The Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) is a fascinating species known for its spectacular annual migration and vibrant orange and black wings. Its evolution and history can be traced back millions of years, and its story encompasses adaptations, ecological relationships, and conservation challenges.

 

The evolutionary history of the Monarch butterfly begins in the Late Cretaceous period, approximately 90 million years ago. Fossil evidence suggests that ancient ancestors of the Monarch belonged to a diverse group of butterflies called the Nymphalidae family. Over time, these butterflies evolved and diversified, eventually giving rise to the genus Danaus, which includes the Monarch.

 

The Monarch butterfly we know today likely emerged around two million years ago. It is believed to have originated in the Americas, with its range extending from southern Canada down to South America. This widespread distribution allowed for genetic diversity and the development of different populations with unique adaptations.

 

One of the most remarkable aspects of the Monarch's life cycle is its long-distance migration. In the late summer and early fall, Monarchs from the eastern and northeastern parts of North America embark on an incredible journey spanning thousands of miles to overwintering sites in central Mexico. Western populations of Monarchs in North America migrate to the California coast for the winter. These migrations are driven by seasonal changes, photoperiod cues, and a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors.

 

During the migration, Monarchs rely on nectar-rich flowers as a source of energy. They also require milkweed plants (Asclepias spp.) as their larval host plants. Monarch caterpillars exclusively feed on milkweed leaves, which contain toxins called cardiac glycosides. Through a process known as sequestration, Monarchs store these toxins in their bodies, making them unpalatable to many predators.

 

The relationship between Monarchs and milkweed is a critical ecological link. Monarchs lay their eggs on milkweed plants, and the toxins in the leaves protect the caterpillars and adult butterflies from predation. Additionally, milkweed serves as a habitat and a food source for other insect species, making it an important part of many ecosystems.

 

In recent years, Monarch populations have faced numerous challenges. Habitat loss due to urbanization, agriculture, and the use of herbicides has significantly reduced milkweed availability. Climate change and extreme weather events also impact the butterflies' breeding and migratory patterns. Furthermore, illegal logging in the overwintering sites in Mexico and the loss of forest cover pose additional threats to their survival.

 

To address these conservation concerns, efforts have been made to protect and restore Monarch habitat. Organizations and individuals work to establish milkweed corridors, plant native flowers, and promote sustainable land management practices. International cooperation has been crucial in protecting the overwintering sites, including establishing biosphere reserves and promoting ecotourism to support local communities.

 

Understanding the Monarch butterfly's evolution and history provides insights into the intricate web of life and the importance of preserving biodiversity. By conserving Monarchs and their habitats, we not only protect a remarkable species but also contribute to the well-being of entire ecosystems and the delicate balance of nature.

 

In North America, monarchs migrate both north and south on an annual basis, making long-distance journeys that are fraught with risks. This is a multi-generational migration, with individual monarchs only making part of the full journey. The population east of the Rocky Mountains attempts to migrate to the sanctuaries of the Mariposa Monarca Biosphere Reserve in the Mexican state of Michoacán and parts of Florida. The western population tries to reach overwintering destinations in various coastal sites in central and southern California. The overwintered population of those east of the Rockies may reach as far north as Texas and Oklahoma during the spring migration. The second, third, and fourth generations return to their northern locations in the United States and Canada in the spring.

 

Captive-raised monarchs appear capable of migrating to overwintering sites in Mexico, though they have a much lower migratory success rate than do wild monarchs (see section on captive-rearing below). Monarch overwintering sites have been discovered recently in Arizona. Monarchs from the eastern US generally migrate longer distances than monarchs from the western US.

 

Since the 1800s, monarchs have spread throughout the world, and there are now many non-migratory populations globally.

 

Flight speeds of adults are around 9 km/h (6 mph).

In both caterpillar and butterfly form, monarchs are aposematic, warding off predators with a bright display of contrasting colors to warn potential predators of their undesirable taste and poisonous characteristics. One monarch researcher emphasizes that predation on eggs, larvae or adults is natural, since monarchs are part of the food chain, thus people should not take steps to kill predators of monarchs.

 

Larvae feed exclusively on milkweed and consume protective cardiac glycosides. Toxin levels in Asclepias species vary. Not all monarchs are unpalatable, but exhibit Batesian or automimics. Cardiac glycosides levels are higher in the abdomen and wings. Some predators can differentiate between these parts and consume the most palatable ones.

 

Butterfly weed (A. tuberosa) lacks significant amounts of cardiac glycosides (cardenolides), but instead contains other types of toxic glycosides, including pregnanes. This difference may reduce the toxicity of monarchs whose larvae feed on that milkweed species and affect the butterfly's breeding choices, as a naturalist and others have reported that egg-laying monarchs do not favor the plant. Some other milkweeds have similar characteristics.

 

Types of predators

While monarchs have a wide range of natural predators, none of these is suspected of causing harm to the overall population, or are the cause of the long-term declines in winter colony sizes.

 

Several species of birds have acquired methods that allow them to ingest monarchs without experiencing the ill effects associated with the cardiac glycosides (cardenolides). The black-backed oriole is able to eat the monarch through an exaptation of its feeding behavior that gives it the ability to identify cardenolides by taste and reject them. The black-headed grosbeak, though, has developed an insensitivity to secondary plant poisons that allows it to ingest monarchs without vomiting. As a result, these orioles and grosbeaks periodically have high levels of cardenolides in their bodies, and they are forced to go on periods of reduced monarch consumption. This cycle effectively reduces potential predation of monarchs by 50% and indicates that monarch aposematism has a legitimate purpose. The black-headed grosbeak has also evolved resistance mutations in the molecular target of the heart poisons, the sodium pump. The specific mutations that evolved in one of the grosbeak's four copies of the sodium pump gene are the same as those found in some rodents that have also evolved to resist cardiac glycosides. Known bird predators include brown thrashers, grackles, robins, cardinals, sparrows, scrub jays, and pinyon jays.

 

The monarch's white morph appeared in Oahu after the 1965–1966 introduction of two bulbul bird species, Pycnonotus cafer and Pycnonotus jocosus. These are now the most common avian insectivores in Hawaii, and probably the only ones that eat insects as large as monarchs. Although Hawaiian monarchs have low cardiac glycoside levels, the birds may also be tolerant of that toxin. The two species hunt the larvae and some pupae from the branches and undersides of leaves in milkweed bushes. The bulbuls also eat resting and ovipositing adults, but rarely flying ones. Because of its color, the white morph has a higher survival rate than the orange one. This is either because of apostatic selection (i.e., the birds have learned the orange monarchs can be eaten), because of camouflage (the white morph matches the white pubescence of milkweed or the patches of light shining through foliage), or because the white morph does not fit the bird's search image of a typical monarch, so is thus avoided.

 

Some mice, particularly the black-eared mouse (Peromyscus melanotis), are, like all rodents, able to tolerate large doses of cardenolides and are able to eat monarchs. Overwintering adults become less toxic over time making them more vulnerable to predators. In Mexico, about 14% of the overwintering monarchs are eaten by birds and mice and black-eared mice can eat up to 40 monarchs per night.

 

In North America, eggs and first-instar larvae of the monarch are eaten by larvae and adults of the introduced Asian lady beetle (Harmonia axyridis). The Chinese mantis (Tenodera sinensis) will consume the larvae once the gut is removed thus avoiding cardenolides. Predatory wasps commonly consume larvae. Many Hemipteran bugs including predatory stink bugs in the subfamily Asopinae and assassin bugs in family Reduviidae eat monarchs. Larvae can sometimes avoid predation by dropping from the plant or by jerking their bodies.

 

Parasitoids, including tachinid flies and braconid wasps develop inside the monarch larvae eventually killing it and emerging from the larvae or pupa. Non-insect parasites and infectious diseases (pathogens) also kill monarchs.

 

1) Fourth-instar monarch larvae killed and being consumed by a stink (shield) bug. 2) Mature fifth instar larvae jerks to dislodge a large milkweed bug (a herbivore). 3) Fourth-instar larvae killed by insect parasitoids, non-insect parasites or a pathogen.

Aposematism

 

Chemical structure of oleandrin, one of the cardiac glycosides

Monarchs are toxic and foul-tasting because of the presence of cardenolides in their bodies, which the caterpillars ingest as they feed on milkweed. Monarchs and other cardenolide-resistant insects rely on a resistant form of the Na+/ K+-ATPase enzyme to tolerate significantly higher concentrations of cardenolides than nonresistant species. By ingesting a large amount of plants in the genus Asclepias, primarily milkweed, monarch caterpillars are able to sequester cardiac glycosides, or more specifically cardenolides, which are steroids that act in heart-arresting ways similar to digitalis. It has been found that monarchs are able to sequester cardenolides most effectively from plants of intermediate cardenolide content rather than those of high or low content. Three mutations that evolved in the monarch's Na+/ K+-ATPase were found to be sufficient together to confer resistance to dietary cardiac glycosides. This was tested by swapping these mutations into the same gene in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster using CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing. These fruit flies-turned monarch flies were completely resistant to dietary ouabain, a cardiac glycoside found in Apocynaceae, and even sequestered some through metamorphosis, like the monarch.

 

Different species of milkweed have different effects on growth, virulence, and transmission of parasites. One species, Asclepias curassavica, appears to reduce the symptoms of Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (OE) infection. The two possible explanations for this include that it promotes overall monarch health to boost the monarch's immune system or that chemicals from the plant have a direct negative effect on the OE parasites. A. curassavica does not cure or prevent the infection with OE; it merely allows infected monarchs to live longer, and this would allow infected monarchs to spread the OE spores for longer periods. For the average home butterfly garden, this scenario only adds more OE to the local population.

 

After the caterpillar becomes a butterfly, the toxins shift to different parts of the body. Since many birds attack the wings of the butterfly, having three times the cardiac glycosides in the wings leaves predators with a very foul taste and may prevent them from ever ingesting the body of the butterfly. To combat predators that remove the wings only to ingest the abdomen, monarchs keep the most potent cardiac glycosides in their abdomens.

 

Mimicry

Monarchs share the defense of noxious taste with the similar-appearing viceroy butterfly in what is perhaps one of the most well-known examples of mimicry. Though long purported to be an example of Batesian mimicry, the viceroy is actually more unpalatable than the monarch, making this a case of Müllerian mimicry.

 

Human interaction

The monarch is the state insect of Alabama, Idaho, Illinois, Minnesota, Texas, Vermont, and West Virginia. Legislation was introduced to make it the national insect of the United States, but this failed in 1989 and again in 1991.

 

Homeowners are increasingly establishing butterfly gardens; monarchs can be attracted by cultivating a butterfly garden with specific milkweed species and nectar plants. Efforts are underway to establish these monarch waystations.

 

An IMAX film, Flight of the Butterflies, describes the story of the Urquharts, Brugger, and Trail to document the then-unknown monarch migration to Mexican overwintering areas.

 

Sanctuaries and reserves have been created at overwintering locations in Mexico and California to limit habitat destruction. These sites can generate significant tourism revenue. However, with less tourism, monarch butterflies will have a higher survival rate because they show more protein content and a higher value of immune response and oxidative defense.

 

Organizations and individuals participate in tagging programs. Tagging information is used to study migration patterns.

 

The 2012 novel by Barbara Kingsolver, Flight Behavior, deals with the fictional appearance of a large population in the Appalachians.

 

Captive rearing

Humans interact with monarchs when rearing them in captivity, which has become increasingly popular. However, risks occur in this controversial activity. On one hand, captive rearing has many positive aspects. Monarchs are bred in schools and used for butterfly releases at hospices, memorial events, and weddings. Memorial services for the September 11 attacks include the release of captive-bred monarchs. Monarchs are used in schools and nature centers for educational purposes. Many homeowners raise monarchs in captivity as a hobby and for educational purposes.

 

On the other hand, this practice becomes problematic when monarchs are "mass-reared". Stories in the Huffington Post in 2015 and Discover magazine in 2016 have summarized the controversy around this issue.

 

The frequent media reports of monarch declines have encouraged many homeowners to attempt to rear as many monarchs as possible in their homes and then release them to the wild in an effort to "boost the monarch population". Some individuals, such as one in Linn County, Iowa, have reared thousands of monarchs at the same time.

