Maybach has historic roots through the involvement of Wilhelm Maybach, who was the technical director of the Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft (DMG) until he left in 1907. On 23 March 1909 he founded the new company, Luftfahrzeug-Motorenbau GmbH (literally "Aircraft Engine Building Company"), with his son Karl Maybach as director. In 1912 they renamed it to Maybach-Motorenbau GmbH ("Maybach Engine Construction Company"). The company originally developed and manufactured diesel and petrol engines for Zeppelins, and then rail cars. The Maybach Mb.IVa was used in aircraft and airships of World War I.

Captured Maybach T3 Assault Gun (Sturmgeschütz III), made on the basis of medium tank Maybach T3 (Panzer III). National Museum of Military History (Bulgaria)

 

The company first built an experimental car in 1919, with the first production model introduced two years later at the Berlin Motor Show. Between 1921 and 1940, the company produced various classic opulent vehicles. The company also continued to build heavy duty diesel engines for marine and rail purposes. During the second world war, Maybach produced the engines for Nazi Germany's medium and heavy tanks.

 

After WW II the factory performed some repair work, but automotive production was never restarted, and some 20 years later, the company was renamed MTU Friedrichshafen. Daimler-Benz purchased the company in 1960.

 

Pre-war Models

 

1919 Maybach W1: Test car based on a BMW chassis

1921 Maybach W3: First Maybach, shown at Berlin Motor Show. Featured a 70 hp (52 kW) 5.7L inline six.

1926 Maybach W5: 7L inline six, 120 hp (89 kW)

1929 Maybach 12: V12 precursor to DS7/8

1930 Maybach DSH: Doppel-Sechs-Halbe ("half a twelve cylinder") 1930-37

1930 Maybach DS7 Zeppelin: 7L V12, 150 hp (112 kW)

1931 Maybach W6: Same engine as W5, longer wheelbase. 1931-33

1931 Maybach DS8 Zeppelin: 8L V12, 200 hp (150 kW)

1934 Maybach W6 DSG: Featuring a twin overdrive transmission system.

1935 Maybach SW35: 3.5L 140 hp (104 kW) I6

1936 Maybach SW38: 3.8L 140 hp (104 kW) I6

1939 Maybach SW42: 4.2L 140 hp (104 kW) I6

1945 Maybach JW61: 3.8L 145 hp (108 kW) I6

 

(Wikipedia)

 

- - -

 

Der erste Maybach von 1919 war ein Prototyp, der „Wagen“ W 1, aufgebaut auf ein angekauftes Daimler-Chassis. Er trug schon die charakteristische Kühlermaske. W 2 war ein Motor. Der W 3 war 1921 der erste Serienwagen, mit Sechszylinder-Reihenmotor und angeblocktem Planetengetriebe, im Angebot als Typ 22/70 PS. Die erste Zahl bezeichnet die früheren „Steuer-PS“, eine vom Fiskus seit 1909 aus Leistung und Hubraum errechnete Kennzahl; die zweite die Motorenleistung.

 

1926 folgte W 5 als Typ 27/120 PS, der 1928 ein Schnellgang-Getriebe erhielt und daher W 5 SG hieß. 1930 kam, parallel zum „Zeppelin“, der W 6, den es ab 1934 auch mit Doppel-Schnellgang-Getriebe gab und so als W 6 DSG in den Annalen steht. Die Weiterentwicklung von 1934 war ein DSH, ein „Doppel-Sechs-Halbe“, was auf den 130 PS starken 5,2-Liter-Reihensechszylinder hinwies, eine vom „DS“-Zwölfzylinder abgeleitete, einfachere Konstruktion.

 

Die Zeppelin-DS-Modelle, von Karl Maybach 1930 erstmals offeriert und ab 1931 geliefert, gab es als Typen DS 7 und DS 8. Es waren die ersten Modelle von Maybach mit einem V-12-Motor. DS 7 bedeutet Doppel-Sechs-7-Liter. DS 8 bedeutet Doppel-Sechs-8-Liter. Der DS 7 leistete 150 PS. Der DS 8 leistete 200 PS. Er war mit einem 7922 Kubikzentimeter großen Motor ausgerüstet. Die Aufbauten lieferten Spohn und Erdmann & Rossi. Im Vergleich zum 1931 gebauten Bugatti Royale Typ 41 mit einem Preis von 100.300 Reichsmark war die Karosserie vom Zeppelin DS 8 geradezu günstig: 33.200 Reichsmark.

 

Maybach W 1, Versuchswagen, um 1919

Maybach W 3, 5,7 l Hubraum, 70 PS, ab 1921

Maybach W 5, 7 l Hubraum, 120 PS, 1926–1929

Maybach W 6, ab 1929

Maybach SW 35 (SW = Schwingachsenwagen), 3,5 l Hubraum, ab 1935 nur 50 Exemplare gebaut

Maybach SW 38, 3,8 l Hubraum, um 1936–1939

Maybach SW 42, 4,2 l Hubraum, um 1939–1941

Maybach „Zeppelin“ Sport, um 1938

Maybach „Zeppelin“ DS 8 Cabriolet, 1930–1937, sechs- bis siebensitzig

 

(Wikipedia)

 

88010 "Aurora" has regained it's nameplates to compliment it's distinctive livery with the cool end leading 4M27 Mossend to Daventry at Cathiron.

This street (formerly called Nalewki Street but since renamed as "Street of the Ghetto Heroes") once led directly to an entrance into the Warsaw ghetto next to Krasińskich gardens.

 

Operation Arsenal (in Polish: "Akcja Pod Asenałem") - an action by the Szare Szeregi ("Grey Ranks") of the Polish resistance - took place here, next to the old Arsenal building, on 26th March 1943. At approximately 5:30pm a group of 28 former boy scouts attacked a German prison van that was transporting Polish prisoners who had been interrogated that day in the Gestapo Headquarters to the Pawiak prison, and successfully freed their comrade Jan Bytnar and 24 others.

 

The van was attacked as it turned into Nalewki Street from Długa Street on its way to the nearby entrance into the ghetto.

 

During the Warsaw Uprising the Arsenal building and Nalewki Street were defended by the Chrobry I battalion of the Armia Krajowa and there was a barricade across the street near the intersection with Długa Street....

Junagarh Fort (Rajasthani: जुनाग्द क़िला) is a fort in the city of Bikaner, Rajasthan, India. The fort was originally called Chintamani and was renamed Junagarh or "Old Fort" in the early 20th century when the ruling family moved to Lalgarh Palace outside the fort limits. It is one of the few major forts in Rajasthan which is not built on a hilltop. The modern city of Bikaner has developed around the fort.

 

The fort complex was built under the supervision of Karan Chand, the Prime Minister of Raja Rai Singh, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611 AD. Construction of the walls and associated moat commenced in 1589 and was completed in 1594. It was built outside the original fort of the city, about 1.5 kilometres from the city centre. Some remnants of the old fort are preserved near the Lakshmi Narayan temple.

 

Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort, it was not taken, except for a lone one-day occupation by Kamran Mirza. Kamran was the second son of the Mughal Emperor Babur who attacked Bikaner in 1534, which was then ruled by Rao Jait Singh. In the battle, the Mughals were defeated by Rathors. Kamran then returned to Lahore.

 

The 5.28 hectares large fort precinct is studded with palaces, temples and pavilions. These buildings depict a composite culture, manifest in the mix of architectural styles.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Junagarh fort is located in the arid region of the Thar desert of Rajasthan bordered on the northwest by the Aravalli range, a range of mountains in western India. Part of the desert area is in Bikaner city, which is one of the three desert triangle cities; the other two cities are Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The name of the place where Bikaner city with its forts was established was then known as Jungladesh.

 

HISTORY

Before the present Junagarh Fort was built, an old stone fort existed in the city. This fort was built in 1478 by Rao Bika who established the city of Bikaner in 1472. Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur city. He conquered the large arid lands to the northern region of Rajasthan to set up his domain. As the second son of Jodha he had no chance of inheriting his father’s territory of Jodhpur or to the title of Maharaja. He, therefore, reconciled and decided to build his own kingdom at Bikaner at the place then called "Jungladesh". Bikaner, though a partly of the Thar Desert, was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast since it had adequate spring water sources. Bika’s name was thus tagged to the Bikaner city as well as to the then state of Bikaner (“the settlement of Bika”) that he established. The history of Bikaner and the fort within it thus start with Bika. It was only about 100 years later that Bikaner’s fortunes flourished under Raja Rai Singhji, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611. During the Mughal Empire’s rule in the country, he accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high position of an army general in the court of Emperor Akbar and his son Emperor Jahangir. His successful war exploits by way of winning half of Mewar kingdom won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors. He was gifted the jagirs (lands) of Gujarat and Burhanpur. With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Junagarh fort on a plain land, which has an average elevation of 230 m. The formal foundation ceremony for the fort was held on 17 February 1589 and the fort was completed on 17 January 1594. Raja Rai Singhji, was an expert in arts and architecture and the knowledge that he acquired during his several sojourns to several countries are amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built in the Junagarh fort. Thus the fort, a composite structure, became an outstanding example of architecture and a unique centre of art, amidst the Thar desert.

 

Karan Singh who ruled from 1631 to 1639, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh, who ruled from 1669–98, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter (royal dwelling for females). He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Gaj Singh who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace). Following him, Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and he lavishly decorated the audience hall (see picture in info box) with glass and lively paintwork. Dungar Singh who reigned from 1872 to 1887 built the Badal Mahal (the weather palace) named so in view of a painting of falling rain and clouds (a rare event in arid Bikaner). Ganga Singh who ruled from 1887 to 1943 built the Ganga Niwas Palace, which has towers at the entrance patio. This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob.[10] Ganga Singh’s son Sadul Singh succeeded his father in 1943 but acceded to the Union of India in 1949. He died in 1950.

 

Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British Raj under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818, where after the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily on refurbishing their Junagarh fort. However, during the 18th century, before this treaty was signed, there was internecine war between rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other Thakur, which was put down by the British troops. It is reported that during the attack by Jodhpur army, of the two entrances to the fort (one in the east and the other in the west), the eastern entrance and the southern rampart were damaged; marks of cannonballs fired are seen on the southern façade of the fort.

 

Ganga Singh was the best-known king among the Rajasthan princes. A favourite of the British Raj, he earned the title of Knight Commander of the Star of India. He served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, represented the country at the Imperial First World War Conferences and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference and was aware of the shift of fortunes in the World War II but died in 1943, before the war was won by the allies. His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audience in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions. The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee as a ruler of Bikaner is now a museum. He also got a new palace - north of Junagarh fort - designed and built by Swinton, the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner and named it Lalgarh Palace in the name of his father and shifted his residence from Junagarh fort to this palace in 1902. The royal family still lives in a special suite in the Lalbagh palace, which they have converted into a heritage hotel.

 

STRUCTURES

The structures built within the Junagarh fort are the palaces and temples, which are made of red sandstone (Dulmera) and marble. The palaces are described as picturesque with their assortment of courtyards, balconies, kiosks and windows. The fort, the temples and the palaces are preserved as museums and provide insight into the grandiose living style of the past Maharanas of Rajasthan. The fort is called “a paradox between medieval military architecture and beautiful interior decoration”.

 

OVERVIEW

The massive fort built in the plains of Bikaner has a rectangular (quadrangular) layout with a peripheral length of 986 m. The fort walls are 4.4 m wide and 12 m in height. It encompasses an area of 5.28 ha. It was surrounded by a moat which was 6.1–7.6 m deep with a base width of 4.6 m and top width of 9.1 m. However, the moat no longer exists. The fort is well fortified with 37 bastions (‘burj’ in local language) and seven gates (two are main gates) to counter enemy attacks. The fort was built as a “new stronghold” outside of the ruins of an old fort built by Rao Bika and on the periphery of the Bikaner city walls (1.5 kilometres from the city centre); the old fort was demolished a century after it was built.

 

The fort with seven gates contains several palaces, pavilions and many temples of Hindu and Jain religions - the earliest dated to the 16th century. A major feature of the fort is the stone carving done in red and gold coloured sandstones. The interiors of the palaces are decorated and painted in traditional Rajasthani style. The Junagarh palaces have a large number of rooms, as every king built his own separate set of rooms, not wanting to live in his predecessors’ rooms. These structures were considered as “at par with those of Louis’s France or of Imperial Russia”. Several types of architectural style are discerned in the fort complex and hence it is called a true depiction of composite culture. The earliest style is of Rajput architecture, defined by Gujarati and Mughal architectural influence reflecting the association with Mughal rulers, the second type is of semi-western architecture reflecting British influence, and finally the revivalists Rajput architecture that evolved particularly during the rule of Maharaja Ganga Singh. Only the most representative of all these architectural styles are on display for visitors. Thus, the unique monuments on display in the Junagarh Fort represent sixteen successive generations of the rulers of Bikaner, starting from the end of the 16th century.

 

GATES

While the main entry gate was Karan Pol or Parole, facing east, the current gate of entry is called Suraj Pol (meaning the Sun gate), 'pol' also colloquially spelt prol, built in gold coloured or yellow sandstone, unlike the other gates and buildings built in red sandstone. It is the east facing gate permitting the rising Sun’s rays to fall on the gate, which is considered a good omen. The doors of this gate are strengthened with iron spikes and studs to prevent ramming by elephants during an attack. At the entrance to the gate, two red stone statues of elephants with mahouts stand as sentinels. The gate was also the location for announcing the arrival and departure of royalty by musicians playing the trumpet from a gallery in the gate. The other gates are Karan Pol, Daulat Pol, Chand Pol (a double gate) and Fateh Pol; these provided access to various monuments in the fort. The Karan Pol gate is also braced with iron spikes to prevent battering of the gate by elephants. To the right of this gate is Daulat Pol. Forty-one hand imprints are seen on the Daulat Pol gate wall, in red colour, of the wives of the Maharajas of Bikaner, who committed sati (self immolation) on the funeral pyres of their husbands who died in battle.

 

Between the main gate and the palace, there is a quadrangle, and then another gate called the Tripolia gate (triple gateway) before accessing the royal chambers. Next to this gate is a small temple called the Har Mandir, where the Royal family used to offer worship. In the quadrangle, which houses a large pavilion with a water pool built in Carrara Italian marble. The Karan Mahal, where public audience was held in the Diwan-i-Am by Karan Singh (1631–39) and his successors till the 20th century, can also be seen in the same quadrangle.

 

TEMPLES

Har Mandir temple was the royal chapel - private temple of the royal family. The royal family celebrated the Hindu festival of Dussera and Gangaur here, apart from celebrating other family functions such as birthdays and marriages. In the Dussera celebrations, weapons and horses were worshipped here. The main deities worshipped in this temple are the Hindu deities Lakshmi Narayan, a combined representation of god Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi.

 

The Ratan Behari temple located near the Junagarh Fort, was built in 1846 by the 18th ruler of Bikaner. It was built in Indo-Mughal architectural style using white marble. The Hindu god Krishna is deified in this temple.

 

PALACES

Karan mahal (Public Audience Hall) was built by Karan Singh in c.1680 to mark his victory over the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. It is considered as one of the most exquisite palaces built with gardens, which displays the aesthetic sensibilities of the royalty of Rajasthan. It has stained glass windows and intricately carved balconies built in stone and wood fluted columns. Later Rajas, Anup Singh and Surat Singh, also added lot of glitter to this palace with inlaid polychrome glass, intricate mirror patterns, and red and gold paint. In the coronation chamber, there is a shored up alcove, which was used as a throne.

 

Phool Mahal ("Flower Palace") is the oldest part of the palace and was built by king Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner, who ruled between 1571-1668.

 

Anup Mahal is a multi-storey structure, which functioned as the administrative headquarters of the kingdom. It has ornate wooden ceilings with inlaid mirrors, Italian tiles, and fine lattice windows and balconies. It has some gold leaf paintings. It is considered as one of the “grandest construction”.

 

Chandra Mahal has the most luxurious room in the palace, which houses gold plated deities and paintings inlaid with precious stones. In the royal bedroom, mirrors have been strategically placed so that the Maharaja could see from his bed, any intruder entering his room.

 

Ganga Mahal was built in the 20th century by Ganga Singh who reigned for 56 years from 1887 to 1943, has a large durbar hall known as the Ganga Singh Hall that houses the Museum. The museum has exhibits of war weaponry and also a World War I aeroplane (biplane), which is stated to be well maintained.

 

Badal Mahal (The weather palace) is part of the Anup Mahal extensions. It has paintings of Shekhawati Dundlod chiefs paying respects to the Maharaja of Bikaner in different types of turbans. Photos of people standing on nails, wood, swords and saws are also depicted here – a display of faith and endurance. The walls in this palace depict fresco paintings of the Hindu god Krishna and his consort Radha amidst the rain clouds.

 

Bikaneri Havelies located both within and outside the fort in the Bikaner city’s by lanes are also of unique architectural style in home architecture. Aldous Huxley who visited these havelis reportedly said “They are the pride of Bikaner.”

 

FORT MUSEUM

The museum within the fort called the Junagarh Fort Museum was established in 1961 by Maharaja Dr.Karni Singhji under the control of "Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust". The Museum exhibits Sanskrit and Persian manuscripts, miniature paintings, jewels, royal costumes, farmans (royal orders), portrait galleries, costumes, headgear and dresses of gods’ idols, enamelware, silver, palanquins, howdahs and war drums. The museum also displays armoury that consists of one of the assorted collection of post medieval arms.

 

MAHARAJA RAI SINGHJI TRUST

Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust has been set up by the 'Royal family of Bikaner' with the basic objective to showcase the fort with professional inputs in various areas and to improve the experience for visitors. Another objective is to promote education and research scholarships, cultural activities, setting up of libraries and integration with other such trusts.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Junagarh Fort (Rajasthani: जुनाग्द क़िला) is a fort in the city of Bikaner, Rajasthan, India. The fort was originally called Chintamani and was renamed Junagarh or "Old Fort" in the early 20th century when the ruling family moved to Lalgarh Palace outside the fort limits. It is one of the few major forts in Rajasthan which is not built on a hilltop. The modern city of Bikaner has developed around the fort.

 

The fort complex was built under the supervision of Karan Chand, the Prime Minister of Raja Rai Singh, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611 AD. Construction of the walls and associated moat commenced in 1589 and was completed in 1594. It was built outside the original fort of the city, about 1.5 kilometres from the city centre. Some remnants of the old fort are preserved near the Lakshmi Narayan temple.

 

Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort, it was not taken, except for a lone one-day occupation by Kamran Mirza. Kamran was the second son of the Mughal Emperor Babur who attacked Bikaner in 1534, which was then ruled by Rao Jait Singh. In the battle, the Mughals were defeated by Rathors. Kamran then returned to Lahore.

 

The 5.28 hectares large fort precinct is studded with palaces, temples and pavilions. These buildings depict a composite culture, manifest in the mix of architectural styles.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Junagarh fort is located in the arid region of the Thar desert of Rajasthan bordered on the northwest by the Aravalli range, a range of mountains in western India. Part of the desert area is in Bikaner city, which is one of the three desert triangle cities; the other two cities are Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The name of the place where Bikaner city with its forts was established was then known as Jungladesh.

