the property of IVM Automotive, and resides in Munich. Its last public appearance was in 2002 on a series of test drives.

 

S8

Audi introduced the S8 4.2 quattro into the European market in 1996. The S8 followed the naming convention of other high-performance Audi "S" models such as the Audi A6-derived S6 and was similar in vein of Mercedes-Benz AMG models. In markets such as the UK, the S8 was only available with the automatic transmission. Cosmetically, Audi differentiated the S8 from the A8 with solid aluminium alloy door mirror housings, chrome-effect beltline and lower front grille trim, and polished twin exhaust pipes, along with subtle "S8" badging. 14-way power adjustable and heated sports front seats with memory function were fitted as were heated rear seats. Standard alloy wheels were 18-inch cast aluminium alloy "Avus" six-spoke style. After the 1999 facelift, 20-inch polished nine-spoke RS wheels became an option. In 2002, 18-inch nine-spoke RS wheels became a no-cost option.

 

At the same time of the A8's facelift in late 1999, the S8 received the same cosmetic upgrades. This update marked the release of the S8 to the North American market. Production of the D2 series S8 ended in September 2002.

 

The D2 series S8 featured an uprated, 250 kW (335 hp) version of the 4.2-litre V8 with four valves per cylinder. From late 1999, Audi increased this to five valves per cylinder with power increased to 265 kilowatts (355 hp) and 430 newton metres. From launch in 1996, European-market models came standard with a six-speed manual transmission. A sports-recalibrated version of the ZF 5HP24 five-speed tiptronic automatic, featuring "Dynamic Shift Programme" (DSP) was released a year later and was the only transmission available in most other markets.

 

A retuned, 20-millimetre (0.8 in) lowered sports suspension included a 30 percent stiffer spring rate and 40 percent more compression damping in the shock absorbers. Speed-sensitive "servotronic" power assisted steering was also standard.

 

The brakes featured Bosch 5.3 anti-lock braking system (ABS), with electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD), and worked radially ventilated front discs. From 2002, an upgraded Bosch 5.7 electronic stability programme became standard fitment.

 

SECOND GENERATION (D3, Typ 4E; 2002–2009)

The second-generation Audi A8 (Typ 4E) built on the Volkswagen Group D3 platform was unveiled via press release in July 2002 and introduced in November 2002 in Europe and in June 2003 (as a 2004 model) in the United States. The model was longer than the previous generation, with room for four or five large adult occupants in the cabin, depending on rear seat configuration. The D3 development program began in 1996, with the design process commencing in Ingolstadt in 1997. The whole Audi design studio based in Ingolstadt first contributed sketch proposals, from which numerous different themes emerged. Six of them were developed into full size clay models and worked up in a traditional manner adjacent to full size tape drawings. At least three one quarter scale models were produced to explore other design variations.

 

The six full size exterior clay models were reduced to two in late 1998 and these continued to be refined in parallel for a year. At the end of 1999 the final theme selection was made, by Miklós Kovács and Imre Hasanic the main contributing designers. This lengthy development time was in part due to the body being made from aluminium, a material less able to take the small radii of sharp feature lines such as those on the (steel bodied) A4 (B6) designed in 1998.

 

In parallel to the exterior design development the interior design was progressed with a total of four full size models produced and the production car's horizontally themed instrument panel design dominant from early on, with Norbert Schneider, Mark Bergold and Enzo Rothfuss the main contributing designers.

 

Grouping major controls nearer the driver for a more driver focused identity whilst creating a more airy and spacious feel were early priorities for the interior design team was headed by Jurgen Albamonte. This was in part facilitated by the Multi Media Interface (MMI) designed by Jurgen Schröder, that pioneered on the D3 A8 after the Audi Avantissimo concept car preview, and also by class leading colour and trim from Barbara Krömeke and Melinda Jenkins.

 

Under the supervision of Dany Garand, during the first half of 2000 exterior and interior clay models were digitized and developed using digital design tools in a supporting, not leading, capacity. The D3 final production design was later frozen in the summer of 2000 for an August 2002 start of production.

 

The A8 was previewed 2001 Frankfurt Motor Show by the Audi Avantissimo concept car. This concept introduced much of the technology later available on the series production A8 D3, including: Multi Media Interface, 6-speed automatic transmission with shift paddles, V8 biturbo engine (S8), self-levelling adaptive air suspension with continuously controlled damping, electric park brake, bi-xenon headlights with static Adaptive Front Lighting System (AFS) curve headlights, dashboard, driver identification systems with fingerprint scanner.

 

As with the previous version, two body variants of the second generation A8 are offered, the A8 (standard, or short wheelbase), and the long-wheelbase (LWB) A8 L. The A8 L adds 120 mm to the rear legroom and 11 mm to the overall height of the car.

 

INNOVATIONS

- World premiere of Multi Media Interface (MMI) in-car user interface (similar to BMW iDrive)

- Multiplexed high speed MOST Bus optical fiber data networks (interconnecting tens of microprocessors on common databusses), integrated with MMI.

- First Audi with Bi-Xenon HID headlamps for both low and high beam

- World premiere of static Adaptive Front Lighting System (AFS) curve headlights (from Hella)

- First Audi with 4-wheel Adaptive Air Suspension and Continuous Damping Control (CDC)-(Skyhook suspension).

- First Audi GPS navigation system with DVD maps

- First Audi with six-speed automatic transmission (Tiptronic)

- First Audi featuring driver identification system.

 

In 2005, new internal combustion engines became available. For European and Asian market customers, the entry-level 3.0-litre V6 engine was replaced with a new 3.2-litre unit featuring Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI), which it shared with the Audi B7 A4 and Audi C6 A6. The top-of-the-line W12 version debuted that year. The advantage of the W12 engine layout is its compact packaging, allowing Audi to build a 12-cylinder sedan with all-wheel drive, whereas a conventional V12 could only have a rear-wheel drive configuration as it would have no space in the engine bay for a differential and other components required to power the front wheels. In fact, Audi's 6.0-litre W12 is actually slightly smaller by overall dimensions than the 4.2-litre V8.

 

In addition to the added power trains, Audi restyled the D3 platform A8 range slightly in 2005, giving all variants a taller, wider trapezoidal single-frame grille. The top-of-the-line W12 engined W12 version was the first model to be equipped with this grille; V8 engined models were fitted with the new grille the following year.

 

The D3 generation A8 introduced the 235 kW (315 hp) 4.2-litre Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) V8 engine (subsequently uprated to 240 kW (322 hp)). The engine uses two turbochargers and two intercoolers, with each turbocharger functioning exclusively for one bank of four cylinders.

 

The adaptive air suspension gives the vehicle clearance a range from its normal 120 mm up to 145 mm in lift mode and down to 95 mm in the Autobahn mode, which is automatically activated when a speed of more than 120 km/h is maintained for more than 30 seconds.

 

In September 2005 Audi became the first car maker to offer the 1,000-watt 14-channel ICEpower sound system option from Bang & Olufsen.

 

A8 L W12 QUATTRO SECURITY

It is an armoured vehicle with B6+ and B7 (European standard) ballistic ratings. It includes a W12 engine rated 331 kW (450 PS) and 580 N·m (428 lbf·ft), emergency exit system featuring pyrotechnic blown-out doors, fire extinguisher system with spray jets located in the engine compartment, underbody and in the wheel arches; smoke extractor in passenger compartment, run flat tires, bullet proof windows, the full protection plus package and LED flashers in the exterior mirrors. Buyers are also offered facility to dispatch two drivers on a special training course.

 

S8 5.2 FSI QUATTRO

The S8 high-performance sports variant, now called the "Audi S8 5.2 FSI quattro" was announced in the last quarter of 2005 and full production started in June 2006 and ended in September 2009.

 

The S8 includes subtle detailing to distinguish it from its related A8. The trapezoidal "single-frame" grille bears the characteristic Audi "S model" vertical strut detail which are highlighted in a chrome finish. "S8" badging is displayed front and rear, whilst "V10" badges are displayed on each front wing above the side-repeater indicators. The rear boot-lid incorporates a subtle rear spoiler, and the rear is finished with four chromed oval exhaust tailpipes. Adaptive Xenon-plus high-intensity discharge (HID) headlamps include static turning lights, along with "swiveling" dynamic cornering lights. Daytime running lamps are five light-emitting diodes (LEDs) incorporated into a cloverleaf designed reflector, incorporated into the main headlamp housing.

The D3 series S8 features a 5.2-litre all-aluminium alloy four-valves per cylinder V10 petrol engine. This engine is a derivative of the Lamborghini Gallardo's original 5.0-litre Lamborghini V10, which was also developed under the Volkswagen Group ownership. On this Audi-only variant, compared to the Lamborghini engine, it features a longer stroke and wider bore - which increases the displacement of the engine, and produces more torque at lower revs, making it more suitable for the larger and heavier full-sized luxury Audi application. It produces 331 kW (444 hp) of power and 540 N·m of torque. By having its bore whittled out an additional 2 millimetres, displacement in the S8 application increases from 5.0- to 5.2-litres. The engine also features Audi's direct-injection system, called Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI).

 

A sports-optimised ZF 6HP26-A61 six-speed tiptronic automatic transmission with "Dynamic Shift Programme" (DSP) and "sport" mode, with steering wheel mounted paddle-shifters, is the only offering. Output is transmitted via Audi's quattro all-wheel drive system, initially using the Torsen T-2 50:50 dynamic centre differential, and from 2007 for the 2008 model year, utilising the Torsen T-3 asymmetric dynamic centre differential, with a "default" torque distribution of 40 percent to the front axle and 60 percent to the rear.

 

The S8's top speed is electronically limited to 250 km/h. Audi's factory performance claims indicate a 0 to 100 km/h time of 5.1 seconds whilst consuming 98 RON unleaded petrol. The S8 has similar performance to Audi's own top-of-the-line A8 L W12, though the W12 is more expensive, has more torque, and built on a longer wheelbase. Compared to the A8 L W12, the S8 has sportier mechanical features such as a firmer suspension, larger wheels, and ceramic brakes. The shorter wheelbase and 10-cylinder engine save weight for better handling, but at 5.4 seconds from 0–60 mph the S8 trails the W12.

 

The S8, like its related A8, utilises a multi-link suspension layout front and rear, with pressurised air springs. However, for the S8, the effective spring and damper rates are noticeably firmer, along with re-engineered suspension mounts.

 

The brake system consists of radially ventilated discs all round. The discs are clamped with gloss-black painted dual-piston calipers up front, and a single-piston sliding caliper at the rear, coupled to an electro-mechanical parking brake. A Bosch ESP 5.7 (later upgraded to ESP 8.0) electronic stability control, with ABS, brake assist, EBD complete the brake system. Optional "Audi ceramic" carbon fibre-reinforced silicon carbide (C/SiC) composite front and rear brakes are available, which use radially vented, and floating SGL Carbon discs, with anthracite grey painted twelve-piston fixed Brembo monobloc alloy calipers. Standard alloy wheels consist of 20-inch "S design" alloy wheels.

 

A8L CENTENNIAL LIMITED EDITION (2009–)

The A8L Centennial Limited Edition (奧迪A8L百年限量版) is a limited (800 units total) version of the A8L 3.0 FSI with multitronic and the A8L 6.0 W12 quattro for the Chinese market, commemorating Audi's 100th anniversary. It included horizontal chrome-plated front grille (from the A8L 6.0 W12 quattro), "V6" metal logo at the upper left of the air-inlet grille (A8L 3.0 FSI), LED daytime running lights, heated leather steering wheel, 19-inch 12-spoke polished aluminium alloy wheels, heated steering wheel in grey leather with beige stitching, Bang & Olufsen advanced audio system, Alcantara equipment bag, Assam ash red veneer, floor mat with aluminium trim, a metal 'Audi exclusive' commemorative logo at inn door trims.

 

The vehicles went on sale on the 18 October 2009 as 2010 model year vehicles.

In North America, only the 4.2 V8, 5.2 V10, and 6.0 W12 petrol engines are available. The 4.0 TDI was discontinued when the 4.2 TDI was introduced.

Third generation (D4, Typ 4H; 2010–present)

The third generation of the Audi A8 was introduced in Miami on 30 November 2009. The chassis was built on the Volkswagen D2 platform.

 

INITIAL RELEASE

NEW FEATURES

Changes include:

Full LED headlamps with Automatic high beam switching or Audi adaptive light (Xenon) with variable headlight range control

enhanced MMI Multi Media Interface with touchpad & handwriting recognition for the phone and navigation system, using Nvidia Tegra System on a chip for very high processing speed.

optional 1,400 watt Bang & Olufsen sound system.

driver assistance systems networked using FlexRay technology.

Hard disk drive GPS navigation with 3D computer graphics with Google Earth.,

navigation system coordinates input to the adaptive headlights, transmission, adaptive cruise control and electronic stability control.

Infrared Night Vision Assistant with pedestrian recognition

broadband internet with UMTS 3G and WLAN-Hotspot

First production Audi with a Collision avoidance system: Pre sense (similar to Mercedes-Benz Pre-Safe). The full version of the system (Pre Sense Plus) works in four phases. In the first phase, the system provides warning of an impending accident, while the hazard warning lights are activated, the side windows and sunroof are closed and the front seat belts are tensioned. In the second phase, the warning is followed by light braking, strong enough to win the driver's attention. The third phase initiates autonomous partial braking at a rate of 3 m/s². The fourth phase decelerates the car at 5 m/s² followed by automatic deceleration at full braking power, roughly half a second before projected impact. A second system, called (Pre Sense Rear), is designed to reduce the consequences of rear-end collisions. The sunroof and windows are closed and seat belts are prepared for impact. The optional memory seats are moved forward to protect the car's occupants. The system uses sensor fusion with twin radar and a mono camera and was introduced in 2010.

 

A8 (L) (2010–)

The third-generation Audi A8 (L) (Typ 4H) is based on the Volkswagen Group MLB platform, but retains the Audi Space Frame aluminium construction of the previous A8, making it the lightest all-wheel drive car in the full-size luxury segment, while also giving it best-in-class fuel economy. The quattro all-wheel drive system splits torque with a default bias of 40 percent front and 60 percent rear.

 

The vehicle was unveiled in Design Miami 2009 on 30 November 2009., followed by the 2010 North American International Auto Show.

 

Early models include A8 4.2 FSI quattro (372PS), A8 3.0 TDI quattro (250PS), A8 4.2 TDI quattro (350PS). A8 3.0 TDI (204PS) was added later.

 

Initial internal combustion engine options comprise 4.2-litre Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) petrol and Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel V8s, with 273 kW (366 hp) and 258 kW (346 hp) respectively. A 3.0-litre V6 TDI with either 184 kilowatts (247 hp) or 150 kilowatts (201 hp) will be available later. A 6.3-litre W12 engine only for the long wheelbase model was made available in 2010, and compared to its predecessor it has a larger displacement and direct fuel injection. All engines are mated to the new eight-speed ZF 8HP automatic transmission. Although other Audi vehicles such as the 2010 Audi S4 and 2011 Audi A7 had switched from the 4.2l V8 to the 3.0L supercharged V6, the Audi A8 retained a higher-output 4.2L V8 as the base engine for the 2011 and 2012 model years in North America.

 

Taiwan models went on sale on the 11th November 2010 . Early models include 3.0 TFSI quattro (290PS).

 

A8 L (2010–PRESENT)

The vehicle was unveiled in Auto China 2010., followed by the 2011 Taipei Motor Show (A8 L W12 quattro).

 

German models went on sale in the fall of 2010. Early models include a 3.0 TFSI quattro (290PS), a 4.2 FSI quattro (372PS), a W12 6.3 FSI quattro (500PS), a 3.0 TDI quattro (250PS) and a 4.2 TDI quattro (350PS).

 

Taiwan models went on sale on the 11th November 2010. Early models include a 3.0 TFSI quattro (290PS) and a 4.2 FSI quattro (372PS).[42] The A8L W12 quattro was added in 2011. the A8L 4.0 TFSI quattro was added in 2012.

 

Chinese models went on sale in 2011. Early models include an A8L 3.0 TFSI low quattro (289PS), and an A8L 3.0 TFSI high quattro (333PS).

 

A8 HYBRID CONCEPT (2010)

The concept vehicle includes a 2.0 TFSI engine rated at 211 PS (155 kW; 208 bhp) and 350 N·m @1500–4200 rpm, a disc-shaped electric motor rated 45 PS (33 kW; 44 bhp) and 211 N·m, lithium-ion battery, luggage space of 400 liters (14.13 cubic feet), 21-inch wheels with 265/35 tires, Prism Silver body colour with Spectra Flair accent colour, 'hybrid' lettering on both front fenders, illuminated doorsteps with 'hybrid' insignia.

 

The vehicle was unveiled in 2010 at The Geneva Motor Show.

A8 L long-term evolution broadband prototype (2011)

 

It is a version of the A8 L demonstrating 4G long-term evolution (LTE) broadband technology. Developed in collaboration with Alcatel-Lucent, the car's mobile broadband connection is a fourth generation (‘4G’) technology with data transfer speeds of up to 100Mbit/s.

 

During the 2011 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Rupert Stadler, Chairman of the Board of Management of AUDI AG, announced that LTE technology would be used in cars by early 2011. The A8 L prototype was unveiled weeks later.

 

A8 L SECURITY (2011–PRESENT)

The A8 L Security is an armoured version of the A8 L with class VR 7 ballistic protection standard (tested as per BRV 2009 guidelines), resistance to explosions against a military hand grenade (tested as per ERV 2010 guidelines), with certain areas of the armouring complies with the criteria for class VR 9 and VR 10, a core safety cell made from hot-formed armoured steel, aramide fabric, ceramics, special alloyed aluminium and multilayer glass; overlapping protective materials at the joints, aluminum side sills with solid steel sections, aluminum alloy armored floor, side windows, windshield and rear window made of special glass with a polycarbonate coating; optional electromechanical window openers, closing assist feature comes standard for the doors, communication box in the luggage compartment (light ceramic doors, aluminum frame), optional battery and the fuel tank protection, two-way communication system with a speaker in the single-frame grille and microphones for the cabin and exterior, an emergency exit system with pyrotechnical separating screws in the hinges, fire extinguisher system, emergency fresh-air system with two oxygen cartridges, a smoke extractor for the passenger compartment, an LED signaling system for convoy travel, flashing lights, a siren, a preparation for professional mobile radio systems, a flag holder, a permanently installed telephone, an accident data recorder, an additional rearview camera and a heated windshield plus partially heated side windows, four-zone climate control system with an ionizer to freshen the air, electric rear blinds, the sonorous Bose surround sound system and a TV tuner, rear are two individual seats with power adjustment, front comfort seats with heating and optional massage and ventilation functions, standard full-leather package, optional relaxation seat (adjustable right-hand rear seat with a power-adjustable footrest, heating and massage), optional center console with large storage compartments and rear seat entertainment system with two 10.2-inch displays, optional folding table, optional refrigerator optional parking heater, Bluetooth car phone online, integrated UMTS module, optional separate telephone handsets, 19-inch forged wheels featuring in semipolished two-tone finish, 255/720 tires with a high load index of 117, synthetic rings on the rims, optional full-size spare tire.

 

The first model included a W12 engine rated 368 kW (500 PS) and 625 N·m, with delivery began in late summer 2011. An additional engine model with improved fuel efficiency went on sale in 2012.

 

The vehicle was unveiled at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show.

 

Deliveries began in late summer 2011.

 

A8 HYBRID (2012–PRESENT)

The production version includes an electric motor rated at 40 kW (54 PS) and 210 N·m, 1.25 kWh lithium-ion battery, 18-inch 10-spoke alloy wheels in turbine blades design (optional 19-inch), hybrid badges, metallic paint finish (optional Arctic Silver body colour), three-zone automatic air conditioning, LED headlights, and a BOSE sound system. Pure electric mode is available for either a top speed of 100 km/h or for up to 3 kilometres at a constant speed of 60 km/h. It went on sale in 2012.

 

The vehicle was unveiled at the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show.

 

A8 L W12 Audi EXCLUSIVE CONCEPT

It is a limited (50 units) version of the A8 L W12 with seats upholstered in Cognac-colored leather by Poltrona Frau, inlays made from the wood olive ash natural, light gray-brown veneer, sill trims with "Audi exclusive concept" lettering, deep-pile carpeting.

 

The vehicle was unveiled at the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show.

 

A8 L HYCRID

The long wheelbase version of the A8 hybrid was unveiled in 2010 at the Beijing Auto Show.

 

S8 4.0 TFSI QUATTRO (2012–PRESENT)

The D4 series Audi S8 4.0 TFSI quattro went on sale in 2012. Like the previous iteration, the S8 costs less than the A8 L W12.

 

The S8 can accelerate from 0 to 100 km/h (0 to 62 mph) in 4.2 seconds. It is powered by a 4.0-litre TFSI biturbo V8 engine with 382 kW (512 hp). The engine utilises cylinder deactivation so it can run as a V4 for better fuel economy.[69] The S8's engine is shared with the Bentley Continental GT, while a detuned variant of the engine makes 420 hp which is found in the 2013 Audi S6, Audi S7, and Audi A8. Direct competitors include the BMW Alpina B7 and Mercedes-Benz S63 AMG, which also have biturbo V8 engines.

 

The vehicle was unveiled at the 2011 Frankfurt Auto Show, and went on sale in spring 2012.

 

Taiwan models went on sale in 2013.

 

MARKETING

As part of the Audi A8 launch in Taiwan, Audi built up Audi pavilion in Xin-Yi district, with Tom Dixon invited for the launch event. Yu-Cheng Chou and Chun-Ten Lin's art works were displayed with A8.

 

The Audi A8 3.0 TFSI quattro (290PS) was used in Transporter: The Series.

 

2013 MODEL YEAR UPDATE

Early German A8 models include 3.0 TFSI quattro (290PS), 4.0 TFSI quattro (420PS), 3.0 TDI (204PS), 3.0 TDI quattro (250PS), 3.0 TDI clean diesel quattro (250PS), 4.2 TDI quattro (350PS), A8 L W12 quattro (500PS), A8 hybrid 2.0 TFSI. Early German A8 L Security models include 4.0 TFSI quattro, W12 6.3 FSI quattro.

 

The updated A8 uses LED headlight technology, with automatic high beam lighting, Osram supplies the LEDs while Hella supplies the headlamp itself.

 

Early US models include the A8(L) 3.0 TFSI quattro (333PS), the A8(L) 4.0 TFSI quattro, the S8 4.0 TFSI quattro and the A8 L W12 6.3 FSI quattro. The A8 3.0 TFSI quattro and A8 4.0 TFSI quattro replaced the A8 4.2 FSI quattro.[80] The A8 3.0 TDI clean diesel quattro (240PS) was unveiled at the 2012 L.A. Auto Show, and was set to go on sale in Spring 2013 as a 2014 model year vehicle. The A8 L 3.0 TDI clean diesel quattro (240PS) was set to go on sale in Spring 2013 on sale as a 2014 model year vehicle.

 

Chinese models include the A8L 30 FSI (204PS), the A8L 40 hybrid, the A8L 45 TFSI quattro (290PS), the A8L 55 TFSI quattro (333PS), the A8L W12 FSI quattro and the S8 4.0 TFSI quattro.

 

The A8 L 2.0 TFSI hybrid is sold as an A8L 40 hybrid in China.

 

The A8 L 3.0 TFSI quattro (290PS) is sold as an A8L 45 TFSI quattro in China.

 

TRANSMISSION

All models include an eight-speed tiptronic transmission.

 

PRUDUCTION

2013–2014 Audi A8 and S8 vehicles equipped with a standard sunroof, manufactured between March 12, 2013 and July 15, 2013 were recalled due to possible shattering of sunroof glass panel.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The Audi A8 is a four-door, full-size, luxury sedan manufactured and marketed by the German automaker Audi since 1994. Succeeding the Audi V8, and now in its third generation, the A8 has been offered with both front- or permanent all-wheel drive - and in short- and long-wheelbase variants. The first two generations employed the Volkswagen Group D platform, with the current generation deriving from the MLB platform. After the original model's 1994 release, Audi released the second generation in late 2002, and the third and current iteration in late 2009.

 

Notable for being the first mass-market car with an aluminium chassis, all A8 models have used this construction method co-developed with Alcoa and marketed as the Audi Space Frame.

 

A mechanically-upgraded, high-performance version of the A8 debuted in 1996 as the Audi S8. Produced exclusively at Audi's Neckarsulm plant, unlike the donor A8 model, the S8 has been available only in short-wheelbase form and is fitted standard with Audi's quattro all-wheel drive system.

 

FIRST GENERATION (D2, Typ 4D; 1994–2002)

DEVELOPMENT

In 1982, Ferdinand Piëch signed an agreement with Aluminum Company of America. The objective was to design and develop a car that would be substantially lighter than any other vehicles in its class (to compensate for the fact that standard all-wheel drive was around 100 kg heavier than competitors' rear-wheel drive). In the late 1980s, it was decided that the target vehicle would be a successor to the V8 (Typ 4C) flagship introduced in 1988. By 1991, a final design by Chris Bird and Dirk van Braeckel was chosen and frozen for series production in 1992. In September 1993, the Audi Space Frame (ASF) Concept was unveiled at the 1993 Frankfurt Motor Show (IAA) as a D2 Typ 4D prototype in polished aluminum. Pilot production began in December 1993 and development ended in early 1994, at a total cost of $700 million (£418.1 million).

 

INTRODUCTION

The Audi A8 (Typ 4D) was presented in February 1994 and debuted at the 1994 Geneva Auto Show in March, with full-scale factory production commencing in June 1994, although it was not until October 1996, for the 1997 model year that it became available in North America. Unlike its predecessor, the Audi V8 model, which was built on an existing steel platform, the A8 debuted on the then-new Volkswagen Group D2 platform, an all aluminium monocoque, marketed as the "Audi Space Frame" (ASF), which helped to reduce weight and preserve structural rigidity. The saloon/sedan was offered in both the A8 (standard wheelbase), and the A8 L extended or long-wheelbase (LWB) version. The A8 L adds 127 mm of rear legroom. Updates to the car in 1997 included the addition of six interior airbags.

 

In 1997, Audi introduced the first series production ESP Electronic stability control for all-wheel drive vehicles (Audi A8 and Audi A6)– the world's first production cars with both front and rear side airbags.

 

For 1997, the new A8 was available with either front-wheel drive (FWD), or the Torsen-based quattro permanent four-wheel drive. The FWD models are powered by a 2.8-litre V6 engine, producing 142 kilowatts (193 PS; 190 bhp), and a 3.7-litre V8 engine producing 171.5 kilowatts (233 PS; 230 bhp), while the quattro received a 4.2-litre V8 producing 220 kilowatts (299 PS; 295 bhp).

 

The A8 is available with standard luxury amenities, including dual-zone climate control, wood and leather interior trim, 14-way power and heated seats, and an enhanced Bose audio system.

 

In 1999, Audi's flagship received side curtain airbags, new colours, and restructuring of option packages. The North American "warm weather package" added a solar sunroof which allows the interior ventilation fans to run, keeping the interior cool while the car is parked with the engine turned off. Changes to all models included a larger passenger-side mirror, and a first aid kit located in the rear centre armrest.

 

In 1999 for the 2000 model year came a minor front-end restyle, with new, larger, clear headlights, a revised grille, and lower front valance with standard projection fog lamps. On the interior, the seats received a new, horizontal stitch pattern. Also, the 3.7-litre V8 FWD model was dropped, leaving the 2.8 V6 model and the long-wheelbase and short-wheelbase 4.2-litre quattro. These restyled cars also featured revised external door handles and an integrated radio antenna. For 2000, the North American A8 line-up was expanded to include the A8 L.

 

In 2001, Audi introduced its new W12 engine, a compact 6.0-litre unit developed by effectively mating two VR6 engines together at the crankshaft. The engine quickly became available in the A8, though only to European and Asian customers. From its introduction through its discontinuation in 2003, only 750 of the D2 "W12" models were produced. 2001 also marked the debut of the high-performance S8 variant in North American markets.

 

In 2002, the A8 L received standard xenon high-intensity discharge lamp (HID) headlights, and a heated steering wheel. A tyre pressure monitoring system (TPMS), an updated Symphony II stereo, and new exterior colours were also added. For 2002, all A8 variants received a trunk/boot interior release lever to facilitate escape in the event an individual became trapped within.

 

Factory production of this generation ceased at Number 105,092 on August 4, 2002.

 

COUPE (PROTOTYPE)

In 1997, IVM Automotive of Munich, Germany built a two-door Audi A8 Coupé. The car was unveiled at the 1997 Geneva Motor Show. Audi contracted IVM to build the prototype, and was considering production of the vehicle. The coupé had a re-engineered aluminium body, shorter than the production A8 saloon. Like the Mercedes-Benz CL-Class, there was no central "B" pillar, giving the car a seamless design with a gradually sloping roofline. The car included custom leather seats which could seat four. Ultimately, Audi decided not to put the A8 Coupé into production, citing lower-than-expected sales figures for the similar BMW 8 Series and Mercedes-Benz S-Class Coupé. Only one A8 Coupé was ever built. The single prototype, painted in a colour called "Ming Blue pearl", remains the property of IVM Automotive, and resides in Munich. Its last public appearance was in 2002 on a series of test drives.

 

S8

Audi introduced the S8 4.2 quattro into the European market in 1996. The S8 followed the naming convention of other high-performance Audi "S" models such as the Audi A6-derived S6 and was similar in vein of Mercedes-Benz AMG models. In markets such as the UK, the S8 was only available with the automatic transmission. Cosmetically, Audi differentiated the S8 from the A8 with solid aluminium alloy door mirror housings, chrome-effect beltline and lower front grille trim, and polished twin exhaust pipes, along with subtle "S8" badging. 14-way power adjustable and heated sports front seats with memory function were fitted as were heated rear seats. Standard alloy wheels were 18-inch cast aluminium alloy "Avus" six-spoke style. After the 1999 facelift, 20-inch polished nine-spoke RS wheels became an option. In 2002, 18-inch nine-spoke RS wheels became a no-cost option.

 

At the same time of the A8's facelift in late 1999, the S8 received the same cosmetic upgrades. This update marked the release of the S8 to the North American market. Production of the D2 series S8 ended in September 2002.

 

The D2 series S8 featured an uprated, 250 kW (335 hp) version of the 4.2-litre V8 with four valves per cylinder. From late 1999, Audi increased this to five valves per cylinder with power increased to 265 kilowatts (355 hp) and 430 newton metres. From launch in 1996, European-market models came standard with a six-speed manual transmission. A sports-recalibrated version of the ZF 5HP24 five-speed tiptronic automatic, featuring "Dynamic Shift Programme" (DSP) was released a year later and was the only transmission available in most other markets.

 

A retuned, 20-millimetre (0.8 in) lowered sports suspension included a 30 percent stiffer spring rate and 40 percent more compression damping in the shock absorbers. Speed-sensitive "servotronic" power assisted steering was also standard.

 

The brakes featured Bosch 5.3 anti-lock braking system (ABS), with electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD), and worked radially ventilated front discs. From 2002, an upgraded Bosch 5.7 electronic stability programme became standard fitment.

 

SECOND GENERATION (D3, Typ 4E; 2002–2009)

The second-generation Audi A8 (Typ 4E) built on the Volkswagen Group D3 platform was unveiled via press release in July 2002 and introduced in November 2002 in Europe and in June 2003 (as a 2004 model) in the United States. The model was longer than the previous generation, with room for four or five large adult occupants in the cabin, depending on rear seat configuration. The D3 development program began in 1996, with the design process commencing in Ingolstadt in 1997. The whole Audi design studio based in Ingolstadt first contributed sketch proposals, from which numerous different themes emerged. Six of them were developed into full size clay models and worked up in a traditional manner adjacent to full size tape drawings. At least three one quarter scale models were produced to explore other design variations.

 

The six full size exterior clay models were reduced to two in late 1998 and these continued to be refined in parallel for a year. At the end of 1999 the final theme selection was made, by Miklós Kovács and Imre Hasanic the main contributing designers. This lengthy development time was in part due to the body being made from aluminium, a material less able to take the small radii of sharp feature lines such as those on the (steel bodied) A4 (B6) designed in 1998.

 

In parallel to the exterior design development the interior design was progressed with a total of four full size models produced and the production car's horizontally themed instrument panel design dominant from early on, with Norbert Schneider, Mark Bergold and Enzo Rothfuss the main contributing designers.

 

Grouping major controls nearer the driver for a more driver focused identity whilst creating a more airy and spacious feel were early priorities for the interior design team was headed by Jurgen Albamonte. This was in part facilitated by the Multi Media Interface (MMI) designed by Jurgen Schröder, that pioneered on the D3 A8 after the Audi Avantissimo concept car preview, and also by class leading colour and trim from Barbara Krömeke and Melinda Jenkins.

 

Under the supervision of Dany Garand, during the first half of 2000 exterior and interior clay models were digitized and developed using digital design tools in a supporting, not leading, capacity. The D3 final production design was later frozen in the summer of 2000 for an August 2002 start of production.

 

The A8 was previewed 2001 Frankfurt Motor Show by the Audi Avantissimo concept car. This concept introduced much of the technology later available on the series production A8 D3, including: Multi Media Interface, 6-speed automatic transmission with shift paddles, V8 biturbo engine (S8), self-levelling adaptive air suspension with continuously controlled damping, electric park brake, bi-xenon headlights with static Adaptive Front Lighting System (AFS) curve headlights, dashboard, driver identification systems with fingerprint scanner.

 

As with the previous version, two body variants of the second generation A8 are offered, the A8 (standard, or short wheelbase), and the long-wheelbase (LWB) A8 L. The A8 L adds 120 mm to the rear legroom and 11 mm to the overall height of the car.

 

INNOVATIONS

- World premiere of Multi Media Interface (MMI) in-car user interface (similar to BMW iDrive)

- Multiplexed high speed MOST Bus optical fiber data networks (interconnecting tens of microprocessors on common databusses), integrated with MMI.

- First Audi with Bi-Xenon HID headlamps for both low and high beam

- World premiere of static Adaptive Front Lighting System (AFS) curve headlights (from Hella)

- First Audi with 4-wheel Adaptive Air Suspension and Continuous Damping Control (CDC)-(Skyhook suspension).

- First Audi GPS navigation system with DVD maps

- First Audi with six-speed automatic transmission (Tiptronic)

- First Audi featuring driver identification system.

 

In 2005, new internal combustion engines became available. For European and Asian market customers, the entry-level 3.0-litre V6 engine was replaced with a new 3.2-litre unit featuring Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI), which it shared with the Audi B7 A4 and Audi C6 A6. The top-of-the-line W12 version debuted that year. The advantage of the W12 engine layout is its compact packaging, allowing Audi to build a 12-cylinder sedan with all-wheel drive, whereas a conventional V12 could only have a rear-wheel drive configuration as it would have no space in the engine bay for a differential and other components required to power the front wheels. In fact, Audi's 6.0-litre W12 is actually slightly smaller by overall dimensions than the 4.2-litre V8.

 

In addition to the added power trains, Audi restyled the D3 platform A8 range slightly in 2005, giving all variants a taller, wider trapezoidal single-frame grille. The top-of-the-line W12 engined W12 version was the first model to be equipped with this grille; V8 engined models were fitted with the new grille the following year.

 

The D3 generation A8 introduced the 235 kW (315 hp) 4.2-litre Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) V8 engine (subsequently uprated to 240 kW (322 hp)). The engine uses two turbochargers and two intercoolers, with each turbocharger functioning exclusively for one bank of four cylinders.

 

The adaptive air suspension gives the vehicle clearance a range from its normal 120 mm up to 145 mm in lift mode and down to 95 mm in the Autobahn mode, which is automatically activated when a speed of more than 120 km/h is maintained for more than 30 seconds.

 

In September 2005 Audi became the first car maker to offer the 1,000-watt 14-channel ICEpower sound system option from Bang & Olufsen.

 

A8 L W12 QUATTRO SECURITY

It is an armoured vehicle with B6+ and B7 (European standard) ballistic ratings. It includes a W12 engine rated 331 kW (450 PS) and 580 N·m (428 lbf·ft), emergency exit system featuring pyrotechnic blown-out doors, fire extinguisher system with spray jets located in the engine compartment, underbody and in the wheel arches; smoke extractor in passenger compartment, run flat tires, bullet proof windows, the full protection plus package and LED flashers in the exterior mirrors. Buyers are also offered facility to dispatch two drivers on a special training course.

 

S8 5.2 FSI QUATTRO

The S8 high-performance sports variant, now called the "Audi S8 5.2 FSI quattro" was announced in the last quarter of 2005 and full production started in June 2006 and ended in September 2009.

 

The S8 includes subtle detailing to distinguish it from its related A8. The trapezoidal "single-frame" grille bears the characteristic Audi "S model" vertical strut detail which are highlighted in a chrome finish. "S8" badging is displayed front and rear, whilst "V10" badges are displayed on each front wing above the side-repeater indicators. The rear boot-lid incorporates a subtle rear spoiler, and the rear is finished with four chromed oval exhaust tailpipes. Adaptive Xenon-plus high-intensity discharge (HID) headlamps include static turning lights, along with "swiveling" dynamic cornering lights. Daytime running lamps are five light-emitting diodes (LEDs) incorporated into a cloverleaf designed reflector, incorporated into the main headlamp housing.

The D3 series S8 features a 5.2-litre all-aluminium alloy four-valves per cylinder V10 petrol engine. This engine is a derivative of the Lamborghini Gallardo's original 5.0-litre Lamborghini V10, which was also developed under the Volkswagen Group ownership. On this Audi-only variant, compared to the Lamborghini engine, it features a longer stroke and wider bore - which increases the displacement of the engine, and produces more torque at lower revs, making it more suitable for the larger and heavier full-sized luxury Audi application. It produces 331 kW (444 hp) of power and 540 N·m of torque. By having its bore whittled out an additional 2 millimetres, displacement in the S8 application increases from 5.0- to 5.2-litres. The engine also features Audi's direct-injection system, called Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI).

 

A sports-optimised ZF 6HP26-A61 six-speed tiptronic automatic transmission with "Dynamic Shift Programme" (DSP) and "sport" mode, with steering wheel mounted paddle-shifters, is the only offering. Output is transmitted via Audi's quattro all-wheel drive system, initially using the Torsen T-2 50:50 dynamic centre differential, and from 2007 for the 2008 model year, utilising the Torsen T-3 asymmetric dynamic centre differential, with a "default" torque distribution of 40 percent to the front axle and 60 percent to the rear.

 

The S8's top speed is electronically limited to 250 km/h. Audi's factory performance claims indicate a 0 to 100 km/h time of 5.1 seconds whilst consuming 98 RON unleaded petrol. The S8 has similar performance to Audi's own top-of-the-line A8 L W12, though the W12 is more expensive, has more torque, and built on a longer wheelbase. Compared to the A8 L W12, the S8 has sportier mechanical features such as a firmer suspension, larger wheels, and ceramic brakes. The shorter wheelbase and 10-cylinder engine save weight for better handling, but at 5.4 seconds from 0–60 mph the S8 trails the W12.