 

Some monarch scientists do not condone the practice of rearing "large" numbers of monarchs in captivity for release into the wild because of the risks of genetic issues and disease spread. One of the biggest concerns of mass rearing is the potential for spreading the monarch parasite, Ophryocystis elektroscirrha, into the wild. This parasite can rapidly build up in captive monarchs, especially if they are housed together. The spores of the parasite also can quickly contaminate all housing equipment, so that all subsequent monarchs reared in the same containers then become infected. One researcher stated that rearing more than 100 monarchs constitutes "mass rearing" and should not be done.

 

In addition to the disease risks, researchers believe these captive-reared monarchs are not as fit as wild ones, owing to the unnatural conditions in which they are raised. Homeowners often raise monarchs in plastic or glass containers in their kitchens, basements, porches, etc., and under artificial lighting and controlled temperatures. Such conditions would not mimic what the monarchs are used to in the wild, and may result in adults that are unsuited for the realities of their wild existence. In support of this, a recent study by a citizen scientist found that captive-reared monarchs have a lower migration success rate than wild monarchs do.

 

A 2019 study shed light on the fitness of captive-reared monarchs, by testing reared and wild monarchs on a tethered flight apparatus that assessed navigational ability. In that study, monarchs that were reared to adulthood in artificial conditions showed a reduction in navigational ability. This happened even with monarchs that were brought into captivity from the wild for a few days. A few captive-reared monarchs did show proper navigation. This study revealed the fragility of monarch development; if the conditions are not suitable, their ability to properly migrate could be impaired. The same study also examined the genetics of a collection of reared monarchs purchased from a butterfly breeder, and found they were dramatically different from wild monarchs, so much so that the lead author described them as "franken-monarchs".

 

An unpublished study in 2019 compared behavior of captive-reared versus wild monarch larvae. The study showed that reared larvae exhibited more defensive behavior than wild larvae. The reason for this is unknown, but it could relate to the fact that reared larvae are frequently handled and/or disturbed.

 

Threats

In February 2015, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reported a study that showed that nearly a billion monarchs had vanished from the butterfly's overwintering sites since 1990. The agency attributed the monarch's decline in part to a loss of milkweed caused by herbicides that farmers and homeowners had used.

 

Western monarch populations

Based on a 2014 20-year comparison, the overwintering numbers west of the Rocky Mountains have dropped more than 50% since 1997 and the overwintering numbers east of the Rockies have declined by more than 90% since 1995. According to the Xerces Society, the monarch population in California decreased 86% in 2018, going from millions of butterflies to tens of thousands of butterflies.

 

The society's annual 2020–2021 winter count showed a significant decline in the California population. One Pacific Grove site did not have a single monarch butterfly. A primary explanation for this was the destruction of the butterfly's milkweed habitats. This particular population is believed to comprise less than 2000 individuals, as of 2022.

 

Eastern and midwestern monarch populations

A 2016 publication attributed the previous decade's 90% decline in overwintering numbers of the eastern monarch population to the loss of breeding habitat and milkweed. The publication's authors stated that an 11%–57% probability existed that this population will go almost extinct over the next 20 years.

 

Chip Taylor, the director of Monarch Watch at the University of Kansas, has stated that the Midwest milkweed habitat "is virtually gone" with 120–150 million acres lost. To help fight this problem, Monarch Watch encourages the planting of "Monarch Waystations".

 

Habitat loss due to herbicide use and genetically modified crops

Declines in milkweed abundance and monarch populations between 1999 and 2010 are correlated with the adoption of herbicide-tolerant genetically modified (GM) corn and soybeans, which now constitute 89% and 94% of these crops, respectively, in the U.S. GM corn and soybeans are resistant to the effect of the herbicide glyphosate. Some conservationists attribute the disappearance of milkweed to agricultural practices in the Midwest, where GM seeds are bred to resist herbicides that farmers use to kill unwanted plants that grow near their rows of food crops.

 

In 2015, the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a suit against the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The Council argued that the agency ignored warnings about the dangers of glyphosate usage for monarchs. However, a 2018 study has suggested that the decline in milkweed predates the arrival of GM crops.

 

Losses during migration

Eastern and midwestern monarchs are apparently experiencing problems reaching Mexico. A number of monarch researchers have cited recent evidence obtained from long-term citizen science data that show that the number of breeding (adult) monarchs has not declined in the last two decades.

 

The lack of long-term declines in the numbers of breeding and migratory monarchs, yet the clear declines in overwintering numbers, suggests a growing disconnect exists between these life stages. One researcher has suggested that mortality from car strikes constitutes an increasing threat to migrating monarchs. A study of road mortality in northern Mexico, published in 2019, showed very high mortality from just two "hotspots" each year, amounting to 200,000 monarchs killed.

 

Loss of overwintering habitat

The area of Mexican forest to which eastern and midwestern monarchs migrate reached its lowest level in two decades in 2013. The decline was expected to increase during the 2013–2014 season. Mexican environmental authorities continue to monitor illegal logging of the oyamel trees. The oyamel is a major species of evergreen on which the overwintering butterflies spend a significant time during their winter diapause, or suspended development.

 

A 2014 study acknowledged that while "the protection of overwintering habitat has no doubt gone a long way towards conserving monarchs that breed throughout eastern North America", their research indicates that habitat loss on breeding grounds in the United States is the main cause of both recent and projected population declines.

 

Western monarch populations have rebounded slightly since 2014 with the Western Monarch Thanksgiving Count tallying 335,479 monarchs in 2022. The population still has much to go for a full recovery.

 

Parasites

Parasites include the tachinid flies Sturmia convergens and Lespesia archippivora. Lesperia-parasitized butterfly larvae suspend, but die prior to pupation. The fly's maggot lowers itself to the ground, forms a brown puparium and then emerges as an adult.

 

Pteromalid wasps, specifically Pteromalus cassotis, parasitize monarch pupae. These wasps lay their eggs in the pupae while the chrysalis is still soft. Up to 400 adults emerge from the chrysalis after 14–20 days, killing the monarch.

 

The bacterium Micrococcus flacidifex danai also infects larvae. Just before pupation, the larvae migrate to a horizontal surface and die a few hours later, attached only by one pair of prolegs, with the thorax and abdomen hanging limp. The body turns black shortly thereafter. The bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa has no invasive powers, but causes secondary infections in weakened insects. It is a common cause of death in laboratory-reared insects.

 

Ophryocystis elektroscirrha is another parasite of the monarch. It infects the subcutaneous tissues and propagates by spores formed during the pupal stage. The spores are found over all of the body of infected butterflies, with the greatest number on the abdomen. These spores are passed, from female to caterpillar, when spores rub off during egg laying and are then ingested by caterpillars. Severely infected individuals are weak, unable to expand their wings, or unable to eclose, and have shortened lifespans, but parasite levels vary in populations. This is not the case in laboratory rearing, where after a few generations, all individuals can be infected.

 

Infection with O. elektroscirrha creates an effect known as culling, whereby migrating monarchs that are infected are less likely to complete the migration. This results in overwintering populations with lower parasite loads. Owners of commercial butterfly-breeding operations claim that they take steps to control this parasite in their practices, although this claim is doubted by many scientists who study monarchs.[

 

Confusion of host plants

The black swallow-wort (Cynanchum louiseae) and pale swallow-wort (Cynanchum rossicum) plants are problematic for monarchs in North America. Monarchs lay their eggs on these relatives of native vining milkweed (Cynanchum laeve) because they produce stimuli similar to milkweed. Once the eggs hatch, the caterpillars are poisoned by the toxicity of this invasive plant from Europe.

 

Climate

Climate variations during the fall and summer affect butterfly reproduction. Rainfall and freezing temperatures affect milkweed growth. Omar Vidal, director general of WWF-Mexico, said, "The monarch's lifecycle depends on the climatic conditions in the places where they breed. Eggs, larvae, and pupae develop more quickly in milder conditions. Temperatures above 35 °C (95 °F) can be lethal for larvae, and eggs dry out in hot, arid conditions, causing a drastic decrease in hatch rate." If a monarch's body temperatures is below 30 °C (86 °F), a monarch cannot fly. To warm up, they sit in the sun or rapidly shiver their wings to warm themselves.

 

Climate change may dramatically affect the monarch migration. A study from 2015 examined the impact of warming temperatures on the breeding range of the monarch, and showed that in the next 50 years the monarch host plant will expand its range further north into Canada, and that the monarchs will follow this. While this will expand the breeding locations of the monarch, it will also have the effect of increasing the distance that monarchs must travel to reach their overwintering destination in Mexico, which could result in greater mortality during the migration.

 

Milkweeds grown at increased temperatures have been shown to contain higher cardenolide concentrations, making the leaves too toxic for the monarch caterpillars. However, these increased concentrations are likely in response to increased insect herbivory, which is also caused by the increased temperatures. Whether increased temperatures make milkweed too toxic for monarch caterpillars when other factors are not present is unknown. Additionally, milkweed grown at carbon dioxide levels of 760 parts per million was found to produce a different mix of the toxic cardenolides, one of which was less effective against monarch parasites.

 

Conservation status

On July 20, 2022, the International Union for Conservation of Nature added the migratory monarch butterfly (the subspecies common in North America) to its red list of endangered species.

 

The monarch butterfly is not currently listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora or protected specifically under U.S. domestic laws.

 

On August 14, 2014, the Center for Biological Diversity and the Center for Food Safety filed a legal petition requesting Endangered Species Act protection for the monarch and its habitat, based largely on the long-term trends observed at overwintering sites. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) initiated a status review of the monarch butterfly under the Endangered Species Act with a due date for information submission of March 3, 2015, later extended to 2020. On December 15, 2020, the FWS ruled that adding the butterfly to the list of threatened and endangered species was "warranted-but-precluded" because it needed to devote its resources to 161 higher-priority species.

 

The number of monarchs overwintering in Mexico has shown a long-term downward trend. Since 1995, coverage numbers have been as high as 18 hectares (44 acres) during the winter of 1996–1997, but on average about 6 hectares (15 acres). Coverage declined to its lowest point to date (0.67 hectares (1.66 acres)) during the winter of 2013–2014, but rebounded to 4.01 hectares (10 acres) in 2015–2016. The average population of monarchs in 2016 was estimated at 200 million. Historically, on average there are 300 million monarchs. The 2016 increase was attributed to favorable breeding conditions in the summer of 2015. However, coverage declined by 27% to 2.91 hectares (7.19 acres) during the winter of 2016–2017. Some believe this was because of a storm that had occurred during March 2016 in the monarchs' previous overwintering season, though this seems unlikely since most current research shows that the overwintering colony sizes do not predict the size of the next summer breeding population.

 

In Ontario, Canada, the monarch butterfly is listed as a species of special concern. In fall 2016, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada proposed that the monarch be listed as endangered in Canada, as opposed to its current listing as a "species of concern" in that country. This move, once enacted, would protect critical monarch habitat in Canada, such as major fall accumulation areas in southern Ontario, but it would also have implications for citizen scientists who work with monarchs, and for classroom activities. If the monarch were federally protected in Canada, these activities could be limited, or require federal permits.

 

In Nova Scotia, the monarch is listed as endangered at the provincial level, as of 2017. This decision (as well as the Ontario decision) apparently is based on a presumption that the overwintering colony declines in Mexico create declines in the breeding range in Canada. Two recent studies have been conducted examining long-term trends in monarch abundance in Canada, using either butterfly atlas records or citizen science butterfly surveys, and neither shows evidence of a population decline in Canada.

 

Conservation efforts

See also: Monarch butterfly conservation in California

Although numbers of breeding monarchs in eastern North America have apparently not decreased, reports of declining numbers of overwintering butterflies have inspired efforts to conserve the species.

 

Federal actions

On June 20, 2014, President Barack Obama issued a presidential memorandum entitled "Creating a Federal Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The memorandum established a Pollinator Health Task Force, to be co-chaired by the Secretary of Agriculture and the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, and stated:

 

The number of migrating Monarch butterflies sank to the lowest recorded population level in 2013–14, and there is an imminent risk of failed migration.

 

In May 2015, the Pollinator Health Task Force issued a "National Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The strategy laid out federal actions to achieve three goals, two of which were:

 

Monarch Butterflies: Increase the Eastern population of the monarch butterfly to 225 million butterflies occupying an area of approximately 15 acres (6 hectares) in the overwintering grounds in Mexico, through domestic/international actions and public-private partnerships, by 2020.