 

HISTORY

Before the present Junagarh Fort was built, an old stone fort existed in the city. This fort was built in 1478 by Rao Bika who established the city of Bikaner in 1472. Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur city. He conquered the large arid lands to the northern region of Rajasthan to set up his domain. As the second son of Jodha he had no chance of inheriting his father’s territory of Jodhpur or to the title of Maharaja. He, therefore, reconciled and decided to build his own kingdom at Bikaner at the place then called "Jungladesh". Bikaner, though a partly of the Thar Desert, was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast since it had adequate spring water sources. Bika’s name was thus tagged to the Bikaner city as well as to the then state of Bikaner (“the settlement of Bika”) that he established. The history of Bikaner and the fort within it thus start with Bika. It was only about 100 years later that Bikaner’s fortunes flourished under Raja Rai Singhji, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611. During the Mughal Empire’s rule in the country, he accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high position of an army general in the court of Emperor Akbar and his son Emperor Jahangir. His successful war exploits by way of winning half of Mewar kingdom won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors. He was gifted the jagirs (lands) of Gujarat and Burhanpur. With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Junagarh fort on a plain land, which has an average elevation of 230 m. The formal foundation ceremony for the fort was held on 17 February 1589 and the fort was completed on 17 January 1594. Raja Rai Singhji, was an expert in arts and architecture and the knowledge that he acquired during his several sojourns to several countries are amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built in the Junagarh fort. Thus the fort, a composite structure, became an outstanding example of architecture and a unique centre of art, amidst the Thar desert.

 

Karan Singh who ruled from 1631 to 1639, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh, who ruled from 1669–98, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter (royal dwelling for females). He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Gaj Singh who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace). Following him, Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and he lavishly decorated the audience hall (see picture in info box) with glass and lively paintwork. Dungar Singh who reigned from 1872 to 1887 built the Badal Mahal (the weather palace) named so in view of a painting of falling rain and clouds (a rare event in arid Bikaner). Ganga Singh who ruled from 1887 to 1943 built the Ganga Niwas Palace, which has towers at the entrance patio. This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob.[10] Ganga Singh’s son Sadul Singh succeeded his father in 1943 but acceded to the Union of India in 1949. He died in 1950.

 

Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British Raj under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818, where after the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily on refurbishing their Junagarh fort. However, during the 18th century, before this treaty was signed, there was internecine war between rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other Thakur, which was put down by the British troops. It is reported that during the attack by Jodhpur army, of the two entrances to the fort (one in the east and the other in the west), the eastern entrance and the southern rampart were damaged; marks of cannonballs fired are seen on the southern façade of the fort.

 

Ganga Singh was the best-known king among the Rajasthan princes. A favourite of the British Raj, he earned the title of Knight Commander of the Star of India. He served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, represented the country at the Imperial First World War Conferences and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference and was aware of the shift of fortunes in the World War II but died in 1943, before the war was won by the allies. His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audience in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions. The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee as a ruler of Bikaner is now a museum. He also got a new palace - north of Junagarh fort - designed and built by Swinton, the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner and named it Lalgarh Palace in the name of his father and shifted his residence from Junagarh fort to this palace in 1902. The royal family still lives in a special suite in the Lalbagh palace, which they have converted into a heritage hotel.

 

STRUCTURES

The structures built within the Junagarh fort are the palaces and temples, which are made of red sandstone (Dulmera) and marble. The palaces are described as picturesque with their assortment of courtyards, balconies, kiosks and windows. The fort, the temples and the palaces are preserved as museums and provide insight into the grandiose living style of the past Maharanas of Rajasthan. The fort is called “a paradox between medieval military architecture and beautiful interior decoration”.

 

OVERVIEW

The massive fort built in the plains of Bikaner has a rectangular (quadrangular) layout with a peripheral length of 986 m. The fort walls are 4.4 m wide and 12 m in height. It encompasses an area of 5.28 ha. It was surrounded by a moat which was 6.1–7.6 m deep with a base width of 4.6 m and top width of 9.1 m. However, the moat no longer exists. The fort is well fortified with 37 bastions (‘burj’ in local language) and seven gates (two are main gates) to counter enemy attacks. The fort was built as a “new stronghold” outside of the ruins of an old fort built by Rao Bika and on the periphery of the Bikaner city walls (1.5 kilometres from the city centre); the old fort was demolished a century after it was built.

 

The fort with seven gates contains several palaces, pavilions and many temples of Hindu and Jain religions - the earliest dated to the 16th century. A major feature of the fort is the stone carving done in red and gold coloured sandstones. The interiors of the palaces are decorated and painted in traditional Rajasthani style. The Junagarh palaces have a large number of rooms, as every king built his own separate set of rooms, not wanting to live in his predecessors’ rooms. These structures were considered as “at par with those of Louis’s France or of Imperial Russia”. Several types of architectural style are discerned in the fort complex and hence it is called a true depiction of composite culture. The earliest style is of Rajput architecture, defined by Gujarati and Mughal architectural influence reflecting the association with Mughal rulers, the second type is of semi-western architecture reflecting British influence, and finally the revivalists Rajput architecture that evolved particularly during the rule of Maharaja Ganga Singh. Only the most representative of all these architectural styles are on display for visitors. Thus, the unique monuments on display in the Junagarh Fort represent sixteen successive generations of the rulers of Bikaner, starting from the end of the 16th century.

 

GATES

While the main entry gate was Karan Pol or Parole, facing east, the current gate of entry is called Suraj Pol (meaning the Sun gate), 'pol' also colloquially spelt prol, built in gold coloured or yellow sandstone, unlike the other gates and buildings built in red sandstone. It is the east facing gate permitting the rising Sun’s rays to fall on the gate, which is considered a good omen. The doors of this gate are strengthened with iron spikes and studs to prevent ramming by elephants during an attack. At the entrance to the gate, two red stone statues of elephants with mahouts stand as sentinels. The gate was also the location for announcing the arrival and departure of royalty by musicians playing the trumpet from a gallery in the gate. The other gates are Karan Pol, Daulat Pol, Chand Pol (a double gate) and Fateh Pol; these provided access to various monuments in the fort. The Karan Pol gate is also braced with iron spikes to prevent battering of the gate by elephants. To the right of this gate is Daulat Pol. Forty-one hand imprints are seen on the Daulat Pol gate wall, in red colour, of the wives of the Maharajas of Bikaner, who committed sati (self immolation) on the funeral pyres of their husbands who died in battle.

 

Between the main gate and the palace, there is a quadrangle, and then another gate called the Tripolia gate (triple gateway) before accessing the royal chambers. Next to this gate is a small temple called the Har Mandir, where the Royal family used to offer worship. In the quadrangle, which houses a large pavilion with a water pool built in Carrara Italian marble. The Karan Mahal, where public audience was held in the Diwan-i-Am by Karan Singh (1631–39) and his successors till the 20th century, can also be seen in the same quadrangle.

 

TEMPLES

Har Mandir temple was the royal chapel - private temple of the royal family. The royal family celebrated the Hindu festival of Dussera and Gangaur here, apart from celebrating other family functions such as birthdays and marriages. In the Dussera celebrations, weapons and horses were worshipped here. The main deities worshipped in this temple are the Hindu deities Lakshmi Narayan, a combined representation of god Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi.

 

The Ratan Behari temple located near the Junagarh Fort, was built in 1846 by the 18th ruler of Bikaner. It was built in Indo-Mughal architectural style using white marble. The Hindu god Krishna is deified in this temple.

 

PALACES

Karan mahal (Public Audience Hall) was built by Karan Singh in c.1680 to mark his victory over the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. It is considered as one of the most exquisite palaces built with gardens, which displays the aesthetic sensibilities of the royalty of Rajasthan. It has stained glass windows and intricately carved balconies built in stone and wood fluted columns. Later Rajas, Anup Singh and Surat Singh, also added lot of glitter to this palace with inlaid polychrome glass, intricate mirror patterns, and red and gold paint. In the coronation chamber, there is a shored up alcove, which was used as a throne.

 

Phool Mahal ("Flower Palace") is the oldest part of the palace and was built by king Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner, who ruled between 1571-1668.

 

Anup Mahal is a multi-storey structure, which functioned as the administrative headquarters of the kingdom. It has ornate wooden ceilings with inlaid mirrors, Italian tiles, and fine lattice windows and balconies. It has some gold leaf paintings. It is considered as one of the “grandest construction”.

 

Chandra Mahal has the most luxurious room in the palace, which houses gold plated deities and paintings inlaid with precious stones. In the royal bedroom, mirrors have been strategically placed so that the Maharaja could see from his bed, any intruder entering his room.

 

Ganga Mahal was built in the 20th century by Ganga Singh who reigned for 56 years from 1887 to 1943, has a large durbar hall known as the Ganga Singh Hall that houses the Museum. The museum has exhibits of war weaponry and also a World War I aeroplane (biplane), which is stated to be well maintained.

 

Badal Mahal (The weather palace) is part of the Anup Mahal extensions. It has paintings of Shekhawati Dundlod chiefs paying respects to the Maharaja of Bikaner in different types of turbans. Photos of people standing on nails, wood, swords and saws are also depicted here – a display of faith and endurance. The walls in this palace depict fresco paintings of the Hindu god Krishna and his consort Radha amidst the rain clouds.

 

Bikaneri Havelies located both within and outside the fort in the Bikaner city’s by lanes are also of unique architectural style in home architecture. Aldous Huxley who visited these havelis reportedly said “They are the pride of Bikaner.”

 

FORT MUSEUM

The museum within the fort called the Junagarh Fort Museum was established in 1961 by Maharaja Dr.Karni Singhji under the control of "Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust". The Museum exhibits Sanskrit and Persian manuscripts, miniature paintings, jewels, royal costumes, farmans (royal orders), portrait galleries, costumes, headgear and dresses of gods’ idols, enamelware, silver, palanquins, howdahs and war drums. The museum also displays armoury that consists of one of the assorted collection of post medieval arms.

 

MAHARAJA RAI SINGHJI TRUST

Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust has been set up by the 'Royal family of Bikaner' with the basic objective to showcase the fort with professional inputs in various areas and to improve the experience for visitors. Another objective is to promote education and research scholarships, cultural activities, setting up of libraries and integration with other such trusts.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The "Occupy Wall Street" protest began on 17 September 2011 at Zuccotti Park in Lower Manhattan, near Wall Street, which the protesters renamed as "Liberty Square."

 

Many people throughout the US and beyond have been upset by an economic system that benefits the powers that be, especially in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, the massive taxpayer-funded bank bailouts, and continued difficulties for everyday people.

 

The Tea Party had been the initial populist uprising, upset with the Obama Administration's "attacks on the US Constitution," but as it became clearer that the Tea Party was more of an Astroturf organization funded by the big bankers themselves to further weaken common sense rules and further consolidate wealth into the few, it built up a very negative image after the initial upswell.

 

Occupy Wall Street and its sister protests come generally from the other side of the political spectrum. Participants may be mainstream center-left to anarchists to far-leftists. Although they don't always have common goals, I support their right to voice their frustrations and ask for solutions that benefit the people and the economy as a whole, rather than the most powerful.

 

Occupy Wall Street had been inspired by the peaceful people-led overthrows of Middle Eastern dictatorships. Their right to protest is largely based on the First Amendment to the United States Constitution that guarantees freedom of speech, assembly, and grievances. The large media outlets at first ignored the protests, then various entities (including New York City's mayor and police department) tried to crack down on the Occupy protests, but each crackdown has only added more legitimacy to the protests. Now the key is not to merely squat in public areas, but to proactively push for concrete changes, through voting and discussions, so that jobs can be created and the American workers can go back to work.

 

This man's sign alludes to the US healthcare system's focus on profits rather than coverage. It is too easy to be turned away for a bogus "pre-existing condition," to lose coverage for catastrophic illness, and/or to see steep hikes in insurance premiums. At least 15% of the US population lacks health insurance for one reason or another, and even more people have inadequate insurance. The Affordable Care Act, passed by the Obama Administration, addresses the worst of the abuses and gives a path for almost all Americans to obtain health insurance, but the far left is still upset that it did not include a public option (the insurance will still be provided by the private insurers), while the far right calls it a government takeover of healthcare, to be repealed at any cost, referring to the Act by the pejorative nickname ObamaCare.

The magnificent facade of this mammoth 14th-century church provides a great notion of what Famagusta would have looked like before most of its churches and monuments were ruined.

 

Behind the Venetian Palace in the town centre, you will find the glorious flying buttresses of the renamed Ottoman Sinan Pasha Mosque.

 

The foundations of one of the largest Gothic cathedrals in Famagusta, the initial church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul were laid in the Lusignan reign of Peter I, 1358 – 1369, and funded by one third of the profits made on a single trip to Syria by a wealthy merchant of Famagusta, Simon Nostrano.

 

The church walls are supported by heavy flying buttresses, in place to drain the pressure away from the interior vaulting, but only on the upper level. They, like the wall itself, are enormously thick and sturdy, presumably to resist the disastrous effects of earthquakes. The later substantial buttressing added on the south side dates to after the two sixteenth century earthquakes which threatened the structure in its entirety.

 

As a result of these modifications, the church does not have the same radiance from its more delicately constructed French contemporary counterparts. Indeed, George H. Everett Jeffery who was the Curator of Ancient Monuments in Cyprus in the early 20th century summarises its appearance – “Nothing could be uglier or more opposed to the beauty of true Gothic architecture than the exterior of this immense church.”

 

The beauty of this church rests almost entirely in its refined and elegant interior perspective.

 

Gothic arches rise above the rhythmic succession of bays, from plain circular piers with undecorated capitals. From the abacus of each pier are three colonettes, merged into the wall, which rising to the clerestory level, fan out to cover the nave and create the cross vaulted ceiling, which gather at roof bosses of floral design and which often bear coats of arms.

 

Remnants of Gothic sculpture, unidentified renaissance martyrdoms, post-Renaissance maritime graffiti, all offer tantalising fragments and a rare insight into a now forgotten period of wealth and influence in the history of Famagusta.

 

The building became disused during the Venetian period, as it escaped the attention of the Ottoman bombardment of the city in 1571. After their conquest, the Ottomans added a minaret to the south west corner and renamed the edifice Sinan Pasha Mosque, after “Sinan the Great” who served five times as Grand Vizier in the Ottoman empire.

 

During the British era of the island, the mosque was used as a potato and grain store and so is also locally referred to as the “Bugday Cami” (wheat mosque).

 

In the southern courtyard, underneath the second row of buttresses, you will find the grave of Yirmisekiz Celebi. Mehmed Efendi, was an Ottoman statesman who was delegated as ambassador by the Sultan Ahmed III to Louis XV’s France in 1720. he became to be known by the nickname Yirmisekiz (“twenty-eight” in Turkish) for his entire life, since he had served in the 28th battalion of the first modern standing army in Europe. He died in exile at Famagusta in 1732.

 

Famagusta is a city on the east coast of the de facto state Northern Cyprus. It is located east of Nicosia and possesses the deepest harbour of the island. During the Middle Ages (especially under the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice), Famagusta was the island's most important port city and a gateway to trade with the ports of the Levant, from where the Silk Road merchants carried their goods to Western Europe. The old walled city and parts of the modern city are de facto part of Northern Cyprus as the capital of the Gazimağusa District.

 

The city was known as Arsinoe or Arsinoë (Greek: Ἀρσινόη, Arsinóē) in antiquity, after Ptolemy II of Egypt's sister and wife Arsinoe II.

 

By the 3rd century, the city appears as Ammochostos (Greek: Ἀμμόχωστος or Αμμόχωστος, Ammókhōstos, "Hidden in Sand") in the Stadiasmus Maris Magni.[5] This name is still used in modern Greek with the pronunciation [aˈmːoxostos], while it developed into Latin Fama Augusta, French Famagouste, Italian Famagosta, and English Famagusta during the medieval period. Its informal modern Turkish name Mağusa (Turkish pronunciation: [maˈusa]) came from the same source. Since 1974, it has formally been known to Turkey and Northern Cyprus as Gazimağusa ([ɡaːzimaˈusa]), from the addition of the title gazi, meaning "veteran" or "one who has faught in a holy war".

 

In the early medieval period, the city was also known as New Justiniana (Greek: Νέα Ἰουστινιανία, Néa Ioustinianía) in appreciation for the patronage of the Byzantine emperor Justinian, whose wife Theodora was born there.

 

The old town of Famagusta has also been nicknamed "the City of 365 Churches" from the legend that, at its peak, it boasted a church for every day of the year.

 

The city was founded around 274 BC, after the serious damage to Salamis by an earthquake, by Ptolemy II Philadelphus and named "Arsinoe" after his sister.[6] Arsinoe was described as a "fishing town" by Strabo in his Geographica in the first century BC. In essence, Famagusta was the successor of the most famous and most important ancient city of Cyprus, Salamis. According to Greek mythology, Salamis was founded after the end of the Trojan War by Teucros, the son of Telamon and brother of Aedes, from the Greek island of Salamis.

 

The city experienced great prosperity much later, during the time of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. To honor the city, from which his wife Theodora came, Justinian enriched it with many buildings, while the inhabitants named it New Justiniania to express their gratitude. In AD 647, when the neighboring cities were destroyed by Arab raiding, the inhabitants of these cities moved to Famagusta, as a result of which the city's population increased significantly and the city experienced another boom.

 

Later, when Jerusalem was occupied by the Arabs, the Christian population fled to Famagusta, as a result of which the city became an important Christian center, but also one of the most important commercial centers in the eastern Mediterranean.

 

The turning point for Famagusta was 1192 with the onset of Lusignan rule. It was during this period that Famagusta developed as a fully-fledged town. It increased in importance to the Eastern Mediterranean due to its natural harbour and the walls that protected its inner town. Its population began to increase. This development accelerated in the 13th century as the town became a centre of commerce for both the East and West. An influx of Christian refugees fleeing the downfall of Acre (1291) in Palestine transformed it from a tiny village into one of the richest cities in Christendom.

 

In 1372 the port was seized by Genoa and in 1489 by Venice. This commercial activity turned Famagusta into a place where merchants and ship owners led lives of luxury. By the mid-14th century, Famagusta was said to have the richest citizens in the world. The belief that people's wealth could be measured by the churches they built inspired these merchants to have churches built in varying styles. These churches, which still exist, were the reason Famagusta came to be known as "the district of churches". The development of the town focused on the social lives of the wealthy people and was centred upon the Lusignan palace, the cathedral, the Square and the harbour.

 

In 1570–1571, Famagusta was the last stronghold in Venetian Cyprus to hold out against the Turks under Mustafa Pasha. It resisted a siege of thirteen months and a terrible bombardment, until at last the garrison surrendered. The Ottoman forces had lost 50,000 men, including Mustafa Pasha's son. Although the surrender terms had stipulated that the Venetian forces be allowed to return home, the Venetian commander, Marco Antonio Bragadin, was flayed alive, his lieutenant Tiepolo was hanged, and many other Christians were killed.

 

With the advent of the Ottoman rule, Latins lost their privileged status in Famagusta and were expelled from the city. Greek Cypriots natives were at first allowed to own and buy property in the city, but were banished from the walled city in 1573–74 and had to settle outside in the area that later developed into Varosha. Turkish families from Anatolia were resettled in the walled city but could not fill the buildings that previously hosted a population of 10,000. This caused a drastic decrease in the population of Famagusta. Merchants from Famagusta, who mostly consisted of Latins that had been expelled, resettled in Larnaca and as Larnaca flourished, Famagusta lost its importance as a trade centre. Over time, Varosha developed into a prosperous agricultural town thanks to its location away from the marshes, whilst the walled city remained dilapidated.

