*Photos Loisirs* Level 2
View allAll Photos Tagged Recidivism,
Kratié (Cambodge) - Tel un assassin, je reviens toujours sur les lieux de mes crimes photographiques. J’attends parfois quelques années, mais je reviens toujours. Pour une ambiance, une lumière particulière, une rencontre… Preuve qu’en photo, la récidive existe aussi.
En revenant à Kratié, après un premier séjour en 2019, j’ai voulu voir si je n’étais pas passé à côté d’une scène intéressante ou si j’aurais l’opportunité de compléter une série. De toute façon, j’avais suffisamment apprécié cette ville longée par le Mékong, afin d’y revenir pour le plaisir.
J’y avais pris de nombreuses photos, notamment de ce que l’on appelle abusivement le « village flottant ». Une arnaque pour touristes car il ne s’agit en réalité que de baraques en tôle pour pêcheurs. Elles abritent des moteurs diesel qui actionnent les treuils chargés de remonter les filets. Un outil de travail pour ces professionnels de la pêche en eau douce, qui eux, pas fous, vivent avec leurs familles plus confortablement au sec, sur les rives du fleuve.
Cette année, manque de chance, le niveau du Mékong est particulièrement bas. Plutôt que de nager entre deux eaux, pour le plus grand profit des pêcheurs, les poissons sont bien planqués dans la vase. A défaut pêcher en grandes quantités, les pêcheurs parviennent quand même à capturer assez de poissons pour nourrir leurs familles. Les treuils à moteur diesel étant inefficaces en dessous un certain niveau d’eau, dans ces conditions, la pêche se pratique en barques. Les cabanes flottantes et leurs filets motorisés sont au chômage technique, jusqu’à la prochaine crue.
A l’instar des pêcheurs, à défaut de rentrer complètement bredouille de ma pêche photographique, mes photos n’apportent rien de plus que celles de 2019. Le coucher de soleil est toujours aussi plaisant, mais l’endroit est plus désert et de nombreuses cabanes flottantes ont disparu. Précision ; les personnages sur le banc de sable jouent au foot.
I always come back to the scene of my crimes
Kratié (Cambodia) - Like an assassin, I always return to the scene of my photographic crimes. Sometimes I wait a few years, but I always come back. For an atmosphere, a particular light, an encounter... Proof that in photography, recidivism also exists.
Returning to Kratié, after a first stay in April-May 2019, I wanted to see if I had not missed an interesting scene or if I would have the opportunity to complete a series. Anyway, I had enjoyed this city bordered by the Mekong enough to come back. I had taken many photos there, in particular of what is wrongly called the “floating village”. A scam for tourists because it is really only tin shacks for fishermen. They house diesel engines that operate the winches responsible for raising the nets. A work tool for these professionals in freshwater fishing, who themselves, not crazy, live with their families more comfortably in the dry, on the banks of the river.
This year, bad luck, the level of the Mekong is particularly low. Rather than swimming between two waters, for the greatest benefit of the fishermen, the fish are well hidden in the mud. Failing to fish in large quantities, the locals still manage to catch enough fish to feed their families. Diesel engine winches are ineffective below a certain level of water, in these conditions, fishing is practiced in boats. The floating cabins and their motorized nets are out of service until the next flood.
Like the fishermen, failing to return completely empty-handed from my photographic fishing, my photos bring nothing more than those of 2019. The sunset is still as sumptuous, but the place is more deserted and many floating cabins have disappeared. Accuracy ; the characters on the sandbank are playing football.
This is our own version of Alcatraz, Bastøy fengsel. Well, not the same as Alcatraz, but a prison, located on an island in the middle of Oslofjorden, the similarity ends there.
Bastøy Prison (Norwegian: Bastøy fengsel) is a minimum-security prison on Bastøy Island, Norway, located in the Horten municipality about 75 km south of Oslo. The prison is on a 2.6 km2 island and hosts 115 inmates. Arne Kvernvik-Nilsen, governor of the prison, leads a staff of 69 prison employees. Of this staff, only 5 employees remain on the island overnight. The prison is about one hour commuting distance from Oslo.
Once a prison colony for young boys, the facility is trying to become "the first ecological prison in the world". Recidivism has been reported at 16%, compared to the European average of around 70%. Inmates are housed in wooden cottages and work the prison farm. During their free time, inmates have access to horseback riding, fishing, tennis, and cross-country skiing. The only access to the prison is from a ferry that departs from Horten.
*Working Towards a Better World
How does the Meadow flower its bloom unfold? Because the lovely little flower is free down to its root, and in that freedom bold.
William Wordsworth
As covetousness is the root of all evil, so poverty is the worst of all snares. - Daniel Defoe
Compassion, in which all ethics must take root, can only attain its full breadth and depth if it embraces all living creatures and does not limit itself to mankind. -
Albert Schweitzer
Free expression is the base of human rights, the root of human nature and the mother of truth. To kill free speech is to insult human rights, to stifle human nature and to suppress truth.
Liu Xiaobo
We can't just rail against crime. We must speak of the root problems - devastating family breakup, an insidious culture of violence that cheapens human life, skyrocketing prisoner recidivism rates that rob our communities of husbands and fathers - and recognize that there is a societal role in rehabilitation and restoration.
Frank Wolf
Please bear with me, I will not get to all of your works right away but I am making my way slowly am having some computer problems that are slowing me down even more, sorry.
Thank you for your kind visit. Have a wonderful and beautiful day! xo❤️
Oggi non ho un tema, ho poco tempo per pensarci, così troverete di seguito di tutto un po'.
E poi siamo a fine anno, perciò tempo di saldi :)
Questa struttura è l' "Ala Napoleonica", fu costruita per fornire ricovero alla cavalleria di Bonaparte, ed ora serve come area Mercatale per i generi alimentari.
L'avevo già fotografata un anno fa, ma essendo ritornata sul luogo del delitto, ho recidivato, questa mi pare sia venuta meglio dell'altra.
Explore del 15 Dicembre 2013
Do not use any of my images on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission.
All rights reserved - Copyright © fotomie2009 - Nora Caracci
callous lack of empathypsychopath test pclr
please score yourself 0 1 2 3 on each of the 20 items and record your score as a comment on the total score image
The PCL-R is a clinical rating scale (rated by a psychologist or other professional) of 20 items. Each of the items in the PCL-R is scored on a three-point scale according to specific criteria through file information and a semi-structured interview. A value of 0 is assigned if the item does not apply, 1 if it applies somewhat, and 2 if it fully applies. In addition to lifestyle and criminal behavior the checklist assesses glib and superficial charm, grandiosity, need for stimulation, pathological lying, conning and manipulating, lack of remorse, callousness, poor behavioral controls, impulsivity, irresponsibility, failure to accept responsibility for one's own actions and so forth. The scores are used to predict risk for criminal re-offence and probability of rehabilitation.
The current edition of the PCL-R officially lists four factors (1.a, 1.b, 2.a, and 2.b), which summarize the 20 assessed areas via factor analysis. The previous edition of the PCL-R[5] listed two factors. Factor 1 is labelled "selfish, callous and remorseless use of others". Factor 2 is labelled as "chronically unstable, antisocial and socially deviant lifestyle". There is a high risk of recidivism and currently small likelihood of rehabilitation for those who are labelled as having "psychopathy" on the basis of the PCL-R ratings in the manual for the test, although treatment research is ongoing.
PCL-R Factors 1a and 1b are correlated with narcissistic personality disorder and histrionic personality disorder. They are associated with extraversion and positive affect. Factor 1, the so-called core personality traits of psychopathy, may even be beneficial for the psychopath (in terms of nondeviant social functioning).
PCL-R Factors 2a and 2b are particularly strongly correlated to antisocial personality disorder and criminality and are associated with reactive anger, criminality, and impulsive violence. The target group for the PCL-R is convicted criminals. The quality of ratings may depend on how much background information is available and whether the person rated is honest and forthright.
[edit] The two factorsFactor 1: Personality "Aggressive narcissism"
Glibness/superficial charm
Grandiose sense of self-worth
Pathological lying
Cunning/manipulative
Lack of remorse or guilt
Shallow affect (genuine emotion is short-lived and egocentric)
Callousness; lack of empathy
Failure to accept responsibility for own actions
Factor 2: Case history "Socially deviant lifestyle".
Need for stimulation/proneness to boredom
Parasitic lifestyle
Poor behavioral control
Lack of realistic long-term goals
Impulsivity
Irresponsibility
Juvenile delinquency
Early behavior problems
Revocation of conditional release
Traits not correlated with either factor
Promiscuous sexual behavior
Many short-term marital relationships
Criminal versatility
Acquired behavioural sociopathy/sociological conditioning (Item 21: a newly identified trait i.e. a person relying on sociological strategies and tricks to deceive)
Early factor analysis of the PCL-R indicated it consisted of two factors. Factor 1 captures traits dealing with the interpersonal and affective deficits of psychopathy (e.g. shallow affect, superficial charm, manipulativeness, lack of empathy) whereas Factor 2 dealt with symptoms relating to antisocial behaviour (e.g. criminal versatility, impulsiveness, irresponsibility, poor behaviour controls, juvenile delinquency).
The two factors have been found by those following this theory to display different correlates. Factor 1 has been correlated with narcissistic personality disorder, low anxiety, low empathy, low stress reaction and low suicide risk but high scores on scales of achievement and well-being. In addition, the use of item response theory analysis of female offender PCL-R scores indicates factor 1 items are more important in measuring and generalizing the construct of psychopathy in women than factor 2 items.
In contrast, Factor 2 was found to be related to antisocial personality disorder, social deviance, sensation seeking, low socio-economic status[6] and high risk of suicide. The two factors are nonetheless highly correlated and there are strong indications they do result from a single underlying disorder. However, research has failed to replicate the two-factor model in female samples.
Recent statistical analysis using confirmatory factor analysis by Cooke and Michie indicated a three-factor structure, with those items from factor 2 strictly relating to antisocial behaviour (criminal versatility, juvenile delinquency, revocation of conditional release, early behavioural problems and poor behavioural controls) removed from the final model. The remaining items are divided into three factors: Arrogant and Deceitful Interpersonal Style, Deficient Affective Experience and Impulsive and Irresponsible Behavioural Style.
In the most recent edition of the PCL-R, Hare adds a fourth antisocial behaviour factor, consisting of those Factor 2 items excluded in the previous model. Again, these models are presumed to be hierarchical with a single unified psychopathy disorder underlying the distinct but correlated factors.
The Cooke & Michie hierarchical ‘three’-factor model has severe statistical problems—i.e., it actually contains ten factors and results in impossible parameters (negative variances)—as well as conceptual problems. Hare and colleagues have published detailed critiques of the Cooke & Michie model. New evidence, across a range of samples and diverse measures, now supports a four-factor model of the psychopathy construct,] which represents the Interpersonal, Affective, Lifestyle, and overt Antisocial features of the personality disorder.
Diagnostic criteria and PCL-R assessmentPsychopathy is most commonly assessed with the PCL-R, which is a clinical rating scale with 20 items. Each of the items in the PCL-R is scored on a three-point (0, 1, 2) scale according to two factors. PCL-R Factor 2 is associated with reactive anger, anxiety, increased risk of suicide, criminality, and impulsive violence.
PCL-R Factor 1, in contrast, is associated with extraversion and positive affect. Factor 1, the so-called core personality traits of psychopathy, may even be beneficial for the psychopath (in terms of nondeviant social functioning). A psychopath will score high on both factors, whereas someone with APD will score high only on Factor 2.
Both case history and a semi-structured interview are used in the analysis.
just realizing now that i took a photo very similar to this one back in mid-september.
oh well.
i cropped this photo to within an inch of it's life.
just didn't want to see my face AGAIN today!
my mood is all over the place these days. i should only be happy with the weather finally taking a turn for the beautiful, but for some reason, i am feeling a bit empty right now.
and no, i'm not hungry! ;)
ah well. spring is in full bloom here and the vitamin D is plentiful, so i'll get it in gear soon.
hope you can all spend a good amount of outdoor time this weekend.
i know i plan to.
song of the day: blue in green, by miles davis
Quoi de mieux que revenir sur les traces de ses crimes photographiques des derniers mois pour tenter de récidiver un peu plus ? Et en rouges s'il vous plaît !
Unlike the State Library dome, the Old Melbourne Gaol has a wooden one with only small windows letting in very little light into the dark building. Prisoners were able to get closer to the light with good behaviour. Given that vagrancy was a crime and no attempt at rehabilitation and little payment for hard labour, up to 70 percent of inmates who were released, went to the nearby pub to celebrate, waste their money and fall drunkenly into the arms of the police yet again. The Police were paid more for nabbing these vagrants. Such was justice in the colony of Victoria at the time. Fortunately, our recidivism rate is a bit lower these days. But not as much as one expects in our so called enlightened times.
www.sentencingcouncil.vic.gov.au/sentencing-statistics/re...
North Brother Island[edit]
The northern of the islands was uninhabited until 1885, when Riverside Hospital moved there from Blackwell's Island (now known as Roosevelt Island). Riverside Hospital was founded in the 1850s as the Smallpox Hospital to treat and isolate victims of that disease. Its mission eventually expanded to other quarantinablediseases, with the most recent being the Tuberculosis Pavilion, which was opened in 1943 and was almost immediately obsolete.[6]
The island was the site of the wreck of the General Slocum, a steamship that burned on June 15, 1904. Over 1,000 people died either from the fire on board the ship, or from drowning before the ship beached on the island's shores.[7]
According to Joseph Mitchell – a newspaper reporter and a short-story writer for The New Yorker – the island was the site of many outings of "The Honorable John McSorley Pickle, Beefsteak, Baseball Nine, and Chowder Club" organized by John McSorley of McSorley's Old Ale House; photos of the outings are featured on the walls of the bar.[8]
Mary Mallon, also known as Typhoid Mary, was confined to the island for over two decades until she died there in 1938.[9][5] The hospital closed shortly thereafter.
Following World War II, the island housed war veterans who were students at local colleges and their families. After the nationwide housing shortage abated, the island was again abandoned until the 1950s, when a center opened to treat adolescent drug addicts. The facility claimed it was the first to offer treatment, rehabilitation, and education facilities to young drug offenders. Heroin addicts were confined to this island and locked in a room until they were clean. Many of them believed they were being held against their will. By the early 1960s widespread staff corruption and patient recidivism forced the facility to close.[citation needed]The facility is said to have been the inspiration for the Broadway play Does a Tiger Wear a Necktie?, which helped to launch the career of Al Pacino.[6]
Over the years, various New York City mayors have explored what to do with the island. John Lindsay, for instance, proposed to sell it, and Ed Koch thought it could be converted into housing for the homeless. The city also considered using it as an extension of the jail at Rikers Island.[6]
Now a bird sanctuary for herons and other wading shorebirds,[6] the island is currently abandoned and off-limits to the public. Most of the original hospitals' buildings still stand, but are heavily deteriorated and in danger of collapse, and a dense forest conceals the ruined hospital buildings. In October 2014, New York City Council member Mark Levine, Chair of the City Council's Parks Committee, led a delegation to visit the island,[10] and declared his desire afterwards to open the island for limited "light-touch, environmentally sensitive" public access.[11] In October 2016, New York magazine reported that the Council had commissioned a study from the University of Pennsylvania's School of Design, followed by a public hearing, on how the island could be converted into a park with controlled access by the public.[6]
Quand je vous dis qu'il a un sale caractère ce Goéland croyez moi, un quart d'heure après sa dispute avec le Héron le voici en train de récidiver avec la Cigogne...
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February's Alphabet Fun: 2014 Edition
Strobist: AB1600 with gridded 60X30 softbox overhead. AB800 open behind backdrop of white faux suede. Triggered by Cybersync.
Essais des nouveaux jouets :
LE sironar 240mm F5,6
Une friche industrielle pas loin de chez moi...
Je suis satisfait, globalement, de l'optique, avec cependant une petite nuance: pas de différence vraiment flagrante ni triviale avec un symmar S ni même un symmar convertible pourtant très, très décriés sur certains forums sans intérêt !!! CQFD !! Cependant ce rodenstock est excellent, mais est-ce que cela justifie pour autant la grande différence de prix ????
Je suis satisfait de la ORWO NP20 périmée de 1986 et du traitement à l'ilfotec HC-(de 1989). Je suis assez satisfait également de la géométrie de l'image, bascule AR par examen direct sur le dépoli pas trop mal réussie pour un débutant :o)
mais, ce n'est qu'un début de débutant, sans avant lu la bible ... sanctifiée sur le forum à la "concon"
Je ne suis pas du tout satisfait de ce ciel désespérément vide malgré l'utilisation d'un filtre dégradé, après, avec un ciel "couvert" et au crépuscule, on ne fait pas non plus de miracle :o)
Calumet CC400 + sironar 240mm F5,6 sur compur N°3 + filtre dégradé orange. Orwo NP 20 9x12 périmée de 1986 + ilfotec HC 1+31 11min à 23°C
Post -traitement très limité à luminosité/contraste avec un software gratuit: pas donc, de tricherie !
Exposition totalement "pifométrique" de plusieurs crocodiles, enfin environ ... LOL:o)
Pour le plaisir du partage et celui d'en faire et surtout pour ne pas parler de ce qu'on ne connaît pas, contrairement à certains .... et Toc !!
Pas de prétention artistique juste partager, la NP20, le sironar et l'ilfotec, sans appareil au point rouge, ni le mauvais esprit qui est livré avec, simplement des photos nettes ... C'est possible, mais il faut avoir des yeux :o))
Bienvenue sur le forum des "sans yeux, sans cerveau", le fond de la cour d'école pour attardés mentaux , que par pudeur on ne nommera pas mais qui se reconnaîtra , qu'on reconnaîtra ..... ça vaut le détour, mais attention: nuisibles !! on vous aura prévenu !!
Alors à quand, enfin, cette démo-photo du perroquet de forum à la "concon" ou bien qu'il se taise à jamais, plutôt que de raconter "13 conneries à la douzaine" !!!
Plus ça en parle, moins ça en fait, preuve à l'appui !
Attention, grand nuisible !!! pas content ?? tant mieux !!
Ils sont moins de dix, toujours les mêmes, à pourrir un endroit qui pourrait être utile ... sans leur présence et leur mauvais esprit !! Et on est bien obligé de se rendre compte qu'on retrouve les mêmes nuisibles dans tous les forums alentours ... . Ces mêmes nuisibles multi-récidivistes, qui véhiculent toujours les mêmes idées reçues fausses à 99, 987654321 % et qui deviennent des vérités ...
MAIS ......
ils n'ont que des adeptes puisque tous les autres sont systématiquement éliminés et traqués .... sur simple dénonciation auprès du grand "gouroutaure en chef" : CQFD !!!!
NO COMMENT, juste CQFD !!!
ça sent très très mauvais !! normal, puisque ça sent le "prout" ...
Besoin de reconnaissance, problème psychologique et "nullitude " ... ... ... ... ...
Quand je vous dis qu'il a un sale caractère ce Goéland croyez moi, un quart d'heure après sa dispute avec le Héron le voici en train de récidiver avec la Cigogne...
Wild Wallaby- Same family as a kangaroo but not as big..
I think is a Wild Whiptail Wallaby/Pretty-Faced Wallaby (Macropus parryi) ...
..."Le Queensland est le deuxième État de l'Australie par la superficie, le troisième par la population. Il se trouve au nord de la Nouvelle-Galles du Sud et à l'est du Territoire du Nord. L’État est bordé par la mer de Corail et l'océan Pacifique.
Sa capitale est Brisbane. C'est le seul État australien possédant un parlement monocaméral.
Les premières populations à habiter la région étaient les Aborigènes d'Australie et les Indigènes du détroit de Torrès, qui arrivèrent il y a 40 000 et 65 000 ans, d'après plusieurs techniques de datation1. Quelques centaines de siècles plus tard le Queensland devint une colonie de la couronne britannique qui fut séparée de la Nouvelle-Galles du Sud le 6 juin 1859, une date qui est célébrée chaque année comme le Queensland Day. La zone que couvre actuellement la ville de Brisbane était originellement le bagne de la baie Moreton, où se trouvaient les récidivistes condamnés (ceux qui avaient commis un délit lors de leur période d'exécution de la sentence en Nouvelle-Galles du Sud). L'État encouragea plus tard le libre établissement des personnes.
Aujourd'hui l'économie du Queensland est dominée par les secteurs de l'agriculture, du tourisme et des ressources naturelles..."
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“Anna has made the trip to Rikers hundreds of times in the nearly six years her son has been awaiting trial. Each time, a friend picks her up early in the morning near her apartment in Manhattan’s Lower East Side and drives her out through the city, past the brick houses and manicured lawns of northwestern Queens. They park near the Q100 bus stop and sit silently in the car until the bus pulls up.
On weekends, there’s always a line pushing to get on the bus — almost all women, many with small children, most black or Hispanic. Anna doesn’t rush to the doors like the rest; she has made this trip often enough to know that if you get on last you’ll be the first off when the bus reaches its destination. It’s only one stop, anyway.
The bus runs fast down a narrow bridge, passing the city’s fading skyline on the left and the tarmacs of LaGuardia Airport on the right. Within minutes it stops again and several uniformed men approach with guns and dogs. A large officer gets on the bus and asks attorneys and jail staff to get off. Then he reminds everyone else that this is the end of their “amnesty” — their last chance to get rid of any contraband without risking arrest.
“Happy Sunday,” he ends flatly but loudly. “Welcome to Rikers.”