Pollinator Habitat Acreage: Restore or enhance 7 million acres of land for pollinators over the next 5 years through Federal actions and public/private partnerships.

Many of the priority projects that the national strategy identified focused on the I-35 corridor, which extends for 1,500 miles (2,400 km) from Texas to Minnesota. The area through which that highway travels provides spring and summer breeding habitats in the United States' key monarch migration corridor.

 

The Task Force simultaneously issued a "Pollinator Research Action Plan". The Plan outlined five main action areas, covered in ten subject-specific chapters. The action areas were: Setting a Baseline; Assessing Environmental Stressors; Restoring Habitat; Understanding and Supporting Stakeholders; Curating and Sharing Knowledge.

 

In June 2016, the Task Force issued a "Pollinator Partnership Action Plan". That Plan provided examples of past, ongoing, and possible future collaborations between the federal government and non-federal institutions to support pollinator health under each of the national strategy's goals.

 

The U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) publishes sets of landscape performance requirements in its P100 documents, which mandate standards for the GSA's Public Buildings Service. Beginning in March 2015, those performance requirements and their updates have included four primary aspects for planting designs that are intended to provide adequate on-site foraging opportunities for targeted pollinators. The targeted pollinators include bees, butterflies, and other beneficial insects.

 

On December 4, 2015, President Obama signed into law the Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act (Pub. L.) The FAST Act placed a new emphasis on efforts to support pollinators. To accomplish this, the FAST Act amended Title 23 (Highways) of the United States Code. The amendment directed the United States Secretary of Transportation, when carrying out programs under that title in conjunction with willing states, to:

 

encourage integrated vegetation management practices on roadsides and other transportation rights-of-way, including reduced mowing; and

encourage the development of habitat and forage for Monarch butterflies, other native pollinators, and honey bees through plantings of native forbs and grasses, including noninvasive, native milkweed species that can serve as migratory way stations for butterflies and facilitate migrations of other pollinators.

The FAST Act also stated that activities to establish and improve pollinator habitat, forage, and migratory way stations may be eligible for Federal funding if related to transportation projects funded under Title 23.

 

The United States Department of Agriculture's Farm Service Agency helps increase U.S. populations of monarch butterfly and other pollinators through its Conservation Reserve Program's State Acres for Wildlife Enhancement (SAFE) Initiative. The SAFE Initiative provides an annual rental payment to farmers who agree to remove environmentally sensitive land from agricultural production and who plant species that will improve environmental health and quality. Among other things, the initiative encourages landowners to establish wetlands, grasses, and trees to create habitats for species that the FWS has designated to be threatened or endangered.

 

Other actions

Agriculture companies and other organizations are being asked to set aside areas that remain unsprayed to allow monarchs to breed. In addition, national and local initiatives are underway to help establish and maintain pollinator habitats along corridors containing power lines and roadways. The Federal Highway Administration, state governments, and local jurisdictions are encouraging highway departments and others to limit their use of herbicides, to reduce mowing, to help milkweed to grow and to encourage monarchs to reproduce within their right-of-ways.

 

National Cooperative Highway Research Program report

In 2020, the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCRHP) of the Transportation Research Board issued a 208-page report that described a project that had examined the potential for roadway corridors to provide habitat for monarch butterflies. A part of the project developed tools for roadside managers to optimize potential habitat for monarch butterflies in their road rights-of-way.

 

Such efforts are controversial because the risk of butterfly mortality near roads is high. Several studies have shown that motor vehicles kill millions of monarchs and other butterflies every year. Also, some evidence indicates that monarch larvae living near roads experience physiological stress conditions, as evidenced by elevations in their heart rate.

 

The NCRHP report acknowledged that, among other hazards, roads present a danger of traffic collisions for monarchs, stating that these effects appear to be more concentrated in particular funnel areas during migration. Nevertheless, the report concluded:

 

In summary, threats along roadway corridors exist for monarchs and other pollinators, but in the context of the amount of habitat needed for recovery of sustainable populations, roadsides are of vital importance.

 

Butterfly gardening

A monarch waystation near the town of Berwyn Heights in Prince George's County, Maryland (June 2017)

The practice of butterfly gardening and creating "monarch waystations" is commonly thought to increase the populations of butterflies. Efforts to restore falling monarch populations by establishing butterfly gardens and monarch waystations require particular attention to the butterfly's food preferences and population cycles, as well to the conditions needed to propagate and maintain milkweed.

 

For example, in the Washington, DC, area and elsewhere in the northeastern and midwestern United States, common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) is among the most important food plants for monarch caterpillars. A U.S. Department of Agriculture conservation planting guide for Maryland recommends that, for optimum wildlife and pollinator habitat in mesic sites (especially for monarchs), a seed mix should contain 6.0% A. syriaca by weight and 2.0% by seed.

 

However, monarchs prefer to lay eggs on A. syriaca when its foliage is soft and fresh. Because monarch reproduction peaks in those areas during the late summer when milkweed foliage is old and tough, A. syriaca needs to be mowed or cut back in June through August to assure that it will be regrowing rapidly when monarch reproduction reaches its peak. Similar conditions exist for showy milkweed (A. speciosa) in Michigan and for green antelopehorn milkweed (A. viridis), where it grows in the Southern Great Plains and the Western United States. Further, the seeds of A. syriaca and some other milkweeds need periods of cold treatment (cold stratification) before they will germinate.

 

To protect seeds from washing away during heavy rains and from seed–eating birds, one can cover the seeds with a light fabric or with an 0.5-inch (13 mm) layer of straw mulch. However, mulch acts as an insulator. Thicker layers of mulch can prevent seeds from germinating if they prevent soil temperatures from rising enough when winter ends. Further, few seedlings can push through a thick layer of mulch.

 

Although monarch caterpillars will feed on butterfly weed (A. tuberosa) in butterfly gardens, it is typically not a heavily used host plant for the species. The plant has rough leaves and a layer of trichomes, which may inhibit oviposition or decrease a female's ability to sense leaf chemicals. The plant's low levels of cardenolides may also deter monarchs from laying eggs on the plant. While A. tuberosa's colorful flowers provide nectar for many adult butterflies, the plant may be less suitable for use in butterfly gardens and monarch waystations than are other milkweed species.

 

Breeding monarchs prefer to lay eggs on swamp milkweed (A. incarnata). However, A. incarnata is an early successional plant that usually grows at the margins of wetlands and in seasonally flooded areas. The plant is slow to spread via seeds, does not spread by runners and tends to disappear as vegetative densities increase and habitats dry out. Although A. incarnata plants can survive for up to 20 years, most live only two-five years in gardens. The species is not shade-tolerant and is not a good vegetative competitor.

Old Bent's Fort was located on the Santa Fe Trail and active during the 1830s and 1840s. It served as a trading post, way station, and eventually a military post during the Mexican War. It was also a meeting and cultural exchange point for American, Mexican, and Native American cultures.

The picture below helps explain why Cove Fort ended up on our itinerary. The Eastern terminus of I-70 is at the Baltimore Beltway, about 15 minutes from my house. Shortly after heading West, you see this big sign with destination mileages. We had looked up Cove Fort and knew it was at the very end of the Interstate in Utah and looked intriguing. We definitely wanted to check it out and were not disappointed. The Fort was built in 1867 as a Mormon way station, to be used by pioneers traveling along the Mormon Corridor. It is now a wonderful museum owned by the Mormon Church depicting the 19th Century life there. Well worth a visit if you are nearby.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cove_Fort

  

Old Bent's Fort was located on the Santa Fe Trail and active during the 1830s and 1840s. It served as a trading post, way station, and eventually a military post during the Mexican War. It was also a meeting and cultural exchange point for American, Mexican, and Native American cultures.

The Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) is a fascinating species known for its spectacular annual migration and vibrant orange and black wings. Its evolution and history can be traced back millions of years, and its story encompasses adaptations, ecological relationships, and conservation challenges.

 

The evolutionary history of the Monarch butterfly begins in the Late Cretaceous period, approximately 90 million years ago. Fossil evidence suggests that ancient ancestors of the Monarch belonged to a diverse group of butterflies called the Nymphalidae family. Over time, these butterflies evolved and diversified, eventually giving rise to the genus Danaus, which includes the Monarch.

 

The Monarch butterfly we know today likely emerged around two million years ago. It is believed to have originated in the Americas, with its range extending from southern Canada down to South America. This widespread distribution allowed for genetic diversity and the development of different populations with unique adaptations.

 

One of the most remarkable aspects of the Monarch's life cycle is its long-distance migration. In the late summer and early fall, Monarchs from the eastern and northeastern parts of North America embark on an incredible journey spanning thousands of miles to overwintering sites in central Mexico. Western populations of Monarchs in North America migrate to the California coast for the winter. These migrations are driven by seasonal changes, photoperiod cues, and a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors.

 

During the migration, Monarchs rely on nectar-rich flowers as a source of energy. They also require milkweed plants (Asclepias spp.) as their larval host plants. Monarch caterpillars exclusively feed on milkweed leaves, which contain toxins called cardiac glycosides. Through a process known as sequestration, Monarchs store these toxins in their bodies, making them unpalatable to many predators.

 

The relationship between Monarchs and milkweed is a critical ecological link. Monarchs lay their eggs on milkweed plants, and the toxins in the leaves protect the caterpillars and adult butterflies from predation. Additionally, milkweed serves as a habitat and a food source for other insect species, making it an important part of many ecosystems.

 

In recent years, Monarch populations have faced numerous challenges. Habitat loss due to urbanization, agriculture, and the use of herbicides has significantly reduced milkweed availability. Climate change and extreme weather events also impact the butterflies' breeding and migratory patterns. Furthermore, illegal logging in the overwintering sites in Mexico and the loss of forest cover pose additional threats to their survival.

 

To address these conservation concerns, efforts have been made to protect and restore Monarch habitat. Organizations and individuals work to establish milkweed corridors, plant native flowers, and promote sustainable land management practices. International cooperation has been crucial in protecting the overwintering sites, including establishing biosphere reserves and promoting ecotourism to support local communities.

 

Understanding the Monarch butterfly's evolution and history provides insights into the intricate web of life and the importance of preserving biodiversity. By conserving Monarchs and their habitats, we not only protect a remarkable species but also contribute to the well-being of entire ecosystems and the delicate balance of nature.

 

In North America, monarchs migrate both north and south on an annual basis, making long-distance journeys that are fraught with risks. This is a multi-generational migration, with individual monarchs only making part of the full journey. The population east of the Rocky Mountains attempts to migrate to the sanctuaries of the Mariposa Monarca Biosphere Reserve in the Mexican state of Michoacán and parts of Florida. The western population tries to reach overwintering destinations in various coastal sites in central and southern California. The overwintered population of those east of the Rockies may reach as far north as Texas and Oklahoma during the spring migration. The second, third, and fourth generations return to their northern locations in the United States and Canada in the spring.

 

Captive-raised monarchs appear capable of migrating to overwintering sites in Mexico, though they have a much lower migratory success rate than do wild monarchs (see section on captive-rearing below). Monarch overwintering sites have been discovered recently in Arizona. Monarchs from the eastern US generally migrate longer distances than monarchs from the western US.

 

Since the 1800s, monarchs have spread throughout the world, and there are now many non-migratory populations globally.

 

Flight speeds of adults are around 9 km/h (6 mph).

In both caterpillar and butterfly form, monarchs are aposematic, warding off predators with a bright display of contrasting colors to warn potential predators of their undesirable taste and poisonous characteristics. One monarch researcher emphasizes that predation on eggs, larvae or adults is natural, since monarchs are part of the food chain, thus people should not take steps to kill predators of monarchs.

 

Larvae feed exclusively on milkweed and consume protective cardiac glycosides. Toxin levels in Asclepias species vary. Not all monarchs are unpalatable, but exhibit Batesian or automimics. Cardiac glycosides levels are higher in the abdomen and wings. Some predators can differentiate between these parts and consume the most palatable ones.

 

Butterfly weed (A. tuberosa) lacks significant amounts of cardiac glycosides (cardenolides), but instead contains other types of toxic glycosides, including pregnanes. This difference may reduce the toxicity of monarchs whose larvae feed on that milkweed species and affect the butterfly's breeding choices, as a naturalist and others have reported that egg-laying monarchs do not favor the plant. Some other milkweeds have similar characteristics.