 

The S8, like its related A8, utilises a multi-link suspension layout front and rear, with pressurised air springs. However, for the S8, the effective spring and damper rates are noticeably firmer, along with re-engineered suspension mounts.

 

The brake system consists of radially ventilated discs all round. The discs are clamped with gloss-black painted dual-piston calipers up front, and a single-piston sliding caliper at the rear, coupled to an electro-mechanical parking brake. A Bosch ESP 5.7 (later upgraded to ESP 8.0) electronic stability control, with ABS, brake assist, EBD complete the brake system. Optional "Audi ceramic" carbon fibre-reinforced silicon carbide (C/SiC) composite front and rear brakes are available, which use radially vented, and floating SGL Carbon discs, with anthracite grey painted twelve-piston fixed Brembo monobloc alloy calipers. Standard alloy wheels consist of 20-inch "S design" alloy wheels.

 

A8L CENTENNIAL LIMITED EDITION (2009–)

The A8L Centennial Limited Edition (奧迪A8L百年限量版) is a limited (800 units total) version of the A8L 3.0 FSI with multitronic and the A8L 6.0 W12 quattro for the Chinese market, commemorating Audi's 100th anniversary. It included horizontal chrome-plated front grille (from the A8L 6.0 W12 quattro), "V6" metal logo at the upper left of the air-inlet grille (A8L 3.0 FSI), LED daytime running lights, heated leather steering wheel, 19-inch 12-spoke polished aluminium alloy wheels, heated steering wheel in grey leather with beige stitching, Bang & Olufsen advanced audio system, Alcantara equipment bag, Assam ash red veneer, floor mat with aluminium trim, a metal 'Audi exclusive' commemorative logo at inn door trims.

 

The vehicles went on sale on the 18 October 2009 as 2010 model year vehicles.

In North America, only the 4.2 V8, 5.2 V10, and 6.0 W12 petrol engines are available. The 4.0 TDI was discontinued when the 4.2 TDI was introduced.

Third generation (D4, Typ 4H; 2010–present)

The third generation of the Audi A8 was introduced in Miami on 30 November 2009. The chassis was built on the Volkswagen D2 platform.

 

INITIAL RELEASE

NEW FEATURES

Changes include:

Full LED headlamps with Automatic high beam switching or Audi adaptive light (Xenon) with variable headlight range control

enhanced MMI Multi Media Interface with touchpad & handwriting recognition for the phone and navigation system, using Nvidia Tegra System on a chip for very high processing speed.

optional 1,400 watt Bang & Olufsen sound system.

driver assistance systems networked using FlexRay technology.

Hard disk drive GPS navigation with 3D computer graphics with Google Earth.,

navigation system coordinates input to the adaptive headlights, transmission, adaptive cruise control and electronic stability control.

Infrared Night Vision Assistant with pedestrian recognition

broadband internet with UMTS 3G and WLAN-Hotspot

First production Audi with a Collision avoidance system: Pre sense (similar to Mercedes-Benz Pre-Safe). The full version of the system (Pre Sense Plus) works in four phases. In the first phase, the system provides warning of an impending accident, while the hazard warning lights are activated, the side windows and sunroof are closed and the front seat belts are tensioned. In the second phase, the warning is followed by light braking, strong enough to win the driver's attention. The third phase initiates autonomous partial braking at a rate of 3 m/s². The fourth phase decelerates the car at 5 m/s² followed by automatic deceleration at full braking power, roughly half a second before projected impact. A second system, called (Pre Sense Rear), is designed to reduce the consequences of rear-end collisions. The sunroof and windows are closed and seat belts are prepared for impact. The optional memory seats are moved forward to protect the car's occupants. The system uses sensor fusion with twin radar and a mono camera and was introduced in 2010.

 

A8 (L) (2010–)

The third-generation Audi A8 (L) (Typ 4H) is based on the Volkswagen Group MLB platform, but retains the Audi Space Frame aluminium construction of the previous A8, making it the lightest all-wheel drive car in the full-size luxury segment, while also giving it best-in-class fuel economy. The quattro all-wheel drive system splits torque with a default bias of 40 percent front and 60 percent rear.

 

The vehicle was unveiled in Design Miami 2009 on 30 November 2009., followed by the 2010 North American International Auto Show.

 

Early models include A8 4.2 FSI quattro (372PS), A8 3.0 TDI quattro (250PS), A8 4.2 TDI quattro (350PS). A8 3.0 TDI (204PS) was added later.

 

Initial internal combustion engine options comprise 4.2-litre Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) petrol and Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel V8s, with 273 kW (366 hp) and 258 kW (346 hp) respectively. A 3.0-litre V6 TDI with either 184 kilowatts (247 hp) or 150 kilowatts (201 hp) will be available later. A 6.3-litre W12 engine only for the long wheelbase model was made available in 2010, and compared to its predecessor it has a larger displacement and direct fuel injection. All engines are mated to the new eight-speed ZF 8HP automatic transmission. Although other Audi vehicles such as the 2010 Audi S4 and 2011 Audi A7 had switched from the 4.2l V8 to the 3.0L supercharged V6, the Audi A8 retained a higher-output 4.2L V8 as the base engine for the 2011 and 2012 model years in North America.

 

Taiwan models went on sale on the 11th November 2010 . Early models include 3.0 TFSI quattro (290PS).

 

A8 L (2010–PRESENT)

The vehicle was unveiled in Auto China 2010., followed by the 2011 Taipei Motor Show (A8 L W12 quattro).

 

German models went on sale in the fall of 2010. Early models include a 3.0 TFSI quattro (290PS), a 4.2 FSI quattro (372PS), a W12 6.3 FSI quattro (500PS), a 3.0 TDI quattro (250PS) and a 4.2 TDI quattro (350PS).

 

Taiwan models went on sale on the 11th November 2010. Early models include a 3.0 TFSI quattro (290PS) and a 4.2 FSI quattro (372PS).[42] The A8L W12 quattro was added in 2011. the A8L 4.0 TFSI quattro was added in 2012.

 

Chinese models went on sale in 2011. Early models include an A8L 3.0 TFSI low quattro (289PS), and an A8L 3.0 TFSI high quattro (333PS).

 

A8 HYBRID CONCEPT (2010)

The concept vehicle includes a 2.0 TFSI engine rated at 211 PS (155 kW; 208 bhp) and 350 N·m @1500–4200 rpm, a disc-shaped electric motor rated 45 PS (33 kW; 44 bhp) and 211 N·m, lithium-ion battery, luggage space of 400 liters (14.13 cubic feet), 21-inch wheels with 265/35 tires, Prism Silver body colour with Spectra Flair accent colour, 'hybrid' lettering on both front fenders, illuminated doorsteps with 'hybrid' insignia.

 

The vehicle was unveiled in 2010 at The Geneva Motor Show.

A8 L long-term evolution broadband prototype (2011)

 

It is a version of the A8 L demonstrating 4G long-term evolution (LTE) broadband technology. Developed in collaboration with Alcatel-Lucent, the car's mobile broadband connection is a fourth generation (‘4G’) technology with data transfer speeds of up to 100Mbit/s.

 

During the 2011 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Rupert Stadler, Chairman of the Board of Management of AUDI AG, announced that LTE technology would be used in cars by early 2011. The A8 L prototype was unveiled weeks later.

 

A8 L SECURITY (2011–PRESENT)

The A8 L Security is an armoured version of the A8 L with class VR 7 ballistic protection standard (tested as per BRV 2009 guidelines), resistance to explosions against a military hand grenade (tested as per ERV 2010 guidelines), with certain areas of the armouring complies with the criteria for class VR 9 and VR 10, a core safety cell made from hot-formed armoured steel, aramide fabric, ceramics, special alloyed aluminium and multilayer glass; overlapping protective materials at the joints, aluminum side sills with solid steel sections, aluminum alloy armored floor, side windows, windshield and rear window made of special glass with a polycarbonate coating; optional electromechanical window openers, closing assist feature comes standard for the doors, communication box in the luggage compartment (light ceramic doors, aluminum frame), optional battery and the fuel tank protection, two-way communication system with a speaker in the single-frame grille and microphones for the cabin and exterior, an emergency exit system with pyrotechnical separating screws in the hinges, fire extinguisher system, emergency fresh-air system with two oxygen cartridges, a smoke extractor for the passenger compartment, an LED signaling system for convoy travel, flashing lights, a siren, a preparation for professional mobile radio systems, a flag holder, a permanently installed telephone, an accident data recorder, an additional rearview camera and a heated windshield plus partially heated side windows, four-zone climate control system with an ionizer to freshen the air, electric rear blinds, the sonorous Bose surround sound system and a TV tuner, rear are two individual seats with power adjustment, front comfort seats with heating and optional massage and ventilation functions, standard full-leather package, optional relaxation seat (adjustable right-hand rear seat with a power-adjustable footrest, heating and massage), optional center console with large storage compartments and rear seat entertainment system with two 10.2-inch displays, optional folding table, optional refrigerator optional parking heater, Bluetooth car phone online, integrated UMTS module, optional separate telephone handsets, 19-inch forged wheels featuring in semipolished two-tone finish, 255/720 tires with a high load index of 117, synthetic rings on the rims, optional full-size spare tire.

 

The first model included a W12 engine rated 368 kW (500 PS) and 625 N·m, with delivery began in late summer 2011. An additional engine model with improved fuel efficiency went on sale in 2012.

 

The vehicle was unveiled at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show.

 

Deliveries began in late summer 2011.

 

A8 HYBRID (2012–PRESENT)

The production version includes an electric motor rated at 40 kW (54 PS) and 210 N·m, 1.25 kWh lithium-ion battery, 18-inch 10-spoke alloy wheels in turbine blades design (optional 19-inch), hybrid badges, metallic paint finish (optional Arctic Silver body colour), three-zone automatic air conditioning, LED headlights, and a BOSE sound system. Pure electric mode is available for either a top speed of 100 km/h or for up to 3 kilometres at a constant speed of 60 km/h. It went on sale in 2012.

 

The vehicle was unveiled at the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show.

 

A8 L W12 Audi EXCLUSIVE CONCEPT

It is a limited (50 units) version of the A8 L W12 with seats upholstered in Cognac-colored leather by Poltrona Frau, inlays made from the wood olive ash natural, light gray-brown veneer, sill trims with "Audi exclusive concept" lettering, deep-pile carpeting.

 

The vehicle was unveiled at the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show.

 

A8 L HYCRID

The long wheelbase version of the A8 hybrid was unveiled in 2010 at the Beijing Auto Show.

 

S8 4.0 TFSI QUATTRO (2012–PRESENT)

The D4 series Audi S8 4.0 TFSI quattro went on sale in 2012. Like the previous iteration, the S8 costs less than the A8 L W12.

 

The S8 can accelerate from 0 to 100 km/h (0 to 62 mph) in 4.2 seconds. It is powered by a 4.0-litre TFSI biturbo V8 engine with 382 kW (512 hp). The engine utilises cylinder deactivation so it can run as a V4 for better fuel economy.[69] The S8's engine is shared with the Bentley Continental GT, while a detuned variant of the engine makes 420 hp which is found in the 2013 Audi S6, Audi S7, and Audi A8. Direct competitors include the BMW Alpina B7 and Mercedes-Benz S63 AMG, which also have biturbo V8 engines.

 

The vehicle was unveiled at the 2011 Frankfurt Auto Show, and went on sale in spring 2012.

 

Taiwan models went on sale in 2013.

 

MARKETING

As part of the Audi A8 launch in Taiwan, Audi built up Audi pavilion in Xin-Yi district, with Tom Dixon invited for the launch event. Yu-Cheng Chou and Chun-Ten Lin's art works were displayed with A8.

 

The Audi A8 3.0 TFSI quattro (290PS) was used in Transporter: The Series.

 

2013 MODEL YEAR UPDATE

Early German A8 models include 3.0 TFSI quattro (290PS), 4.0 TFSI quattro (420PS), 3.0 TDI (204PS), 3.0 TDI quattro (250PS), 3.0 TDI clean diesel quattro (250PS), 4.2 TDI quattro (350PS), A8 L W12 quattro (500PS), A8 hybrid 2.0 TFSI. Early German A8 L Security models include 4.0 TFSI quattro, W12 6.3 FSI quattro.

 

The updated A8 uses LED headlight technology, with automatic high beam lighting, Osram supplies the LEDs while Hella supplies the headlamp itself.

 

Early US models include the A8(L) 3.0 TFSI quattro (333PS), the A8(L) 4.0 TFSI quattro, the S8 4.0 TFSI quattro and the A8 L W12 6.3 FSI quattro. The A8 3.0 TFSI quattro and A8 4.0 TFSI quattro replaced the A8 4.2 FSI quattro.[80] The A8 3.0 TDI clean diesel quattro (240PS) was unveiled at the 2012 L.A. Auto Show, and was set to go on sale in Spring 2013 as a 2014 model year vehicle. The A8 L 3.0 TDI clean diesel quattro (240PS) was set to go on sale in Spring 2013 on sale as a 2014 model year vehicle.

 

Chinese models include the A8L 30 FSI (204PS), the A8L 40 hybrid, the A8L 45 TFSI quattro (290PS), the A8L 55 TFSI quattro (333PS), the A8L W12 FSI quattro and the S8 4.0 TFSI quattro.

 

The A8 L 2.0 TFSI hybrid is sold as an A8L 40 hybrid in China.

 

The A8 L 3.0 TFSI quattro (290PS) is sold as an A8L 45 TFSI quattro in China.

 

TRANSMISSION

All models include an eight-speed tiptronic transmission.

 

PRUDUCTION

2013–2014 Audi A8 and S8 vehicles equipped with a standard sunroof, manufactured between March 12, 2013 and July 15, 2013 were recalled due to possible shattering of sunroof glass panel.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The Peugeot 504 is a large family car manufactured by French automaker Peugeot between 1968 and 1983, with licensed production continuing until 2006.

 

Peugeot's flagship, the 504 made its public debut on 12 September 1968 at the Paris Salon. The press launch which had been scheduled for June 1968 was at the last minute deferred by three months, and production got off to a similarly delayed start because of the political and industrial disruption which exploded across France in May 1968.

 

The 504 was a sunroof-equipped four-door saloon, introduced with a carbureted 1,796 cc four-cylinder petrol engine 79 bhp (59 kW; 80 PS) with optional fuel injection. A column-mounted four-speed manual transmission was standard; a three-speed ZF 3HP12 automatic available as an upgrade.

 

The 504 was European Car of the Year in 1969, praised for its styling, quality, chassis, ride, visibility, strong engine and refinement.

 

The 504 Injection two-door coupé and two-door cabriolet were introduced at the Salon de Geneva in March 1969. The engine produced the same 97 bhp (72 kW; 98 PS) of output as in the fuel-injected saloon, but the final drive ratio was slightly revised to give a slightly higher road speed of 20.6 mph (33.2 km/h) at 1,000 rpm.

 

The 504 received a new four-cylinder 1971 cc engine, rated at 96 bhp (72 kW; 97 PS) (carburated) and 104 bhp (78 kW; 105 PS) (fuel-injected), and a four-cylinder 2112 cc diesel rated at 65 bhp (48 kW; 66 PS). The 1796 cc engine remained available.

 

In September 1970 an estate was added, featuring a higher rear roof, lengthened wheel base and solid rear axle with four coil springs. It was joined by the 7-seat "Familiale", which had all its occupants facing forward in three rows of seats.

 

In April 1973, because of the oil crisis Peugeot presented the 504 L. It featured a live rear axle and a smaller 1,796 cc engine rated at 79 bhp (59 kW; 80 PS) (81 bhp (60 kW; 82 PS) for Automatic).

 

At the 1974 October Motor Show Peugeot presented a more powerful engine for the 504 coupé and cabriolet, now fitted with a 2664 cc V6 unit developed in collaboration with Volvo and Renault. This was the same engine that would be used for the 604 berline, to be introduced at Geneva five months later, in March 1975. The engine incorporated various innovative features such as an aluminium cylinder block, and a fuel-feed system that employed carburetors of differing type, one (type 34 TBIA) featuring a single chamber controlled directly according to the movement of the accelerator pedal, and the second being a twin chamber carburetor (type 35 CEEI) designed to operate simultaneously with the first, using a pneumatic linkage. Maximum output for the 504 coupé and cabriolet fitted with this new V6 engine was given as 136 bhp (101 kW; 138 PS), supporting a top speed of 186 km/h (116 mph). During 1975, the first full year of production, 2,643 of these 6 cylinder 504 coupés and cabriolet were produced, which was considered a respectable number, although dwarfed by the 236,733 4 cylinder 504 "berlines" (saloons/sedans) and "breaks" (estates/station wagons) produced by Peugeot in France in the same year. Following launch of the six cylinder cars, the four cylinder versions of the coupé and cabriolet 504s were delisted: they returned to the showrooms in 1978 in response, it was reported, to customer demand.

 

At the Paris Motor Show of October 1976 the option of an enlarged diesel engine was introduced. The stroke of 83 mm (3.3 in) remained the same as that of the existing 2,112 cc diesel motor, but for the larger engine the bore was increased to 94 mm (3.7 in), giving an overall 2,304 cc along with an increase in claimed power output from 65 to 70 bhp (48 to 52 kW; 66 to 71 PS). The 2,112 cc diesel engine would also find its way into the Ford Granada since Ford did not at the time produce a sufficient volume of diesel sedans in this class to justify the development of their own diesel engine.

 

Peugeot 504 production in Europe was pruned back in 1979 with the launch of the Peugeot 505, and the last European example rolled off the production line in 1983, although the pick up version continued in production, and was available in Europe until 1993. Chinese production of the 504 pickup (more information below) only ceased in 2009. The 505 shared most of the Peugeot 504 mechanical parts, similarly to the Peugeot 604 and Talbot Tagora.

 

More than three million 504s were produced in Europe, ending in 1983. Manufacturing continued in Nigeria and Kenya until 2006, utilising the Peugeot knock down kits. Kenya production was 27,000 units and the car remained on sale to 2007, being described as "King of the African road". Egypt also had its own production facilities.

 

Redesigned Argentinian version of the 504

The car was assembled in various countries, under license of Peugeot. In Australia it was assembled by Peugeot's arch-rival Renault, and sold through Renault Australia's dealer network.

 

The Peugeot 504 is also one of the most common vehicles employed as a bush taxi in Africa. In China, the 504 was produced until 2009 in pickup form, with a four-door crew cab combination fitted, on an extended estate platform. These were built by Guangzhou Peugeot Automobile Company.

 

The Peugeot 504 was also produced in Argentina until 1999 by Sevel in El Palomar near Buenos Aires, in sedan, estate and pickup forms. The pickup was manufactured in single and double cab with payload of over 1 tonne (1.300 kg) from 1983-1997, and exported mainly to bordering countries. In 1991 the later models were slightly restyled at the front and rear, with the lamps and bumpers changing design. These cars were also given a new interior. Argentinian 504s offered the 1,971 cc petrol four-cylinder, or the 2,304 cc diesel.

 

The French company Dangel also produced Peugeot approved four-wheel drive Break (estate/station wagon) and pickup models.

 

Its engines and suspension were used in later models of the Paykan, the Iranian version of the Hillman Hunter.

 

[Text taken from Wikipedia]

 

This Lego miniland-scale Peugeot 504 Berline has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 84th Build Challenge, our 7th birthday, to the theme, - "LUGNuts Turns 7…or 49 in Dog Years", - where all the previous challenge themes are available to build to, in this case challenge 69, - "The Summer of '69", - where vehicles from all through the 1960's can be built to the challenge theme.

The Citroën GS (1970–80, sedan and wagon) and Citroën GSA (1979–86, liftback and wagon) are small family cars produced by the French automaker Citroën. The GS was voted European Car of the Year for 1971, and was probably the most technologically advanced car in its class when launched, with class leading comfort, safety and aerodynamics.

 

Market placement

 

The GS filled the enormous gap in Citroën's range, between the 2CV and Ami economy cars and the luxurious DS executive sedan. The DS had moved significantly upmarket from its predecessor the Citroën Traction Avant, and beyond the finances of most French motorists. Leaving this market gap open for fifteen years allowed other manufacturers entry into the most profitable, high volume market segment in France. This combined with the development costs and new factory for the DS-replacing Citroen CX, the 1974 oil crisis, and an aborted Wankel rotary engine, led Citroën to declare bankruptcy in 1974.

 

The GS met with instant market acceptance and was the largest selling Citroën model for many years. 1,896,742 GS models and 576,757 GSA models were produced in total.

 

Unlike the 2CV, DS and SM, the GS was never officially imported to the USA.

 

Design stage

 

The GS took 10 years to develop from initial design to launch.

 

In 1960, work began on two concepts, the 'sporty D,' which became the 1970 SM, and the small family car. Both projects continued in various forms for a decade, with a Wankel engine and hydropneumatic suspension suggested as possibilities, with a new, modern body to match. The first iteration was the "C60," which resembled an Ami 6 with a long, smooth nose.

 

In 1963, development had moved to "Project F", which was close to being production ready. Citroën decided the car was too similar to the 1965 Renault 16 and by 1967 Project F was suspended. Many of the mechanical components continued to "Project G", which became the GS. The GS was designed by Robert Opron, with a smooth two box design that bears some resemblance to the 1967 design study by Pininfarina Berlina Aerodinamica.

 

Launch and ongoing development

 

On 24 August 1970, Citroën launched the GS. The body style was as a "Berline" (essentially a saloon, three lateral windows), in a fastback style with a sharp Kamm tail. The aerodynamics gave the best drag coefficient of any vehicle at the time.

 

Good aerodynamics enabled the car to make the best of the available power, but the car as launched nevertheless drew criticism that it was underpowered. Citroën addressed the issue with the introduction in September 1972, as an option, of a larger 1,222 cc engine. Claimed power increased from 55 bhp (41 kW; 56 PS) to 60 bhp (45 kW; 61 PS), but it was the improved torque that really marked out the more powerful engine, and which enabled the manufacturer, with the larger engined versions, to raise the second gear ratio and the final drive ratio, increasing the vehicle speed per 1,000 rpm from 23 km/h (14.3 mph) to 24.5 km/h (15.2 mph). Larger front brake discs were also fitted.

 

Visually the GS bore little resemblance to any other car on the market, until the development of the Citroën CX in 1974.

 

The fastback design, with a separate trunk, was controversial – a hatchback layout was considered too utilitarian by CEO Pierre Bercot. The 1974 CX shared this feature. The boot was nevertheless exceptionally large, in part due to the positioning of the spare wheel on top of the engine.

 

Both the early GS (until 1976) and the GSA have the unusual rotating drum speedometer (similar in construction to bathroom scales), rather than the dials found in a conventional dashboard.

 

The later GS (from 1977 until the introduction of the GSA) had a conventional speedometer.

 

It was offered in two trims; GS Club as the entry model and GS Pallas (only saloons) with full wheel covers, side mouldings, tinted glass and upgraded upholstery. The GS was also available, from September 1971, as a station wagon (estate) and a similar two-door "service" van.

 

The GSA replaced the GS in 1979 and added a hatchback. Other modifications included a new grille, new bumpers, new taillights, new hubcaps and new exterior handles. It also had a revised dashboard with the auxiliary controls on column-shaped pods so they could be reached without moving the hands from the single-spoked steering wheel; similar to the CX layout. It was partly replaced by the larger BX in 1982, although production continued in reduced volumes until 1986. Citroen did not re-enter the small family hatchback market until the launch of the ZX in 1991.

 

Contemporary journalists remarked at the smooth ride quality – the hydropneumatic suspension is designed to absorb bumps and ripples that would be uncomfortable in a conventionally sprung car with just a slight body movement.

 

Mechanics

 

The vehicle had a front-wheel drive layout and was powered by a flat-4 air-cooled engine. A series of small engines were available, displacing 1015, 1129, 1222 and 1299 cc. Power ranged from 55 PS (40 kW) to 66 PS (49 kW). Mated to a four speed gearbox, these were able to pull this car up to steady 151 km/h (94 mph) at 6250 rpm (with 1222 cc engine), due to the very aerodynamic body shape. Citroën's 3-speed C-Matic semi-automatic transmission was available as an alternative to the manual gearbox. With the introduction of the GSA a 5-speed gearbox was offered, which made cruising at high speeds more comfortable and economical (the top speed was raised to 164 km/h (102 mph) for both long and short gearbox ratios). The GS and GSA were always low powered and needed full use of the free-revving engines to maintain progress, except when cruising, in the tradition of the Citroën 2CV.

 

The four-wheel independent suspension featured a double wish-bone layout at the front and trailing arms at the rear. Both axles comprised rigid sub frames that gave the car unmatched road holding for the time, even on its narrow tires (factory-mounted Michelin ZX 145SR15).

 

Its central hydraulic system, powering the four disc brakes (inboard in front to help lower unsprung weight) and the advanced hydro-pneumatic self-levelling suspension, was derived from the Citroën DS. It also has a feature that increased or decreased braking pressure in accordance with cargo load, without any noticeable difference in the brake pedal response. The powered system was different from the typical assisted systems in that there was virtually no travel on the brake pedal even when braking hard. The hydraulic suspension allowed the car to be raised for rough terrain at low speeds (a feature taking account of the country lanes of its native France) and to full height for easy access to the partially enclosed rear wheels.

 

[Text from Wikipedia]

The Daihatsu Hijet is a microvan and pickup truck produced by the Japanese automaker Daihatsu. Despite the similarities between the Hijet name and Toyota's naming scheme for its trucks and vans (Hiace and Hilux), the name "Hijet" has been in use for Daihatsu's Kei trucks and vans since 1960, over two decades before Toyota took control. "Hijet", when transliterated into Japanese, is very similar to "Midget", one of Daihatsu's other mini-trucks. The Hijet competes in Japan with the Honda Acty, Subaru Sambar, Mitsubishi Minicab, Suzuki Carry and the Nissan Clipper.

The Perodua Kelisa is a city car from Malaysian automaker Perodua. It was launched in 2001 as the successor to the Perodua Kancil. The Kelisa was sold alongside the older Kancil, and both were eventually replaced by the Perodua Viva in 2007.

 

The Kelisa was, in all its releases, based on a fifth generation Daihatsu Mira (L700), and is named after the arowana fish native to Malaysia (ikan kelisa).

 

St. Paul's Bay, Malta Majjistral, Malta

BMW E21 is the body designation for the first BMW 3 Series compact executive car, produced by the German automaker BMW from 1975 to 1983. This series was the immediate successor to the BMW 2002 and was superseded by the BMW E30.

 

Development and early history

 

Under the direction of its 51% percent shareholder, Herbert Quandt, BMW decided upon a replacement for their aging 2002. Without it, there was the distinct possibility of BMW leaving its core mission of building driver oriented cars, and alienating an existing customer base long enamored with the company's 2002 model.

 

Paul Bracq, Director of Design at BMW from 1970 to 1974, is credited with setting the design direction of the E21 3 Series, while Wilhelm Hofmeister is credited with first drawing the small forward wedge at the base of the C-pillar, a strong design trait of the first Three-series. In 1975 Claus Luthe replaced Bracq and became the owner of the project.

 

In July 1975, BMW’s Board of Management first presented this new model series in the Munich Olympic Stadium for public appraisal. The frontal view of the new car was dominated by the BMW trademark kidney grille standing out clearly from the radiator cover. The styling of the new car bore a resemblance to the BMW E12 5 Series.

 

The wedge shape of the two-door model was distinctive, extending all the way to the unusually high rear end. In response to criticism of the tail design, a black plastic trim panel between the tail lights was added.[citation needed] The car's styling was otherwise well received. Measuring 4355 millimeters (171.5 inches) in length, 1610 millimeters (63.4 inches) in width, and 1380 millimeters (54.3 inches) in height, the E21 Series continued the tradition of the New Class. With the wheelbase measuring 2563 millimeters (100.9 in), there was little body overhang in the rear-wheel-drive design. The track measured 1364 millimeters (53.7 in) at the front, and 1377 millimeters (54.2 in) at the rear.

 

The suspension incorporated rack and pinion steering and MacPherson strut suspension at the front, and semi-trailing arm type independent suspension at the rear. The power assisted brakes were discs on the front wheels, while the rear wheels had drum brakes. Initially, a Getrag four-speed manual was the standard transmission fitment. Five-speed overdrive Getrag gearboxes were fitted as standard in 1980, but close ratio 'sport' gearboxes were available at the car's release as an option. Alternatively, purchasers could opt for the ZF 3 HP-22 three-speed automatic transmission.

 

The cockpit design of the E21 marked the introduction of a new design concept, with the center console and central dashboard area angled towards the driver. This feature has become part of BMW’s interior design philosophy for many years. As a sign of passive safety, all edges and control elements within the interior were rounded off and padded.

 

At the E21's release, three models were available: with 316 (1.6-litre), 318 (1.8-litre) and 320 (2.0-litre) versions of the BMW M10 four-cylinder engine. To draw clear visual distinction within the new model series, the 320 models came with dual headlights, while the 315 - 316 and 318 had single round headlights.

 

At the end of 1975, the 320i was introduced; the engine was fitted with Bosch K Jetronic fuel injection, delivering 125 bhp (93 kW; 127 PS) on premium grade gasoline.

 

Ongoing evolution

 

The BMW M10 engine.

In the mid-1970s, BMW had invested DM 110 million in a new engine series, designated as the M60, but later renamed as M20 upon the introduction of the E30 in late 1982.

 

At the 1977 International Auto Show in Frankfurt, BMW unveiled its new variants of the E21, featuring the new six-cylinder M20 engines. The four-cylinder 320 model was replaced with the 320/6, featuring a two-litre version of the M20 engine. The 323i model was introduced, featuring 2.3 litres and 143 bhp (107 kW; 145 PS), empowering this car with a top speed of approximately 190 km/h (118 mph). The braking system was also upgraded, with the 323i featuring disc brakes on all wheels.

 

In the meantime however, a performance gap had developed between the 98 bhp (73 kW; 99 PS) 318 and the new 320/6 delivering 122 bhp (91 kW; 124 PS). For the 1979/80 model year, the four-cylinder models were upgraded: the 1.8-litre power unit was revised and entered the market as a 90 bhp (67 kW; 91 PS) carburetor engine in the 316, while addition of Bosch K Jetronic fuel injection to the 1.8-litre engine raised the 318i to 105 bhp (78 kW; 106 PS) .

 

Since there was now also room for a new entry-level model, the 315 powered by a 75 bhp (56 kW; 76 PS) 1.6-litre M10 engine made its appearance in 1981.

 

Motorsports

 

The Group 5 version of the BMW 320, introduced in 1977 as a replacement to the already obsolete BMW 3.0 CSL and became nicknamed as the Flying Brick in reference to the blocky bodyshape, was powered by a Formula Two engine that was tuned to 300 bhp (220 kW) by BMW Motorsport.

 

Other than the main factory team and McLaren who ran the IMSA operation in the US, the car was notably used by the BMW Junior Team, who had the likes of Manfred Winkelhock, Eddie Cheever, and Marc Surer as drivers. They would help to win the 1977 Deutsche Rennsport Meisterschaft and would later go into Formula One.

 

The car was also used to win the Macau Guia Race in 1981 and 1982.

 

[Text from Wikipedia]

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW_3_Series_(E21)

The Perodua Kelisa is a city car from Malaysian automaker Perodua. It was launched in 2001 as the successor to the Perodua Kancil. The Kelisa was sold alongside the older Kancil, and both were eventually replaced by the Perodua Viva in 2007.

 

The Kelisa was, in all its releases, based on a fifth generation Daihatsu Mira (L700), and is named after the arowana fish native to Malaysia (ikan kelisa).

 

St. Paul's Bay, Malta Majjistral,

Some background:

The Daihatsu Move (ダイハツ・ムーヴ, Daihatsu Mūvu) was a kei car/city car manufactured by the Japanese automaker Daihatsu since August 1995. Kei car (keijidōsha 軽自動車, "light automobile") is the Japanese vehicle category for the smallest highway-legal passenger cars, and similar Japanese categories exist for microvans and kei trucks/utility vehicles. The kei car category was created by the Japanese government in 1949, and the regulations have been revised several times since. These regulations specify a maximum vehicle size, engine capacity, and power output, so that owners may enjoy both tax and insurance benefits. In most rural areas they are also exempted from the requirement to certify that adequate parking is available for the vehicle.

 

Kei cars have become very successful in Japan — consisting of over one third of domestic new car sales in fiscal 2016, despite dropping from a record 40% market share in 2013, after the government increased the kei car tax by 50 percent in 2014. However, in export markets, the genre is generally too specialized and too small for most models to be profitable. Notable exceptions exist though, for instance the Suzuki Alto and Jimny models, which were exported consistently from around 1980.

 

The Move was Daihatsu's response to the similarly designed Suzuki Wagon R that was introduced two years earlier in 1993. The Move was built upon the chassis of the popular Mira (L500) family car, but with a taller body, making it a microvan. The first-generation Move was marketed with a 658 cc (40.2 cu in) three-cylinder engine in Japan, which developed 32 kW (43 hp; 44 PS), and with an 847 cc (51.7 cu in) ED-20 engine in export markets, which also delivered 32 kW but offered more torque than the naturally aspirated 660 cc engines due to its larger displacement. For the domestic market, the Move was later also offered with an optional front-wheel drive model with a turbocharged 658 cc JB-JL four-cylinder engine producing 47 kW (63 hp; 64 PS) – the legal power limit for kei cars, and its top speed was limited to 87 mph (140 km/h) due to the legal restrictions of this vehicle class.

 

The Japanese domestic market models were internally designated L600, or L610 when equipped with four-wheel drive system; L602 was the code for the turbocharged version and export models were internally designated L601. Daihatsu produced more than half a million L600/L610 Move models during its three-year production run, mostly in Japan. It was imported to Europe, too, including the UK, and was furthermore offered with LHD in Continental Europe. In 1997, an upgraded variant with larger headlamps and revised front styling was introduced and marketed as the Move Custom in Japan and was available in subsequent generations, too.

 

However, the Move’s 1999 successor was not exported to Europe anymore, because the Move had turned out to be too similar to the Mira, which had already been sold in Europe for a couple of years under the name Cuore. Here, both models on the same platform and with the same engines filled virtually the same, relatively small microcar niche and sales rather cannibalized each other than being complementarily growing. Nevertheless, the Move microvan remained popular in Japan and Asian markets like Malaysia, Indonesia and China, and has so far been produced in six generations, the latest was launched in late 2014.

  

General specifications:

Wheelbase: 2,300 mm (90.6 in)

Seating: four passengers

Length: 3,295 mm (129.7 in)

Width: 1,395 mm (54.9 in)

Height: 1,620 mm (63.8 in)

Kerb weight: 690–800 kg (1,521–1,764 lb)

 

Powertrain:

658 cc (40.2 cu in) three-cylinder ED-20 engine with 32 kW (43 hp; 44 PS)

and a torque of 67 Nm / 49 lb-ft, coupled with a 5-speed manual or a

3- or 4-speed automatic gearbox

 

Performance:

Top speed: 131 km/h (81 mph)

Acceleration: 0-60 mph in 18.3 sec.

0-100 km/h in 19.4 sec

1/4 mile (402 m) drag time: 21 sec. with manual gearbox

Fuel consumption/mileage: 6 l/100km / 47.1 mpg (imp.) / 39.2 mpg (U.S.) / 16.7 km/l EU-cycle

  

The kit and its assembly:

Yes, a large-scale car, an exotic topic for me. But the “Blue Lights” Group Build at whatifmodellers.com in March 2021 was a good motivator to eventually tackle this project that I had fancied for years but never got myself to procure suitable hardware. I am a huge kei car fan, because these vehicles are a total contrasting concept to ever-growing “normal” cars around them, and there is a wide and very creative range of types around, ranging from sound family cars to vans, utility vehicles or even sports cars (and I am proud to admit that I own and drive such a specimen ^^).

 

Some inspiration for the model came from Kosuke Fujishima’s manga “You are under arrest”, in which, among other kei cars, a tuned, vintage Subaru R-2 in police service, which has its feeble, original 360cc rear engine with 31hp replaced by a Yamaha RZV500R with 80hp, plays a central role. Another factor were personal holiday experiences from a stay in Tokyo some years ago, where I came across several real-world kei cars in police service, including a proud and pristine Suzuki Swift at a rural koban, shiny and always ready for action and crime fighting.

The use of such a wee type of car for police duties appears a bit anachronistic, but these vehicles are just perfect for an urban and typically very tight operational environment. Even fire engines are relatively small in Japan, not bigger than a 7.5 ton truck, because the streets tend to be very narrow.

 

So, a home-made police kei car was the plan. I eventually settled upon an Aoshima 1:24 1st generation Daihatsu Move as a rather dry basis and added typical Japanese police details and equipment. Getting my hands on the police stuff turned out to be a lengthy affair, even though it’s not difficult: Aoshima offers several 1:24 aftermarket sets for conversions, which include flashlights, radio sets and other details. But these are prohibitively expensive, at least for what you get, so that I eventually bought a complete Japanese police car kit, a baroque Aoshima Nissan Cedric (430 Series) sedan. This basically offered the same sprues as the set, at the same price, and it not only supplied a lot of suitable Japanese police detail stuff, including extra flashlights, mirrors or an Asahikage (icon of the national police, “morning sunlight“) badge for the bonnet, it also provided me with a very nice set of optional steel rims. These replaced the Move’s OOB wheel options (either full hub caps or alloy rims for a turbocharged option) for a utility look. As a coincidence they are both 14” size, so that I could use the Move’s relatively narrow rubber tires on the Cedric’s wheels. With the chrome hubcaps, the new black wheels give the vehicle a kind of retro look, and it somehow reminds me of early American Hot Rods? Probably because of the Move’s boxy shape. Weird.

 

The police parts were simply added to the Move kit, but this was not always an easy task. In the cockpit I had to find enough space for the radio set in the dashboard, and the flashing lights had to be modified to suit the Move’s narrow roof – which thankfully features fixed rails, so that the bulky housing could be easily mounted over the B-pillar. I also found that one of the red flashing lights that are typically mounted to the front was missing, so that I had to improvise that and create suitable holders. Further additions include in- and external extra mirrors for the co-driver, a scratched notepad and a kind of chocolate bar on the dashboard.

  

Painting and markings:

Thanks to some preparation time for the GB since November 2020 I was able to get my hands on a rattle can with a Toyota white car paint (BTW, Daihatsu is part of Toyota), just on the last day before everything was shut down in Germany due to Covid-19 lockdown (lasting until building commenced in March 2021!). The plan was to stay as close to the typical TMPD paint scheme as possible, with a white upper car body and black lower flanks as well as a stylish black blaze on the bonnet.