In October 2010, Anna’s son Jairo Pastoressa was arrested for stabbing and killing a young man during a dispute. He was charged with murder and denied bail and has been sitting in jail for 67 months, waiting for a trial that keeps being postponed. Eighty-five percent of Rikers’s nearly 10,000 detainees have not yet been tried. Although many are released within a week, some remain in the jail for years as their cases drag through New York’s chronically slow court system. As of March 2016, 75 percent of Rikers detainees had been awaiting trial for less than a year, but there were 109 whose cases had been pending for more than three years and another 209 who had been waiting for more than two years, according to a spokesperson with the Mayor’s Office of Criminal Justice. Jairo believes he is the longest-serving detainee currently on the island. “This system keeps those that have been accused of committing crimes out of sight and out of mind,” City Council Speaker Melissa Mark-Viverito said in her 2016 State of the City address, in which she announced an independent commission to review whether the population at Rikers can be reduced enough to make its closure possible. “Rikers Island has come to represent our worst tendencies and our biggest failures.”
An officer with a dog walks along the lined-up group twice, the dog sniffing everyone, including small children in strollers.
Anna has been coming here one to three times a week since Jairo was arrested; she knows by heart the steps that precede any visit. She moves fast to the front of the line into the first building, stands against the wall holding a small plastic bag with a few bare necessities in her left hand before more uniformed officers yell at the rest of the group to do the same, speaking curtly to anyone moving too slowly or falling out of line. An officer with a dog walks along the lined-up group twice, the dog sniffing everyone, including small children in strollers, as another officer lists a long series of forbidden items: drugs, tobacco, perfume, chapstick. When officers usher the group out, Anna again steps briskly to the front of the line and moves through an open-air locker room where she stores her phone and keys — potential weapons.
Anna always carries extra quarters for the lockers that she hands out to other visitors, who invariably show up without any. She walks quickly by two more guards checking IDs, waiting until the last minute to take off her shoes before an airport-style metal detector. “This place is filthy,” she complains without stopping. She goes by a teller to deposit a R1562.03 bill into her son’s commissary account. Not more, because whenever he goes to buy instant noodles or coffee, the balance in his account flashes over a screen for other inmates to see, and too much money can lead to a beating. It’s one of many things that can get you beaten up here.
Anna walks up to a registration desk where an officer takes her photo and fingerprints and hands her a pass that she mustn’t lose. The fingerprint machine looks old — like most things here — but she knows exactly how to tap her fingers to get through faster. Others stumble. Anna boards another bus that drives through parking lots and multiple gates before pulling up by the building that holds her son, the Anna M. Kross Center. “Anna, like me,” she scoffs. Once there, she goes through two more ID checks, again taking off her shoes, and passes through a metal detector into a room where she leaves her money, jacket, and anything else she hasn’t already locked up. She tries five different lockers before finding a functioning one. Former Mayor Michael Bloomberg installed new lockers, she snorts, but they’re already broken. Current Mayor Bill de Blasio once spoke of reforming Rikers, “but he only put in new metal detectors,” she says. Some visitors are mysteriously pulled out of line to skip the screening — not that Anna really cares, and it’s mostly guards who smuggle contraband onto the island, anyway, she says. She has taken to calling it the “Department of Corruptions.”
Next is a thorough pat-down. Before the visit, Anna gave me a long list of things I shouldn’t wear — no bra with wiring, no pockets, no zippers, no hoods, no tights, no shorts, no ripped jeans, no jewelry, nothing too revealing, shoes that you can take off and put on quickly, and don’t bother wearing anything clean. Some items are officially prohibited; others aren’t but will get you stopped anyway. A couple of women presumably deemed too sexy for the visit, and another whose pregnant belly fills her clothes perhaps too provocatively, receive bright green sack-like tunics to wear. All the guards know Anna, so the pat-down goes smoothly, but she told me stories of being stripped naked and touched aggressively by officers. Other women have filed a lawsuit over invasive strip and body-cavity searches. After the last check, Anna enters a waiting room with plastic chairs and a small TV set, on which Diane Sawyer happens to be promoting her exclusive reportage from inside Rikers Island.
Over the years, Anna has spent countless hours in this room, waiting for her son’s name to be called out by an officer who usually mispronounces it. Some days the wait lasts hours, and she has collected endless stories from other waiting relatives. Today she tells me about a woman she met who used to visit her son with his young daughter and kept telling the child they were visiting dad “at college.” Anna thought the little girl didn’t buy it.
When Jairo’s name is finally called, after what feels like hours, we walk through a metal gate, through one last ID checkpoint, and into an unheated room that looks like a sadder version of a kindergarten cafeteria, with low metal tables and chairs — red, blue, and yellow for the visiting families, gray for the inmates, so as not to suggest any gang affiliation. They come out wearing flip-flops and gray jumpsuits, and for the next 60 minutes the room buzzes with dozens of conversations, babies crying, and every few minutes, the loud engines of planes taking off from LaGuardia and flying directly over our heads.
Jairo and Anna stretch over the table trying to hear each other. He speaks in her native Italian because he’s afraid other inmates will listen. Jairo is visibly unwell. And a lot of what he says doesn’t make much sense. He talks about a dream he had, something involving dogs, then about astrology and zodiac signs, and about how the Illuminati killed Prince. He shifts restlessly on the metal chair anchored to the ground, his eyes unable to stop for a moment as he jumps from one topic to the next. Sometimes he laughs, or gets angry; other times he just looks terrified, mumbling, “I have to get out of here.”
Days after he killed a fellow graffiti artist with a kitchen knife — in self-defense, he told the police when he turned himself in at the local precinct — Jairo was found unfit to stand trial and sent to a psychiatric ward where he was initially diagnosed with bipolar disorder. After several weeks he was sent back to Rikers. Anna told me Jairo had no prior history of mental illness and that nearly six years at Rikers had left him deeply damaged. Unrecognizable, she said. For years he was put on medication that turned him into “a zombie.” He was sexually assaulted by female guards, she said, and often attacked by other inmates. He’s half white and half Afro-Brazilian, and in a violent environment like Rikers, where turf affiliation often falls along racial lines, his ethnic background makes him even more vulnerable.
“His reality is so distorted that sometimes he says things that sound absurd,” said Anna. “Sometimes I ask him if he’s crazy, but then I realize, that’s actually his reality. He’s not talking nonsense, it’s that the reality in there is so distorted. Things happen that don’t make sense. I’ll tell him, this isn’t possible, but it is possible.”At Rikers, Anna was stoic. She dispensed advice to women who haven’t been coming for as long as she has, and she joked with some guards — the nicer ones. At a café, hours later, Jairo called to tell her that the inmates serving dinner picked a fight with him, refused to give him food, and threatened to kill him. This had happened before. At a recent court date, he showed up with a cut on his brow and a swollen eye, she said, finally breaking down.
“If they sentence you, you know they sentenced you to however many years, you get used to the idea, and you do your time,” said Anna, exasperated. “But when they don’t sentence you and they throw you in there — he’s losing his mind.”
According to the Mayor’s Office of Criminal Justice, nearly 40 percent of Rikers inmates have a “mental health designation.” The Department of Correction declined to comment on the specifics of Jairo’s case, but said that “Commissioner [Joseph] Ponte has zero tolerance for sexual assaults of inmates, and we take these allegations seriously.”
Anna remortgaged her apartment to pay nearly R1562030.00 in legal fees. But the trial, which has been on the court calendar since April 2011, has been adjourned over and over. Last June, Anna said, the prosecutor wasn’t ready, so they postponed the trial. Then it was summer, and people were on vacation, so they postponed again. In November, neither the prosecutor nor the judge showed up. A day later, the prosecutor said he wasn’t ready because Jairo’s attorney hadn’t formally declared if he was going to pursue a psychiatric defense. In January, the defense attorney was away. In February, the prosecutor’s witness was out of town. A week later, the prosecutor and Jairo’s new defense attorney were not ready because Anna had just fired the first lawyer. “I can’t do this anymore,” she said.
A spokesperson for the Manhattan district attorney’s office said,“While this case has required multiple extended adjournments — largely not in the People’s control — none are related to the strength of the evidence.”
Anna has lobbied local officials for help. She regularly travels to Albany with a group of advocates demanding speedy trials for countless New Yorkers stuck in a legal backlog that’s making their cases move at glacial pace. In May, lawyers representing Bronx defendants filed a federal lawsuit claiming that court delays there have “fatally undermined the right to trial.” The Bronx courts are notoriously slow, but they are hardly unique; case delay is the single biggest driver of the city’s jail population, and officials say they are working to drastically cut processing times. So far, that hasn’t helped Jairo.
While he waits for his next court date, Jairo spends his days drawing, using mostly food as color.
“Where’s the right to a speedy trial?” Anna asked. “When I got U.S. citizenship, I had to study the Constitution, the Sixth Amendment. Back in England, the king and queen threw people in jail and threw the keys out, so when the founding fathers got here they decided that one of the principles of the Constitution would be the right to a speedy trial. So why don’t they do it?”
While he waits for his next court date, Jairo spends his days drawing, using mostly food as color. He is also due to appear in court in the Bronx, which has jurisdiction over Rikers, because guards said that some tea he was using as ink was contraband tobacco. He uses pink Kool-Aid to color toilet paper that he skillfully arranges into bouquets of roses. He somehow managed to bring me one, hiding it inside his jumpsuit, because no exchanges are allowed during visits.
Jairo made another rose for President Obama and asked Akeem Browder to give it to him at an upcoming White House event on criminal justice reform. Browder, who himself was detained at Rikers in the ’90s, when he was only 13, is the older brother of Kalief Browder, who last year committed suicide after being held without trial for three years.
Kalief Browder’s incarceration, abuse, and eventual suicide was only the most recent Rikers scandal. In the last few years, countless stories have emerged of violence on the island, between inmates, but also, regularly, by guards. In 2014, an inmate died in a 101-degree cell, and a correction officer pleaded guilty to trying to cover up the incident. That year the Department of Justice concluded a multi-year investigation with a report on the brutal treatment of adolescent boys at Rikers, condemning the jail’s systemic use of force by staff, inmate-on-inmate violence, and the use of punitive segregation. Manhattan U.S. Attorney Preet Bharara called Rikers a “broken institution” and “a place where brute force is the first impulse rather than the last resort.” Months later, the DOJ went a step further and sued the city. Last year, the city spent R205 million settling claims of abuse in detention, mostly at Rikers, and the number of claims is growing steadily, city Comptroller Scott Stringer warned earlier this year.
For a moment, it seemed as though things at Rikers had gotten so bad, so publicly, that they might actually change.
De Blasio promised sweeping reform, and for a moment, it seemed as though things at Rikers had gotten so bad, so publicly, that they might actually change. He appointed a new correction commissioner, Joseph Ponte, who had overhauled the Maine prison system, reducing the use of solitary and boosting mental health care. In 2015, the city banned solitary confinement for juveniles, though a new “Enhanced Security Housing” unit meant to partially replace punitive segregation soon turned violent. Ponte and de Blasio also announced a 14-point “anti-violence agenda” meant to address the jail’s chronic violence, though advocates remained skeptical of the initiative, which they said did little to address the Correction Department’s own abuses.As pressure began to increase to shut down Rikers altogether, de Blasio pledged to reduce the jail’s population to about 7,500 inmates. The city is currently pursuing a two-tier approach to the issue: reducing the length of detention by attempting to clear court backlogs, and reducing the number of people ending up in jail in the first place through a simplification of the bail process and the introduction of alternatives to incarceration like supervised release. The city passed legislation strengthening reporting requirements on the Correction Department in an effort to increase transparency. It gave McKinsey & Company a R109 million contract — after an earlier R26.5 million one — to figure out how to reduce violence on the island, a move met with scorn by advocates, correction officers, and those with a more direct understanding of jail life.
The mayor called the proposal to close Rikers “noble” but unrealistic. “We must make sure that in calls for Rikers’s closure, our city does not become more focused on shutting down the facility than ending the culture that gave rise to its infamy,” he wrote in an op-ed last month. “We must focus on strategies to reduce violence, use the tools at our disposal to reduce recidivism, and safely decrease the jail population — and we must do this now, no matter where we house our jails in the future.”
De Blasio denied media reports that city officials are looking into possible alternatives to the island jail (even though evidence to support those reports was later leaked). Monica Klein, a spokesperson for the mayor’s office, reiterated to The Intercept that “there is no comprehensive plan to close Rikers or any active effort to look for sites.” Instead, the mayor recently announced the city will spend R265 billion on building a new jail for adolescents. He also said it plans to hire hundreds more correction officers, making Rikers, which already has a 1-1 guard-to-prisoner ratio, the only jail in the country with more guards than inmates.But whether or not Kalief Browder’s tragedy marked a turning point for Rikers, little seems to have changed on the island. “Our cries are not reaching anyone, our begging is not reaching anyone, procedure is not helping,” Akeem Browder told The Intercept, upset that his brother’s name is mentioned so often in vain. “For what, if you’re not going to do anything about it? When is enough enough?” he asked. “They’re actually only talking about change, but we can clearly see that it’s just talk.”
Browder was hardly surprised when he learned from Anna that Jairo had spent almost six years at Rikers, where he was beaten and denied food and where his mental health quickly deteriorated. He had seen the same thing happen to his brother. “Kalief is how the world heard of it,” he said. “But Kalief represents the thousands of other individuals just like him. Just humans, still on Rikers, sitting there for years, wasting their life away, fighting for their right to stay alive while they’re innocent, or waiting to be proven guilty.”
With other activists, Browder launched the “Campaign to Shut Down Rikers” — part of a growing chorus arguing that Rikers is too broken to be fixed. Last week, on what would have been Kalief Browder’s 23rd birthday, activists rallied outside the Bronx courts, smashing piñatas resembling de Blasio, Ponte, and Gov. Andrew Cuomo.
Some elected officials, like Mark-Viverito, have joined in. The New York Times’s editorial board suggested that Rikers Island be left “to the seagulls.” Others have said it should be turned into parks, housing, educational campuses, or a much needed extension of LaGuardia Airport. Last month, a coalition of grassroots organizations rallied on the steps of City Hall, calling for Rikers to be closed. They held signs that said “send them to school” and compared tuition at Harvard — R937000 a year — with the cost of incarcerating one person at Rikers — R2,6 million.
“Closing Rikers is not just about shutting down a facility, it’s about how do you create a jail system in New York City that lines up with our declared values? Because the one we currently have doesn’t,” said Glenn Martin, a criminal justice advocate, former Rikers inmate, and one of the foremost proponents of closing the jail. “We cannot reform this place; it is beyond reform.”
Advocates for Rikers’s closure are calling for a network of smaller, safer jails across the five boroughs, connected to local services and the communities where inmates and their families live. But they are also demanding a radical overhaul to the Correction Department’s abusive practices and greater accountability for that behavior. “I don’t just want to shut the facility,” said Martin. “I don’t want the culture exported to local jails.”
The idea of decentralizing Rikers by breaking it up into smaller jails is not new. Construction on the island boomed with the war on drugs of the ’70s and ’80s, when many structures meant to be temporary were thrown up, boosting the jail’s capacity to 20,000. Over the years, the temporary structures turned permanent. As crime declined and the nation began to look at its incarceration obsession more critically, under the leadership of Correction Commissioner Martin Horn the city made plans to revamp existing borough jails, to keep pre-trial detainees next to the courts and closer to attorneys and families. But when the next commissioner — Dora Schriro — came in, she switched gears. A plan to turn the Brooklyn detention center into a modern facility integrating services and keeping inmates a corridor away from their trials was shelved. Today, daily buses shuttle detainees from the island into the city, at a cost of R390 billion a year.
“One of the issues with Rikers is that most of the inmates are going back and forth between Rikers and the courts, which is obviously very inconvenient for inmates, attorneys, families, and costly in terms of energy consumption and air quality, with all these buses going back and forth, and expensive,” said David Burney, an urban planner who worked with the Bloomberg administration. “There are lots of reasons why Rikers is extremely inefficient.”
Rikers’s remoteness is not only impractical — it also enables its corrupt and violent culture. “I think the island itself creates a mentality that is not accountable, not connected to communities, not visible; it’s a place that is basically the Department of Correction’s turf; you enter into their world and you’re subject to a culture that’s in an alternate universe,” said Frank Greene, a jail architect who has worked at Rikers, as well as on the shelved Brooklyn project and other jails across the country. “If you decentralize the jail system, by nature, the whole system becomes that much more accountable and connected to the community.”
“One of the principles of corrections planning is that environment cues behavior,” he continued, noting an often forgotten constitutional principle that posits that the only punishment should be the deprivation of freedom, not the physical conditions of detention. “If you want people to act like human beings, the first step is to put them in an environment that supports their human dignity.”
Greene and others recommend transformations that go beyond the buildings — including correction officers trained “more like social workers than a quasi-military force,” better equipped to deal with the staggering number of inmates with mental health problems. All agreed that New York’s jail culture has to change.
“When the National Institute of Corrections came to Rikers, they told them, ‘When are you going to get with the rest of the country?’” Greene recalled. “You guys are 50 years behind.”
The city has recognized that much -— but so far, progress has been marginal. Martin, who sits on the independent committee to reform Rikers, said the group’s first meetings were “promising” and that officials are taking “conservative steps in the right direction,” scrutinizing systemic problems with the courts and studying how to reduce Rikers’s population through a more streamlined bail system and alternatives for juveniles.
But he expressed frustration with what he and others called a “lack of urgency,” which he said is paramount to acceptance of the harm Rikers continues to inflict on detainees. “Their incremental, piecemeal approach to reform gets us nowhere near what we believe is what communities are calling for, which is the shuttering of Rikers Island in its totality,” he said. “Even if there were only one person on Rikers, the ‘close Rikers’ campaign would still exist because it’s such an abusive place.”
The main obstacle to closing Rikers is political, many agree. When reports emerged that the city was eyeing alternative locations, some elected officials made their opposition clear. Critics say the administration is reluctant to give up political capital to make a decision that will be inevitably controversial. But a growing number of people believe that Rikers will eventually close.
Until that happens, life on the island continues to be a struggle. And the impact Rikers has had on thousands of people who have left the jail damaged beyond repair remains unquantifiable. Jairo is due back in court on June 6 — a year to the day when Rikers killed Kalief Browder.
THE INDRELUNAS HOUSE, Chandler, Ariz.— Just before I erased my whiteboard for the new school year, I took a photo to forever commemorate the night that Annette, Sam, and I used the Arizona DPS Sex Offender Risk Assessment Tool I had just picked up to use in my sex-offender in-depth to judge our own risks of recidivism, assuming that we had already been convicted of something or another.
La storia di Fiuggi risale all’epoca preromana, durante la quale il piccolo villaggio di Felcia seguì le sorti della confederazione ernica che, dopo continui scontri e alleanze, si assoggettò definitivamente a Roma nel 367 a.C.Del periodo romano non si hanno molte notizie certe: si sa che Felcia era sulla via Prenestina e che, con il nome di “Fons Arilla”, erano già note le proprietà delle sue acque. Fu però nel Medioevo che la città si sviluppò e assunse maggiore importanza con il nome di Anticoli di Campagna, nome che conservò fino all’inizio di questo secolo. Il piccolo borgo ha sempre legato le sue vicende a quelle dello Stato pontificio, di cui faceva parte, come feudo dei maggiori casati romani. Il castello di Anticoli, oggi completamente scomparso, passò di mano in mano e vide avvicendarsi i Cajetani, gli Sforza, i Borgia, e infine i Colonna che mantennero il loro potere sulla città fino al 1816, anno in cui rinunciarono al feudo per il peso delle tasse imposte da papa Pio VII. La città restò dunque nello Stato pontificio, tranne una breve parentesi di governo napoleonico, fino all’unità d’Italia. La lunga storia di Anticoli di Campagna rimane impressa, ancor oggi, nel magnifico borgo medievale perfettamente conservato. È la parte più antica di Fiuggi, quella racchiusa nel perimetro delimitato dalle mura, dai bastioni, dalle porte del vecchio borgo arroccato a 747 metri d’altezza. Più in basso, nella vallata, la città si è poi estesa quando è cominciato il vero sviluppo. Tutto avvenne in pochissimo tempo: nel 1911 la modesta Anticoli di Campagna diventò Fiuggi, ed è questa data che segna lo spartiacque tra l’antico borgo pastorale e la moderna stazione turistica. Il nome Fiuggi probabilmente deriva dalle felci “fiugy” in dialetto che crescevano nei boschi circostanti o, secondo alcuni, per la sua acqua che “fugge” velocemente dall’organismo. Sempre nel 1910 fu costruito lo splendido Grand Hotel Città di Fiuggi, che d’estate ospitava nel suo teatro tutti i più importanti spettacoli italiani dell’epoca Nel 1911 fu inaugurata la Fonte Bonifacio VIII, nel 1913 venne aperto il Grande Albergo Palazzo della Fonte, uno dei più prestigiosi d’Europa, che l’anno successivo ebbe l’onore di accogliere la famiglia reale. I più alti esponenti della politica, dell’arte, dell’aristocrazia e della finanza non mancavano di concedersi qualche giorno alle Terme di Fiuggi. Anni ruggenti che furono bruscamente interrotti dalla seconda guerra mondiale, durante il quale molte zone della Ciociaria, tra cui Montecassino, furono duramente bombardate. Oggi Fiuggi è una delle più importanti stazioni termali d’Europa.
In epoca preistorica un grande lago ricopriva tutta la conca di Fiuggi. E’ nella storia del colmamento di questo lago, di cui si possono trovare resti fossili un po’ dappertutto, che sta l’origine dell’acqua. Questo lago, infatti, è andato riempiendosi grazie a 2 fenomeni: sedimentazione lacustre e fenomeni vulcanici: I primi hanno riempito il fondo di uno strato di limo e argilla, praticamente impermeabili, i secondi si sono sovrapposti ai primi con materiali vulcanici, soprattutto tufi e ceneri. Una fitta vegetazione di boschi di castagno ha ricoperto il terreno.