 

Types of predators

While monarchs have a wide range of natural predators, none of these is suspected of causing harm to the overall population, or are the cause of the long-term declines in winter colony sizes.

 

Several species of birds have acquired methods that allow them to ingest monarchs without experiencing the ill effects associated with the cardiac glycosides (cardenolides). The black-backed oriole is able to eat the monarch through an exaptation of its feeding behavior that gives it the ability to identify cardenolides by taste and reject them. The black-headed grosbeak, though, has developed an insensitivity to secondary plant poisons that allows it to ingest monarchs without vomiting. As a result, these orioles and grosbeaks periodically have high levels of cardenolides in their bodies, and they are forced to go on periods of reduced monarch consumption. This cycle effectively reduces potential predation of monarchs by 50% and indicates that monarch aposematism has a legitimate purpose. The black-headed grosbeak has also evolved resistance mutations in the molecular target of the heart poisons, the sodium pump. The specific mutations that evolved in one of the grosbeak's four copies of the sodium pump gene are the same as those found in some rodents that have also evolved to resist cardiac glycosides. Known bird predators include brown thrashers, grackles, robins, cardinals, sparrows, scrub jays, and pinyon jays.

 

The monarch's white morph appeared in Oahu after the 1965–1966 introduction of two bulbul bird species, Pycnonotus cafer and Pycnonotus jocosus. These are now the most common avian insectivores in Hawaii, and probably the only ones that eat insects as large as monarchs. Although Hawaiian monarchs have low cardiac glycoside levels, the birds may also be tolerant of that toxin. The two species hunt the larvae and some pupae from the branches and undersides of leaves in milkweed bushes. The bulbuls also eat resting and ovipositing adults, but rarely flying ones. Because of its color, the white morph has a higher survival rate than the orange one. This is either because of apostatic selection (i.e., the birds have learned the orange monarchs can be eaten), because of camouflage (the white morph matches the white pubescence of milkweed or the patches of light shining through foliage), or because the white morph does not fit the bird's search image of a typical monarch, so is thus avoided.

 

Some mice, particularly the black-eared mouse (Peromyscus melanotis), are, like all rodents, able to tolerate large doses of cardenolides and are able to eat monarchs. Overwintering adults become less toxic over time making them more vulnerable to predators. In Mexico, about 14% of the overwintering monarchs are eaten by birds and mice and black-eared mice can eat up to 40 monarchs per night.

 

In North America, eggs and first-instar larvae of the monarch are eaten by larvae and adults of the introduced Asian lady beetle (Harmonia axyridis). The Chinese mantis (Tenodera sinensis) will consume the larvae once the gut is removed thus avoiding cardenolides. Predatory wasps commonly consume larvae. Many Hemipteran bugs including predatory stink bugs in the subfamily Asopinae and assassin bugs in family Reduviidae eat monarchs. Larvae can sometimes avoid predation by dropping from the plant or by jerking their bodies.

 

Parasitoids, including tachinid flies and braconid wasps develop inside the monarch larvae eventually killing it and emerging from the larvae or pupa. Non-insect parasites and infectious diseases (pathogens) also kill monarchs.

 

1) Fourth-instar monarch larvae killed and being consumed by a stink (shield) bug. 2) Mature fifth instar larvae jerks to dislodge a large milkweed bug (a herbivore). 3) Fourth-instar larvae killed by insect parasitoids, non-insect parasites or a pathogen.

Aposematism

 

Chemical structure of oleandrin, one of the cardiac glycosides

Monarchs are toxic and foul-tasting because of the presence of cardenolides in their bodies, which the caterpillars ingest as they feed on milkweed. Monarchs and other cardenolide-resistant insects rely on a resistant form of the Na+/ K+-ATPase enzyme to tolerate significantly higher concentrations of cardenolides than nonresistant species. By ingesting a large amount of plants in the genus Asclepias, primarily milkweed, monarch caterpillars are able to sequester cardiac glycosides, or more specifically cardenolides, which are steroids that act in heart-arresting ways similar to digitalis. It has been found that monarchs are able to sequester cardenolides most effectively from plants of intermediate cardenolide content rather than those of high or low content. Three mutations that evolved in the monarch's Na+/ K+-ATPase were found to be sufficient together to confer resistance to dietary cardiac glycosides. This was tested by swapping these mutations into the same gene in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster using CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing. These fruit flies-turned monarch flies were completely resistant to dietary ouabain, a cardiac glycoside found in Apocynaceae, and even sequestered some through metamorphosis, like the monarch.

 

Different species of milkweed have different effects on growth, virulence, and transmission of parasites. One species, Asclepias curassavica, appears to reduce the symptoms of Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (OE) infection. The two possible explanations for this include that it promotes overall monarch health to boost the monarch's immune system or that chemicals from the plant have a direct negative effect on the OE parasites. A. curassavica does not cure or prevent the infection with OE; it merely allows infected monarchs to live longer, and this would allow infected monarchs to spread the OE spores for longer periods. For the average home butterfly garden, this scenario only adds more OE to the local population.

 

After the caterpillar becomes a butterfly, the toxins shift to different parts of the body. Since many birds attack the wings of the butterfly, having three times the cardiac glycosides in the wings leaves predators with a very foul taste and may prevent them from ever ingesting the body of the butterfly. To combat predators that remove the wings only to ingest the abdomen, monarchs keep the most potent cardiac glycosides in their abdomens.

 

Mimicry

Monarchs share the defense of noxious taste with the similar-appearing viceroy butterfly in what is perhaps one of the most well-known examples of mimicry. Though long purported to be an example of Batesian mimicry, the viceroy is actually more unpalatable than the monarch, making this a case of Müllerian mimicry.

 

Human interaction

The monarch is the state insect of Alabama, Idaho, Illinois, Minnesota, Texas, Vermont, and West Virginia. Legislation was introduced to make it the national insect of the United States, but this failed in 1989 and again in 1991.

 

Homeowners are increasingly establishing butterfly gardens; monarchs can be attracted by cultivating a butterfly garden with specific milkweed species and nectar plants. Efforts are underway to establish these monarch waystations.

 

An IMAX film, Flight of the Butterflies, describes the story of the Urquharts, Brugger, and Trail to document the then-unknown monarch migration to Mexican overwintering areas.

 

Sanctuaries and reserves have been created at overwintering locations in Mexico and California to limit habitat destruction. These sites can generate significant tourism revenue. However, with less tourism, monarch butterflies will have a higher survival rate because they show more protein content and a higher value of immune response and oxidative defense.

 

Organizations and individuals participate in tagging programs. Tagging information is used to study migration patterns.

 

The 2012 novel by Barbara Kingsolver, Flight Behavior, deals with the fictional appearance of a large population in the Appalachians.

 

Captive rearing

Humans interact with monarchs when rearing them in captivity, which has become increasingly popular. However, risks occur in this controversial activity. On one hand, captive rearing has many positive aspects. Monarchs are bred in schools and used for butterfly releases at hospices, memorial events, and weddings. Memorial services for the September 11 attacks include the release of captive-bred monarchs. Monarchs are used in schools and nature centers for educational purposes. Many homeowners raise monarchs in captivity as a hobby and for educational purposes.

 

On the other hand, this practice becomes problematic when monarchs are "mass-reared". Stories in the Huffington Post in 2015 and Discover magazine in 2016 have summarized the controversy around this issue.

 

The frequent media reports of monarch declines have encouraged many homeowners to attempt to rear as many monarchs as possible in their homes and then release them to the wild in an effort to "boost the monarch population". Some individuals, such as one in Linn County, Iowa, have reared thousands of monarchs at the same time.

 

Some monarch scientists do not condone the practice of rearing "large" numbers of monarchs in captivity for release into the wild because of the risks of genetic issues and disease spread. One of the biggest concerns of mass rearing is the potential for spreading the monarch parasite, Ophryocystis elektroscirrha, into the wild. This parasite can rapidly build up in captive monarchs, especially if they are housed together. The spores of the parasite also can quickly contaminate all housing equipment, so that all subsequent monarchs reared in the same containers then become infected. One researcher stated that rearing more than 100 monarchs constitutes "mass rearing" and should not be done.

 

In addition to the disease risks, researchers believe these captive-reared monarchs are not as fit as wild ones, owing to the unnatural conditions in which they are raised. Homeowners often raise monarchs in plastic or glass containers in their kitchens, basements, porches, etc., and under artificial lighting and controlled temperatures. Such conditions would not mimic what the monarchs are used to in the wild, and may result in adults that are unsuited for the realities of their wild existence. In support of this, a recent study by a citizen scientist found that captive-reared monarchs have a lower migration success rate than wild monarchs do.

 

A 2019 study shed light on the fitness of captive-reared monarchs, by testing reared and wild monarchs on a tethered flight apparatus that assessed navigational ability. In that study, monarchs that were reared to adulthood in artificial conditions showed a reduction in navigational ability. This happened even with monarchs that were brought into captivity from the wild for a few days. A few captive-reared monarchs did show proper navigation. This study revealed the fragility of monarch development; if the conditions are not suitable, their ability to properly migrate could be impaired. The same study also examined the genetics of a collection of reared monarchs purchased from a butterfly breeder, and found they were dramatically different from wild monarchs, so much so that the lead author described them as "franken-monarchs".

 

An unpublished study in 2019 compared behavior of captive-reared versus wild monarch larvae. The study showed that reared larvae exhibited more defensive behavior than wild larvae. The reason for this is unknown, but it could relate to the fact that reared larvae are frequently handled and/or disturbed.

 

Threats

In February 2015, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reported a study that showed that nearly a billion monarchs had vanished from the butterfly's overwintering sites since 1990. The agency attributed the monarch's decline in part to a loss of milkweed caused by herbicides that farmers and homeowners had used.

 

Western monarch populations

Based on a 2014 20-year comparison, the overwintering numbers west of the Rocky Mountains have dropped more than 50% since 1997 and the overwintering numbers east of the Rockies have declined by more than 90% since 1995. According to the Xerces Society, the monarch population in California decreased 86% in 2018, going from millions of butterflies to tens of thousands of butterflies.

 

The society's annual 2020–2021 winter count showed a significant decline in the California population. One Pacific Grove site did not have a single monarch butterfly. A primary explanation for this was the destruction of the butterfly's milkweed habitats. This particular population is believed to comprise less than 2000 individuals, as of 2022.

 

Eastern and midwestern monarch populations

A 2016 publication attributed the previous decade's 90% decline in overwintering numbers of the eastern monarch population to the loss of breeding habitat and milkweed. The publication's authors stated that an 11%–57% probability existed that this population will go almost extinct over the next 20 years.

 

Chip Taylor, the director of Monarch Watch at the University of Kansas, has stated that the Midwest milkweed habitat "is virtually gone" with 120–150 million acres lost. To help fight this problem, Monarch Watch encourages the planting of "Monarch Waystations".

 

Habitat loss due to herbicide use and genetically modified crops

Declines in milkweed abundance and monarch populations between 1999 and 2010 are correlated with the adoption of herbicide-tolerant genetically modified (GM) corn and soybeans, which now constitute 89% and 94% of these crops, respectively, in the U.S. GM corn and soybeans are resistant to the effect of the herbicide glyphosate. Some conservationists attribute the disappearance of milkweed to agricultural practices in the Midwest, where GM seeds are bred to resist herbicides that farmers use to kill unwanted plants that grow near their rows of food crops.

 

In 2015, the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a suit against the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The Council argued that the agency ignored warnings about the dangers of glyphosate usage for monarchs. However, a 2018 study has suggested that the decline in milkweed predates the arrival of GM crops.

 

Losses during migration

Eastern and midwestern monarchs are apparently experiencing problems reaching Mexico. A number of monarch researchers have cited recent evidence obtained from long-term citizen science data that show that the number of breeding (adult) monarchs has not declined in the last two decades.

 

The lack of long-term declines in the numbers of breeding and migratory monarchs, yet the clear declines in overwintering numbers, suggests a growing disconnect exists between these life stages. One researcher has suggested that mortality from car strikes constitutes an increasing threat to migrating monarchs. A study of road mortality in northern Mexico, published in 2019, showed very high mortality from just two "hotspots" each year, amounting to 200,000 monarchs killed.