 

Keeping things simple and easy, the hull was treated with white acrylic primer first and then painted with the Toyota tone. I am not certain whether an official White for Japanese police cars exists or not? In Germany there are RAL stones, but elsewhere…?

The black trim areas were created with decals and/or paint – either from the Cedric’s OOB sheet or from generic stripes (TL Modellbau), which were used instead of tape masking to create sharp demarcation lines, while the rest was filled with black (Humbrol 21). The fixed rails on the roof and the small spoiler became black, too, matching the flashlights’ housing. The window frames were painted in Tar Black (Revell 06), which is a very dark grey and rather looks like the typical rubber seals and plastic fairings than pure black.

Since a real-world police car would not be too flashy and rather have a robust utility look, I painted the bumpers in dark grey (Humbrol 67), later slightly dry-brushed with medium grey, simulating bare plastic. Not elegant, but a nice, slight contrast to the stark black/white livery. The chassis plate/suspension/underside was painted in semi-matt black, as well as the steel rims with their chrome caps. These suit the Move IMHO surprisingly well!

 

With simplicity and sobriety in mind, the interior was painted in medium grey, in this case Humbrol 164 (RAF Dark Sea Grey). A light black ink wash was applied to the seats and dry-brushing with light grey was added, too, to simulate fabric texture. The dashboard became grey, too, with black details like the instrument panel, vents and some switches. The radio set was painted black, too, to highlight it and underline that it is a retrofitted piece – even though this is hard to see from the outside.

 

Once all decals (a mix from the Move and the Cedric sheets) were in place and the door outlines emphasized with black ink, the car body was sealed with glossy acrylic varnish and the bumpers received a semi-matt finish, for the bare plastic look. The mirror surfaces were created with a self-adhesive, highly reflective foil, which – even though it is a bit thick – looks much better than any painted solution.

 

For the license plate I went for a typical yellow kei car version – even though I have seen police kei cars carrying white plates with green letters, which indicate special vehicles that have to undergo annual inspection. This is frequently found on “normal” Japanese police cars, and an option in the Cedric kit. But I found the yellow ones more suitable and attractive – maybe it’s a lethal flaw (also the selected numbers and kanji), but that’s already quite nit-picky.

  

An exotic topic, at least for me, and it’s also full of nostalgia and vacation memories. However, I think that the police Move looks pretty good and believable, it turned out better than expected and hoped for. It’s also kind of cute (kawaii!)!

And now I have a surplus car kit, the Nissan Cedric, too…

The Volkswagen Beetle (officially the Volkswagen Type 1, informally in Germany the Volkswagen Käfer, in Poland the Volkswagen Garbus and in the U.S. the Volkswagen Bug) is a two-door, four passenger, rear-engine economy car manufactured and marketed by German automaker Volkswagen (VW) from 1938 until 2003.

 

The need for this kind of car, and its functional objectives, was formulated by the leader of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler, who wanted a cheap, simple car to be mass-produced for his country's new road network. Hitler contracted Ferdinand Porsche in 1934 to design and build it. Porsche and his team took until 1938 to finalise the design. The influence on Porsche's design of other contemporary cars, such as the Tatra V570 and the work of Josef Ganz remains a subject of dispute. The result was one of the first rear-engined cars since the Brass Era. With 21,529,464 produced, the Beetle is the longest-running and most-manufactured car of a single platform ever made.

 

Although designed in the 1930s, the Beetle was only produced in significant numbers from 1945 on (mass production had been put on hold during the Second World War) when the model was internally designated the Volkswagen Type 1, and marketed simply as the Volkswagen (or "People's Car"). Later models were designated Volkswagen 1200, 1300, 1500, 1302 or 1303, the former three indicating engine displacement, the latter two derived from the type number. The model became widely known in its home country as the Käfer (German for "beetle") and was later marketed as such in Germany, and as the Volkswagen in other countries. For example, in France it was known as the Coccinelle (French for ladybug).

 

The original 25 hp Beetle was designed for a top speed around 100 km/h, which would be a viable speed on the Reichsautobahn system. As Autobahn speeds increased in the postwar years, its output was boosted to 36, then 40 hp, the configuration that lasted through 1966 and became the "classic" Volkswagen motor. The Beetle ultimately gave rise to variants, including the Karmann Ghia, Type 2 and external coachbuilders. The Beetle marked a significant trend, led by Volkswagen, Fiat, and Renault, whereby the rear-engine, rear-wheel drive layout increased from 2.6 percent of continental Western Europe's car production in 1946 to 26.6 percent in 1956. The 1948 Citroën 2CV and other European models marked a later trend to front-wheel drive in the European small car market, a trend that would come to dominate that market. In 1974, Volkswagen's own front-wheel drive Golf model succeeded the Beetle. In 1994, Volkswagen unveiled the Concept One, a "retro"-themed concept car with a resemblance to the original Beetle, and in 1998 introduced the "New Beetle", built on the contemporary Golf platform with styling recalling the original Type 1. It remained in production through 2010, being succeeded in 2011 by the more aggressively styled Beetle (A5).

 

In the 1999 Car of the Century competition, to determine the world's most influential car in the 20th century, the Type 1 came fourth, after the Ford Model T, the Mini, and the Citroën DS.

 

HISTORY

THE PEOPLES CAR

In April 1934, Adolf Hitler gave the order to Ferdinand Porsche to develop a Volkswagen (literally, "people's car" in German, pronounced [ˈfɔlksvaːɡən]). The epithet Volks- literally, "people's-" had been applied to other Nazi-sponsored consumer goods such as the Volksempfänger ("people's radio").

 

In May 1934, at a meeting at Berlin’s Kaiserhof Hotel, Chancellor Hitler insisted on a basic vehicle that could transport two adults and three children at 100 km/h while not using more than 7 litres of fuel per 100 km (32 mpg US/39 mpg UK). The engine had to be powerful for sustained cruising on Germany’s new Autobahnen. Everything had to be designed to ensure parts could be quickly and inexpensively exchanged. The engine had to be air-cooled because, as Hitler explained, not every country doctor had his own garage (ethylene glycol antifreeze was only just beginning to be used in high-performance liquid-cooled aircraft engines. In general, radiators filled with water would freeze unless the vehicle was kept in a heated building overnight or drained and refilled each morning).

 

The "People's Car" would be available to citizens of Nazi Germany through a savings scheme, or Sparkarte (savings booklet), at 990 Reichsmark, about the price of a small motorcycle. (The average weekly income was then around 32RM.)

 

DEVELOPMENT

Ferdinand Porsche developed the Type 12, or "Auto für Jedermann" (car for everybody) for Zündapp in 1931. Porsche already preferred the flat-four engine, and selected a swing axle rear suspension (invented by Edmund Rumpler), while Zündapp insisted on a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine. In 1932, three prototypes were running.[20] All of those cars were lost during World War II, the last in a bombing raid in Stuttgart in 1945.

 

The Zündapp prototypes were followed by the Porsche Type 32, designed in 1933 for NSU Motorenwerke AG, another motorcycle company. The Type 32 was similar in design to the Type 12, but it had a flat-four engine. NSU's exit from car manufacturing resulted in the Type 32 being abandoned at the prototype stage.

 

Initially designated Type 60 by Porsche, the design team included Erwin Komenda and Karl Rabe. In October 1935, the first two Type 60 prototypes, known as the V1 and V2 (V for Versuchswagen, or "test car"), were ready. In 1936, testing began of three further V3 prototypes, built in Porsche's Stuttgart shop. A batch of thirty W30 development models, produced for Porsche by Daimler-Benz, underwent 2,900,000 km of further testing in 1937. All cars had the distinctive round shape and the air-cooled, rear-mounted engine. Included in this batch was a rollback soft top called the Cabrio Limousine. A further batch of 44 VW38 pre-production cars produced in 1938 introduced split rear windows; both the split window and the dash were retained on production Type 1s until 1953. The VW38 cars were followed by another batch of 50 VW39 cars, completed in July 1939.

 

The car was designed to be as simple as possible mechanically. The air-cooled 25 hp (19 kW) 995 cc motors' built-in oil cooler and flat-four engine configuration's superior performance was also effective for the German Afrika Korps in Africa's desert heat. The suspension design used compact torsion bars instead of coil or leaf springs. The Beetle is nearly airtight and will briefly float.

 

THE FACTORY

On 26 May 1938, Hitler laid the cornerstone for the Volkswagen factory in Fallersleben. He gave a speech, in which he named the car Kraft-durch-Freude-Wagen ("Strength Through Joy Car", usually abbreviated to KdF-Wagen). The name refers to Kraft durch Freude ('Strength Through Joy'), the official leisure organization of Nazi Germany. The model village of Stadt des KdF-Wagens was created near Fallersleben in Lower Saxony in 1938 for the benefit of the workers at the newly built factory.

 

The factory had only produced a handful of cars by the start of the war in 1939; the first volume-produced versions of the car's chassis were military vehicles, the Type 82 Kübelwagen (approximately 52,000 built) and the amphibious Type 166 Schwimmwagen (about 14,000 built).

 

The first Beetles were produced on a small scale in 1941.

 

WARTIME PRODUCTION

A handful of KdF-Wagen (Typ 60) were produced primarily for the Nazi elite from 1941 to 1944, but production figures were small because the factories were concentrating on production of the Kübelwagen (Typ 82), the beetle for the Wehrmacht (Typ 82 E), the Schwimmwagen (Typ 166), and a handful of other variants. The factory produced another wartime vehicle: the Kommandeurswagen (Typ 87); a Beetle body mounted on a 4WD Schwimmwagen chassis. The Kommandeurswagen had widened fenders to accommodate its Kronprinz all-terrain tires. 564 Kommandeurswagen were produced up to 1944, when all production was halted because of heavy damage to the factory by Allied air raids. Much of the essential equipment had already been moved to underground bunkers for protection, which let production resume quickly after hostilities ended. Due to gasoline shortages late in the war, a few "Holzbrenner" Beetles were built powered by pyrolysis gas producers located under the front hood.

 

POST-WAR PRODUCTION AND BOOM

In occupied Germany, the Allies followed the Morgenthau plan to remove all German war potential by complete or partial pastoralization. As part of this, in the Industrial plans for Germany, the rules for which industry Germany was to be allowed to retain were set out. German car production was set at a maximum of 10% of the 1936 car production numbers.

 

Mass production of civilian VW cars did not start until post-war occupation. The Volkswagen factory was handed over by the Americans to British control in 1945; it was to be dismantled and shipped to Britain. Thankfully for Volkswagen, no British car manufacturer was interested in the factory; an official report included the phrases "the vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirement of a motor-car ... it is quite unattractive to the average buyer ... To build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise." The factory survived by producing cars for the British Army instead. Allied dismantling policy changed in late 1946 to mid-1947, although heavy industry continued to be dismantled until 1951. In March 1947, Herbert Hoover helped change policy by stating

 

There is the illusion that the New Germany left after the annexations can be reduced to a "pastoral state". It cannot be done unless we exterminate or move 25,000,000 people out of it.

 

The re-opening of the factory is largely accredited to British Army officer Major Ivan Hirst. Hirst was ordered to take control of the heavily bombed factory, which the Americans had captured. His first task was to remove an unexploded bomb that had fallen through the roof and lodged itself between some pieces of irreplaceable production equipment; if the bomb had exploded, the Beetle's fate would have been sealed. Knowing Germany needed jobs and the British Army needed vehicles. Hirst persuaded the British military to order 20,000 cars, and by March 1946 the factory was producing 1,000 cars a month (in Army khaki, under the name Volkswagen Type 1), which Hirst said "was the limit set by the availability of materials". During this period, the car reverted to its original name of Volkswagen and the town was renamed Wolfsburg. The first 1,785 Type 1s were made in 1945.

After World War II, it was officially designated the Volkswagen Type 1, but was more commonly known as the Beetle.Following the British Army-led restart of productio

 

n and Hirst's establishment of sales network and exports to Netherlands, former Opel manager (and formerly a detractor of the Volkswagen) Heinz Nordhoff was appointed director of the Volkswagen factory in 1949. Under Nordhoff, production increased dramatically over the following decade, with the one-millionth car coming off the assembly line by 1955. During this post-war period, the Beetle had superior performance in its category with a top speed of 115 km/h and 0–100 km/h in 27.5 seconds with fuel consumption of 6.7 l/100 km (36 mpg) for the standard 25 kW (34 hp) engine. This was far superior to the Citroën 2CV, which was aimed at a low speed/poor road rural peasant market, and Morris Minor, designed for a market with no motorways / freeways; it was even competitive with more advanced small city cars like the Austin Mini.

 

In Small Wonder, Walter Henry Nelson wrote:

"The engine fires up immediately without a choke. It has tolerable road-handling and is economical to maintain. Although a small car, the engine has great elasticity and gave the feeling of better output than its small nominal size."

 

There were other, less-numerous models, as well. The Hebmüller cabriolet (officially Type 14A), a sporty two-seater, was built between 1949 and 1953; it numbered 696. The Type 18A, a fixed-top cabriolet, was produced by Austro-Tatra as a police and fire unit; 203 were assembled between January 1950 and March 1953.

 

The chassis became a technological and parts donor to Volkswagen Type 2 (also known as Bulli) and external coachbuilders like Rometsch, Dannenhauer & Stauss, Wilhelm Karmann, Enzmann, Beutler, Ghia-Aigle, Hebmüller & Söhne, Drews, Wendler.

 

On 17 February 1972, when Beetle No. 15,007,034 was produced, Beetle production surpassed that of the previous record holder, the Ford Model T. By 1973, total production was over 16 million, and by 23 June 1992, over 21 million had been produced.

 

DECLINE

Though extremely successful in the 1960s, the Beetle was increasingly faced with stiff competition from more modern designs globally. The Japanese had refined rear-wheel-drive, water-cooled, front-engine small cars including the Datsun 510 and Toyota Corona, whose sales in the North American market grew rapidly at the expense of Volkswagen in the late 1960s. Honda introduced the N600, based on the space-efficient transverse-engine, front-wheel-drive layout of the original Austin Mini, to the North American market in late 1969, and upgraded the model to the Honda Civic in 1972. The Japanese "big three" would soon dominate compact auto sales in North America. In 1971 Ford introduced its Pinto, which had some market impact as a low cost alternative. As the 1960s came to a close, Volkswagen faced increasingly stiff competition from European cars as well. The Beetle was faced with competition from new designs like the Fiat 127 and Renault 5, and more robust designs based on the Austin Mini layout such as the Superminis. German competitors, Ford and Opel also enjoyed strong sales of modern smaller cars like the Ford Escort and Opel Kadett. Volkswagen's attempts to boost the power of their air-cooled motor to meet the demands of higher highway speeds in the late 1960s, then comply with new pollution control regulations, caused problems for reliability and fuel efficiency that impaired the reputation of the aging design. Safety issues with the Beetle came under increasing scrutiny, culminating in the 1972 release of a rather scathing report. During the early 1970s, sales of the Beetle in Europe and North America plummeted.

 

There were other models introduced to supplement the Beetle in the VW product line throughout the 1960s; the Type 3, Type 4, and the NSU-based and larger K70. None of these models, aimed at more upscale markets, achieved the level of success as the Beetle. The over-reliance on a single model, now in decline, meant that Volkswagen was in financial crisis by 1974. It needed German government funding to produce the Beetle's replacement.

 

Production lines at Wolfsburg switched to the new water-cooled, front-engined, front-wheel drive Golf designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro in 1974, sold in North America at the time as the "Rabbit". The Golf would eventually become Volkswagen's most successful model since the Beetle. The Golf would be periodically redesigned over its lifetime, entering its seventh generation in 2012, with only a few components carried over between generations, while the Beetle had only minor refinements of its original design.

 

The Golf did not kill Beetle production, nor did the smaller Polo which was launched a year later. Production of the Beetle continued in smaller numbers at other German factories until 19 January 1978, when mainstream production shifted to Brazil and Mexico: markets where low operating cost was an important factor. However, this shift in production did not completely end sales of the Beetle in Europe, although after this date sales of the Beetle in Europe were very low. Beetle sedans were produced for U.S. markets until July 1977 and for European markets until 1985, with private companies continuing to import cars produced in Mexico after 1985. The Beetle convertible/Cabriolet ended production (as 1979 models) as of January 31, 1980.

 

The last Beetle was produced in Puebla, Mexico, in July 2003. The final batch of 3,000 Beetles were sold as 2004 models and badged as the Última Edición, with whitewall tires, a host of previously discontinued chrome trim, and the choice of two special paint colors taken from the New Beetle. Production in Brazil ended in 1986, then started again in 1993 and continued until 1996.

 

The Beetle outlasted most other cars which had adopted the rear air-cooled engine layout such as those by Subaru, Fiat, and General Motors. Porsche's 356 series which originally used some Volkswagen sourced parts, continued to use the classic rear engine layout (which later became water-cooled) in the Porsche 911 996 series, which remains competitive in the second decade of the 21st century.

 

WORLDWIDE END OF PRODUCTION

By 2002, over 21 million Type 1s had been produced, but by 2003, annual production had dropped to 30,000 from a peak of 1.3 million in 1971. VW announced the end of production in June 2003, citing decreasing demand, and the final original Type 1 VW Beetle (No. 21,529,464) rolled off the production line at Puebla, Mexico, on 30 July 2003 65 years after its original launch. This last Beetle, nicknamed El Rey (Spanish for "The King" after a legendary Mexican song by José Alfredo Jiménez) was delivered to the company's museum in Wolfsburg, Germany.

 

To celebrate the occasion, Volkswagen marketed a final special series of 3,000 Beetles marketed as "Última Edición" (Final Edition) in light blue (Aquarius Blue) or beige (Harvest Moon Beige). Each car included the 1.6 engine, whitewall tires, a CD player with four speakers, chrome bumpers, trim, hub caps and exterior mirrors, a Wolfsburg emblem above the front trunk's handle, chrome glove box badge, body coloured wheels, tinted glass, a rear parcel shelf, and VW Última Edición plaque.

 

A mariachi band serenaded production of the last car. In Mexico, there was an advertising campaign as a goodbye for the Beetle. In one of the ads was a very small parking space on the street, and many big cars tried to use it, but could not. After a while, a sign appears in that parking space saying: "Es increíble que un auto tan pequeño deje un vacío tan grande" (It is incredible that a car so small can leave such a large void). Another depicted the rear end of a 1954 Beetle (the year Volkswagen was established in Mexico) in the left side of the ad, reading "Erase una vez..." (Once upon a time...) and the last 2003 Beetle in the right side, reading "Fin" (The end). There were other ads with the same nostalgic tone.

 

Engine: Fuel-injected (Bosch Digifant) four-cylinder horizontally opposed, 1,584 cc, 50 hp (37 kW), 98.1 N·m (72.4 lb·ft) @ 2,200 rpm, three-way catalytic converter

Rated fuel mileage: 32.5 mpg-US (7.2 L/100 km; 39.0 mpg-imp)

Max cruising speed: 130 km/h

Brakes: front disc, rear drum

Passengers: Five

Tank: 40 L (11 US gal; 9 imp gal)

Colours: Aquarius blue, Harvest Moon beige.

 

PROTOTYPES

DIESEL

In 1951, Volkswagen prototyped a 1.3 L diesel engine. Volkswagen made only two of these air-cooled boxer diesel engines (not turbocharged), and installed one engine in a Type 1 and another in a Type 2. The diesel Beetle was time tested on the Nürburgring and achieved 0–100 km/h in 60 seconds.

 

DESIGN

The Beetle featured a rear-located, rear-wheel drive, air-cooled four-cylinder, boxer engine in a two-door bodywork featuring a flat front windscreen, accommodating four passengers and providing luggage storage under the front bonnet and behind the rear seat – and offering a coefficient of drag of 0.41; to this relatively good CD, the also streamlined rear of car was of help. The bodywork attached with eighteen bolts to its nearly flat chassis which featured a central structural tunnel. Front and rear suspension featured torsion bars along with front stabilizer bar – providing independent suspension at all wheels. Certain initial features were subsequently revised, including mechanical drum brakes, split-window rear windows, mechanical direction-indicators and the non-synchronized gearbox. Other features, including its distinctive overall shape, endured.

 

Its engine, transmission, and cylinder heads were constructed of light alloy. An engine oil cooler (located in the engine fan's shroud) ensured optimal engine operating temperature and long engine life, optimized by a thermostat that bypassed the oil cooler when the engine was cold. Later models of the carburetor featured an automatic choke. Engine intake air passed through a metallic filter, while heavier particles were captured by an oil bath. After 1960, steering featured a hydraulic damper that absorbed steering irregularities.

 

Indicative of the car's utilitarian design, the interior featured painted metal surfaces, a metal dash consolidating instruments in a single, circular binnacle, adjustable front seats, a fold-down rear seat, optional swing-out rear windows, front windows with pivoting vent windows, heating via air-to-air exchange manifolds operating off the engine's heat, and a windshield washer system that eschewed the complexity and cost of an additional electric pump and instead received its pressurization from the car's spare tire (located in the front luggage compartment) which was accordingly overinflated to accommodate the washer function.

 

Throughout its production, VW marketed the Beetle with a four-speed manual transmission. From 1961 (and almost exclusively in Europe), VW offered an optional version of the Saxomat semi-automatic transmission: a regular 4-speed manual transaxle coupled to an electromagnetic clutch with a centrifugal clutch used for idle. Subsequently (beginning in 1967 in Europe and 1968 in the United States), VW offered an optional semi-automatic transmission (marketed as Automatic Stick Shift and also called AutoStick[citation needed]), which was a 3-speed manual coupled to an electro-pneumatic clutch and torque converter.

 

While the overall appearance of the Beetle changed little over its life span, it received over 78,000 incremental changes during its production.

 

EVOLUTION AND DESIGN CHANGES

BEETLE CABRIOLET

It was in 1948 that Wilhelm Karmann first bought a VW Beetle sedan and converted it into a four-seated convertible. The Beetle Cabriolet began production in 1949 by Karmann in Osnabrück. After successfully presenting it at VW in Wolfsburg, production started in 1949.

 

The convertible was more than a Beetle with a folding top. To compensate for the strength lost in removing the roof, the sills were reinforced with welded U-channel rails, a transverse beam was fitted below the front edge of the rear seat cushion, and the side cowl-panels below the instrument panel were double-wall. In addition, the lower corners of the door apertures had welded-in curved gussets, and the doors had secondary alignment wedges at the B-pillar.

 

The top was cabriolet-style with a full inner headliner hiding the folding mechanism and crossbars. In between the two top layers was 25 mm of insulation. The rear window was tempered safety glass, and after 1968, heated. Due to the thickness of the top, it remained quite tall when folded. To enable the driver to see over the lowered top, the inside rearview was mounted on an offset pivot. By twisting the mirror 180 degrees on a longitudinal axis, the mirror glass would raise approximately 5.1 cm.

 

The convertible was generally more lavishly equipped than the sedan with dual rear ashtrays, twin map pockets, a visor vanity mirror on the passenger side, rear stone shields, and through 1969, wheel trim rings. Many of these items did not become available on other Beetles until the advent of the optional "L" (Luxus) Package of 1970.

 

After a number of stylistic and technical alterations made to the Karmann cabriolet, (corresponding to the many changes VW made to the Beetle throughout its history), the last of 331,847 cabriolets came off the production line on 10 January 1980.

 

1950–1959 MODELS

During this period, a myriad of changes were made throughout the vehicle beginning with the availability of hydraulic brakes and a folding fabric sunroof in 1950. The rear window of the VW Beetle evolved from a divided or "split" oval, to a singular oval. The change occurred between October 1952 and March 1953. Beetles built during this time were known as a "Zwitter", or "hybrid", as they used the split-window bodyshell with oval-model chrome trim, vent windows and dashboard.

 

1953 models received a redesigned instrument panel. The one-piece “Pope's Nose” combination license plate/brake light was replaced by a smaller flat-bottomed license plate light. The brake light function was transferred to new heart-shaped lamps located in the top of the taillight housings.

 

In 1954, Volkswagen added 2 mm to the cylinder bore, increasing the displacement from 1,131 (1100) cc to 1,192 (1200) cc. This coincided with upgrades to various key components including a redesign of the crankshaft. This increased power from 30 hp (22 kW; 30 PS) to 36 hp (27 kW; 36 PS) and improved the engine's free revving abilities without compromising torque at lower engine speeds. At the same time, compression ratios were progressively raised as, little by little, the octane ratings of available fuel was raised in major markets during the 1950s and 1960s.

 

In 1955, the separate brake lights were discontinued and were combined into a new larger taillight housing. The traditional VW semaphore turn signals were replaced by conventional flashing directional indicator lamps for North America.

 

For 1956, the Beetle received what would become one of its more distinctive features, a set of twin chrome tailpipes. Models for North America gained taller bumper guards and tubular overrider bars.

 

For 1958, the Beetle received a revised instrument panel, and a larger rectangular rear window replaced the previous oval design.

 

1960–1969 MODELS

1960 models received a front sway bar along with a hydraulic steering damper.

 

For 1961, significant technical advances occurred in the form of a new engine and transmission. The engine remained at 1200cc but the power increased to 40 hp (30 kW; 41 PS) primarily due to an increase in compression ratio to 7.1:1. The carburetor received an electric automatic choke and the transmission was now synchronized on all forward gears. The traditional semaphore turns signals were replaced by conventional flashing directional indicators worldwide.

 

For 1962, the Beetle received a mechanical fuel level gauge in place of the former fuel tap. At the rear, larger tail lights were introduced incorporating a separate amber turn signal section to meet new European standards (these turn signals remained red in the US market until 1973). The former hand-pump style windscreen washer was replaced by a new design using compressed air. A Schrader valve located on the washer fluid tank allowed the system to be charged at a filling station to the recommended 35 psi (2.4 bar).

 

1964 models could be identified by a widened light housing on the engine lid over the rear license plate.

 

The largest change to date for the Beetle was in 1965: the majority of the body stampings were revised, which allowed for significantly larger windows. The windshield increased in area by 11% and was now slightly curved, rather than flat. Door windows increased accordingly by 6% (and door vent window edges were canted slightly back), rear side windows 17.5%, and the rear window 19.5%. The result was a more open, airy, modern look.

 

For 1966, the big news was an optional new 1300cc 50 hp (37 kW; 51 PS) engine in lieu of the previous 1200cc engine that had been the sole engine since 1954. Models so equipped carried a "1300" badge on the engine lid. The 1300cc engine was standard for North America.

 

For 1967, a yet-again larger-displacement engine was made available: 1500cc, 53 hp (40 kW; 54 PS) at 4,200 rpm. 1200 and 1300 engines continued to be available, as many markets based their taxation on engine size. 1500cc Beetles were equipped with front disc brakes and were identified with a "VW 1500" badge on the engine lid. North America received the 1500 engine as standard equipment, but did not receive front disc brakes. These models were identified by a "Volkswagen" badge on the engine lid.

 

The rear suspension was significantly revised including a widened track, softer torsion bars and the addition of a unique Z-configuration equalizing torsion spring. On US, UK and Ireland models, the generator output was increased from 180 to 360 watts, and the entire electrical system was upgraded from 6 volts to 12 volts. The clutch disc also increased in size and changes were made to the flywheel. New equipment included a driver's armrest on the door and locking buttons on both doors. Safety improvements included two-speed windscreen wipers, reversing lights (in some markets), and a driver's side mirror. In accord with the newly enacted US Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108, North American models received a dual-circuit brake system, the clear glass headlamp covers were deleted; the headlamps were brought forward to the leading edge of the front fenders, and the sealed-beam units were exposed and surrounded by chrome bezels.

 

1968 was a year of major change. The most noticeable of which were the new larger, higher mounted C-section bumpers. At the rear, new larger taillamps were adopted and were able to accommodate backup lamps, which were previously separate bumper-mounted units. Beetles worldwide received the '67 North American style vertical headlamp placement, but with replaceable-bulb headlamps compliant with ECE regulations rather than the US sealed beams. Other improvements were a new outside gas filler with spring-loaded flap, eliminating the need to open the trunk to refuel. The fuel gauge was integrated with the speedometer and was now electrically-actuated rather than cable-operated. The windscreen washer was now pressured by the spare tire, which was to be maintained at a pressure of 42 psi (2.9 bar). A pressure valve in the connecting hose closed airflow to the fluid reservoir if spare tire pressure fell below 30 psi (2.1 bar), which was above the recommended pressures for the road tires. A ventilation system was introduced, which drew fresh air into the cabin from louvres on the front decklid. For improved shifting, the shift lever was shortened, stiffened and moved rearward by

78 mm.

 

A number of safety improvements were made in order to comply with new American safety regulations: these included trigger-operated outside door handles, a secondary front hood latch, collapsing steering column, soft vent window latches, rotary glove compartment latch and instrument panel knobs labeled with pictographs. US models received a padded instrument panel that was optional in other markets. To meet North American head restraint requirements, VW developed the industry's first high-back bucket seat.

 

A new 3-speed semi-automatic gear box with torque converter and vacuum-operated clutch became available mid-production year. The semi-automatic models received a vastly improved semi-trailing-arm rear suspension (also known as "Independent Rear Suspension" although the earlier swing axle Beetles were also independent) and eliminated the need for the equalizing torsion spring. This new rear suspension layout would eventually become an option on later models. Beetles equipped with the automatic were identified with a "VW Automatic" badge on the engine lid and a matching decal in the rear window. In North America, the badging and decal were later revised to read, "Automatic Stick Shift".

 

For 1969, the only exterior change was the fuel filler flap no longer had a finger indentation due to a new interior-mounted fuel door release. For North America, the Beetle received a heated rear window, day/night mirror and the semi-trailing, independent rear-arm suspension as standard equipment.

 

1970–1979 MODELS

In 1970, A new "L" (Luxus) Package was introduced including, among other items, twin map pockets, dual rear ashtrays, full carpeting, a passenger-side visor vanity mirror, and rubber bumper moldings. The optional 1500 cc engine now came with an engine lid having two rows of cooling louvers, while the convertible's engine lid gained two additional sets for a total of four. For North America, the 1500 cc engine was enlarged to 1600 cc engine and produced 57 hp (43 kW; 58 PS)

 

For 1971, for the first time there were two Beetles, the familiar standard Beetle and a new larger version that was different from the windscreen forward. All Beetles received an engine upgrade: the optional 1500 cc engine was replaced by a 1600 cc version with twin-port cylinder heads and a larger, relocated oil cooler. The new engine produced 60 hp (45 kW; 61 PS). The ventilation system was improved with the original dash-top vents augmented by a second pair aimed directly at the driver and passenger. For the first time the system was a flow-through design with crescent-shaped air exits fitted behind the rear quarter windows. Airflow could be increased via an optional 2-speed fan. The standard Beetle was now badged as the VW 1300; when equipped with the 1600 engine, it was badged 1300 S, to avoided confusion with the Type 3, which wore VW 1600 badges.

 

The new larger Beetle was sold as the 1302/1302 S, offering nearly 50% increased luggage capacity. A new MacPherson strut front suspension was incorporated, similar to what was used in the Type 4, and the front track was widened. The new suspension layout allowed the spare tire to be positioned flat under the trunk floor, although the car had to be lengthened slightly to accomplish this. This also allowed a reduction in turning radius. To gain additional trunk volume, the under-dash panel was lowered, allowing the fuel tank to be shifted rearward. From the windscreen back the big Beetle was identical to its smaller progenitor, except for having the semi-trailing arm rear suspension as standard equipment. Overall, the big Beetle was 50 mm longer in length and 35 mm wider and rode on a 20 mm longer wheelbase than the standard model. Both Beetles were available with or without the L Package. The convertible was now based on the 1302 body. In North America, the 1302 was marketed as the Super Beetle and came only with the L Package and 1600 cc engine. While it lacked the front disc brakes that normally accompanied the larger motor, it was fitted with brake drums that were slightly larger than the standard Beetle. With the Super Beetle being sold as the premium model in North America, the standard Beetle, while retaining the same 1600 cc engine, was stripped of many of its earlier features in order to reduce the selling price. Bright window and running board moldings disappeared, along with the day/night mirror, horn ring, map pocket, locking glove box and miscellaneous other items.

 

1972 models had an 11% larger rear window 40 mm taller, larger front brakes[citation needed] and the convertible engine lid with four rows of louvres was now used on all Beetles. Inside the vehicle, a four-spoke energy-absorbing steering wheel was introduced, the windshield wiper/washer knob was replaced in favor of a steering column stalk, and intermittent wipers were a new option available in selected markets. An engine compartment socket for the proprietary VW Diagnosis system was also introduced. The rear luggage area was fitted with a folding parcel shelf. A limited-edition Commemorative model was launched in celebration of the Beetle's passing the record of the Ford Model T as the world's most-produced automobile. The Commemorative Beetle was a 1302 LS finished in a special Marathon Blue Metallic paint and unique 4.5 x 15 styled steel wheels. In the U.S., it was marketed as the Super Beetle Baja Champion SE.

 

1973 models featured significantly-enlarged "elephant foot" taillamps mounted in reshaped rear fenders. In the engine bay, the oil-bath air cleaner gave way to a dry element filter, and the generator was replaced with an alternator. The 1302/Super became the 1303 with a new taller wrap-around windscreen. The changes to the cowl and windshield resulted in slight redesign of the front hood. The instrument panel, formerly shared with the standard Beetle, was all-new and incorporated a raised speedometer pod, rocker-style switches and side-window defrosters. The limited-edition GSR (Gelb-Schwarz Rennen) was a 1303 S available only in Saturn Yellow paint equipped with special 140 mm wide sport wheels fitted with 175/70-15 Pirelli Cinturato CN36 high-performance radial tires. Front and rear deck lids were finished in matte black, as was all exterior trim with the exception of the chrome headlamp bezels. Inside were corduroy and leatherette high-bolstered sport seats and a small diameter three-spoke steering wheel with padded leather rim and a small red VW logo on the bottom spoke. In North America, the GSR was sold as the Super Beetle Sports Bug. The North American model had body-color deck lids and was available in Marathon Blue Metallic in addition to Saturn Yellow. In some markets, the sport wheels (in both 4.5-inch and 5.5-inch widths), sport steering wheel and sport seats became available as stand-alone options.

 

For 1974, North American models received newly required 8.0 km/h impact bumpers mounted on self-restoring energy absorbers, which added approximately 25 mm to the car's overall length. On the Super Beetle, the steering knuckle, and consequently the lower attachment point of the strut, was redesigned to improve handling and stability in the event of a tire blowout. A limited-edition Big Beetle was introduced based on the 1303 LS. Available in unique metallic paint colors, the car featured styled-steel 5.5 in (140 mm) wide sport wheels wrapped in 175/70-15 tires, corduroy seat inserts, upgraded loop-pile carpet, wood-look instrument panel trim and a padded steering wheel with bright accents. In the North American market, a limited-edition Sun Bug was introduced as a standard Beetle or Super Beetle. Both were finished in metallic gold and featured styled-steel 4.5 in (110 mm)-wide sport wheels. Inside were brown corduroy and leatherette seats, loop-pile carpet, and padded four-spoke deluxe steering wheel. The Super Beetle Sun Bug included a sliding-steel sunroof.

 

In 1975, front turn indicators were moved from the top of the front fenders down into the bumper. At the rear, the license plate light housing was now molded of plastic with a ribbed top surface. To comply with tightening emission standards, the 1600 cc engine in Japanese and North American markets received Bosch L-Jetronic fuel injection, a derivative of the Bosch D-Jetronic system formerly used in the VW Type 3 and Type 4. The injected engine received a new muffler and in California a catalytic converter. This necessitated a bulge in the rear apron under the rear bumper and replaced the distinctive twin "pea shooter" tailpipes with a single offset pipe, making injected models identifiable at a glance. 5 mph (8.0 km/h) bumper-equipped North American models retained fender-top front indicators. The 1303 received rack and pinion steering. In North America, the 1303/Super Beetle sedan was moved upmarket and was now christened La Grande Bug. Similar to the Big Beetle of 1974, La Grande Bug was available in blue or green metallic paint in the U.S. and blue, green or gold metallic in Canada and was equipped with the same features as the 1974 Sun Bug. Mid-year, the Love Bug was introduced for North America: based on the standard Beetle, it was available only in Phoenix Red or Ravenna Green (both colors shared with the VW-Porsche 914) with all exterior trim finished in matte black. A price leader, the Love Bug retailed for less than a standard Beetle. The "Volkswagen" script on the engine lid of all North American Beetles was replaced with a "Fuel Injection" badge.

 

In 1976, the 1303/La Grande Bug was discontinued, with the larger body continuing only in convertible form. To make up for the loss in North American markets, the standard Beetle was upgraded, regaining some of the features that were removed in 1971. In addition, the 2-speed ventilation fan was included, previously available in North America only on the larger Beetle. The automatic stickshift option was discontinued as well.

 

1977 models received new front seats with separate head restraints. This was the final model year for the Beetle sedan in North America. The convertible was offered in a Champagne Edition in triple white with the padded deluxe steering wheel, burled elm-grain dash trim and (110 mm wide sport wheels. Approximately 1,000 Champagne Editions were produced.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The Lamborghini Diablo is a high-performance mid-engined sports car that was built by Italian automaker Lamborghini between 1990 and 2001. It was the first Lamborghini capable of attaining a top speed in excess of 200 miles per hour (320 km/h). After the end of its production run in 2001, the Diablo was replaced by the Lamborghini Murciélago. Diablo is "devil" in Spanish, which is diavolo in Italian.

 

History of development

 

At a time when the company was financed by the Swiss-based Mimran brothers, Lamborghini began development of what was codenamed Project 132 in June 1985 as a replacement for the Countach model. The brief stated that its top speed had to be at least 315 km/h (196 mph).

 

The design of the car was contracted to Marcello Gandini, who had designed its two predecessors. When Chrysler bought the company in 1987, providing money to complete its development, its management was uncomfortable with Gandini’s designs and commissioned its design team in Detroit to execute a third extensive redesign, smoothing out the trademark sharp edges and corners of Gandini's original design, and leaving him famously unimpressed. In fact, Gandini was so disappointed with the "softened" shape that he would later realize his original design in the Cizeta-Moroder V16T.

 

The car became known as the Diablo, carrying on Lamborghini's tradition of naming its cars after breeds of fighting bull. The Diablo was named after a ferocious bull raised by the Duke of Veragua in the 19th century, famous for fighting an epic battle with 'El Chicorro' in Madrid on July 11, 1869. In the words of Top Gear presenter Jeremy Clarkson, the Diablo was designed "solely to be the biggest head-turner in the world."

 

The development is believed to have cost a total of 6 billion Italian lira.