L’acqua filtra attraverso la coltre vulcanica , si arricchisce di sostanze attive, raggiunge lo stato argilloso e su queste scorre, emergendo in numerose sorgenti alcune di portata maggiore, altre più piccole. Il segreto delle proprietà dell’acqua Fiuggi, come vedremo, sta proprio nella sua composizione mirabile che non è solo una miscela polielettrolitica, ma che contiene sostanze organiche che derivano dalla degradazione nei millenni della vegetazione che ricopre il terreno.
L’uso dell’acqua di Fiuggi a fini curativi è antichissimo, a dimostrazione che l’osservazione empirica può precedere, qualche volta di secoli, conclusioni che solo oggi e con difficoltà la scienza medica ha tratto.
Da sempre le acque che scaturiscono tra i suoi boschi di castagno sono usate per la cura della calcolosi renale. E’ comune il riscontro di eliminazione di renella e calcoli già dopo pochi giorni dall’inizio della terapia termale, così per anni la cura alle Terme di Fiuggi ha rappresentato l’unica arma concreta contro una malattia che tende fatalmente a recidivare e è gravata da complicazioni gravissime.
L’ingestione dell’acqua di Fiuggi induce un rapido e potente effetto diuretico che porta all’eliminazione di grosse quantità di urine in un tempo brevissimo. A pieno regime terapeutico il flusso urinario incrementa di circa quaranta volte e ciò comporta un effetto paragonabile a quello di un fiume in piena che spazza via tutto ciò che incontra lungo il suo percorso: detriti batterici, cellule desquamate, cristalli, calcoli. Si tratta di un vero e proprio Tsunami benefico che libera le nostre vie urinarie da incrostazioni e impurità che, aggiunto alla nota capacità dell’acqua di sciogliere i calcoli, fa delle Terme di Fiuggi il luogo deputato da secoli alla cura e prevenzione della calcolosi renale.
L’effetto litolitico
“Per quello che giudicano i medici ci ho il male della pietra... Di poi sendomi stato da bere una certa acqua... di una fontana che è a quaranta miglia da Roma la quale rompe la pietra e questa ha rotto la mia e fattomene orinare gran parte” scriveva Michelangelo Buonarroti, affetto da coliche renali dolorosissime che egli descriveva in maniera mirabile.
Negli anni numerose sperimentazioni sono state condotti per dimostrare l’effetto litolitico dell’acqua. L’ultima è quella eseguita dal prof . D’Ascenzo allora preside della Facoltà di Chimica dell’Università La Sapienza di Roma che, paragonando l’effetto erosivo di tre diverse acque ( Fiuggi, acqua distillata, fonte ACEA), dimostrava che con l’acqua di Fiuggi si otteneva una riduzione del volume dei calcoli di calcio ossalato molto superiore rispetto alle altre acque.
Quale era la ragione di questo fenomeno? La bassa concentrazione di sali minerali non poteva spiegarlo dal momento che l’effetto litolitico era superiore a quello della stessa acqua distillata che ne è del tutto priva. Ci doveva essere qualcosa d’altro, qualcosa legato alla natura stessa dell’acqua. Così il professore ha condotto un ulteriore sperimento: ha concentrato 10 litri di Acua Fiuggi in solo 100 cc, li ha messi a contatto con 2 calcoli e ha ottenuto la loro dissoluzione in polvere finissima. Cosa c’è dunque nell’acqua di Fiuggi che corrode i calcoli? Il prof D’Ascenzo ritiene che questo effetto sia legato alla presenza di una molecola proteica della famiglia degli acidi umici, formatasi dalla degradazione del materiale organico della vegetazione che ricopre il terreno di Fiuggi e quindi caratteristica solo di questa zona che, disponendosi come un film sul reticolo cristallino del calcolo, agisce come un sistema pompa che, interagendo con gli ioni calcio del cristallo, dissolve gli ioni di ossalato di calcio riducendo il calcolo in polvere finissima.
Fiuggi è una città che sorge a 750 metri dal livello del mare, immersa in secolari boschi di castagno. E’circondata da una poderosa cinta di monti, il parco naturale dei Simbruini e i monti Ernici, ricchi di fageti e di acque, di una flora e una fauna incomparabili, con scorci paesaggistici di grande suggestione. Antichi monasteri e città d’arte sono raggiungibili in pochi minuti. Basti citare fra tutti il monastero di San Benedetto e di Santa Scolastica a Subiaco, il cuore della nostra storia religiosa eculturale; la certosa di Trisulti con la sua antica farmacia; Anagni città dei Papi, con la sua Cattedrale e la cripta, vero gioiello di arte pregiottesca; Alatri e le sue mura ciclopiche; Casamari e la sua superba cattedrale gotica. Si potrebbe continuare per ore e non si riuscirebbe a citare se non una parte dei tesori contenuti in questo territorio al centro dell’Italia.
Un magnifico campo di golf a18 buche, alberghi di ogni categoria, centri benessere moderni ed efficienti, completano l’offerta turistica della città.
Fiuggi è una opportunità per curarsi e rigenerare il proprio corpo, ma è anche l’occasione per divertirsi e arricchirsi culturalmente.
La storia di Fiuggi è dunque nelle sue acque, ma anche nel suo territorio, nella sua cultura, nei suoi sapori, nella sua cortesia.
Amazing Stories / Magazin-Reihe
- Poul Anderson / Third Stage
- Sam Moskowitz / Theodore Sturgeon: No More Than Human
- Mark Clifton / Pawn of the Black Fleet
- Stanton A. Coblentz / Missionaries from the Sky
- A. Earley / And It Was Good
- John Jakes / Recidivism Preferred
cover: Alex Schomburg
Editor: Cele Goldsmith
Ziff-Davis Publishing Company / USA 1962
Reprint: Comic-Club NK 2010
ex libris MTP
Lane and the gnomes discuss ways to reduce the rate of recidivism amongst the general gnome population.
Chez mon frère, 3 jours de canicule.
Pas le courage de sortir dehors dessiner.
Nous avons exploré pour la cinq cent millionième fois le grenier tout poussiéreux que nous connaissons par cœur!!
Et là, sur une étagère, l'ours "Roger" m'attendait, plus défraichi que jamais, mais tellement patient. Pour le récompenser, je l'ai portraituré, et je pense même récidiver!!
Cette friche insdustrielle se situe non loin de chez moi.
Hasselblad 500 C/M + F-Distagon 30mm zeiss + filtre orange Zeiss
Kodak tri-x 400 périmée de 2007 + Ilfotec HC 1+100 stand dev.
Exposition totalement pifométrique comme quoi si on a des yeux ; ça marche ....
Alors à quand la démo-photo du perroquet de forum à la "concon", plutôt que de raconter "13 conneries à la douzaine" ! C'est la "mouche du coche" qui fait C..... tout le monde mais qui se croit indispensable .... Attention, grand nuisible !!! pas content ?? tant mieux !!
Alors à quand une seule image correcte de cet abrupti de forum , grand nuisible aux 20 000 posts ???? On attend !!! chiche, juste pour voir .....
"Bonjour la crédibilité" MDR !! pas content ??? tant mieux !!!
Ils sont moins de dix, toujours les mêmes, la plupart dans le même genre, à pourrir un endroit qui pourrait être utile ... sans leur présence, leur mauvais esprit et leur très grande incompétence !! Et on est bien obligé de se rendre compte qu'on retrouve les mêmes nuisibles dans tous les forums alentours ... . Ces mêmes nuisibles multi-récidivistes, qui véhiculent toujours les mêmes idées reçues qui deviennent des vérités ...
MAIS ......
ils n'ont que des adeptes puisque tous les autres sont systématiquement éliminés et traqués .... sur simple dénonciation : CQFD !!!! ça sent très très mauvais !! normal, puisque ça sent le "prout"
Ne pas parler de ce qu'on ne connaît pas :o)
A bientôt sur flickr pour: partager, apprendre, transmettre :o))
Il a tenté de toutes ses forces de fuir à l'abri sous la mangrove, mais elle l'a quand même chopé d'un coup de bec !
Je ne sais pas pourquoi elle s'acharne sur les canetons qui ne sont pas de la même couleur que les siens. C'est la deuxième fois que je vois ça ...et je pense qu'elle a dû récidiver les jours précédents car il manque un des trois canetons leuciques !
Quand je vous dis qu'il a un sale caractère ce Goéland croyez moi, un quart d'heure après sa dispute avec le Héron le voici en train de récidiver avec la Cigogne...
The horse (Equus caballus) is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, close to Eohippus, into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began domesticating horses around 4000 BCE, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BCE. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. These feral populations are not true wild horses, which are horses that never have been domesticated. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior.
Horses are adapted to run, allowing them to quickly escape predators, and possess an excellent sense of balance and a strong fight-or-flight response. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down, with younger horses tending to sleep significantly more than adults. Female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under a saddle or in a harness between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years.
Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and "warmbloods", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, developed for many different uses.
Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits as well as in working activities such as police work, agriculture, entertainment, and therapy. Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water, and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers.
Lifespan and life stages
Depending on breed, management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, beyond. The oldest verifiable record was "Old Billy", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62. In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in Guinness World Records as the world's oldest living pony, died in 2007 at age 56.
Regardless of a horse or pony's actual birth date, for most competition purposes a year is added to its age each January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere and each August 1 in the Southern Hemisphere. The exception is in endurance riding, where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal's actual calendar age.
The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:
Foal
A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling, and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling. Most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects.
Yearling
A horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.
Colt
A male horse under the age of four. A common terminology error is to call any young horse a "colt", when the term actually only refers to young male horses.
Filly
A female horse under the age of four.
Mare
A female horse four years old and older.
Stallion
A non-castrated male horse four years old and older.The term "horse" is sometimes used colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion.
Gelding
A castrated male horse of any age.
In horse racing, these definitions may differ: For example, in the British Isles, Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old. However, Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts and fillies as less than four years old.
Size and measurement
The height of horses is measured at the highest point of the withers, where the neck meets the back. This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down in relation to the body of the horse.
Size varies greatly among horse breeds, as with this full-sized horse and small pony.
In English-speaking countries, the height of horses is often stated in units of hands and inches: one hand is equal to 4 inches (101.6 mm). The height is expressed as the number of full hands, followed by a point, then the number of additional inches, and ending with the abbreviation "h" or "hh" (for "hands high"). Thus, a horse described as "15.2 h" is 15 hands plus 2 inches, for a total of 62 inches (157.5 cm) in height.
The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by nutrition. Light-riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16 hands (56 to 64 inches, 142 to 163 cm) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms (840 to 1,210 lb). Larger-riding horses usually start at about 15.2 hands (62 inches, 157 cm) and often are as tall as 17 hands (68 inches, 173 cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to 1,320 lb). Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm) high and can be as tall as 18 hands (72 inches, 183 cm) high. They can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,540 to 2,200 lb).
The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Mammoth, who was born in 1848. He stood 21.2 1⁄4 hands (86.25 inches, 219 cm) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1,524 kilograms (3,360 lb). The record holder for the smallest horse ever is Thumbelina, a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism. She was 43 centimetres; 4.1 hands (17 in) tall and weighed 26 kg (57 lb).
Ponies
Main article: Pony
Ponies are taxonomically the same animals as horses. The distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on the basis of height, especially for competition purposes. However, height alone is not dispositive; the difference between horses and ponies may also include aspects of phenotype, including conformation and temperament.
The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). An animal 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) a pony, but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard. In Australia, ponies are considered to be those under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm). For competition in the Western division of the United States Equestrian Federation, the cutoff is 14.1 hands (57 inches, 145 cm). The International Federation for Equestrian Sports, the world governing body for horse sport, uses metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than 148 centimetres (58.27 in) at the withers without shoes, which is just over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm), and 149 centimetres (58.66 in; 14.2+1⁄2 hands), with shoes.
Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies. Breed registries for horses that typically produce individuals both under and over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height. Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm), but are still considered to be ponies.
Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers. Small size, by itself, is not an exclusive determinant. For example, the Shetland pony which averages 10 hands (40 inches, 102 cm), is considered a pony. Conversely, breeds such as the Falabella and other miniature horses, which can be no taller than 76 centimetres; 7.2 hands (30 in), are classified by their registries as very small horses, not ponies.
Genetics
Horses have 64 chromosomes. The horse genome was sequenced in 2007. It contains 2.7 billion DNA base pairs, which is larger than the dog genome, but smaller than the human genome or the bovine genome.
Colors and markings
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings, described by a specialized vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its coat color, before breed or sex. Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by white markings, which, along with various spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat color.
Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have been identified. Current genetic tests can identify at least 13 different alleles influencing coat color, and research continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits. The basic coat colors of chestnut and black are determined by the gene controlled by the Melanocortin 1 receptor, also known as the "extension gene" or "red factor", as its recessive form is "red" (chestnut) and its dominant form is black. Additional genes control suppression of black color to point coloration that results in a bay, spotting patterns such as pinto or leopard, dilution genes such as palomino or dun, as well as greying, and all the other factors that create the many possible coat colors found in horses.
Horses that have a white coat color are often mislabeled; a horse that looks "white" is usually a middle-aged or older gray. Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, but usually keep black skin underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under white markings). The only horses properly called white are born with a predominantly white hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence. Different and unrelated genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses, including several different alleles of dominant white and the sabino-1 gene. However, there are no "albino" horses, defined as having both pink skin and red eyes.
Reproduction and development
Gestation lasts approximately 340 days, with an average range 320–370 days, and usually results in one foal; twins are rare. Horses are a precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth. Foals are usually born in the spring. The estrous cycle of a mare occurs roughly every 19–22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn. Most mares enter an anestrus period during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period. Foals are generally weaned from their mothers between four and six months of age.
Horses, particularly colts, are sometimes physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months, but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three, especially females. Horses four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six; maturation also depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, and quality of care. Larger horses have larger bones; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to form bone tissue, but the epiphyseal plates are larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone. These plates convert after the other parts of the bones, and are crucial to development.
Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four. Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track as young as the age of two in some countries, horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed. For endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months (five years) old.
Anatomy
The horse skeleton averages 205 bones. A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the lack of a collarbone—the horse's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's four legs and hooves are also unique structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist. Similarly, the hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel. The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones) and the proximal phalanges, located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair, bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof.
Hooves
Main articles: Horse hoof, Horseshoe, and Farrier
The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse". The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae. The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of keratin, the same material as a human fingernail. The result is that a horse, weighing on average 500 kilograms (1,100 lb), travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe. For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier. The hoof continually grows, and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks, though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain.
Teeth
Main article: Horse teeth
Horses are adapted to grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors at the front of the mouth, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the premolars and molars, at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit. There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums, or "bars" of the horse's mouth when the horse is bridled.
An estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth. The teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing. Therefore, the incisors show changes as the horse ages; they develop a distinct wear pattern, changes in tooth shape, and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. This allows a very rough estimate of a horse's age, although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear.
Digestion
Main articles: Equine digestive system and Equine nutrition
Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-kilogram (990 lb) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms (15 to 24 lb) of food per day and, under normal use, drink 38 to 45 litres (8.4 to 9.9 imp gal; 10 to 12 US gal) of water. Horses are not ruminants, they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can digest cellulose, a major component of grass. Horses are hindgut fermenters. Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria occurs in the cecum, or "water gut", which food goes through before reaching the large intestine. Horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of death. Horses do not have a gallbladder; however, they seem to tolerate high amounts of fat in their diet despite lack of a gallbladder.
Senses
The horses' senses are based on their status as prey animals, where they must be aware of their surroundings at all times. They have the largest eyes of any land mammal, and are lateral-eyed, meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads. This means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350°, with approximately 65° of this being binocular vision and the remaining 285° monocular vision. Horses have excellent day and night vision, but they have two-color, or dichromatic vision; their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear as a shade of green.
Their sense of smell, while much better than that of humans, is not quite as good as that of a dog. It is believed to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the environment. Horses have two olfactory centers. The first system is in the nostrils and nasal cavity, which analyze a wide range of odors. The second, located under the nasal cavity, are the vomeronasal organs, also called Jacobson's organs. These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze pheromones.
A horse's hearing is good, and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the head. Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise may contribute to stress: a 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting, or if listening to country or classical music, but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock music. This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21 decibels. An Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to music, and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing.
Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed proprioception—the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times. A horse's sense of touch is well-developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose. Horses are able to sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.
Horses have an advanced sense of taste, which allows them to sort through fodder and choose what they would most like to eat, and their prehensile lips can easily sort even small grains. Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants, however, there are exceptions; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food.
Movement
All horses move naturally with four basic gaits:
the four-beat walk, which averages 6.4 kilometres per hour (4.0 mph);
the two-beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour (8.1 to 11.8 mph) (faster for harness racing horses);
the canter or lope, a three-beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres per hour (12 to 15 mph);
the gallop, which averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour (25 to 30 mph), but the world record for a horse galloping over a short, sprint distance is 70.76 kilometres per hour (43.97 mph).
Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat pace, instead of the trot. There also are several four-beat 'ambling' gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral rack, running walk, and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot. Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as gaited horses. These horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits.
Behavior
Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight response. Their first reaction to a threat is to startle and usually flee, although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened. They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses.
Horses fighting as part of herd dominance behaviour
Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant individual, usually a mare. They are also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming, and body language. Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses. However, when confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly stereotypies of psychological origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.
Intelligence and learning
Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, meeting mental challenges that include food procurement and identification of individuals within a social system. They also have good spatial discrimination abilities. They are naturally curious and apt to investigate things they have not seen before. Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem solving, speed of learning, and memory. Horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that involve categorization and concept learning. They can learn using habituation, desensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning, and positive and negative reinforcement. One study has indicated that horses can differentiate between "more or less" if the quantity involved is less than four.
Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial environments that prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural. Horses are animals of habit that respond well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently. One trainer believes that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that best fits with an individual animal's natural inclinations.
Temperament
Horses are mammals, and as such are warm-blooded, or endothermic creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded, or poikilothermic animals. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not body temperature. For example, the "hot-bloods", such as many race horses, exhibit more sensitivity and energy, while the "cold-bloods", such as most draft breeds, are quieter and calmer. Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses" or "riding horses", with the "cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work horses".
a sepia-toned engraving from an old book, showing 11 horses of different breeds and sizes in nine different illustrations
Illustration of assorted breeds; slim, light hotbloods, medium-sized warmbloods and draft and pony-type coldblood breeds
"Hot blooded" breeds include "oriental horses" such as the Akhal-Teke, Arabian horse, Barb, and now-extinct Turkoman horse, as well as the Thoroughbred, a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds. Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They are bred for agility and speed. They tend to be physically refined—thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged. The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses.
Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold bloods", as they are bred not only for strength, but also to have the calm, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people. They are sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants". Well-known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale. Some, like the Percheron, are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates. Others, such as the Shire, are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils. The cold-blooded group also includes some pony breeds.
"Warmblood" breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian, developed when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed. Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders. Warmbloods are considered a "light horse" or "riding horse".
Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping. Strictly speaking, the term "warm blood" refers to any cross between cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds. Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay. The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the Morgan horse.
Sleep patterns
When horses lie down to sleep, others in the herd remain standing, awake, or in a light doze, keeping watch.
Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by using a "stay apparatus" in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing. Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for danger.
Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time, but take many short periods of rest. Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may range from several minutes to a couple of hours, mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each. The average sleep time of a domestic horse is said to be 2.9 hours per day.
Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements. However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing. This condition differs from narcolepsy, although horses may also suffer from that disorder.
Taxonomy and evolution
The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals, especially ruminants, could not. Horses and other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla, a group of mammals dominant during the Tertiary period. In the past, this order contained 14 families, but only three—Equidae (the horse and related species), Tapiridae (the tapir), and Rhinocerotidae (the rhinoceroses)—have survived to the present day.
The earliest known member of the family Equidae was the Hyracotherium, which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during the Eocene period. It had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot. The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the Mesohippus, which lived 32 to 37 million years ago. Over time, the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg below the knee, known informally as splint bones. Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed. By about 5 million years ago, the modern Equus had evolved. Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America.
By about 15,000 years ago, Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species. Horse bones from this time period, the late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North America. Yet between 10,000 and 7,600 years ago, the horse became extinct in North America. The reasons for this extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human arrival. Another theory points to climate change, noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra, which was covered with unpalatable plants.
Wild species surviving into modern times
Three tan-colored horses with upright manes. Two horses nip and paw at each other, while the third moves towards the camera. They stand in an open, rocky grassland, with forests in the distance.
Main article: Wild horse
A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever successfully domesticated. Therefore, most "wild" horses today are actually feral horses, animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals. Only two wild subspecies, the tarpan and the Przewalski's horse, survived into recorded history and only the latter survives today.
The Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, is a rare Asian animal. It is also known as the Mongolian wild horse; Mongolian people know it as the taki, and the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag. The subspecies was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992, while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world. In 1992, it was reestablished in the wild by the conservation efforts of numerous zoos. Today, a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia. There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world.
The question of whether the Przewalski's horse was ever domesticated was challenged in 2018 when DNA studies of horses found at Botai culture sites revealed captured animals with DNA markers of an ancestor to the Przewalski's horse. The study concluded that the Botai animals appear to have been an independent domestication attempt and apparently unsuccessful, as these genetic markers do not appear in modern domesticated horses. However, the question of whether all Przewalski's horses descend from this population is also unresolved, as only one of seven modern Przewalski's horses in the study shared this ancestry.
The tarpan or European wild horse (Equus ferus ferus) was found in Europe and much of Asia. It survived into the historical era, but became extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo. Thus, the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to recreate the tarpan, which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses.
Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relict populations of wild horses, but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic. For example, the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed as such, but testing did not reveal genetic differences from domesticated horses. Similarly, the Sorraia of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan on the basis of shared characteristics, but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds, and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness.
Other modern equids
Main article: Equus (genus)
Besides the horse, there are six other species of genus Equus in the Equidae family. These are the ass or donkey, Equus asinus; the mountain zebra, Equus zebra; plains zebra, Equus quagga; Grévy's Zebra, Equus grevyi; the kiang, Equus kiang; and the onager, Equus hemionus.
Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a "jack" (male donkey) and a mare. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a "jenny" (female donkey). Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse. With rare exceptions, most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce.
Main articles: History of horse domestication theories and Domestication of the horse
Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BCE. Two major sources of information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated horse spread around the world. The first source is based on palaeological and archaeological discoveries; the second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains.
The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, dating to approximately 4000–3500 BCE. By 3000 BCE, the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BCE there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent. The most recent, but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c. 2100 BCE.
A 2021 genetic study suggested that most modern domestic horses descend from the lower Volga-Don region. Ancient horse genomes indicate that these populations influenced almost all local populations as they expanded rapidly throughout Eurasia, beginning about 4,200 years ago. It also shows that certain adaptations were strongly selected due to riding, and that equestrian material culture, including Sintashta spoke-wheeled chariots spread with the horse itself.
Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present-day horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological excavations. The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions contributed to the domestic horse, while many mares were part of early domesticated herds. This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal, or sire line (Y-chromosome) versus that passed on along the maternal, or dam line (mitochondrial DNA). There are very low levels of Y-chromosome variability, but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA. There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic herds. Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation. In horses, this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BCE.
Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse, various hypotheses were proposed. One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication. Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication. However, the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses.
Main article: Feral horse
Feral horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from domesticated animals. Many populations of feral horses exist throughout the world. Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses, as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions.
There are also semi-feral horses in many parts of the world, such as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the UK, where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in "wild" conditions on undeveloped, often public, lands. Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights.
Main articles: Horse breed, List of horse breeds, and Horse breeding
The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry has come to be particularly significant and important in modern times. Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called "thoroughbreds". Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse, while a "purebred" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry. Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color, performance ability, or disposition. These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods. Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication. An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who had a reputation for careful practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines. These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition. In the 14th century, Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the Andalusian horse.
Breeds developed due to a need for "form to function", the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of work. Thus, a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian developed as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage. Heavy draft horses were developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons. Other horse breeds had been developed specifically for light agricultural work, carriage and road work, various sport disciplines, or simply as pets. Some breeds developed through centuries of crossing other breeds, while others descended from a single foundation sire, or other limited or restricted foundation bloodstock. One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation bloodstock for the breed. There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today.
Interaction with humans
Worldwide, horses play a role within human cultures and have done so for millennia. Horses are used for leisure activities, sports, and working purposes. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that in 2008, there were almost 59,000,000 horses in the world, with around 33,500,000 in the Americas, 13,800,000 in Asia and 6,300,000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and Oceania. There are estimated to be 9,500,000 horses in the United States alone. The American Horse Council estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United States of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is considered, the impact is over $102 billion. In a 2004 "poll" conducted by Animal Planet, more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries voted for the horse as the world's 4th favorite animal.
Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity; to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control. Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle, and occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear. Many horses are also driven, which requires a harness, bridle, and some type of vehicle.
Main articles: Equestrianism, Horse racing, Horse training, and Horse tack
Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle. Many sports, such as dressage, eventing, and show jumping, have origins in military training, which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider. Other sports, such as rodeo, developed from practical skills such as those needed on working ranches and stations. Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting techniques. Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. All forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat.
Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions. Examples include show jumping, dressage, three-day eventing, competitive driving, endurance riding, gymkhana, rodeos, and fox hunting. Horse shows, which have their origins in medieval European fairs, are held around the world. They host a huge range of classes, covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines, as well as "In-hand" classes where the horses are led, rather than ridden, to be evaluated on their conformation. The method of judging varies with the discipline, but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider. Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game. Although the horse requires specialized training to participate, the details of its performance are not judged, only the result of the rider's actions—be it getting a ball through a goal or some other task. Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse include jousting, in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other, and buzkashi, a team game played throughout Central Asia, the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.
Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry, watched in almost every nation of the world. There are three types: "flat" racing; steeplechasing, i.e. racing over jumps; and harness racing, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a sulky. A major part of horse racing's economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it.
Work
There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has yet developed to fully replace them. For example, mounted police horses are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control. Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain. Search and rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster relief assistance. Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil, such as nature reserves. They may also be the only form of transport allowed in wilderness areas. Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles. Law enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective.
Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone. Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as horses. Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging.
Main article: Horses in warfare
Horses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history. The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000 and 3000 BCE, and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age. Although mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur.
Entertainment and culture
Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes. Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica, in various live action historical reenactments of specific periods of history, especially recreations of famous battles. Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes. Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events. Public exhibitions are another example, such as the Budweiser Clydesdales, seen in parades and other public settings, a team of draft horses that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck.
Horses are frequently used in television, films and literature. They are sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular animals, but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical stories. Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of products. The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry, in a variety of poses and equipment. The mythologies of many cultures, including Greco-Roman, Hindu, Islamic, and Germanic, include references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional limbs, and multiple myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the Moon and Sun. The horse also appears in the 12-year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar.
Horses serve as the inspiration for many modern automobile names and logos, including the Ford Pinto, Ford Bronco, Ford Mustang, Hyundai Equus, Hyundai Pony, Mitsubishi Starion, Subaru Brumby, Mitsubishi Colt/Dodge Colt, Pinzgauer, Steyr-Puch Haflinger, Pegaso, Porsche, Rolls-Royce Camargue, Ferrari, Carlsson, Kamaz, Corre La Licorne, Iran Khodro, Eicher, and Baojun. Indian TVS Motor Company also uses a horse on their motorcycles & scooters.
Therapeutic use
People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from an association with horses. Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased self-confidence, and a greater feeling of freedom and independence. The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para-equestrian events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI). Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment strategies that use equine movement. In hippotherapy, a therapist uses the horse's movement to improve their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance, and fine motor skills, whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.
Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" therapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral difficulties, and those who are going through major life changes. There are also experimental programs using horses in prison settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave.
Products
Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses.
Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as the Mongols, who let it ferment to produce kumis. Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own horses' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat. The drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares (pregnant mares' urine), and was previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy. The tail hair of horses can be used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.
Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages. Approximately 5 million horses are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide. It is eaten in many parts of the world, though consumption is taboo in some cultures, and a subject of political controversy in others. Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, jackets, baseballs, and baseball gloves. Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue. Horse bones can be used to make implements. Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto, which is used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures. In Asia, the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis.
Main article: Horse care
Checking teeth and other physical examinations are an important part of horse care.
Horses are grazing animals, and their major source of nutrients is good-quality forage from hay or pasture. They can consume approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day. Therefore, a 450-kilogram (990 lb) adult horse could eat up to 11 kilograms (24 lb) of food. Sometimes, concentrated feed such as grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay, especially when the animal is very active. When grain is fed, equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should still be forage.
Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of 38 to 45 litres (10 to 12 US gal) per day. Although horses are adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and precipitation, which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable.
Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier, as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases, and dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist. If horses are kept inside in a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being. When turned outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy fences to be safely contained. Regular grooming is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin.
Climate change
As of 2019, there are around 17 million horses in the world. Healthy body temperature for adult horses is in the range between 37.5 and 38.5 °C (99.5 and 101.3 °F), which they can maintain while ambient temperatures are between 5 and 25 °C (41 and 77 °F). However, strenuous exercise increases core body temperature by 1 °C (1.8 °F)/minute, as 80% of the energy used by equine muscles is released as heat. Along with bovines and primates, equines are the only animal group which use sweating as their primary method of thermoregulation: in fact, it can account for up to 70% of their heat loss, and horses sweat three times more than humans while undergoing comparably strenuous physical activity. Unlike humans, this sweat is created not by eccrine glands but by apocrine glands. In hot conditions, horses during three hours of moderate-intersity exercise can loss 30 to 35 L of water and 100g of sodium, 198 g of choloride and 45 g of potassium. In another difference from humans, their sweat is hypertonic, and contains a protein called latherin, which enables it to spread across their body easier, and to foam, rather than to drip off. These adaptations are partly to compensate for their lower body surface-to-mass ratio, which makes it more difficult for horses to passively radiate heat. Yet, prolonged exposure to very hot and/or humid conditions will lead to consequences such as anhidrosis, heat stroke, or brain damage, potentially culminating in death if not addressed with measures like cold water applications. Additionally, around 10% of incidents associated with horse transport have been attributed to heat stress. These issues are expected to worsen in the future.
African horse sickness (AHS) is a viral illness with a mortality close to 90% in horses, and 50% in mules. A midge, Culicoides imicola, is the primary vector of AHS, and its spread is expected to benefit from climate change. The spillover of Hendra virus from its flying fox hosts to horses is also likely to increase, as future warming would expand the hosts' geographic range. It has been estimated that under the "moderate" and high climate change scenarios, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, the number of threatened horses would increase by 110,000 and 165,000, respectively, or by 175 and 260%
Huile sur toile, 65 x 50 cm, 1917.
Cette femme a bousculé toutes les barrières. Issue d’un milieu plus que modeste, elle sera lingère, acrobate, modèle, peintre et mère de peintre (Maurice Utrillo). Puis, elle est devenue châtelaine (à Saint-Bernard) dans l’Ain, a vécu avec Toulouse-Lautrec, a eu comme amant Erik Satie, Renoir et Puvis de Chavannes. Son professeur de dessin s’appelait Degas et est la première femme peintre reconnue, acceptée en 1894.
Sur ce tableau, nous sommes loin de Flora ou de Vénus idéalisées par la Renaissance. Au point de vue du style, l’artiste a évolué depuis les années 1890 et été influencée par le cubisme de ses confrères plus jeunes. Remariée en 1914 avec André Utter (de 21 ans son cadet), elle a en 1917 52 ans et assume pleinement sa féminité et récidivera en 1924 et 1931 avec d'autres autoportraits aux seins nus.
À la fin de sa vie, Suzanne confiait à Michelle Deroyer : "Que des hommes m’aient aimée comme une femme que j’étais, soit ! Mais je veux être aimée des hommes qui ne m’auront jamais vue, qui demeureront à rêver, à méditer, à m’imaginer devant un carré de toile où , avec quelques couleurs, j’aurai mis une image et aussi un peu de mon âme". Elle nous donne ainsi son image, pour rêver et méditer, sur le désir et le plaisir, notre destin et donc sur notre condition humaine (cf. www.visimuz.com/tag/valadon).
Mural designed by Shepard Fairey aka @obeygiant for Mural Arts Philadelphia seen at 12th Street and Callohill in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The mural itself was painted by Graterford state prison inmates participating in a Mural Arts program. James Anderson, is a former gang member from L.A. who is now committed to anti-recidivism community activism.
Drone photo by James aka @urbanmuralhunter on that other photo site.
Edit by Teee.
The horse (Equus caballus) is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, close to Eohippus, into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began domesticating horses around 4000 BCE, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BCE. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. These feral populations are not true wild horses, which are horses that never have been domesticated. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior.
Horses are adapted to run, allowing them to quickly escape predators, and possess an excellent sense of balance and a strong fight-or-flight response. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down, with younger horses tending to sleep significantly more than adults. Female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under a saddle or in a harness between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years.
Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and "warmbloods", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, developed for many different uses.
Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits as well as in working activities such as police work, agriculture, entertainment, and therapy. Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water, and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers.
Lifespan and life stages
Depending on breed, management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, beyond. The oldest verifiable record was "Old Billy", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62. In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in Guinness World Records as the world's oldest living pony, died in 2007 at age 56.
Regardless of a horse or pony's actual birth date, for most competition purposes a year is added to its age each January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere and each August 1 in the Southern Hemisphere. The exception is in endurance riding, where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal's actual calendar age.
The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:
Foal
A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling, and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling. Most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects.
Yearling
A horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.
Colt
A male horse under the age of four. A common terminology error is to call any young horse a "colt", when the term actually only refers to young male horses.
Filly
A female horse under the age of four.
Mare
A female horse four years old and older.
Stallion
A non-castrated male horse four years old and older.The term "horse" is sometimes used colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion.
Gelding
A castrated male horse of any age.
In horse racing, these definitions may differ: For example, in the British Isles, Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old. However, Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts and fillies as less than four years old.
Size and measurement
The height of horses is measured at the highest point of the withers, where the neck meets the back. This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down in relation to the body of the horse.
Size varies greatly among horse breeds, as with this full-sized horse and small pony.
In English-speaking countries, the height of horses is often stated in units of hands and inches: one hand is equal to 4 inches (101.6 mm). The height is expressed as the number of full hands, followed by a point, then the number of additional inches, and ending with the abbreviation "h" or "hh" (for "hands high"). Thus, a horse described as "15.2 h" is 15 hands plus 2 inches, for a total of 62 inches (157.5 cm) in height.
The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by nutrition. Light-riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16 hands (56 to 64 inches, 142 to 163 cm) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms (840 to 1,210 lb). Larger-riding horses usually start at about 15.2 hands (62 inches, 157 cm) and often are as tall as 17 hands (68 inches, 173 cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to 1,320 lb). Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm) high and can be as tall as 18 hands (72 inches, 183 cm) high. They can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,540 to 2,200 lb).
The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Mammoth, who was born in 1848. He stood 21.2 1⁄4 hands (86.25 inches, 219 cm) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1,524 kilograms (3,360 lb). The record holder for the smallest horse ever is Thumbelina, a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism. She was 43 centimetres; 4.1 hands (17 in) tall and weighed 26 kg (57 lb).
Ponies
Main article: Pony
Ponies are taxonomically the same animals as horses. The distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on the basis of height, especially for competition purposes. However, height alone is not dispositive; the difference between horses and ponies may also include aspects of phenotype, including conformation and temperament.
The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). An animal 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) a pony, but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard. In Australia, ponies are considered to be those under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm). For competition in the Western division of the United States Equestrian Federation, the cutoff is 14.1 hands (57 inches, 145 cm). The International Federation for Equestrian Sports, the world governing body for horse sport, uses metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than 148 centimetres (58.27 in) at the withers without shoes, which is just over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm), and 149 centimetres (58.66 in; 14.2+1⁄2 hands), with shoes.
Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies. Breed registries for horses that typically produce individuals both under and over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height. Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm), but are still considered to be ponies.
Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers. Small size, by itself, is not an exclusive determinant. For example, the Shetland pony which averages 10 hands (40 inches, 102 cm), is considered a pony. Conversely, breeds such as the Falabella and other miniature horses, which can be no taller than 76 centimetres; 7.2 hands (30 in), are classified by their registries as very small horses, not ponies.
Genetics
Horses have 64 chromosomes. The horse genome was sequenced in 2007. It contains 2.7 billion DNA base pairs, which is larger than the dog genome, but smaller than the human genome or the bovine genome.
Colors and markings
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings, described by a specialized vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its coat color, before breed or sex. Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by white markings, which, along with various spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat color.
Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have been identified. Current genetic tests can identify at least 13 different alleles influencing coat color, and research continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits. The basic coat colors of chestnut and black are determined by the gene controlled by the Melanocortin 1 receptor, also known as the "extension gene" or "red factor", as its recessive form is "red" (chestnut) and its dominant form is black. Additional genes control suppression of black color to point coloration that results in a bay, spotting patterns such as pinto or leopard, dilution genes such as palomino or dun, as well as greying, and all the other factors that create the many possible coat colors found in horses.
Horses that have a white coat color are often mislabeled; a horse that looks "white" is usually a middle-aged or older gray. Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, but usually keep black skin underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under white markings). The only horses properly called white are born with a predominantly white hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence. Different and unrelated genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses, including several different alleles of dominant white and the sabino-1 gene. However, there are no "albino" horses, defined as having both pink skin and red eyes.
Reproduction and development
Gestation lasts approximately 340 days, with an average range 320–370 days, and usually results in one foal; twins are rare. Horses are a precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth. Foals are usually born in the spring. The estrous cycle of a mare occurs roughly every 19–22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn. Most mares enter an anestrus period during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period. Foals are generally weaned from their mothers between four and six months of age.
Horses, particularly colts, are sometimes physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months, but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three, especially females. Horses four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six; maturation also depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, and quality of care. Larger horses have larger bones; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to form bone tissue, but the epiphyseal plates are larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone. These plates convert after the other parts of the bones, and are crucial to development.
Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four. Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track as young as the age of two in some countries, horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed. For endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months (five years) old.
Anatomy
The horse skeleton averages 205 bones. A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the lack of a collarbone—the horse's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's four legs and hooves are also unique structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist. Similarly, the hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel. The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones) and the proximal phalanges, located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair, bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof.
Hooves
Main articles: Horse hoof, Horseshoe, and Farrier
The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse". The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae. The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of keratin, the same material as a human fingernail. The result is that a horse, weighing on average 500 kilograms (1,100 lb), travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe. For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier. The hoof continually grows, and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks, though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain.
Teeth
Main article: Horse teeth
Horses are adapted to grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors at the front of the mouth, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the premolars and molars, at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit. There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums, or "bars" of the horse's mouth when the horse is bridled.
An estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth. The teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing. Therefore, the incisors show changes as the horse ages; they develop a distinct wear pattern, changes in tooth shape, and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. This allows a very rough estimate of a horse's age, although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear.
Digestion
Main articles: Equine digestive system and Equine nutrition
Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-kilogram (990 lb) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms (15 to 24 lb) of food per day and, under normal use, drink 38 to 45 litres (8.4 to 9.9 imp gal; 10 to 12 US gal) of water. Horses are not ruminants, they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can digest cellulose, a major component of grass. Horses are hindgut fermenters. Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria occurs in the cecum, or "water gut", which food goes through before reaching the large intestine. Horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of death. Horses do not have a gallbladder; however, they seem to tolerate high amounts of fat in their diet despite lack of a gallbladder.
Senses
The horses' senses are based on their status as prey animals, where they must be aware of their surroundings at all times. They have the largest eyes of any land mammal, and are lateral-eyed, meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads. This means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350°, with approximately 65° of this being binocular vision and the remaining 285° monocular vision. Horses have excellent day and night vision, but they have two-color, or dichromatic vision; their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear as a shade of green.
Their sense of smell, while much better than that of humans, is not quite as good as that of a dog. It is believed to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the environment. Horses have two olfactory centers. The first system is in the nostrils and nasal cavity, which analyze a wide range of odors. The second, located under the nasal cavity, are the vomeronasal organs, also called Jacobson's organs. These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze pheromones.
A horse's hearing is good, and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the head. Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise may contribute to stress: a 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting, or if listening to country or classical music, but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock music. This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21 decibels. An Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to music, and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing.
Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed proprioception—the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times. A horse's sense of touch is well-developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose. Horses are able to sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.
Horses have an advanced sense of taste, which allows them to sort through fodder and choose what they would most like to eat, and their prehensile lips can easily sort even small grains. Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants, however, there are exceptions; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food.
Movement
All horses move naturally with four basic gaits:
the four-beat walk, which averages 6.4 kilometres per hour (4.0 mph);
the two-beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour (8.1 to 11.8 mph) (faster for harness racing horses);
the canter or lope, a three-beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres per hour (12 to 15 mph);
the gallop, which averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour (25 to 30 mph), but the world record for a horse galloping over a short, sprint distance is 70.76 kilometres per hour (43.97 mph).
Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat pace, instead of the trot. There also are several four-beat 'ambling' gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral rack, running walk, and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot. Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as gaited horses. These horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits.
Behavior
Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight response. Their first reaction to a threat is to startle and usually flee, although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened. They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses.
Horses fighting as part of herd dominance behaviour
Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant individual, usually a mare. They are also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming, and body language. Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses. However, when confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly stereotypies of psychological origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.
Intelligence and learning
Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, meeting mental challenges that include food procurement and identification of individuals within a social system. They also have good spatial discrimination abilities. They are naturally curious and apt to investigate things they have not seen before. Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem solving, speed of learning, and memory. Horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that involve categorization and concept learning. They can learn using habituation, desensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning, and positive and negative reinforcement. One study has indicated that horses can differentiate between "more or less" if the quantity involved is less than four.
Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial environments that prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural. Horses are animals of habit that respond well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently. One trainer believes that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that best fits with an individual animal's natural inclinations.
Temperament
Horses are mammals, and as such are warm-blooded, or endothermic creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded, or poikilothermic animals. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not body temperature. For example, the "hot-bloods", such as many race horses, exhibit more sensitivity and energy, while the "cold-bloods", such as most draft breeds, are quieter and calmer. Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses" or "riding horses", with the "cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work horses".
a sepia-toned engraving from an old book, showing 11 horses of different breeds and sizes in nine different illustrations
Illustration of assorted breeds; slim, light hotbloods, medium-sized warmbloods and draft and pony-type coldblood breeds
"Hot blooded" breeds include "oriental horses" such as the Akhal-Teke, Arabian horse, Barb, and now-extinct Turkoman horse, as well as the Thoroughbred, a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds. Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They are bred for agility and speed. They tend to be physically refined—thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged. The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses.
Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold bloods", as they are bred not only for strength, but also to have the calm, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people. They are sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants". Well-known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale. Some, like the Percheron, are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates. Others, such as the Shire, are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils. The cold-blooded group also includes some pony breeds.
"Warmblood" breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian, developed when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed. Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders. Warmbloods are considered a "light horse" or "riding horse".
Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping. Strictly speaking, the term "warm blood" refers to any cross between cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds. Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay. The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the Morgan horse.
Sleep patterns
When horses lie down to sleep, others in the herd remain standing, awake, or in a light doze, keeping watch.
Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by using a "stay apparatus" in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing. Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for danger.
Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time, but take many short periods of rest. Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may range from several minutes to a couple of hours, mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each. The average sleep time of a domestic horse is said to be 2.9 hours per day.
Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements. However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing. This condition differs from narcolepsy, although horses may also suffer from that disorder.