 

Loss of overwintering habitat

The area of Mexican forest to which eastern and midwestern monarchs migrate reached its lowest level in two decades in 2013. The decline was expected to increase during the 2013–2014 season. Mexican environmental authorities continue to monitor illegal logging of the oyamel trees. The oyamel is a major species of evergreen on which the overwintering butterflies spend a significant time during their winter diapause, or suspended development.

 

A 2014 study acknowledged that while "the protection of overwintering habitat has no doubt gone a long way towards conserving monarchs that breed throughout eastern North America", their research indicates that habitat loss on breeding grounds in the United States is the main cause of both recent and projected population declines.

 

Western monarch populations have rebounded slightly since 2014 with the Western Monarch Thanksgiving Count tallying 335,479 monarchs in 2022. The population still has much to go for a full recovery.

 

Parasites

Parasites include the tachinid flies Sturmia convergens and Lespesia archippivora. Lesperia-parasitized butterfly larvae suspend, but die prior to pupation. The fly's maggot lowers itself to the ground, forms a brown puparium and then emerges as an adult.

 

Pteromalid wasps, specifically Pteromalus cassotis, parasitize monarch pupae. These wasps lay their eggs in the pupae while the chrysalis is still soft. Up to 400 adults emerge from the chrysalis after 14–20 days, killing the monarch.

 

The bacterium Micrococcus flacidifex danai also infects larvae. Just before pupation, the larvae migrate to a horizontal surface and die a few hours later, attached only by one pair of prolegs, with the thorax and abdomen hanging limp. The body turns black shortly thereafter. The bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa has no invasive powers, but causes secondary infections in weakened insects. It is a common cause of death in laboratory-reared insects.

 

Ophryocystis elektroscirrha is another parasite of the monarch. It infects the subcutaneous tissues and propagates by spores formed during the pupal stage. The spores are found over all of the body of infected butterflies, with the greatest number on the abdomen. These spores are passed, from female to caterpillar, when spores rub off during egg laying and are then ingested by caterpillars. Severely infected individuals are weak, unable to expand their wings, or unable to eclose, and have shortened lifespans, but parasite levels vary in populations. This is not the case in laboratory rearing, where after a few generations, all individuals can be infected.

 

Infection with O. elektroscirrha creates an effect known as culling, whereby migrating monarchs that are infected are less likely to complete the migration. This results in overwintering populations with lower parasite loads. Owners of commercial butterfly-breeding operations claim that they take steps to control this parasite in their practices, although this claim is doubted by many scientists who study monarchs.[

 

Confusion of host plants

The black swallow-wort (Cynanchum louiseae) and pale swallow-wort (Cynanchum rossicum) plants are problematic for monarchs in North America. Monarchs lay their eggs on these relatives of native vining milkweed (Cynanchum laeve) because they produce stimuli similar to milkweed. Once the eggs hatch, the caterpillars are poisoned by the toxicity of this invasive plant from Europe.

 

Climate

Climate variations during the fall and summer affect butterfly reproduction. Rainfall and freezing temperatures affect milkweed growth. Omar Vidal, director general of WWF-Mexico, said, "The monarch's lifecycle depends on the climatic conditions in the places where they breed. Eggs, larvae, and pupae develop more quickly in milder conditions. Temperatures above 35 °C (95 °F) can be lethal for larvae, and eggs dry out in hot, arid conditions, causing a drastic decrease in hatch rate." If a monarch's body temperatures is below 30 °C (86 °F), a monarch cannot fly. To warm up, they sit in the sun or rapidly shiver their wings to warm themselves.

 

Climate change may dramatically affect the monarch migration. A study from 2015 examined the impact of warming temperatures on the breeding range of the monarch, and showed that in the next 50 years the monarch host plant will expand its range further north into Canada, and that the monarchs will follow this. While this will expand the breeding locations of the monarch, it will also have the effect of increasing the distance that monarchs must travel to reach their overwintering destination in Mexico, which could result in greater mortality during the migration.

 

Milkweeds grown at increased temperatures have been shown to contain higher cardenolide concentrations, making the leaves too toxic for the monarch caterpillars. However, these increased concentrations are likely in response to increased insect herbivory, which is also caused by the increased temperatures. Whether increased temperatures make milkweed too toxic for monarch caterpillars when other factors are not present is unknown. Additionally, milkweed grown at carbon dioxide levels of 760 parts per million was found to produce a different mix of the toxic cardenolides, one of which was less effective against monarch parasites.

 

Conservation status

On July 20, 2022, the International Union for Conservation of Nature added the migratory monarch butterfly (the subspecies common in North America) to its red list of endangered species.

 

The monarch butterfly is not currently listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora or protected specifically under U.S. domestic laws.

 

On August 14, 2014, the Center for Biological Diversity and the Center for Food Safety filed a legal petition requesting Endangered Species Act protection for the monarch and its habitat, based largely on the long-term trends observed at overwintering sites. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) initiated a status review of the monarch butterfly under the Endangered Species Act with a due date for information submission of March 3, 2015, later extended to 2020. On December 15, 2020, the FWS ruled that adding the butterfly to the list of threatened and endangered species was "warranted-but-precluded" because it needed to devote its resources to 161 higher-priority species.

 

The number of monarchs overwintering in Mexico has shown a long-term downward trend. Since 1995, coverage numbers have been as high as 18 hectares (44 acres) during the winter of 1996–1997, but on average about 6 hectares (15 acres). Coverage declined to its lowest point to date (0.67 hectares (1.66 acres)) during the winter of 2013–2014, but rebounded to 4.01 hectares (10 acres) in 2015–2016. The average population of monarchs in 2016 was estimated at 200 million. Historically, on average there are 300 million monarchs. The 2016 increase was attributed to favorable breeding conditions in the summer of 2015. However, coverage declined by 27% to 2.91 hectares (7.19 acres) during the winter of 2016–2017. Some believe this was because of a storm that had occurred during March 2016 in the monarchs' previous overwintering season, though this seems unlikely since most current research shows that the overwintering colony sizes do not predict the size of the next summer breeding population.

 

In Ontario, Canada, the monarch butterfly is listed as a species of special concern. In fall 2016, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada proposed that the monarch be listed as endangered in Canada, as opposed to its current listing as a "species of concern" in that country. This move, once enacted, would protect critical monarch habitat in Canada, such as major fall accumulation areas in southern Ontario, but it would also have implications for citizen scientists who work with monarchs, and for classroom activities. If the monarch were federally protected in Canada, these activities could be limited, or require federal permits.

 

In Nova Scotia, the monarch is listed as endangered at the provincial level, as of 2017. This decision (as well as the Ontario decision) apparently is based on a presumption that the overwintering colony declines in Mexico create declines in the breeding range in Canada. Two recent studies have been conducted examining long-term trends in monarch abundance in Canada, using either butterfly atlas records or citizen science butterfly surveys, and neither shows evidence of a population decline in Canada.

 

Conservation efforts

See also: Monarch butterfly conservation in California

Although numbers of breeding monarchs in eastern North America have apparently not decreased, reports of declining numbers of overwintering butterflies have inspired efforts to conserve the species.

 

Federal actions

On June 20, 2014, President Barack Obama issued a presidential memorandum entitled "Creating a Federal Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The memorandum established a Pollinator Health Task Force, to be co-chaired by the Secretary of Agriculture and the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, and stated:

 

The number of migrating Monarch butterflies sank to the lowest recorded population level in 2013–14, and there is an imminent risk of failed migration.

 

In May 2015, the Pollinator Health Task Force issued a "National Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The strategy laid out federal actions to achieve three goals, two of which were:

 

Monarch Butterflies: Increase the Eastern population of the monarch butterfly to 225 million butterflies occupying an area of approximately 15 acres (6 hectares) in the overwintering grounds in Mexico, through domestic/international actions and public-private partnerships, by 2020.

Pollinator Habitat Acreage: Restore or enhance 7 million acres of land for pollinators over the next 5 years through Federal actions and public/private partnerships.

Many of the priority projects that the national strategy identified focused on the I-35 corridor, which extends for 1,500 miles (2,400 km) from Texas to Minnesota. The area through which that highway travels provides spring and summer breeding habitats in the United States' key monarch migration corridor.

 

The Task Force simultaneously issued a "Pollinator Research Action Plan". The Plan outlined five main action areas, covered in ten subject-specific chapters. The action areas were: Setting a Baseline; Assessing Environmental Stressors; Restoring Habitat; Understanding and Supporting Stakeholders; Curating and Sharing Knowledge.

 

In June 2016, the Task Force issued a "Pollinator Partnership Action Plan". That Plan provided examples of past, ongoing, and possible future collaborations between the federal government and non-federal institutions to support pollinator health under each of the national strategy's goals.

 

The U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) publishes sets of landscape performance requirements in its P100 documents, which mandate standards for the GSA's Public Buildings Service. Beginning in March 2015, those performance requirements and their updates have included four primary aspects for planting designs that are intended to provide adequate on-site foraging opportunities for targeted pollinators. The targeted pollinators include bees, butterflies, and other beneficial insects.

 

On December 4, 2015, President Obama signed into law the Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act (Pub. L.) The FAST Act placed a new emphasis on efforts to support pollinators. To accomplish this, the FAST Act amended Title 23 (Highways) of the United States Code. The amendment directed the United States Secretary of Transportation, when carrying out programs under that title in conjunction with willing states, to:

 

encourage integrated vegetation management practices on roadsides and other transportation rights-of-way, including reduced mowing; and

encourage the development of habitat and forage for Monarch butterflies, other native pollinators, and honey bees through plantings of native forbs and grasses, including noninvasive, native milkweed species that can serve as migratory way stations for butterflies and facilitate migrations of other pollinators.

The FAST Act also stated that activities to establish and improve pollinator habitat, forage, and migratory way stations may be eligible for Federal funding if related to transportation projects funded under Title 23.

 

The United States Department of Agriculture's Farm Service Agency helps increase U.S. populations of monarch butterfly and other pollinators through its Conservation Reserve Program's State Acres for Wildlife Enhancement (SAFE) Initiative. The SAFE Initiative provides an annual rental payment to farmers who agree to remove environmentally sensitive land from agricultural production and who plant species that will improve environmental health and quality. Among other things, the initiative encourages landowners to establish wetlands, grasses, and trees to create habitats for species that the FWS has designated to be threatened or endangered.

 

Other actions

Agriculture companies and other organizations are being asked to set aside areas that remain unsprayed to allow monarchs to breed. In addition, national and local initiatives are underway to help establish and maintain pollinator habitats along corridors containing power lines and roadways. The Federal Highway Administration, state governments, and local jurisdictions are encouraging highway departments and others to limit their use of herbicides, to reduce mowing, to help milkweed to grow and to encourage monarchs to reproduce within their right-of-ways.

 

National Cooperative Highway Research Program report

In 2020, the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCRHP) of the Transportation Research Board issued a 208-page report that described a project that had examined the potential for roadway corridors to provide habitat for monarch butterflies. A part of the project developed tools for roadside managers to optimize potential habitat for monarch butterflies in their road rights-of-way.

 

Such efforts are controversial because the risk of butterfly mortality near roads is high. Several studies have shown that motor vehicles kill millions of monarchs and other butterflies every year. Also, some evidence indicates that monarch larvae living near roads experience physiological stress conditions, as evidenced by elevations in their heart rate.

 

The NCRHP report acknowledged that, among other hazards, roads present a danger of traffic collisions for monarchs, stating that these effects appear to be more concentrated in particular funnel areas during migration. Nevertheless, the report concluded:

 

In summary, threats along roadway corridors exist for monarchs and other pollinators, but in the context of the amount of habitat needed for recovery of sustainable populations, roadsides are of vital importance.

 

Butterfly gardening

A monarch waystation near the town of Berwyn Heights in Prince George's County, Maryland (June 2017)

The practice of butterfly gardening and creating "monarch waystations" is commonly thought to increase the populations of butterflies. Efforts to restore falling monarch populations by establishing butterfly gardens and monarch waystations require particular attention to the butterfly's food preferences and population cycles, as well to the conditions needed to propagate and maintain milkweed.