 

Diablo VT Roadster

 

1995-1998 Lamborghini Diablo VT Roadster

 

The Diablo VT Roadster was introduced in December 1995 and featured an electrically operated carbon fiber targa top which was stored above the engine lid when not in use. Besides the roof, the roadster's body was altered from the fixed-top VT model in a number of ways. The front bumper was revised, replacing the quad rectangular driving lamps with two rectangular and two round units. The brake cooling ducts were moved inboard of the driving lamps and changed to a straked design, while the rear ducts featured the vertical painted design seen on the SE30.

 

The engine lid was changed substantially in order to vent properly when the roof panel was covering it. The roadster also featured revised 17 inch wheels. The air intakes on top/sides were made larger than the coupe Diablos. In 1998 the wheels have been updated to 18 inch, and the engine power raised to 530 HP by adding the variable valve timing system. Top speed specification was raised to 335 km/h (208 mph).

 

In 1999 the dashboard received a major optical update by Audi, and the pop-up headlights were replaced by fixed headlights, same as for the coupés. This resulted in a better aerodynamic shape and modern optics.

 

[Text from Wikipedia]

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamborghini_Diablo

 

This Lego miniland scale Lamborghini Diablo VT Roadster has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 96th Build Challenge - The 8th Birthday, titled - 'Happy Crazy Eight Birthday, LUGNuts' - where all previous build challenges are available to build to. This model is built to the LUGNuts 92nd build challenge, - "Stuck in the 90s" featuring vehicles from the decade of the 1990s

The E24 BMW 6 Series coupé was produced/sold by German automaker BMW (Bayerische Motoren Werke) from 1976 to 1988 (1989 in the US) model years. After a 16-year hiatus, the 6-Series reappeared with the 2004 E63 6 Series.

 

Model history

 

The E24 was a replacement for the CS and CSL coupés first produced in 1965. The 3.0 CS was almost changed by adding a few centimeters in height to make it easier for customers to get into the car. However, Bob Lutz rebelled against the decision and rough drafted an alternative version that soon became the 6 series. Production started in March 1976 with two models: the 630 CS and 633 CSi. Originally the bodies were manufactured by Karmann, but production was later taken in-house to BMW.

 

In July 1978 a more powerful variant, the 635 CSi, was introduced (for the time being not available in North America and Japan) that featured as standard a special close-ratio 5-speed gearbox and a single piece black rear spoiler. The bigger bore and shorter stroke facilitated max 218 hp at 5200rpm and a better torque curve. For the first year, the 635 CSi was offered in three colors (Polaris, Henna Red, Graphite), and could also be spotted by the front air dam that did not have attached fog lights. These simple cosmetic changes reportedly worked to reduce uplift on the car at high speeds by almost 15% over the non-spoiler body shape. This early model shared suspension components with the inaugural BMW 5-series, the E12.

 

In 1979 the carburetted 630 CS was replaced with the 628 CSi; this car had a fuel injected 2.8L engine taken from the BMW 528i.

 

In 1980 the 635 CSi gained the central locking system that is also controlled from the trunk. Also, the E24 body style converted from L-jetronic injection to a Bosch Motronic DME.

 

In 1982 (Europe) and 1983 (US), the E24 changed slightly in appearance, with an improved interior and slightly modified exterior. At the same time, the 635 CSi received a new engine, a slightly smaller-bored and longer-stroked 3430 cc six to replace the former 3453 cc engine and became available with a wide-ratio 5-speed manual or an automatic.

 

1984–86 BMW 635 CSi

 

This slight change in 1982 (Europe) was in fact a major change as pre-1982 cars were based on the E12 5-series chassis; after mid-1982, e24s shared the improved E28 5-series chassis. The only parts that remained the same were some of the exterior body panels. This fact can be verified by studying the parts lists.

 

E24s produced after June 1987 came with new, ellipsoid headlamps which projects beam more directly onto road surface (newly introduced E32 7-series also sporting them). The sleeker European bumpers were also discontinued. Previous cars had either a European-standard bumper or a larger, reinforced bumper to meet the US standard requiring bumpers to withstand impact at 5 mph (8 km/h) without damage to safety-related components. 1989 was the last year for the E24 with production stopping in April. The E24 was supplanted by the considerably heavier, more complex, and more exclusive 8 Series (E31).

 

M version

 

BMW Motorsport introduced the M 635 CSi in Europe at the Frankfurt Motor Show in 1983. It is essentially an E24 powered by the powerplant of the BMW M1 - the M88 (286 PS (210 kW; 282 hp)). Most of the cars were equipped with special metric 415 mm diameter wheels requiring Michelin TRX tires. A catalyzed, lower compression ratio version of the car with the S38 engine (260 PS (190 kW; 260 hp)) was introduced in the U.S. in 1987. All M6 cars came standard with a 25% rear limited slip differential. U.S. models included additional comforts that were usually optional on models sold in Europe such as Nappa leather power seats and a dedicated rear A/C unit with a center beverage chiller. Car and Driver tested a U.S. M6 in July 1987 and achieved a 0-60 time of 6.1 seconds, better than the BMW published 6.4 and 6.8 second times for the European and U.S. versions respectively. 4,088 M 635 CSi cars were built between 1983 and 1988 with 1,767 U.S. M6 built.

 

[Text from Wikipedia]

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW_6_Series_(E24)

 

This Lego miniland scale BMW e24 633 CSi Coupe has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 96th Build Challenge - The 8th Birthday, titled - 'Happy Crazy Eight Birthday, LUGNuts' - where all previous build challenges are available to build to. This model is built to the LUGNuts 56th build challenge, - &quotPlain Jane" - a two-part design challenge commencing with a standard vehicle, followed by challenge 57 "From Mild to Wild" - where the car is modified into something wilder.

 

The Renault 5 (also called the R5) was a supermini produced by the French automaker Renault in two generations between 1972 and 1996. It was sold in many markets, usually as the Renault 5 and in North America as Le Car, from 1976 to 1986. Nearly 5.5 million Renault 5s were built.

The second generation Renault 5, often referred to as the Supercinq or Superfive, appeared in 1985. Although the bodyshell and chassis were completely new (the platform was based on that of the Renault 9/11), familiar 5 styling trademarks were retained; styling was the work of Marcello Gandini. The new body was wider and longer featuring 20 percent more glass area and more interior space, with a lower drag coefficient (0.35), as well as 57.4 mpg-US (4.10 L/100 km; 68.9 mpg-imp) at 55 miles per hour (89 km/h) in the economy models.[10] The biggest change was the adoption of a transversely-mounted powertrain taken directly from the 9 and 11, plus a less sophisticated suspension design, which used MacPherson struts.

Second Generation Renault 5 with 5-doors

Second Generation Renault 5 with 3-doors

The Renault Express, a panel van version of the Second Generation Renault 5

 

The second-generation R5 also spawned a panel van version, known as the Renault Express. It was commercialized in some European countries as the Renault Extra (UK) or Renault Rapid (mainly German speaking countries). This car was intended to replace the R4 F6 panel van, production of which had ceased in 1986.

 

A "hot hatch" version, the GT Turbo, was a car beloved of boy racers through the 1980s and 1990s. Sporting 115 PS (85 kW; 113 hp) in the Phase 1, the Phase 2 GT Turbo later brought 5 extra horsepower to the table, a slightly altered torque band and higher reliability. Coming from a simple 1397 cc OHV engine, this was considered quite a feat. Due to strict emission demands in certain European countries, the GT Turbo was not available everywhere. Because of this Renault decided to use the naturally aspirated 1.7 L from the Renault 11/9, which utilized multipoint fuel injection. Under the name GTE, it produced 95 PS (70 kW; 94 hp). Although not as fast as the turbo model, it featured the same interior and exterior appearance, as well as identical suspension and brakes. The Baccara and GTX versions also used the 1.7 engine - the former sporting a full leather interior, power steering, electric windows, sunroof, high specification audio equipment and as extras air-conditioning and On-Board Computer. The latter was effectively the same but the leather interior was an option and there were other detail changes

 

The model was starting to show its age by 1990, when it was effectively replaced by the more modern and better-built Clio, which was an instant sales success across Europe. Production of the R5 was transferred to the Revoz factory in Slovenia when the Clio was launched, and it remained on sale as a budget choice called the Campus until the car's 24-year production run finally came to an end in 1996. The Campus name was revived in 2005 with the Renault Clio II

United States.

British automaker Bentley was founded in 1919 by W.O.Bentley. The company was well respected for its racing success.

In 1924, Bentley decided to build a larger chassis than the 3 Litre that would be more suitable for the large, heavy bodies that many of his customers wanted. Two models were introduced;

1926-30 regular Bentley 6½ Litre (362 produced).

1928-30 high-performance Bentley Speed Six (182 produced).

The 1927-31 Bentley 4½ litre was available at the same time, having less power, was a lot safer on the road.

The Bentley 3 litre won Le Mans in 1924 and 1927

The Bentley 4½ litre won Le Mans in 1928

The Bentley 6½ litre Speed Six won Le Mans in 1929 and 1930.

Engine; 147hp 6500cc in line 6 cyl (180hp Speed Six)

Cussler Museum, Colorado, USA

The E24 BMW 6 Series coupé was produced/sold by German automaker BMW (Bayerische Motoren Werke) from 1976 to 1988 (1989 in the US) model years. After a 16-year hiatus, the 6-Series reappeared with the 2004 E63 6 Series.

 

Model history

 

The E24 was a replacement for the CS and CSL coupés first produced in 1965. The 3.0 CS was almost changed by adding a few centimeters in height to make it easier for customers to get into the car. However, Bob Lutz rebelled against the decision and rough drafted an alternative version that soon became the 6 series. Production started in March 1976 with two models: the 630 CS and 633 CSi. Originally the bodies were manufactured by Karmann, but production was later taken in-house to BMW.

 

In July 1978 a more powerful variant, the 635 CSi, was introduced (for the time being not available in North America and Japan) that featured as standard a special close-ratio 5-speed gearbox and a single piece black rear spoiler. The bigger bore and shorter stroke facilitated max 218 hp at 5200rpm and a better torque curve. For the first year, the 635 CSi was offered in three colors (Polaris, Henna Red, Graphite), and could also be spotted by the front air dam that did not have attached fog lights. These simple cosmetic changes reportedly worked to reduce uplift on the car at high speeds by almost 15% over the non-spoiler body shape. This early model shared suspension components with the inaugural BMW 5-series, the E12.

 

In 1979 the carburetted 630 CS was replaced with the 628 CSi; this car had a fuel injected 2.8L engine taken from the BMW 528i.

 

In 1980 the 635 CSi gained the central locking system that is also controlled from the trunk. Also, the E24 body style converted from L-jetronic injection to a Bosch Motronic DME.

 

In 1982 (Europe) and 1983 (US), the E24 changed slightly in appearance, with an improved interior and slightly modified exterior. At the same time, the 635 CSi received a new engine, a slightly smaller-bored and longer-stroked 3430 cc six to replace the former 3453 cc engine and became available with a wide-ratio 5-speed manual or an automatic.

 

1984–86 BMW 635 CSi

 

This slight change in 1982 (Europe) was in fact a major change as pre-1982 cars were based on the E12 5-series chassis; after mid-1982, e24s shared the improved E28 5-series chassis. The only parts that remained the same were some of the exterior body panels. This fact can be verified by studying the parts lists.

 

E24s produced after June 1987 came with new, ellipsoid headlamps which projects beam more directly onto road surface (newly introduced E32 7-series also sporting them). The sleeker European bumpers were also discontinued. Previous cars had either a European-standard bumper or a larger, reinforced bumper to meet the US standard requiring bumpers to withstand impact at 5 mph (8 km/h) without damage to safety-related components. 1989 was the last year for the E24 with production stopping in April. The E24 was supplanted by the considerably heavier, more complex, and more exclusive 8 Series (E31).

 

M version

 

BMW Motorsport introduced the M 635 CSi in Europe at the Frankfurt Motor Show in 1983. It is essentially an E24 powered by the powerplant of the BMW M1 - the M88 (286 PS (210 kW; 282 hp)). Most of the cars were equipped with special metric 415 mm diameter wheels requiring Michelin TRX tires. A catalyzed, lower compression ratio version of the car with the S38 engine (260 PS (190 kW; 260 hp)) was introduced in the U.S. in 1987. All M6 cars came standard with a 25% rear limited slip differential. U.S. models included additional comforts that were usually optional on models sold in Europe such as Nappa leather power seats and a dedicated rear A/C unit with a center beverage chiller. Car and Driver tested a U.S. M6 in July 1987 and achieved a 0-60 time of 6.1 seconds, better than the BMW published 6.4 and 6.8 second times for the European and U.S. versions respectively. 4,088 M 635 CSi cars were built between 1983 and 1988 with 1,767 U.S. M6 built.

 

[Text from Wikipedia]

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW_6_Series_(E24)

 

This Lego miniland scale BMW e24 633 CSi Coupe has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 96th Build Challenge - The 8th Birthday, titled - 'Happy Crazy Eight Birthday, LUGNuts' - where all previous build challenges are available to build to. This model is built to the LUGNuts 56th build challenge, - &quotPlain Jane" - a two-part design challenge commencing with a standard vehicle, followed by challenge 57 "From Mild to Wild" - where the car is modified into something wilder.

 

The BMW New Class (German: Neue Klasse) was a line of compact sedans and coupes produced by German automaker BMW starting with the 1962 1500 and continuing through the last 2002s in 1977.

 

Powered by BMW's celebrated four-cylinder M10 engine, the New Class models featured a fully independent suspension, MacPherson struts in front, and front disc brakes. Initially a family of four-door sedans and two-door coupes, the New Class line was broadened to two-door sports sedans with the addition of the 02 Series 1600 and 2002 in 1966.

 

Sharing little in common with the rest of the line beyond the power train, the sporty siblings caught auto enthusiasts' attention and established BMW as an international brand. Precursors to the famed BMW 3 Series, the two-doors' success cemented the firm's future as an upper tier performance car maker.

 

New Class four-doors with numbers ending in "0" were replaced by the larger BMW 5 Series in 1972. The upscale 2000C and 2000CS coupes were replaced by the six-cylinder BMW E9, introduced in 1969 with the 2800CS. The 1600 two-door was discontinued in 1975, the 2002 replaced by the 320i in 1975.

 

The "regular" 100 hp 2000 sedan appeared a year after the 2000C. It was sold from 1966 through 1972. Intended as an upscale version of the 1800, the 2000 featured distinct wide taillights, more exterior trim, and unique rectangular headlights. The American market 2000 sedans could not have the rectangular headlights due to government regulations. A different grille with four individual round headlights, similar to the design that BMW later used in the 2500 sedan, was offered in the US.

 

A 2000TI model, similar to the 1800TI, was built with twin Solex side-draft carburetors with 120 hp (89 kW). However, the 2000TI retained the '1800' taillights and headlights. A more luxurious 2000tilux featured the sporty TI engine, a wood dashboard, and optional leather seats. In a 1967 test, Road & Track felt that the 2000 sedan was "the best performing 2-liter sedan in today's market and the best handling and best riding as well." The 'tilux produced 135 hp (101 kW) and 123 lb·ft (167 N·m) gross.

 

Finally, the 2000tii ('touring international, injected') was BMW's first fuel-injected model, featuring a higher-compression 2.0L engine and Kugelfischer brand mechanical fuel injection that later found its way into the 2002 Turbo and other models. 1,922 2000tii cars were built of this final New Class sedan model.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

- - -

 

Die „Neue Klasse“ (interner Code 115, Modellvarianten 116 (1600), 118 (1800), 120 (2000 C/CS) Coupé, 121 (2000/tii)) des Autoherstellers BMW wurde auf der IAA 1961 vorgestellt. Sie war die erste Mittelklasse-Baureihe nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg und füllte die Lücke zwischen dem Rollermobil Isetta bzw. dem Kleinwagen BMW 700 und dem Oberklasse-Modell BMW 501/502.

 

Rückblickend formulierte „Der SPIEGEL“ 1965, BMW habe 1959 nur Autos für „Generaldirektoren und Tagelöhner“ gebaut. Die Lücke, die der insolvente Borgward-Konzern mit der verblichenen Isabella hinterlassen hatte, konnte BMW geschickt ausfüllen. Es gab damals auch die spöttische Auslegung der Abkürzung BMW: „Borgward macht weiter“. Die „Neue Klasse“ wurde bis 1972 produziert, und danach von der ersten Generation des BMW 5er, dem E12, abgelöst.

 

Sechs Monate nach der Präsentation des Coupés 2000 CA (Typ 121) erschien Anfang 1966 die viertürige Limousine 2000 (Typ 120) mit gegenüber dem 1800 leicht verändertem Design: Statt einfacher Rundscheinwerfer vorne hatte sie breitere, rechteckige Scheinwerfer, ebenso größere Rückleuchten. Ab Mitte 1966 gab es auch eine sportlichere Variante 2000 TI mit 120 PS, die allerdings dasselbe Design (also Rundscheinwerfer, schmale Heckleuchten) wie der 1800 TI hatte, und eine luxuriöser ausgestattete Variante 2000 TI-lux (später „tilux“) mit demselben Motor. Der tilux wurde Ende 1969 durch den 2000 tii mit dem ersten Einspritzer-Motor von BMW mit 130 PS abgelöst. Das zweite „i“ steht für die verwendete mechanische Kugelfischer-Benzineinspritzung ("injection").

 

(Wikipedia)

The Ford GT began as a concept car designed in anticipation of the automaker's centennial year and as part of its drive to showcase and revive its "heritage" names such as Mustang and Thunderbird. At the 1995 Detroit Auto Show, the Ford GT90 concept was shown. At the 2002 auto show, Ford unveiled a new GT40 Concept car. Camilo Pardo, the head of Ford's "Living Legends" studio, is credited as the chief designer of the GT and worked under the guidance of J Mays. Carroll Shelby was brought in by Ford to help develop the Ford GT; which included performance testing of the prototype car. While the project was still secret, it was called Petunia.

 

The GT is similar in outward appearance to the original Ford GT40 cars, but bigger, wider, and most importantly 3 in (76 mm) taller than the original 40 in (100 cm); as a result, a potential name for the car was the GT43. Although the cars are visually related, structurally, there is no similarity between the modern GT and the 1960s GT40 that inspired it. Three production prototype cars were shown in 2003 as part of Ford's centenary, and delivery of the production Ford GT began in the fall of 2004.

 

A British company, Safir Engineering, who built continuation GT40s in the 1980s, owned the "GT40" trademark at that time. When they completed production, they sold the excess parts, tooling, design, and trademark to a small Ohio company called Safir GT40 Spares. This company licensed the use of the "GT40" trademark to Ford for the initial 2002 show car. When Ford decided to make the production vehicle, negotiations between the two firms failed. The production cars do not wear the GT40 badge.The GT was produced in model years 2005 and 2006, with the first customers taking delivery in August 2004. The GT began assembly at Mayflower Vehicle Systems in Norwalk, Ohio and was painted by Saleen in their Saleen Special Vehicles facility in Troy, Michigan. The GT is powered by an engine built at Ford's Romeo Engine Plant in Romeo, Michigan. Installation of the engine and manual transmission along with interior finishing was handled in the SVT building at Ford's Wixom, Michigan plant.

 

Of the 4,500 GTs originally planned, approximately 100 were to be exported to Europe, starting in late 2005. An additional 200 were destined for sale in Canada. Production ended in 2006 without reaching the planned lot. Approximately 550 were built in 2004, nearly 1,900 in 2005, and just over 1,600 in 2006, for a grand total of 4,038. The final 11 car bodies manufactured by Mayflower Vehicle Systems were disassembled, and the frames and body panels were sold as service parts.

 

As with many exotic vehicles, when the Ford GT was first released, the demand outpaced supply, and the cars initially sold for premium prices. The first private sale of Ford's new mid-engine sports car was completed on August 4, 2004, when former Microsoft executive Jon Shirley took delivery of his Midnight Blue 2005 Ford GT.[2] Shirley earned the right to purchase the first production Ford GT (chassis #10) at a charity auction at the Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance Auction after bidding over $557,000.[3]

 

A few other early cars sold for as much as a US$100,000 premium over the suggested retail price of $139,995 (Ford increased the MSRP to $149,995 on July 1, 2005).[4] Optional equipment available included a McIntosh sound system, racing stripes, painted brake calipers, and forged alloy wheels adding an additional $13,500 to the MSRP.[5]

 

The production run of 4,038 GTs ended the 2006 model year on September 21, 2006, short of the originally planned 4,500.[6] The Wixom Assembly Plant has stopped production of all models as of May 31, 2007.[7] Sales of the GT continued into 2007, from cars held in storage and in dealer inventories. During the GT's lifetime, the car was featured on the cover of the video game Gran Turismo 4.

 

The GT won Top Gear's Gas Guzzler of the Year award in 2005.

  

For the 2010 model year, the Shelby Mustang GT500 was redesigned along with the base Ford Mustang. As with the 2007–09 GT500, the 2010 includes unique front and rear fascias, hood with functional vents and unique rear spoiler. The rear spoiler includes a functional Gurney flap. Along with new exterior colors, customers have the option of extending the exterior stripes onto the seats. Production was limited to 2000 units.[30]

 

The 5.4 L engines's power output was increased to 540 horsepower (403 kW) and 510 lb·ft (690 N·m) of torque with the addition of a cold air intake similar to the 08/09 GT500KR and includes a knock sensor to protect the engine if lower octane fuel is used. The 2010 GT500's fuel efficiency increased by 2 miles per gallon.[31]

 

SVT re-tuned the coupe's suspension and worked with Goodyear on 19" tires with new construction, compound and tread pattern. The coupe's 19" wheels are forged for a reduction in unsprung weight. The convertible retained the 18" wheels.

2011 Shelby GT500 Coinciding with the 45th anniversary of the original 1965 Shelby GT350, Shelby American unveiled an all new GT350 Mustang at the opening night gala of the Barrett-Jackson auction in Scottsdale, AZ. Presented in concept form, the new GT350 features a supercharged version of the brand new 5.0-liter V8 engine in the 2011 Mustang GT as well as performance upgrades from Ford Racing, Borla, Cragar, Baer and more.

 

The GT350 is a post-title upgrade available from Shelby. Customers can have their 2011 Mustangs shipped directly to Shelby's Las Vegas facility to be converted or they can deliver the car themselves. Automatics will be available for conversion as a naturally aspirated tune producing up to 440 horsepower, and manuals have the option of NA or fitted with a Ford Racing supercharger to produce 525 horsepower, or at the expense of the warranty, 624 horsepower, a Ford Racing suspension system (The first 100 are being fitted with the Eibach suspension carried over from the GT500 Supersnake), Baer brakes in front and optional in rear, Custom Borla exhaust system, 19" Cragar wheels, and more. For the exterior, Shelby fits a new front fascia, front splitter, functional hood scoop, functional brake cooling ducts, tail light trim, rear deck lid filler panel, and a rear fascia with center exhaust exit. Performance White with Guardsman Blue racing stripes will be the only available color combination for 2011 models. 2012 models will be available in other colors, but will lose the 45th Anniversary badge of the 2011.

 

Initial road tests of the GT350 by Motor Trend show impressive statistics. The 2011 Shelby GT350 hits 60 mph (97 km/h) in 3.7 seconds.,[37] compared to the 412 horsepower 2011 Mustang GT's time of 4.4 seconds.[37] The 2011 GT500 needs 4.2 seconds to get to 60 mph (97 km/h) and even the Shelby Super Snake with 750 hp (559 kW) still takes 4.1 seconds. Weight difference isn't a factor to blame for the better performance than the GT500, considering the GT350 is only a mere 24 pounds lighter than the newly lightened GT500.[37]

 

The GT350's quarter mile time is 12 seconds flat at 121.4 mph (195.4 km/h). This means the 2011 Shelby GT350 was the fastest production Mustang in the Shelby history.[37]

Think French automakers, and you think Peugeot, Renault and Citroen. For a great many years these three marques have dominated French sales and production.

 

France though, has a long history of car making, innovation, styling and coachbuilding. Unfortunately, like in many countries, most of this activity was severely hampered by WWII, and what was left struggled to find their feet in the 1950s and 1960s.

 

France, now part of the common European market, was more isolationist in the 1950s. If you wanted to sell cars in France you probably had to build cars in France. For a car-maker like Ford, this meant a French manufacturing arm combined with a design and engineering centre - Ford of France. Contrary to popular modern wisdom, Ford of France models were significantly different to those made in Germany and England - the two other large European car markets. Ultimately the market forces and logic corrected this oversight, and Ford of France's assets were sold to rival Simca in 1954.

 

Prior to this date though, Ford France produced this gem, the Comète. The Comète was based on the platform of the Ford Vedette, a range of cars bearing a resemblance to a 8/10ths scale Mercury from 1948. The Comète deployed a shorter wheelbase, and used the Vedette's Aquilon V8 engine, first at 2.2 litres (1951), 2.4 litres (1952) and switched to the Ford truck Mistral V8 of 3.9 litres for 1953-1954. The Mistral provided a big uplift in power and torque, but was ill-favoured due to its commercial vehicle roots, and secondly, the taxation regime for automobiles in France had strong disincentive for engine capacities over 2.0 litres.

 

Of further interest, the Comète had its body built by the Facel concern, who would later go on to make their own high-end luxury cars using large capacity Chrysler V8s (the Facel Vega).

 

In all, this is a handsome car, and very powerful for the period. The car is rare, and surviving examples have a strong following.

 

Read more on wikipedia:

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Com%C3%A8te

 

This Lego Miniland-scale 1954 Ford Comète Monte Carlo has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 115th Build Challenge, - "The French Connection", - for cars from France.

  

Think French automakers, and you think Peugeot, Renault and Citroen. For a great many years these three marques have dominated French sales and production.

 

France though, has a long history of car making, innovation, styling and coachbuilding. Unfortunately, like in many countries, most of this activity was severely hampered by WWII, and what was left struggled to find their feet in the 1950s and 1960s.

 

France, now part of the common European market, was more isolationist in the 1950s. If you wanted to sell cars in France you probably had to build cars in France. For a car-maker like Ford, this meant a French manufacturing arm combined with a design and engineering centre - Ford of France. Contrary to popular modern wisdom, Ford of France models were significantly different to those made in Germany and England - the two other large European car markets. Ultimately the market forces and logic corrected this oversight, and Ford of France's assets were sold to rival Simca in 1954.

 

Prior to this date though, Ford France produced this gem, the Comète. The Comète was based on the platform of the Ford Vedette, a range of cars bearing a resemblance to a 8/10ths scale Mercury from 1948. The Comète deployed a shorter wheelbase, and used the Vedette's Aquilon V8 engine, first at 2.2 litres (1951), 2.4 litres (1952) and switched to the Ford truck Mistral V8 of 3.9 litres for 1953-1954. The Mistral provided a big uplift in power and torque, but was ill-favoured due to its commercial vehicle roots, and secondly, the taxation regime for automobiles in France had strong disincentive for engine capacities over 2.0 litres.

 

Of further interest, the Comète had its body built by the Facel concern, who would later go on to make their own high-end luxury cars using large capacity Chrysler V8s (the Facel Vega).

 

In all, this is a handsome car, and very powerful for the period. The car is rare, and surviving examples have a strong following.

 

Read more on wikipedia:

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Com%C3%A8te

 

This Lego Miniland-scale 1954 Ford Comète Monte Carlo has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 115th Build Challenge, - "The French Connection", - for cars from France.

  

BUYER'S GUIDE

 

REAL GRAND TOURING:

ITALY TO ENGLAND IN A MASERATI LEVANTE

 

July 11, 2017

 

As we headed deep into the Jura Mountains through Switzerland into the heart of France, I wondered what Adolfo Orsi would have made of the Maserati Levante. The Maserati brothers—Alfieri, Bindo, Carlo, Ettore, and Ernesto—of course founded the automaker that bears their name. But it was self-made industrialist and machine tool magnate Orsi, after buying the company from the brothers in 1937 and moving it from Bologna to Modena, who in 1957 launched its first volume-produced gran turismo, the 3500 GT. Orsi loved racing cars. He loved big, fast, elegant road cars. Could he imagine an SUV wearing the iconic trident badge?

 

Orsi would have understood the economics of the Levante. The SUV with a premium badge is a business strategy that’s proven hugely successful for Porsche, which uses profits from the Cayenne and Macan SUVs to fund ongoing development of its sports cars. Premium brands from Bentley to Jaguar to Lamborghini to Rolls-Royce are now following the Porsche model and jumping on the SUV bandwagon; there are even rumors Ferrari is working on an SUV based on next-generation GTC4Lusso hardware.

 

The 3500 GT didn’t stop Maserati from skidding into financial crisis in 1958 after a $3 million deal to supply machine tools to Argentina fell apart with the ousting of dictator Juan Perón. But almost 60 years later, in a world where demand for big GTs is finite and buyers are turning away from sedans, no matter how exotic the badge, the newly launched Levante is already doing the heavy lifting at Maserati, accounting for 38 percent of sales in the U.S. for the first six months of this year. It’s on track to become the company’s best-selling model worldwide. But is it good enough to secure Maserati’s future?

 

To find out, we start in Modena, where Maserati, operating out of a modern glass-curtained structure in front of the factory built by Orsi in the late 1930s, still calls home. This is where the GranTurismo and GranCabrio—both mildly tweaked for the 2018 model year with a new grille and front fascia, an upgraded interior that includes a new infotainment system, and the adoption of the 456-hp and 384-lb-ft version of the 4.7-liter V-8 as standard—are still assembled. After a perfunctory introduction to the Levante, we head out of the courtyard and into the Modena morning traffic. Our first stop is 180 miles to the west, at the Mirafiori factory in Turin, where Maserati’s SUV is made.

 

The E35 autostrada running past Modena is busy and littered with speed cameras, so we run at no more than 85–90 mph, slowing to 80 as we go under the camera gantries. It’s quieter with fewer cameras after we turn onto the E70 toward Turin, and we pick up the pace. The Levante cruises effortlessly at 100 mph, the 424-hp 3.0-liter twin-turbo V-6 under the hood of our S-spec version turning a relaxed 2,400 rpm. It’s a deceptively potent powerplant, this engine, building speed with an elastic surge rather than a sledgehammer shove. At one point the big Maserati is loafing along at an indicated 140 mph.

 

Orsi, whose best Maserati road cars effortlessly ate up highway miles at triple-digit speeds, would have approved.

 

He would have approved, too, of the fact the Levante is made in Italy. That wasn’t the original plan: The Kubang concept that previewed the Levante in 2011 (itself a rework of a 2003 Maserati SUV concept also called Kubang designed by Giugiaro) was originally intended to be based on Jeep Grand Cherokee hardware and built in the U.S. The idea made sense to FCA boss Sergio Marchionne, a razor-sharp financial engineer with little time for the sentimental side of the auto biz. But common sense—and a labor deal with workers in Turin—prevailed, and Levante production was switched to the giant Fiat Mirafiori plant. The Jeep hardware idea went away, too: The Levante rolls on a modified version of the platform that underpins the Quattroporte and Ghibli sedans.

 

Mirafiori is a steel and concrete metaphor for the decline of Fiat as a major automaker. Construction of the factory was started in 1937 to replace the quirky plant a few miles away at Lingotto, where the production line spiraled slowly upward from the ground floor, with completed cars being tested on a rooftop track. That scene in the movie The Italian Job where the three Minis are chased around what looks like a banked NASCAR oval someone built six stories up? Filmed on the roof at Lingotto.

 

In its pomp Mirafiori was the largest industrial complex in Italy and one of the largest auto factories ever built. Sprawling across almost 1,000 acres, with 25 miles of production lines, at its peak it employed 50,000 workers and could build 5,000 cars a day. This year it will build less than one-twentieth that number. Large swathes of Mirafiori are quietly rusting and crumbling, but the area of the plant that’s been refurbished to build the Levante, adjacent to the line for the slow-selling Alfa Romeo MiTo compact, is bright, airy, and gleaming—the very model of a modern auto factory.

 

With 13 available exterior colors, 28 interior color combinations, three available engines—345-hp and 424-hp versions of the gasoline V-6, plus the 271-hp VM Motori 3.0-liter turbodiesel V-6—wheels ranging from 18 inches to 21 inches, and various market-specific pieces of hardware to meet regulations and customer preferences in places as diverse as Shanghai, Seattle, and San Marino, Maserati says it is possible to build 1,583,090,535,606 different variants of the Levante. With production currently pegged at 140 a day, it’s going to take them a long, long time. …

 

The St. Bernard Pass, north of Turin, near the top end of the Aosta Valley, is sports car country. The tarmac squirms and wiggles up and over the third-highest mountain pass in Switzerland, placing a premium on grip and agility, power and torque. The Levante is no sports car, but it has 50/50 front to rear weight distribution and what Maserati claims is the lowest center of gravity in its class. As the road twists and turns, our S model, on the 20-inch wheel/tire combination, offers decent levels of front-end bite, and the mechanical rear differential, working in combination with the all-wheel-drive system that sends 100 percent of the torque to the rear axle until front wheel slip is detected, helps punch the big Maserati out of tight corners. With 428 lb-ft on tap from 1,750 rpm to 5,000 rpm, the twin-turbo V-6 makes impressively light work the Levante’s 4,650-pound heft.

 

If the Levante cost the same per pound as beluga caviar, it would be priced at almost $20 million. I only know this because our dinner in Geneva after the run down from the St. Bernard Pass, hosted by Caviar House & Prunier’s Jean-Pierre Esmilaire, featured some of the company’s finest beluga, straight from a 4-pound tin that apparently retails for about $17,000. That’s a lot of money for fish eggs, no matter how rare the fish or how tasty the eggs. A Levante S specified to a similar level as the one we’re driving would retail for about $95,000 in the U.S., or roughly five-and-a-half 4-pound tins of Caviar House & Prunier beluga. In that context, it’s a value. Back in the real world, it’s merely competitive, retailing Stateside for about the same money as a similarly configured Porsche Cayenne S.

 

Whether it’s caviar or cars, much of what makes a modern luxury brand is carefully managed scarcity combined with a compelling backstory. Maserati has the compelling backstory, starring legendary cars such as Bora, Khamsin, Kyalami and the original Ghibli, with supporting roles from Wilbur Shaw’s back-to-back wins in the 8CTF at the 1939 and 1940 Indy 500s, and a World Formula 1 Championship in 1957 with Juan-Manuel Fangio at the wheel of the glorious 250F, still one of the most beautiful front-engine racing cars ever built.

 

It should have the scarcity, too. Even with Levante in full production—right-hand-drive markets are only now just getting the gasoline engine versions, and a V-8 powered model is reportedly in the wings—company boss Reid Bigland says there is no plan to retail more than 75,000 Maseratis a year. We’ll see if that number holds. Sergio Marchionne certainly won’t back away from the opportunity to sell more high-margin Maseratis if sales of low-margin Fiats and Dodges stutter, and given the fact Porsche last year sold more than 237,000 vehicles worldwide, it would seem he has plenty of headroom to expand the Maserati brand’s footprint without compromising its exclusive image.

 

It comes as no surprise to learn Porsche’s Cayenne was the benchmark against which the Levante was developed, and as we switch back and forth between back roads and autoroutes through Switzerland and France, passing through the heart of Champagne country en route to Calais, there’s time to reflect on how close the Maserati team came to its target.

 

The Levante is an inch narrower than the Porsche, but it rolls on a 4-inch-longer wheelbase. That doesn’t quite translate into the interior room the raw numbers suggest, however, because the Maserati’s dash-to-axle is much more extravagant than the Porsche’s. The Levante doesn’t feel quite as big inside as you’d expect.

 

The Italian twin-turbo V-6 has near identical power and slightly more torque than its German counterpart, and it delivers both with a touch more brio. Both cars have eight-speed automatics with paddle shifters, and here the edge goes to the more maturely calibrated Cayenne transmission. In Sport mode the shifts in the Maserati thump home hard—simply, engineers admit, to impress customers who think that’s how a sports car should be. It’s unnecessary. So, too, is the overly melodramatic snarl from the exhaust.

 

Maserati opted to make air suspension standard across the Levante range, and it was the right call. It enables the ride height to be raised for off-road work and lowered for high-speed freeway running, with five different settings available across a 3.3-inch range. In Sport mode the primary ride is plusher than in the Cayenne, though with the 20-inch wheel/tire setup, the secondary ride can be jittery on broken surfaces. Normal mode ups the comfort level, but there’s more secondary body motion than in, say, a Range Rover Sport, and the diagonal and side-to-side pitching isn’t as well controlled. And although the steering is accurate, there’s not the feedback you want. It all adds up to a chassis that, though fundamentally precise and predictable, can leave the driver feeling oddly detached on occasion.

 

It’s best to drive the Levante like a gran turismo rather than try and hustle it like a sports car. Off the freeways I liked it with the engine and suspension in Normal mode and the transmission in manual, taking the time, as I did in the 3500 GT I once drove, to get the Levante slowed and settled and in the right gear before committing to corners, then clipping the apex and getting back on the gas nice and early. As with those big, old Maserati coupes, less haste equals more speed in the Levante.

 

En route to Calais and the train that will take us under the English Channel to Dover to begin the final leg of our journey to Goodwood and a weekend at the fabulous Festival of Speed, we make a brief stop in front of the eerily deserted pits and grandstands on either side of the busy D27 road, on what was once the start-finish straight of the old grand prix circuit just outside Reims. The first race on this fearsomely fast road course was held here in 1926, and Formula 1 cars raced here until 1966. A Maserati, driven by maestro Fangio, held the outright lap record in 1953.

 

We’ve had almost 900 miles of seat time in the Levante. That’s enough time to consider its strengths and weaknesses. There are things that can be—and need to be—fixed quickly, like the jittery secondary ride (I’d like to try a Levante on 19-inch rims and more compliant tires), the obtuse PRNDL shifter (a fundamental control interface should not be so difficult to use), and the bits and pieces in the interior that have been obviously lifted from the FCA parts bin. The infotainment system also has some strange quirks—the home screen, for example, features dozens of identically sized and colored icons that in our car seemed to change position from time to time for no apparent reason, making finding the function you wanted doubly difficult.

 

Melding the spirit of Maserati with the practicality of an SUV requires a fine balancing act, and for the most part the Levante pulls it off. It’s more than just a transfer of familiar brand iconography to an unfamiliar vehicle format; the Levante works as a Maserati because big, fast, luxurious SUVs have become the gran turismos of the 21st century, the vehicles you buy to take you and your luggage quickly and comfortably across continents, on all roads, in all weather conditions.

 

Adolfo Orsi can rest easy.

 

Article by Angus MacKenzie

 

The Volkswagen Beetle (officially the Volkswagen Type 1, informally in Germany the Volkswagen Käfer, in Poland the Volkswagen Garbus and in the U.S. the Volkswagen Bug) is a two-door, four passenger, rear-engine economy car manufactured and marketed by German automaker Volkswagen (VW) from 1938 until 2003.