 

In the walled city, some buildings were repurposed to serve the interests of the Muslim population: the Cathedral of St. Nicholas was converted to a mosque (now known as Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque), a bazaar was developed, public baths, fountains and a theological school were built to accommodate the inhabitants' needs. Dead end streets, an Ottoman urban characteristic, was imported to the city and a communal spirit developed in which a small number of two-storey houses inhabited by the small upper class co-existed with the widespread one-storey houses.

 

With the British takeover, Famagusta regained its significance as a port and an economic centre and its development was specifically targeted in British plans. As soon as the British took over the island, a Famagusta Development Act was passed that aimed at the reconstruction and redevelopment of the city's streets and dilapidated buildings as well as better hygiene. The port was developed and expanded between 1903 and 1906 and Cyprus Government Railway, with its terminus in Famagusta, started construction in 1904. Whilst Larnaca continued to be used as the main port of the island for some time, after Famagusta's use as a military base in World War I trade significantly shifted to Famagusta. The city outside the walls grew at an accelerated rate, with development being centred around Varosha. Varosha became the administrative centre as the British moved their headquarters and residences there and tourism grew significantly in the last years of the British rule. Pottery and production of citrus and potatoes also significantly grew in the city outside the walls, whilst agriculture within the walled city declined to non-existence.

 

New residential areas were built to accommodate the increasing population towards the end of the British rule,[11] and by 1960, Famagusta was a modern port city extending far beyond Varosha and the walled city.

 

The British period saw a significant demographic shift in the city. In 1881, Christians constituted 60% of the city's population while Muslims were at 40%. By 1960, the Turkish Cypriot population had dropped to 17.5% of the overall population, while the Greek Cypriot population had risen to 70%. The city was also the site for one of the British internment camps for nearly 50,000 Jewish survivors of the Holocaust trying to emigrate to Palestine.

 

From independence in 1960 to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus of 1974, Famagusta developed toward the south west of Varosha as a well-known entertainment and tourist centre. The contribution of Famagusta to the country's economic activity by 1974 far exceeded its proportional dimensions within the country. Whilst its population was only about 7% of the total of the country, Famagusta by 1974 accounted for over 10% of the total industrial employment and production of Cyprus, concentrating mainly on light industry compatible with its activity as a tourist resort and turning out high-quality products ranging from food, beverages and tobacco to clothing, footwear, plastics, light machinery and transport equipment. It contributed 19.3% of the business units and employed 21.3% of the total number of persons engaged in commerce on the island. It acted as the main tourist destination of Cyprus, hosting 31.5% of the hotels and 45% of Cyprus' total bed capacity. Varosha acted as the main touristic and business quarters.

 

In this period, the urbanisation of Famagusta slowed down and the development of the rural areas accelerated. Therefore, economic growth was shared between the city of Famagusta and the district, which had a balanced agricultural economy, with citrus, potatoes, tobacco and wheat as main products. Famagusta maintained good communications with this hinterland. The city's port remained the island's main seaport and in 1961, it was expanded to double its capacity in order to accommodate the growing volume of exports and imports. The port handled 42.7% of Cypriot exports, 48.6% of imports and 49% of passenger traffic.

 

There has not been an official census since 1960 but the population of the town in 1974 was estimated to be around 39,000 not counting about 12,000–15,000 persons commuting daily from the surrounding villages and suburbs to work in Famagusta. The number of people staying in the city would swell to about 90,000–100,000 during the peak summer tourist period, with the influx of tourists from numerous European countries, mainly Britain, France, Germany and the Scandinavian countries. The majority of the city population were Greek Cypriots (26,500), with 8,500 Turkish Cypriots and 4,000 people from other ethnic groups.

 

During the second phase of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 14 August 1974 the Mesaoria plain was overrun by Turkish tanks and Famagusta was bombed by Turkish aircraft. It took two days for the Turkish Army to occupy the city, prior to which Famagusta's entire Greek Cypriot population had fled into surrounding fields. As a result of Turkish airstrikes dozens of civilians died, including tourists.

 

Unlike other parts of the Turkish-controlled areas of Cyprus, the Varosha suburb of Famagusta was fenced off by the Turkish army immediately after being captured and remained fenced off until October 2020, when the TRNC reopened some streets to visitors. Some Greek Cypriots who had fled Varosha have been allowed to view the town and journalists have been allowed in.

 

UN Security Council resolution 550 (1984) considers any attempts to settle any part of Famagusta by people other than its inhabitants as inadmissible and calls for the transfer of this area to the administration of the UN. The UN's Security Council resolution 789 (1992) also urges that with a view to the implementation of resolution 550 (1984), the area at present under the control of the United Nations Peace-keeping Force in Cyprus be extended to include Varosha.

 

Famagusta's historic city centre is surrounded by the fortifications of Famagusta, which have a roughly rectangular shape, built mainly by the Venetians in the 15th and 16th centuries, though some sections of the walls have been dated earlier times, as far as 1211.

 

Some important landmarks and visitor attractions in the old city are:

The Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque

The Othello Castle

Palazzo del Provveditore - the Venetian palace of the governor, built on the site of the former Lusignan royal palace

St. Francis' Church

Sinan Pasha Mosque

Church of St. George of the Greeks

Church of St. George of the Latins

Twin Churches

Nestorian Church (of St George the Exiler)

Namık Kemal Dungeon

Agios Ioannis Church

Venetian House

Akkule Masjid

Mustafa Pasha Mosque

Ganchvor monastery

 

In an October 2010 report titled Saving Our Vanishing Heritage, Global Heritage Fund listed Famagusta, a "maritime ancient city of crusader kings", among the 12 sites most "On the Verge" of irreparable loss and destruction, citing insufficient management and development pressures.

 

Famagusta is an important commercial hub of Northern Cyprus. The main economic activities in the city are tourism, education, construction and industrial production. It has a 115-acre free port, which is the most important seaport of Northern Cyprus for travel and commerce. The port is an important source of income and employment for the city, though its volume of trade is restricted by the embargo against Northern Cyprus. Its historical sites, including the walled city, Salamis, the Othello Castle and the St Barnabas Church, as well as the sandy beaches surrounding it make it a tourist attraction; efforts are also underway to make the city more attractive for international congresses. The Eastern Mediterranean University is also an important employer and supplies significant income and activity, as well as opportunities for the construction sector. The university also raises a qualified workforce that stimulates the city's industry and makes communications industry viable. The city has two industrial zones: the Large Industrial Zone and the Little Industrial Zone. The city is also home to a fishing port, but inadequate infrastructure of the port restricts the growth of this sector. The industry in the city has traditionally been concentrated on processing agricultural products.

 

Historically, the port was the primary source of income and employment for the city, especially right after 1974. However, it gradually lost some of its importance to the economy as the share of its employees in the population of Famagusta diminished due to various reasons. However, it still is the primary port for commerce in Northern Cyprus, with more than half of ships that came to Northern Cyprus in 2013 coming to Famagusta. It is the second most popular seaport for passengers, after Kyrenia, with around 20,000 passengers using the port in 2013.

 

The mayor-in-exile of Famagusta is Simos Ioannou. Süleyman Uluçay heads the Turkish Cypriot municipal administration of Famagusta, which remains legal as a communal-based body under the constitutional system of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Since 1974, Greek Cypriots submitted a number of proposals within the context of bicommunal discussions for the return of Varosha to UN administration, allowing the return of its previous inhabitants, requesting also the opening of Famagusta harbour for use by both communities. Varosha would have been returned to Greek Cypriot control as part of the 2004 Annan Plan but the plan had been rejected by a majority(3/4) of Greek Cypriot voters.

 

The walled city of Famagusta contains many unique buildings. Famagusta has a walled city popular with tourists.

 

Every year, the International Famagusta Art and Culture Festival is organized in Famagusta. Concerts, dance shows and theater plays take place during the festival.

 

A growth in tourism and the city's university have fueled the development of Famagusta's vibrant nightlife. Nightlife in the city is especially active on Wednesday, Friday and Saturday nights and in the hotter months of the year, starting from April. Larger hotels in the city have casinos that cater to their customers. Salamis Road is an area of Famagusta with a heavy concentration of bars frequented by students and locals.

 

Famagusta's Othello Castle is the setting for Shakespeare's play Othello. The city was also the setting for Victoria Hislop's 2015 novel The Sunrise, and Michael Paraskos's 2016 novel In Search of Sixpence. The city is the birthplace of the eponymous hero of the Renaissance proto-novel Fortunatus.

 

Famagusta was home to many Greek Cypriot sport teams that left the city because of the Turkish invasion and still bear their original names. Most notable football clubs originally from the city are Anorthosis Famagusta FC and Nea Salamis Famagusta FC, both of the Cypriot First Division, which are now based in Larnaca. Usually Anorthosis Famagusta fans are politically right wing where Nea Salamis fans are left wing.

 

Famagusta is represented by Mağusa Türk Gücü in the Turkish Cypriot First Division. Dr. Fazıl Küçük Stadium is the largest football stadium in Famagusta. Many Turkish Cypriot sport teams that left Southern Cyprus because of the Cypriot intercommunal violence are based in Famagusta.

 

Famagusta is represented by DAÜ Sports Club and Magem Sports Club in North Cyprus First Volleyball Division. Gazimağusa Türk Maarif Koleji represents Famagusta in the North Cyprus High School Volleyball League.

 

Famagusta has a modern volleyball stadium called the Mağusa Arena.

 

The Eastern Mediterranean University was founded in the city in 1979. The Istanbul Technical University founded a campus in the city in 2010.

 

The Cyprus College of Art was founded in Famagusta by the Cypriot artist Stass Paraskos in 1969, before moving to Paphos in 1972 after protests from local hoteliers that the presence of art students in the city was putting off holidaymakers.

 

Famagusta has three general hospitals. Gazimağusa Devlet Hastahanesi, a state hospital, is the biggest hospital in city. Gazimağusa Tıp Merkezi and Gazimağusa Yaşam Hastahanesi are private hospitals.

 

Personalities

Saint Barnabas, born and died in Salamis, Famagusta

Chris Achilleos, illustrator of the book versions on the BBC children's series Doctor Who

Beran Bertuğ, former Governor of Famagusta, first Cypriot woman to hold this position

Marios Constantinou, former international Cypriot football midfielder and current manager.

Eleftheria Eleftheriou, Cypriot singer.

Derviş Eroğlu, former President of Northern Cyprus

Alexis Galanos, 7th President of the House of Representatives and Famagusta mayor-in-exile (2006-2019) (Republic of Cyprus)

Xanthos Hadjisoteriou, Cypriot painter

Oz Karahan, political activist, President of the Union of Cypriots

Oktay Kayalp, former Turkish Cypriot Famagusta mayor (Northern Cyprus)

Harry Luke British diplomat

Angelos Misos, former international footballer

Costas Montis was an influential and prolific Greek Cypriot poet, novelist, and playwright born in Famagusta.

Hal Ozsan, actor (Dawson's Creek, Kyle XY)

Dimitris Papadakis, a Greek Cypriot politician, who served as a Member of the European Parliament.

Ṣubḥ-i-Azal, Persian religious leader, lived and died in exile in Famagusta

Touker Suleyman (born Türker Süleyman), British Turkish Cypriot fashion retail entrepreneur, investor and reality television personality.

Alexia Vassiliou, singer, left here as a refugee when the town was invaded.

George Vasiliou, former President of Cyprus

Vamik Volkan, Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry

Derviş Zaim, film director

 

Famagusta is twinned with:

İzmir, Turkey (since 1974)

Corfu, Greece (since 1994)

Patras, Greece (since 1994)

Antalya, Turkey (since 1997)

Salamina (city), Greece (since 1998)

Struga, North Macedonia

Athens, Greece (since 2005)

Mersin, Turkey

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

Withdrawn from service by British Railways on 1 February 1966, it was targeted by the A4 Preservation Society, which was soon renamed the A4 Locomotive Society, to rescue the locomotive from the cutter’s torch. This was achieved, and the ‘Streak’ was moved to Crewe for refurbishment. Fellow A4 No 60026 Miles Beevor also subsequently visited the former LMS works after its own withdrawal, and its three pairs of 6 ft 8 in driving wheels were transferred to No 60007 because they were in a far better condition than those on the newly saved engine.[2]

 

For a long period of her preservation, Sir Nigel Gresley was kept at Steamtown Carnforth, at the old locomotive depot. This was a prime location for her mainline operations, being the only mainline A4 after 1973 other than Union of South Africa. On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Mallard's record run, on 3 July 1988, the National Railway Museum assembled 3 of the 4 UK-based A4 Pacific locomotives at the museum, the first time this had ever been done in preservation. Early in July 2008, SNG joined her three sisters extant in the UK for a display at the National Railway Museum in York.

 

By 1994, Sir Nigel Gresley stayed at the Great Central Railway, before spending some time at the East Lancashire Railway. The locomotive is now preserved at the North Yorkshire Moors Railway, and is in daily operation, following a 10 year overhaul to working order. It is owned by Sir Nigel Gresley Locomotive Preservation Trust Ltd. and operated by the A4 Locomotive Society Ltd. on behalf of the Trust.

 

In 2010, Sir Nigel Gresley was under repair at the North Yorkshire Moors Railway after its winter overhaul in 2009/10 revealed that extensive work and repair was needed on the tubing,[3] and since then the locomotive has had two other significant mechanical failures

 

Built 1865 by English and Brown for Edward Amand Wright, sold 1899 to Alfred Jabez Roberts, became Guest House 1940, renamed “Russell Court” 1949 & used as function centre. Later restored as a family home.

 

“principal works in progress and completed by English and Brown in the past twelve months. . . . villa residence at Glenelg for Mr. E. A. Wright (completed), £3,300.” [Register 15 Jan 1866]

 

“Glenelg — To be Let for a term, the Residence lately occupied by E. A. Wright, Esq., and now in the occupation of Thomas Giles, Esq. This residence is situated within three minutes' walk of the Jetty, has good Stabling and Coach-houses, large Rainwater Tank, and Well of Water fitted with Pump, and is one of the most desirable abodes in Glenelg.” [Register 26 Jun 1866 advert]

 

“Glenelg Corporation. . . a letter from Mr. E. A. Wright, offering to pay half the cost of forming and metalling Maturin-street.” [Adelaide Observer 17 Aug 1867]

 

“Mr. W. G. Lewcock, one of Clare's leading townsmen, and a prominent identity in horticultural circles in South Australia. . . came to South Australia in the ship Berar in 1867, and a month later was employed by the late Mr. E. Amand Wright as gardener at The Olives, Glenelg, at a wage of 5/ a day of 10 hours.” [Register 21 May 1924]

 

“Horticultural and Floricultural Society. . . It would be almost impossible to see finer gladioli than those which came from the gardens of Mr. E. A. Wright, at Glenelg, and of Mr. Thomas Graves. Mr. Wright's were the best 6; but the three gladioli sent by Mr. Graves were finer than those from Glenelg. Mr. Wright took the first prize for a single gladiolus with a superb John Bull.” [Advertiser 13 Oct 1868]

 

“Wanted, Experienced Nurse for Children out of arms; must be a good Needlewoman; also a thorough General Servant. References required. Apply to Mrs. Fredrick Wright, The Olives, Glenelg.” [Register 15 Apr 1872 advert]

 

“Lost, last week, on Glenelg Beach, a Volume of Scott’s Novels — ‘Ivanhoe’. The finder will oblige by delivering same to Mr. Wright, the Olives, Glenelg, and can receive payment for his trouble if required.” [Evening Journal 27 Jan 1877]

 

“The Olives, Glenelg.— To be Let for a Term of Two Years, Furnished or Unfurnished, at option of Lessee, the very Commodious Family Residence known as The Olives, Glenelg, the property of Mr. E. Amand Wright. The accommodation comprises Dining, Drawing, and Breakfast Rooms of ample size and well ventilated Eight Bedrooms, Two Kitchens, and Servant's Room, and complete Offices, Stables and Coachhouse, Gardener's Lodge and Man's Cottage, large and well-stocked Garden and Greenhouse, Lucerne and other Paddocks. Altogether this is one of the most complete and comfortable residences in the colony, and is situated within five minutes' walk of the Railway Station and the Jetty.” [Register 9 Jan 1879 advert]

 

“Wanted, good Gardener. Reference required. Good cottage to live in. . . The Olives, Glenelg. — John Robb.” [Evening Journal 10 May 1879 advert]

 

“ROBB.— [Birth] On the 9th January at the Olives, Glenelg, the wife of John Robb, of a son.” [Register 24 Jan 1880]

 

“REYNELL. — [Birth] On the 4th September, at the Olives, Glenelg, the wife of Walter Reynell, of a daughter.” [Advertiser 14 Sep 1881]

 

“An ‘open-air fete’ is announced to take place this afternoon and evening at the Olives, Glenelg, in aid of the proposed Anglican Mission room, New Glenelg.” [Evening Journal 27 Nov 1886]

 

“Lady Brassey will return to Government House from Silverton to-day. Her Ladyship and the Hon. Misses Brassey will accompany His Excellency the Governor to the opening meet of the Hunt Club at Lockleys, and after the hunt will be entertained at afternoon tea by Mrs. E. Amand Wright at The Olives, Glenelg, returning to Government House for dinner.” [Register 4 Jun 1887]

 

“A strawberry fete in connection with St. Peter's Church, Glenelg took place in the grounds of Mr. E. A. Wright at the Olives, Glenelg, on Saturday afternoon.” [Advertiser 3 Dec 1888]

 

“Mrs. Amand Wright, of The Olives, Glenelg, had an at home on Thursday, April 13, for the officers of the Nautilus. The day was lovely, and the grounds were looking very well. . . Tennis. . . refreshments. . . tea table.” [Quiz & Lantern, Adelaide 21 Apr 1893]

 

“Auction. . . The Olives, Glenelg. Under Instructions from the Misses Amand Wright. The Whole of the Furniture and Appointments. . . Grand Piano in Rosewood by Ronisch, Upright Piano by Boisselot et Fils. . . Oilpaintings. . . Divan Couches, Settees, and Chairs. . . Pony, Pony-cart. . . .” [Register 13 Nov 1896 advert]

 

“For Sale. . . The Olives, Glenelg. 5 acres: splendid garden. Gentleman's Residence, of 12 to 14 rooms, with all usual out-offices and conveniences, stables and coachhouse, gardener's lodge, &c. This property is well known as the residence of the late E. A. Wright, and is one of the most convenient at Glenelg. Close to beach, jetty, and train.” [Advertiser 15 Feb 1897 advert]

 

“For Sale. . . The Olives, Glenelg, Four and a quarter Acres. The Residence has Three Large Reception-rooms, Eight Bedrooms, Outer and Inner Kitchens, Pantries, Glass and Store Rooms, Cellars, &c. Gardener’s Lodge of Four Rooms, Coachhouse, Harness-room, Stalls for Four Horses.” [Register 16 Dec 1897 advert]

 

“For Sale, The Olives, Glenelg. Twelve-roomed House, in good order; four acres of land.” [Register 24 Apr 1899 advert]

 

“A Continental Concert will be held at 'The Olives', Glenelg, The Residence of His Worship the Mayor, A. J. Roberts, Esq.” [Register 9 Feb 1900 advert]

 

“As the result of the highly successful and charming entertainment organized by Mrs. Roberts, of The Olives, Glenelg, that lady has forwarded a cheque for £80 to the committee of the Nurses' Fund.” [Critic, Adelaide 10 Mar 1900]