 

For example, in the Washington, DC, area and elsewhere in the northeastern and midwestern United States, common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) is among the most important food plants for monarch caterpillars. A U.S. Department of Agriculture conservation planting guide for Maryland recommends that, for optimum wildlife and pollinator habitat in mesic sites (especially for monarchs), a seed mix should contain 6.0% A. syriaca by weight and 2.0% by seed.

 

However, monarchs prefer to lay eggs on A. syriaca when its foliage is soft and fresh. Because monarch reproduction peaks in those areas during the late summer when milkweed foliage is old and tough, A. syriaca needs to be mowed or cut back in June through August to assure that it will be regrowing rapidly when monarch reproduction reaches its peak. Similar conditions exist for showy milkweed (A. speciosa) in Michigan and for green antelopehorn milkweed (A. viridis), where it grows in the Southern Great Plains and the Western United States. Further, the seeds of A. syriaca and some other milkweeds need periods of cold treatment (cold stratification) before they will germinate.

 

To protect seeds from washing away during heavy rains and from seed–eating birds, one can cover the seeds with a light fabric or with an 0.5-inch (13 mm) layer of straw mulch. However, mulch acts as an insulator. Thicker layers of mulch can prevent seeds from germinating if they prevent soil temperatures from rising enough when winter ends. Further, few seedlings can push through a thick layer of mulch.

 

Although monarch caterpillars will feed on butterfly weed (A. tuberosa) in butterfly gardens, it is typically not a heavily used host plant for the species. The plant has rough leaves and a layer of trichomes, which may inhibit oviposition or decrease a female's ability to sense leaf chemicals. The plant's low levels of cardenolides may also deter monarchs from laying eggs on the plant. While A. tuberosa's colorful flowers provide nectar for many adult butterflies, the plant may be less suitable for use in butterfly gardens and monarch waystations than are other milkweed species.

 

Breeding monarchs prefer to lay eggs on swamp milkweed (A. incarnata). However, A. incarnata is an early successional plant that usually grows at the margins of wetlands and in seasonally flooded areas. The plant is slow to spread via seeds, does not spread by runners and tends to disappear as vegetative densities increase and habitats dry out. Although A. incarnata plants can survive for up to 20 years, most live only two-five years in gardens. The species is not shade-tolerant and is not a good vegetative competitor.

The Monarch population is dramatically declining. If you live in North America & have garden space, consider planting some milkweed & pollinator flowers. Not only will this help the Monarchs, which have declined by 75% over the last 20 years, but also the incredibly valuable bees, which are also heavily distressed. Our small backyard has over 30 milkweed plants & multiple Mexican Sunflowers along with Zinnias. The Monarchs love both of these.

 

Chicago, Illinois

For Macro Monday; the theme is Abundance. Abundance of green, light, bokeh, leaves, and veins on the leaves. Taken at the Butterfly Garden on West Campus at KU in Lawrence, KS. You've seen my photos of this Pawpaw Tree many times as it is one of my all-time favorites.

For Bokeh Wednesdays! The first Swallowtail that I have seen this season. When I arrived at he Butterfly Garden tonight and parked my bike, I immediately noticed the butterfly action. There were two of these gorgeous Swallowtails and a few other varieties. They were loving these Buttonbush trees. The butterfly season is off to a great start. University of Kansas in Lawrence, KS.

 

A pair of Denver & Rio Grande Western K-36 Locomotives #s 487 and 488 bring a long freight from Alamosa, CO into the tiny waystation of Sublette, NM at Milepost 306.06, on a chilly morning in late October. Just ahead lies a small complex of structures, including a Section House and a water standpipe. From the perspective of the engine crews, Sublette is a welcome sight, because it is the first water stop since Lava, about 15 miles back, and before that, Antonito, CO about 11 miles further back. Here at Sublette, we are really in the wilderness.

 

One look at the trees above this train will tell you that winter is coming fast here in the high country. In the first half century of operation, the railroad would typically attempt to keep this line open all winter, utilizing rotary plows, and they had the infrastructure to support it. In later years, toward the end of narrow gauge operations, the railroad would shut down for the winter, as the present-day Cumbres & Toltec Scenic Railroad does. In this view, you can see that Locomotive #487 is equipped with a large plow pilot. Back in the day, that would have been very useful at this time of year, and it still is useful in the first few weeks of operation at the C&TS, as there is often some snow remaining in the high country as late as Memorial Day.

 

This image was captured during an October, 2012 photo shoot on the Cumbres & Toltec Scenic Railroad, organized by Lerro Photography.

Burning Man Festival 2013 in Nevada. The theme was "Cargo Cult"

To see more images from 2013 and other years of Burning Man festival go to: www.dusttoashes.com

I hope you enjoyed the images and thank you for visiting.

On a Mexican Sunflower in my Monarch Waystation garden.

Ad Pirum was a fortress built during the late Roman Empire on a key pass (860m) of the "via Gemina" linking Aquileia (on the Adriatic shores, one of the largest cities in the world at this time) and Emonia (present-day Ljubljana).

The walls had a height of 6–8 m and a thickness of about 2.7 m; the wall towers were 10 m high. This structure represented a major fort of the "Claustra Alpium Iuliarum", a network of forts and walls securing the italian core of the Roman empire from eastern invasions.

The location is thought to have been, prior to the fort, that of a "mutatio" (posting house), belonging to the famed "cursus publicus" of the roman empire.

A small and welcoming "Gostilna" (Gostišče 'Stara Pošta', seen on the photo), maintains, after 20 centuries... the role of this pass as a waystation for travelers, both the cyclists and motorists using the small asphalted road that replaced the roman Via Gemina, and now also hikers following the Via Alpina!

Old Bent's Fort was located on the Santa Fe Trail and active during the 1830s and 1840s. It served as a trading post, way station, and eventually a military post during the Mexican War. It was also a meeting and cultural exchange point for American, Mexican, and Native American cultures.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didyma

 

www.didyma.com/

 

Didyma Ancient Cities

Didyma (/ˈdɪdɨmə/; Ancient Greek: Δίδυμα) was an ancient Greek sanctuary on the coast of Ionia. It contained a temple and oracle of Apollo, the Didymaion. In Greek didyma means "twin", but the Greeks who sought a "twin" at Didyma ignored the Carian origin of the name.[1] Next to Delphi, Didyma was the most renowned oracle of the Hellenic world, first mentioned among the Greeks in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo,[2] but an establishment preceding literacy and even the Hellenic colonization of Ionia. Mythic genealogies of the origins of the Branchidae line of priests, designed to capture the origins of Didyma as a Hellenic tradition, date to the Hellenistic period.[3] The ruins of Didyma are located at a short distance to the northwest of modern Didim in Aydin Province, Turkey, whose name is derived from Didyma's.

 

www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_object...

 

www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/search.a...

    

Bust of a marble kouros from the Sacred Way at Didyma, now in the British Museum, 550 BC[4]

Didyma was the largest and most significant sanctuary on the territory of the great classical city Miletus. To approach it, visitors would follow the Sacred Way to Didyma, about 17 km long. Along the way, were ritual waystations, and statues of members of the Branchidae family, male and female, as well as animal figures. Some of these statues, dating to the 6th century BC, are now in the British Museum, taken by the British archaeologist Charles Newton in the 19th century.[5]

 

Greek and Roman authors laboured to refer the name Didyma to "twin" temples — not a feature of the site — or to temples of the twins, Apollo and Artemis, whose own cult center at Didyma was only recently established, or whether, as Wilamowitz suggested[6] there is a connection to Cybele Dindymene, "Cybele of Mount Dindymon", is mooted. Recent excavations by the German team of archaeologists have uncovered a major sanctuary dedicated to Artemis, with the key ritual focus being water.

 

The 6th century Didymaion, dedicated to Apollo, enclosed its smaller predecessor, which archaeologists have identified. Its treasury was enriched by gifts from Croesus.

 

This realistic illuminated moon globe puts out a lot of light. It's got yellow light and white light with adjustable brightness.

 

Adams Ranger Station. Nez Perce National Forest, Idaho.

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"#SCARY" #FACES? #ISLAND? #DREAMS? #PEACE? #TIME? #IM #EXPERIENCESTHATS #BRUNOS #SHAPE? #SCAFFOLDING? #PURPOSE? #CANT #REVEAL? #YOURSELF? #DEVELOP? #TAKE? #EXPLORATIONS? #ALLIGATORCATFISH #EMERGE? #WORLDS #ALLIANCE? #ENVIRONMENT? #SELFUNDERSTANDING #ITS #CHINACATSUNFLOWERIKNOWYOURIDER #WWWRHYTHMSECTIONTNCOM #MTN #RECORDS #RHYTHMSECTIONGATLINBURGCOM #FLICKRCOMPHOTOSMUSIC1978 #MISTAKE #SELFDISCOVERY #TRAUMA #TRANSFORMATION #PEOPLE #WISDOM #TOGETHER #WORLD #GROWTH #THREATS #RESOURCES #SECURITY #WELLBEING #EXPLORATION #INHABITANTS #FACTIONS #LIFE #POTENTIAL #PSYCHE #NEXT #1 #TOOL #2 #DISCOVERY #3 #PURPOSE #4 #GOOD #UTILIZED #DREAMSCAPE #COSMOS #NARRATIVES #FLUID #JOURNEY #3RECORDS #TENNESSEE #HARDTOFIND #EUROPE #AUDIOPHILEQUALITY #RERELEASES #ROCKBOTTOM #PRICES #BOWIETHE #BOWIE #STICKERSTOREWWWFLICKRCOMPHOTOSMUSIC1978 #RHYTHMSECTIONTNCOM #REDBUBBLECOMPEOPLERHYTHMSECTIONTNSHOP #CITYOFLIGHT33 #GATLINBURGRECORDSTOWWWRHYTHMSECTIONGATLINBURGCOMOCHET #SMOKYMTNSRECORDS #HEARTRECORDS #PRAYERSFORRAINGREENHGOLDEN ++++ +++++#GATLINBURG #PRAYERSFORRAIN+ #SHOP #REQUESTS! #STICKERS! #RECORDS! #SOUNDTRACKS #ALBUMS! #CDS! #MOUNTAINS! #NEWVINYLRECORDS! #PEACEEARTH ++++#DAZEDANDCONFUSED ++++#RECORDSGOLDEN ++++++ #GOLD+ ++++++#NEWVINYLRECORDS! #3@THERHYTHMSECTION78DREAMREALMEXPLORATION+ #STONETEMPLEPILOTS+++++ #STATION #TREASURETROVE #DESTINATIONWWWREDBUBBLECOMPEOPLESTARLIGHTMOONSHOPBUTTERFLY #CARTOONISH #W #TROVE #LIFESAVINGPRINCE #PEACE3EARTH #INCLUDING #LIFESTATION #ARE #BUTTERFLY #LIBRARY! #ENGLAND! #2XL! #GODS! #POSTERS! #INSTAGRAM! #STORE! #ELYSIUM! #SHOPPING! #WIND! #WORLD! #MUCHMORE! #PINS! #EMBRACED! #DAYS! #MANYMORE! #PATCHES! #EMBRACED!PEACE #SEASON! #YOU! #MIDNIGHTSLODGECOSMICREFRACTIONSMAIDENFUTURISTICENAMELTHERHYTHMSECTION78THERHYTHMSECTION78KEYACDCNIRVANATSHIRT611UNICORNHEALINGISAMIRACLESECURITYBILLIERAINBOWCASTLETHERHYTHMSECTION78THERHYTHMSECTION78THERHYTHMSECTION78@THERHYTHMSECTION78!@THERHYTHMSECTION78!@THERHYTHMSECTION78!@THERHYTHMSECTION78!VALLEYSTICKERS@THERHYTHMSECTION78!MUSICLOVERS #EUROPE! #PRICES!! #NOSTALGIALODGECOSMICREFRACTIONSMAIDENFUTURISTICENAMELTHERHYTHMSECTION78THERHYTHMSECTION78KEYACDCNILODGECOSMICREFRACTIONSMAIDENFUTURISTICENAMELTHERHYTHMSECTION78THERHYTHMSECTION78KEYACDCNIRVANATSHIRT611UNICORNHEALINGISAMIRACLESECURITYBILLIERAINBOWCASTLETHERHYTHMSECTION78THERHYTHMSECTION78THERHYTHMSECTION78@THERHYTHMSECTION78!@THERHYTHMSECTION78!@THERHYTHMSECTION78!@THERHYTHMSECTION78!VALLEYSTICKERS@THERHYTHMSECTION78! #ABSOLUTELY! #EMERGED #CORE #COLLABORATION #INTERPRETATIONS #EMPOWERMENT #BALANCE #PROTECTION #POTENTIAL #SYMBOLISM! #YES! #NARRATIVE #WORLD #RESOLUTION #TRANSFORMATION #MONSTERS #ISLAND #EXPLORING #EXPERIENCES!THATS #DREAMSCAPE! #INTRODUCES #EVOLUTION #RESOURCES #REFLECTION #TAKES! #NEXT! #CONTINUE #STARSHIP #REALM #HARMONY #DREAMS! #RAINBOW #CITADEL #VISIONSTICKERSTOREWWWFLICKRCOMPHOTOSMUSIC1978 #REDBUBBLECOMPEOPLERHYTHMSECTIONTNSHOP #PRAYERSFORRAINGREENHIMAGINATIONLIBRARY ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ #SHOP+ #TREASURES+ #ALLALONGTHEWATCHTOWER+ #HENDRIX+ #PINS+ #FORTRESS+ #BOWIE+ #MTNS+ #HEAVENANDHELL+ #BEETLEJUICE+ #PARK+ #BANDS+ #ORDERS+ #AVAILABILITY+ #BUTTONS+ #MORE+ +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ #DAFTPUNK+ #CREATION+ #MEMORY+ #HEALING+ #POSTERS+ #AVALON+ #ROXYMUSIC+ #GATLINBURG+ #GREATSMOKYMOUNTAINS+ #BRIDGE+ #TOWER+ #PEACE+ #IMAGINATION+ #VALLEY+ #TREEOFLIFE+ #SMOKYMOUNTAINS+ #MUSIC+ #TSHIRTS+ #TYLERCHILDERSINN+ #STICKERS+ #PALACE+ #MAGIC+ #LOVE+ #DIAMOND+ #REQUESTS+ #METAL+ #WATERFALL+ #TALKTALK+ #CDS+ #BARBIE+ #RECORDS+ #MUSHROOM+ #BRIANENO+ #OLYMPUS+ #REFUGE+ #ETC #MAILORDERS+ #TENNESSEE+ #ENO+ #SUN+ #BUSH+ #MOUNTAINS+ #RESTORATION+ #PATCHES+ #SHIRTS+ #DUNE+ #NIRVANA+ #COSMOS+ #DYLAN+ #RAINBOW+ #TAROT+ #EMBRACED!GOINGTOCALIFORNIA #RAINBOWTREE #RAINBOWHARDSUN #ARRIVALS! 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Terezín was in de Tweede Wereldoorlog de tot concentratiekamp en getto veranderde Tsjechische vestingstad. Het was vooral een doorgangskamp voor Joden die meestal spoedig naar Auschwitz-Birkenau of andere vernietigingskampen werden gestuurd. In Terezín stierven 31.000 mensen.