 

The need for this kind of car, and its functional objectives, was formulated by the leader of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler, who wanted a cheap, simple car to be mass-produced for his country's new road network. Hitler contracted Ferdinand Porsche in 1934 to design and build it. Porsche and his team took until 1938 to finalise the design. The influence on Porsche's design of other contemporary cars, such as the Tatra V570 and the work of Josef Ganz remains a subject of dispute. The result was one of the first rear-engined cars since the Brass Era. With 21,529,464 produced, the Beetle is the longest-running and most-manufactured car of a single platform ever made.

 

Although designed in the 1930s, the Beetle was only produced in significant numbers from 1945 on (mass production had been put on hold during the Second World War) when the model was internally designated the Volkswagen Type 1, and marketed simply as the Volkswagen (or "People's Car"). Later models were designated Volkswagen 1200, 1300, 1500, 1302 or 1303, the former three indicating engine displacement, the latter two derived from the type number. The model became widely known in its home country as the Käfer (German for "beetle") and was later marketed as such in Germany, and as the Volkswagen in other countries. For example, in France it was known as the Coccinelle (French for ladybug).

 

The original 25 hp Beetle was designed for a top speed around 100 km/h, which would be a viable speed on the Reichsautobahn system. As Autobahn speeds increased in the postwar years, its output was boosted to 36, then 40 hp, the configuration that lasted through 1966 and became the "classic" Volkswagen motor. The Beetle ultimately gave rise to variants, including the Karmann Ghia, Type 2 and external coachbuilders. The Beetle marked a significant trend, led by Volkswagen, Fiat, and Renault, whereby the rear-engine, rear-wheel drive layout increased from 2.6 percent of continental Western Europe's car production in 1946 to 26.6 percent in 1956. The 1948 Citroën 2CV and other European models marked a later trend to front-wheel drive in the European small car market, a trend that would come to dominate that market. In 1974, Volkswagen's own front-wheel drive Golf model succeeded the Beetle. In 1994, Volkswagen unveiled the Concept One, a "retro"-themed concept car with a resemblance to the original Beetle, and in 1998 introduced the "New Beetle", built on the contemporary Golf platform with styling recalling the original Type 1. It remained in production through 2010, being succeeded in 2011 by the more aggressively styled Beetle (A5).

 

In the 1999 Car of the Century competition, to determine the world's most influential car in the 20th century, the Type 1 came fourth, after the Ford Model T, the Mini, and the Citroën DS.

 

HISTORY

THE PEOPLES CAR

In April 1934, Adolf Hitler gave the order to Ferdinand Porsche to develop a Volkswagen (literally, "people's car" in German, pronounced [ˈfɔlksvaːɡən]). The epithet Volks- literally, "people's-" had been applied to other Nazi-sponsored consumer goods such as the Volksempfänger ("people's radio").

 

In May 1934, at a meeting at Berlin’s Kaiserhof Hotel, Chancellor Hitler insisted on a basic vehicle that could transport two adults and three children at 100 km/h while not using more than 7 litres of fuel per 100 km (32 mpg US/39 mpg UK). The engine had to be powerful for sustained cruising on Germany’s new Autobahnen. Everything had to be designed to ensure parts could be quickly and inexpensively exchanged. The engine had to be air-cooled because, as Hitler explained, not every country doctor had his own garage (ethylene glycol antifreeze was only just beginning to be used in high-performance liquid-cooled aircraft engines. In general, radiators filled with water would freeze unless the vehicle was kept in a heated building overnight or drained and refilled each morning).

 

The "People's Car" would be available to citizens of Nazi Germany through a savings scheme, or Sparkarte (savings booklet), at 990 Reichsmark, about the price of a small motorcycle. (The average weekly income was then around 32RM.)

 

DEVELOPMENT

Ferdinand Porsche developed the Type 12, or "Auto für Jedermann" (car for everybody) for Zündapp in 1931. Porsche already preferred the flat-four engine, and selected a swing axle rear suspension (invented by Edmund Rumpler), while Zündapp insisted on a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine. In 1932, three prototypes were running. All of those cars were lost during World War II, the last in a bombing raid in Stuttgart in 1945.

 

The Zündapp prototypes were followed by the Porsche Type 32, designed in 1933 for NSU Motorenwerke AG, another motorcycle company. The Type 32 was similar in design to the Type 12, but it had a flat-four engine. NSU's exit from car manufacturing resulted in the Type 32 being abandoned at the prototype stage.

 

Initially designated Type 60 by Porsche, the design team included Erwin Komenda and Karl Rabe. In October 1935, the first two Type 60 prototypes, known as the V1 and V2 (V for Versuchswagen, or "test car"), were ready. In 1936, testing began of three further V3 prototypes, built in Porsche's Stuttgart shop. A batch of thirty W30 development models, produced for Porsche by Daimler-Benz, underwent 2,900,000 km of further testing in 1937. All cars had the distinctive round shape and the air-cooled, rear-mounted engine. Included in this batch was a rollback soft top called the Cabrio Limousine. A further batch of 44 VW38 pre-production cars produced in 1938 introduced split rear windows; both the split window and the dash were retained on production Type 1s until 1953. The VW38 cars were followed by another batch of 50 VW39 cars, completed in July 1939.

 

The car was designed to be as simple as possible mechanically. The air-cooled 25 hp (19 kW) 995 cc motors' built-in oil cooler and flat-four engine configuration's superior performance was also effective for the German Afrika Korps in Africa's desert heat. The suspension design used compact torsion bars instead of coil or leaf springs. The Beetle is nearly airtight and will briefly float.

 

THE FACTORY

On 26 May 1938, Hitler laid the cornerstone for the Volkswagen factory in Fallersleben. He gave a speech, in which he named the car Kraft-durch-Freude-Wagen ("Strength Through Joy Car", usually abbreviated to KdF-Wagen). The name refers to Kraft durch Freude ('Strength Through Joy'), the official leisure organization of Nazi Germany. The model village of Stadt des KdF-Wagens was created near Fallersleben in Lower Saxony in 1938 for the benefit of the workers at the newly built factory.

 

The factory had only produced a handful of cars by the start of the war in 1939; the first volume-produced versions of the car's chassis were military vehicles, the Type 82 Kübelwagen (approximately 52,000 built) and the amphibious Type 166 Schwimmwagen (about 14,000 built).

 

The first Beetles were produced on a small scale in 1941.

 

WARTIME PRODUCTION

A handful of KdF-Wagen (Typ 60) were produced primarily for the Nazi elite from 1941 to 1944, but production figures were small because the factories were concentrating on production of the Kübelwagen (Typ 82), the beetle for the Wehrmacht (Typ 82 E), the Schwimmwagen (Typ 166), and a handful of other variants. The factory produced another wartime vehicle: the Kommandeurswagen (Typ 87); a Beetle body mounted on a 4WD Schwimmwagen chassis. The Kommandeurswagen had widened fenders to accommodate its Kronprinz all-terrain tires. 564 Kommandeurswagen were produced up to 1944, when all production was halted because of heavy damage to the factory by Allied air raids. Much of the essential equipment had already been moved to underground bunkers for protection, which let production resume quickly after hostilities ended. Due to gasoline shortages late in the war, a few "Holzbrenner" Beetles were built powered by pyrolysis gas producers located under the front hood.

 

POST-WAR PRODUCTION AND BOOM

In occupied Germany, the Allies followed the Morgenthau plan to remove all German war potential by complete or partial pastoralization. As part of this, in the Industrial plans for Germany, the rules for which industry Germany was to be allowed to retain were set out. German car production was set at a maximum of 10% of the 1936 car production numbers.

 

Mass production of civilian VW cars did not start until post-war occupation. The Volkswagen factory was handed over by the Americans to British control in 1945; it was to be dismantled and shipped to Britain. Thankfully for Volkswagen, no British car manufacturer was interested in the factory; an official report included the phrases "the vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirement of a motor-car ... it is quite unattractive to the average buyer ... To build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise." The factory survived by producing cars for the British Army instead. Allied dismantling policy changed in late 1946 to mid-1947, although heavy industry continued to be dismantled until 1951. In March 1947, Herbert Hoover helped change policy by stating

 

There is the illusion that the New Germany left after the annexations can be reduced to a "pastoral state". It cannot be done unless we exterminate or move 25,000,000 people out of it.

 

The re-opening of the factory is largely accredited to British Army officer Major Ivan Hirst. Hirst was ordered to take control of the heavily bombed factory, which the Americans had captured. His first task was to remove an unexploded bomb that had fallen through the roof and lodged itself between some pieces of irreplaceable production equipment; if the bomb had exploded, the Beetle's fate would have been sealed. Knowing Germany needed jobs and the British Army needed vehicles. Hirst persuaded the British military to order 20,000 cars, and by March 1946 the factory was producing 1,000 cars a month (in Army khaki, under the name Volkswagen Type 1), which Hirst said "was the limit set by the availability of materials". During this period, the car reverted to its original name of Volkswagen and the town was renamed Wolfsburg. The first 1,785 Type 1s were made in 1945.

After World War II, it was officially designated the Volkswagen Type 1, but was more commonly known as the Beetle.Following the British Army-led restart of production and Hirst's establishment of sales network and exports to Netherlands, former Opel manager (and formerly a detractor of the Volkswagen) Heinz Nordhoff was appointed director of the Volkswagen factory in 1949. Under Nordhoff, production increased dramatically over the following decade, with the one-millionth car coming off the assembly line by 1955. During this post-war period, the Beetle had superior performance in its category with a top speed of 115 km/h and 0–100 km/h in 27.5 seconds with fuel consumption of 6.7 l/100 km (36 mpg) for the standard 25 kW (34 hp) engine. This was far superior to the Citroën 2CV, which was aimed at a low speed/poor road rural peasant market, and Morris Minor, designed for a market with no motorways / freeways; it was even competitive with more advanced small city cars like the Austin Mini.

 

In Small Wonder, Walter Henry Nelson wrote:

"The engine fires up immediately without a choke. It has tolerable road-handling and is economical to maintain. Although a small car, the engine has great elasticity and gave the feeling of better output than its small nominal size."

 

There were other, less-numerous models, as well. The Hebmüller cabriolet (officially Type 14A), a sporty two-seater, was built between 1949 and 1953; it numbered 696. The Type 18A, a fixed-top cabriolet, was produced by Austro-Tatra as a police and fire unit; 203 were assembled between January 1950 and March 1953.

 

The chassis became a technological and parts donor to Volkswagen Type 2 (also known as Bulli) and external coachbuilders like Rometsch, Dannenhauer & Stauss, Wilhelm Karmann, Enzmann, Beutler, Ghia-Aigle, Hebmüller & Söhne, Drews, Wendler.

 

On 17 February 1972, when Beetle No. 15,007,034 was produced, Beetle production surpassed that of the previous record holder, the Ford Model T. By 1973, total production was over 16 million, and by 23 June 1992, over 21 million had been produced.

 

DECLINE

Though extremely successful in the 1960s, the Beetle was increasingly faced with stiff competition from more modern designs globally. The Japanese had refined rear-wheel-drive, water-cooled, front-engine small cars including the Datsun 510 and Toyota Corona, whose sales in the North American market grew rapidly at the expense of Volkswagen in the late 1960s. Honda introduced the N600, based on the space-efficient transverse-engine, front-wheel-drive layout of the original Austin Mini, to the North American market in late 1969, and upgraded the model to the Honda Civic in 1972. The Japanese "big three" would soon dominate compact auto sales in North America. In 1971 Ford introduced its Pinto, which had some market impact as a low cost alternative. As the 1960s came to a close, Volkswagen faced increasingly stiff competition from European cars as well. The Beetle was faced with competition from new designs like the Fiat 127 and Renault 5, and more robust designs based on the Austin Mini layout such as the Superminis. German competitors, Ford and Opel also enjoyed strong sales of modern smaller cars like the Ford Escort and Opel Kadett. Volkswagen's attempts to boost the power of their air-cooled motor to meet the demands of higher highway speeds in the late 1960s, then comply with new pollution control regulations, caused problems for reliability and fuel efficiency that impaired the reputation of the aging design. Safety issues with the Beetle came under increasing scrutiny, culminating in the 1972 release of a rather scathing report. During the early 1970s, sales of the Beetle in Europe and North America plummeted.

 

There were other models introduced to supplement the Beetle in the VW product line throughout the 1960s; the Type 3, Type 4, and the NSU-based and larger K70. None of these models, aimed at more upscale markets, achieved the level of success as the Beetle. The over-reliance on a single model, now in decline, meant that Volkswagen was in financial crisis by 1974. It needed German government funding to produce the Beetle's replacement.

 

Production lines at Wolfsburg switched to the new water-cooled, front-engined, front-wheel drive Golf designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro in 1974, sold in North America at the time as the "Rabbit". The Golf would eventually become Volkswagen's most successful model since the Beetle. The Golf would be periodically redesigned over its lifetime, entering its seventh generation in 2012, with only a few components carried over between generations, while the Beetle had only minor refinements of its original design.

 

The Golf did not kill Beetle production, nor did the smaller Polo which was launched a year later. Production of the Beetle continued in smaller numbers at other German factories until 19 January 1978, when mainstream production shifted to Brazil and Mexico: markets where low operating cost was an important factor. However, this shift in production did not completely end sales of the Beetle in Europe, although after this date sales of the Beetle in Europe were very low. Beetle sedans were produced for U.S. markets until July 1977 and for European markets until 1985, with private companies continuing to import cars produced in Mexico after 1985. The Beetle convertible/Cabriolet ended production (as 1979 models) as of January 31, 1980.

 

The last Beetle was produced in Puebla, Mexico, in July 2003. The final batch of 3,000 Beetles were sold as 2004 models and badged as the Última Edición, with whitewall tires, a host of previously discontinued chrome trim, and the choice of two special paint colors taken from the New Beetle. Production in Brazil ended in 1986, then started again in 1993 and continued until 1996.

 

The Beetle outlasted most other cars which had adopted the rear air-cooled engine layout such as those by Subaru, Fiat, and General Motors. Porsche's 356 series which originally used some Volkswagen sourced parts, continued to use the classic rear engine layout (which later became water-cooled) in the Porsche 911 996 series, which remains competitive in the second decade of the 21st century.

 

WORLDWIDE END OF PRODUCTION

By 2002, over 21 million Type 1s had been produced, but by 2003, annual production had dropped to 30,000 from a peak of 1.3 million in 1971. VW announced the end of production in June 2003, citing decreasing demand, and the final original Type 1 VW Beetle (No. 21,529,464) rolled off the production line at Puebla, Mexico, on 30 July 2003 65 years after its original launch. This last Beetle, nicknamed El Rey (Spanish for "The King" after a legendary Mexican song by José Alfredo Jiménez) was delivered to the company's museum in Wolfsburg, Germany.

 

To celebrate the occasion, Volkswagen marketed a final special series of 3,000 Beetles marketed as "Última Edición" (Final Edition) in light blue (Aquarius Blue) or beige (Harvest Moon Beige). Each car included the 1.6 engine, whitewall tires, a CD player with four speakers, chrome bumpers, trim, hub caps and exterior mirrors, a Wolfsburg emblem above the front trunk's handle, chrome glove box badge, body coloured wheels, tinted glass, a rear parcel shelf, and VW Última Edición plaque.

 

A mariachi band serenaded production of the last car. In Mexico, there was an advertising campaign as a goodbye for the Beetle. In one of the ads was a very small parking space on the street, and many big cars tried to use it, but could not. After a while, a sign appears in that parking space saying: "Es increíble que un auto tan pequeño deje un vacío tan grande" (It is incredible that a car so small can leave such a large void). Another depicted the rear end of a 1954 Beetle (the year Volkswagen was established in Mexico) in the left side of the ad, reading "Erase una vez..." (Once upon a time...) and the last 2003 Beetle in the right side, reading "Fin" (The end). There were other ads with the same nostalgic tone.

 

- Engine: Fuel-injected (Bosch Digifant) four-cylinder horizontally opposed, 1,584 cc, 50 hp (37 kW), 98.1 N·m (72.4 lb·ft) @ 2,200 rpm, three-way catalytic converter

- Rated fuel mileage: 32.5 mpg-US (7.2 L/100 km; 39.0 mpg-imp)

- Max cruising speed: 130 km/h

- Brakes: front disc, rear drum

- Passengers: Five

- Tank: 40 L (11 US gal; 9 imp gal)

- Colours: Aquarius blue, Harvest Moon beige.

 

PROTOTYPES

DIESEL

In 1951, Volkswagen prototyped a 1.3 L diesel engine. Volkswagen made only two of these air-cooled boxer diesel engines (not turbocharged), and installed one engine in a Type 1 and another in a Type 2. The diesel Beetle was time tested on the Nürburgring and achieved 0–100 km/h in 60 seconds.

 

DESIGN

The Beetle featured a rear-located, rear-wheel drive, air-cooled four-cylinder, boxer engine in a two-door bodywork featuring a flat front windscreen, accommodating four passengers and providing luggage storage under the front bonnet and behind the rear seat – and offering a coefficient of drag of 0.41; to this relatively good CD, the also streamlined rear of car was of help. The bodywork attached with eighteen bolts to its nearly flat chassis which featured a central structural tunnel. Front and rear suspension featured torsion bars along with front stabilizer bar – providing independent suspension at all wheels. Certain initial features were subsequently revised, including mechanical drum brakes, split-window rear windows, mechanical direction-indicators and the non-synchronized gearbox. Other features, including its distinctive overall shape, endured.

 

Its engine, transmission, and cylinder heads were constructed of light alloy. An engine oil cooler (located in the engine fan's shroud) ensured optimal engine operating temperature and long engine life, optimized by a thermostat that bypassed the oil cooler when the engine was cold. Later models of the carburetor featured an automatic choke. Engine intake air passed through a metallic filter, while heavier particles were captured by an oil bath. After 1960, steering featured a hydraulic damper that absorbed steering irregularities.

 

Indicative of the car's utilitarian design, the interior featured painted metal surfaces, a metal dash consolidating instruments in a single, circular binnacle, adjustable front seats, a fold-down rear seat, optional swing-out rear windows, front windows with pivoting vent windows, heating via air-to-air exchange manifolds operating off the engine's heat, and a windshield washer system that eschewed the complexity and cost of an additional electric pump and instead received its pressurization from the car's spare tire (located in the front luggage compartment) which was accordingly overinflated to accommodate the washer function.

 

Throughout its production, VW marketed the Beetle with a four-speed manual transmission. From 1961 (and almost exclusively in Europe), VW offered an optional version of the Saxomat semi-automatic transmission: a regular 4-speed manual transaxle coupled to an electromagnetic clutch with a centrifugal clutch used for idle. Subsequently (beginning in 1967 in Europe and 1968 in the United States), VW offered an optional semi-automatic transmission (marketed as Automatic Stick Shift and also called AutoStick[citation needed]), which was a 3-speed manual coupled to an electro-pneumatic clutch and torque converter.

 

While the overall appearance of the Beetle changed little over its life span, it received over 78,000 incremental changes during its production.

 

EVOLUTION AND DESIGN CHANGES

BEETLE CABRIOLET

It was in 1948 that Wilhelm Karmann first bought a VW Beetle sedan and converted it into a four-seated convertible. The Beetle Cabriolet began production in 1949 by Karmann in Osnabrück. After successfully presenting it at VW in Wolfsburg, production started in 1949.

 

The convertible was more than a Beetle with a folding top. To compensate for the strength lost in removing the roof, the sills were reinforced with welded U-channel rails, a transverse beam was fitted below the front edge of the rear seat cushion, and the side cowl-panels below the instrument panel were double-wall. In addition, the lower corners of the door apertures had welded-in curved gussets, and the doors had secondary alignment wedges at the B-pillar.

 

The top was cabriolet-style with a full inner headliner hiding the folding mechanism and crossbars. In between the two top layers was 25 mm of insulation. The rear window was tempered safety glass, and after 1968, heated. Due to the thickness of the top, it remained quite tall when folded. To enable the driver to see over the lowered top, the inside rearview was mounted on an offset pivot. By twisting the mirror 180 degrees on a longitudinal axis, the mirror glass would raise approximately 5.1 cm.

 

The convertible was generally more lavishly equipped than the sedan with dual rear ashtrays, twin map pockets, a visor vanity mirror on the passenger side, rear stone shields, and through 1969, wheel trim rings. Many of these items did not become available on other Beetles until the advent of the optional "L" (Luxus) Package of 1970.

 

After a number of stylistic and technical alterations made to the Karmann cabriolet, (corresponding to the many changes VW made to the Beetle throughout its history), the last of 331,847 cabriolets came off the production line on 10 January 1980.

 

1950–1959 MODELS

During this period, a myriad of changes were made throughout the vehicle beginning with the availability of hydraulic brakes and a folding fabric sunroof in 1950. The rear window of the VW Beetle evolved from a divided or "split" oval, to a singular oval. The change occurred between October 1952 and March 1953. Beetles built during this time were known as a "Zwitter", or "hybrid", as they used the split-window bodyshell with oval-model chrome trim, vent windows and dashboard.

 

1953 models received a redesigned instrument panel. The one-piece “Pope's Nose” combination license plate/brake light was replaced by a smaller flat-bottomed license plate light. The brake light function was transferred to new heart-shaped lamps located in the top of the taillight housings.

 

In 1954, Volkswagen added 2 mm to the cylinder bore, increasing the displacement from 1,131 (1100) cc to 1,192 (1200) cc. This coincided with upgrades to various key components including a redesign of the crankshaft. This increased power from 30 hp (22 kW; 30 PS) to 36 hp (27 kW; 36 PS) and improved the engine's free revving abilities without compromising torque at lower engine speeds. At the same time, compression ratios were progressively raised as, little by little, the octane ratings of available fuel was raised in major markets during the 1950s and 1960s.

 

In 1955, the separate brake lights were discontinued and were combined into a new larger taillight housing. The traditional VW semaphore turn signals were replaced by conventional flashing directional indicator lamps for North America.

 

For 1956, the Beetle received what would become one of its more distinctive features, a set of twin chrome tailpipes. Models for North America gained taller bumper guards and tubular overrider bars.

 

For 1958, the Beetle received a revised instrument panel, and a larger rectangular rear window replaced the previous oval design.

 

1960–1969 MODELS

1960 models received a front sway bar along with a hydraulic steering damper.

 

For 1961, significant technical advances occurred in the form of a new engine and transmission. The engine remained at 1200cc but the power increased to 40 hp (30 kW; 41 PS) primarily due to an increase in compression ratio to 7.1:1. The carburetor received an electric automatic choke and the transmission was now synchronized on all forward gears. The traditional semaphore turns signals were replaced by conventional flashing directional indicators worldwide.

 

For 1962, the Beetle received a mechanical fuel level gauge in place of the former fuel tap. At the rear, larger tail lights were introduced incorporating a separate amber turn signal section to meet new European standards (these turn signals remained red in the US market until 1973). The former hand-pump style windscreen washer was replaced by a new design using compressed air. A Schrader valve located on the washer fluid tank allowed the system to be charged at a filling station to the recommended 35 psi (2.4 bar).

 

1964 models could be identified by a widened light housing on the engine lid over the rear license plate.

 

The largest change to date for the Beetle was in 1965: the majority of the body stampings were revised, which allowed for significantly larger windows. The windshield increased in area by 11% and was now slightly curved, rather than flat. Door windows increased accordingly by 6% (and door vent window edges were canted slightly back), rear side windows 17.5%, and the rear window 19.5%. The result was a more open, airy, modern look.

 

For 1966, the big news was an optional new 1300cc 50 hp (37 kW; 51 PS) engine in lieu of the previous 1200cc engine that had been the sole engine since 1954. Models so equipped carried a "1300" badge on the engine lid. The 1300cc engine was standard for North America.

 

For 1967, a yet-again larger-displacement engine was made available: 1500cc, 53 hp (40 kW; 54 PS) at 4,200 rpm. 1200 and 1300 engines continued to be available, as many markets based their taxation on engine size. 1500cc Beetles were equipped with front disc brakes and were identified with a "VW 1500" badge on the engine lid. North America received the 1500 engine as standard equipment, but did not receive front disc brakes. These models were identified by a "Volkswagen" badge on the engine lid.

 

The rear suspension was significantly revised including a widened track, softer torsion bars and the addition of a unique Z-configuration equalizing torsion spring. On US, UK and Ireland models, the generator output was increased from 180 to 360 watts, and the entire electrical system was upgraded from 6 volts to 12 volts. The clutch disc also increased in size and changes were made to the flywheel. New equipment included a driver's armrest on the door and locking buttons on both doors. Safety improvements included two-speed windscreen wipers, reversing lights (in some markets), and a driver's side mirror. In accord with the newly enacted US Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108, North American models received a dual-circuit brake system, the clear glass headlamp covers were deleted; the headlamps were brought forward to the leading edge of the front fenders, and the sealed-beam units were exposed and surrounded by chrome bezels.

 

1968 was a year of major change. The most noticeable of which were the new larger, higher mounted C-section bumpers. At the rear, new larger taillamps were adopted and were able to accommodate backup lamps, which were previously separate bumper-mounted units. Beetles worldwide received the '67 North American style vertical headlamp placement, but with replaceable-bulb headlamps compliant with ECE regulations rather than the US sealed beams. Other improvements were a new outside gas filler with spring-loaded flap, eliminating the need to open the trunk to refuel. The fuel gauge was integrated with the speedometer and was now electrically-actuated rather than cable-operated. The windscreen washer was now pressured by the spare tire, which was to be maintained at a pressure of 42 psi (2.9 bar). A pressure valve in the connecting hose closed airflow to the fluid reservoir if spare tire pressure fell below 30 psi (2.1 bar), which was above the recommended pressures for the road tires. A ventilation system was introduced, which drew fresh air into the cabin from louvres on the front decklid. For improved shifting, the shift lever was shortened, stiffened and moved rearward by

78 mm.

 

A number of safety improvements were made in order to comply with new American safety regulations: these included trigger-operated outside door handles, a secondary front hood latch, collapsing steering column, soft vent window latches, rotary glove compartment latch and instrument panel knobs labeled with pictographs. US models received a padded instrument panel that was optional in other markets. To meet North American head restraint requirements, VW developed the industry's first high-back bucket seat.

 

A new 3-speed semi-automatic gear box with torque converter and vacuum-operated clutch became available mid-production year. The semi-automatic models received a vastly improved semi-trailing-arm rear suspension (also known as "Independent Rear Suspension" although the earlier swing axle Beetles were also independent) and eliminated the need for the equalizing torsion spring. This new rear suspension layout would eventually become an option on later models. Beetles equipped with the automatic were identified with a "VW Automatic" badge on the engine lid and a matching decal in the rear window. In North America, the badging and decal were later revised to read, "Automatic Stick Shift".

 

For 1969, the only exterior change was the fuel filler flap no longer had a finger indentation due to a new interior-mounted fuel door release. For North America, the Beetle received a heated rear window, day/night mirror and the semi-trailing, independent rear-arm suspension as standard equipment.

 

1970–1979 MODELS

In 1970, A new "L" (Luxus) Package was introduced including, among other items, twin map pockets, dual rear ashtrays, full carpeting, a passenger-side visor vanity mirror, and rubber bumper moldings. The optional 1500 cc engine now came with an engine lid having two rows of cooling louvers, while the convertible's engine lid gained two additional sets for a total of four. For North America, the 1500 cc engine was enlarged to 1600 cc engine and produced 57 hp (43 kW; 58 PS)

 

For 1971, for the first time there were two Beetles, the familiar standard Beetle and a new larger version that was different from the windscreen forward. All Beetles received an engine upgrade: the optional 1500 cc engine was replaced by a 1600 cc version with twin-port cylinder heads and a larger, relocated oil cooler. The new engine produced 60 hp (45 kW; 61 PS). The ventilation system was improved with the original dash-top vents augmented by a second pair aimed directly at the driver and passenger. For the first time the system was a flow-through design with crescent-shaped air exits fitted behind the rear quarter windows. Airflow could be increased via an optional 2-speed fan. The standard Beetle was now badged as the VW 1300; when equipped with the 1600 engine, it was badged 1300 S, to avoided confusion with the Type 3, which wore VW 1600 badges.

 

The new larger Beetle was sold as the 1302/1302 S, offering nearly 50% increased luggage capacity. A new MacPherson strut front suspension was incorporated, similar to what was used in the Type 4, and the front track was widened. The new suspension layout allowed the spare tire to be positioned flat under the trunk floor, although the car had to be lengthened slightly to accomplish this. This also allowed a reduction in turning radius. To gain additional trunk volume, the under-dash panel was lowered, allowing the fuel tank to be shifted rearward. From the windscreen back the big Beetle was identical to its smaller progenitor, except for having the semi-trailing arm rear suspension as standard equipment. Overall, the big Beetle was 50 mm longer in length and 35 mm wider and rode on a 20 mm longer wheelbase than the standard model. Both Beetles were available with or without the L Package. The convertible was now based on the 1302 body. In North America, the 1302 was marketed as the Super Beetle and came only with the L Package and 1600 cc engine. While it lacked the front disc brakes that normally accompanied the larger motor, it was fitted with brake drums that were slightly larger than the standard Beetle. With the Super Beetle being sold as the premium model in North America, the standard Beetle, while retaining the same 1600 cc engine, was stripped of many of its earlier features in order to reduce the selling price. Bright window and running board moldings disappeared, along with the day/night mirror, horn ring, map pocket, locking glove box and miscellaneous other items.

 

1972 models had an 11% larger rear window 40 mm taller, larger front brakes[citation needed] and the convertible engine lid with four rows of louvres was now used on all Beetles. Inside the vehicle, a four-spoke energy-absorbing steering wheel was introduced, the windshield wiper/washer knob was replaced in favor of a steering column stalk, and intermittent wipers were a new option available in selected markets. An engine compartment socket for the proprietary VW Diagnosis system was also introduced. The rear luggage area was fitted with a folding parcel shelf. A limited-edition Commemorative model was launched in celebration of the Beetle's passing the record of the Ford Model T as the world's most-produced automobile. The Commemorative Beetle was a 1302 LS finished in a special Marathon Blue Metallic paint and unique 4.5 x 15 styled steel wheels. In the U.S., it was marketed as the Super Beetle Baja Champion SE.

 

1973 models featured significantly-enlarged "elephant foot" taillamps mounted in reshaped rear fenders. In the engine bay, the oil-bath air cleaner gave way to a dry element filter, and the generator was replaced with an alternator. The 1302/Super became the 1303 with a new taller wrap-around windscreen. The changes to the cowl and windshield resulted in slight redesign of the front hood. The instrument panel, formerly shared with the standard Beetle, was all-new and incorporated a raised speedometer pod, rocker-style switches and side-window defrosters. The limited-edition GSR (Gelb-Schwarz Rennen) was a 1303 S available only in Saturn Yellow paint equipped with special 140 mm wide sport wheels fitted with 175/70-15 Pirelli Cinturato CN36 high-performance radial tires. Front and rear deck lids were finished in matte black, as was all exterior trim with the exception of the chrome headlamp bezels. Inside were corduroy and leatherette high-bolstered sport seats and a small diameter three-spoke steering wheel with padded leather rim and a small red VW logo on the bottom spoke. In North America, the GSR was sold as the Super Beetle Sports Bug. The North American model had body-color deck lids and was available in Marathon Blue Metallic in addition to Saturn Yellow. In some markets, the sport wheels (in both 4.5-inch and 5.5-inch widths), sport steering wheel and sport seats became available as stand-alone options.

 

For 1974, North American models received newly required 8.0 km/h impact bumpers mounted on self-restoring energy absorbers, which added approximately 25 mm to the car's overall length. On the Super Beetle, the steering knuckle, and consequently the lower attachment point of the strut, was redesigned to improve handling and stability in the event of a tire blowout. A limited-edition Big Beetle was introduced based on the 1303 LS. Available in unique metallic paint colors, the car featured styled-steel 5.5 in (140 mm) wide sport wheels wrapped in 175/70-15 tires, corduroy seat inserts, upgraded loop-pile carpet, wood-look instrument panel trim and a padded steering wheel with bright accents. In the North American market, a limited-edition Sun Bug was introduced as a standard Beetle or Super Beetle. Both were finished in metallic gold and featured styled-steel 4.5 in (110 mm)-wide sport wheels. Inside were brown corduroy and leatherette seats, loop-pile carpet, and padded four-spoke deluxe steering wheel. The Super Beetle Sun Bug included a sliding-steel sunroof.

 

In 1975, front turn indicators were moved from the top of the front fenders down into the bumper. At the rear, the license plate light housing was now molded of plastic with a ribbed top surface. To comply with tightening emission standards, the 1600 cc engine in Japanese and North American markets received Bosch L-Jetronic fuel injection, a derivative of the Bosch D-Jetronic system formerly used in the VW Type 3 and Type 4. The injected engine received a new muffler and in California a catalytic converter. This necessitated a bulge in the rear apron under the rear bumper and replaced the distinctive twin "pea shooter" tailpipes with a single offset pipe, making injected models identifiable at a glance. 5 mph (8.0 km/h) bumper-equipped North American models retained fender-top front indicators. The 1303 received rack and pinion steering. In North America, the 1303/Super Beetle sedan was moved upmarket and was now christened La Grande Bug. Similar to the Big Beetle of 1974, La Grande Bug was available in blue or green metallic paint in the U.S. and blue, green or gold metallic in Canada and was equipped with the same features as the 1974 Sun Bug. Mid-year, the Love Bug was introduced for North America: based on the standard Beetle, it was available only in Phoenix Red or Ravenna Green (both colors shared with the VW-Porsche 914) with all exterior trim finished in matte black. A price leader, the Love Bug retailed for less than a standard Beetle. The "Volkswagen" script on the engine lid of all North American Beetles was replaced with a "Fuel Injection" badge.

 

In 1976, the 1303/La Grande Bug was discontinued, with the larger body continuing only in convertible form. To make up for the loss in North American markets, the standard Beetle was upgraded, regaining some of the features that were removed in 1971. In addition, the 2-speed ventilation fan was included, previously available in North America only on the larger Beetle. The automatic stickshift option was discontinued as well.

 

1977 models received new front seats with separate head restraints. This was the final model year for the Beetle sedan in North America. The convertible was offered in a Champagne Edition in triple white with the padded deluxe steering wheel, burled elm-grain dash trim and (110 mm wide sport wheels. Approximately 1,000 Champagne Editions were produced.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The Volkswagen Beetle (officially the Volkswagen Type 1, informally in Germany the Volkswagen Käfer, in Poland the Volkswagen Garbus and in the U.S. the Volkswagen Bug) is a two-door, four passenger, rear-engine economy car manufactured and marketed by German automaker Volkswagen (VW) from 1938 until 2003.

 

The need for this kind of car, and its functional objectives, was formulated by the leader of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler, who wanted a cheap, simple car to be mass-produced for his country's new road network. Hitler contracted Ferdinand Porsche in 1934 to design and build it. Porsche and his team took until 1938 to finalise the design. The influence on Porsche's design of other contemporary cars, such as the Tatra V570 and the work of Josef Ganz remains a subject of dispute. The result was one of the first rear-engined cars since the Brass Era. With 21,529,464 produced, the Beetle is the longest-running and most-manufactured car of a single platform ever made.

 

Although designed in the 1930s, the Beetle was only produced in significant numbers from 1945 on (mass production had been put on hold during the Second World War) when the model was internally designated the Volkswagen Type 1, and marketed simply as the Volkswagen (or "People's Car"). Later models were designated Volkswagen 1200, 1300, 1500, 1302 or 1303, the former three indicating engine displacement, the latter two derived from the type number. The model became widely known in its home country as the Käfer (German for "beetle") and was later marketed as such in Germany, and as the Volkswagen in other countries. For example, in France it was known as the Coccinelle (French for ladybug).

 

The original 25 hp Beetle was designed for a top speed around 100 km/h, which would be a viable speed on the Reichsautobahn system. As Autobahn speeds increased in the postwar years, its output was boosted to 36, then 40 hp, the configuration that lasted through 1966 and became the "classic" Volkswagen motor. The Beetle ultimately gave rise to variants, including the Karmann Ghia, Type 2 and external coachbuilders. The Beetle marked a significant trend, led by Volkswagen, Fiat, and Renault, whereby the rear-engine, rear-wheel drive layout increased from 2.6 percent of continental Western Europe's car production in 1946 to 26.6 percent in 1956. The 1948 Citroën 2CV and other European models marked a later trend to front-wheel drive in the European small car market, a trend that would come to dominate that market. In 1974, Volkswagen's own front-wheel drive Golf model succeeded the Beetle. In 1994, Volkswagen unveiled the Concept One, a "retro"-themed concept car with a resemblance to the original Beetle, and in 1998 introduced the "New Beetle", built on the contemporary Golf platform with styling recalling the original Type 1. It remained in production through 2010, being succeeded in 2011 by the more aggressively styled Beetle (A5).

 

In the 1999 Car of the Century competition, to determine the world's most influential car in the 20th century, the Type 1 came fourth, after the Ford Model T, the Mini, and the Citroën DS.

 

HISTORY

THE PEOPLES CAR

In April 1934, Adolf Hitler gave the order to Ferdinand Porsche to develop a Volkswagen (literally, "people's car" in German, pronounced [ˈfɔlksvaːɡən]). The epithet Volks- literally, "people's-" had been applied to other Nazi-sponsored consumer goods such as the Volksempfänger ("people's radio").

 

In May 1934, at a meeting at Berlin’s Kaiserhof Hotel, Chancellor Hitler insisted on a basic vehicle that could transport two adults and three children at 100 km/h while not using more than 7 litres of fuel per 100 km (32 mpg US/39 mpg UK). The engine had to be powerful for sustained cruising on Germany’s new Autobahnen. Everything had to be designed to ensure parts could be quickly and inexpensively exchanged. The engine had to be air-cooled because, as Hitler explained, not every country doctor had his own garage (ethylene glycol antifreeze was only just beginning to be used in high-performance liquid-cooled aircraft engines. In general, radiators filled with water would freeze unless the vehicle was kept in a heated building overnight or drained and refilled each morning).

 

The "People's Car" would be available to citizens of Nazi Germany through a savings scheme, or Sparkarte (savings booklet), at 990 Reichsmark, about the price of a small motorcycle. (The average weekly income was then around 32RM.)

 

DEVELOPMENT

Ferdinand Porsche developed the Type 12, or "Auto für Jedermann" (car for everybody) for Zündapp in 1931. Porsche already preferred the flat-four engine, and selected a swing axle rear suspension (invented by Edmund Rumpler), while Zündapp insisted on a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine. In 1932, three prototypes were running.[20] All of those cars were lost during World War II, the last in a bombing raid in Stuttgart in 1945.