Taxonomy and evolution
The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals, especially ruminants, could not. Horses and other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla, a group of mammals dominant during the Tertiary period. In the past, this order contained 14 families, but only three—Equidae (the horse and related species), Tapiridae (the tapir), and Rhinocerotidae (the rhinoceroses)—have survived to the present day.
The earliest known member of the family Equidae was the Hyracotherium, which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during the Eocene period. It had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot. The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the Mesohippus, which lived 32 to 37 million years ago. Over time, the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg below the knee, known informally as splint bones. Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed. By about 5 million years ago, the modern Equus had evolved. Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America.
By about 15,000 years ago, Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species. Horse bones from this time period, the late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North America. Yet between 10,000 and 7,600 years ago, the horse became extinct in North America. The reasons for this extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human arrival. Another theory points to climate change, noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra, which was covered with unpalatable plants.
Wild species surviving into modern times
Three tan-colored horses with upright manes. Two horses nip and paw at each other, while the third moves towards the camera. They stand in an open, rocky grassland, with forests in the distance.
Main article: Wild horse
A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever successfully domesticated. Therefore, most "wild" horses today are actually feral horses, animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals. Only two wild subspecies, the tarpan and the Przewalski's horse, survived into recorded history and only the latter survives today.
The Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, is a rare Asian animal. It is also known as the Mongolian wild horse; Mongolian people know it as the taki, and the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag. The subspecies was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992, while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world. In 1992, it was reestablished in the wild by the conservation efforts of numerous zoos. Today, a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia. There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world.
The question of whether the Przewalski's horse was ever domesticated was challenged in 2018 when DNA studies of horses found at Botai culture sites revealed captured animals with DNA markers of an ancestor to the Przewalski's horse. The study concluded that the Botai animals appear to have been an independent domestication attempt and apparently unsuccessful, as these genetic markers do not appear in modern domesticated horses. However, the question of whether all Przewalski's horses descend from this population is also unresolved, as only one of seven modern Przewalski's horses in the study shared this ancestry.
The tarpan or European wild horse (Equus ferus ferus) was found in Europe and much of Asia. It survived into the historical era, but became extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo. Thus, the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to recreate the tarpan, which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses.
Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relict populations of wild horses, but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic. For example, the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed as such, but testing did not reveal genetic differences from domesticated horses. Similarly, the Sorraia of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan on the basis of shared characteristics, but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds, and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness.
Other modern equids
Main article: Equus (genus)
Besides the horse, there are six other species of genus Equus in the Equidae family. These are the ass or donkey, Equus asinus; the mountain zebra, Equus zebra; plains zebra, Equus quagga; Grévy's Zebra, Equus grevyi; the kiang, Equus kiang; and the onager, Equus hemionus.
Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a "jack" (male donkey) and a mare. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a "jenny" (female donkey). Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse. With rare exceptions, most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce.
Main articles: History of horse domestication theories and Domestication of the horse
Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BCE. Two major sources of information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated horse spread around the world. The first source is based on palaeological and archaeological discoveries; the second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains.
The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, dating to approximately 4000–3500 BCE. By 3000 BCE, the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BCE there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent. The most recent, but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c. 2100 BCE.
A 2021 genetic study suggested that most modern domestic horses descend from the lower Volga-Don region. Ancient horse genomes indicate that these populations influenced almost all local populations as they expanded rapidly throughout Eurasia, beginning about 4,200 years ago. It also shows that certain adaptations were strongly selected due to riding, and that equestrian material culture, including Sintashta spoke-wheeled chariots spread with the horse itself.
Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present-day horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological excavations. The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions contributed to the domestic horse, while many mares were part of early domesticated herds. This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal, or sire line (Y-chromosome) versus that passed on along the maternal, or dam line (mitochondrial DNA). There are very low levels of Y-chromosome variability, but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA. There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic herds. Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation. In horses, this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BCE.
Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse, various hypotheses were proposed. One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication. Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication. However, the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses.
Main article: Feral horse
Feral horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from domesticated animals. Many populations of feral horses exist throughout the world. Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses, as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions.
There are also semi-feral horses in many parts of the world, such as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the UK, where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in "wild" conditions on undeveloped, often public, lands. Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights.
Main articles: Horse breed, List of horse breeds, and Horse breeding
The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry has come to be particularly significant and important in modern times. Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called "thoroughbreds". Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse, while a "purebred" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry. Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color, performance ability, or disposition. These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods. Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication. An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who had a reputation for careful practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines. These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition. In the 14th century, Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the Andalusian horse.
Breeds developed due to a need for "form to function", the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of work. Thus, a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian developed as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage. Heavy draft horses were developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons. Other horse breeds had been developed specifically for light agricultural work, carriage and road work, various sport disciplines, or simply as pets. Some breeds developed through centuries of crossing other breeds, while others descended from a single foundation sire, or other limited or restricted foundation bloodstock. One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation bloodstock for the breed. There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today.
Interaction with humans
Worldwide, horses play a role within human cultures and have done so for millennia. Horses are used for leisure activities, sports, and working purposes. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that in 2008, there were almost 59,000,000 horses in the world, with around 33,500,000 in the Americas, 13,800,000 in Asia and 6,300,000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and Oceania. There are estimated to be 9,500,000 horses in the United States alone. The American Horse Council estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United States of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is considered, the impact is over $102 billion. In a 2004 "poll" conducted by Animal Planet, more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries voted for the horse as the world's 4th favorite animal.
Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity; to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control. Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle, and occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear. Many horses are also driven, which requires a harness, bridle, and some type of vehicle.
Main articles: Equestrianism, Horse racing, Horse training, and Horse tack
Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle. Many sports, such as dressage, eventing, and show jumping, have origins in military training, which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider. Other sports, such as rodeo, developed from practical skills such as those needed on working ranches and stations. Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting techniques. Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. All forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat.
Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions. Examples include show jumping, dressage, three-day eventing, competitive driving, endurance riding, gymkhana, rodeos, and fox hunting. Horse shows, which have their origins in medieval European fairs, are held around the world. They host a huge range of classes, covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines, as well as "In-hand" classes where the horses are led, rather than ridden, to be evaluated on their conformation. The method of judging varies with the discipline, but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider. Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game. Although the horse requires specialized training to participate, the details of its performance are not judged, only the result of the rider's actions—be it getting a ball through a goal or some other task. Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse include jousting, in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other, and buzkashi, a team game played throughout Central Asia, the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.
Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry, watched in almost every nation of the world. There are three types: "flat" racing; steeplechasing, i.e. racing over jumps; and harness racing, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a sulky. A major part of horse racing's economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it.
Work
There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has yet developed to fully replace them. For example, mounted police horses are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control. Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain. Search and rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster relief assistance. Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil, such as nature reserves. They may also be the only form of transport allowed in wilderness areas. Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles. Law enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective.
Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone. Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as horses. Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging.
Main article: Horses in warfare
Horses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history. The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000 and 3000 BCE, and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age. Although mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur.
Entertainment and culture
Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes. Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica, in various live action historical reenactments of specific periods of history, especially recreations of famous battles. Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes. Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events. Public exhibitions are another example, such as the Budweiser Clydesdales, seen in parades and other public settings, a team of draft horses that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck.
Horses are frequently used in television, films and literature. They are sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular animals, but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical stories. Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of products. The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry, in a variety of poses and equipment. The mythologies of many cultures, including Greco-Roman, Hindu, Islamic, and Germanic, include references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional limbs, and multiple myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the Moon and Sun. The horse also appears in the 12-year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar.
Horses serve as the inspiration for many modern automobile names and logos, including the Ford Pinto, Ford Bronco, Ford Mustang, Hyundai Equus, Hyundai Pony, Mitsubishi Starion, Subaru Brumby, Mitsubishi Colt/Dodge Colt, Pinzgauer, Steyr-Puch Haflinger, Pegaso, Porsche, Rolls-Royce Camargue, Ferrari, Carlsson, Kamaz, Corre La Licorne, Iran Khodro, Eicher, and Baojun. Indian TVS Motor Company also uses a horse on their motorcycles & scooters.
Therapeutic use
People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from an association with horses. Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased self-confidence, and a greater feeling of freedom and independence. The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para-equestrian events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI). Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment strategies that use equine movement. In hippotherapy, a therapist uses the horse's movement to improve their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance, and fine motor skills, whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.
Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" therapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral difficulties, and those who are going through major life changes. There are also experimental programs using horses in prison settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave.
Products
Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses.
Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as the Mongols, who let it ferment to produce kumis. Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own horses' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat. The drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares (pregnant mares' urine), and was previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy. The tail hair of horses can be used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.
Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages. Approximately 5 million horses are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide. It is eaten in many parts of the world, though consumption is taboo in some cultures, and a subject of political controversy in others. Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, jackets, baseballs, and baseball gloves. Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue. Horse bones can be used to make implements. Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto, which is used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures. In Asia, the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis.
Main article: Horse care
Checking teeth and other physical examinations are an important part of horse care.
Horses are grazing animals, and their major source of nutrients is good-quality forage from hay or pasture. They can consume approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day. Therefore, a 450-kilogram (990 lb) adult horse could eat up to 11 kilograms (24 lb) of food. Sometimes, concentrated feed such as grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay, especially when the animal is very active. When grain is fed, equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should still be forage.
Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of 38 to 45 litres (10 to 12 US gal) per day. Although horses are adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and precipitation, which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable.
Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier, as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases, and dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist. If horses are kept inside in a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being. When turned outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy fences to be safely contained. Regular grooming is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin.
Climate change
As of 2019, there are around 17 million horses in the world. Healthy body temperature for adult horses is in the range between 37.5 and 38.5 °C (99.5 and 101.3 °F), which they can maintain while ambient temperatures are between 5 and 25 °C (41 and 77 °F). However, strenuous exercise increases core body temperature by 1 °C (1.8 °F)/minute, as 80% of the energy used by equine muscles is released as heat. Along with bovines and primates, equines are the only animal group which use sweating as their primary method of thermoregulation: in fact, it can account for up to 70% of their heat loss, and horses sweat three times more than humans while undergoing comparably strenuous physical activity. Unlike humans, this sweat is created not by eccrine glands but by apocrine glands. In hot conditions, horses during three hours of moderate-intersity exercise can loss 30 to 35 L of water and 100g of sodium, 198 g of choloride and 45 g of potassium. In another difference from humans, their sweat is hypertonic, and contains a protein called latherin, which enables it to spread across their body easier, and to foam, rather than to drip off. These adaptations are partly to compensate for their lower body surface-to-mass ratio, which makes it more difficult for horses to passively radiate heat. Yet, prolonged exposure to very hot and/or humid conditions will lead to consequences such as anhidrosis, heat stroke, or brain damage, potentially culminating in death if not addressed with measures like cold water applications. Additionally, around 10% of incidents associated with horse transport have been attributed to heat stress. These issues are expected to worsen in the future.
African horse sickness (AHS) is a viral illness with a mortality close to 90% in horses, and 50% in mules. A midge, Culicoides imicola, is the primary vector of AHS, and its spread is expected to benefit from climate change. The spillover of Hendra virus from its flying fox hosts to horses is also likely to increase, as future warming would expand the hosts' geographic range. It has been estimated that under the "moderate" and high climate change scenarios, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, the number of threatened horses would increase by 110,000 and 165,000, respectively, or by 175 and 260%
The North Charleston Police Department implemented Project S.T.A.N.D (Stop and Take A New Direction) aimed at not just arresting low level narcotics dealers with little or no prior criminal history but to go a step further and help those involved in the activity change their lives for the better. This is program aimed at reducing recidivism through working on all aspects of the criminals’ lives.
This project was the focus of a Dateline NBC special entitled “Intersection” which aired on March 14, 2013.
Photo by Ryan Johnson
GOVERNOR TOMBLIN PRESENTS $9.3 MILLION IN GRANTS
TO LOCAL GROUPS, COMMUNITY JUSTICE PROGRAMS
CHARLESTON, W.Va. (September 9, 2016) – Gov. Earl Ray Tomblin today presented more than $9.3 million in grant funding to community support groups and justice programs across the state. This funding will be used to develop new programming and enhance existing initiatives to support West Virginia’s communities and state justice system.
“With this needed funding, community programs from all corners of our state will be better equipped to serve children and families and further strengthen West Virginia’s justice system.” Gov. Tomblin said. “We are expanding direct services to victims of crime, putting programs in place to help at-risk youth get back on track and preparing parents with the life skills they need to foster a healthy, nurturing environment to raise their families.”
The total grant funding was allocated as follows:
$7,023,255 in Victims of Crime Act/Victim Assistance Grants - 75 grantees;
$529, 254 in Justice Reinvestment Treatment Supervision Grants - 4 grantees;
$1,203,175 in Justice Assistance Grants - 34 grantees;
$543,222 in Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Grants - 18 grantees.
Victims of Crime Act/Victim Assistance Grants:
BARBOUR
Barbour County Commission $38,936.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Assistance Coordinator in the Barbour County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Barbour County.
BERKELEY, JEFFERSON, MORGAN
Children's Home Society of West Virginia $35,576.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Jefferson, Berkeley, and Morgan Counties.
BROOKE, HANCOCK
A Child's Place CASA, Ltd. $25,090.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a part-time CASA Volunteer Coordinator and Program Director to provide direct services to victims of child abuse and neglect in Brooke and Hancock Counties.
CABELL
Cabell County Commission $129,895.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of three full-time Victim Advocates and two part-time Victim Advocates in the Cabell County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Cabell County.
CABELL, WAYNE, KANAWHA, PUTNAM
TEAM for West Virginia Children, Inc. $192,075.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time CASA Coordinator for Cabell County, a
Cabell/Wayne CASA Volunteer Coordinator, a Kanawha/Boone/Lincoln Volunteer Coordinator and a
Putnam/Cabell Volunteer Coordinator to provide direct services to child abuse and neglect victims in Cabell, Wayne, Putnam and Kanawha Counties.
CABELL, WAYNE, LINCOLN
Family Service a Division of Goodwill, Inc. $61,748.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of three part-time Victim Therapists to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child abuse in Cabell, Lincoln, and Wayne Counties.
CABELL, WAYNE, LINCOLN
CONTACT Huntington Inc. $143,338.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Wayne & Lincoln County Advocate, Campus Victim Advocate, and Community Victim Advocate, and for a part-time Victim Advocate to provide direct services to victims of sexual assault in Cabell, Wayne, and Lincoln.
CABELL, WAYNE, PUTNAM, LINCOLN, MASON
Branches Domestic Violence Shelter, Inc. $292,641.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time Social Worker, a Mason County Advocate, a
Putnam County Advocate, a Lincoln County Advocate, Wayne County Advocate, Evening Advocate, Case Manager, and part-time Putnam County Advocate to provide direct services to domestic violence victims in Cabell, Lincoln, Putnam, Wayne, and Mason Counties.
GREENBRIER
Greenbrier County Commission $54,685.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Services Coordinator in the Greenbrier County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Greenbrier County.
GREENBRIER, MONROE, POCAHONTAS
Child and Youth Advocacy Center $88,469.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate and full-time Forensic Interviewer, and a portion of the salaries of a full-time Therapist and Program Director to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Greenbrier, Pocahontas, and Monroe Counties.
GREENBRIER, MONROE, POCAHONTAS
Family Refuge Center $168,120.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of the full-time Lead Shelter Advocate, a Daytime Shelter
Advocate, Overnight Shelter Advocate, Monroe County Advocate, Pocahontas County Advocate, and part-time Weekend Shelter Advocate, and Victim Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence and sexual assault in Greenbrier, Monroe, and Pocahontas Counties.
GREENBRIER, POCAHONTAS
CASA of the Eleventh Judicial Circuit, Inc. $42,424.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the part-time salary of a Volunteer Coordinator and full-time Program Director to provide direct services to victims of child abuse in Greenbrier and Pocahontas Counties.
HANCOCK, BROOKE
CHANGE, Inc. $54,285.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate and part-time Victim Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence in Brooke and Hancock Counties.
HANCOCK, BROOKE, OHIO
Hancock County Commission $125,979.00
These funds will provide for the full-time salaries of a Hancock County Advocate, a Brooke County Advocate, and a portion of the salary of a full-time Ohio County Advocate to provide direct services to crime victims in Brooke, Hancock, and Ohio Counties.
HARRISON
Harrison County CASA Program, Inc. $42,907.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time Volunteer Coordinator and the Program Director to provide direct services to victims of child abuse and neglect in Harrison County.
HARRISON, DODDRIDGE
Harrison County Child Advocacy Center $40,991.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Harrison County.
JACKSON
Jackson County Commission $35,000.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Jackson County Sheriff's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Jackson County.
JACKSON, ROANE, CALHOUN
CASA of the Fifth Judicial Circuit, Inc. $46,101.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of the Program Director and two Volunteer Coordinators to provide direct services to child abuse and neglect victims in Jackson, Roane, and Calhoun Counties.
JEFFERSON
Jefferson County Commission $67,104.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of two full-time Victim Advocates in the Jefferson County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Jefferson County.
JEFFERSON, BERKELEY, MORGAN
Shenandoah Women's Center, Inc. $355,035.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Jefferson County Outreach Advocate, and two Shelter
Advocates, and a portion of the salaries for a full-time Morgan County Outreach Advocate, a Jefferson County Outreach Advocate, two Berkeley County Outreach Advocates, Evening and Weekend Shelter Advocate positions, and two part-time Counselors to provide direct services to child victims, victims of domestic violence, and sexual assault in Berkeley, Jefferson, and Morgan Counties.
CASA of the Eastern Panhandle, Inc. $103,218.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a Senior Volunteer Coordinator, two Volunteer Coordinators, and a part-time Volunteer Coordinator to provide direct services to victims of child abuse and neglect in Berkeley, Jefferson, and Morgan Counties.
KANAWHA
City of Charleston $36,600.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Services Coordinator in the Charleston Police Department to provide direct services to crime victims in the City of Charleston.
CAMC Health Education & Research Institute $105,966.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate and a portion of the salary of a full-time Social Worker/Forensic Interviewer to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Kanawha County.
Kanawha County Commission $67,360.00
These funds will provide for the salary of two full-time Victim Advocates and portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Kanawha County.
Kanawha County Commission $83,353.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of two full-time Victim Advocates in the Kanawha County Sheriff's Department to provide direct services to crime victims in Kanawha County.
KANAWHA, CLAY, BOONE
YWCA of Charleston, WV, Inc. $184,189.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Racial Justice/Court Advocate, a Boone County
Coordinator, a part-time Clay County Coordinator and a portion of the salaries for three full-time Court Advocate positions, Youth Services Coordinator, and a Contracted Counselor to provide direct services to domestic violence victims in Kanawha, Clay, and Boone Counties.
KANAWHA, PUTNAM, JACKSON, BOONE
Family Counseling Connection $208,311.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time REACH Director, three REACH Sexual Violence Victim Specialist, a Victim Support Specialist, and seven Victim Therapist positions and a portion of two Sexual Violence Victim Specialists to provide direct services to victims of sexual violence, child abuse, and domestic violence in Kanawha, Boone, Jackson, and Putnam Counties.
LEWIS
Lewis County Commission $38,942.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Lewis County Prosecutor's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Lewis County.
LOGAN
Logan County Commission $48,498.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time and a part-time Victim Advocate in the Logan County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Logan County.
Logan County Commission $36,500.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Services Coordinator in the Logan County Sheriff's Department to provide direct services to crime victims in Logan County.
LOGAN, MINGO
The Logan County Child Advocacy Center, Inc. $46,748.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a part-time Mingo County Advocate and Child & Youth Forensic Interviewer and for a portion of the salary for a full-time Logan County Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Logan and Mingo Counties.
MARION
CASA of Marion County $46,069.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of the salaries for a Program Director and Volunteer Coordinator to provide direct services to victims of child abuse and neglect in Marion County.
Marion County Commission $45,278.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Assistance Coordinator in the Marion County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Marion County.
MARION, DODDRIDGE, GILMER, HARRISON, LEWIS
Task Force on Domestic Violence, "HOPE, Inc." $338,084.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time Family Therapist, Marion County Case
Manager, Children's Case Manager, Lewis County Case Manager, Harrison County Case Manager, Harrison
County Case Manager/Outreach Coordinator, Gilmer County Case Manager, Marion County Victim Advocate, Harrison County Victim Advocate, Doddridge County Case Manager, and Family Therapist and a portion of the salary for a part-time Marion County Case Manager to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child victims in Doddridge, Gilmer, Harrison, Lewis, and Marion Counties.
MARSHALL, WETZEL, TYLER, OHIO
CASA for Children Inc. $58,805.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of the Program Director, a Ohio County Volunteer Coordinator, and a Volunteer Coordinator in the 2nd Circuit to provide direct services to child abuse and neglect victims in Ohio, Marshall, Tyler, and Wetzel Counties.
MASON
Mason County Commission $29,830.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Mason County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Mason County.
MCDOWELL
Stop the Hurt, Inc., Children's Advocacy Center $34,436.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in McDowell County.
MCDOWELL, MERCER, WYOMING
Stop Abusive Family Environments, Inc. $257,416.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time McDowell County Advocate, a part-time
Wyoming County Victim Advocate, Resident Program Coordinator, Advocate Coordinator, Night Shelter Advocate, Evening Shelter Advocate, Weekend Shelter Advocate, Case Worker, Administrator, and for the salaries of two full-time Mercer County Advocates and Wyoming County Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child victims in McDowell, Mercer, and Wyoming Counties.
MERCER
Child Protect of Mercer County, Inc. $70,220.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate, part-time Forensic Interviewer and a portion of a Contract Therapist to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Mercer County.
MERCER, MCDOWELL
ChildLaw Services, Inc. $16,000.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a part-time Victim Advocate/Counselor to provide direct services to child victims of abuse and neglect and children who witness domestic violence in Mercer and McDowell Counties.