 

Deze foto's zijn van het zogenaamde kleine fort. Het gaf me een dubbel gevoel. Het is uit bouwhistorisch oogpunt een prachtige vesting met verdedigingswerken. Maar de horror die hier onder Duitse Leiding plaats vond is niet te bevatten. Het maakte meer indruk dan mijn eerste bezoek, in 1987.

 

The old fortress of Theresienstadt was a hybrid concentration camp and ghetto established by the SS during World War II. It was located in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (a German-occupied region of Czechoslovakia). Theresienstadt served two main purposes: it was simultaneously a waystation to the extermination camps, and a "retirement settlement" for elderly and prominent Jews to mislead their communities about the Final Solution. Its conditions were deliberately engineered to hasten the death of its prisoners, and the ghetto also served a propaganda role.

 

Luminescent Luna

Allen Park, MI

Monarch Waystation 2408 (my backyard)

 

My very first Luna Moth! Raised from an egg. I thought for sure they would overwinter but apparently this one had other ideas. I have a few pictures taken from the front but I kind of liked this one of the underside lit up from behind by the morning sun.

Adams Ranger Station. Nez Perce National Forest, Idaho.

"the wood seemed old, fragile to the point of elvishness; it was wood being transmogrified into sand...a way station for the coach line. the tottering sand-house (the wind had crusted the wood with grit until it looked like a sand castle that the sun had beat upon at low tide and hardened to a temporary abode) cast a thin line of shadow..."

 

"chapter two, the way station," _the dark tower: the gunslinger_: stephen king

This garden in suburban St. Louis is a designated Monarch Waystation and serves as an outdoor classroom for Head Start students.

Old Bent's Fort was located on the Santa Fe Trail and active during the 1830s and 1840s. It served as a trading post, way station, and eventually a military post during the Mexican War. It was also a meeting and cultural exchange point for American, Mexican, and Native American cultures.

Samuel Myers Park is a young shoreline restoration in Racine, Wisconsin. It was created to help with water quality issues in this area, and also turn an unused, useless space into a more important area for wildlife as well as people. The park includes a short cordwalk path through native plantings and around some wetlands and over a small bridge. Shortly after this photo was taken, I saw a mink crossing the bridge.

 

The park also includes a gazebo, rain gardens, and is certified as a Monarch Waystation.

The enigmatic title of this chapter is partially illuminated by a brief passage near the end (III, 351.21-22), where this mysterious “fifth tawakkul” is again briefly mentioned as one of the distinctive forms of spiritual knowledge Ibn 'Arabi saw in his culminating vision of the “Muhammadan Station”: .”..And I saw in it the knowledge of the person who acts deliberately and (at the same time) relies on God, and this is the fifth tawakkul, and it is

(expressed in) God's saying in Sura 73: '[...There is no god but Him,] so take Him as your Trustee (wakil)!' (73:9).”Elsewhere (chapter 198, II, p. 420, 36th tawhid), Ibn 'Arabi explains this same Qur’anic verse as a reference to man's inherent ontological status as a pure “servant,” with no possessions of his own, a description resembling the inner state of “pure servanthood” Ibn

'Arabi also realized in his culminating revelation (IV-I below). Similarly, a key phrase in this description, “to act deliberately” (itta'ada), is applied in Ibn 'Arabi's cautionary advice earlier

in chapter 367 (at n. 143 below; = III, 349.13) to those Sufis who would mistakenly take the ecstatic state of “annihilation in God” (fana', implying a heedlessness of the external world) to be the end and goal of the spiritual Path. All of these hints seem to point to this highest form of “trust in God” as reflecting an advanced inner state of spiritual insight in which the

saint's absolute reliance on God—an attitude that in lower stages of tawakkul is usually conceived of as implying a sort of ascetic disdain and unconcern for the “secondary causes”

(asbab) or things of this world—is now seen as simultaneously “affirming the secondary causes” (a phrase from opening poem of this chapter, at III, 340.15), which are finally perceived in their true metaphysical status, as necessary and intrinsic manifestations of the ever-present divine Reality. This form of tawakkul would thus closely correspond to Ibn 'Arabi's characteristic emphasis on the superiority of the state of “enlightened abiding” in the world (baqa') characterizing those saints who—like the Prophet—have “returned” (the raji'un) from the station of divine Proximity while retaining the ongoing realization of that insight in the world. The term tawakkul, “trust” or “inner confidence” in God, occurs many times in the Qur’an and gradually became a key term in Sufi spiritual psychology; see, for example, chapter 118 of the Futuhat (II, 199-201), on the maqam al-tawakkul, where Ibn 'Arabi mentions at the end that “the levels of tawakkul, for the true Knowers, are 487....” Near the

beginning of the R. al-Anwar (Chodkiewicz, Seal of the Saints, p. 151; T. Harris, Journey to the Lord of Power, p. 30) he also discusses tawakkul as the last of the preparatory stages

before the spiritual Mi'raj, marked by four distinctive “charismatic powers” (karamat)....God said “There is nothing like His likeness [and He is the All-Hearing, the All-Seeing]” (Qur’an 42:11),27 so He described Himself with a description that necessarily belongs only to Him, which is. His saying: “And He is with you wherever you are” (Qur’an 57:4).28 Thus He is with us wherever we

are, in the state of His “descending to the heaven of this world during the last third of the night,”29 27This famous Qur’anic verse, with its paradoxical “double negations” (corresponding to the shahada) of God's “resemblance” to created things, is usually treated by Ibn 'Arabi as a classic reference to the mystery of the simultaneous immanence (tashbih) and transcendence (tanzih) of the Divine Reality reflected in the Perfect Manwhich is the central intuition of all his work. Often he even interprets the expression “His Likeness” in this verse as a direct reference to the Perfect Man, alluding to Adam's creation (according to a famous hadith) “in the image of the Merciful”: see the famous discussions of this verse in the chapters on Noah (ch. 3) and Hud (ch. 10) in the Fusus alHikam,and further references in the Futuhat I, 62, 97, 111, 220; II, 129, 510, 516-17, 541, 563; III,

109, 165, 266, 282, 340, 412, 492; IV, 135, 141, 306, 311, 431. In addition to the ambiguity of the expression kamithlihi (which can also be read simply as “like Him”—i.e., like God), Ibn 'Arabi likewise stresses the apparently paradoxical contrast between the absolute insistence on divine transcendence at the beginning of this verse and the apparent anthropomorphism of its conclusion. Thus, according to either reading, the absolute universality of the divine Presence implied by this verse includes all the particular, “restricted” modalities of the divine “descent” (nuzul) and Self-manifestation indicated in the following verses and hadith—each of which is likewise the subject of numerous discussions throughout the Futuhat. 28 For Ibn 'Arabi, this verse is simply a direct implication of the broader truth implied in the opening verse: this inner correspondence between the different manifestations of God and the Perfect Man (al-Insan al-Kamil), at all the levels of being (or “worlds”) is assumed throughout the rest of this chapter. More generally, the reality of the divine “compresence” (ma'iya, “with-ness”) with all things expressed in this verse is discussed in many parts of the Futuhat, including a number of the shorter metaphysical or cosmological excerpts included in this anthology. 29 A reference to a famous “divine saying” (hadith qudsi) which Ibn 'Arabi included in his own

collection of such hadith, the Mishkat al-Anwar (no. 56, and cited from the Sahih of Muslim); available in English translation by S. Hirtenstein and M. Notcutt in Divine Sayings, p. 65: “God, ever

mighty and majestic is He, says, when He descends during the third part of the night: ‘I am the King! Who is there that calls out to Me, that I may answer him? Who is there that asks of Me, that I may give to him? Who is there that asks pardon of Me, that I may forgive him?’”[MORRIS’S TRANSLATION“Our Lord descends every night to the heaven of this world when the last third of

the night remains, and then He says: 'I am the King! Whoever calls on Me, I answer him. Whoever asks (something) of Me, I give to him. Whoever requests My forgiveness, I forgive him.”] This hadith is recorded, with a number of minor variations, by Muslim, Malik, Bukhari, Tirmidhi, Ibn Maja, and Ahmad b. Hanbal: see detailed references and variants in W. Graham, Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam (The Hague, 1977), pp. 177-178. As Ibn 'Arabi explains in detail in the latter part of chapter 34 of the Futuhat (OY ed., III, 320-332), the “night,” in this hadith, “is the place of the descent in time of God and His Attribute” (of Mercy), and this “last third of the night”—which, Ibn 'Arabi insists, lasts forever—is none other than the Perfect Man (the first two “thirds” being “the heavens and the in the state of His being mounted upon the Throne (Qur’an 5:20; etc.),30 in the state of His being in the “Cloud,”31 in the state of His being upon the earth and in heaven (Qur’an 43:84; etc.),32 in the state of His being closer to man than his jugular vein (Qur’an 50:16)33—and all of these are qualifications with which only He can be described. earth,” man's “two parents”). The following verses and hadith (at notes 30-32 here) are interpreted in chapter 34 as references to different ontological degrees or “moments” of that

universal divine Self-manifestation. 30 There are seven Qur’anic verses referring to God's being “mounted (istawa') on the Throne,” often following “the creation of the heavens and the earth” (i.e., what lies “beneath” or constitutes the Throne in its cosmological sense). For Ibn 'Arabi's understanding of these verses, see the extensive references to the Futuhat in Hakim, Al-Muʻjam al-sūfī, pp. 791-803 (on the many meanings of the

divine “Throne,” 'arsh) and pp. 622-629 (on istiwa').