 

The Zündapp prototypes were followed by the Porsche Type 32, designed in 1933 for NSU Motorenwerke AG, another motorcycle company. The Type 32 was similar in design to the Type 12, but it had a flat-four engine. NSU's exit from car manufacturing resulted in the Type 32 being abandoned at the prototype stage.

 

Initially designated Type 60 by Porsche, the design team included Erwin Komenda and Karl Rabe. In October 1935, the first two Type 60 prototypes, known as the V1 and V2 (V for Versuchswagen, or "test car"), were ready. In 1936, testing began of three further V3 prototypes, built in Porsche's Stuttgart shop. A batch of thirty W30 development models, produced for Porsche by Daimler-Benz, underwent 2,900,000 km of further testing in 1937. All cars had the distinctive round shape and the air-cooled, rear-mounted engine. Included in this batch was a rollback soft top called the Cabrio Limousine. A further batch of 44 VW38 pre-production cars produced in 1938 introduced split rear windows; both the split window and the dash were retained on production Type 1s until 1953. The VW38 cars were followed by another batch of 50 VW39 cars, completed in July 1939.

 

The car was designed to be as simple as possible mechanically. The air-cooled 25 hp (19 kW) 995 cc motors' built-in oil cooler and flat-four engine configuration's superior performance was also effective for the German Afrika Korps in Africa's desert heat. The suspension design used compact torsion bars instead of coil or leaf springs. The Beetle is nearly airtight and will briefly float.

 

THE FACTORY

On 26 May 1938, Hitler laid the cornerstone for the Volkswagen factory in Fallersleben. He gave a speech, in which he named the car Kraft-durch-Freude-Wagen ("Strength Through Joy Car", usually abbreviated to KdF-Wagen). The name refers to Kraft durch Freude ('Strength Through Joy'), the official leisure organization of Nazi Germany. The model village of Stadt des KdF-Wagens was created near Fallersleben in Lower Saxony in 1938 for the benefit of the workers at the newly built factory.

 

The factory had only produced a handful of cars by the start of the war in 1939; the first volume-produced versions of the car's chassis were military vehicles, the Type 82 Kübelwagen (approximately 52,000 built) and the amphibious Type 166 Schwimmwagen (about 14,000 built).

 

The first Beetles were produced on a small scale in 1941.

 

WARTIME PRODUCTION

A handful of KdF-Wagen (Typ 60) were produced primarily for the Nazi elite from 1941 to 1944, but production figures were small because the factories were concentrating on production of the Kübelwagen (Typ 82), the beetle for the Wehrmacht (Typ 82 E), the Schwimmwagen (Typ 166), and a handful of other variants. The factory produced another wartime vehicle: the Kommandeurswagen (Typ 87); a Beetle body mounted on a 4WD Schwimmwagen chassis. The Kommandeurswagen had widened fenders to accommodate its Kronprinz all-terrain tires. 564 Kommandeurswagen were produced up to 1944, when all production was halted because of heavy damage to the factory by Allied air raids. Much of the essential equipment had already been moved to underground bunkers for protection, which let production resume quickly after hostilities ended. Due to gasoline shortages late in the war, a few "Holzbrenner" Beetles were built powered by pyrolysis gas producers located under the front hood.

 

POST-WAR PRODUCTION AND BOOM

In occupied Germany, the Allies followed the Morgenthau plan to remove all German war potential by complete or partial pastoralization. As part of this, in the Industrial plans for Germany, the rules for which industry Germany was to be allowed to retain were set out. German car production was set at a maximum of 10% of the 1936 car production numbers.

 

Mass production of civilian VW cars did not start until post-war occupation. The Volkswagen factory was handed over by the Americans to British control in 1945; it was to be dismantled and shipped to Britain. Thankfully for Volkswagen, no British car manufacturer was interested in the factory; an official report included the phrases "the vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirement of a motor-car ... it is quite unattractive to the average buyer ... To build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise." The factory survived by producing cars for the British Army instead. Allied dismantling policy changed in late 1946 to mid-1947, although heavy industry continued to be dismantled until 1951. In March 1947, Herbert Hoover helped change policy by stating

 

There is the illusion that the New Germany left after the annexations can be reduced to a "pastoral state". It cannot be done unless we exterminate or move 25,000,000 people out of it.

 

The re-opening of the factory is largely accredited to British Army officer Major Ivan Hirst. Hirst was ordered to take control of the heavily bombed factory, which the Americans had captured. His first task was to remove an unexploded bomb that had fallen through the roof and lodged itself between some pieces of irreplaceable production equipment; if the bomb had exploded, the Beetle's fate would have been sealed. Knowing Germany needed jobs and the British Army needed vehicles. Hirst persuaded the British military to order 20,000 cars, and by March 1946 the factory was producing 1,000 cars a month (in Army khaki, under the name Volkswagen Type 1), which Hirst said "was the limit set by the availability of materials". During this period, the car reverted to its original name of Volkswagen and the town was renamed Wolfsburg. The first 1,785 Type 1s were made in 1945.

After World War II, it was officially designated the Volkswagen Type 1, but was more commonly known as the Beetle.Following the British Army-led restart of productio

 

n and Hirst's establishment of sales network and exports to Netherlands, former Opel manager (and formerly a detractor of the Volkswagen) Heinz Nordhoff was appointed director of the Volkswagen factory in 1949. Under Nordhoff, production increased dramatically over the following decade, with the one-millionth car coming off the assembly line by 1955. During this post-war period, the Beetle had superior performance in its category with a top speed of 115 km/h and 0–100 km/h in 27.5 seconds with fuel consumption of 6.7 l/100 km (36 mpg) for the standard 25 kW (34 hp) engine. This was far superior to the Citroën 2CV, which was aimed at a low speed/poor road rural peasant market, and Morris Minor, designed for a market with no motorways / freeways; it was even competitive with more advanced small city cars like the Austin Mini.

 

In Small Wonder, Walter Henry Nelson wrote:

"The engine fires up immediately without a choke. It has tolerable road-handling and is economical to maintain. Although a small car, the engine has great elasticity and gave the feeling of better output than its small nominal size."

 

There were other, less-numerous models, as well. The Hebmüller cabriolet (officially Type 14A), a sporty two-seater, was built between 1949 and 1953; it numbered 696. The Type 18A, a fixed-top cabriolet, was produced by Austro-Tatra as a police and fire unit; 203 were assembled between January 1950 and March 1953.

 

The chassis became a technological and parts donor to Volkswagen Type 2 (also known as Bulli) and external coachbuilders like Rometsch, Dannenhauer & Stauss, Wilhelm Karmann, Enzmann, Beutler, Ghia-Aigle, Hebmüller & Söhne, Drews, Wendler.

 

On 17 February 1972, when Beetle No. 15,007,034 was produced, Beetle production surpassed that of the previous record holder, the Ford Model T. By 1973, total production was over 16 million, and by 23 June 1992, over 21 million had been produced.

 

DECLINE

Though extremely successful in the 1960s, the Beetle was increasingly faced with stiff competition from more modern designs globally. The Japanese had refined rear-wheel-drive, water-cooled, front-engine small cars including the Datsun 510 and Toyota Corona, whose sales in the North American market grew rapidly at the expense of Volkswagen in the late 1960s. Honda introduced the N600, based on the space-efficient transverse-engine, front-wheel-drive layout of the original Austin Mini, to the North American market in late 1969, and upgraded the model to the Honda Civic in 1972. The Japanese "big three" would soon dominate compact auto sales in North America. In 1971 Ford introduced its Pinto, which had some market impact as a low cost alternative. As the 1960s came to a close, Volkswagen faced increasingly stiff competition from European cars as well. The Beetle was faced with competition from new designs like the Fiat 127 and Renault 5, and more robust designs based on the Austin Mini layout such as the Superminis. German competitors, Ford and Opel also enjoyed strong sales of modern smaller cars like the Ford Escort and Opel Kadett. Volkswagen's attempts to boost the power of their air-cooled motor to meet the demands of higher highway speeds in the late 1960s, then comply with new pollution control regulations, caused problems for reliability and fuel efficiency that impaired the reputation of the aging design. Safety issues with the Beetle came under increasing scrutiny, culminating in the 1972 release of a rather scathing report. During the early 1970s, sales of the Beetle in Europe and North America plummeted.

 

There were other models introduced to supplement the Beetle in the VW product line throughout the 1960s; the Type 3, Type 4, and the NSU-based and larger K70. None of these models, aimed at more upscale markets, achieved the level of success as the Beetle. The over-reliance on a single model, now in decline, meant that Volkswagen was in financial crisis by 1974. It needed German government funding to produce the Beetle's replacement.

 

Production lines at Wolfsburg switched to the new water-cooled, front-engined, front-wheel drive Golf designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro in 1974, sold in North America at the time as the "Rabbit". The Golf would eventually become Volkswagen's most successful model since the Beetle. The Golf would be periodically redesigned over its lifetime, entering its seventh generation in 2012, with only a few components carried over between generations, while the Beetle had only minor refinements of its original design.

 

The Golf did not kill Beetle production, nor did the smaller Polo which was launched a year later. Production of the Beetle continued in smaller numbers at other German factories until 19 January 1978, when mainstream production shifted to Brazil and Mexico: markets where low operating cost was an important factor. However, this shift in production did not completely end sales of the Beetle in Europe, although after this date sales of the Beetle in Europe were very low. Beetle sedans were produced for U.S. markets until July 1977 and for European markets until 1985, with private companies continuing to import cars produced in Mexico after 1985. The Beetle convertible/Cabriolet ended production (as 1979 models) as of January 31, 1980.

 

The last Beetle was produced in Puebla, Mexico, in July 2003. The final batch of 3,000 Beetles were sold as 2004 models and badged as the Última Edición, with whitewall tires, a host of previously discontinued chrome trim, and the choice of two special paint colors taken from the New Beetle. Production in Brazil ended in 1986, then started again in 1993 and continued until 1996.

 

The Beetle outlasted most other cars which had adopted the rear air-cooled engine layout such as those by Subaru, Fiat, and General Motors. Porsche's 356 series which originally used some Volkswagen sourced parts, continued to use the classic rear engine layout (which later became water-cooled) in the Porsche 911 996 series, which remains competitive in the second decade of the 21st century.

 

WORLDWIDE END OF PRODUCTION

By 2002, over 21 million Type 1s had been produced, but by 2003, annual production had dropped to 30,000 from a peak of 1.3 million in 1971. VW announced the end of production in June 2003, citing decreasing demand, and the final original Type 1 VW Beetle (No. 21,529,464) rolled off the production line at Puebla, Mexico, on 30 July 2003 65 years after its original launch. This last Beetle, nicknamed El Rey (Spanish for "The King" after a legendary Mexican song by José Alfredo Jiménez) was delivered to the company's museum in Wolfsburg, Germany.

 

To celebrate the occasion, Volkswagen marketed a final special series of 3,000 Beetles marketed as "Última Edición" (Final Edition) in light blue (Aquarius Blue) or beige (Harvest Moon Beige). Each car included the 1.6 engine, whitewall tires, a CD player with four speakers, chrome bumpers, trim, hub caps and exterior mirrors, a Wolfsburg emblem above the front trunk's handle, chrome glove box badge, body coloured wheels, tinted glass, a rear parcel shelf, and VW Última Edición plaque.

 

A mariachi band serenaded production of the last car. In Mexico, there was an advertising campaign as a goodbye for the Beetle. In one of the ads was a very small parking space on the street, and many big cars tried to use it, but could not. After a while, a sign appears in that parking space saying: "Es increíble que un auto tan pequeño deje un vacío tan grande" (It is incredible that a car so small can leave such a large void). Another depicted the rear end of a 1954 Beetle (the year Volkswagen was established in Mexico) in the left side of the ad, reading "Erase una vez..." (Once upon a time...) and the last 2003 Beetle in the right side, reading "Fin" (The end). There were other ads with the same nostalgic tone.

 

Engine: Fuel-injected (Bosch Digifant) four-cylinder horizontally opposed, 1,584 cc, 50 hp (37 kW), 98.1 N·m (72.4 lb·ft) @ 2,200 rpm, three-way catalytic converter

Rated fuel mileage: 32.5 mpg-US (7.2 L/100 km; 39.0 mpg-imp)

Max cruising speed: 130 km/h

Brakes: front disc, rear drum

Passengers: Five

Tank: 40 L (11 US gal; 9 imp gal)

Colours: Aquarius blue, Harvest Moon beige.

 

PROTOTYPES

DIESEL

In 1951, Volkswagen prototyped a 1.3 L diesel engine. Volkswagen made only two of these air-cooled boxer diesel engines (not turbocharged), and installed one engine in a Type 1 and another in a Type 2. The diesel Beetle was time tested on the Nürburgring and achieved 0–100 km/h in 60 seconds.

 

DESIGN

The Beetle featured a rear-located, rear-wheel drive, air-cooled four-cylinder, boxer engine in a two-door bodywork featuring a flat front windscreen, accommodating four passengers and providing luggage storage under the front bonnet and behind the rear seat – and offering a coefficient of drag of 0.41; to this relatively good CD, the also streamlined rear of car was of help. The bodywork attached with eighteen bolts to its nearly flat chassis which featured a central structural tunnel. Front and rear suspension featured torsion bars along with front stabilizer bar – providing independent suspension at all wheels. Certain initial features were subsequently revised, including mechanical drum brakes, split-window rear windows, mechanical direction-indicators and the non-synchronized gearbox. Other features, including its distinctive overall shape, endured.

 

Its engine, transmission, and cylinder heads were constructed of light alloy. An engine oil cooler (located in the engine fan's shroud) ensured optimal engine operating temperature and long engine life, optimized by a thermostat that bypassed the oil cooler when the engine was cold. Later models of the carburetor featured an automatic choke. Engine intake air passed through a metallic filter, while heavier particles were captured by an oil bath. After 1960, steering featured a hydraulic damper that absorbed steering irregularities.

 

Indicative of the car's utilitarian design, the interior featured painted metal surfaces, a metal dash consolidating instruments in a single, circular binnacle, adjustable front seats, a fold-down rear seat, optional swing-out rear windows, front windows with pivoting vent windows, heating via air-to-air exchange manifolds operating off the engine's heat, and a windshield washer system that eschewed the complexity and cost of an additional electric pump and instead received its pressurization from the car's spare tire (located in the front luggage compartment) which was accordingly overinflated to accommodate the washer function.

 

Throughout its production, VW marketed the Beetle with a four-speed manual transmission. From 1961 (and almost exclusively in Europe), VW offered an optional version of the Saxomat semi-automatic transmission: a regular 4-speed manual transaxle coupled to an electromagnetic clutch with a centrifugal clutch used for idle. Subsequently (beginning in 1967 in Europe and 1968 in the United States), VW offered an optional semi-automatic transmission (marketed as Automatic Stick Shift and also called AutoStick[citation needed]), which was a 3-speed manual coupled to an electro-pneumatic clutch and torque converter.

 

While the overall appearance of the Beetle changed little over its life span, it received over 78,000 incremental changes during its production.

 

EVOLUTION AND DESIGN CHANGES

BEETLE CABRIOLET

It was in 1948 that Wilhelm Karmann first bought a VW Beetle sedan and converted it into a four-seated convertible. The Beetle Cabriolet began production in 1949 by Karmann in Osnabrück. After successfully presenting it at VW in Wolfsburg, production started in 1949.

 

The convertible was more than a Beetle with a folding top. To compensate for the strength lost in removing the roof, the sills were reinforced with welded U-channel rails, a transverse beam was fitted below the front edge of the rear seat cushion, and the side cowl-panels below the instrument panel were double-wall. In addition, the lower corners of the door apertures had welded-in curved gussets, and the doors had secondary alignment wedges at the B-pillar.

 

The top was cabriolet-style with a full inner headliner hiding the folding mechanism and crossbars. In between the two top layers was 25 mm of insulation. The rear window was tempered safety glass, and after 1968, heated. Due to the thickness of the top, it remained quite tall when folded. To enable the driver to see over the lowered top, the inside rearview was mounted on an offset pivot. By twisting the mirror 180 degrees on a longitudinal axis, the mirror glass would raise approximately 5.1 cm.

 

The convertible was generally more lavishly equipped than the sedan with dual rear ashtrays, twin map pockets, a visor vanity mirror on the passenger side, rear stone shields, and through 1969, wheel trim rings. Many of these items did not become available on other Beetles until the advent of the optional "L" (Luxus) Package of 1970.

 

After a number of stylistic and technical alterations made to the Karmann cabriolet, (corresponding to the many changes VW made to the Beetle throughout its history), the last of 331,847 cabriolets came off the production line on 10 January 1980.

 

1950–1959 MODELS

During this period, a myriad of changes were made throughout the vehicle beginning with the availability of hydraulic brakes and a folding fabric sunroof in 1950. The rear window of the VW Beetle evolved from a divided or "split" oval, to a singular oval. The change occurred between October 1952 and March 1953. Beetles built during this time were known as a "Zwitter", or "hybrid", as they used the split-window bodyshell with oval-model chrome trim, vent windows and dashboard.

 

1953 models received a redesigned instrument panel. The one-piece “Pope's Nose” combination license plate/brake light was replaced by a smaller flat-bottomed license plate light. The brake light function was transferred to new heart-shaped lamps located in the top of the taillight housings.

 

In 1954, Volkswagen added 2 mm to the cylinder bore, increasing the displacement from 1,131 (1100) cc to 1,192 (1200) cc. This coincided with upgrades to various key components including a redesign of the crankshaft. This increased power from 30 hp (22 kW; 30 PS) to 36 hp (27 kW; 36 PS) and improved the engine's free revving abilities without compromising torque at lower engine speeds. At the same time, compression ratios were progressively raised as, little by little, the octane ratings of available fuel was raised in major markets during the 1950s and 1960s.

 

In 1955, the separate brake lights were discontinued and were combined into a new larger taillight housing. The traditional VW semaphore turn signals were replaced by conventional flashing directional indicator lamps for North America.

 

For 1956, the Beetle received what would become one of its more distinctive features, a set of twin chrome tailpipes. Models for North America gained taller bumper guards and tubular overrider bars.

 

For 1958, the Beetle received a revised instrument panel, and a larger rectangular rear window replaced the previous oval design.

 

1960–1969 MODELS

1960 models received a front sway bar along with a hydraulic steering damper.

 

For 1961, significant technical advances occurred in the form of a new engine and transmission. The engine remained at 1200cc but the power increased to 40 hp (30 kW; 41 PS) primarily due to an increase in compression ratio to 7.1:1. The carburetor received an electric automatic choke and the transmission was now synchronized on all forward gears. The traditional semaphore turns signals were replaced by conventional flashing directional indicators worldwide.

 

For 1962, the Beetle received a mechanical fuel level gauge in place of the former fuel tap. At the rear, larger tail lights were introduced incorporating a separate amber turn signal section to meet new European standards (these turn signals remained red in the US market until 1973). The former hand-pump style windscreen washer was replaced by a new design using compressed air. A Schrader valve located on the washer fluid tank allowed the system to be charged at a filling station to the recommended 35 psi (2.4 bar).

 

1964 models could be identified by a widened light housing on the engine lid over the rear license plate.

 

The largest change to date for the Beetle was in 1965: the majority of the body stampings were revised, which allowed for significantly larger windows. The windshield increased in area by 11% and was now slightly curved, rather than flat. Door windows increased accordingly by 6% (and door vent window edges were canted slightly back), rear side windows 17.5%, and the rear window 19.5%. The result was a more open, airy, modern look.

 

For 1966, the big news was an optional new 1300cc 50 hp (37 kW; 51 PS) engine in lieu of the previous 1200cc engine that had been the sole engine since 1954. Models so equipped carried a "1300" badge on the engine lid. The 1300cc engine was standard for North America.

 

For 1967, a yet-again larger-displacement engine was made available: 1500cc, 53 hp (40 kW; 54 PS) at 4,200 rpm. 1200 and 1300 engines continued to be available, as many markets based their taxation on engine size. 1500cc Beetles were equipped with front disc brakes and were identified with a "VW 1500" badge on the engine lid. North America received the 1500 engine as standard equipment, but did not receive front disc brakes. These models were identified by a "Volkswagen" badge on the engine lid.

 

The rear suspension was significantly revised including a widened track, softer torsion bars and the addition of a unique Z-configuration equalizing torsion spring. On US, UK and Ireland models, the generator output was increased from 180 to 360 watts, and the entire electrical system was upgraded from 6 volts to 12 volts. The clutch disc also increased in size and changes were made to the flywheel. New equipment included a driver's armrest on the door and locking buttons on both doors. Safety improvements included two-speed windscreen wipers, reversing lights (in some markets), and a driver's side mirror. In accord with the newly enacted US Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108, North American models received a dual-circuit brake system, the clear glass headlamp covers were deleted; the headlamps were brought forward to the leading edge of the front fenders, and the sealed-beam units were exposed and surrounded by chrome bezels.

 

1968 was a year of major change. The most noticeable of which were the new larger, higher mounted C-section bumpers. At the rear, new larger taillamps were adopted and were able to accommodate backup lamps, which were previously separate bumper-mounted units. Beetles worldwide received the '67 North American style vertical headlamp placement, but with replaceable-bulb headlamps compliant with ECE regulations rather than the US sealed beams. Other improvements were a new outside gas filler with spring-loaded flap, eliminating the need to open the trunk to refuel. The fuel gauge was integrated with the speedometer and was now electrically-actuated rather than cable-operated. The windscreen washer was now pressured by the spare tire, which was to be maintained at a pressure of 42 psi (2.9 bar). A pressure valve in the connecting hose closed airflow to the fluid reservoir if spare tire pressure fell below 30 psi (2.1 bar), which was above the recommended pressures for the road tires. A ventilation system was introduced, which drew fresh air into the cabin from louvres on the front decklid. For improved shifting, the shift lever was shortened, stiffened and moved rearward by

78 mm.

 

A number of safety improvements were made in order to comply with new American safety regulations: these included trigger-operated outside door handles, a secondary front hood latch, collapsing steering column, soft vent window latches, rotary glove compartment latch and instrument panel knobs labeled with pictographs. US models received a padded instrument panel that was optional in other markets. To meet North American head restraint requirements, VW developed the industry's first high-back bucket seat.

 

A new 3-speed semi-automatic gear box with torque converter and vacuum-operated clutch became available mid-production year. The semi-automatic models received a vastly improved semi-trailing-arm rear suspension (also known as "Independent Rear Suspension" although the earlier swing axle Beetles were also independent) and eliminated the need for the equalizing torsion spring. This new rear suspension layout would eventually become an option on later models. Beetles equipped with the automatic were identified with a "VW Automatic" badge on the engine lid and a matching decal in the rear window. In North America, the badging and decal were later revised to read, "Automatic Stick Shift".

 

For 1969, the only exterior change was the fuel filler flap no longer had a finger indentation due to a new interior-mounted fuel door release. For North America, the Beetle received a heated rear window, day/night mirror and the semi-trailing, independent rear-arm suspension as standard equipment.

 

1970–1979 MODELS

In 1970, A new "L" (Luxus) Package was introduced including, among other items, twin map pockets, dual rear ashtrays, full carpeting, a passenger-side visor vanity mirror, and rubber bumper moldings. The optional 1500 cc engine now came with an engine lid having two rows of cooling louvers, while the convertible's engine lid gained two additional sets for a total of four. For North America, the 1500 cc engine was enlarged to 1600 cc engine and produced 57 hp (43 kW; 58 PS)

 

For 1971, for the first time there were two Beetles, the familiar standard Beetle and a new larger version that was different from the windscreen forward. All Beetles received an engine upgrade: the optional 1500 cc engine was replaced by a 1600 cc version with twin-port cylinder heads and a larger, relocated oil cooler. The new engine produced 60 hp (45 kW; 61 PS). The ventilation system was improved with the original dash-top vents augmented by a second pair aimed directly at the driver and passenger. For the first time the system was a flow-through design with crescent-shaped air exits fitted behind the rear quarter windows. Airflow could be increased via an optional 2-speed fan. The standard Beetle was now badged as the VW 1300; when equipped with the 1600 engine, it was badged 1300 S, to avoided confusion with the Type 3, which wore VW 1600 badges.

 

The new larger Beetle was sold as the 1302/1302 S, offering nearly 50% increased luggage capacity. A new MacPherson strut front suspension was incorporated, similar to what was used in the Type 4, and the front track was widened. The new suspension layout allowed the spare tire to be positioned flat under the trunk floor, although the car had to be lengthened slightly to accomplish this. This also allowed a reduction in turning radius. To gain additional trunk volume, the under-dash panel was lowered, allowing the fuel tank to be shifted rearward. From the windscreen back the big Beetle was identical to its smaller progenitor, except for having the semi-trailing arm rear suspension as standard equipment. Overall, the big Beetle was 50 mm longer in length and 35 mm wider and rode on a 20 mm longer wheelbase than the standard model. Both Beetles were available with or without the L Package. The convertible was now based on the 1302 body. In North America, the 1302 was marketed as the Super Beetle and came only with the L Package and 1600 cc engine. While it lacked the front disc brakes that normally accompanied the larger motor, it was fitted with brake drums that were slightly larger than the standard Beetle. With the Super Beetle being sold as the premium model in North America, the standard Beetle, while retaining the same 1600 cc engine, was stripped of many of its earlier features in order to reduce the selling price. Bright window and running board moldings disappeared, along with the day/night mirror, horn ring, map pocket, locking glove box and miscellaneous other items.

 

1972 models had an 11% larger rear window 40 mm taller, larger front brakes[citation needed] and the convertible engine lid with four rows of louvres was now used on all Beetles. Inside the vehicle, a four-spoke energy-absorbing steering wheel was introduced, the windshield wiper/washer knob was replaced in favor of a steering column stalk, and intermittent wipers were a new option available in selected markets. An engine compartment socket for the proprietary VW Diagnosis system was also introduced. The rear luggage area was fitted with a folding parcel shelf. A limited-edition Commemorative model was launched in celebration of the Beetle's passing the record of the Ford Model T as the world's most-produced automobile. The Commemorative Beetle was a 1302 LS finished in a special Marathon Blue Metallic paint and unique 4.5 x 15 styled steel wheels. In the U.S., it was marketed as the Super Beetle Baja Champion SE.

 

1973 models featured significantly-enlarged "elephant foot" taillamps mounted in reshaped rear fenders. In the engine bay, the oil-bath air cleaner gave way to a dry element filter, and the generator was replaced with an alternator. The 1302/Super became the 1303 with a new taller wrap-around windscreen. The changes to the cowl and windshield resulted in slight redesign of the front hood. The instrument panel, formerly shared with the standard Beetle, was all-new and incorporated a raised speedometer pod, rocker-style switches and side-window defrosters. The limited-edition GSR (Gelb-Schwarz Rennen) was a 1303 S available only in Saturn Yellow paint equipped with special 140 mm wide sport wheels fitted with 175/70-15 Pirelli Cinturato CN36 high-performance radial tires. Front and rear deck lids were finished in matte black, as was all exterior trim with the exception of the chrome headlamp bezels. Inside were corduroy and leatherette high-bolstered sport seats and a small diameter three-spoke steering wheel with padded leather rim and a small red VW logo on the bottom spoke. In North America, the GSR was sold as the Super Beetle Sports Bug. The North American model had body-color deck lids and was available in Marathon Blue Metallic in addition to Saturn Yellow. In some markets, the sport wheels (in both 4.5-inch and 5.5-inch widths), sport steering wheel and sport seats became available as stand-alone options.

 

For 1974, North American models received newly required 8.0 km/h impact bumpers mounted on self-restoring energy absorbers, which added approximately 25 mm to the car's overall length. On the Super Beetle, the steering knuckle, and consequently the lower attachment point of the strut, was redesigned to improve handling and stability in the event of a tire blowout. A limited-edition Big Beetle was introduced based on the 1303 LS. Available in unique metallic paint colors, the car featured styled-steel 5.5 in (140 mm) wide sport wheels wrapped in 175/70-15 tires, corduroy seat inserts, upgraded loop-pile carpet, wood-look instrument panel trim and a padded steering wheel with bright accents. In the North American market, a limited-edition Sun Bug was introduced as a standard Beetle or Super Beetle. Both were finished in metallic gold and featured styled-steel 4.5 in (110 mm)-wide sport wheels. Inside were brown corduroy and leatherette seats, loop-pile carpet, and padded four-spoke deluxe steering wheel. The Super Beetle Sun Bug included a sliding-steel sunroof.

 

In 1975, front turn indicators were moved from the top of the front fenders down into the bumper. At the rear, the license plate light housing was now molded of plastic with a ribbed top surface. To comply with tightening emission standards, the 1600 cc engine in Japanese and North American markets received Bosch L-Jetronic fuel injection, a derivative of the Bosch D-Jetronic system formerly used in the VW Type 3 and Type 4. The injected engine received a new muffler and in California a catalytic converter. This necessitated a bulge in the rear apron under the rear bumper and replaced the distinctive twin "pea shooter" tailpipes with a single offset pipe, making injected models identifiable at a glance. 5 mph (8.0 km/h) bumper-equipped North American models retained fender-top front indicators. The 1303 received rack and pinion steering. In North America, the 1303/Super Beetle sedan was moved upmarket and was now christened La Grande Bug. Similar to the Big Beetle of 1974, La Grande Bug was available in blue or green metallic paint in the U.S. and blue, green or gold metallic in Canada and was equipped with the same features as the 1974 Sun Bug. Mid-year, the Love Bug was introduced for North America: based on the standard Beetle, it was available only in Phoenix Red or Ravenna Green (both colors shared with the VW-Porsche 914) with all exterior trim finished in matte black. A price leader, the Love Bug retailed for less than a standard Beetle. The "Volkswagen" script on the engine lid of all North American Beetles was replaced with a "Fuel Injection" badge.

 

In 1976, the 1303/La Grande Bug was discontinued, with the larger body continuing only in convertible form. To make up for the loss in North American markets, the standard Beetle was upgraded, regaining some of the features that were removed in 1971. In addition, the 2-speed ventilation fan was included, previously available in North America only on the larger Beetle. The automatic stickshift option was discontinued as well.

 

1977 models received new front seats with separate head restraints. This was the final model year for the Beetle sedan in North America. The convertible was offered in a Champagne Edition in triple white with the padded deluxe steering wheel, burled elm-grain dash trim and (110 mm wide sport wheels. Approximately 1,000 Champagne Editions were produced.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Category A listed historic townhouses designed in 1822.

 

"The Bentley Continental GT is a grand tourer manufactured and marketed by British automaker Bentley Motors since 2003. It was the first car released by Bentley under Volkswagen AG management, after the company's acquisition in 1998, and the first Bentley to employ mass production manufacturing techniques.

 

Appearing as a circle but actually a duodecagon this [Moray Place] is the largest and grandest space within the plan. Technically it is symmetrical around its northwest/southeast axis, but the scale of the form and central gardens makes this impossible to interpret on the ground, and this is only visible from above. Although rear mews were standard at the time of building, the layout only permitted mews on the north-east side (now known as Gloucester Lane).

 

Lord Moray took one of the largest and most prominent houses: 28 Moray Place. Other notable residents included Alexander Kinnear, 1st Baron Kinnear (2), George Deas, Lord Deas (3), Sir David Baxter of Kilmaron (5), Charles Dundas Lawrie (5), John Learmonth (6), John Sinclair, 1st Baron Pentland (6), Charles Hope, Lord Granton (12), Robert MacFarlane, Lord Ormidale and his son George Lewis MacFarlane (14), John MacGregor McCandlish (18), John Hope, Lord Hope (20), Francis Brown Douglas (Lord Provost) (21), Bouverie Francis Primrose (22), Francis Jeffrey, Lord Jeffrey (24), George Young, Lord Young (28), Andrew Coventry (29), Thomas Charles Hope (31), Sir James Miles Riddell (33), John Fullerton, Lord Fullerton (33), Baron Hume (34), Robert Kerr, Lord Kerr (38), Robert Christison and his son Sir Alexander Christison (40), William Thomas Thomson and his son Spencer Campbell Thomson (41), Thomas Jamieson Boyd (Lord Provost) (41), James Skene (46), Sir James Wellwood Moncreiff, 9th Baronet (47), John Corse Scott (48), Rev George Coventry (49)

 

The New Town is a central area of Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland. A masterpiece of city planning, it was built in stages between 1767 and around 1850, and retains much of its original neo-classical and Georgian period architecture. Its best known street is Princes Street, facing Edinburgh Castle and the Old Town across the geological depression of the former Nor Loch. Together with the Old Town, the New Town was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995.

 

Edinburgh (/ˈɛdɪnbərə/; Scots: Edinburgh; Scottish Gaelic: Dùn Èideann [ˈt̪uːn ˈeːtʲən̪ˠ]) is the capital of Scotland and one of its 32 council areas. Historically part of the county of Midlothian (interchangeably Edinburghshire before 1921), it is located in Lothian on the Firth of Forth's southern shore.

 

Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is the seat of the Scottish Government, the Scottish Parliament and the supreme courts of Scotland. The city's Palace of Holyroodhouse is the official residence of the monarch in Scotland. The city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, philosophy, the sciences and engineering. It is the second largest financial centre in the United Kingdom (after London) and the city's historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdom's second most visited tourist destination attracting 4.9 million visits including 2.4 million from overseas in 2018.

 

Edinburgh is Scotland's second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The official population estimates are 488,050 (2016) for the Locality of Edinburgh (Edinburgh pre 1975 regionalisation plus Currie and Balerno), 518,500 (2018) for the City of Edinburgh, and 1,339,380 (2014) for the city region. Edinburgh lies at the heart of the Edinburgh and South East Scotland city region comprising East Lothian, Edinburgh, Fife, Midlothian, Scottish Borders and West Lothian.

 

The city is the annual venue of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. It is home to national institutions such as the National Museum of Scotland, the National Library of Scotland and the Scottish National Gallery. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, is placed 20th in the QS World University Rankings for 2020. The city is also known for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe, the latter being the world's largest annual international arts festival. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, the Palace of Holyroodhouse, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, and the extensive Georgian New Town built in the 18th/19th centuries. Edinburgh's Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999." - info from Wikipedia.

 

Summer 2019 I did a solo cycling tour across Europe through 12 countries over the course of 3 months. I began my adventure in Edinburgh, Scotland and finished in Florence, Italy cycling 8,816 km. During my trip I took 47,000 photos.

 

Now on Instagram.

 

Become a patron to my photography on Patreon.

United States.

British automaker Bentley was founded in 1919 by W.O.Bentley. Rolls Royce took over Bentley in 1931..

The first Bentley produced after the War was the 1946-52 Mk VI with the same body as the Rolls Royce Silver Dawn.

The Bentley R Type was built from 1952-55, sometimes called the Mark VII, it replaced the 1946-52 Mark VI. The front of the saloon was identical to the Mark VI, but the boot was almost doubled in capacity.

Mainly available as a 4 door Saloon from Bentley, but separate coach builders did build other versions, such as the Bentley R Type Continental 2 door Coupe built by H.J.Mulliner & Co,

This car is one of two stylish convertibles built by Park Ward. John D. Rockefeller, who was then the richest man in the world, bought this car in 1954.

Engine; 280 cu in 6 cyl

2015 Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance

British automaker Bentley was founded in 1919 by W.O.Bentley. The company was well respected for its racing success.

In 1924, Bentley decided to build a larger chassis than the 3 Litre that would be more suitable for the large, heavy bodies that many of his customers wanted. Two models were introduced;

1926-30 regular Bentley 6½ Litre (362 produced).

1928-30 high-performance Bentley Speed Six (182 produced).

The 1927-31 Bentley 4½ litre was available at the same time, having less power, was a lot safer on the road.

The Bentley 3 litre won Le Mans in 1924 and 1927

The Bentley 4½ litre won Le Mans in 1928

The Bentley 6½ litre Speed Six won Le Mans in 1929 and 1930.

Engine; 147hp 6500cc in line 6 cyl (180hp Speed Six)

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

Latil was a French automaker specializing in heavy duty vehicles, such as trucks, tractors and buses. Beyond the design and production of vehicles for civil use, Latil also built after World War I a number of military vehicles. For instance, in 1911, Latil designed and built its first four-wheel drive vehicle. This type of vehicle interested the French Army in 1913 for its ability to tow heavy artillery on every field and the TAR (Tracteur d'Artillerie Roulante) was built.

 

Beyond a number of field tractors, Latil also designed and built an armed combat vehicle for the French Army, the armored AMD-37 scout car. The origins of this design can be traced back until December 1931, when the French Cavalry conceived a plan for the future production of armored fighting vehicles. One of the classes foreseen was that of an Automitrailleuse de Découverte (AMD), a specialized long range reconnaissance vehicle. The specifications were formulated on 22 December 1931, changed again on 18 November 1932 and finally approved on 9 December 1932. They called for a weight of 4 metric tons (4.0 t), a range of 400 kilometers (250 mi), a road speed of 70 km/h, a cruising speed of 40 km/h, a turning circle of 12 meters (39 ft), 5–8 mm armor, a 20 mm gun and a 7.5 mm machine gun.

 

In 1933, several competing companies responded (including Latil, Renault, Panhard and Berliet) with their proposals. Being rooted in rather heavy machinery, Latil proposed two designs: one was a 4x4 vehicle which would meet the required specification profile, but it was eventually rejected due to poor off-road performance in favor of the Panhard design, which would become the highly successful Panhard 178.

The other proposal fell outside of the specification limits. It was a bigger and much heavier 8x8 design, certainly influenced by the German SdKfz. 232 heavy scout car family. However, despite falling outside of the requirements, the Commission de Vincennes was impressed enough to order a prototype of this vehicle.

 

The Latil prototype had basically a conservative layout and was ready in October 1933. It was presented to the Commission de Vincennes in January 1934 under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1934 (AMD-34). The AMD-34 was, despite its 8x8 chassis and tank-like silhouette, based on modified Latil truck elements. Onto the ladder frame chassis, a hull made of screwed cast armor elements with a maximum thickness of 25 mm was mounted. The leaf spring suspension as well as the all-wheel drive were based on components of Latil’s heavy duty trucks. The eight large and steerable wheels were spaced apart as far as possible, with almost no overhang at the front and at the rear for a very good off-road performance and climbing capability. The crew consisted of three men: a driver and a radio operator, who both sat in the front of the hull, plus the commander, who, beyond directing the vehicle, also had to operate the weapons. The radio operator also had to support the commander as loader in the event of combat.

 

Power came from a water-cooled V8 petrol engine, an uprated version of Latil’s own V3 truck engine from 1933, with an output of 180 hp (132 kW). The engine was in the rear of the hull, separated from the fighting compartment at the front by a firewall bulkhead, and flanked side-by-side with two self-sealing fuel tanks with the large capacity of 80 and 320 liters capacity (the smaller tank fueled the engine and was constantly replenished from the bigger tank). A novel feature was an automatic fire extinguishing system, which used several tanks placed at critical spots of the vehicle, containing methyl bromide. The vehicle’s armament was mounted in a standardized, cast APX-R turret (which was also used on several light tanks like the Renault R-35) and consisted of a short-barreled Puteaux 37mm/L21 SA 18 gun as well as a coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun. 42 armor-piercing and 58 high explosive rounds were typically carried, plus 2.500 rounds for the machine gun.