MINERAL
Mineral County Court Appointed Special Advocates $49,686.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of the Program Director and for the salary of a full-time Volunteer Coordinator to provide direct services to victims of child abuse and neglect in Mineral County.
MINERAL, GRANT, HAMPSHIRE
Family Crisis Center, Inc. $55,000.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time Grant County Victim Advocate, a Mineral County Advocate, and a part-time Hampshire County Victim Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence in Mineral, Grant, and Hampshire Counties.
MINERAL, HAMPSHIRE, PENDLETON
Burlington United Methodist Family Services, Inc. $20,982.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Forensic Interviewer to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Hampshire, Mineral, and Pendleton Counties.
MINGO
Mingo County Commission $22,100.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Assistance Coordinator in the Mingo County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Mingo County.
MINGO, LOGAN
Tug Valley Recovery Shelter $89,434.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Logan/Mingo County Victim Advocate, a part-time Court Advocate, a full-time Logan County Advocate and a part-time Mingo County Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child victims in Mingo and Logan Counties.
MONONGALIA
Monongalia County Commission $78,544.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time and two part-time Victim Assistance Coordinators in the Monongalia County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Monongalia County.
Monongalia County Child Advocacy Center, Inc. $17,302.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Monongalia County.
MONONGALIA, PRESTON
Monongalia County Youth Services Center / CASA for Kids $42,649.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time Preston County Volunteer Coordinator, a full-time Monongalia County Volunteer Coordinator, and a portion of the salary for the Program Director to provide direct services to victims of child abuse and neglect in Preston and Monongalia Counties.
MONONGALIA, PRESTON, TAYLOR
The Rape & Domestic Violence Information Center, Inc. $177,082.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Monongalia County Victim Advocate, Case Manager,
Taylor County Victim Advocate and for a portion of the salary for a full-time Outreach Advocate for Monongalia, Preston, and Taylor Counties to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child abuse in Monongalia, Preston, and Taylor Counties.
OHIO
Ohio County Commission $35,242.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Assistance Coordinator in the Ohio County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Ohio County.
OHIO, BROOKE, HANCOCK, MARSHALL, WETZEL
Upper Ohio Valley Sexual Assault Help Center $161,670.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Adult Victim Advocate and a Child Victim Advocate, and the part-time salaries of three Victim Advocates and a licensed Counselor/Therapist to provide direct services to adult and child victims of sexual assault in Hancock, Brooke, Ohio, Marshall, and Wetzel Counties.
OHIO, MARSHALL
Harmony House, Inc. $46,323.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Child and Family Advocate and a portion of the salary of a Child and Family Therapist to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Ohio and Marshall Counties.
OHIO, MARSHALL, WETZEL
Young Womens Christian Associaton of Wheeling, WV $153,405.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Child Advocate, Ohio County Advocate, Marshall County Advocate, and Wetzel County Advocate, a part-time Employment Advocate, and a portion of the salaries of a
full-time Shelter Advocate and Wetzel County Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child victims in Ohio, Marshall, and Wetzel Counties.
PRESTON
Preston County Commission $35,125.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Preston County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Preston County.
PUTNAM
Putnam County Commission $34,000.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Putnam County Sheriff's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Putnam County.
Putnam County Commission $48,784.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary for a full-time Victim Liaison and provide for the salary of a part-time Victim Liaison in the Putnam County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Putnam County.
RALEIGH, FAYETTE, NICHOLAS, SUMMERS
Comprehensive Women's Service Council, Inc. $432,866.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Summers County Advocate, Nicholas County Advocate, Raleigh County Advocate in the Beckley Police Department, and Raleigh County Shelter Advocate and for a
portion of the salaries for a full-time Evening Shelter Advocate, Weekend Shelter Advocate, Night Shelter
Advocate, Day Shelter Advocate, and for a portion of the salaries of a part-time Underserved Populations
Advocate, Raleigh County Victim Services Advocate, Fayette County Advocate, Nicholas County Advocate, and
Weekend Shelter Advocate, and for a portion of two Contractual Adult and Child Therapist to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child abuse in Raleigh, Fayette, Nicholas, and Summers Counties.
RALEIGH, FAYETTE, WYOMING
Just For Kids Child Advocacy Center $76,250.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Family Advocate, Forensic Interviewer, and Counselor to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Fayette, Raleigh, and Wyoming Counties.
RANDOLPH
Randolph County Commission $40,436.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Services Coordinator in the Randolph County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide services to crime victims in Randolph County.
RANDOLPH, TUCKER
Randolph-Tucker Children's Advocacy Center $65,222.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time Family Advocate and part-time Forensic Interviewer and for the salary of a part-time Tucker County Child and Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Randolph and Tucker Counties.
RANDOLPH, UPSHUR, TUCKER, BRAXTON, WEBSTER, BARBOUR
Women's Aid in Crisis $396,775.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries for a full-time Barbour County Outreach Coordinator,
Braxton County Outreach Coordinator, Tucker County Outreach Coordinator, Upshur County Outreach
Coordinator, Webster County Outreach Coordinator, Randolph County Legal Advocate, Randolph County Victim Advocate, and two Shelter Managers and a Contracted Counselor to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, child victims, and sexual assault victims in Randolph, Barbour, Tucker, Upshur, Webster, and Braxton Counties.
ROANE
Roane County Commission $22,068.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Roane County Prosecuting Attorney's office to provide direct services to crime victims in Roane County.
SUMMERS
REACHH-Family Resource Center $15,715.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a part-time Family Advocate and Forensic Interviewer to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Summers County.
TYLER
Tyler County Commission $37,920.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Tyler County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Tyler County.
UPSHUR
Upshur County Commission $34,662.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Upshur County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Upshur County.
UPSHUR, LEWIS
Mountain CAP of West Virginia, Inc., a CAC $32,574.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Upshur and Lewis Counties.
WETZEL
Wetzel County Commission $40,000.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Wetzel County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Wetzel County.
WOOD
Wood County Commission $83,126.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of two full-time Victim Advocates in the Wood County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Wood County.
WOOD, CALHOUN, JACKSON, LOGAN, WIRT
Harmony Mental Health, Inc. $138,450.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Social Worker and Counselor, and Contractual Counseling to provide services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child abuse in Calhoun, Jackson, Wirt, and Wood Counties.
WOOD, JACKSON, RITCHIE, PLEASANTS, WIRT
Family Crisis Intervention Center $224,087.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of three part-time Shelter Advocates, three full-tim Shelter
Advocates, Legal Advocate, Sexual Assault Advocate, Ritchie County Advocate, Wirt County Advocate, Pleasants County Advocate, and part-time Jackson County Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence in Jackson, Ritchie, Wirt, Pleasants, and Wood Counties.
WOOD, WIRT, PLEASANTS, RITCHIE
Voices for Children Foundation - CASA Program $51,939.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the Program Director’s salary to provide direct services to child abuse and neglect victims in Wood, Wirt, Pleasants, and Ritchie Counties.
WYOMING
Wyoming County Commission $30,114.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Wyoming County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Wyoming County.
STATEWIDE
West Virginia Division of Corrections $81,158.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a Victim Services Specialist to provide direct services to the crime victims of inmates under the custody of the Division of Corrections.
Legal Aid of West Virginia, Inc. $216,890.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of three full-time Attorneys to provide emergency legal services to victims of crime in West Virginia.
Mothers Against Drunk Driving West Virginia $39,453.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time statewide Victim Advocate to provide direct services and support to victims of Driving Under the Influence cases throughout the State of West Virginia.
Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Grants:
BARBOUR
Barbour County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in Philip Barbour High School.
CABELL
City of Barboursville $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in Barboursville Middle School.
DODDRIDGE
Doddridge County Commission $40,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) positions in Doddridge County High and Dordddridge County Middle Schools.
HARDY
Hardy County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in East Hardy High School.
HARRISON
Harrison County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in South Harrison High School.
KANAWHA
HOPE Community Development Corporation $60,000.00
These funds will be utilized to implement the Disproportionate Minority Reduction Cycle in Kanawha County.
Kanawha County Commission $25,000.00
These funds will be utilzed to support the Project INTER-CEPT Program (Interventions Needed To End Recidivism-Critical Entry Point Treatment) in Kanawha County.
Partnership of African American Churches $60,000.00
These funds will be utilized to decrease Disproportionate MinortyContact in Kanawha County by expanding current initiatives between law enforcement, clergy, youth and families, including public defenders and prosecuting attorneys.
LOGAN
Logan County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in Man High School.
MONONGALIA
Monongalia County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the VOICES II, a deliquency prevention program that focuses on at-risk and delinquent female teens.
Monongalia County Child Advocacy Center $18,612.00
These funds will be utilized to provide Trauma Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy to child vicitims of abuse in Monongalia County.
Monongalia County Commission $60,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support a countywide Disproportionate Minorty Contact Reduction Initiative by utlizing an evidence-based intervention model to prevent at-risk minority youth’s involvement in the criminal justice system.
Morgantown Police Department $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in Mountaineer Middle School.
Mountaineer Boys and Girls Club $45,000.00
These funds will be utilized to implement the Disproportionate Minorty Reduction Cycle in Monongalia County.
MORGAN
Morgan County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support a school and community based program that provides a school-based violence prevention curriculum and a developmental asset program to cultivate youth strengths and self-esteem.
Morgan County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in Berkeley Springs High School.
STATEWIDE
West Virginia Child Advocacy Network $23,592.00
These funds will be utilized to assess and improve the data tracking and evaluation on both a statewide and local program level, and assist local Child Advocacy centers with data-informed strategic planning, interrupting the cycle of abuse and preventing adverse lifetime outcomes.
West Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals $31,018.00
These funds will be utilized to provide current juvenile justice probation data to the State of West Virginia, the Federal Government, West Virginia Division of Justice and Community Services, the State Advisory Group and the citizens of West Virginia through the maintenance and daily management of the Juvenile Section of the Offender Case Management System. Funding will also provide analysis and a statewide report on the Juvenile Justice system as well as the collection of juvenile data and analysis to provide the numbers to create the DMC ratio.
Justice Assistance Grants:
BRAXTON
Braxton County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Braxton County High School.
CABELL
Cabell County Commission $69,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
GREENBRIER
Greenbrier County Commission $23,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
HAMPSHIRE
Hampshire County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Hampshire County High School.
HANCOCK
Hancock County Commission $40,000.00
Funds will provide for two Prevention Resource Officers (PRO) at Oak Glen High School and Weir High School.
Hancock County Commission $46,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
HARRISON
City of Bridgeport $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Bridgeport High School.
City of Bridgeport $46,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
City of Clarksburg $20,000.00
Funds will provide for one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Robert C. Byrd High School.
JACKSON
City of Ripley $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Ripley High School.
City of Ravenswood $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Ravenswood High School.
KANAWHA
City of South Charleston $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at South Charleston High School.
City of Charleston $69,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
City of Dunbar $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Dunbar Middle School.
City of Charleston $40,000.00
Funds will provide for two Prevention Resource Officers (PRO) at Capitol High School and Stonewall Jackson Middle School.
LEWIS
Lewis County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Lewis County High School.
LOGAN
Logan County Commission $46,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force and salary for one Prosecutor to work closely with the Drug Task Force.
MARSHALL
Marshall County Commission $23,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
MERCER
City of Bluefield $46,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
MINERAL
Mineral County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Frankfort High School.
MONROE
Monroe County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at James Monroe High School.
OHIO
Ohio County Commission $46,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
City of Wheeling $40,000.00
Funds will provide for two Prevention Resource Officers (PRO) at Bridge Street Middle School and Triadelphia Middle School.
PUTNAM
Putnam County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Poca High School.
City of Winfield $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Winfield High School.
City of Nitro $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Nitro High School.
RALEIGH
City of Beckley Police Department $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Woodrow Wilson High School.
ROANE
Roane County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Roane County High School.
TAYLOR
City of Grafton $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Grafton High School.
UPSHUR
Upshur County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Buckhannon-Upshur Middle School.
WETZEL
Wetzel County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Valley High School.
WOOD
City of Vienna $46,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries for a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
City of Williamstown $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Williamstown High School.
STATEWIDE
West Virginia State Police $223,175.00
Funds will provide for officer overtime to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
Justice Reinvestment Treatment Supervision Grants:
BERKELEY, JEFFERSON, MORGAN
Jefferson Day Report Center, Inc. $140,998.00
These funds will be utilized to support the ongoing work through the Justice Reinvestment Treatment Supervision Program.
CABELL
Prestera Center for Mental HealthServices, Inc. $134,514.00
These funds will be utilized to support the ongoing work through the Justice Reinvestment Treatment Supervision Program.
HARRISON
Harrison County Commission $125,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the ongoing work through the Justice Reinvestment Treatment Supervision Program.
United Summit Center, Inc. $118,753.00
These funds will be utilized to support the ongoing work through the JusticGOVERNOR TOMBLIN PRESENTS $9.3 MILLION IN GRANTS
TO LOCAL GROUPS, COMMUNITY JUSTICE PROGRAMS
CHARLESTON, W.Va. (September 9, 2016) – Gov. Earl Ray Tomblin today presented more than $9.3 million in grant funding to community support groups and justice programs across the state. This funding will be used to develop new programming and enhance existing initiatives to support West Virginia’s communities and state justice system.
“With this needed funding, community programs from all corners of our state will be better equipped to serve children and families and further strengthen West Virginia’s justice system.” Gov. Tomblin said. “We are expanding direct services to victims of crime, putting programs in place to help at-risk youth get back on track and preparing parents with the life skills they need to foster a healthy, nurturing environment to raise their families.”
The total grant funding was allocated as follows:
$7,023,255 in Victims of Crime Act/Victim Assistance Grants - 75 grantees;
$529, 254 in Justice Reinvestment Treatment Supervision Grants - 4 grantees;
$1,203,175 in Justice Assistance Grants - 34 grantees;
$543,222 in Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Grants - 18 grantees.
Photos available for media use. All photos should be attributed “Photo courtesy of Office of the Governor.”
On August 28, 2017, Brookings convened a forum focused on the need for criminal justice reform and explored possible alternatives to the existing system. In light of the current political climate and policies adopted by the Department of Justice, questions around sentencing guidelines and recidivism reduction are more urgent than ever. Are the financial burdens of large prison populations worth the cost? How can alternative sentences—from community service to house arrest—be used to deal with nonviolent offenders in a fair and equitable way?
The forum began with a gubernatorial perspective on reform measures, which was followed by a panel discussion. After the session, panelists took questions from the audience.
Q&A on prison reform:
There are certain criminals who need to be locked up, no matter what. There are some people you just don’t want in your neighborhood. But some first-time non-violent offenders are sent away for five years, and graduate unemployable at 25 – illiterate and with a felony on their records. Instead of learning to read, they have learned how to be a serious criminal from fellow prisoners.
The experiments with drug courts look like a promising alternative. These first-time offenders serve a tough probation period and learn how to read. The recidivism rate is about 30% compared to 60% for prison. And there are significant budgetary advantages.
Kippy Joseph, Associate Director, Innovation, The Rockefeller Foundation
Lara Metcalf, Managing Director, Social Finance
BROWNSVILLE, Texas - 135 Mexican nationals were expelled under Title 42 in Brownsville, Texas on Friday May 22nd. Through an agreement between DHS and the Government of Mexico these Mexican nationals are transported to the interior
of Mexico via ICE Air Operations. This will reduce the likelihood of recidivism and contain the threat of COVID-19.
The horse (Equus caballus) is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, close to Eohippus, into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began domesticating horses around 4000 BCE, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BCE. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. These feral populations are not true wild horses, which are horses that never have been domesticated. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior.
Horses are adapted to run, allowing them to quickly escape predators, and possess an excellent sense of balance and a strong fight-or-flight response. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down, with younger horses tending to sleep significantly more than adults. Female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under a saddle or in a harness between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years.
Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and "warmbloods", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, developed for many different uses.
Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits as well as in working activities such as police work, agriculture, entertainment, and therapy. Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water, and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers.
Lifespan and life stages
Depending on breed, management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, beyond. The oldest verifiable record was "Old Billy", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62. In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in Guinness World Records as the world's oldest living pony, died in 2007 at age 56.
Regardless of a horse or pony's actual birth date, for most competition purposes a year is added to its age each January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere and each August 1 in the Southern Hemisphere. The exception is in endurance riding, where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal's actual calendar age.
The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:
Foal
A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling, and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling. Most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects.
Yearling
A horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.
Colt
A male horse under the age of four. A common terminology error is to call any young horse a "colt", when the term actually only refers to young male horses.
Filly
A female horse under the age of four.
Mare
A female horse four years old and older.
Stallion
A non-castrated male horse four years old and older.The term "horse" is sometimes used colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion.
Gelding
A castrated male horse of any age.
In horse racing, these definitions may differ: For example, in the British Isles, Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old. However, Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts and fillies as less than four years old.
Size and measurement
The height of horses is measured at the highest point of the withers, where the neck meets the back. This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down in relation to the body of the horse.
Size varies greatly among horse breeds, as with this full-sized horse and small pony.
In English-speaking countries, the height of horses is often stated in units of hands and inches: one hand is equal to 4 inches (101.6 mm). The height is expressed as the number of full hands, followed by a point, then the number of additional inches, and ending with the abbreviation "h" or "hh" (for "hands high"). Thus, a horse described as "15.2 h" is 15 hands plus 2 inches, for a total of 62 inches (157.5 cm) in height.
The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by nutrition. Light-riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16 hands (56 to 64 inches, 142 to 163 cm) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms (840 to 1,210 lb). Larger-riding horses usually start at about 15.2 hands (62 inches, 157 cm) and often are as tall as 17 hands (68 inches, 173 cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to 1,320 lb). Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm) high and can be as tall as 18 hands (72 inches, 183 cm) high. They can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,540 to 2,200 lb).
The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Mammoth, who was born in 1848. He stood 21.2 1⁄4 hands (86.25 inches, 219 cm) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1,524 kilograms (3,360 lb). The record holder for the smallest horse ever is Thumbelina, a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism. She was 43 centimetres; 4.1 hands (17 in) tall and weighed 26 kg (57 lb).
Ponies
Main article: Pony
Ponies are taxonomically the same animals as horses. The distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on the basis of height, especially for competition purposes. However, height alone is not dispositive; the difference between horses and ponies may also include aspects of phenotype, including conformation and temperament.
The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). An animal 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) a pony, but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard. In Australia, ponies are considered to be those under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm). For competition in the Western division of the United States Equestrian Federation, the cutoff is 14.1 hands (57 inches, 145 cm). The International Federation for Equestrian Sports, the world governing body for horse sport, uses metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than 148 centimetres (58.27 in) at the withers without shoes, which is just over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm), and 149 centimetres (58.66 in; 14.2+1⁄2 hands), with shoes.
Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies. Breed registries for horses that typically produce individuals both under and over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height. Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm), but are still considered to be ponies.
Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers. Small size, by itself, is not an exclusive determinant. For example, the Shetland pony which averages 10 hands (40 inches, 102 cm), is considered a pony. Conversely, breeds such as the Falabella and other miniature horses, which can be no taller than 76 centimetres; 7.2 hands (30 in), are classified by their registries as very small horses, not ponies.
Genetics
Horses have 64 chromosomes. The horse genome was sequenced in 2007. It contains 2.7 billion DNA base pairs, which is larger than the dog genome, but smaller than the human genome or the bovine genome.
Colors and markings
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings, described by a specialized vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its coat color, before breed or sex. Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by white markings, which, along with various spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat color.
Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have been identified. Current genetic tests can identify at least 13 different alleles influencing coat color, and research continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits. The basic coat colors of chestnut and black are determined by the gene controlled by the Melanocortin 1 receptor, also known as the "extension gene" or "red factor", as its recessive form is "red" (chestnut) and its dominant form is black. Additional genes control suppression of black color to point coloration that results in a bay, spotting patterns such as pinto or leopard, dilution genes such as palomino or dun, as well as greying, and all the other factors that create the many possible coat colors found in horses.
Horses that have a white coat color are often mislabeled; a horse that looks "white" is usually a middle-aged or older gray. Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, but usually keep black skin underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under white markings). The only horses properly called white are born with a predominantly white hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence. Different and unrelated genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses, including several different alleles of dominant white and the sabino-1 gene. However, there are no "albino" horses, defined as having both pink skin and red eyes.
Reproduction and development
Gestation lasts approximately 340 days, with an average range 320–370 days, and usually results in one foal; twins are rare. Horses are a precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth. Foals are usually born in the spring. The estrous cycle of a mare occurs roughly every 19–22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn. Most mares enter an anestrus period during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period. Foals are generally weaned from their mothers between four and six months of age.
Horses, particularly colts, are sometimes physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months, but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three, especially females. Horses four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six; maturation also depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, and quality of care. Larger horses have larger bones; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to form bone tissue, but the epiphyseal plates are larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone. These plates convert after the other parts of the bones, and are crucial to development.
Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four. Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track as young as the age of two in some countries, horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed. For endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months (five years) old.
Anatomy
The horse skeleton averages 205 bones. A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the lack of a collarbone—the horse's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's four legs and hooves are also unique structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist. Similarly, the hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel. The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones) and the proximal phalanges, located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair, bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof.
Hooves
Main articles: Horse hoof, Horseshoe, and Farrier
The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse". The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae. The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of keratin, the same material as a human fingernail. The result is that a horse, weighing on average 500 kilograms (1,100 lb), travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe. For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier. The hoof continually grows, and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks, though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain.
Teeth
Main article: Horse teeth
Horses are adapted to grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors at the front of the mouth, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the premolars and molars, at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit. There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums, or "bars" of the horse's mouth when the horse is bridled.
An estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth. The teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing. Therefore, the incisors show changes as the horse ages; they develop a distinct wear pattern, changes in tooth shape, and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. This allows a very rough estimate of a horse's age, although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear.
Digestion
Main articles: Equine digestive system and Equine nutrition
Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-kilogram (990 lb) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms (15 to 24 lb) of food per day and, under normal use, drink 38 to 45 litres (8.4 to 9.9 imp gal; 10 to 12 US gal) of water. Horses are not ruminants, they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can digest cellulose, a major component of grass. Horses are hindgut fermenters. Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria occurs in the cecum, or "water gut", which food goes through before reaching the large intestine. Horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of death. Horses do not have a gallbladder; however, they seem to tolerate high amounts of fat in their diet despite lack of a gallbladder.
Senses
The horses' senses are based on their status as prey animals, where they must be aware of their surroundings at all times. They have the largest eyes of any land mammal, and are lateral-eyed, meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads. This means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350°, with approximately 65° of this being binocular vision and the remaining 285° monocular vision. Horses have excellent day and night vision, but they have two-color, or dichromatic vision; their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear as a shade of green.
Their sense of smell, while much better than that of humans, is not quite as good as that of a dog. It is believed to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the environment. Horses have two olfactory centers. The first system is in the nostrils and nasal cavity, which analyze a wide range of odors. The second, located under the nasal cavity, are the vomeronasal organs, also called Jacobson's organs. These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze pheromones.
A horse's hearing is good, and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the head. Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise may contribute to stress: a 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting, or if listening to country or classical music, but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock music. This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21 decibels. An Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to music, and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing.
Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed proprioception—the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times. A horse's sense of touch is well-developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose. Horses are able to sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.
Horses have an advanced sense of taste, which allows them to sort through fodder and choose what they would most like to eat, and their prehensile lips can easily sort even small grains. Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants, however, there are exceptions; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food.
Movement
All horses move naturally with four basic gaits:
the four-beat walk, which averages 6.4 kilometres per hour (4.0 mph);
the two-beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour (8.1 to 11.8 mph) (faster for harness racing horses);
the canter or lope, a three-beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres per hour (12 to 15 mph);
the gallop, which averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour (25 to 30 mph), but the world record for a horse galloping over a short, sprint distance is 70.76 kilometres per hour (43.97 mph).
Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat pace, instead of the trot. There also are several four-beat 'ambling' gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral rack, running walk, and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot. Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as gaited horses. These horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits.
Behavior
Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight response. Their first reaction to a threat is to startle and usually flee, although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened. They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses.
Horses fighting as part of herd dominance behaviour
Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant individual, usually a mare. They are also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming, and body language. Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses. However, when confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly stereotypies of psychological origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.
Intelligence and learning
Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, meeting mental challenges that include food procurement and identification of individuals within a social system. They also have good spatial discrimination abilities. They are naturally curious and apt to investigate things they have not seen before. Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem solving, speed of learning, and memory. Horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that involve categorization and concept learning. They can learn using habituation, desensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning, and positive and negative reinforcement. One study has indicated that horses can differentiate between "more or less" if the quantity involved is less than four.
Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial environments that prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural. Horses are animals of habit that respond well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently. One trainer believes that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that best fits with an individual animal's natural inclinations.
Temperament
Horses are mammals, and as such are warm-blooded, or endothermic creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded, or poikilothermic animals. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not body temperature. For example, the "hot-bloods", such as many race horses, exhibit more sensitivity and energy, while the "cold-bloods", such as most draft breeds, are quieter and calmer. Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses" or "riding horses", with the "cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work horses".
a sepia-toned engraving from an old book, showing 11 horses of different breeds and sizes in nine different illustrations
Illustration of assorted breeds; slim, light hotbloods, medium-sized warmbloods and draft and pony-type coldblood breeds
"Hot blooded" breeds include "oriental horses" such as the Akhal-Teke, Arabian horse, Barb, and now-extinct Turkoman horse, as well as the Thoroughbred, a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds. Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They are bred for agility and speed. They tend to be physically refined—thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged. The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses.
Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold bloods", as they are bred not only for strength, but also to have the calm, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people. They are sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants". Well-known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale. Some, like the Percheron, are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates. Others, such as the Shire, are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils. The cold-blooded group also includes some pony breeds.
"Warmblood" breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian, developed when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed. Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders. Warmbloods are considered a "light horse" or "riding horse".
Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping. Strictly speaking, the term "warm blood" refers to any cross between cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds. Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay. The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the Morgan horse.
Sleep patterns
When horses lie down to sleep, others in the herd remain standing, awake, or in a light doze, keeping watch.
Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by using a "stay apparatus" in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing. Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for danger.
Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time, but take many short periods of rest. Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may range from several minutes to a couple of hours, mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each. The average sleep time of a domestic horse is said to be 2.9 hours per day.
Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements. However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing. This condition differs from narcolepsy, although horses may also suffer from that disorder.
Taxonomy and evolution
The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals, especially ruminants, could not. Horses and other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla, a group of mammals dominant during the Tertiary period. In the past, this order contained 14 families, but only three—Equidae (the horse and related species), Tapiridae (the tapir), and Rhinocerotidae (the rhinoceroses)—have survived to the present day.
The earliest known member of the family Equidae was the Hyracotherium, which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during the Eocene period. It had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot. The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the Mesohippus, which lived 32 to 37 million years ago. Over time, the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg below the knee, known informally as splint bones. Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed. By about 5 million years ago, the modern Equus had evolved. Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America.
By about 15,000 years ago, Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species. Horse bones from this time period, the late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North America. Yet between 10,000 and 7,600 years ago, the horse became extinct in North America. The reasons for this extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human arrival. Another theory points to climate change, noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra, which was covered with unpalatable plants.
Wild species surviving into modern times
Three tan-colored horses with upright manes. Two horses nip and paw at each other, while the third moves towards the camera. They stand in an open, rocky grassland, with forests in the distance.
Main article: Wild horse
A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever successfully domesticated. Therefore, most "wild" horses today are actually feral horses, animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals. Only two wild subspecies, the tarpan and the Przewalski's horse, survived into recorded history and only the latter survives today.
The Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, is a rare Asian animal. It is also known as the Mongolian wild horse; Mongolian people know it as the taki, and the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag. The subspecies was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992, while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world. In 1992, it was reestablished in the wild by the conservation efforts of numerous zoos. Today, a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia. There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world.
The question of whether the Przewalski's horse was ever domesticated was challenged in 2018 when DNA studies of horses found at Botai culture sites revealed captured animals with DNA markers of an ancestor to the Przewalski's horse. The study concluded that the Botai animals appear to have been an independent domestication attempt and apparently unsuccessful, as these genetic markers do not appear in modern domesticated horses. However, the question of whether all Przewalski's horses descend from this population is also unresolved, as only one of seven modern Przewalski's horses in the study shared this ancestry.
The tarpan or European wild horse (Equus ferus ferus) was found in Europe and much of Asia. It survived into the historical era, but became extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo. Thus, the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to recreate the tarpan, which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses.
Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relict populations of wild horses, but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic. For example, the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed as such, but testing did not reveal genetic differences from domesticated horses. Similarly, the Sorraia of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan on the basis of shared characteristics, but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds, and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness.
Other modern equids
Main article: Equus (genus)
Besides the horse, there are six other species of genus Equus in the Equidae family. These are the ass or donkey, Equus asinus; the mountain zebra, Equus zebra; plains zebra, Equus quagga; Grévy's Zebra, Equus grevyi; the kiang, Equus kiang; and the onager, Equus hemionus.
Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a "jack" (male donkey) and a mare. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a "jenny" (female donkey). Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse. With rare exceptions, most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce.
Main articles: History of horse domestication theories and Domestication of the horse
Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BCE. Two major sources of information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated horse spread around the world. The first source is based on palaeological and archaeological discoveries; the second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains.
The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, dating to approximately 4000–3500 BCE. By 3000 BCE, the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BCE there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent. The most recent, but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c. 2100 BCE.
A 2021 genetic study suggested that most modern domestic horses descend from the lower Volga-Don region. Ancient horse genomes indicate that these populations influenced almost all local populations as they expanded rapidly throughout Eurasia, beginning about 4,200 years ago. It also shows that certain adaptations were strongly selected due to riding, and that equestrian material culture, including Sintashta spoke-wheeled chariots spread with the horse itself.
Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present-day horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological excavations. The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions contributed to the domestic horse, while many mares were part of early domesticated herds. This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal, or sire line (Y-chromosome) versus that passed on along the maternal, or dam line (mitochondrial DNA). There are very low levels of Y-chromosome variability, but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA. There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic herds. Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation. In horses, this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BCE.
Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse, various hypotheses were proposed. One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication. Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication. However, the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses.
Main article: Feral horse
Feral horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from domesticated animals. Many populations of feral horses exist throughout the world. Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses, as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions.
There are also semi-feral horses in many parts of the world, such as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the UK, where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in "wild" conditions on undeveloped, often public, lands. Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights.
Main articles: Horse breed, List of horse breeds, and Horse breeding
The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry has come to be particularly significant and important in modern times. Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called "thoroughbreds". Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse, while a "purebred" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry. Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color, performance ability, or disposition. These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods. Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication. An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who had a reputation for careful practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines. These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition. In the 14th century, Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the Andalusian horse.
Breeds developed due to a need for "form to function", the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of work. Thus, a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian developed as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage. Heavy draft horses were developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons. Other horse breeds had been developed specifically for light agricultural work, carriage and road work, various sport disciplines, or simply as pets. Some breeds developed through centuries of crossing other breeds, while others descended from a single foundation sire, or other limited or restricted foundation bloodstock. One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation bloodstock for the breed. There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today.
Interaction with humans
Worldwide, horses play a role within human cultures and have done so for millennia. Horses are used for leisure activities, sports, and working purposes. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that in 2008, there were almost 59,000,000 horses in the world, with around 33,500,000 in the Americas, 13,800,000 in Asia and 6,300,000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and Oceania. There are estimated to be 9,500,000 horses in the United States alone. The American Horse Council estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United States of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is considered, the impact is over $102 billion. In a 2004 "poll" conducted by Animal Planet, more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries voted for the horse as the world's 4th favorite animal.
Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity; to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control. Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle, and occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear. Many horses are also driven, which requires a harness, bridle, and some type of vehicle.
Main articles: Equestrianism, Horse racing, Horse training, and Horse tack
Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle. Many sports, such as dressage, eventing, and show jumping, have origins in military training, which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider. Other sports, such as rodeo, developed from practical skills such as those needed on working ranches and stations. Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting techniques. Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. All forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat.
Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions. Examples include show jumping, dressage, three-day eventing, competitive driving, endurance riding, gymkhana, rodeos, and fox hunting. Horse shows, which have their origins in medieval European fairs, are held around the world. They host a huge range of classes, covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines, as well as "In-hand" classes where the horses are led, rather than ridden, to be evaluated on their conformation. The method of judging varies with the discipline, but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider. Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game. Although the horse requires specialized training to participate, the details of its performance are not judged, only the result of the rider's actions—be it getting a ball through a goal or some other task. Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse include jousting, in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other, and buzkashi, a team game played throughout Central Asia, the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.
Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry, watched in almost every nation of the world. There are three types: "flat" racing; steeplechasing, i.e. racing over jumps; and harness racing, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a sulky. A major part of horse racing's economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it.
Work
There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has yet developed to fully replace them. For example, mounted police horses are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control. Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain. Search and rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster relief assistance. Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil, such as nature reserves. They may also be the only form of transport allowed in wilderness areas. Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles. Law enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective.
Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone. Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as horses. Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging.
Main article: Horses in warfare
Horses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history. The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000 and 3000 BCE, and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age. Although mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur.
Entertainment and culture
Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes. Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica, in various live action historical reenactments of specific periods of history, especially recreations of famous battles. Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes. Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events. Public exhibitions are another example, such as the Budweiser Clydesdales, seen in parades and other public settings, a team of draft horses that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck.
Horses are frequently used in television, films and literature. They are sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular animals, but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical stories. Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of products. The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry, in a variety of poses and equipment. The mythologies of many cultures, including Greco-Roman, Hindu, Islamic, and Germanic, include references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional limbs, and multiple myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the Moon and Sun. The horse also appears in the 12-year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar.
Horses serve as the inspiration for many modern automobile names and logos, including the Ford Pinto, Ford Bronco, Ford Mustang, Hyundai Equus, Hyundai Pony, Mitsubishi Starion, Subaru Brumby, Mitsubishi Colt/Dodge Colt, Pinzgauer, Steyr-Puch Haflinger, Pegaso, Porsche, Rolls-Royce Camargue, Ferrari, Carlsson, Kamaz, Corre La Licorne, Iran Khodro, Eicher, and Baojun. Indian TVS Motor Company also uses a horse on their motorcycles & scooters.
Therapeutic use
People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from an association with horses. Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased self-confidence, and a greater feeling of freedom and independence. The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para-equestrian events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI). Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment strategies that use equine movement. In hippotherapy, a therapist uses the horse's movement to improve their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance, and fine motor skills, whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.
Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" therapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral difficulties, and those who are going through major life changes. There are also experimental programs using horses in prison settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave.
Products
Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses.
Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as the Mongols, who let it ferment to produce kumis. Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own horses' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat. The drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares (pregnant mares' urine), and was previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy. The tail hair of horses can be used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.
Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages. Approximately 5 million horses are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide. It is eaten in many parts of the world, though consumption is taboo in some cultures, and a subject of political controversy in others. Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, jackets, baseballs, and baseball gloves. Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue. Horse bones can be used to make implements. Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto, which is used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures. In Asia, the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis.
Main article: Horse care
Checking teeth and other physical examinations are an important part of horse care.
Horses are grazing animals, and their major source of nutrients is good-quality forage from hay or pasture. They can consume approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day. Therefore, a 450-kilogram (990 lb) adult horse could eat up to 11 kilograms (24 lb) of food. Sometimes, concentrated feed such as grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay, especially when the animal is very active. When grain is fed, equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should still be forage.
Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of 38 to 45 litres (10 to 12 US gal) per day. Although horses are adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and precipitation, which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable.
Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier, as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases, and dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist. If horses are kept inside in a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being. When turned outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy fences to be safely contained. Regular grooming is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin.
Climate change
As of 2019, there are around 17 million horses in the world. Healthy body temperature for adult horses is in the range between 37.5 and 38.5 °C (99.5 and 101.3 °F), which they can maintain while ambient temperatures are between 5 and 25 °C (41 and 77 °F). However, strenuous exercise increases core body temperature by 1 °C (1.8 °F)/minute, as 80% of the energy used by equine muscles is released as heat. Along with bovines and primates, equines are the only animal group which use sweating as their primary method of thermoregulation: in fact, it can account for up to 70% of their heat loss, and horses sweat three times more than humans while undergoing comparably strenuous physical activity. Unlike humans, this sweat is created not by eccrine glands but by apocrine glands. In hot conditions, horses during three hours of moderate-intersity exercise can loss 30 to 35 L of water and 100g of sodium, 198 g of choloride and 45 g of potassium. In another difference from humans, their sweat is hypertonic, and contains a protein called latherin, which enables it to spread across their body easier, and to foam, rather than to drip off. These adaptations are partly to compensate for their lower body surface-to-mass ratio, which makes it more difficult for horses to passively radiate heat. Yet, prolonged exposure to very hot and/or humid conditions will lead to consequences such as anhidrosis, heat stroke, or brain damage, potentially culminating in death if not addressed with measures like cold water applications. Additionally, around 10% of incidents associated with horse transport have been attributed to heat stress. These issues are expected to worsen in the future.
African horse sickness (AHS) is a viral illness with a mortality close to 90% in horses, and 50% in mules. A midge, Culicoides imicola, is the primary vector of AHS, and its spread is expected to benefit from climate change. The spillover of Hendra virus from its flying fox hosts to horses is also likely to increase, as future warming would expand the hosts' geographic range. It has been estimated that under the "moderate" and high climate change scenarios, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, the number of threatened horses would increase by 110,000 and 165,000, respectively, or by 175 and 260%
GOVERNOR TOMBLIN PRESENTS $9.3 MILLION IN GRANTS
TO LOCAL GROUPS, COMMUNITY JUSTICE PROGRAMS
CHARLESTON, W.Va. (September 9, 2016) – Gov. Earl Ray Tomblin today presented more than $9.3 million in grant funding to community support groups and justice programs across the state. This funding will be used to develop new programming and enhance existing initiatives to support West Virginia’s communities and state justice system.
“With this needed funding, community programs from all corners of our state will be better equipped to serve children and families and further strengthen West Virginia’s justice system.” Gov. Tomblin said. “We are expanding direct services to victims of crime, putting programs in place to help at-risk youth get back on track and preparing parents with the life skills they need to foster a healthy, nurturing environment to raise their families.”
The total grant funding was allocated as follows:
$7,023,255 in Victims of Crime Act/Victim Assistance Grants - 75 grantees;
$529, 254 in Justice Reinvestment Treatment Supervision Grants - 4 grantees;
$1,203,175 in Justice Assistance Grants - 34 grantees;
$543,222 in Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Grants - 18 grantees.
Victims of Crime Act/Victim Assistance Grants:
BARBOUR
Barbour County Commission $38,936.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Assistance Coordinator in the Barbour County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Barbour County.
BERKELEY, JEFFERSON, MORGAN
Children's Home Society of West Virginia $35,576.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Jefferson, Berkeley, and Morgan Counties.
BROOKE, HANCOCK
A Child's Place CASA, Ltd. $25,090.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a part-time CASA Volunteer Coordinator and Program Director to provide direct services to victims of child abuse and neglect in Brooke and Hancock Counties.
CABELL
Cabell County Commission $129,895.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of three full-time Victim Advocates and two part-time Victim Advocates in the Cabell County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Cabell County.
CABELL, WAYNE, KANAWHA, PUTNAM
TEAM for West Virginia Children, Inc. $192,075.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time CASA Coordinator for Cabell County, a
Cabell/Wayne CASA Volunteer Coordinator, a Kanawha/Boone/Lincoln Volunteer Coordinator and a
Putnam/Cabell Volunteer Coordinator to provide direct services to child abuse and neglect victims in Cabell, Wayne, Putnam and Kanawha Counties.
CABELL, WAYNE, LINCOLN
Family Service a Division of Goodwill, Inc. $61,748.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of three part-time Victim Therapists to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child abuse in Cabell, Lincoln, and Wayne Counties.
CABELL, WAYNE, LINCOLN
CONTACT Huntington Inc. $143,338.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Wayne & Lincoln County Advocate, Campus Victim Advocate, and Community Victim Advocate, and for a part-time Victim Advocate to provide direct services to victims of sexual assault in Cabell, Wayne, and Lincoln.
CABELL, WAYNE, PUTNAM, LINCOLN, MASON
Branches Domestic Violence Shelter, Inc. $292,641.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time Social Worker, a Mason County Advocate, a
Putnam County Advocate, a Lincoln County Advocate, Wayne County Advocate, Evening Advocate, Case Manager, and part-time Putnam County Advocate to provide direct services to domestic violence victims in Cabell, Lincoln, Putnam, Wayne, and Mason Counties.
GREENBRIER
Greenbrier County Commission $54,685.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Services Coordinator in the Greenbrier County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Greenbrier County.
GREENBRIER, MONROE, POCAHONTAS
Child and Youth Advocacy Center $88,469.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate and full-time Forensic Interviewer, and a portion of the salaries of a full-time Therapist and Program Director to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Greenbrier, Pocahontas, and Monroe Counties.
GREENBRIER, MONROE, POCAHONTAS
Family Refuge Center $168,120.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of the full-time Lead Shelter Advocate, a Daytime Shelter
Advocate, Overnight Shelter Advocate, Monroe County Advocate, Pocahontas County Advocate, and part-time Weekend Shelter Advocate, and Victim Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence and sexual assault in Greenbrier, Monroe, and Pocahontas Counties.
GREENBRIER, POCAHONTAS
CASA of the Eleventh Judicial Circuit, Inc. $42,424.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the part-time salary of a Volunteer Coordinator and full-time Program Director to provide direct services to victims of child abuse in Greenbrier and Pocahontas Counties.
HANCOCK, BROOKE
CHANGE, Inc. $54,285.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate and part-time Victim Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence in Brooke and Hancock Counties.
HANCOCK, BROOKE, OHIO
Hancock County Commission $125,979.00
These funds will provide for the full-time salaries of a Hancock County Advocate, a Brooke County Advocate, and a portion of the salary of a full-time Ohio County Advocate to provide direct services to crime victims in Brooke, Hancock, and Ohio Counties.
HARRISON
Harrison County CASA Program, Inc. $42,907.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time Volunteer Coordinator and the Program Director to provide direct services to victims of child abuse and neglect in Harrison County.
HARRISON, DODDRIDGE
Harrison County Child Advocacy Center $40,991.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Harrison County.
JACKSON
Jackson County Commission $35,000.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Jackson County Sheriff's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Jackson County.
JACKSON, ROANE, CALHOUN
CASA of the Fifth Judicial Circuit, Inc. $46,101.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of the Program Director and two Volunteer Coordinators to provide direct services to child abuse and neglect victims in Jackson, Roane, and Calhoun Counties.
JEFFERSON
Jefferson County Commission $67,104.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of two full-time Victim Advocates in the Jefferson County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Jefferson County.
JEFFERSON, BERKELEY, MORGAN
Shenandoah Women's Center, Inc. $355,035.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Jefferson County Outreach Advocate, and two Shelter
Advocates, and a portion of the salaries for a full-time Morgan County Outreach Advocate, a Jefferson County Outreach Advocate, two Berkeley County Outreach Advocates, Evening and Weekend Shelter Advocate positions, and two part-time Counselors to provide direct services to child victims, victims of domestic violence, and sexual assault in Berkeley, Jefferson, and Morgan Counties.