For Ibn 'Arabi, however, an even more fundamental meaning of the “Throne” is “the Heart of the man of true faith” (which is “the Throne of the Merciful,” according to a famous

hadith), i.e., the Perfect Man (see Hakim, Al-Muʻjam al-sūfī, pp. 916-921, on the qalb). The inner connection between these two senses is brought out explicitly in the famous hadith

qudsi discussed at n. 7 above and quoted at n. 37 below, and is a basic assumption throughout sections III and IV below, since the “Heart” is precisely the “theater” of the entire journey:

that point is made most forcefully in sections IV-G and IV-I below. Elsewhere, (e.g., in chapter 34, OY ed., III, 320 ff.), Ibn 'Arabi frequently stresses the particular importance of the

Qur’anic specification (at 5:20) that it is “the Merciful” (al-Rahman), the Source of all being, Who is “mounted” or “seated” there. 31 A reference to the following hadith, concerning the Prophet's response to the question “Where was our Lord before He created the creation?”: “He was in a Cloud ('ama'), without air above it and without air below it, and He created His Throne upon the Water.” (This famous hadith is found in the collections of Ibn Maja, Tirmidhi and Ahmad b. Hanbal.) Our translation here reflects Ibn 'Arabi's interpretation in chapter 34 of the Futuhat (OY ed., III, 323 ff.), where he also stresses the fact that this particular ontological reality concerns the divine Name “Lord” (rabb)—and not “the Merciful” (see n. 29). For the broader meaning of the term 'ama' (“the Cloud”) in Ibn 'Arabi, see the

references in Hakim, Al-Muʻjam al-sūfī, pp. 820-826 and in the Futuhat II, 310, as well as its treatment in the penultimate stage of the cosmological mi'raj in chapter 167 (S. Ruspoli, L’Alchimie, pp. 138-140). 32 This phrase is contained (with minor variations) in a number of other Qur’anic verses (3:5; 10:61; 14:38; 22:70) all insisting on God's intimate acquaintance with all things: see, for example, “Our Lord, surely You know what we say openly and what we hide: not a thing upon the earth and in heaven is hidden from God” (Qur’an 14:38); or even more appropriately, “He is God in the heavens and upon the earth; he knows your secret [sirr] and what you proclaim, and He knows what you gain” (Qur’an 6:3). 33 Ibn 'Arabi's understanding of the divine “nearness” (see the related notion of “with-ness,” ma'iya,

at n. 28 above) expressed in this Qur’anic phrase is intimately bound up with the reality of 19 Hence God does not move a servant from place to place in order that (the servant) might see Him, but rather “so that He might cause him to see of His Signs” (Qur’an 41:53; etc.)34 those that were unseen by him. He said: “Glory to Him Who made His servant journey one night from the Sacred Place of Worship to the Furthest Place of Worship, whose surroundings We have blessed, so that We might cause him to see of Our Signs!” (Qur’an 17:1)35 And similarly, when God moves (any) “perpetual creation” (khalq jadid) expressed in the rest of the verse and its immediate context: .”..yet they are in confusion about the (ever-) renewed creation; but surely We created man [alinsan] and We know what his soul insinuates to him and We are closer to man than his jugular vein” (Qur’an 50:15-16). As indicated in the Introduction, for Ibn 'Arabi the spiritual “station of Proximity” (maqam al-qurba), in which one actually realizes the full extent of this intimate relation with God, is the ultimate goal of the Ascension of the saints outlined in this chapter: that relation is outlined schematically, in the theological language of 'ilm al-kalam, in section III and discussed in

more experiential terms in the final two parts of section IV. (See the extensive references in Hakim, Al-Muʻjam al-sūfī, pp. 936-940 and Chodkiewicz, Seal of the Saints, index s.v. [maqam al-qurba].) 34 While Ibn 'Arabi is alluding in particular to the “reason” for the Prophet's Ascension described at Qur’an 17:1 (see following note), the same phrase (with only minor variations in the pronouns) is addressed to mankind more generally in a number of other Qur’anic verses (27:93; 31:31; etc.). Of these, certainly the most important and best known is the verse 41:53—to such an extent that it is clearly assumed whenever Ibn 'Arabi mentions the divine “Signs” (ayat): “We shall cause them to

see Our Signs on the horizons and in their souls, so that it becomes clear to them that He is the Truly Real [al-Haqq]—or is your Lord not enough, for surely He is witnessing every thing! What, are they in doubt about meeting their Lord? Does He not surely encompass all things?” Especially important, for Ibn 'Arabi as for so many other Islamic thinkers, is the insistence in this verse on the coincidence of the Signs “on the horizons,” i.e., in the external world (but note also Muhammad's decisive revelation at the “Loftiest Horizon,” Qur’an 53:7) and those “in the souls,” in the totality of awareness of the “Perfect Man” (al-insan al-kamil). Secondly, Ibn 'Arabi always emphasizes the causative, active meaning of the verb form 'Ara as “to make someone see,” not just “to show”: for him, God's “Signs” are already there, in the totality of our experience, but usually “unseen” (ghaba)—i.e., not perceived as such. Thus the whole purpose of the spiritual journey is simply to open our (spiritual) eyes to the reality of “things” as Signs, or as Ibn 'Arabi goes on to explain immediately below (and in more detail in section III), to recognize the divine Names “in our states.” All this is implicit

in the famous prayer of the Prophet likewise assumed throughout this chapter: “O my God, cause us to see things as they really are!” 35 The masjid al-haram (“Sacred Place of Worship”) was a common name for the sanctuary of the

Kaaba at Mecca, but there is some disagreement in the hadith surrounding the identification of the masjid al-aqsa: it was sometimes, especially in later traditions, identified with the site of the Temple at Jerusalem (al-bayt al-maqdis, “the sacred House”) where Muhammad stops to pray before his heavenly ascension according to several hadith accounts (including that followed by Ibn 'Arabi below); but the earlier traditions agree that it refers to the “furthest point” (al-darah) or goal of the

Mi'raj (i.e., where Muhammad received the culminating revelation described in Sura 53), and is therefore more or less identical with the “Inhabited House” or heavenly Temple of Abraham (al-bayt 20 servant through his (inner spiritual) states in order also to cause him to see His Signs, He moves him through His states.36 ...(I.e., God) says: “I only made him journey by night in order that he see the Signs, not (to bring him) to Me: because no place can hold Me and the relation of all places to Me is the same. For I am such that (only) 'the heart of My servant, the man of true faith, encompasses Me,'37 so how could he be 'made to journey to Me' while I am 'with him wherever he is' (Qur’an

57:4)?!” al-ma'mur), the symbol of the Heart discussed in section IV-H (notes 168-172) below. Ibn 'Arabi implicitly seems to follow the latter interpretation. See also the articles from the SEI/EI cited in n. 1 above. Throughout this chapter (and in the K. al-Isra', etc.) Ibn 'Arabi generally uses the Qur’anic expression isra' to refer to the Prophet's ascension and its spiritual analogues—

possibly because the term mi'raj might appear limited only to the “ascending” portion, whereas Ibn 'Arabi always is at pains (as in sections III and IV-F below, and at the end of his R. al-Anwar) to emphasize the critical importance of the “descending” phase of return (ruju'), which distinguishes the highest rank of the saints (and of course the prophets). We have consistently translated isra' and its related verbal forms here as “journey,” but it must be kept in mind that the Arabic term refers specifically to a nocturnal journey: for Ibn 'Arabi, especially, this nuance no doubt corresponds to the fact that the spiritual isra', at least, is an

inner, “secret” process largely hidden from outward observation, especially in those saints (the afrad or malamiya) who have followed it through to the end. In the K. al-Isfar 'an Nata'ij al-Asfar (Rasa'il, II, no. 24), pp. 17-21, Ibn 'Arabi offers

an elaborate interpretation of this same Qur’anic verse (17:1) focusing—as is typically the case in his reading of the Qur’an—on the complex inner significance of the grammatical and

lexical details of its particular Arabic expressions, such as the apparent duplication of “at night” (laylan) and asra (meaning “to cause to journey at night”), etc. Our translation cannot

convey most of those nuances or alternative meanings.

36Here, as so often with Ibn 'Arabi (see especially section III below), the pronouns are rather ambiguous; in this case the intended meaning is clarified by the following untranslated lines (III, 340.25-30) which cite several other hadith and Qur’anic passages where God shows some of “His” creations to certain prophetic messengers in order to teach them a particular lesson. Here Ibn 'Arabi implicitly contrasts this spiritual journey of the saints (and ultimately of all men) through their inner “states”—i.e., the “Signs in your souls” of verse 41:53 (see notes 34 and 72)—with the physical (or possibly “imaginal”) journey through places which, as he explains below (end of section II), was the exclusive privilege of the Prophet on this single occasion.37 An allusion to the celebrated hadith qudsi already mentioned at n. 7 above: “My earth does not encompass Me, nor does My heaven, but the heart of My servant, the man of true faith, does encompass Me.” This famous divine saying (not found in the canonical collections, but favored by many Sufi authors) is cited repeatedly by Ibn 'Arabi, who takes it as a classical reference to the role

of the “Heart” (of the “Perfect Man,” as realized by the accomplished saints) as the complete mirror of the divine tajalliyat. See the references at notes 30 and 33 above, and all of section IV-H (notes 167-173) below.

 

dlib.bc.edu/islandora/object/bc-ir:107287/datastream/PDF/...

 

My first Chrysalis in my "Monarch Waystation"-Learning to Fly Again. There may have been others that i have not seen our found. I hope it will emerge when i am able to film it. I saw the caterpillar attach itself to the leaf.

 

It looks nice from the air.

A closeup of one of our monarchs (on lantana)

Old Bent's Fort was located on the Santa Fe Trail and active during the 1830s and 1840s. It served as a trading post, way station, and eventually a military post during the Mexican War. It was also a meeting and cultural exchange point for American, Mexican, and Native American cultures.

For Flower Thursday! I'm sure you can tell that this is yet another one of my mistakes from the other night where I forgot to reset exposure compensation on my camera. I rather like this one too. At the Butterfly Garden at the University of Kansas in Lawrence, KS.

Old Bent's Fort was located on the Santa Fe Trail and active during the 1830s and 1840s. It served as a trading post, way station, and eventually a military post during the Mexican War. It was also a meeting and cultural exchange point for American, Mexican, and Native American cultures.

Tigger and Norio near the window with the morning sun. Tigger was on her way to somewhere important while Norio was enjoying the sunlight.

The barn has seen better days. Hopefully, the roof can be repaired. There are six other buildings that make up the campus. Most were built in the early 1930s. Forest Road 309 runs close to the site.

 

Adams Administrative Site. Nez Perce National Forest, Idaho.

  

Photo taken today 6/15/2017 at Waupaca, Wisconsin in my Monarch Waystation. Monarch Butterfly checking out my Common Milkweed.

A Female Monarch on Swamp Milkweed

Male Monarch

9/26/25

 

Feeding on New England Asters.

This week's post for Bokeh Wednesdays!

 

A dried Foxglove Beardtongue rises out of the bokeh below.

 

Monarch Waystation,

Foley Hall,

University of Kansas,

Lawrence (Douglas County), KS.

 

Here's a brakeman's view of a D&RGW locomotive crew as they make a water stop at the remote waystation in Osier, CO (Milepost 318.4). Just beyond the locomotive is the 1880-vintage Osier Depot, and to the right, the western edge of the extensive stock pens that were used by local ranchers to contain cattle that would be shipped from this location, often simply to winter pasture locations.

 

This image was captured during a September 2011 photo shoot on the Cumbres & Toltec Scenic Railroad, organized by Lerro Photography. The locomotive featured here is the former D&RGW K-36 #487.

Teneya has a new roommate, a transferee from the other side of the canyon, and is a much happier little wolf these days. With the addition of another voice to the nearby chorus, our evening serenade is much improved.

In my butterfly garden in Toms River, New Jersey 8-9-16. Waystation number 11567

In my butterfly garden in Toms River, New Jersey 9-22-18. Waystation number 11567

Adams Ranger Station. New Perce National Forest, Idaho.

ul. Fredry, Poznań