 

“Mrs Charles Chapple, of ‘The Olives,' Glenelg, entertained one hundred ladies at tea on Saturday afternoon.” [Quiz, Adelaide 11 Oct 1900]

 

“Wanted Experienced General; housemaid kept. — Mrs. Alfred Roberts, ‘The Olives’, Glenelg.” [Advertiser 17 Jan 1902 advert]

 

“Glenelg Congregational Church. The annual strawberry fete in connection with this church was held at The Olives, Glenelg, the residence of Mr. A. J. Roberts, on Saturday afternoon and evening. The Mayor and Mayoress of Glenelg (Mr. and Mrs. H. J. Pearce) attended. Mrs. Pearce opened the fete.” [Register 7 Dec 1903]

 

“Military Hospitals. . . The following have offered free residences for use as military hospitals and convalescent homes for returning wounded soldiers. . . Mr. A. J. Roberts, The Olives, Glenelg. . . .” [Register 5 Jun 1915]

 

“a garden fete, in aid of the Red Cross Society, was held at The Olives, Glenelg, the residence of the Mayor (Mr. A. J. Roberts), and proved a complete success. More than £200 was raised.” [Register 30 Oct 1916]

 

“To Let, Furnished, 'The Olives,' Glenelg, for three months, from 14th of April; grass tennis court; gardener provided.” [Register 12 Mar 1920 advert]

 

“Subdivisional Sale of Mr. Alfred J. Roberts Well Known Property ‘The Olives', Glenelg. . . 8 Excellent Residential Sites, facing High St., and two new streets; The Fine Old Two-Story Residence, with Ample Grounds, having access from both High St. and Maturin Rd.; also 2 Substantial 5-Roomed Houses.” [The Mail 28 Jan 1933 advert]

 

“Auction. . . 8 Delightful Residential Sites. . . The Lovely Old Home With Grounds of an Acre. . . entrance hall. . . drawing room and library. . . 14 rooms, including ample bed and dressing rooms. . . Outbuildings include garage for 2 cars and tennis changing room. . . 2 Attractive Little Residences.” [The Mail 22 Apr 1933 advert]

 

“Board and Residence Vacant. . . Superior home for gentlemen. ‘The Olives.' Glenelg. minute tram.” [Advertiser 12 Jun 1936 advert]

 

“Female cook, breakfast only, good pay and conditions, everything new, with modern con. Apply Russell Court. 5 Olive st, Glenelg.” [Advertiser 16 Jan 1948 advert]

 

“Housemaid-waitress, breakfast only, new and modern guest home, good pay and conditions. Sleep in out. Apply Russell Court. 5 Olive st., Glenelg.” [Advertiser 5 Feb 1948 advert]

 

“Mrs. F. A. Tennant has returned from Melbourne, where she spent the winter, and is staying at Russell Court. Glenelg.” [Advertiser 13 Dec 1948]

 

“If you'd like to hold your wedding reception, anniversary, or birthday party in the cheery friendliness of a private home atmosphere, then decide on Russell Court Glenelg. It's in lovely surroundings at Olive street, Glenelg. Russell Court's new deep-carpeted dining room and lounges, with beautifully soft modern concealed lighting, lofty halls, and mirrored walls, retain the charm and dignity of the older world. For any big occasion. . . reception, cocktail party, business conference, or bridge afternoon, Russell Court is ideal.” [The Mail 27 Aug 1949]

 

“There was a big attendance at the dinner arranged by Glenelg Apex at Russell Court last night.” [News 7 Feb 1950]

 

“The £12,000 mobile Diesel school of instruction will be opened by the Minister of Works (Mr. McIntosh) at Russell Court, Glenelg, at 3.30 p.m. next Wednesday.” [Advertiser 20 Aug 1952]

 

“Russell Court, Glenelg. . . Special Week-End Accommodation Only. Saturday to Monday Morning. . . All rooms have wall-to-wall carpets, hot and cold water, reading lamps and are beautifully furnished throughout.” [Advertiser 15 Dec 1953 advert]

 

EDWARD AMAND WRIGHT

“WRIGHT.— [Died] On the 13th June, at the Olives, Glenelg, suddenly, of heart disease, Edward Amand Wright, aged 69 years. A colonist of 47 years' standing.” [Register 15 Jun 1891]

 

“Mr. E. Amand Wright, an old and highly esteemed colonist. He arrived in the Fama, in 1844. . . entered into the mercantile house of Messrs. H. W. Phillips and Co., of Hindley-street. Later on he became Secretary to the Princess Royal, Mount Remarkable, and other mining companies, and subsequently, entered into business on his own account as land and estate agent, and established a firm which became known as Wright Brothers. . . He has left a widow and three children-— one son and two daughters — all unmarried.” [Advertiser 15 Jun 1891]

 

“AMAND-WRIGHT.— [Died] On the 6th August, at The Olives, Glenelg, Lucy A, widow of the late Edward Amand-Wright.” [Evening Journal 7 Aug 1896]

 

“Mrs. Edward Amand Wright. . . born in Surrey, England, and came out to Hobart, Tasmania, with her father, Mr. William Windsor, on his appointment as head of Her Majesty's Ordnance Department, when that island was a Crown colony. . . his daughters first ball took place on the now famous warships the Erebus and Terror. It was in Hobart that she met her late husband. . . a great interest in Church work, and was connected with St. Peter's, Glenelg, almost from its inception. Some few years ago Mrs. Amand Wright revisited England and Scotland, spending the winters abroad, chiefly in Florence and at Paris, and in travelling in Holland, Germany, and Austria, as well as spending some time in Egypt and Italy. . . [She] leaves one son, Mr. A. E. Amand Wright, and two daughters, Miss Amand Wright and Miss Edith Amand Wright.” [Register 8 Aug 1896]

 

ALFRED JABEZ ROBERTS

“ROBERTS. — [Died] On the 3rd of July (suddenly) Alfred Jabez Roberts, O.B.E., loved husband of Isabel Roberts, of 'The Olives,' High street, Glenelg. Aged 76 years. Peacefully sleeping.” [Advertiser 4 Jul 1939]

 

“Mr. A. J. Roberts. . . was one of the oldest and most prominent members of the Stock Exchange, having been connected with it for 40 years. . . Mr. Roberts was born at Queen street, Norwood, and was educated at the Norwood Grammar School and Wesley College, Melbourne. Mr. Roberts, after having been employed by G. Wood, Son & Co., and the Bank of Adelaide, in 1882 transferred his services to the late Mr. W. L. Ware, one of Adelaide's leading accountants, and remained with him until 1888. He began business on his own account as company secretary and accountant, and at the end of 1888 he purchased a seat on the Stock Exchange. He became president in 1906. . . In 1914 Mr. Roberts went to England as honorary manager of the Davis Cup team. . . member of the Glenelg Council. . . Mayor of the town in 1901, 1902 and 1903. . . [also] 1916-17. . . founded the Glenelg Bowling Club, and at one time was president of the Glenelg Golf Club. . . president of the Lawn Tennis Association.” [Advertiser 4 Jul 1939]

 

“Mr. A. J. Roberts. . . has left a widow and three sons, Messrs. Roy Roberts, of Kadina, King Roberts, of Newcastle (N.S.W.), and Geoff. Roberts, of Adelaide.” [Chronicle 6 Jul 1939]

 

“ROBERTS.— [Died] On April 16, Isabel, widow of Alfred J. Roberts, of The Olives, Glenelg.” [Advertiser 17 Apr 1946]

 

“Mrs. Isabel Roberts. . . at the age of 79, of the Olives, Glenelg. . . was the wife of the late Mr. A. J. Roberts,. . . [She] took part in a great deal of social activity. . . During World War I, both Mr. and Mrs. Roberts did excellent work in connection with patriotic bodies. Mrs. Roberts is survived by three sons, Mr. R. Roberts, of Kadina, Mr. King Roberts, of Newcastle, NSW, and Mr. Geoff. Roberts, of Adelaide.” [Advertiser 20 Apr 1946]

 

Toton

Charleston Navy Yard (later renamed the Charleston Naval Shipyard and finally renamed Naval Base Charleston) was a U.S. Navy ship building and repair facility located along the west bank of the Cooper River, in North Charleston, South Carolina. It began operations in 1909 as a drydock, and continued as a navy facility until 1996 when it was leased to Detyens Shipyards, Inc. during down-sizing.

 

The yard first produced the destroyer USS Tillman (DD-135), then began to increase production in the 1930s. A total of 21 destroyers were assembled at Charleston Navy Yard.

 

Today, a 340-acre (1.4 km2) section of the former base is being revitalized as a sustainable, mixed-use urban hub for the city of North Charleston, SC. The new development is called The Navy Yard at Noisette. Ground broke in 2005.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_Navy_Yard

"Chester Square is a residential garden square located along Massachusetts Avenue in Boston, between Tremont Street and Shawmut Avenue. The name "Chester" is derived from the original name of the street, which was renamed Massachusetts Avenue on March 1, 1894. Chester Park is also located in the historic South End of Boston.

 

The square was first constructed in the mid-19th century to attract affluent residents. The park was once the largest garden square in the South End. It originally included a very large white, three tiered fountain with a seating area and numerous trees, flowers, and other gardens. It fell into decline shortly after the start of the 20th century for a number of reasons. As a result, wealthy residents moved to neighborhoods like Back Bay which were highly regarded, and many of the South End's rowhouses were subdivided into rentals which attracted less affluent residents. The grand Victorian townhouses were gradually divided up and converted into smaller units, public buildings, and rooming houses. The park suffered its most devastating change in the 1950s when City and State officials decided to run Massachusetts Avenue directly through the park, dividing the square in half.

 

The South End is a neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. It is bordered by Back Bay, Chinatown, and Roxbury. It is distinguished from other neighborhoods by its Victorian style houses and the many parks in and around the area. The South End is the largest intact Victorian row house district in the country, as it is made up of over 300 acres. Eleven residential parks are contained within the South End. In 1973, the South End was listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Much of the South End was originally marshlands in Boston's South Bay. After being filled in, construction of the neighborhood began in 1849.

 

It is home to many diverse groups, including immigrants, young families, and professionals, and it is very popular with the gay and lesbian community of Boston. Since the 1880s the South End has been characterized by its diversity, with substantial Irish, Jewish, African-American, Puerto Rican (in the San Juan Street area), Chinese, and Greek populations. In 2010, the population was 55.2% white, 13.3% Hispanic, 12.5% Black or African American, 16.2% Asian, and 2.7% other; 55.2% of its residents had a bachelor's degree or higher; the median household income was $57,699; the median age was 36; 65.6% were primarily English speakers; and 12.9% were primarily Spanish speakers.

 

Boston (US: /ˈbɔːstən/), officially the City of Boston, is the state capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, as well as the cultural and financial center of the New England region of the United States. It is the 24th-most populous city in the country. The city boundaries encompass an area of about 48.4 sq mi (125 km2) and a population of 675,647 as of 2020. It is the seat of Suffolk County (although the county government was disbanded on July 1, 1999). The city is the economic and cultural anchor of a substantially larger metropolitan area known as Greater Boston, a metropolitan statistical area (MSA) home to a census-estimated 4.8 million people in 2016 and ranking as the tenth-largest MSA in the country. A broader combined statistical area (CSA), generally corresponding to the commuting area and including Providence, Rhode Island, is home to approximately 8.2 million people, making it the sixth most populous in the United States.

 

Boston is one of the oldest municipalities in America, founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from the English town of the same name. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution and the nation's founding, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the siege of Boston. Upon American independence from Great Britain, the city continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education and culture. The city has expanded beyond the original peninsula through land reclamation and municipal annexation. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing more than 20 million visitors per year. Boston's many firsts include the United States' first public park (Boston Common, 1634), first public or state school (Boston Latin School, 1635) first subway system (Tremont Street subway, 1897), and first large public library (Boston Public Library, 1848).

 

Today, Boston is a center of scientific research; the area's many colleges and universities, notably Harvard and MIT, make it a world leader in higher education, including law, medicine, engineering and business, and the city is considered to be a global pioneer in innovation and entrepreneurship, with nearly 5,000 startups. Boston's economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, and government activities. Boston is a hub for LGBT culture and LGBT activism in the United States. Households in the city claim the highest average rate of philanthropy in the United States. Boston businesses and institutions rank among the top in the country for environmental sustainability and new investment." - info from Wikipedia.

 

The fall of 2022 I did my 3rd major cycling tour. I began my adventure in Montreal, Canada and finished in Savannah, GA. This tour took me through the oldest parts of Quebec and the 13 original US states. During this adventure I cycled 7,126 km over the course of 2.5 months and took more than 68,000 photos. As with my previous tours, a major focus was to photograph historic architecture.

 

Now on Instagram.

 

Become a patron to my photography on Patreon or donate.

The Devaraja market in Mysore was built during the reign of Chamaraja Wodeyar IX (1868 – 1894). It is said that there was at this place a small weekly market which may have been as old as the origin of the city itself.

 

Mysore, officially renamed as Mysuru, is the third most populous city in the state of Karnataka, India. Located at the base of the Chamundi Hills about 146 km southwest of the state capital Bangalore, it is spread across an area of 128.42 km2. According to the provisional results of the 2011 national census of India, the population is 887,446. Mysore City Corporation is responsible for the civic administration of the city, which is also the headquarters of the Mysore district and the Mysore division.

 

Mysore served as the capital city of Kingdom of Mysore for nearly six centuries, from 1399 until 1947. The Kingdom was ruled by the Wodeyar dynasty, except for a brief period in the late 18th century when Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan were in power. Patrons of art and culture, the Wodeyars contributed significantly to the cultural growth of the city. The cultural ambience and achievements of Mysore earned it the sobriquet Cultural capital of Karnataka.

 

Mysore is noted for its palaces, including the Mysore Palace, and for the festivities that take place during the Dasara festival when the city receives a large number of tourists. It lends its name to the Mysore style of painting, the sweet dish Mysore Pak, the Mysore Peta (a traditional silk turban) and the garment known as the Mysore silk saree. Tourism is the major industry, while information technology has emerged as a major employer alongside the traditional industries. Mysore depends on rail and bus transport for inter-city connections. The city was the location of the first private radio station in India. Mysore houses Mysore University, which has produced several notable authors, particularly in the field of Kannada literature. Cricket is the most popular sport in the city.

 

ETYMOLOGY

The name Mysore is an anglicised version of Mahishūru, which means the abode of Mahisha in the local Kannada language. Though in Sanskrit Mahisha means buffalo, here Mahisha refers to Mahishasura, a mythological demon who could assume the form of both human and buffalo. According to Hindu mythology, the area was ruled by the demon Mahishasura. The demon was killed by the Goddess Chamundeshwari, whose temple is situated atop the Chamundi Hills. Mahishūru later became Mahisūru (a name which, even now, the royal family uses) and finally came to be called Maisūru, its present name in the Kannada language.

 

In December 2005, the Government of Karnataka announced its intention to change the English name of the city to Mysuru. This was approved by the Government of India, but as of 2011 the formalities necessary to incorporate the name change were yet to be completed. The central government approved this request in October 2014 and Mysore was renamed (along with other 12 cities) to "Mysuru" on November 1, 2014.

 

HISTORY

The site where Mysore Palace now stands was occupied by a village named Puragere at the beginning of the 16th century. The Mahishūru Fort was constructed in 1524 by Chamaraja Wodeyar III (1513–1553), who passed on the dominion of Puragere to his son Chamaraja Wodeyar IV (1572–1576). Since the 16th century, the name of Mahishūru has commonly been used to denote the city. The Mysore Kingdom, governed by the Wodeyar family, initially served as a vassal state of the Vijayanagara Empire. With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire after the Battle of Talikota in 1565, the Mysore Kingdom gradually achieved independence, and by the time of King Narasaraja Wodeyar (1637) it had become a sovereign state. Seringapatam (modern-day Srirangapatna), near Mysore, was the capital of the kingdom from 1610. The 17th century saw a steady expansion of its territory and, under Narasaraja Wodeyar I and Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, the kingdom annexed large expanses of what is now southern Karnataka and parts of Tamil Nadu, to become a powerful state in the southern Deccan.

 

The kingdom reached the height of its military power and dominion in the latter half of the 18th century under the de facto rulers Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan. The latter demolished parts of Mysore to remove legacies of the Wodeyar dynasty. During this time, Mysore kingdom came into conflict with the Marathas, the British and the Nizam of Golconda, leading to the four Anglo-Mysore wars, success in the first two of which was followed by defeat in the third and fourth. After Tipu Sultan's death in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799, the capital of the kingdom was moved back to Mysore from Seringapatam, and the kingdom was distributed by the British to their allies of the Fourth Mysore war. The landlocked interior of the previous Mysore Kingdom was turned into a princely state under the suzerainty of the British Crown. The former Wodeyar rulers were reinstated as puppet monarchs, now styled Maharajas. The British administration was assisted locally by Diwan (chief minister) Purnaiah. Purnaiah is credited with improving Mysore's public works. Mysore lost its status as the administrative centre of the kingdom in 1831, when the British commissioner moved the capital to Bangalore.:251 It regained that status in 1881 and remained the capital of the Princely State of Mysore within the British Indian Empire until India became independent in 1947.

 

The Mysore municipality was established in 1888 and the city was divided into eight wards.:283 In 1897 an outbreak of bubonic plague killed nearly half of the population of the city. With the establishment of the City Improvement Trust Board (CITB) in 1903, Mysore became one of the first cities in Asia to undertake planned development of the city. Public demonstrations and meetings were held there during the Quit India movement and other phases of the Indian independence movement.

 

After Indian independence, Mysore city remained as part of the Mysore State, now known as Karnataka. Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar, then king of Mysore, was allowed to retain his titles and was nominated as the Rajapramukh (appointed governor) of the state. He died in September 1974 and was cremated in Mysore city. Over the years, Mysore became well known as a centre for tourism; the city remained largely peaceful, except for occasional riots related to the Kaveri river water dispute. Among the events that took place in Mysore and made national headlines were a fire at a television studio that claimed 62 lives in 1989, and the sudden deaths of many animals at the Mysore Zoo.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Mysore is located at 12.30°N 74.65°E and has an average altitude of 770 metres. It is spread across an area of 128.42 km2 at the base of the Chamundi Hills in the southern region of Karnataka. Mysore is the southern-most city of Karnataka, and is a neighbouring city of the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the south, flanked by the state cities Mercara, Chamarajanagara, and Mandya. People in and around Mysore extensively use Kannada as medium of language. Mysore has several lakes, such as the Kukkarahalli, the Karanji, and the Lingambudhi lakes. In 2001, total land area usage in Mysore city was 39.9% residential, 16.1% roads, 13.74% parks and open spaces, 13.48% industrial, 8.96% public property, 3.02% commercial, 2.27% agriculture and 2.02 water. The city is located between two rivers: the Kaveri River that flows through the north of the city and the Kabini River, a tributary of the Kaveri, that lies to the south.

 

CLIMATE

Mysore has a tropical savanna climate designated Aw under the Köppen climate classification. The main seasons are summer from March to June, the monsoon season from July to November and winter from December to February. The highest temperature recorded in Mysore was 39.4 °C on 4 April 1914, and the lowest was 7.7 °C on 16 January 2012. The city's average annual rainfall is 804.2 mm.