CASA of the Eastern Panhandle, Inc. $103,218.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a Senior Volunteer Coordinator, two Volunteer Coordinators, and a part-time Volunteer Coordinator to provide direct services to victims of child abuse and neglect in Berkeley, Jefferson, and Morgan Counties.
KANAWHA
City of Charleston $36,600.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Services Coordinator in the Charleston Police Department to provide direct services to crime victims in the City of Charleston.
CAMC Health Education & Research Institute $105,966.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate and a portion of the salary of a full-time Social Worker/Forensic Interviewer to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Kanawha County.
Kanawha County Commission $67,360.00
These funds will provide for the salary of two full-time Victim Advocates and portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Kanawha County.
Kanawha County Commission $83,353.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of two full-time Victim Advocates in the Kanawha County Sheriff's Department to provide direct services to crime victims in Kanawha County.
KANAWHA, CLAY, BOONE
YWCA of Charleston, WV, Inc. $184,189.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Racial Justice/Court Advocate, a Boone County
Coordinator, a part-time Clay County Coordinator and a portion of the salaries for three full-time Court Advocate positions, Youth Services Coordinator, and a Contracted Counselor to provide direct services to domestic violence victims in Kanawha, Clay, and Boone Counties.
KANAWHA, PUTNAM, JACKSON, BOONE
Family Counseling Connection $208,311.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time REACH Director, three REACH Sexual Violence Victim Specialist, a Victim Support Specialist, and seven Victim Therapist positions and a portion of two Sexual Violence Victim Specialists to provide direct services to victims of sexual violence, child abuse, and domestic violence in Kanawha, Boone, Jackson, and Putnam Counties.
LEWIS
Lewis County Commission $38,942.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Lewis County Prosecutor's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Lewis County.
LOGAN
Logan County Commission $48,498.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time and a part-time Victim Advocate in the Logan County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Logan County.
Logan County Commission $36,500.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Services Coordinator in the Logan County Sheriff's Department to provide direct services to crime victims in Logan County.
LOGAN, MINGO
The Logan County Child Advocacy Center, Inc. $46,748.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a part-time Mingo County Advocate and Child & Youth Forensic Interviewer and for a portion of the salary for a full-time Logan County Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Logan and Mingo Counties.
MARION
CASA of Marion County $46,069.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of the salaries for a Program Director and Volunteer Coordinator to provide direct services to victims of child abuse and neglect in Marion County.
Marion County Commission $45,278.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Assistance Coordinator in the Marion County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Marion County.
MARION, DODDRIDGE, GILMER, HARRISON, LEWIS
Task Force on Domestic Violence, "HOPE, Inc." $338,084.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time Family Therapist, Marion County Case
Manager, Children's Case Manager, Lewis County Case Manager, Harrison County Case Manager, Harrison
County Case Manager/Outreach Coordinator, Gilmer County Case Manager, Marion County Victim Advocate, Harrison County Victim Advocate, Doddridge County Case Manager, and Family Therapist and a portion of the salary for a part-time Marion County Case Manager to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child victims in Doddridge, Gilmer, Harrison, Lewis, and Marion Counties.
MARSHALL, WETZEL, TYLER, OHIO
CASA for Children Inc. $58,805.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of the Program Director, a Ohio County Volunteer Coordinator, and a Volunteer Coordinator in the 2nd Circuit to provide direct services to child abuse and neglect victims in Ohio, Marshall, Tyler, and Wetzel Counties.
MASON
Mason County Commission $29,830.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Mason County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Mason County.
MCDOWELL
Stop the Hurt, Inc., Children's Advocacy Center $34,436.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in McDowell County.
MCDOWELL, MERCER, WYOMING
Stop Abusive Family Environments, Inc. $257,416.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time McDowell County Advocate, a part-time
Wyoming County Victim Advocate, Resident Program Coordinator, Advocate Coordinator, Night Shelter Advocate, Evening Shelter Advocate, Weekend Shelter Advocate, Case Worker, Administrator, and for the salaries of two full-time Mercer County Advocates and Wyoming County Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child victims in McDowell, Mercer, and Wyoming Counties.
MERCER
Child Protect of Mercer County, Inc. $70,220.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate, part-time Forensic Interviewer and a portion of a Contract Therapist to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Mercer County.
MERCER, MCDOWELL
ChildLaw Services, Inc. $16,000.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a part-time Victim Advocate/Counselor to provide direct services to child victims of abuse and neglect and children who witness domestic violence in Mercer and McDowell Counties.
MINERAL
Mineral County Court Appointed Special Advocates $49,686.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of the Program Director and for the salary of a full-time Volunteer Coordinator to provide direct services to victims of child abuse and neglect in Mineral County.
MINERAL, GRANT, HAMPSHIRE
Family Crisis Center, Inc. $55,000.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time Grant County Victim Advocate, a Mineral County Advocate, and a part-time Hampshire County Victim Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence in Mineral, Grant, and Hampshire Counties.
MINERAL, HAMPSHIRE, PENDLETON
Burlington United Methodist Family Services, Inc. $20,982.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Forensic Interviewer to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Hampshire, Mineral, and Pendleton Counties.
MINGO
Mingo County Commission $22,100.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Assistance Coordinator in the Mingo County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Mingo County.
MINGO, LOGAN
Tug Valley Recovery Shelter $89,434.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Logan/Mingo County Victim Advocate, a part-time Court Advocate, a full-time Logan County Advocate and a part-time Mingo County Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child victims in Mingo and Logan Counties.
MONONGALIA
Monongalia County Commission $78,544.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time and two part-time Victim Assistance Coordinators in the Monongalia County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Monongalia County.
Monongalia County Child Advocacy Center, Inc. $17,302.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Monongalia County.
MONONGALIA, PRESTON
Monongalia County Youth Services Center / CASA for Kids $42,649.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time Preston County Volunteer Coordinator, a full-time Monongalia County Volunteer Coordinator, and a portion of the salary for the Program Director to provide direct services to victims of child abuse and neglect in Preston and Monongalia Counties.
MONONGALIA, PRESTON, TAYLOR
The Rape & Domestic Violence Information Center, Inc. $177,082.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Monongalia County Victim Advocate, Case Manager,
Taylor County Victim Advocate and for a portion of the salary for a full-time Outreach Advocate for Monongalia, Preston, and Taylor Counties to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child abuse in Monongalia, Preston, and Taylor Counties.
OHIO
Ohio County Commission $35,242.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Assistance Coordinator in the Ohio County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Ohio County.
OHIO, BROOKE, HANCOCK, MARSHALL, WETZEL
Upper Ohio Valley Sexual Assault Help Center $161,670.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Adult Victim Advocate and a Child Victim Advocate, and the part-time salaries of three Victim Advocates and a licensed Counselor/Therapist to provide direct services to adult and child victims of sexual assault in Hancock, Brooke, Ohio, Marshall, and Wetzel Counties.
OHIO, MARSHALL
Harmony House, Inc. $46,323.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Child and Family Advocate and a portion of the salary of a Child and Family Therapist to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Ohio and Marshall Counties.
OHIO, MARSHALL, WETZEL
Young Womens Christian Associaton of Wheeling, WV $153,405.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Child Advocate, Ohio County Advocate, Marshall County Advocate, and Wetzel County Advocate, a part-time Employment Advocate, and a portion of the salaries of a
full-time Shelter Advocate and Wetzel County Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child victims in Ohio, Marshall, and Wetzel Counties.
PRESTON
Preston County Commission $35,125.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Preston County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Preston County.
PUTNAM
Putnam County Commission $34,000.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Putnam County Sheriff's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Putnam County.
Putnam County Commission $48,784.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary for a full-time Victim Liaison and provide for the salary of a part-time Victim Liaison in the Putnam County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Putnam County.
RALEIGH, FAYETTE, NICHOLAS, SUMMERS
Comprehensive Women's Service Council, Inc. $432,866.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Summers County Advocate, Nicholas County Advocate, Raleigh County Advocate in the Beckley Police Department, and Raleigh County Shelter Advocate and for a
portion of the salaries for a full-time Evening Shelter Advocate, Weekend Shelter Advocate, Night Shelter
Advocate, Day Shelter Advocate, and for a portion of the salaries of a part-time Underserved Populations
Advocate, Raleigh County Victim Services Advocate, Fayette County Advocate, Nicholas County Advocate, and
Weekend Shelter Advocate, and for a portion of two Contractual Adult and Child Therapist to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child abuse in Raleigh, Fayette, Nicholas, and Summers Counties.
RALEIGH, FAYETTE, WYOMING
Just For Kids Child Advocacy Center $76,250.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Family Advocate, Forensic Interviewer, and Counselor to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Fayette, Raleigh, and Wyoming Counties.
RANDOLPH
Randolph County Commission $40,436.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Services Coordinator in the Randolph County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide services to crime victims in Randolph County.
RANDOLPH, TUCKER
Randolph-Tucker Children's Advocacy Center $65,222.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of a full-time Family Advocate and part-time Forensic Interviewer and for the salary of a part-time Tucker County Child and Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Randolph and Tucker Counties.
RANDOLPH, UPSHUR, TUCKER, BRAXTON, WEBSTER, BARBOUR
Women's Aid in Crisis $396,775.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries for a full-time Barbour County Outreach Coordinator,
Braxton County Outreach Coordinator, Tucker County Outreach Coordinator, Upshur County Outreach
Coordinator, Webster County Outreach Coordinator, Randolph County Legal Advocate, Randolph County Victim Advocate, and two Shelter Managers and a Contracted Counselor to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence, child victims, and sexual assault victims in Randolph, Barbour, Tucker, Upshur, Webster, and Braxton Counties.
ROANE
Roane County Commission $22,068.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Roane County Prosecuting Attorney's office to provide direct services to crime victims in Roane County.
SUMMERS
REACHH-Family Resource Center $15,715.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a part-time Family Advocate and Forensic Interviewer to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Summers County.
TYLER
Tyler County Commission $37,920.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Tyler County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Tyler County.
UPSHUR
Upshur County Commission $34,662.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Upshur County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Upshur County.
UPSHUR, LEWIS
Mountain CAP of West Virginia, Inc., a CAC $32,574.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Family Advocate to provide direct services to child abuse victims and adult survivors of child sexual abuse in Upshur and Lewis Counties.
WETZEL
Wetzel County Commission $40,000.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Wetzel County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Wetzel County.
WOOD
Wood County Commission $83,126.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of two full-time Victim Advocates in the Wood County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Wood County.
WOOD, CALHOUN, JACKSON, LOGAN, WIRT
Harmony Mental Health, Inc. $138,450.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of a full-time Social Worker and Counselor, and Contractual Counseling to provide services to victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and child abuse in Calhoun, Jackson, Wirt, and Wood Counties.
WOOD, JACKSON, RITCHIE, PLEASANTS, WIRT
Family Crisis Intervention Center $224,087.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salaries of three part-time Shelter Advocates, three full-tim Shelter
Advocates, Legal Advocate, Sexual Assault Advocate, Ritchie County Advocate, Wirt County Advocate, Pleasants County Advocate, and part-time Jackson County Advocate to provide direct services to victims of domestic violence in Jackson, Ritchie, Wirt, Pleasants, and Wood Counties.
WOOD, WIRT, PLEASANTS, RITCHIE
Voices for Children Foundation - CASA Program $51,939.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the Program Director’s salary to provide direct services to child abuse and neglect victims in Wood, Wirt, Pleasants, and Ritchie Counties.
WYOMING
Wyoming County Commission $30,114.00
These funds will provide for the salary of a full-time Victim Advocate in the Wyoming County Prosecuting Attorney's Office to provide direct services to crime victims in Wyoming County.
STATEWIDE
West Virginia Division of Corrections $81,158.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a Victim Services Specialist to provide direct services to the crime victims of inmates under the custody of the Division of Corrections.
Legal Aid of West Virginia, Inc. $216,890.00
These funds will provide for the salaries of three full-time Attorneys to provide emergency legal services to victims of crime in West Virginia.
Mothers Against Drunk Driving West Virginia $39,453.00
These funds will provide for a portion of the salary of a full-time statewide Victim Advocate to provide direct services and support to victims of Driving Under the Influence cases throughout the State of West Virginia.
Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Grants:
BARBOUR
Barbour County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in Philip Barbour High School.
CABELL
City of Barboursville $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in Barboursville Middle School.
DODDRIDGE
Doddridge County Commission $40,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) positions in Doddridge County High and Dordddridge County Middle Schools.
HARDY
Hardy County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in East Hardy High School.
HARRISON
Harrison County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in South Harrison High School.
KANAWHA
HOPE Community Development Corporation $60,000.00
These funds will be utilized to implement the Disproportionate Minority Reduction Cycle in Kanawha County.
Kanawha County Commission $25,000.00
These funds will be utilzed to support the Project INTER-CEPT Program (Interventions Needed To End Recidivism-Critical Entry Point Treatment) in Kanawha County.
Partnership of African American Churches $60,000.00
These funds will be utilized to decrease Disproportionate MinortyContact in Kanawha County by expanding current initiatives between law enforcement, clergy, youth and families, including public defenders and prosecuting attorneys.
LOGAN
Logan County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in Man High School.
MONONGALIA
Monongalia County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the VOICES II, a deliquency prevention program that focuses on at-risk and delinquent female teens.
Monongalia County Child Advocacy Center $18,612.00
These funds will be utilized to provide Trauma Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy to child vicitims of abuse in Monongalia County.
Monongalia County Commission $60,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support a countywide Disproportionate Minorty Contact Reduction Initiative by utlizing an evidence-based intervention model to prevent at-risk minority youth’s involvement in the criminal justice system.
Morgantown Police Department $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in Mountaineer Middle School.
Mountaineer Boys and Girls Club $45,000.00
These funds will be utilized to implement the Disproportionate Minorty Reduction Cycle in Monongalia County.
MORGAN
Morgan County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support a school and community based program that provides a school-based violence prevention curriculum and a developmental asset program to cultivate youth strengths and self-esteem.
Morgan County Commission $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the position of a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) in Berkeley Springs High School.
STATEWIDE
West Virginia Child Advocacy Network $23,592.00
These funds will be utilized to assess and improve the data tracking and evaluation on both a statewide and local program level, and assist local Child Advocacy centers with data-informed strategic planning, interrupting the cycle of abuse and preventing adverse lifetime outcomes.
West Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals $31,018.00
These funds will be utilized to provide current juvenile justice probation data to the State of West Virginia, the Federal Government, West Virginia Division of Justice and Community Services, the State Advisory Group and the citizens of West Virginia through the maintenance and daily management of the Juvenile Section of the Offender Case Management System. Funding will also provide analysis and a statewide report on the Juvenile Justice system as well as the collection of juvenile data and analysis to provide the numbers to create the DMC ratio.
Justice Assistance Grants:
BRAXTON
Braxton County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Braxton County High School.
CABELL
Cabell County Commission $69,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
GREENBRIER
Greenbrier County Commission $23,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
HAMPSHIRE
Hampshire County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Hampshire County High School.
HANCOCK
Hancock County Commission $40,000.00
Funds will provide for two Prevention Resource Officers (PRO) at Oak Glen High School and Weir High School.
Hancock County Commission $46,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
HARRISON
City of Bridgeport $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Bridgeport High School.
City of Bridgeport $46,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
City of Clarksburg $20,000.00
Funds will provide for one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Robert C. Byrd High School.
JACKSON
City of Ripley $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Ripley High School.
City of Ravenswood $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Ravenswood High School.
KANAWHA
City of South Charleston $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at South Charleston High School.
City of Charleston $69,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
City of Dunbar $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Dunbar Middle School.
City of Charleston $40,000.00
Funds will provide for two Prevention Resource Officers (PRO) at Capitol High School and Stonewall Jackson Middle School.
LEWIS
Lewis County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Lewis County High School.
LOGAN
Logan County Commission $46,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force and salary for one Prosecutor to work closely with the Drug Task Force.
MARSHALL
Marshall County Commission $23,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
MERCER
City of Bluefield $46,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
MINERAL
Mineral County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Frankfort High School.
MONROE
Monroe County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at James Monroe High School.
OHIO
Ohio County Commission $46,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
City of Wheeling $40,000.00
Funds will provide for two Prevention Resource Officers (PRO) at Bridge Street Middle School and Triadelphia Middle School.
PUTNAM
Putnam County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Poca High School.
City of Winfield $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Winfield High School.
City of Nitro $20,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support a Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Nitro High School.
RALEIGH
City of Beckley Police Department $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Woodrow Wilson High School.
ROANE
Roane County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Roane County High School.
TAYLOR
City of Grafton $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Grafton High School.
UPSHUR
Upshur County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Buckhannon-Upshur Middle School.
WETZEL
Wetzel County Commission $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Valley High School.
WOOD
City of Vienna $46,000.00
Funds will provide for officer salaries for a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
City of Williamstown $20,000.00
Funds will provide one Prevention Resource Officer (PRO) at Williamstown High School.
STATEWIDE
West Virginia State Police $223,175.00
Funds will provide for officer overtime to continue a multi-jurisdictional drug and violent crime task force.
Justice Reinvestment Treatment Supervision Grants:
BERKELEY, JEFFERSON, MORGAN
Jefferson Day Report Center, Inc. $140,998.00
These funds will be utilized to support the ongoing work through the Justice Reinvestment Treatment Supervision Program.
CABELL
Prestera Center for Mental HealthServices, Inc. $134,514.00
These funds will be utilized to support the ongoing work through the Justice Reinvestment Treatment Supervision Program.
HARRISON
Harrison County Commission $125,000.00
These funds will be utilized to support the ongoing work through the Justice Reinvestment Treatment Supervision Program.
United Summit Center, Inc. $118,753.00
These funds will be utilized to support the ongoing work through the JusticGOVERNOR TOMBLIN PRESENTS $9.3 MILLION IN GRANTS
TO LOCAL GROUPS, COMMUNITY JUSTICE PROGRAMS
CHARLESTON, W.Va. (September 9, 2016) – Gov. Earl Ray Tomblin today presented more than $9.3 million in grant funding to community support groups and justice programs across the state. This funding will be used to develop new programming and enhance existing initiatives to support West Virginia’s communities and state justice system.
“With this needed funding, community programs from all corners of our state will be better equipped to serve children and families and further strengthen West Virginia’s justice system.” Gov. Tomblin said. “We are expanding direct services to victims of crime, putting programs in place to help at-risk youth get back on track and preparing parents with the life skills they need to foster a healthy, nurturing environment to raise their families.”
The total grant funding was allocated as follows:
$7,023,255 in Victims of Crime Act/Victim Assistance Grants - 75 grantees;
$529, 254 in Justice Reinvestment Treatment Supervision Grants - 4 grantees;
$1,203,175 in Justice Assistance Grants - 34 grantees;
$543,222 in Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Grants - 18 grantees.
Photos available for media use. All photos should be attributed “Photo courtesy of Office of the Governor.”
C'était mon amie ....
Parce qu'elle a vécu l'horreur
Parce qu'il faut changer les choses ...
Merci de diffuser en masse ...
The North Charleston Police Department implemented Project S.T.A.N.D (Stop and Take A New Direction) aimed at not just arresting low level narcotics dealers with little or no prior criminal history but to go a step further and help those involved in the activity change their lives for the better. This is program aimed at reducing recidivism through working on all aspects of the criminals’ lives.
This project was the focus of a Dateline NBC special entitled “Intersection” which aired on March 14, 2013.
Photo by Ryan Johnson
Revenir : appartenir, convenir, échoir, faire demi-tour, guérir, incomber, plaire, rallier, rappliquer, réapparaître, rebrousser chemin, récidiver, recommencer, reconduire, reconsidérer, reculer, récupérer, réexaminer, refluer, regagner, réintégrer, rejoindre, relever, renaître, rentrer, reparaître, reparler, reprendre, ressortir, ressurgir, retourner, retrouver, s'en sortir, s'en tirer, satisfaire, sauter, se monter, se ramener, se réconcilier, se remettre, se reporter, se rétablir, se retourner, se réveiller, sortir, tourner bride, valoir.
Les Sables d'Olonne (France)
BROWNSVILLE, Texas - 135 Mexican nationals were expelled under Title 42 in Brownsville, Texas on Friday May 22nd. Through an agreement between DHS and the Government of Mexico these Mexican nationals are transported to the interior
of Mexico via ICE Air Operations. This will reduce the likelihood of recidivism and contain the threat of COVID-19.
Mécanique surpuissante grâce à une grande liberté de la réglementation, la "Superproduction" fut créée pour être une formule spectaculaire des circuits.
Elle devait être néanmoins dérivée d'un modèle de production régulière. C'est pourquoi Patrick Landon, en charge du projet dès fin 1984, réalisa rapidement une voiture plus proche de la Renault 5 Turbo 2 que de la Maxi 5 Turbo. Dès 1985, une Renault 5 Turbo "Production" remporta un certain succès entre les mains de Jean-Louis Bousquet, qui récidiva l'année suivante en terminant 4ème du championnat avec deux victoires, et permit à Renault de s'adjuger la seconde place au classement constructeurs avec l'aide de Jean Ragnotti. Pour 1987, trois voiture furent préparées (Bousquet, Ragnotti, Comas) et redéfinies pour davantage de stabilité. Cette voiture encore mieux affûtée remporta avec Erik Comas le championnat de Superproduction, les Renault franchissant six fois la ligne d'arrivée en tête.
Modèle exposé :
-Année : 1987
-Moteur : 4 cylindres en ligne 1.419 cm3, 370 ch, turbocompresseur
-Transmission : aux roues arrière, boîte 5 rapports + MA
-Freins : disques ventilés sur les quatre roues
-Dimensions : longueur = 3.66 m - largeur = 1.75 m - poids = 1.020 kg
-Vitesse maxi : de 190 à 274 km/h selon rapport de pont