 

The hexagonal turret had a 30 mm thick, domed rotatable cupola with vertical vision slits. It had to be either hand cranked or moved about by the weight of the commander. The rear of the turret had a hatch that hinged down which could be used as a seat to improve observation. Driver and radio operator (who had an ER 54 radio set available) had no hatches on their own. They entered the vehicle through a relatively large door on the vehicle’s left side.

 

After testing between 9 January and 2 February 1934 and comparison with the lighter 4 ton types, the AMR-34 was, despite its weight of almost 10 tons, accepted by the commission on 15 February under the condition some small modifications were carried out. In the autumn, the improved prototype was tested by the Cavalry and in late 1934 the type was accepted under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1935, better known under its handle “AMD-35”. Production started on a small scale in 1935 and by the end of the year the first AMD-35’s reached the Cavalry units. After complaints about reliability, such as cracking gun sights, and overheating, between 29 June and 2 December 1936 a new test program took place, resulting in many more detail modifications, including the fitting of a silencer, a ventilator on the turret and in the main cabin and a small, round hatch for the driver which allowed a better field of view when the crew did not have to work under armor cover.

The main weapon was also changed into a SA 38 37mm cannon with a longer (L33) barrel, since the original Puteaux cannon had only a very poor armor penetration of 12 mm at 500 meters. In this form, the vehicle was re-designated AMD-37. Several older vehicles were updated with this weapon, too, or they received a 25mm (0.98 in) SA35 L47.2 or L52 autocannon.

 

Overall, the AMD-37 proved to be an effective design. The eight-wheel armored car with all-wheel-drive and all-wheel-steering had a very good performance on- and off-road, even though with certain limits due to the vehicle’s weight and resulting ground pressure. The cabin was relatively spacious and comfortable, so that long range missions of 500 km (319 ml) and more could be endured well by the crews.

 

However, several inherent flaws persisted. One problem (which the AMD-37 shared with almost every French combat vehicle from the pre-WWII era) was that the commander was overburdened with tasks, especially under stressful combat conditions. The French Cavalry did not see this as a major flaw: A commander was supposed to acquire such a degree of dexterity that his workload did not negate the lack of need to coordinate the actions of two or even three men in a larger turret crew or the advantage of a quicker reaction because of a superior rotation speed. At first, a two-man-turret was required, but when it transpired that this would reduce the armor protection, it was abandoned in favor of thicker steel casts. However, the AMD-37’s armor level was generally relatively low, and hull’s seams offered attackers who knew where to aim several weak points that allowed even light hand weapons to penetrate the armor. Another tactical flaw associated with the turret was the hatchless cupola, forcing the commander to fight buttoned-up or leave the vehicle’s armor protection for a better field of view.

 

Operationally, though, the AMD-37 suffered from poor mechanical reliability: the suspension units were complicated and, since they were based on existing civil truck elements, too weak for heavy off-road operations under military conditions. The AMD-37’s weight of almost 10 tons (the comparable German SdKfz 231 was bigger but weighed only 8.3 tons) did not help, either. In consequence, the AMD-37 demanded enormous maintenance efforts, especially since the cast armor modules did not allow an easy access to the suspension and engine.

 

On 10 May 1940, on the eve of the German invasion in mainland France, the AMD-37 was part of 14 Divisions Légères Mécaniques (Mechanized Light Divisions; "light" meaning here "mobile", they were not light in the sense of being lightly equipped) battalions, each fielding dedicated reconnaissance groups with four to ten vehicles, which also comprised light Panhard 178 scout cars.

45 French AMD-37s were in Syria, a mandate territory, and 30 more were based in Morocco. The tanks in Syria would fight during the allied invasion of that mandate territory in 1941 and then partly be taken over by the Free French 1e CCC, those in North Africa during Operation Torch in November 1942.

The majority of AMD-37s in Western Europe fell into German hands, though: 78 were used as “Panzerkampfwagen 37R(f)” and mainly used in second line units for policy and security duties or for driver training. A small number of these German vehicles were sent to Finland, fighting on the Eastern Front, where they were outclassed by Soviet KV-1s and T-34s and quickly destroyed or abandoned.

 

Plans to augment the AMD-35’s armament with a bigger turret and a more powerful 47mm SA 35 gun (basically the same turret fitted to the SOMUA S-35 medium tank and the heavy Char B1bis) or an additional machine in the front bow for the radio operator were, due to the German invasion, never carried out.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Three (commander, radio operator/loader, driver)

Weight: 9,600 kg (21,145 lb)

Length: 5.29 m (17 ft 4 in)

Width: 2.52 m (8 ft 3 in)

Height: 2.44 metres (8 ft ½ in)

Suspension: Wheeled (Tires: 270–20, bulletproof), with leaf springs

Wading depth: 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in)

Trench crossing capability: 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in)

Ground clearance: 350 mm (13 3/4 in)

Climbing capability: 30°

Fuel capacity: 400 l

 

Armor:

9-30 mm (.35-1.18 in) cast steel

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 75 km/h (47 mph) on road, 55 km/h (34 mph) off-road

Operational range: 600 km (375 mi) on road

Power/weight: 18,7 PS/t

 

Engine:

Water-cooled Latil V8 gasoline engine with 7.336 cm³ displacement and 180 hp (132 kW) output

Transmission:

Latil gearbox with 4 forward and 1 reverse gears, eight-wheel drive and steering

 

Armament:

1× Puteaux 37mm/L33 SA 18 gun with 100 rounds

1× coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun with 2.500 rounds

  

The kit and its assembly:

This build was inspired by a drawing that I came across at DeviantArt a while ago, created by someone called MedJoe:

www.deviantart.com/medjoe/art/Autoblinde-SOMUA-S35bis-679...

The picture showed a Somua S-35 tank, set on eight wheels that heavily resembled those of the SdKfz. 234/2 “Puma”, in French colors and markings and designated S-35bis. I found the idea weird (since a full-fledged S-35 would certainly have at 20 tons been too heavy for a wheeled chassis), but the overall look of this combo was very convincing to me. I kept the idea in the back of my mind, until I came across a cheap Heller Somua S-35 in 1:72 scale and decided to take the concept to the (model) hardware stage and offer a personal interpretation.

 

Work started when I was able to acquire a sprue from a Plastic Soldier SdKfz. 231 kit, which provided a total of nine wheels in a suitable size and style, as well as suspension elements.

 

Building the hull was a straightforward affair: The Heller S-35 was built OOB, just the parts for the tracked suspension were left away. Some details and attachment points in the lower hull sections had to be removed, too. From the SdKfz. 232 I took the leaf spring suspension parts (these came as two frames for four wheels each, rather crude and solid parts) and cut the outer leaf spring packs off, so that their depth was reduced but the attachment points for the wheels were still there. These were simply glued into the space for the former tracks, similar to the drawing. This resulted in a slightly wide track, but narrowing the lower hull for a better look would have been a complicated affair, so I stuck with the simple solution. It does not look bad, though.

 

In order to make the vehicle’s role as a scout car more plausible and to avoid a head-heavy look, I decided to replace the original S-35 turret with a smaller APX turret from a Renault R-35. I found a suitable resin donor at ModelTrans, which was easily integrated to the S-35 hull. I perfectly fits into the S-35’s rounded cast armor style, which is so typical for many early French WWII tanks. Unfortunately, the resin R-35 turret had an air bubble at the rear, which had to be filled with putty. In order to differentiate the turret a little and modernize it, I added a longer gun barrel – in this case a piece from a hollow steel needle.

 

Other small mods include a pair of scratched rear-view mirrors for the driver, the spare wheel at the front (certainly not the best position, but the only place that was available and practical, and other armored vehicles of the time like the British Humber scout car also carried a spare wheel at the front) and an antenna at the rear, made from heated black sprue material.

  

Painting and markings:

This was not easy and it took a while to settle on a design. There were rather gaudy camouflage designs in the French army, but due to the model’s small scale I did not want a too complex design. I eventually decided to apply a rather simple scheme, inspired by the painting suggestions from the Heller kit: a disruptive two-tone scheme in a pale beige tone and a rather bluish dark green, which was confirmed through museum tanks. An odd quirk of the Heller kit is that the instructions and the box art show the same camouflage, but in inverted colors!?

 

I stuck to Heller’s suggestions and decided to follow the box art camouflage, which uses dark green (Humbrol 30) as basic color with light sand blotches (Humbrol 103) on top, which I found more appropriate for the middle European theatre of operations. I assume that these two tones were in real life separated by very narrow black or dark brown lines for more contrast – but I did not try this stunt on the small 1:72 scale model, it would IMHO have looked rather awkward. And there are French vehicles of the era that show these colors without any additional lines, too.

 

Markings/decals were mostly puzzled together from the scrap box, since the Heller decals turned out to be rather stiff and lack any adhesion to the model. I only used the “license plates”, which were fixed to the model with acrylic varnish, the rest are spares.

 

The kit received an overall washing with dark brown and a careful dry-brushing treatment with light grey.

After the final coat of matt varnish had been applied and all parts assembled, I dusted the lower areas with a dull grey-brown mix of artist pigments, simulating dust.

  

An experimental build, since drawing a whif is easier than actually building it, where parts have to fit somehow and you cannot change the size of them. Even though the resulting 8x8 scout car looks a little weird with its minimal overhang at the front and the rear, I like the result a lot – it looks very plausible to me. I also think that the smaller turret underlines the vehicle’s role as a rather lightly armed reconnaissance vehicle. It lowers the size and the silhouette, and subdues the S-35 origin – but without neglecting the typical French cast armor look. Certainly not a 1:1 copy of the inspiring drawing, but true to the original idea.

 

Australia.

British automaker Bentley was founded in 1919 by W.O.Bentley. Rolls Royce took over Bentley in 1931.

The first Bentley produced after the War was the 1946-52 Mk VI with the same body as the Rolls Royce Silver Dawn.

The Bentley R Type was built from 1952-55, sometimes called the Mark VII, it replaced the 1946-52 Mark VI. The front of the saloon was identical to the Mark VI, but the boot was almost doubled in capacity.

Mainly available as a 4 door Saloon from Bentley, but separate coach builders did build other versions, such as the Bentley R Type Continental 2 door Coupe built by H.J.Mulliner & Co, the fastest 4 seat production car in the world at the time.

2323 R Type 4 door Saloons were built

208 R Type 2 door Continentals were built

295 built from other coach builders

Engine; 130hp 4600cc 6 cyl

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

Latil was a French automaker specializing in heavy duty vehicles, such as trucks, tractors and buses. Beyond the design and production of vehicles for civil use, Latil also built after World War I a number of military vehicles. For instance, in 1911, Latil designed and built its first four-wheel drive vehicle. This type of vehicle interested the French Army in 1913 for its ability to tow heavy artillery on every field and the TAR (Tracteur d'Artillerie Roulante) was built.

 

Beyond a number of field tractors, Latil also designed and built an armed combat vehicle for the French Army, the armored AMD-37 scout car. The origins of this design can be traced back until December 1931, when the French Cavalry conceived a plan for the future production of armored fighting vehicles. One of the classes foreseen was that of an Automitrailleuse de Découverte (AMD), a specialized long range reconnaissance vehicle. The specifications were formulated on 22 December 1931, changed again on 18 November 1932 and finally approved on 9 December 1932. They called for a weight of 4 metric tons (4.0 t), a range of 400 kilometers (250 mi), a road speed of 70 km/h, a cruising speed of 40 km/h, a turning circle of 12 meters (39 ft), 5–8 mm armor, a 20 mm gun and a 7.5 mm machine gun.

 

In 1933, several competing companies responded (including Latil, Renault, Panhard and Berliet) with their proposals. Being rooted in rather heavy machinery, Latil proposed two designs: one was a 4x4 vehicle which would meet the required specification profile, but it was eventually rejected due to poor off-road performance in favor of the Panhard design, which would become the highly successful Panhard 178.

The other proposal fell outside of the specification limits. It was a bigger and much heavier 8x8 design, certainly influenced by the German SdKfz. 232 heavy scout car family. However, despite falling outside of the requirements, the Commission de Vincennes was impressed enough to order a prototype of this vehicle.

 

The Latil prototype had basically a conservative layout and was ready in October 1933. It was presented to the Commission de Vincennes in January 1934 under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1934 (AMD-34). The AMD-34 was, despite its 8x8 chassis and tank-like silhouette, based on modified Latil truck elements. Onto the ladder frame chassis, a hull made of screwed cast armor elements with a maximum thickness of 25 mm was mounted. The leaf spring suspension as well as the all-wheel drive were based on components of Latil’s heavy duty trucks. The eight large and steerable wheels were spaced apart as far as possible, with almost no overhang at the front and at the rear for a very good off-road performance and climbing capability. The crew consisted of three men: a driver and a radio operator, who both sat in the front of the hull, plus the commander, who, beyond directing the vehicle, also had to operate the weapons. The radio operator also had to support the commander as loader in the event of combat.

 

Power came from a water-cooled V8 petrol engine, an uprated version of Latil’s own V3 truck engine from 1933, with an output of 180 hp (132 kW). The engine was in the rear of the hull, separated from the fighting compartment at the front by a firewall bulkhead, and flanked side-by-side with two self-sealing fuel tanks with the large capacity of 80 and 320 liters capacity (the smaller tank fueled the engine and was constantly replenished from the bigger tank). A novel feature was an automatic fire extinguishing system, which used several tanks placed at critical spots of the vehicle, containing methyl bromide. The vehicle’s armament was mounted in a standardized, cast APX-R turret (which was also used on several light tanks like the Renault R-35) and consisted of a short-barreled Puteaux 37mm/L21 SA 18 gun as well as a coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun. 42 armor-piercing and 58 high explosive rounds were typically carried, plus 2.500 rounds for the machine gun.

 

The hexagonal turret had a 30 mm thick, domed rotatable cupola with vertical vision slits. It had to be either hand cranked or moved about by the weight of the commander. The rear of the turret had a hatch that hinged down which could be used as a seat to improve observation. Driver and radio operator (who had an ER 54 radio set available) had no hatches on their own. They entered the vehicle through a relatively large door on the vehicle’s left side.

 

After testing between 9 January and 2 February 1934 and comparison with the lighter 4 ton types, the AMR-34 was, despite its weight of almost 10 tons, accepted by the commission on 15 February under the condition some small modifications were carried out. In the autumn, the improved prototype was tested by the Cavalry and in late 1934 the type was accepted under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1935, better known under its handle “AMD-35”. Production started on a small scale in 1935 and by the end of the year the first AMD-35’s reached the Cavalry units. After complaints about reliability, such as cracking gun sights, and overheating, between 29 June and 2 December 1936 a new test program took place, resulting in many more detail modifications, including the fitting of a silencer, a ventilator on the turret and in the main cabin and a small, round hatch for the driver which allowed a better field of view when the crew did not have to work under armor cover.

The main weapon was also changed into a SA 38 37mm cannon with a longer (L33) barrel, since the original Puteaux cannon had only a very poor armor penetration of 12 mm at 500 meters. In this form, the vehicle was re-designated AMD-37. Several older vehicles were updated with this weapon, too, or they received a 25mm (0.98 in) SA35 L47.2 or L52 autocannon.

 

Overall, the AMD-37 proved to be an effective design. The eight-wheel armored car with all-wheel-drive and all-wheel-steering had a very good performance on- and off-road, even though with certain limits due to the vehicle’s weight and resulting ground pressure. The cabin was relatively spacious and comfortable, so that long range missions of 500 km (319 ml) and more could be endured well by the crews.

 

However, several inherent flaws persisted. One problem (which the AMD-37 shared with almost every French combat vehicle from the pre-WWII era) was that the commander was overburdened with tasks, especially under stressful combat conditions. The French Cavalry did not see this as a major flaw: A commander was supposed to acquire such a degree of dexterity that his workload did not negate the lack of need to coordinate the actions of two or even three men in a larger turret crew or the advantage of a quicker reaction because of a superior rotation speed. At first, a two-man-turret was required, but when it transpired that this would reduce the armor protection, it was abandoned in favor of thicker steel casts. However, the AMD-37’s armor level was generally relatively low, and hull’s seams offered attackers who knew where to aim several weak points that allowed even light hand weapons to penetrate the armor. Another tactical flaw associated with the turret was the hatchless cupola, forcing the commander to fight buttoned-up or leave the vehicle’s armor protection for a better field of view.

 

Operationally, though, the AMD-37 suffered from poor mechanical reliability: the suspension units were complicated and, since they were based on existing civil truck elements, too weak for heavy off-road operations under military conditions. The AMD-37’s weight of almost 10 tons (the comparable German SdKfz 231 was bigger but weighed only 8.3 tons) did not help, either. In consequence, the AMD-37 demanded enormous maintenance efforts, especially since the cast armor modules did not allow an easy access to the suspension and engine.

 

On 10 May 1940, on the eve of the German invasion in mainland France, the AMD-37 was part of 14 Divisions Légères Mécaniques (Mechanized Light Divisions; "light" meaning here "mobile", they were not light in the sense of being lightly equipped) battalions, each fielding dedicated reconnaissance groups with four to ten vehicles, which also comprised light Panhard 178 scout cars.

45 French AMD-37s were in Syria, a mandate territory, and 30 more were based in Morocco. The tanks in Syria would fight during the allied invasion of that mandate territory in 1941 and then partly be taken over by the Free French 1e CCC, those in North Africa during Operation Torch in November 1942.

The majority of AMD-37s in Western Europe fell into German hands, though: 78 were used as “Panzerkampfwagen 37R(f)” and mainly used in second line units for policy and security duties or for driver training. A small number of these German vehicles were sent to Finland, fighting on the Eastern Front, where they were outclassed by Soviet KV-1s and T-34s and quickly destroyed or abandoned.

 

Plans to augment the AMD-35’s armament with a bigger turret and a more powerful 47mm SA 35 gun (basically the same turret fitted to the SOMUA S-35 medium tank and the heavy Char B1bis) or an additional machine in the front bow for the radio operator were, due to the German invasion, never carried out.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Three (commander, radio operator/loader, driver)

Weight: 9,600 kg (21,145 lb)

Length: 5.29 m (17 ft 4 in)

Width: 2.52 m (8 ft 3 in)

Height: 2.44 metres (8 ft ½ in)

Suspension: Wheeled (Tires: 270–20, bulletproof), with leaf springs

Wading depth: 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in)

Trench crossing capability: 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in)

Ground clearance: 350 mm (13 3/4 in)

Climbing capability: 30°

Fuel capacity: 400 l

 

Armor:

9-30 mm (.35-1.18 in) cast steel

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 75 km/h (47 mph) on road, 55 km/h (34 mph) off-road

Operational range: 600 km (375 mi) on road

Power/weight: 18,7 PS/t

 

Engine:

Water-cooled Latil V8 gasoline engine with 7.336 cm³ displacement and 180 hp (132 kW) output

Transmission:

Latil gearbox with 4 forward and 1 reverse gears, eight-wheel drive and steering

 

Armament:

1× Puteaux 37mm/L33 SA 18 gun with 100 rounds

1× coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun with 2.500 rounds

  

The kit and its assembly:

This build was inspired by a drawing that I came across at DeviantArt a while ago, created by someone called MedJoe:

www.deviantart.com/medjoe/art/Autoblinde-SOMUA-S35bis-679...

The picture showed a Somua S-35 tank, set on eight wheels that heavily resembled those of the SdKfz. 234/2 “Puma”, in French colors and markings and designated S-35bis. I found the idea weird (since a full-fledged S-35 would certainly have at 20 tons been too heavy for a wheeled chassis), but the overall look of this combo was very convincing to me. I kept the idea in the back of my mind, until I came across a cheap Heller Somua S-35 in 1:72 scale and decided to take the concept to the (model) hardware stage and offer a personal interpretation.

 

Work started when I was able to acquire a sprue from a Plastic Soldier SdKfz. 231 kit, which provided a total of nine wheels in a suitable size and style, as well as suspension elements.

 

Building the hull was a straightforward affair: The Heller S-35 was built OOB, just the parts for the tracked suspension were left away. Some details and attachment points in the lower hull sections had to be removed, too. From the SdKfz. 232 I took the leaf spring suspension parts (these came as two frames for four wheels each, rather crude and solid parts) and cut the outer leaf spring packs off, so that their depth was reduced but the attachment points for the wheels were still there. These were simply glued into the space for the former tracks, similar to the drawing. This resulted in a slightly wide track, but narrowing the lower hull for a better look would have been a complicated affair, so I stuck with the simple solution. It does not look bad, though.

 

In order to make the vehicle’s role as a scout car more plausible and to avoid a head-heavy look, I decided to replace the original S-35 turret with a smaller APX turret from a Renault R-35. I found a suitable resin donor at ModelTrans, which was easily integrated to the S-35 hull. I perfectly fits into the S-35’s rounded cast armor style, which is so typical for many early French WWII tanks. Unfortunately, the resin R-35 turret had an air bubble at the rear, which had to be filled with putty. In order to differentiate the turret a little and modernize it, I added a longer gun barrel – in this case a piece from a hollow steel needle.

 

Other small mods include a pair of scratched rear-view mirrors for the driver, the spare wheel at the front (certainly not the best position, but the only place that was available and practical, and other armored vehicles of the time like the British Humber scout car also carried a spare wheel at the front) and an antenna at the rear, made from heated black sprue material.

  

Painting and markings:

This was not easy and it took a while to settle on a design. There were rather gaudy camouflage designs in the French army, but due to the model’s small scale I did not want a too complex design. I eventually decided to apply a rather simple scheme, inspired by the painting suggestions from the Heller kit: a disruptive two-tone scheme in a pale beige tone and a rather bluish dark green, which was confirmed through museum tanks. An odd quirk of the Heller kit is that the instructions and the box art show the same camouflage, but in inverted colors!?

 

I stuck to Heller’s suggestions and decided to follow the box art camouflage, which uses dark green (Humbrol 30) as basic color with light sand blotches (Humbrol 103) on top, which I found more appropriate for the middle European theatre of operations. I assume that these two tones were in real life separated by very narrow black or dark brown lines for more contrast – but I did not try this stunt on the small 1:72 scale model, it would IMHO have looked rather awkward. And there are French vehicles of the era that show these colors without any additional lines, too.

 

Markings/decals were mostly puzzled together from the scrap box, since the Heller decals turned out to be rather stiff and lack any adhesion to the model. I only used the “license plates”, which were fixed to the model with acrylic varnish, the rest are spares.

 

The kit received an overall washing with dark brown and a careful dry-brushing treatment with light grey.

After the final coat of matt varnish had been applied and all parts assembled, I dusted the lower areas with a dull grey-brown mix of artist pigments, simulating dust.

  

An experimental build, since drawing a whif is easier than actually building it, where parts have to fit somehow and you cannot change the size of them. Even though the resulting 8x8 scout car looks a little weird with its minimal overhang at the front and the rear, I like the result a lot – it looks very plausible to me. I also think that the smaller turret underlines the vehicle’s role as a rather lightly armed reconnaissance vehicle. It lowers the size and the silhouette, and subdues the S-35 origin – but without neglecting the typical French cast armor look. Certainly not a 1:1 copy of the inspiring drawing, but true to the original idea.

 

Think French automakers, and you think Peugeot, Renault and Citroen. For a great many years these three marques have dominated French sales and production.

 

France though, has a long history of car making, innovation, styling and coachbuilding. Unfortunately, like in many countries, most of this activity was severely hampered by WWII, and what was left struggled to find their feet in the 1950s and 1960s.

 

France, now part of the common European market, was more isolationist in the 1950s. If you wanted to sell cars in France you probably had to build cars in France. For a car-maker like Ford, this meant a French manufacturing arm combined with a design and engineering centre - Ford of France. Contrary to popular modern wisdom, Ford of France models were significantly different to those made in Germany and England - the two other large European car markets. Ultimately the market forces and logic corrected this oversight, and Ford of France's assets were sold to rival Simca in 1954.

 

Prior to this date though, Ford France produced this gem, the Comète. The Comète was based on the platform of the Ford Vedette, a range of cars bearing a resemblance to a 8/10ths scale Mercury from 1948. The Comète deployed a shorter wheelbase, and used the Vedette's Aquilon V8 engine, first at 2.2 litres (1951), 2.4 litres (1952) and switched to the Ford truck Mistral V8 of 3.9 litres for 1953-1954. The Mistral provided a big uplift in power and torque, but was ill-favoured due to its commercial vehicle roots, and secondly, the taxation regime for automobiles in France had strong disincentive for engine capacities over 2.0 litres.

 

Of further interest, the Comète had its body built by the Facel concern, who would later go on to make their own high-end luxury cars using large capacity Chrysler V8s (the Facel Vega).

 

In all, this is a handsome car, and very powerful for the period. The car is rare, and surviving examples have a strong following.

 

Read more on wikipedia:

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Com%C3%A8te

 

This Lego Miniland-scale 1954 Ford Comète Monte Carlo has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 115th Build Challenge, - "The French Connection", - for cars from France.

  

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

Latil was a French automaker specializing in heavy duty vehicles, such as trucks, tractors and buses. Beyond the design and production of vehicles for civil use, Latil also built after World War I a number of military vehicles. For instance, in 1911, Latil designed and built its first four-wheel drive vehicle. This type of vehicle interested the French Army in 1913 for its ability to tow heavy artillery on every field and the TAR (Tracteur d'Artillerie Roulante) was built.

 

Beyond a number of field tractors, Latil also designed and built an armed combat vehicle for the French Army, the armored AMD-37 scout car. The origins of this design can be traced back until December 1931, when the French Cavalry conceived a plan for the future production of armored fighting vehicles. One of the classes foreseen was that of an Automitrailleuse de Découverte (AMD), a specialized long range reconnaissance vehicle. The specifications were formulated on 22 December 1931, changed again on 18 November 1932 and finally approved on 9 December 1932. They called for a weight of 4 metric tons (4.0 t), a range of 400 kilometers (250 mi), a road speed of 70 km/h, a cruising speed of 40 km/h, a turning circle of 12 meters (39 ft), 5–8 mm armor, a 20 mm gun and a 7.5 mm machine gun.

 

In 1933, several competing companies responded (including Latil, Renault, Panhard and Berliet) with their proposals. Being rooted in rather heavy machinery, Latil proposed two designs: one was a 4x4 vehicle which would meet the required specification profile, but it was eventually rejected due to poor off-road performance in favor of the Panhard design, which would become the highly successful Panhard 178.

The other proposal fell outside of the specification limits. It was a bigger and much heavier 8x8 design, certainly influenced by the German SdKfz. 232 heavy scout car family. However, despite falling outside of the requirements, the Commission de Vincennes was impressed enough to order a prototype of this vehicle.

 

The Latil prototype had basically a conservative layout and was ready in October 1933. It was presented to the Commission de Vincennes in January 1934 under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1934 (AMD-34). The AMD-34 was, despite its 8x8 chassis and tank-like silhouette, based on modified Latil truck elements. Onto the ladder frame chassis, a hull made of screwed cast armor elements with a maximum thickness of 25 mm was mounted. The leaf spring suspension as well as the all-wheel drive were based on components of Latil’s heavy duty trucks. The eight large and steerable wheels were spaced apart as far as possible, with almost no overhang at the front and at the rear for a very good off-road performance and climbing capability. The crew consisted of three men: a driver and a radio operator, who both sat in the front of the hull, plus the commander, who, beyond directing the vehicle, also had to operate the weapons. The radio operator also had to support the commander as loader in the event of combat.

 

Power came from a water-cooled V8 petrol engine, an uprated version of Latil’s own V3 truck engine from 1933, with an output of 180 hp (132 kW). The engine was in the rear of the hull, separated from the fighting compartment at the front by a firewall bulkhead, and flanked side-by-side with two self-sealing fuel tanks with the large capacity of 80 and 320 liters capacity (the smaller tank fueled the engine and was constantly replenished from the bigger tank). A novel feature was an automatic fire extinguishing system, which used several tanks placed at critical spots of the vehicle, containing methyl bromide. The vehicle’s armament was mounted in a standardized, cast APX-R turret (which was also used on several light tanks like the Renault R-35) and consisted of a short-barreled Puteaux 37mm/L21 SA 18 gun as well as a coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun. 42 armor-piercing and 58 high explosive rounds were typically carried, plus 2.500 rounds for the machine gun.

 

The hexagonal turret had a 30 mm thick, domed rotatable cupola with vertical vision slits. It had to be either hand cranked or moved about by the weight of the commander. The rear of the turret had a hatch that hinged down which could be used as a seat to improve observation. Driver and radio operator (who had an ER 54 radio set available) had no hatches on their own. They entered the vehicle through a relatively large door on the vehicle’s left side.

 

After testing between 9 January and 2 February 1934 and comparison with the lighter 4 ton types, the AMR-34 was, despite its weight of almost 10 tons, accepted by the commission on 15 February under the condition some small modifications were carried out. In the autumn, the improved prototype was tested by the Cavalry and in late 1934 the type was accepted under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1935, better known under its handle “AMD-35”. Production started on a small scale in 1935 and by the end of the year the first AMD-35’s reached the Cavalry units. After complaints about reliability, such as cracking gun sights, and overheating, between 29 June and 2 December 1936 a new test program took place, resulting in many more detail modifications, including the fitting of a silencer, a ventilator on the turret and in the main cabin and a small, round hatch for the driver which allowed a better field of view when the crew did not have to work under armor cover.

The main weapon was also changed into a SA 38 37mm cannon with a longer (L33) barrel, since the original Puteaux cannon had only a very poor armor penetration of 12 mm at 500 meters. In this form, the vehicle was re-designated AMD-37. Several older vehicles were updated with this weapon, too, or they received a 25mm (0.98 in) SA35 L47.2 or L52 autocannon.

 

Overall, the AMD-37 proved to be an effective design. The eight-wheel armored car with all-wheel-drive and all-wheel-steering had a very good performance on- and off-road, even though with certain limits due to the vehicle’s weight and resulting ground pressure. The cabin was relatively spacious and comfortable, so that long range missions of 500 km (319 ml) and more could be endured well by the crews.

 

However, several inherent flaws persisted. One problem (which the AMD-37 shared with almost every French combat vehicle from the pre-WWII era) was that the commander was overburdened with tasks, especially under stressful combat conditions. The French Cavalry did not see this as a major flaw: A commander was supposed to acquire such a degree of dexterity that his workload did not negate the lack of need to coordinate the actions of two or even three men in a larger turret crew or the advantage of a quicker reaction because of a superior rotation speed. At first, a two-man-turret was required, but when it transpired that this would reduce the armor protection, it was abandoned in favor of thicker steel casts. However, the AMD-37’s armor level was generally relatively low, and hull’s seams offered attackers who knew where to aim several weak points that allowed even light hand weapons to penetrate the armor. Another tactical flaw associated with the turret was the hatchless cupola, forcing the commander to fight buttoned-up or leave the vehicle’s armor protection for a better field of view.

 

Operationally, though, the AMD-37 suffered from poor mechanical reliability: the suspension units were complicated and, since they were based on existing civil truck elements, too weak for heavy off-road operations under military conditions. The AMD-37’s weight of almost 10 tons (the comparable German SdKfz 231 was bigger but weighed only 8.3 tons) did not help, either. In consequence, the AMD-37 demanded enormous maintenance efforts, especially since the cast armor modules did not allow an easy access to the suspension and engine.

 

On 10 May 1940, on the eve of the German invasion in mainland France, the AMD-37 was part of 14 Divisions Légères Mécaniques (Mechanized Light Divisions; "light" meaning here "mobile", they were not light in the sense of being lightly equipped) battalions, each fielding dedicated reconnaissance groups with four to ten vehicles, which also comprised light Panhard 178 scout cars.

45 French AMD-37s were in Syria, a mandate territory, and 30 more were based in Morocco. The tanks in Syria would fight during the allied invasion of that mandate territory in 1941 and then partly be taken over by the Free French 1e CCC, those in North Africa during Operation Torch in November 1942.

The majority of AMD-37s in Western Europe fell into German hands, though: 78 were used as “Panzerkampfwagen 37R(f)” and mainly used in second line units for policy and security duties or for driver training. A small number of these German vehicles were sent to Finland, fighting on the Eastern Front, where they were outclassed by Soviet KV-1s and T-34s and quickly destroyed or abandoned.

 

Plans to augment the AMD-35’s armament with a bigger turret and a more powerful 47mm SA 35 gun (basically the same turret fitted to the SOMUA S-35 medium tank and the heavy Char B1bis) or an additional machine in the front bow for the radio operator were, due to the German invasion, never carried out.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Three (commander, radio operator/loader, driver)

Weight: 9,600 kg (21,145 lb)

Length: 5.29 m (17 ft 4 in)

Width: 2.52 m (8 ft 3 in)

Height: 2.44 metres (8 ft ½ in)

Suspension: Wheeled (Tires: 270–20, bulletproof), with leaf springs

Wading depth: 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in)

Trench crossing capability: 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in)

Ground clearance: 350 mm (13 3/4 in)

Climbing capability: 30°

Fuel capacity: 400 l

 

Armor:

9-30 mm (.35-1.18 in) cast steel

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 75 km/h (47 mph) on road, 55 km/h (34 mph) off-road

Operational range: 600 km (375 mi) on road

Power/weight: 18,7 PS/t

 

Engine:

Water-cooled Latil V8 gasoline engine with 7.336 cm³ displacement and 180 hp (132 kW) output

Transmission:

Latil gearbox with 4 forward and 1 reverse gears, eight-wheel drive and steering

 

Armament:

1× Puteaux 37mm/L33 SA 18 gun with 100 rounds

1× coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun with 2.500 rounds

  

The kit and its assembly:

This build was inspired by a drawing that I came across at DeviantArt a while ago, created by someone called MedJoe:

www.deviantart.com/medjoe/art/Autoblinde-SOMUA-S35bis-679...

The picture showed a Somua S-35 tank, set on eight wheels that heavily resembled those of the SdKfz. 234/2 “Puma”, in French colors and markings and designated S-35bis. I found the idea weird (since a full-fledged S-35 would certainly have at 20 tons been too heavy for a wheeled chassis), but the overall look of this combo was very convincing to me. I kept the idea in the back of my mind, until I came across a cheap Heller Somua S-35 in 1:72 scale and decided to take the concept to the (model) hardware stage and offer a personal interpretation.

 

Work started when I was able to acquire a sprue from a Plastic Soldier SdKfz. 231 kit, which provided a total of nine wheels in a suitable size and style, as well as suspension elements.

 

Building the hull was a straightforward affair: The Heller S-35 was built OOB, just the parts for the tracked suspension were left away. Some details and attachment points in the lower hull sections had to be removed, too. From the SdKfz. 232 I took the leaf spring suspension parts (these came as two frames for four wheels each, rather crude and solid parts) and cut the outer leaf spring packs off, so that their depth was reduced but the attachment points for the wheels were still there. These were simply glued into the space for the former tracks, similar to the drawing. This resulted in a slightly wide track, but narrowing the lower hull for a better look would have been a complicated affair, so I stuck with the simple solution. It does not look bad, though.

 

In order to make the vehicle’s role as a scout car more plausible and to avoid a head-heavy look, I decided to replace the original S-35 turret with a smaller APX turret from a Renault R-35. I found a suitable resin donor at ModelTrans, which was easily integrated to the S-35 hull. I perfectly fits into the S-35’s rounded cast armor style, which is so typical for many early French WWII tanks. Unfortunately, the resin R-35 turret had an air bubble at the rear, which had to be filled with putty. In order to differentiate the turret a little and modernize it, I added a longer gun barrel – in this case a piece from a hollow steel needle.

 

Other small mods include a pair of scratched rear-view mirrors for the driver, the spare wheel at the front (certainly not the best position, but the only place that was available and practical, and other armored vehicles of the time like the British Humber scout car also carried a spare wheel at the front) and an antenna at the rear, made from heated black sprue material.

  

Painting and markings:

This was not easy and it took a while to settle on a design. There were rather gaudy camouflage designs in the French army, but due to the model’s small scale I did not want a too complex design. I eventually decided to apply a rather simple scheme, inspired by the painting suggestions from the Heller kit: a disruptive two-tone scheme in a pale beige tone and a rather bluish dark green, which was confirmed through museum tanks. An odd quirk of the Heller kit is that the instructions and the box art show the same camouflage, but in inverted colors!?

 

I stuck to Heller’s suggestions and decided to follow the box art camouflage, which uses dark green (Humbrol 30) as basic color with light sand blotches (Humbrol 103) on top, which I found more appropriate for the middle European theatre of operations. I assume that these two tones were in real life separated by very narrow black or dark brown lines for more contrast – but I did not try this stunt on the small 1:72 scale model, it would IMHO have looked rather awkward. And there are French vehicles of the era that show these colors without any additional lines, too.

 

Markings/decals were mostly puzzled together from the scrap box, since the Heller decals turned out to be rather stiff and lack any adhesion to the model. I only used the “license plates”, which were fixed to the model with acrylic varnish, the rest are spares.

 

The kit received an overall washing with dark brown and a careful dry-brushing treatment with light grey.

After the final coat of matt varnish had been applied and all parts assembled, I dusted the lower areas with a dull grey-brown mix of artist pigments, simulating dust.

  

An experimental build, since drawing a whif is easier than actually building it, where parts have to fit somehow and you cannot change the size of them. Even though the resulting 8x8 scout car looks a little weird with its minimal overhang at the front and the rear, I like the result a lot – it looks very plausible to me. I also think that the smaller turret underlines the vehicle’s role as a rather lightly armed reconnaissance vehicle. It lowers the size and the silhouette, and subdues the S-35 origin – but without neglecting the typical French cast armor look. Certainly not a 1:1 copy of the inspiring drawing, but true to the original idea.

 

“Complementing the major maritime, air and rail lines, Panhard serves the road network.” [From the ad copy]

 

French automaker Panhard et Levassor was one of the pioneering companies in the automobile industry. The company was known for its unique and advanced engineering solutions, which made its cars stand out in the early automotive market. The 1932 Panhard X49, for example, is a notable model from the French automaker and a direct competitor to luxury cars like the Bugatti Type 46 and Hispano-Suiza H6B. The X49 was designed with lightweight engineering principles, focusing on efficiency rather than just large displacement. It featured a four-cylinder sleeve-valve engine with a displacement of 4845cc. Despite its smaller engine size, it was powerful and well-regarded for its performance.

 

[Sources: Wikipedia, Supercars.net and TheTruthAboutCars.com]

United States.

British automaker Bentley was founded in 1919 by W.O.Bentley. The company was well respected for its racing success.