 

ADMINISTRATION AND UTILITIES

The civic administration of the city is managed by the Mysore City Corporation, which was established as a municipality in 1888 and converted into a corporation in 1977. Overseeing engineering works, health, sanitation, water supply, administration and taxation, the corporation is headed by a mayor, who is assisted by commissioners and council members. The city is divided into 65 wards and the council members (also known as corporators) are elected by the citizens of Mysore every five years. The council members in turn elect the mayor. The annual budget of the Corporation for the year 2011–2012 was ₹426.96 crore (US$63.45 million). Among 63 cities covered under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, Mysore City Corporation was adjudged the second best city municipal corporation and was given the "Nagara Ratna" award in 2011.

 

Urban growth and expansion is managed by the Mysore Urban Development Authority (MUDA), which is headed by a commissioner. Its activities include developing new layouts and roads, town planning and land acquisition. One of the major projects undertaken by MUDA is the creation of an Outer Ring Road to ease traffic congestion. Citizens of Mysore have criticised MUDA for its inability to prevent land mafias and ensure lawful distribution of housing lands among city residents. The Chamundeshwari Electricity Supply Corporation is responsible for electric supply to the city.

 

Drinking water for Mysore is sourced from the Kaveri and Kabini rivers. The city got its first piped water supply when the Belagola project was commissioned in 1896. As of 2011, Mysore gets 42.5 million gallons water per day. Mysore sometimes faces water crises, mainly during the summer months (March–June) and in years of low rainfall. The city has had an underground drainage system since 1904. The entire sewage from the city drains into four valleys: Kesare, Malalavadi, Dalavai and Belavatha. In an exercise carried out by the Urban Development Ministry under the national urban sanitation policy, Mysore was rated the second cleanest city in India in 2010 and the cleanest in Karnataka.

 

The citizens of Mysore elect four representatives to the Legislative assembly of Karnataka through the constituencies of Chamaraja, Krishnaraja, Narasimharaja and Chamundeshwari. Mysore city, being part of the larger Mysore Lok Sabha constituency, also elects one member to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian Parliament. The politics in the city is dominated by three political parties: the Indian National Congress (INC), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and the Janata Dal (Secular) (JDS).

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

According to the provisional results of the 2011 census of India, Mysore had a population of 887,446, consisting of 443,813 males and 443,633 females, making it the third most populous city in Karnataka. The gender ratio of the city is 1000 females to every 1000 males and the population density is 6,910.5 per square kilometre. According to the census of 2001, 76.8% of thepopulatiion are Hindus, 19% are Muslims, 2.8% are Christians, and the remainder belong to other religions. The population exceeded 100,000 in the census of 1931 and grew by 20.5 per cent in the decade 1991–2001. As of 2011, the literacy rate of the city is 86.84 per cent, which is higher than the state's average of 75.6 per cent. Kannada is the most widely spoken language in the city. Approximately 19% of the population live below the poverty line, and 9% live in slums. According to the 2001 census, 35.75% of the population in the urban areas of Karnataka are workers, but only 33.3% of the population of Mysore are. Members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled tribes constitute 15.1% of the population. According to the National Crime Records Bureau of India, the number of cognisable crime incidents reported in Mysore during 2010 was 3,407 (second in the state, after Bangalore's 32,188), increasing from 3,183 incidents reported in 2009.

 

The residents of the city are known as Mysoreans in English and Mysoorinavaru in Kannada. The dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the sharing of Kaveri river water often leads to minor altercations and demonstrations in the city. Growth in the information technology industry in Mysore has led to a change in the city's demographic profile; likely strains on the infrastructure and haphazard growth of the city resulting from the demographic change have been a cause of concern for some of its citizens.

 

ECONOMY

Tourism is the major industry in Mysore. The city attracted about 3.15 million tourists in 2010. Mysore has traditionally been home to industries such as weaving, sandalwood carving, bronze work and the production of lime and salt. The planned industrial growth of the city and the state was first envisaged at the Mysore economic conference in 1911. This led to the establishment of industries such as the Mysore Sandalwood Oil Factory in 1917 and the Sri Krishnarajendra Mills in 1920.

 

For the industrial development of the city, the Karnataka Industrial Areas Development Board (KIADB) has established four industrial areas in and around Mysore, in the Belagola, Belawadi, Hebbal and Hootagalli areas. One of the major industrial in the proximity of Mysore is Nanjangud which will be Satellite town to Mysore. Nanjangud industrial area hosts a number of Big industries like Reid and Taylor, Jubiliant, TVS, Asian Paints. Nanjangud Industrial area also boasts being 2nd highest VAT / Sales Tax payer which is about 400+ crores after Peenya which is in state capital Bangalore.

 

Mysore also hosts many central government organisations like CFTRI, DFRL, CIPET, RPM ( Rare Material Project ), RBI Note printing Press and RBI Paper Printing Press.

 

The growth of the information technology industry in the first decade of the 21st century has resulted in the city emerging as the second largest software exporter in Karnataka, next to Bangalore. The city contributed Rs. 1363 crore (US$275 million) to Karnataka's IT exports.

 

Mysore is slowly becoming a consumer city with a very big outside population working with the industries and IT hubs.[citation needed] New housing layouts are appearing every month and the number of supermarkets and other shopping facilities is increasing very fast.

 

EDUCATION

Before the advent of the European system of education in Mysore, agraharas (Brahmin quarters) provided Vedic education to Hindus, and madrassas provided schooling for Muslims. Modern education began in Mysore when a free English school was established in 1833. Maharaja College was founded in 1864. A high school exclusively for girls was established in 1881 and later converted into the Maharani's Women's College. The Industrial School, the first institute for technical education in the city, was established in 1892; this was followed by the Chamarajendra Technical Institute in 1913. While the modern system of education was making inroads, colleges such as the Mysore Sanskrit college, established in 1876, continued to provide Vedic education. Vivekananda Institute, Mysore is an international organisation giving training to Indians and foreigners in development management.

 

The education system was enhanced by the establishment of the University of Mysore in 1916, making it the first outside the British administration in India. Other important institutes are CFTRI, MYRA School of Business (founded in 2011) and Mysore Medical College.

 

CULTURE

Referred to as the cultural capital of South Karnataka, Mysore is well known for the festivities that take place during the period of Dasara, the state festival of Karnataka. The Dasara festivities, which are celebrated over a ten-day period, were first introduced by King Raja Wodeyar I in 1610. On the ninth day of Dasara, called Mahanavami, the royal sword is worshipped and is taken on a procession of decorated elephants, camels and horses. On the tenth day, called Vijayadashami, the traditional Dasara procession (locally known as Jumboo Savari) is held on the streets of Mysore which usually falls in the month of September or October.. the Idol of the Goddess Chamundeshwari is placed on a golden mantapa on the back of a decorated elephant and taken on a procession, accompanied by tabla, dance groups, music bands, decorated elephants, horses and camels. The procession starts from the Mysore Palace and culminates at a place called Bannimantapa, where the banni tree (Prosopis spicigera) is worshipped. The Dasara festivities culminate on the night of Vijayadashami with a torchlight parade, known locally as Panjina Kavayatthu.

 

Mysore is called the City of Palaces because of several ornate examples in the city. Among the most notable are Amba Vilas, popularly known as Mysore Palace; Jaganmohana Palace, which also serves as an art gallery; Rajendra Vilas, also known as the summer palace; Lalitha Mahal, which has been converted into a hotel; and Jayalakshmi Vilas. The main palace of Mysore was burned down in 1897, and the present-day structure was built on the same site. Amba Vilas palace exhibits an Indo-Saracenic style of architecture on the outside, but a distinctly Hoysala style in the interior. Even though the Government of Karnataka maintains the Mysore palace, a small portion has been allocated for the erstwhile Royal family to live in. The Jayalakshmi Vilas Mansion was constructed by Sri Chamaraja Wodeyar for his daughter Jayalakshammanni. It is now a museum dedicated to folk culture and artefacts of the royal family.

 

The Mysore painting style is an offshoot of the Vijayanagar school of painting, and King Raja Wodeyar (1578–1617 CE) is credited with having been its patron. The distinctive feature of these paintings is the gesso work, to which gold foil is applied. Mysore is known for rosewood inlay work; around 4,000 craftsmen were estimated to be involved in this art in 2002. The city lends its name to the Mysore silk saree, a women's garment made with pure silk and gold zari (thread). Mysore Peta, the traditional indigenous turban worn by the erstwhile rulers of Mysore, is worn by men in some traditional ceremonies. A notable local dessert that traces its history to the kitchen in the Mysore palace is Mysore pak.

 

Mysore is the location of the International Ganjifa Research Centre, which researches the ancient card game Ganjifa and the art associated with it. The Chamarajendra Academy of Visual Arts (CAVA) offers education in visual art forms such as painting, graphics, sculpture, applied art, photography, photojournalism and art history. The Rangayana repertory company performs plays and offers certificate courses in subjects related to theatre. Kannada writers Kuvempu, Gopalakrishna Adiga and U. R. Ananthamurthy were educated in Mysore and served as professors at the Mysore University. R. K. Narayan, a popular English-language novelist and creator of the fictional town of Malgudi, and his cartoonist brother R. K. Laxman spent much of their life in Mysore.

 

TRANSPORT

ROAD

Mysore is connected by National Highway NH-212 to the state border town of Gundlupet, where the road forks into the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. State Highway 17, which connects Mysore to Bangalore, was upgraded to a four-lane highway in 2006, reducing travel time between the two cities. A project was planned in 1994 to construct a new expressway to connect Bangalore and Mysore. After numerous legal hurdles, it remains unfinished as of 2012. State Highways 33 and 88 which connect Mysore to H D Kote and Madikeri respectively. The Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) and other private agencies operate buses both within the city and between cities. A new division of KSRTC called Mysore City Transport Corporation (MCTC) has been proposed. Within the city, buses are cheap and popular means of transport, auto-rickshaws are also available and tongas (horse-drawn carriages) are popular with tourists. Mysore also has a 42.5-kilometre long ring road that is being upgraded to six lanes by the MUDA.

 

RAIL

Mysore railway station has three lines, connecting it to Bangalore, Hassan and Chamarajanagar. The first railway line established in the city was the Bangalore–Mysore Junction metre gauge line, which was commissioned in 1882. All railway lines that serve the city are single track at some points and the rest of the stretch is double track, impeding faster connections to the city. All trains that connect to Mysore are operated by South Western Railway Zone, Hubli of Indian Railways. The fastest train to serve the city is the Shatabdi Express.

 

AIR

Following three decades of dormancy, Mysore Airport was modernised in the mid-2000s, reopening to scheduled passenger service in October 2010. However, airlines have had difficulty maintaining service to the airport. As of August 2016, the airport is without commercial service.

 

MEDIA

Newspaper publishing in Mysore started in 1859 when Bhashyam Bhashyacharya began publishing a weekly newspaper in Kannada called the Mysooru Vrittanta Bodhini, the first of a number of weekly newspapers published in the following three decades. A well-known Mysore publisher during Wodeyar rule was M. Venkatakrishnaiah, known as the father of Kannada journalism, who started several news magazines. Many local newspapers are published in Mysore and carry news mostly related to the city and its surroundings, and national and regional dailies in English and Kannada are available, as in the other parts of the state. Sudharma, the only Indian daily newspaper in Sanskrit, is published in Mysore.

 

Mysore was the location of the first private radio broadcasting station in India when Akashavani (voice from the sky) was established in the city on 10 September 1935 by M.V. Gopalaswamy, a professor of psychology, at his house in the Vontikoppal area of Mysore, using a 50-watt transmitter. The station was taken over by the princely state of Mysore in 1941 and was moved to Bangalore in 1955. In 1957, Akashvani was chosen as the official name of All India Radio (AIR), the radio broadcaster of the Government of India. The AIR station at Mysore broadcasts an FM radio channel at 100.6 MHz, and Gyan Vani broadcasts on 105.2. BIG FM and Red FM are the two private FM channels operating in the city.

 

Mysore started receiving television broadcasts in the early 1980s, when Doordarshan (public service broadcaster of the Indian government) started broadcasting its national channel all over India. This was the only channel available to Mysoreans until Star TV started satellite channels in 1991. Direct-to-home channels are now available in Mysore.

 

SPORTS

The Wodeyar kings of Mysore were patrons of games and sports. King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III had a passion for indoor games. He invented new board games and popularised the ganjifa card game. Malla-yuddha (traditional wrestling) has a history in Mysore dating back to the 16th century. The wrestling competition held in Mysore during the Dasara celebrations attracts wrestlers from all over India. An annual sports meeting is organised there during the Dasara season too.

 

In 1997 Mysore and Bangalore co-hosted the city's biggest sports event ever, the National Games of India. Mysore was the venue for six sports: archery, gymnastics, equestrianism, handball, table tennis and wrestling. Cricket is by far the most popular sport in Mysore. The city has four established cricket grounds, but is yet to host an international cricket match. Javagal Srinath, who represented India for several years as its frontline fast bowler, comes from Mysore. Other prominent sportsmen from the city are Prahlad Srinath, who has represented India in Davis Cup tennis tournaments; Reeth Abraham, a national champion in the heptathlon and a long jump record holder; Sagar Kashyap, the youngest Indian to officiate at the Wimbledon Championships; and Rahul Ganapathy, a national amateur golf champion. The Mysore race course hosts a racing season each year from August through October. India's first youth hostel was formed in the Maharaja's College Hostel in 1949.

 

TOURISM

Mysore is a major tourist destination in its own right and serves as a base for other tourist attractions in the vicinity. The city receives large number of tourists during the 10-day Dasara festival. One of the most visited monuments in India, the Amba Vilas Palace, or Mysore Palace, is the centre of the Dasara festivities. The Jaganmohana Palace, The Sand Sculpture Museum the Jayalakshmi Vilas and the Lalitha Mahal are other palaces in the city. Chamundeshwari Temple, atop the Chamundi Hills, and St. Philomena's Church, Wesley's Cathedral are notable religious places in Mysore.

 

The Mysore Zoo, established in 1892, the Karanji and Kukkarahalli lakes are popular recreational destinations. Mysore has the Regional Museum of Natural History, the Folk Lore Museum, the Railway Museum and the Oriental Research Institute. The city is a centre for yoga-related health tourism that attracts domestic and foreign visitors, particularly those who, for years, came to study with the late ashtanga yoga guru K. Pattabhi Jois.

 

A short distance from Mysore city is the Krishnarajasagar Dam and the adjoining Brindavan Gardens, where a musical fountain show is held every evening. Places of historic importance close to Mysore are Srirangapatna, Somanathapura and Talakad. B R Hills, Himavad Gopalaswamy Betta hill and the hill stations of Ooty, Sultan Bathery and Madikeri are close to Mysore. Popular destinations for wildlife enthusiasts near Mysore include the Nagarhole National Park, the wildlife sanctuaries at Melkote and B R Hills and the bird sanctuaries at Ranganathittu and Kokrebellur. Bandipur National Park and Mudumalai National Park, which are sanctuaries for gaur, chital, elephants, tigers, Indian leopards and other threatened species, lie between 64 and 97 km to the south. Other tourist spots near Mysore include the religious locations of Nanjanagud and Bylakuppe and the waterfalls at Shivanasamudra.

 

SISTER CITIES

Mysore is currently twinned with Cincinnati.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Sylvia Mendez CREW Leadership Academy Renaming - 2021

Junagarh Fort (Rajasthani: जुनाग्द क़िला) is a fort in the city of Bikaner, Rajasthan, India. The fort was originally called Chintamani and was renamed Junagarh or "Old Fort" in the early 20th century when the ruling family moved to Lalgarh Palace outside the fort limits. It is one of the few major forts in Rajasthan which is not built on a hilltop. The modern city of Bikaner has developed around the fort.

 

The fort complex was built under the supervision of Karan Chand, the Prime Minister of Raja Rai Singh, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611 AD. Construction of the walls and associated moat commenced in 1589 and was completed in 1594. It was built outside the original fort of the city, about 1.5 kilometres from the city centre. Some remnants of the old fort are preserved near the Lakshmi Narayan temple.

 

Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort, it was not taken, except for a lone one-day occupation by Kamran Mirza. Kamran was the second son of the Mughal Emperor Babur who attacked Bikaner in 1534, which was then ruled by Rao Jait Singh. In the battle, the Mughals were defeated by Rathors. Kamran then returned to Lahore.

 

The 5.28 hectares large fort precinct is studded with palaces, temples and pavilions. These buildings depict a composite culture, manifest in the mix of architectural styles.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Junagarh fort is located in the arid region of the Thar desert of Rajasthan bordered on the northwest by the Aravalli range, a range of mountains in western India. Part of the desert area is in Bikaner city, which is one of the three desert triangle cities; the other two cities are Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The name of the place where Bikaner city with its forts was established was then known as Jungladesh.

 

HISTORY

Before the present Junagarh Fort was built, an old stone fort existed in the city. This fort was built in 1478 by Rao Bika who established the city of Bikaner in 1472. Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur city. He conquered the large arid lands to the northern region of Rajasthan to set up his domain. As the second son of Jodha he had no chance of inheriting his father’s territory of Jodhpur or to the title of Maharaja. He, therefore, reconciled and decided to build his own kingdom at Bikaner at the place then called "Jungladesh". Bikaner, though a partly of the Thar Desert, was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast since it had adequate spring water sources. Bika’s name was thus tagged to the Bikaner city as well as to the then state of Bikaner (“the settlement of Bika”) that he established. The history of Bikaner and the fort within it thus start with Bika. It was only about 100 years later that Bikaner’s fortunes flourished under Raja Rai Singhji, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611. During the Mughal Empire’s rule in the country, he accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high position of an army general in the court of Emperor Akbar and his son Emperor Jahangir. His successful war exploits by way of winning half of Mewar kingdom won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors. He was gifted the jagirs (lands) of Gujarat and Burhanpur. With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Junagarh fort on a plain land, which has an average elevation of 230 m. The formal foundation ceremony for the fort was held on 17 February 1589 and the fort was completed on 17 January 1594. Raja Rai Singhji, was an expert in arts and architecture and the knowledge that he acquired during his several sojourns to several countries are amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built in the Junagarh fort. Thus the fort, a composite structure, became an outstanding example of architecture and a unique centre of art, amidst the Thar desert.

 

Karan Singh who ruled from 1631 to 1639, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh, who ruled from 1669–98, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter (royal dwelling for females). He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Gaj Singh who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace). Following him, Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and he lavishly decorated the audience hall (see picture in info box) with glass and lively paintwork. Dungar Singh who reigned from 1872 to 1887 built the Badal Mahal (the weather palace) named so in view of a painting of falling rain and clouds (a rare event in arid Bikaner). Ganga Singh who ruled from 1887 to 1943 built the Ganga Niwas Palace, which has towers at the entrance patio. This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob.[10] Ganga Singh’s son Sadul Singh succeeded his father in 1943 but acceded to the Union of India in 1949. He died in 1950.

 

Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British Raj under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818, where after the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily on refurbishing their Junagarh fort. However, during the 18th century, before this treaty was signed, there was internecine war between rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other Thakur, which was put down by the British troops. It is reported that during the attack by Jodhpur army, of the two entrances to the fort (one in the east and the other in the west), the eastern entrance and the southern rampart were damaged; marks of cannonballs fired are seen on the southern façade of the fort.