The 1921-29 Bentley 3 litre was replaced with the more powerful 1927-31 Bentley 4½ litre. The 1926-30 Bentley 6½ litre was available at the same time, although very powerful, the 6½ litre was unsafe for the roads. 720 4½ litre Bentleys were built, including 55 'Blower' Bentleys. The Supercharged Blower Bentley was the performance version, the supercharger was installed at the end of the crankshaft, in front of the radiator. This gave them an easily recognisable appearance.

The Bentley 3 litre won Le Mans in 1924 and 1927

The Bentley 4½ litre won Le Mans in 1928

The Bentley 6½ litre Speed Six won Le Mans in 1929 and 1930.

Engine; 110hp 270 cu in 4 cyl (Blower Bentley; 175hp)

Cussler Museum, Colorado, USA

The Citroën XM is an executive car that was produced by the French automaker Citroën between 1989 and 2000. The XM was voted 1990 European Car of the Year.

 

Design:

 

The angular, dart-like Bertone design was a development of Marcello Gandini's Citroën BX concept. It was a longer car with a longer, inclined nose, more refined details and with headlamps that were very much slimmer than the norm (Gandini's own XM proposal was rejected as looking too much like an Opel). The design process of the car was described in the journal Car Styling. In the article Citroen's design chief, Art Blakeslee, explained the appearance of the car, saying "I believe the XM is a modern and dynamic shape, with unique styling elements such as the very long, low hood, the extensive use of glass and the kick-up in the belt line". In the book Citroen XM another Citroen designer, Daniel Abramson, explained: "We lowered the belt line to give the shape a stronger image. It is purely a 'design statement' that is not functional and does nothing for the aerodynamics of the vehicle. We wanted a car that looks good from every angle". Abramson is also reported as saying that they "picked three areas to emphasise: 1) A very aggressive look ("Almost sinister"), 2) Lots of glass to create a greenhouse effect, and 3) An aerodynamic accent based on fact (low drag)".

 

There were many advances, most apparently designed to counteract the main criticisms of its predecessor. The CX leaned in corners, so the XM had active electronic management of the suspension; the CX rusted, so the XM had a partially galvanised body shell (most surviving XMs have very little corrosion); the CX was underpowered, so the XM offered the option of a 3.0 L V6 engine – the first V6 in a Citroën since the Maserati-engined SM of 1970.

 

Ventilation was markedly more effective in the XM. Rear accommodation in the XM was improved over the CX in both width, legroom and height. In particular the rear passengers were seated higher than those in the front in order to afford a good view out, important for a vehicle which would operate in French government service. The XM shared a floorpan with the Peugeot 605, and the two models fared similarly in both teething problems and market acceptance. Unlike the 605 sedan design, the XM was a liftback design - a feature thought to be desirable in certain European markets.

 

History:

 

Launched on 23 May 1989, the XM was the modern iteration of the Big Citroën, a replacement for the Citroën CX. It was intended to compete against vehicles like the Audi 100 and BMW's 5-series in a sector that accounted for 14.2% of the European market. Citroen was quoted as saying that the car was supposed to "take what Citroen means and make it acceptable". The car's initial reception was positive. The XM won the prestigious European Car of the Year award for 1990 (gaining almost twice as many votes as the second, the Mercedes-Benz SL) and went on to win a further 14 awards that year.

 

The anticipated annual sales were 450 cars a day in the first full year of production, or 160,000 units a year. Sales never reached this level for a variety of reasons. The market for executive cars made by mainstream manufacturers was in decline as customers opted for offerings from more prestigious marques such as BMW and Mercedes-Benz; in parallel customers were placing a higher priority on speed and handling rather than ride comfort which was Citroen's specialty. The XM was underdeveloped at launch which resulted in reliability problems; the vehicle as designed was inconsistent in its abilities. The XM's styling was also controversial and alienated those who desired a more conventional three box sedan. Most subjective of all was the matter of the XM not living up to the expectations created by its forerunner the Citroen DS, despite that car having been launched in an era of national markets, of different demands and standards, an era when there was more scope for large advances in engineering and design than were possible in 1989.

 

The XM inherited a loyal global customer base of executive class customers and a clear brand image, but did not enjoy the commercial success and iconic status of its predecessors, the CX and the DS, which both raised the bar of automotive performance for other manufacturers. Export markets experienced lower sales from the outset, partly due to the XM's pricing. The least expensive XM was nearly 50% more expensive at the time of launch than the corresponding CX. Whilst strong at first home market sales also declined, after the mechanical issues of the first few model years became known. The problem was caused by defective electrical connectors. Cost-cutting on the components was needed since the parent company was in financial difficulty at the time of the design of the XM. Between 1980 and 1984 the company lost $1.5 billion.

 

In mid-1994, the XM was revised in order to improve competitiveness. All models were fitted with driver's airbag (signalling the end of the single-spoke steering wheel), belt-pretensioners, a redesigned dashboard and upper door casings. The suspension was redesigned to reduce roll, pitch and dive. Most noticeable was the adoption of a passive rear-steering system similar to that on the Citroen Xantia. This sharpened the "steering without inducing a nervous twitch." Power output on the turbocharged motor was increased to 150 bhp (112 kW; 152 PS) from 145 bhp (108 kW; 147 PS) at 4400 rpm. This allowed the car to develop more torque at much lower revs.

 

By the mid-1990s, it was apparent that the XM's image meant it was less desirable than German products such as the BMW 5 Series. The view of the XM as commercially unsuccessful is reported by Compucars, the used car website, along with numerous other period commentaries. Production ended in June 2000.

 

With total sales over its lifetime of just 330,000 units in more than 10 years, and the fact that its replacement took 5 years to arrive, the XM might be considered a failure. This was the case particularly in the United Kingdom market, where demand was reduced to a virtual trickle by the late 1990s. But despite its common roots with the Peugeot 605, the XM may still emerge as a collectible car, as the DS and CX both did.

 

[Text taken from Wikipedia]

 

The Citroen XM joins my recent Citroen Traction Avant, along with the Citroen DS and CX in my large Citroen collection.

The Citroën XM is an executive car that was produced by the French automaker Citroën between 1989 and 2000. The XM was voted 1990 European Car of the Year.

 

Design:

 

The angular, dart-like Bertone design was a development of Marcello Gandini's Citroën BX concept. It was a longer car with a longer, inclined nose, more refined details and with headlamps that were very much slimmer than the norm (Gandini's own XM proposal was rejected as looking too much like an Opel). The design process of the car was described in the journal Car Styling. In the article Citroen's design chief, Art Blakeslee, explained the appearance of the car, saying "I believe the XM is a modern and dynamic shape, with unique styling elements such as the very long, low hood, the extensive use of glass and the kick-up in the belt line". In the book Citroen XM another Citroen designer, Daniel Abramson, explained: "We lowered the belt line to give the shape a stronger image. It is purely a 'design statement' that is not functional and does nothing for the aerodynamics of the vehicle. We wanted a car that looks good from every angle". Abramson is also reported as saying that they "picked three areas to emphasise: 1) A very aggressive look ("Almost sinister"), 2) Lots of glass to create a greenhouse effect, and 3) An aerodynamic accent based on fact (low drag)".

 

There were many advances, most apparently designed to counteract the main criticisms of its predecessor. The CX leaned in corners, so the XM had active electronic management of the suspension; the CX rusted, so the XM had a partially galvanised body shell (most surviving XMs have very little corrosion); the CX was underpowered, so the XM offered the option of a 3.0 L V6 engine – the first V6 in a Citroën since the Maserati-engined SM of 1970.

 

Ventilation was markedly more effective in the XM. Rear accommodation in the XM was improved over the CX in both width, legroom and height. In particular the rear passengers were seated higher than those in the front in order to afford a good view out, important for a vehicle which would operate in French government service. The XM shared a floorpan with the Peugeot 605, and the two models fared similarly in both teething problems and market acceptance. Unlike the 605 sedan design, the XM was a liftback design - a feature thought to be desirable in certain European markets.

 

History:

 

Launched on 23 May 1989, the XM was the modern iteration of the Big Citroën, a replacement for the Citroën CX. It was intended to compete against vehicles like the Audi 100 and BMW's 5-series in a sector that accounted for 14.2% of the European market. Citroen was quoted as saying that the car was supposed to "take what Citroen means and make it acceptable". The car's initial reception was positive. The XM won the prestigious European Car of the Year award for 1990 (gaining almost twice as many votes as the second, the Mercedes-Benz SL) and went on to win a further 14 awards that year.

 

The anticipated annual sales were 450 cars a day in the first full year of production, or 160,000 units a year. Sales never reached this level for a variety of reasons. The market for executive cars made by mainstream manufacturers was in decline as customers opted for offerings from more prestigious marques such as BMW and Mercedes-Benz; in parallel customers were placing a higher priority on speed and handling rather than ride comfort which was Citroen's specialty. The XM was underdeveloped at launch which resulted in reliability problems; the vehicle as designed was inconsistent in its abilities. The XM's styling was also controversial and alienated those who desired a more conventional three box sedan. Most subjective of all was the matter of the XM not living up to the expectations created by its forerunner the Citroen DS, despite that car having been launched in an era of national markets, of different demands and standards, an era when there was more scope for large advances in engineering and design than were possible in 1989.

 

The XM inherited a loyal global customer base of executive class customers and a clear brand image, but did not enjoy the commercial success and iconic status of its predecessors, the CX and the DS, which both raised the bar of automotive performance for other manufacturers. Export markets experienced lower sales from the outset, partly due to the XM's pricing. The least expensive XM was nearly 50% more expensive at the time of launch than the corresponding CX. Whilst strong at first home market sales also declined, after the mechanical issues of the first few model years became known. The problem was caused by defective electrical connectors. Cost-cutting on the components was needed since the parent company was in financial difficulty at the time of the design of the XM. Between 1980 and 1984 the company lost $1.5 billion.

 

In mid-1994, the XM was revised in order to improve competitiveness. All models were fitted with driver's airbag (signalling the end of the single-spoke steering wheel), belt-pretensioners, a redesigned dashboard and upper door casings. The suspension was redesigned to reduce roll, pitch and dive. Most noticeable was the adoption of a passive rear-steering system similar to that on the Citroen Xantia. This sharpened the "steering without inducing a nervous twitch." Power output on the turbocharged motor was increased to 150 bhp (112 kW; 152 PS) from 145 bhp (108 kW; 147 PS) at 4400 rpm. This allowed the car to develop more torque at much lower revs.

 

By the mid-1990s, it was apparent that the XM's image meant it was less desirable than German products such as the BMW 5 Series. The view of the XM as commercially unsuccessful is reported by Compucars, the used car website, along with numerous other period commentaries. Production ended in June 2000.

 

With total sales over its lifetime of just 330,000 units in more than 10 years, and the fact that its replacement took 5 years to arrive, the XM might be considered a failure. This was the case particularly in the United Kingdom market, where demand was reduced to a virtual trickle by the late 1990s. But despite its common roots with the Peugeot 605, the XM may still emerge as a collectible car, as the DS and CX both did.

 

[Text taken from Wikipedia]

 

The Citroen XM joins my recent Citroen Traction Avant, along with the Citroen DS and CX in my large Citroen collection.

The Peugeot 107 is a city car produced by French automaker Peugeot and launched in June 2005.

 

The 107 was developed by the B-Zero project of PSA Peugeot Citroën in a joint-venture with Toyota; the Citroën C1 and Toyota Aygo are badge engineered versions of the same car, although the Aygo has more detail differences than the C1. All three are built at the new facilities of the Toyota Peugeot Citroën Automobile Czech joint-venture in the city of Kolin, Czech Republic. It is a four-seater available as a three- or five-door hatchback. The 107 replaces the 106, which ceased production at the end of 2003 after 12 years.

 

After a string of larger and much more sophisticated cars, this little car was refreshing. It was small and it was basic but still features such as electric windows (but if you want to open the passengers window you have to lean over and press the button on the passengers door!) and Air Conditioning (needs to be turned off if more power is required, for example on a motorway climb).

 

Mileage driven: 281.5

Average MPG: Unknown (no onboard calculation, and I haven't got round to comparing miles versus how much fuel it used - i.e. the old school way).

 

Likes: Basic, easy to drive, 1 step from the drivers door and you are at the rear hatch, short, easy to park, very willing 1.0 litre 3 cylinder Petrol engine, £0 Vehicle Excise Duty (AKA tax disc) due to CO₂ Emissions being 99 g/km, ability to cruise in excess of the national speed limit.

 

Dislikes: Flimsy in certain areas of trim and bodywork. No character unlike the FIAT 500 for example.

 

The general gearing on the 107 is quite high, I was constantly surprised at how high the road speed could be in each gear. And how far down you could change down - this was required to keep the little engine working hard.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peugeot_107

 

Note the Kia Picanto DF54 NFK parked across two parking spaces. This is regularly parked in the same spot in the same across two spaces style. I presume it belongs to an someone who works at the services.

 

Auto Express review of the 107:

www.autoexpress.co.uk/car-reviews/40387/peugeot-107-10-ac...

The Citroën XM is an executive car that was produced by the French automaker Citroën between 1989 and 2000. The XM was voted 1990 European Car of the Year.

 

Design:

 

The angular, dart-like Bertone design was a development of Marcello Gandini's Citroën BX concept. It was a longer car with a longer, inclined nose, more refined details and with headlamps that were very much slimmer than the norm (Gandini's own XM proposal was rejected as looking too much like an Opel). The design process of the car was described in the journal Car Styling. In the article Citroen's design chief, Art Blakeslee, explained the appearance of the car, saying "I believe the XM is a modern and dynamic shape, with unique styling elements such as the very long, low hood, the extensive use of glass and the kick-up in the belt line". In the book Citroen XM another Citroen designer, Daniel Abramson, explained: "We lowered the belt line to give the shape a stronger image. It is purely a 'design statement' that is not functional and does nothing for the aerodynamics of the vehicle. We wanted a car that looks good from every angle". Abramson is also reported as saying that they "picked three areas to emphasise: 1) A very aggressive look ("Almost sinister"), 2) Lots of glass to create a greenhouse effect, and 3) An aerodynamic accent based on fact (low drag)".

 

There were many advances, most apparently designed to counteract the main criticisms of its predecessor. The CX leaned in corners, so the XM had active electronic management of the suspension; the CX rusted, so the XM had a partially galvanised body shell (most surviving XMs have very little corrosion); the CX was underpowered, so the XM offered the option of a 3.0 L V6 engine – the first V6 in a Citroën since the Maserati-engined SM of 1970.

 

Ventilation was markedly more effective in the XM. Rear accommodation in the XM was improved over the CX in both width, legroom and height. In particular the rear passengers were seated higher than those in the front in order to afford a good view out, important for a vehicle which would operate in French government service. The XM shared a floorpan with the Peugeot 605, and the two models fared similarly in both teething problems and market acceptance. Unlike the 605 sedan design, the XM was a liftback design - a feature thought to be desirable in certain European markets.

 

History:

 

Launched on 23 May 1989, the XM was the modern iteration of the Big Citroën, a replacement for the Citroën CX. It was intended to compete against vehicles like the Audi 100 and BMW's 5-series in a sector that accounted for 14.2% of the European market. Citroen was quoted as saying that the car was supposed to "take what Citroen means and make it acceptable". The car's initial reception was positive. The XM won the prestigious European Car of the Year award for 1990 (gaining almost twice as many votes as the second, the Mercedes-Benz SL) and went on to win a further 14 awards that year.

 

The anticipated annual sales were 450 cars a day in the first full year of production, or 160,000 units a year. Sales never reached this level for a variety of reasons. The market for executive cars made by mainstream manufacturers was in decline as customers opted for offerings from more prestigious marques such as BMW and Mercedes-Benz; in parallel customers were placing a higher priority on speed and handling rather than ride comfort which was Citroen's specialty. The XM was underdeveloped at launch which resulted in reliability problems; the vehicle as designed was inconsistent in its abilities. The XM's styling was also controversial and alienated those who desired a more conventional three box sedan. Most subjective of all was the matter of the XM not living up to the expectations created by its forerunner the Citroen DS, despite that car having been launched in an era of national markets, of different demands and standards, an era when there was more scope for large advances in engineering and design than were possible in 1989.

 

The XM inherited a loyal global customer base of executive class customers and a clear brand image, but did not enjoy the commercial success and iconic status of its predecessors, the CX and the DS, which both raised the bar of automotive performance for other manufacturers. Export markets experienced lower sales from the outset, partly due to the XM's pricing. The least expensive XM was nearly 50% more expensive at the time of launch than the corresponding CX. Whilst strong at first home market sales also declined, after the mechanical issues of the first few model years became known. The problem was caused by defective electrical connectors. Cost-cutting on the components was needed since the parent company was in financial difficulty at the time of the design of the XM. Between 1980 and 1984 the company lost $1.5 billion.

 

In mid-1994, the XM was revised in order to improve competitiveness. All models were fitted with driver's airbag (signalling the end of the single-spoke steering wheel), belt-pretensioners, a redesigned dashboard and upper door casings. The suspension was redesigned to reduce roll, pitch and dive. Most noticeable was the adoption of a passive rear-steering system similar to that on the Citroen Xantia. This sharpened the "steering without inducing a nervous twitch." Power output on the turbocharged motor was increased to 150 bhp (112 kW; 152 PS) from 145 bhp (108 kW; 147 PS) at 4400 rpm. This allowed the car to develop more torque at much lower revs.

 

By the mid-1990s, it was apparent that the XM's image meant it was less desirable than German products such as the BMW 5 Series. The view of the XM as commercially unsuccessful is reported by Compucars, the used car website, along with numerous other period commentaries. Production ended in June 2000.

 

With total sales over its lifetime of just 330,000 units in more than 10 years, and the fact that its replacement took 5 years to arrive, the XM might be considered a failure. This was the case particularly in the United Kingdom market, where demand was reduced to a virtual trickle by the late 1990s. But despite its common roots with the Peugeot 605, the XM may still emerge as a collectible car, as the DS and CX both did.

 

[Text taken from Wikipedia]

 

The Citroen XM joins my recent Citroen Traction Avant, along with the Citroen DS and CX in my large Citroen collection.

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

Latil was a French automaker specializing in heavy duty vehicles, such as trucks, tractors and buses. Beyond the design and production of vehicles for civil use, Latil also built after World War I a number of military vehicles. For instance, in 1911, Latil designed and built its first four-wheel drive vehicle. This type of vehicle interested the French Army in 1913 for its ability to tow heavy artillery on every field and the TAR (Tracteur d'Artillerie Roulante) was built.

 

Beyond a number of field tractors, Latil also designed and built an armed combat vehicle for the French Army, the armored AMD-37 scout car. The origins of this design can be traced back until December 1931, when the French Cavalry conceived a plan for the future production of armored fighting vehicles. One of the classes foreseen was that of an Automitrailleuse de Découverte (AMD), a specialized long range reconnaissance vehicle. The specifications were formulated on 22 December 1931, changed again on 18 November 1932 and finally approved on 9 December 1932. They called for a weight of 4 metric tons (4.0 t), a range of 400 kilometers (250 mi), a road speed of 70 km/h, a cruising speed of 40 km/h, a turning circle of 12 meters (39 ft), 5–8 mm armor, a 20 mm gun and a 7.5 mm machine gun.

 

In 1933, several competing companies responded (including Latil, Renault, Panhard and Berliet) with their proposals. Being rooted in rather heavy machinery, Latil proposed two designs: one was a 4x4 vehicle which would meet the required specification profile, but it was eventually rejected due to poor off-road performance in favor of the Panhard design, which would become the highly successful Panhard 178.

The other proposal fell outside of the specification limits. It was a bigger and much heavier 8x8 design, certainly influenced by the German SdKfz. 232 heavy scout car family. However, despite falling outside of the requirements, the Commission de Vincennes was impressed enough to order a prototype of this vehicle.

 

The Latil prototype had basically a conservative layout and was ready in October 1933. It was presented to the Commission de Vincennes in January 1934 under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1934 (AMD-34). The AMD-34 was, despite its 8x8 chassis and tank-like silhouette, based on modified Latil truck elements. Onto the ladder frame chassis, a hull made of screwed cast armor elements with a maximum thickness of 25 mm was mounted. The leaf spring suspension as well as the all-wheel drive were based on components of Latil’s heavy duty trucks. The eight large and steerable wheels were spaced apart as far as possible, with almost no overhang at the front and at the rear for a very good off-road performance and climbing capability. The crew consisted of three men: a driver and a radio operator, who both sat in the front of the hull, plus the commander, who, beyond directing the vehicle, also had to operate the weapons. The radio operator also had to support the commander as loader in the event of combat.

 

Power came from a water-cooled V8 petrol engine, an uprated version of Latil’s own V3 truck engine from 1933, with an output of 180 hp (132 kW). The engine was in the rear of the hull, separated from the fighting compartment at the front by a firewall bulkhead, and flanked side-by-side with two self-sealing fuel tanks with the large capacity of 80 and 320 liters capacity (the smaller tank fueled the engine and was constantly replenished from the bigger tank). A novel feature was an automatic fire extinguishing system, which used several tanks placed at critical spots of the vehicle, containing methyl bromide. The vehicle’s armament was mounted in a standardized, cast APX-R turret (which was also used on several light tanks like the Renault R-35) and consisted of a short-barreled Puteaux 37mm/L21 SA 18 gun as well as a coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun. 42 armor-piercing and 58 high explosive rounds were typically carried, plus 2.500 rounds for the machine gun.

 

The hexagonal turret had a 30 mm thick, domed rotatable cupola with vertical vision slits. It had to be either hand cranked or moved about by the weight of the commander. The rear of the turret had a hatch that hinged down which could be used as a seat to improve observation. Driver and radio operator (who had an ER 54 radio set available) had no hatches on their own. They entered the vehicle through a relatively large door on the vehicle’s left side.

 

After testing between 9 January and 2 February 1934 and comparison with the lighter 4 ton types, the AMR-34 was, despite its weight of almost 10 tons, accepted by the commission on 15 February under the condition some small modifications were carried out. In the autumn, the improved prototype was tested by the Cavalry and in late 1934 the type was accepted under the name Latil Automitrailleuse de Découverte, Modèle 1935, better known under its handle “AMD-35”. Production started on a small scale in 1935 and by the end of the year the first AMD-35’s reached the Cavalry units. After complaints about reliability, such as cracking gun sights, and overheating, between 29 June and 2 December 1936 a new test program took place, resulting in many more detail modifications, including the fitting of a silencer, a ventilator on the turret and in the main cabin and a small, round hatch for the driver which allowed a better field of view when the crew did not have to work under armor cover.

The main weapon was also changed into a SA 38 37mm cannon with a longer (L33) barrel, since the original Puteaux cannon had only a very poor armor penetration of 12 mm at 500 meters. In this form, the vehicle was re-designated AMD-37. Several older vehicles were updated with this weapon, too, or they received a 25mm (0.98 in) SA35 L47.2 or L52 autocannon.

 

Overall, the AMD-37 proved to be an effective design. The eight-wheel armored car with all-wheel-drive and all-wheel-steering had a very good performance on- and off-road, even though with certain limits due to the vehicle’s weight and resulting ground pressure. The cabin was relatively spacious and comfortable, so that long range missions of 500 km (319 ml) and more could be endured well by the crews.

 

However, several inherent flaws persisted. One problem (which the AMD-37 shared with almost every French combat vehicle from the pre-WWII era) was that the commander was overburdened with tasks, especially under stressful combat conditions. The French Cavalry did not see this as a major flaw: A commander was supposed to acquire such a degree of dexterity that his workload did not negate the lack of need to coordinate the actions of two or even three men in a larger turret crew or the advantage of a quicker reaction because of a superior rotation speed. At first, a two-man-turret was required, but when it transpired that this would reduce the armor protection, it was abandoned in favor of thicker steel casts. However, the AMD-37’s armor level was generally relatively low, and hull’s seams offered attackers who knew where to aim several weak points that allowed even light hand weapons to penetrate the armor. Another tactical flaw associated with the turret was the hatchless cupola, forcing the commander to fight buttoned-up or leave the vehicle’s armor protection for a better field of view.

 

Operationally, though, the AMD-37 suffered from poor mechanical reliability: the suspension units were complicated and, since they were based on existing civil truck elements, too weak for heavy off-road operations under military conditions. The AMD-37’s weight of almost 10 tons (the comparable German SdKfz 231 was bigger but weighed only 8.3 tons) did not help, either. In consequence, the AMD-37 demanded enormous maintenance efforts, especially since the cast armor modules did not allow an easy access to the suspension and engine.

 

On 10 May 1940, on the eve of the German invasion in mainland France, the AMD-37 was part of 14 Divisions Légères Mécaniques (Mechanized Light Divisions; "light" meaning here "mobile", they were not light in the sense of being lightly equipped) battalions, each fielding dedicated reconnaissance groups with four to ten vehicles, which also comprised light Panhard 178 scout cars.

45 French AMD-37s were in Syria, a mandate territory, and 30 more were based in Morocco. The tanks in Syria would fight during the allied invasion of that mandate territory in 1941 and then partly be taken over by the Free French 1e CCC, those in North Africa during Operation Torch in November 1942.

The majority of AMD-37s in Western Europe fell into German hands, though: 78 were used as “Panzerkampfwagen 37R(f)” and mainly used in second line units for policy and security duties or for driver training. A small number of these German vehicles were sent to Finland, fighting on the Eastern Front, where they were outclassed by Soviet KV-1s and T-34s and quickly destroyed or abandoned.

 

Plans to augment the AMD-35’s armament with a bigger turret and a more powerful 47mm SA 35 gun (basically the same turret fitted to the SOMUA S-35 medium tank and the heavy Char B1bis) or an additional machine in the front bow for the radio operator were, due to the German invasion, never carried out.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Three (commander, radio operator/loader, driver)

Weight: 9,600 kg (21,145 lb)

Length: 5.29 m (17 ft 4 in)

Width: 2.52 m (8 ft 3 in)

Height: 2.44 metres (8 ft ½ in)

Suspension: Wheeled (Tires: 270–20, bulletproof), with leaf springs

Wading depth: 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in)

Trench crossing capability: 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in)

Ground clearance: 350 mm (13 3/4 in)

Climbing capability: 30°

Fuel capacity: 400 l

 

Armor:

9-30 mm (.35-1.18 in) cast steel

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 75 km/h (47 mph) on road, 55 km/h (34 mph) off-road

Operational range: 600 km (375 mi) on road

Power/weight: 18,7 PS/t

 

Engine:

Water-cooled Latil V8 gasoline engine with 7.336 cm³ displacement and 180 hp (132 kW) output

Transmission:

Latil gearbox with 4 forward and 1 reverse gears, eight-wheel drive and steering

 

Armament:

1× Puteaux 37mm/L33 SA 18 gun with 100 rounds

1× coaxial 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun with 2.500 rounds

  

The kit and its assembly:

This build was inspired by a drawing that I came across at DeviantArt a while ago, created by someone called MedJoe:

www.deviantart.com/medjoe/art/Autoblinde-SOMUA-S35bis-679...

The picture showed a Somua S-35 tank, set on eight wheels that heavily resembled those of the SdKfz. 234/2 “Puma”, in French colors and markings and designated S-35bis. I found the idea weird (since a full-fledged S-35 would certainly have at 20 tons been too heavy for a wheeled chassis), but the overall look of this combo was very convincing to me. I kept the idea in the back of my mind, until I came across a cheap Heller Somua S-35 in 1:72 scale and decided to take the concept to the (model) hardware stage and offer a personal interpretation.

 

Work started when I was able to acquire a sprue from a Plastic Soldier SdKfz. 231 kit, which provided a total of nine wheels in a suitable size and style, as well as suspension elements.

 

Building the hull was a straightforward affair: The Heller S-35 was built OOB, just the parts for the tracked suspension were left away. Some details and attachment points in the lower hull sections had to be removed, too. From the SdKfz. 232 I took the leaf spring suspension parts (these came as two frames for four wheels each, rather crude and solid parts) and cut the outer leaf spring packs off, so that their depth was reduced but the attachment points for the wheels were still there. These were simply glued into the space for the former tracks, similar to the drawing. This resulted in a slightly wide track, but narrowing the lower hull for a better look would have been a complicated affair, so I stuck with the simple solution. It does not look bad, though.

 

In order to make the vehicle’s role as a scout car more plausible and to avoid a head-heavy look, I decided to replace the original S-35 turret with a smaller APX turret from a Renault R-35. I found a suitable resin donor at ModelTrans, which was easily integrated to the S-35 hull. I perfectly fits into the S-35’s rounded cast armor style, which is so typical for many early French WWII tanks. Unfortunately, the resin R-35 turret had an air bubble at the rear, which had to be filled with putty. In order to differentiate the turret a little and modernize it, I added a longer gun barrel – in this case a piece from a hollow steel needle.

 

Other small mods include a pair of scratched rear-view mirrors for the driver, the spare wheel at the front (certainly not the best position, but the only place that was available and practical, and other armored vehicles of the time like the British Humber scout car also carried a spare wheel at the front) and an antenna at the rear, made from heated black sprue material.

  

Painting and markings:

This was not easy and it took a while to settle on a design. There were rather gaudy camouflage designs in the French army, but due to the model’s small scale I did not want a too complex design. I eventually decided to apply a rather simple scheme, inspired by the painting suggestions from the Heller kit: a disruptive two-tone scheme in a pale beige tone and a rather bluish dark green, which was confirmed through museum tanks. An odd quirk of the Heller kit is that the instructions and the box art show the same camouflage, but in inverted colors!?

 

I stuck to Heller’s suggestions and decided to follow the box art camouflage, which uses dark green (Humbrol 30) as basic color with light sand blotches (Humbrol 103) on top, which I found more appropriate for the middle European theatre of operations. I assume that these two tones were in real life separated by very narrow black or dark brown lines for more contrast – but I did not try this stunt on the small 1:72 scale model, it would IMHO have looked rather awkward. And there are French vehicles of the era that show these colors without any additional lines, too.

 

Markings/decals were mostly puzzled together from the scrap box, since the Heller decals turned out to be rather stiff and lack any adhesion to the model. I only used the “license plates”, which were fixed to the model with acrylic varnish, the rest are spares.

 

The kit received an overall washing with dark brown and a careful dry-brushing treatment with light grey.

After the final coat of matt varnish had been applied and all parts assembled, I dusted the lower areas with a dull grey-brown mix of artist pigments, simulating dust.

  

An experimental build, since drawing a whif is easier than actually building it, where parts have to fit somehow and you cannot change the size of them. Even though the resulting 8x8 scout car looks a little weird with its minimal overhang at the front and the rear, I like the result a lot – it looks very plausible to me. I also think that the smaller turret underlines the vehicle’s role as a rather lightly armed reconnaissance vehicle. It lowers the size and the silhouette, and subdues the S-35 origin – but without neglecting the typical French cast armor look. Certainly not a 1:1 copy of the inspiring drawing, but true to the original idea.

 

The Citroën XM is an executive car that was produced by the French automaker Citroën between 1989 and 2000. The XM was voted 1990 European Car of the Year.

 

Design:

 

The angular, dart-like Bertone design was a development of Marcello Gandini's Citroën BX concept. It was a longer car with a longer, inclined nose, more refined details and with headlamps that were very much slimmer than the norm (Gandini's own XM proposal was rejected as looking too much like an Opel). The design process of the car was described in the journal Car Styling. In the article Citroen's design chief, Art Blakeslee, explained the appearance of the car, saying "I believe the XM is a modern and dynamic shape, with unique styling elements such as the very long, low hood, the extensive use of glass and the kick-up in the belt line". In the book Citroen XM another Citroen designer, Daniel Abramson, explained: "We lowered the belt line to give the shape a stronger image. It is purely a 'design statement' that is not functional and does nothing for the aerodynamics of the vehicle. We wanted a car that looks good from every angle". Abramson is also reported as saying that they "picked three areas to emphasise: 1) A very aggressive look ("Almost sinister"), 2) Lots of glass to create a greenhouse effect, and 3) An aerodynamic accent based on fact (low drag)".

 

There were many advances, most apparently designed to counteract the main criticisms of its predecessor. The CX leaned in corners, so the XM had active electronic management of the suspension; the CX rusted, so the XM had a partially galvanised body shell (most surviving XMs have very little corrosion); the CX was underpowered, so the XM offered the option of a 3.0 L V6 engine – the first V6 in a Citroën since the Maserati-engined SM of 1970.

 

Ventilation was markedly more effective in the XM. Rear accommodation in the XM was improved over the CX in both width, legroom and height. In particular the rear passengers were seated higher than those in the front in order to afford a good view out, important for a vehicle which would operate in French government service. The XM shared a floorpan with the Peugeot 605, and the two models fared similarly in both teething problems and market acceptance. Unlike the 605 sedan design, the XM was a liftback design - a feature thought to be desirable in certain European markets.

 

History:

 

Launched on 23 May 1989, the XM was the modern iteration of the Big Citroën, a replacement for the Citroën CX. It was intended to compete against vehicles like the Audi 100 and BMW's 5-series in a sector that accounted for 14.2% of the European market. Citroen was quoted as saying that the car was supposed to "take what Citroen means and make it acceptable". The car's initial reception was positive. The XM won the prestigious European Car of the Year award for 1990 (gaining almost twice as many votes as the second, the Mercedes-Benz SL) and went on to win a further 14 awards that year.

 

The anticipated annual sales were 450 cars a day in the first full year of production, or 160,000 units a year. Sales never reached this level for a variety of reasons. The market for executive cars made by mainstream manufacturers was in decline as customers opted for offerings from more prestigious marques such as BMW and Mercedes-Benz; in parallel customers were placing a higher priority on speed and handling rather than ride comfort which was Citroen's specialty. The XM was underdeveloped at launch which resulted in reliability problems; the vehicle as designed was inconsistent in its abilities. The XM's styling was also controversial and alienated those who desired a more conventional three box sedan. Most subjective of all was the matter of the XM not living up to the expectations created by its forerunner the Citroen DS, despite that car having been launched in an era of national markets, of different demands and standards, an era when there was more scope for large advances in engineering and design than were possible in 1989.

 

The XM inherited a loyal global customer base of executive class customers and a clear brand image, but did not enjoy the commercial success and iconic status of its predecessors, the CX and the DS, which both raised the bar of automotive performance for other manufacturers. Export markets experienced lower sales from the outset, partly due to the XM's pricing. The least expensive XM was nearly 50% more expensive at the time of launch than the corresponding CX. Whilst strong at first home market sales also declined, after the mechanical issues of the first few model years became known. The problem was caused by defective electrical connectors. Cost-cutting on the components was needed since the parent company was in financial difficulty at the time of the design of the XM. Between 1980 and 1984 the company lost $1.5 billion.

 

In mid-1994, the XM was revised in order to improve competitiveness. All models were fitted with driver's airbag (signalling the end of the single-spoke steering wheel), belt-pretensioners, a redesigned dashboard and upper door casings. The suspension was redesigned to reduce roll, pitch and dive. Most noticeable was the adoption of a passive rear-steering system similar to that on the Citroen Xantia. This sharpened the "steering without inducing a nervous twitch." Power output on the turbocharged motor was increased to 150 bhp (112 kW; 152 PS) from 145 bhp (108 kW; 147 PS) at 4400 rpm. This allowed the car to develop more torque at much lower revs.

 

By the mid-1990s, it was apparent that the XM's image meant it was less desirable than German products such as the BMW 5 Series. The view of the XM as commercially unsuccessful is reported by Compucars, the used car website, along with numerous other period commentaries. Production ended in June 2000.

 

With total sales over its lifetime of just 330,000 units in more than 10 years, and the fact that its replacement took 5 years to arrive, the XM might be considered a failure. This was the case particularly in the United Kingdom market, where demand was reduced to a virtual trickle by the late 1990s. But despite its common roots with the Peugeot 605, the XM may still emerge as a collectible car, as the DS and CX both did.

 

[Text taken from Wikipedia]

 

The Citroen XM joins my recent Citroen Traction Avant, along with the Citroen DS and CX in my large Citroen collection.

The Renault Fuego ("Fire" in Spanish) was a sports car produced by French automaker Renault from 1980 to 1995, replacing the Renault 15 and 17 coupés of the 1970s. It was marketed in the United States by American Motors Corporation (AMC), and was also assembled in Argentina.

 

Development:

 

The Fuego's exterior was designed by Michel Jardin, working under Robert Opron (who had previously designed the Citroën SM, Citroën GS, Citroën CX, and later followed with the Renault 25 in 1984).

 

The Renault Fuego was heavily based on the Renault 18, sharing its floorpan and drivetrain, but featuring a new front suspension design developed from the larger Renault 20/30. The design kept the familiar double wishbone layout common with the Renault 18 but no parts were interchangeable and the design incorporated negative scrub radius geometry. The new suspension design would later be introduced in the facelifted Renault 18, and with minor refinements (larger bushings, etc.), it was used in the Renault 25. In 1984, the Fuego dashboard was added to the facelifted R18. European production continued into 1986 (to 1985 in France and 1986 in Spain), while Renault Argentina produced the Fuego from 1982 until finally ending production in 1995 with the 2.2 litre "GTA Max" (the final phase III facelift introduced in 1990).

 

It was the first mass-produced four-seat sports model to be designed in a wind tunnel[citation needed] (with a resulting drag coefficient (Cd) factor of 0.32-0.35 depending on model and year). In October 1982, the Turbo Diesel model was classified as the then-fastest diesel car in the world with a top speed of 180 km/h.

 

The Fuego was the first car to have a remote keyless system with central locking that was available from the 1983 model year (from October 1982). The system was invented by Frenchman Paul Lipschutz (hence the name PLIP remote which is still used in Europe), and later introduced on other Renault models. The Fuego was also the first car to have steering wheel mounted satellite controls for the audio system (European LHD GTX and Turbo from October 1983). This feature became popularised on the new 1984 model Renault 25.

 

A convertible version was unveiled by the French coachbuilder Heuliez in 1982, but never made it to production due to cost[citation needed] - the R11/Alliance convertible taking its place.

 

[Text taken from Wikipedia]

 

I had a friend who owned one of these in the late 1990s, and among its many oddities, the thing that annoyed them them the most was the use of metric tyres. (Tyres with a 'cm' diameter as opposed the the usual 'inch' diameter). Combined with the fact that the wheel PCD was quite odd, and you couldn't easily replace the wheels with something else.

 

This Lego miniland-scale Renault Fuego has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 85th Build Challenge - "Like, Totally 80s", - featuring vehicles from the 1980s decade. This Renault Fuego of France started out the decade in 1980, though was very modern looking at launch.

"U.A.W.’s Tentative Deal With Ford Tops Other Automaker Contracts" by BILL VLASIC via NYT t.co/xAOA9S9RpR (via Twitter twitter.com/felipemassone/status/663888307311505408)