 

Ganga Singh was the best-known king among the Rajasthan princes. A favourite of the British Raj, he earned the title of Knight Commander of the Star of India. He served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, represented the country at the Imperial First World War Conferences and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference and was aware of the shift of fortunes in the World War II but died in 1943, before the war was won by the allies. His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audience in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions. The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee as a ruler of Bikaner is now a museum. He also got a new palace - north of Junagarh fort - designed and built by Swinton, the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner and named it Lalgarh Palace in the name of his father and shifted his residence from Junagarh fort to this palace in 1902. The royal family still lives in a special suite in the Lalbagh palace, which they have converted into a heritage hotel.

 

STRUCTURES

The structures built within the Junagarh fort are the palaces and temples, which are made of red sandstone (Dulmera) and marble. The palaces are described as picturesque with their assortment of courtyards, balconies, kiosks and windows. The fort, the temples and the palaces are preserved as museums and provide insight into the grandiose living style of the past Maharanas of Rajasthan. The fort is called “a paradox between medieval military architecture and beautiful interior decoration”.

 

OVERVIEW

The massive fort built in the plains of Bikaner has a rectangular (quadrangular) layout with a peripheral length of 986 m. The fort walls are 4.4 m wide and 12 m in height. It encompasses an area of 5.28 ha. It was surrounded by a moat which was 6.1–7.6 m deep with a base width of 4.6 m and top width of 9.1 m. However, the moat no longer exists. The fort is well fortified with 37 bastions (‘burj’ in local language) and seven gates (two are main gates) to counter enemy attacks. The fort was built as a “new stronghold” outside of the ruins of an old fort built by Rao Bika and on the periphery of the Bikaner city walls (1.5 kilometres from the city centre); the old fort was demolished a century after it was built.

 

The fort with seven gates contains several palaces, pavilions and many temples of Hindu and Jain religions - the earliest dated to the 16th century. A major feature of the fort is the stone carving done in red and gold coloured sandstones. The interiors of the palaces are decorated and painted in traditional Rajasthani style. The Junagarh palaces have a large number of rooms, as every king built his own separate set of rooms, not wanting to live in his predecessors’ rooms. These structures were considered as “at par with those of Louis’s France or of Imperial Russia”. Several types of architectural style are discerned in the fort complex and hence it is called a true depiction of composite culture. The earliest style is of Rajput architecture, defined by Gujarati and Mughal architectural influence reflecting the association with Mughal rulers, the second type is of semi-western architecture reflecting British influence, and finally the revivalists Rajput architecture that evolved particularly during the rule of Maharaja Ganga Singh. Only the most representative of all these architectural styles are on display for visitors. Thus, the unique monuments on display in the Junagarh Fort represent sixteen successive generations of the rulers of Bikaner, starting from the end of the 16th century.

 

GATES

While the main entry gate was Karan Pol or Parole, facing east, the current gate of entry is called Suraj Pol (meaning the Sun gate), 'pol' also colloquially spelt prol, built in gold coloured or yellow sandstone, unlike the other gates and buildings built in red sandstone. It is the east facing gate permitting the rising Sun’s rays to fall on the gate, which is considered a good omen. The doors of this gate are strengthened with iron spikes and studs to prevent ramming by elephants during an attack. At the entrance to the gate, two red stone statues of elephants with mahouts stand as sentinels. The gate was also the location for announcing the arrival and departure of royalty by musicians playing the trumpet from a gallery in the gate. The other gates are Karan Pol, Daulat Pol, Chand Pol (a double gate) and Fateh Pol; these provided access to various monuments in the fort. The Karan Pol gate is also braced with iron spikes to prevent battering of the gate by elephants. To the right of this gate is Daulat Pol. Forty-one hand imprints are seen on the Daulat Pol gate wall, in red colour, of the wives of the Maharajas of Bikaner, who committed sati (self immolation) on the funeral pyres of their husbands who died in battle.

 

Between the main gate and the palace, there is a quadrangle, and then another gate called the Tripolia gate (triple gateway) before accessing the royal chambers. Next to this gate is a small temple called the Har Mandir, where the Royal family used to offer worship. In the quadrangle, which houses a large pavilion with a water pool built in Carrara Italian marble. The Karan Mahal, where public audience was held in the Diwan-i-Am by Karan Singh (1631–39) and his successors till the 20th century, can also be seen in the same quadrangle.

 

TEMPLES

Har Mandir temple was the royal chapel - private temple of the royal family. The royal family celebrated the Hindu festival of Dussera and Gangaur here, apart from celebrating other family functions such as birthdays and marriages. In the Dussera celebrations, weapons and horses were worshipped here. The main deities worshipped in this temple are the Hindu deities Lakshmi Narayan, a combined representation of god Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi.

 

The Ratan Behari temple located near the Junagarh Fort, was built in 1846 by the 18th ruler of Bikaner. It was built in Indo-Mughal architectural style using white marble. The Hindu god Krishna is deified in this temple.

 

PALACES

Karan mahal (Public Audience Hall) was built by Karan Singh in c.1680 to mark his victory over the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. It is considered as one of the most exquisite palaces built with gardens, which displays the aesthetic sensibilities of the royalty of Rajasthan. It has stained glass windows and intricately carved balconies built in stone and wood fluted columns. Later Rajas, Anup Singh and Surat Singh, also added lot of glitter to this palace with inlaid polychrome glass, intricate mirror patterns, and red and gold paint. In the coronation chamber, there is a shored up alcove, which was used as a throne.

 

Phool Mahal ("Flower Palace") is the oldest part of the palace and was built by king Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner, who ruled between 1571-1668.

 

Anup Mahal is a multi-storey structure, which functioned as the administrative headquarters of the kingdom. It has ornate wooden ceilings with inlaid mirrors, Italian tiles, and fine lattice windows and balconies. It has some gold leaf paintings. It is considered as one of the “grandest construction”.

 

Chandra Mahal has the most luxurious room in the palace, which houses gold plated deities and paintings inlaid with precious stones. In the royal bedroom, mirrors have been strategically placed so that the Maharaja could see from his bed, any intruder entering his room.

 

Ganga Mahal was built in the 20th century by Ganga Singh who reigned for 56 years from 1887 to 1943, has a large durbar hall known as the Ganga Singh Hall that houses the Museum. The museum has exhibits of war weaponry and also a World War I aeroplane (biplane), which is stated to be well maintained.

 

Badal Mahal (The weather palace) is part of the Anup Mahal extensions. It has paintings of Shekhawati Dundlod chiefs paying respects to the Maharaja of Bikaner in different types of turbans. Photos of people standing on nails, wood, swords and saws are also depicted here – a display of faith and endurance. The walls in this palace depict fresco paintings of the Hindu god Krishna and his consort Radha amidst the rain clouds.

 

Bikaneri Havelies located both within and outside the fort in the Bikaner city’s by lanes are also of unique architectural style in home architecture. Aldous Huxley who visited these havelis reportedly said “They are the pride of Bikaner.”

 

FORT MUSEUM

The museum within the fort called the Junagarh Fort Museum was established in 1961 by Maharaja Dr.Karni Singhji under the control of "Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust". The Museum exhibits Sanskrit and Persian manuscripts, miniature paintings, jewels, royal costumes, farmans (royal orders), portrait galleries, costumes, headgear and dresses of gods’ idols, enamelware, silver, palanquins, howdahs and war drums. The museum also displays armoury that consists of one of the assorted collection of post medieval arms.

 

MAHARAJA RAI SINGHJI TRUST

Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust has been set up by the 'Royal family of Bikaner' with the basic objective to showcase the fort with professional inputs in various areas and to improve the experience for visitors. Another objective is to promote education and research scholarships, cultural activities, setting up of libraries and integration with other such trusts.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Multiple photo composite of SkyDome and CN Tower taken with the Treo 600 and stitched using the automatic panorama feature in Microsoft's Digital Image Suite Pro 10.

 

Taken from the northwest corner facing southeast.

Abandoned house.

 

Charleston Navy Yard (later renamed the Charleston Naval Shipyard and finally renamed Naval Base Charleston) was a U.S. Navy ship building and repair facility located along the west bank of the Cooper River, in North Charleston, South Carolina. It began operations in 1909 as a drydock, and continued as a navy facility until 1996 when it was leased to Detyens Shipyards, Inc. during down-sizing.

 

The yard first produced the destroyer USS Tillman (DD-135), then began to increase production in the 1930s. A total of 21 destroyers were assembled at Charleston Navy Yard.

 

Today, a 340-acre (1.4 km2) section of the former base is being revitalized as a sustainable, mixed-use urban hub for the city of North Charleston, SC. The new development is called The Navy Yard at Noisette. Ground broke in 2005.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_Navy_Yard

Abandoned house.

 

Charleston Navy Yard (later renamed the Charleston Naval Shipyard and finally renamed Naval Base Charleston) was a U.S. Navy ship building and repair facility located along the west bank of the Cooper River, in North Charleston, South Carolina. It began operations in 1909 as a drydock, and continued as a navy facility until 1996 when it was leased to Detyens Shipyards, Inc. during down-sizing.

 

The yard first produced the destroyer USS Tillman (DD-135), then began to increase production in the 1930s. A total of 21 destroyers were assembled at Charleston Navy Yard.

 

Today, a 340-acre (1.4 km2) section of the former base is being revitalized as a sustainable, mixed-use urban hub for the city of North Charleston, SC. The new development is called The Navy Yard at Noisette. Ground broke in 2005.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_Navy_Yard

GTS Celebrity Constellation is a Millennium class cruise ship of Celebrity Cruises. She is the co-flagship of the Celebrity fleet, along with Century-class ship Century. She was originally named Constellation, but renamed in May 2007. Her three sister ships are the Celebrity Infinity, Summit, and Millennium. Here - arriving Bergen harbour six o'clock in the morning..,.

c/n 455. Ready to lineup on runway 08 at London-Gatwick. New to Pan Am as N818PA in 1988. To Delta in 1991, then Air Club International as C-GCIT in 1994. To N572SW then Air Plus Comet as EC-GOT in 1997. Renamed Air Comet in 2007. Stored at Lourdes, France in 2009 and scrapped.

Charleston Navy Yard (later renamed the Charleston Naval Shipyard and finally renamed Naval Base Charleston) was a U.S. Navy ship building and repair facility located along the west bank of the Cooper River, in North Charleston, South Carolina. It began operations in 1909 as a drydock, and continued as a navy facility until 1996 when it was leased to Detyens Shipyards, Inc. during down-sizing.

 

The yard first produced the destroyer USS Tillman (DD-135), then began to increase production in the 1930s. A total of 21 destroyers were assembled at Charleston Navy Yard.

 

Today, a 340-acre (1.4 km2) section of the former base is being revitalized as a sustainable, mixed-use urban hub for the city of North Charleston, SC. The new development is called The Navy Yard at Noisette. Ground broke in 2005.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_Navy_Yard

The former Leongatha Mechanics' Institute and Free Library was designed by H. V. and A. Champion and constructed by Loring and Speers between 1911 and 1912 at 10 McCartin Street, Leongatha.

 

The original Leongatha Mechanics' Institute was erected in 1891 on the site next to the building's current address where now stands the grand Leongatha Memorial Hall. The present building, consiting of two large rooms and a billiard saloon, was opened by the Honourable J. E. Mackey on the 26th of March 1912. It functioned as a working library, meeting room and billiard hall for working men of the district up until 1982.

 

The building itself is an interesting one, especially notable for the construction of the walls which were made with river weeds covered with plaster. This latter technique is unique within the local shire, and possibly the State of Victoria. The Mechanics' Institute is also notable for the ceiling in the front room and vestibule which was made from pressed steel. It is also important as a part of a historic streetscape. The building has a cement brick facade with two large windows and a large doorway. Over the doorway and one of the windows are iron canopies. Aesthetically, it is a notable example of early 20th Century Federation design, unusually and effectively employing concrete blocks in Classical detailing. The building was designed to contain a Public Reading Room, Members' Room and Billiard Room. Historically, the building illustrates the development of Mechanic's Institute in Leongatha and their important role in the development of the local community, both in a social and intellectual sense. It is also important for its use as the first Leongatha Public Library. It is an integral and notable part of the highly important group of civic buildings that are an essential part of the historic character of Leongatha.

 

When the doors finally closed for the Leongatha Mechanics' Institute and Free Library in 1982, it did not spell an end to the building's functionality. The Leongatha and Distric Historical Society was given the use of the building by the Shire of Woorayl in 1983, and it received a National Trust classification in 1984, thus preserving it for future generations to enjoy.

 

The Mechanics' Institute Movement began in British urban industrial cities in the early 1800s to enable men of the lower classes to improve themselves. A "mechanic" was a person applying skills and technology. During the Nineteenth Century, most towns in Victoria established a Mechanics' Institute or Athenaeum with a library and meeting hall. Common objects of the Mechanics' Institute Movement was to spread useful knowledge and provide rational (non alcoholic) recreation for the community.

 

Leongatha is a town in the foothills of the Strzelecki Ranges, South Gippsland Shire, Victoria, Australia, located 135 kilometres south-east of Melbourne. The town is the civic, commercial, industrial, religious, educational and sporting centre of the region. The Murray Goulburn Co-operative Co. Limited, is a farmers' co-operative which trades in Australia under the Devondale label, and has a dairy processing plant just north of the town producing milk-based products for Australian and overseas markets. First settlement of the area by Europeans occurred in 1845. The Post Office opened as Koorooman on 1 October 1887 and renamed Leongatha in 1891 when a township was established on the arrival of the railway. The Daffodil Festival is held annually in September. Competitions are held and many daffodil varieties are on display. A garden competition is also held and there are many beautiful examples throughout the provincial town. The South Gippsland Railway runs historical diesel locomotives and railcars between the market and dairy towns of Nyora and Leongatha, passing through Korumburra.

My exemplar of the RINGFOTO rallye 701, with some heavy dents. It is a renamed Cosina compact 35E, and like many cameras of its time it features a combination of a rangefinder, a programmed shutter and a flash-matic. The lens is a Cosinon 2.7/38 mm, the shutter is made by Copal. Because of the programmed shutter every f-stop has its dedicated shutter speed and these pairs are shown in the viewfinder, which is a bit unusual. The range is from (1/30-2.7) to (1/650-16).

 

Ringfoto is a union of camera shops founded in Germany 1965. Meanwhile it's a huge European enterprise, it could take over Photo Porst, a great competitor, and it even is the owner of Voigtländer.

BTW, Porst sold the same camera as Porst 135S, and a cheaper version Porst 135C without rangefinder and selftimer.

 

This shot was taken with a Carl Zeiss Jena Pancolar 1.8/80 at f/1.8 with a 12 mm spacer ring, attached on a camera with APS-C sensor. No sharpening or CA-correction were done.

CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla. -- At the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, Rick Armstrong addresses the audience at a ceremony renaming the refurbished Operations and Checkout Building for Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong, the first person to set foot on the moon. Rick is Neil Armstrong's son. The building's high bay is being used to support the agency's new Orion spacecraft and is the same spaceport facility where the Apollo 11 command/service module and lunar module were prepped for the first lunar landing mission in 1969. Orion is designed to take humans farther than they’ve ever gone before, serving as the exploration vehicle that will carry astronauts to deep space and sustain the crew during travel to destinations such as an asteroid or Mars. The ceremony was part of NASA's 45th anniversary celebration of the Apollo 11 moon landing. As the world watched, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed in the moon's Sea of Tranquility on July 20, 1969, aboard the lunar module Eagle. Meanwhile, crewmate Michael Collins orbited above in the command module Columbia. For more, visit www.nasa.gov/press/2014/july/nasa-honors-historic-first-m.... Photo credit: NASA/Kim Shiflett

The Los Angeles City Fire Department dedicated its Chatsworth helispot in the name of former Air Operations Chief Pilot Glenn Smith, who died from cancer. Smith's family, including his son who's an LAFD firefighter, were at the dedication. LAFD Chief Engineer Ralph Terrazas also announced the City's lease of an Erickson Air Crane helicopter for the brush fire season.

Charleston Navy Yard (later renamed the Charleston Naval Shipyard and finally renamed Naval Base Charleston) was a U.S. Navy ship building and repair facility located along the west bank of the Cooper River, in North Charleston, South Carolina. It began operations in 1909 as a drydock, and continued as a navy facility until 1996 when it was leased to Detyens Shipyards, Inc. during down-sizing.

 

The yard first produced the destroyer USS Tillman (DD-135), then began to increase production in the 1930s. A total of 21 destroyers were assembled at Charleston Navy Yard.

 

Today, a 340-acre (1.4 km2) section of the former base is being revitalized as a sustainable, mixed-use urban hub for the city of North Charleston, SC. The new development is called The Navy Yard at Noisette. Ground broke in 2005.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_Navy_Yard

Charleston Navy Yard (later renamed the Charleston Naval Shipyard and finally renamed Naval Base Charleston) was a U.S. Navy ship building and repair facility located along the west bank of the Cooper River, in North Charleston, South Carolina. It began operations in 1909 as a drydock, and continued as a navy facility until 1996 when it was leased to Detyens Shipyards, Inc. during down-sizing.

 

The yard first produced the destroyer USS Tillman (DD-135), then began to increase production in the 1930s. A total of 21 destroyers were assembled at Charleston Navy Yard.

 

Today, a 340-acre (1.4 km2) section of the former base is being revitalized as a sustainable, mixed-use urban hub for the city of North Charleston, SC. The new development is called The Navy Yard at Noisette. Ground broke in 2005.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_Navy_Yard

A = The original Tregonwell Mansion completed in 1812, now part of the Royal Exeter Hotel, about a hundred yards up Exeter Rd.

 

B = Symes Cottage built at the same time as the Mansion for the Tregonwell's butler. Later renamed Portman Lodge it was home to Henrietta Tregonwell after the death of her husband Lewis, until her own death in 1846. It was severely damaged by fire in 1922 and was modestly rebuilt before being demolished in 1929 to make way for the Exeter Rd bus station.

 

C = Terrace Cottage was built on the slopes of Prospect Mount, later renamed Terrace Mount, in the 1820s, for the Tregonwell's gardener. Rebuilt in the late 1800s, it was later used by members of the Tregonwell family. By the 1930s the Merville Hotel occupied the site with the latter incarnation of Terrace Cottage retained within the much larger hotel structure. The hotel was demolished in the 1990s and the site has remained vacant although it is earmarked as part of a scheme to redevelop the Terrace Mount car park.

 

D = About fifty yards to the right stood Lainston Villa, which in modern terms stood where the pedestrian entrance/exit to the car park is, opposite the Moon in the Square pub. It was used as a meeting place for the town's Commissioners who were in effect the first town council, set up as part of the Bournemouth Improvement Act 1856. The meetings were originally held at the Belle Vue Hotel at Pier Approach and moved to Lainston Villa in the late 1850s.

It later became a tea house before being demolished, along with Portman Lodge, to make way for the Exeter Rd bus station that opened in 1931.

 

E = Orchard Street, Bournemouth's only 'street' and it's adjoining land, was the town's first working class district in the 1840s and 50s.. The tradesmen involved in the construction of the large villas, or at least those that could afford to, lived here along with others providing services to the town's well to do residents and visitors. Land in the area was getting more expensive, and although i'm no expert on the subject, i'd imagine travelling in from Poole or Christchurch every day, doing a day's hard graft on a building site [ that tea don't drink itself ] and then travelling back home again must have taken it's toll. Perhaps if property developers or groups of builders purchased the land they could get ten or more modest homes on the same size plot that one villa would occupy nearby. For those workers who couldn't afford to own their own home, rooms were undoubtedly available to rent. Many moved with their families to the new town.

This area is also where the town's first shops were built, facing The Square, where Debenhams and Boots now stand. Hence why the shops running from this point on up the hill became known as Commercial Rd.

As the town expanded, larger working class areas developed in Springbourne and Winton during the 1860s and 70s.

 

F = The Exeter Rd bus station opened in 1931 but was severely damaged by fire in 1976. It was demolished and has been the Exeter Crescent NCP car park since the 1980s. Another one earmarked for future redevelopment.

 

G = St Andrews Presbyterian Church was originally built as a corrugated iron building at the foot of Richmond Hill in The Square in 1857. It was known as the Scotch Church and can be seen in photos of the period. In 1872 it was replaced by a stone built church on the same site which itself was replaced by Central Chambers in 1888, today home to Nat West bank.

After vacating it's previous site the church was rebuilt on the other side of The Square, in Exeter Rd, as seen above. The spire was removed after sustaining damage during WW2 and is no longer used as a church.

 

H = This building stands between the former St Andrews Church and the Moon in the Square pub and is home to chartered surveyors, Rebbeck Brothers. William Rebbeck managed the Tregonwell's Dorset estate at Cranborne but came to Bournemouth in the 1830s to manage the Tregonwell's estate after the death of Lewis Tregonwell in 1832. In 1845 William Rebbeck opened an estate agency in a small single storey building in The Square, at the junction of Old Christchurch Rd and Gervis Place. It was known as Rebbecks Corner for many years.

 

I = Prospect Mount, later renamed Terrace Mount, was home to a number of large hotels including Boscobel Tower, Boscobel Hall, Balna Howe and Studleigh Royal. Since demolished, the site is now the Terrace Mount car park that is earmarked for redevelopment.

 

J = In the days of the Tregonwells this was Cranborne Gardens. In 1877 a large conservatory style, steel framed glass building opened as the Winter Gardens on the site. It was replaced by a second, brick built Winter Gardens, that opened as an indoor bowling green in 1937. It was converted into a concert hall before being demolished in 2006. Currently the Winter Gardens car park, the site is another one earmarked for redevelopment.

Later renamed "Saint Andrews College". This disgusting blocky grey concrete 1960s monstrosity had the status of Grade-A llisted building and won an architectural award. Shows how bad the tastes of "architects" of the time were. After sitting empty for years and blighting the view, East Dunbartonshire Council finally saw sense and authorised the demolition of this trash. Good riddance.

 

Designed by Gillespie, Kidd & Coia who were responsible for a plethora of hideous buildings in Scotland in the 1960s.

Manufactured by VEB Pentacon, former East Germany

Model: c. 1979, version 4.1 (A&R 1, Hummel 059), (produced between 1977-83)

All Exa 1b produced between 1977-85

as to Andrzej Wrotniak

35mm film SLR film camera

BODY

Lens release: simply screw counter clockwise

Focusing: simple matte glass screen, ring and scale on the lens

Shutter: Mirror acts like a curtain as a part of the shutter, vertical moving, due to this maximum speed is limited to 1/175

Speeds: 1/30-1/175 +B setting: dial under the rewind crank knob

Shutter release: on the left fron of the camera, w/cable release socket

Cocking lever: also winds the film, short stroke, on the right of the top plate

Frame counter: on the cocking lever knob, regressive type, manual setting

Viewfinder: eye level SLR pentaprism, interchangeable

Finder release: by a small lever on the back of top plate, turn it left and pull-up the finder

Mirror: not instant return. Mirror is actually a part of the shutter mechanism. When the shutter released, the mirror goes up as in a conventional SLR, but when the exposure is over, a second cover rotates upward to block the light. There is no real shutter curtain.

Re-wind lever: folding crank type, on the left of the top plate

Re-wind release: by a small knob beside cocking lever

Flash PC socket: on the right front of the camera, M and X, setting with the speeds knob

Cold-shoe: none

Self-timer: none

Memory dial: for ASA, a ring on the cocking lever knob under the frame counter

Back cover: removable with the bottom plate, opens by a thumb wheel on the bottom plate

Engaving on the back cover: Made in G.D.R.

Film loading: special take-up spool

Tripod socket: 1/4''

Strap lugs

Body: metal; Weight:

serial no.700490

LENS:

Domiplan (Meyer Optik), 50mm f/2.8, fully automatic, 3 elements

filter thread: 40.5mm serial no.10416736

Domiplan is the standard lens of Exa 1b.

Mount: M42 screw mount

There is a standard M42 type arc/lever on the body, that depresses the pin on the lens that closes the diaphragm blades. When the pressure is let up, the lens opens fully again. A half-depression of the shutter release allows a depth of field preview.

Aperture: f/2.8-f/22,

Focus range: 075-12m +inf

+original ever ready case

 

VEB Pentacon licensed the production of screw-mount Exas (some late Ib version 4.4 and all Ic version 4.5) to Certo Camera Werk, Dresden-Großzsachwitz, a part of VEB Pentacon. Cameras built by Certo have serial numbers preceded with a letter C.

The later models of Exa 1b have black plastic top- and bottom plates.

Exa 1b body is virtually identical to Exa Ia except rewind knob replaced with a crank and the lens mount is M42 (Pentax/Practica standard), instead of the traditional Exakta bayonet mount. The camera also has internal aperture coupling for M42 automatic lenses.

Exa 1b uses most standard Exakta viewfinders, waist-level and prism.

Other main lenses are Tessar, Makinon and Super Takumar.

Exa 1b is not a real part of the Exakta/Exa system, although its family relationship with Exa cannot be denied.

Exa 1b renamed as Exa 1c without practically any other changes.

More info

Andrzej Wrotniak

Captain Jack

www.exakta.org/org35/orgexa/orgexa.html

Junagarh Fort (Rajasthani: जुनाग्द क़िला) is a fort in the city of Bikaner, Rajasthan, India. The fort was originally called Chintamani and was renamed Junagarh or "Old Fort" in the early 20th century when the ruling family moved to Lalgarh Palace outside the fort limits. It is one of the few major forts in Rajasthan which is not built on a hilltop. The modern city of Bikaner has developed around the fort.

 

The fort complex was built under the supervision of Karan Chand, the Prime Minister of Raja Rai Singh, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611 AD. Construction of the walls and associated moat commenced in 1589 and was completed in 1594. It was built outside the original fort of the city, about 1.5 kilometres from the city centre. Some remnants of the old fort are preserved near the Lakshmi Narayan temple.

 

Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort, it was not taken, except for a lone one-day occupation by Kamran Mirza. Kamran was the second son of the Mughal Emperor Babur who attacked Bikaner in 1534, which was then ruled by Rao Jait Singh. In the battle, the Mughals were defeated by Rathors. Kamran then returned to Lahore.

 

The 5.28 hectares large fort precinct is studded with palaces, temples and pavilions. These buildings depict a composite culture, manifest in the mix of architectural styles.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Junagarh fort is located in the arid region of the Thar desert of Rajasthan bordered on the northwest by the Aravalli range, a range of mountains in western India. Part of the desert area is in Bikaner city, which is one of the three desert triangle cities; the other two cities are Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The name of the place where Bikaner city with its forts was established was then known as Jungladesh.

 

HISTORY

Before the present Junagarh Fort was built, an old stone fort existed in the city. This fort was built in 1478 by Rao Bika who established the city of Bikaner in 1472. Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur city. He conquered the large arid lands to the northern region of Rajasthan to set up his domain. As the second son of Jodha he had no chance of inheriting his father’s territory of Jodhpur or to the title of Maharaja. He, therefore, reconciled and decided to build his own kingdom at Bikaner at the place then called "Jungladesh". Bikaner, though a partly of the Thar Desert, was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast since it had adequate spring water sources. Bika’s name was thus tagged to the Bikaner city as well as to the then state of Bikaner (“the settlement of Bika”) that he established. The history of Bikaner and the fort within it thus start with Bika. It was only about 100 years later that Bikaner’s fortunes flourished under Raja Rai Singhji, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611. During the Mughal Empire’s rule in the country, he accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high position of an army general in the court of Emperor Akbar and his son Emperor Jahangir. His successful war exploits by way of winning half of Mewar kingdom won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors. He was gifted the jagirs (lands) of Gujarat and Burhanpur. With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Junagarh fort on a plain land, which has an average elevation of 230 m. The formal foundation ceremony for the fort was held on 17 February 1589 and the fort was completed on 17 January 1594. Raja Rai Singhji, was an expert in arts and architecture and the knowledge that he acquired during his several sojourns to several countries are amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built in the Junagarh fort. Thus the fort, a composite structure, became an outstanding example of architecture and a unique centre of art, amidst the Thar desert.

 

Karan Singh who ruled from 1631 to 1639, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh, who ruled from 1669–98, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter (royal dwelling for females). He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Gaj Singh who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace). Following him, Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and he lavishly decorated the audience hall (see picture in info box) with glass and lively paintwork. Dungar Singh who reigned from 1872 to 1887 built the Badal Mahal (the weather palace) named so in view of a painting of falling rain and clouds (a rare event in arid Bikaner). Ganga Singh who ruled from 1887 to 1943 built the Ganga Niwas Palace, which has towers at the entrance patio. This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob. Ganga Singh’s son Sadul Singh succeeded his father in 1943 but acceded to the Union of India in 1949. He died in 1950.

 

Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British Raj under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818, where after the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily on refurbishing their Junagarh fort. However, during the 18th century, before this treaty was signed, there was internecine war between rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other Thakur, which was put down by the British troops. It is reported that during the attack by Jodhpur army, of the two entrances to the fort (one in the east and the other in the west), the eastern entrance and the southern rampart were damaged; marks of cannonballs fired are seen on the southern façade of the fort.

 

Ganga Singh was the best-known king among the Rajasthan princes. A favourite of the British Raj, he earned the title of Knight Commander of the Star of India. He served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, represented the country at the Imperial First World War Conferences and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference and was aware of the shift of fortunes in the World War II but died in 1943, before the war was won by the allies. His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audience in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions. The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee as a ruler of Bikaner is now a museum. He also got a new palace - north of Junagarh fort - designed and built by Swinton, the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner and named it Lalgarh Palace in the name of his father and shifted his residence from Junagarh fort to this palace in 1902. The royal family still lives in a special suite in the Lalbagh palace, which they have converted into a heritage hotel.

 

STRUCTURES

The structures built within the Junagarh fort are the palaces and temples, which are made of red sandstone (Dulmera) and marble. The palaces are described as picturesque with their assortment of courtyards, balconies, kiosks and windows. The fort, the temples and the palaces are preserved as museums and provide insight into the grandiose living style of the past Maharanas of Rajasthan. The fort is called “a paradox between medieval military architecture and beautiful interior decoration”.

 

OVERVIEW

The massive fort built in the plains of Bikaner has a rectangular (quadrangular) layout with a peripheral length of 986 m. The fort walls are 4.4 m wide and 12 m in height. It encompasses an area of 5.28 ha. It was surrounded by a moat which was 6.1–7.6 m deep with a base width of 4.6 m and top width of 9.1 m. However, the moat no longer exists. The fort is well fortified with 37 bastions (‘burj’ in local language) and seven gates (two are main gates) to counter enemy attacks. The fort was built as a “new stronghold” outside of the ruins of an old fort built by Rao Bika and on the periphery of the Bikaner city walls (1.5 kilometres from the city centre); the old fort was demolished a century after it was built.

 

The fort with seven gates contains several palaces, pavilions and many temples of Hindu and Jain religions - the earliest dated to the 16th century. A major feature of the fort is the stone carving done in red and gold coloured sandstones. The interiors of the palaces are decorated and painted in traditional Rajasthani style. The Junagarh palaces have a large number of rooms, as every king built his own separate set of rooms, not wanting to live in his predecessors’ rooms. These structures were considered as “at par with those of Louis’s France or of Imperial Russia”. Several types of architectural style are discerned in the fort complex and hence it is called a true depiction of composite culture. The earliest style is of Rajput architecture, defined by Gujarati and Mughal architectural influence reflecting the association with Mughal rulers, the second type is of semi-western architecture reflecting British influence, and finally the revivalists Rajput architecture that evolved particularly during the rule of Maharaja Ganga Singh. Only the most representative of all these architectural styles are on display for visitors. Thus, the unique monuments on display in the Junagarh Fort represent sixteen successive generations of the rulers of Bikaner, starting from the end of the 16th century.

 

GATES

While the main entry gate was Karan Pol or Parole, facing east, the current gate of entry is called Suraj Pol (meaning the Sun gate), 'pol' also colloquially spelt prol, built in gold coloured or yellow sandstone, unlike the other gates and buildings built in red sandstone. It is the east facing gate permitting the rising Sun’s rays to fall on the gate, which is considered a good omen. The doors of this gate are strengthened with iron spikes and studs to prevent ramming by elephants during an attack. At the entrance to the gate, two red stone statues of elephants with mahouts stand as sentinels. The gate was also the location for announcing the arrival and departure of royalty by musicians playing the trumpet from a gallery in the gate. The other gates are Karan Pol, Daulat Pol, Chand Pol (a double gate) and Fateh Pol; these provided access to various monuments in the fort. The Karan Pol gate is also braced with iron spikes to prevent battering of the gate by elephants. To the right of this gate is Daulat Pol. Forty-one hand imprints are seen on the Daulat Pol gate wall, in red colour, of the wives of the Maharajas of Bikaner, who committed sati (self immolation) on the funeral pyres of their husbands who died in battle.

 

Between the main gate and the palace, there is a quadrangle, and then another gate called the Tripolia gate (triple gateway) before accessing the royal chambers. Next to this gate is a small temple called the Har Mandir, where the Royal family used to offer worship. In the quadrangle, which houses a large pavilion with a water pool built in Carrara Italian marble. The Karan Mahal, where public audience was held in the Diwan-i-Am by Karan Singh (1631–39) and his successors till the 20th century, can also be seen in the same quadrangle.

 

TEMPLES

Har Mandir temple was the royal chapel - private temple of the royal family. The royal family celebrated the Hindu festival of Dussera and Gangaur here, apart from celebrating other family functions such as birthdays and marriages. In the Dussera celebrations, weapons and horses were worshipped here. The main deities worshipped in this temple are the Hindu deities Lakshmi Narayan, a combined representation of god Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi.

 

The Ratan Behari temple located near the Junagarh Fort, was built in 1846 by the 18th ruler of Bikaner. It was built in Indo-Mughal architectural style using white marble. The Hindu god Krishna is deified in this temple.

 

PALACES

Karan mahal (Public Audience Hall) was built by Karan Singh in c.1680 to mark his victory over the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. It is considered as one of the most exquisite palaces built with gardens, which displays the aesthetic sensibilities of the royalty of Rajasthan. It has stained glass windows and intricately carved balconies built in stone and wood fluted columns. Later Rajas, Anup Singh and Surat Singh, also added lot of glitter to this palace with inlaid polychrome glass, intricate mirror patterns, and red and gold paint. In the coronation chamber, there is a shored up alcove, which was used as a throne.

 

Phool Mahal ("Flower Palace") is the oldest part of the palace and was built by king Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner, who ruled between 1571-1668.

 

Anup Mahal is a multi-storey structure, which functioned as the administrative headquarters of the kingdom. It has ornate wooden ceilings with inlaid mirrors, Italian tiles, and fine lattice windows and balconies. It has some gold leaf paintings. It is considered as one of the “grandest construction”.

 

Chandra Mahal has the most luxurious room in the palace, which houses gold plated deities and paintings inlaid with precious stones. In the royal bedroom, mirrors have been strategically placed so that the Maharaja could see from his bed, any intruder entering his room.

 

Ganga Mahal was built in the 20th century by Ganga Singh who reigned for 56 years from 1887 to 1943, has a large durbar hall known as the Ganga Singh Hall that houses the Museum. The museum has exhibits of war weaponry and also a World War I aeroplane (biplane), which is stated to be well maintained.

 

Badal Mahal (The weather palace) is part of the Anup Mahal extensions. It has paintings of Shekhawati Dundlod chiefs paying respects to the Maharaja of Bikaner in different types of turbans. Photos of people standing on nails, wood, swords and saws are also depicted here – a display of faith and endurance. The walls in this palace depict fresco paintings of the Hindu god Krishna and his consort Radha amidst the rain clouds.

 

Bikaneri Havelies located both within and outside the fort in the Bikaner city’s by lanes are also of unique architectural style in home architecture. Aldous Huxley who visited these havelis reportedly said “They are the pride of Bikaner.”

 

FORT MUSEUM

The museum within the fort called the Junagarh Fort Museum was established in 1961 by Maharaja Dr.Karni Singhji under the control of "Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust". The Museum exhibits Sanskrit and Persian manuscripts, miniature paintings, jewels, royal costumes, farmans (royal orders), portrait galleries, costumes, headgear and dresses of gods’ idols, enamelware, silver, palanquins, howdahs and war drums. The museum also displays armoury that consists of one of the assorted collection of post medieval arms.

 

MAHARAJA RAI SINGHJI TRUST

Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust has been set up by the 'Royal family of Bikaner' with the basic objective to showcase the fort with professional inputs in various areas and to improve the experience for visitors. Another objective is to promote education and research scholarships, cultural activities, setting up of libraries and integration with other such trusts.

 

WIKIPEDIA

[ see www.flickr.com/photos/midea_foto/albums ]

 

Located where there once stood the 14th-century Stinche Prison, the same site there was also a wash house of the Arte della Lana in Florence, the Teatro Verdi was originally named Teatro Pagliano. Teatro Verdi was later established in 1854 and renamed in 1901, to honor Giuseppe Verdi.

 

Used as a prison for five hundred years, the building was sold by grand-ducal decree in August 1833, then purchased by Messrs Giovacchino Faldi, Cosimo Canovetti, Giuseppe Galletti and Michele Massai. These purchases proceeded to transform it into its current larger building (from 1834-39), under the direction of architect Francesco Leoni with Luigi Manetti. The structure was eventually developed on four floors, partly occupied by neighborhoods (a total of 188 rooms served by six staircases), partly by shops, and characterized both by the presence of a large riding hall with attached stables, saddlery, shed and rooms for entertainment, and a room for the Philharmonic Society on the first floor..

Around 1850, a grandiose theater was erected based on the project and direction of the works by architect Telemaco Buonaiuti and the initiative of the entrepreneur Girolamo Pagliano, former baritone and known for a famous syrup "centerbe di long life ", which is also responsible for the birth of the corner pharmacy since 1934, Selva pharmacy. Thus an ovoid-shaped theater was created with a large hall that could accommodate about four thousand spectators between the stalls and its six tiers of boxes. In the interiors the painters Luigi Dell'Era and Cesare Maffei intervened, while the curtain, depicting the challenge of Barletta, was painted by Bandinelli.

 

Opened though remaining unfinished on 12 June 1853, Teatro Verdi was officially inaugurated in September of 1854 with Verdi's opera "Rigoletto" (then called "Il Viscardello"). Though the opera was a failure, the new theatrical structure was much appreciated and characterized by seasons marked by lyrical and dramatic performances presented by companies of great appeal. Overall, due to the size of the stage and the overall capacity, it was one of the largest Italian theaters, certainly one of the few to allow the staging of even complex and grandiose musical performances. Initially called "delle Antiche Stinche", it was then mostly known as the Pagliano theater.

Remaining under the guidance of Pagliano, forthcoming years continued with lyrical representations both of the repertoire and new; the theater also hosting many festivals and famous patriotic and civic initiatives such as one to support the delivery of Garibaldi (1859), a concert for the Unification of Italy (1861) and a demonstration to ask for the abolition of the death penalty (1864), with great interpreters and important spectators participating, including Vittorio Emanuele II.

In 1865 a fire put a strain on the structure of the theater, until, due to the many debts incurred, it was expropriated from Pagliano in 1868, without however interrupting the activity.

 

Tradition has it that the Pagliano theater is indirectly referenced in the 24th chapter of the book 'Pinocchio' (Carlo Lorenzini):

- - "Che è grosso di molto questo Pesce-cane? - domandò Pinocchio, che digià cominciava a tremare dalla paura."

- - "Se gli è grosso!... - replicò il Delfino. - Perché tu possa fartene un'idea, ti dirò che è più grosso di un casamento di cinque piani,ed ha una boccaccia così larga e profonda, che ci passerebbe comodamente tutto il treno della strada ferrata colla macchina accesa."

The shark mentioned here, in 'Pinocchio', was none other than Girolamo Pagliano, known for being also a loan shark, with whom perhaps, due to gambling debts, the well-known writer and journalist Carlo Lorenzini (known as Collodi) had engaged, and the description of the "tenement" fits perfectly with the building that still houses the Teatro Verdi today.

 

Years followed when the property passed from hand to hand. From 1901, after being named after Luigi Cherubini, it took on the name Teatro Verdi, and over time it has adapted, due to changes in public taste, to host various events and shows, including cinema. Among the most famous 19th Century conductors who conducted at the Verdi in Florence is Antonino Palminteri (1901-02), staging works such as Puccini's 'La Bohème' and Verdi's 'I Lombardi'. In 1908, the world premiere of 'Rhea' (Spiro Samara with Edoardo Garbin) and, in 1914, of "La giostra dei falchi" (Domenico Monleone) took place. In the period between the two world wars the theater, with Raffaello Castellani, hosted the operetta and the first great actors of the twentieth century.

After the First World War, the theater resumed its activity on the initiative of the Society of Theater Workers and in the twenty years between the two wars its programming was characterized by comedies in the vernacular and variety shows that featuring the Riccioli-Primavera company.

 

From 1949-50 the theater and its premises were completely renovated, by architects Nello Baroni and Maurizio Tempestini, the current design of the main entrance on Via Ghibellina dates back to this intervention, vice versa with decidedly modern shapes, as well as various decorative bas-reliefs always placed in the interior spaces by the sculptor Giannetto Mannucci. In the sixties, the opening was dedicated to pop music and international stars.

Other renovations were carried out to remedy the damage caused by the flood of 1966 (on that occasion it was equipped with a new cinema screen, then the largest existing in Italy) and finally, after 1985, for the adaptation of the structure with current safety standards.

In 1998 the structure was acquired by the Tuscan Regional Orchestra Foundation. In 2004, for the 150th anniversary of the opening, interventions were carried out to improve both the aesthetics and acoustics.

 

Since the last post-war period, the theater, which often hosted the events of the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino during the periods of closure of the Municipal Theater, has increased its activity as a cinema hall and with a "light show" theatrical program, hosting artists such as Totò to Wanda Osiris, Macario to Walter Chiari. Despite this, the theater was also characterized by highly prestigious and successful programs such as the ballets of Maurice Béjart and Roland Petit, and the first national performances of Carmelo Bene, such as a famous staging by Adelchi.

In recent years, the theater has become the seat of the Tuscan Regional Orchestra Foundation and has resumed its important role in Florentine cultural life with programs that, in addition to traditional shows, have expanded to seasons of concerts curated by the ORT and experiences of involvement of the schools of the city in educational initiatives.

Taking over the east side of the former Shopper's Fair building on Fort and Pennsylvania was this catalog showroom, which pre-dated Service Merchandise's arrival in the city by four years. Workers were hastily placing finishing touches on the interior just two days before its grand opening. By 1980, the company changed hands and was renamed Naum Brothers. (Kevin Harrison collection)

Junagarh Fort (Rajasthani: जुनाग्द क़िला) is a fort in the city of Bikaner, Rajasthan, India. The fort was originally called Chintamani and was renamed Junagarh or "Old Fort" in the early 20th century when the ruling family moved to Lalgarh Palace outside the fort limits. It is one of the few major forts in Rajasthan which is not built on a hilltop. The modern city of Bikaner has developed around the fort.

 

The fort complex was built under the supervision of Karan Chand, the Prime Minister of Raja Rai Singh, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611 AD. Construction of the walls and associated moat commenced in 1589 and was completed in 1594. It was built outside the original fort of the city, about 1.5 kilometres from the city centre. Some remnants of the old fort are preserved near the Lakshmi Narayan temple.

 

Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort, it was not taken, except for a lone one-day occupation by Kamran Mirza. Kamran was the second son of the Mughal Emperor Babur who attacked Bikaner in 1534, which was then ruled by Rao Jait Singh. In the battle, the Mughals were defeated by Rathors. Kamran then returned to Lahore.

 

The 5.28 hectares large fort precinct is studded with palaces, temples and pavilions. These buildings depict a composite culture, manifest in the mix of architectural styles.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Junagarh fort is located in the arid region of the Thar desert of Rajasthan bordered on the northwest by the Aravalli range, a range of mountains in western India. Part of the desert area is in Bikaner city, which is one of the three desert triangle cities; the other two cities are Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The name of the place where Bikaner city with its forts was established was then known as Jungladesh.

 

HISTORY

Before the present Junagarh Fort was built, an old stone fort existed in the city. This fort was built in 1478 by Rao Bika who established the city of Bikaner in 1472. Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur city. He conquered the large arid lands to the northern region of Rajasthan to set up his domain. As the second son of Jodha he had no chance of inheriting his father’s territory of Jodhpur or to the title of Maharaja. He, therefore, reconciled and decided to build his own kingdom at Bikaner at the place then called "Jungladesh". Bikaner, though a partly of the Thar Desert, was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast since it had adequate spring water sources. Bika’s name was thus tagged to the Bikaner city as well as to the then state of Bikaner (“the settlement of Bika”) that he established. The history of Bikaner and the fort within it thus start with Bika. It was only about 100 years later that Bikaner’s fortunes flourished under Raja Rai Singhji, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611. During the Mughal Empire’s rule in the country, he accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high position of an army general in the court of Emperor Akbar and his son Emperor Jahangir. His successful war exploits by way of winning half of Mewar kingdom won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors. He was gifted the jagirs (lands) of Gujarat and Burhanpur. With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Junagarh fort on a plain land, which has an average elevation of 230 m. The formal foundation ceremony for the fort was held on 17 February 1589 and the fort was completed on 17 January 1594. Raja Rai Singhji, was an expert in arts and architecture and the knowledge that he acquired during his several sojourns to several countries are amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built in the Junagarh fort. Thus the fort, a composite structure, became an outstanding example of architecture and a unique centre of art, amidst the Thar desert.

 

Karan Singh who ruled from 1631 to 1639, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh, who ruled from 1669–98, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter (royal dwelling for females). He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Gaj Singh who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace). Following him, Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and he lavishly decorated the audience hall (see picture in info box) with glass and lively paintwork. Dungar Singh who reigned from 1872 to 1887 built the Badal Mahal (the weather palace) named so in view of a painting of falling rain and clouds (a rare event in arid Bikaner). Ganga Singh who ruled from 1887 to 1943 built the Ganga Niwas Palace, which has towers at the entrance patio. This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob.[10] Ganga Singh’s son Sadul Singh succeeded his father in 1943 but acceded to the Union of India in 1949. He died in 1950.

 

Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British Raj under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818, where after the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily on refurbishing their Junagarh fort. However, during the 18th century, before this treaty was signed, there was internecine war between rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other Thakur, which was put down by the British troops. It is reported that during the attack by Jodhpur army, of the two entrances to the fort (one in the east and the other in the west), the eastern entrance and the southern rampart were damaged; marks of cannonballs fired are seen on the southern façade of the fort.

 

Ganga Singh was the best-known king among the Rajasthan princes. A favourite of the British Raj, he earned the title of Knight Commander of the Star of India. He served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, represented the country at the Imperial First World War Conferences and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference and was aware of the shift of fortunes in the World War II but died in 1943, before the war was won by the allies. His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audience in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions. The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee as a ruler of Bikaner is now a museum. He also got a new palace - north of Junagarh fort - designed and built by Swinton, the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner and named it Lalgarh Palace in the name of his father and shifted his residence from Junagarh fort to this palace in 1902. The royal family still lives in a special suite in the Lalbagh palace, which they have converted into a heritage hotel.

 

STRUCTURES

The structures built within the Junagarh fort are the palaces and temples, which are made of red sandstone (Dulmera) and marble. The palaces are described as picturesque with their assortment of courtyards, balconies, kiosks and windows. The fort, the temples and the palaces are preserved as museums and provide insight into the grandiose living style of the past Maharanas of Rajasthan. The fort is called “a paradox between medieval military architecture and beautiful interior decoration”.

 

OVERVIEW

The massive fort built in the plains of Bikaner has a rectangular (quadrangular) layout with a peripheral length of 986 m. The fort walls are 4.4 m wide and 12 m in height. It encompasses an area of 5.28 ha. It was surrounded by a moat which was 6.1–7.6 m deep with a base width of 4.6 m and top width of 9.1 m. However, the moat no longer exists. The fort is well fortified with 37 bastions (‘burj’ in local language) and seven gates (two are main gates) to counter enemy attacks. The fort was built as a “new stronghold” outside of the ruins of an old fort built by Rao Bika and on the periphery of the Bikaner city walls (1.5 kilometres from the city centre); the old fort was demolished a century after it was built.

 

The fort with seven gates contains several palaces, pavilions and many temples of Hindu and Jain religions - the earliest dated to the 16th century. A major feature of the fort is the stone carving done in red and gold coloured sandstones. The interiors of the palaces are decorated and painted in traditional Rajasthani style. The Junagarh palaces have a large number of rooms, as every king built his own separate set of rooms, not wanting to live in his predecessors’ rooms. These structures were considered as “at par with those of Louis’s France or of Imperial Russia”. Several types of architectural style are discerned in the fort complex and hence it is called a true depiction of composite culture. The earliest style is of Rajput architecture, defined by Gujarati and Mughal architectural influence reflecting the association with Mughal rulers, the second type is of semi-western architecture reflecting British influence, and finally the revivalists Rajput architecture that evolved particularly during the rule of Maharaja Ganga Singh. Only the most representative of all these architectural styles are on display for visitors. Thus, the unique monuments on display in the Junagarh Fort represent sixteen successive generations of the rulers of Bikaner, starting from the end of the 16th century.

 

GATES

While the main entry gate was Karan Pol or Parole, facing east, the current gate of entry is called Suraj Pol (meaning the Sun gate), 'pol' also colloquially spelt prol, built in gold coloured or yellow sandstone, unlike the other gates and buildings built in red sandstone. It is the east facing gate permitting the rising Sun’s rays to fall on the gate, which is considered a good omen. The doors of this gate are strengthened with iron spikes and studs to prevent ramming by elephants during an attack. At the entrance to the gate, two red stone statues of elephants with mahouts stand as sentinels. The gate was also the location for announcing the arrival and departure of royalty by musicians playing the trumpet from a gallery in the gate. The other gates are Karan Pol, Daulat Pol, Chand Pol (a double gate) and Fateh Pol; these provided access to various monuments in the fort. The Karan Pol gate is also braced with iron spikes to prevent battering of the gate by elephants. To the right of this gate is Daulat Pol. Forty-one hand imprints are seen on the Daulat Pol gate wall, in red colour, of the wives of the Maharajas of Bikaner, who committed sati (self immolation) on the funeral pyres of their husbands who died in battle.

 

Between the main gate and the palace, there is a quadrangle, and then another gate called the Tripolia gate (triple gateway) before accessing the royal chambers. Next to this gate is a small temple called the Har Mandir, where the Royal family used to offer worship. In the quadrangle, which houses a large pavilion with a water pool built in Carrara Italian marble. The Karan Mahal, where public audience was held in the Diwan-i-Am by Karan Singh (1631–39) and his successors till the 20th century, can also be seen in the same quadrangle.

 

TEMPLES

Har Mandir temple was the royal chapel - private temple of the royal family. The royal family celebrated the Hindu festival of Dussera and Gangaur here, apart from celebrating other family functions such as birthdays and marriages. In the Dussera celebrations, weapons and horses were worshipped here. The main deities worshipped in this temple are the Hindu deities Lakshmi Narayan, a combined representation of god Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi.

 

The Ratan Behari temple located near the Junagarh Fort, was built in 1846 by the 18th ruler of Bikaner. It was built in Indo-Mughal architectural style using white marble. The Hindu god Krishna is deified in this temple.

 

PALACES

Karan mahal (Public Audience Hall) was built by Karan Singh in c.1680 to mark his victory over the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. It is considered as one of the most exquisite palaces built with gardens, which displays the aesthetic sensibilities of the royalty of Rajasthan. It has stained glass windows and intricately carved balconies built in stone and wood fluted columns. Later Rajas, Anup Singh and Surat Singh, also added lot of glitter to this palace with inlaid polychrome glass, intricate mirror patterns, and red and gold paint. In the coronation chamber, there is a shored up alcove, which was used as a throne.

 

Phool Mahal ("Flower Palace") is the oldest part of the palace and was built by king Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner, who ruled between 1571-1668.

 

Anup Mahal is a multi-storey structure, which functioned as the administrative headquarters of the kingdom. It has ornate wooden ceilings with inlaid mirrors, Italian tiles, and fine lattice windows and balconies. It has some gold leaf paintings. It is considered as one of the “grandest construction”.

 

Chandra Mahal has the most luxurious room in the palace, which houses gold plated deities and paintings inlaid with precious stones. In the royal bedroom, mirrors have been strategically placed so that the Maharaja could see from his bed, any intruder entering his room.

 

Ganga Mahal was built in the 20th century by Ganga Singh who reigned for 56 years from 1887 to 1943, has a large durbar hall known as the Ganga Singh Hall that houses the Museum. The museum has exhibits of war weaponry and also a World War I aeroplane (biplane), which is stated to be well maintained.

 

Badal Mahal (The weather palace) is part of the Anup Mahal extensions. It has paintings of Shekhawati Dundlod chiefs paying respects to the Maharaja of Bikaner in different types of turbans. Photos of people standing on nails, wood, swords and saws are also depicted here – a display of faith and endurance. The walls in this palace depict fresco paintings of the Hindu god Krishna and his consort Radha amidst the rain clouds.

 

Bikaneri Havelies located both within and outside the fort in the Bikaner city’s by lanes are also of unique architectural style in home architecture. Aldous Huxley who visited these havelis reportedly said “They are the pride of Bikaner.”

 

FORT MUSEUM

The museum within the fort called the Junagarh Fort Museum was established in 1961 by Maharaja Dr.Karni Singhji under the control of "Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust". The Museum exhibits Sanskrit and Persian manuscripts, miniature paintings, jewels, royal costumes, farmans (royal orders), portrait galleries, costumes, headgear and dresses of gods’ idols, enamelware, silver, palanquins, howdahs and war drums. The museum also displays armoury that consists of one of the assorted collection of post medieval arms.

 

MAHARAJA RAI SINGHJI TRUST

Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust has been set up by the 'Royal family of Bikaner' with the basic objective to showcase the fort with professional inputs in various areas and to improve the experience for visitors. Another objective is to promote education and research scholarships, cultural activities, setting up of libraries and integration with other such trusts.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Junagarh Fort (Rajasthani: जुनाग्द क़िला) is a fort in the city of Bikaner, Rajasthan, India. The fort was originally called Chintamani and was renamed Junagarh or "Old Fort" in the early 20th century when the ruling family moved to Lalgarh Palace outside the fort limits. It is one of the few major forts in Rajasthan which is not built on a hilltop. The modern city of Bikaner has developed around the fort.

 

The fort complex was built under the supervision of Karan Chand, the Prime Minister of Raja Rai Singh, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611 AD. Construction of the walls and associated moat commenced in 1589 and was completed in 1594. It was built outside the original fort of the city, about 1.5 kilometres from the city centre. Some remnants of the old fort are preserved near the Lakshmi Narayan temple.

 

Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort, it was not taken, except for a lone one-day occupation by Kamran Mirza. Kamran was the second son of the Mughal Emperor Babur who attacked Bikaner in 1534, which was then ruled by Rao Jait Singh. In the battle, the Mughals were defeated by Rathors. Kamran then returned to Lahore.

 

The 5.28 hectares large fort precinct is studded with palaces, temples and pavilions. These buildings depict a composite culture, manifest in the mix of architectural styles.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Junagarh fort is located in the arid region of the Thar desert of Rajasthan bordered on the northwest by the Aravalli range, a range of mountains in western India. Part of the desert area is in Bikaner city, which is one of the three desert triangle cities; the other two cities are Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The name of the place where Bikaner city with its forts was established was then known as Jungladesh.

 

HISTORY

Before the present Junagarh Fort was built, an old stone fort existed in the city. This fort was built in 1478 by Rao Bika who established the city of Bikaner in 1472. Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur city. He conquered the large arid lands to the northern region of Rajasthan to set up his domain. As the second son of Jodha he had no chance of inheriting his father’s territory of Jodhpur or to the title of Maharaja. He, therefore, reconciled and decided to build his own kingdom at Bikaner at the place then called "Jungladesh". Bikaner, though a partly of the Thar Desert, was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast since it had adequate spring water sources. Bika’s name was thus tagged to the Bikaner city as well as to the then state of Bikaner (“the settlement of Bika”) that he established. The history of Bikaner and the fort within it thus start with Bika. It was only about 100 years later that Bikaner’s fortunes flourished under Raja Rai Singhji, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611. During the Mughal Empire’s rule in the country, he accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high position of an army general in the court of Emperor Akbar and his son Emperor Jahangir. His successful war exploits by way of winning half of Mewar kingdom won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors. He was gifted the jagirs (lands) of Gujarat and Burhanpur. With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Junagarh fort on a plain land, which has an average elevation of 230 m. The formal foundation ceremony for the fort was held on 17 February 1589 and the fort was completed on 17 January 1594. Raja Rai Singhji, was an expert in arts and architecture and the knowledge that he acquired during his several sojourns to several countries are amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built in the Junagarh fort. Thus the fort, a composite structure, became an outstanding example of architecture and a unique centre of art, amidst the Thar desert.

 

Karan Singh who ruled from 1631 to 1639, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh, who ruled from 1669–98, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter (royal dwelling for females). He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Gaj Singh who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace). Following him, Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and he lavishly decorated the audience hall (see picture in info box) with glass and lively paintwork. Dungar Singh who reigned from 1872 to 1887 built the Badal Mahal (the weather palace) named so in view of a painting of falling rain and clouds (a rare event in arid Bikaner). Ganga Singh who ruled from 1887 to 1943 built the Ganga Niwas Palace, which has towers at the entrance patio. This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob. Ganga Singh’s son Sadul Singh succeeded his father in 1943 but acceded to the Union of India in 1949. He died in 1950.

 

Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British Raj under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818, where after the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily on refurbishing their Junagarh fort. However, during the 18th century, before this treaty was signed, there was internecine war between rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other Thakur, which was put down by the British troops. It is reported that during the attack by Jodhpur army, of the two entrances to the fort (one in the east and the other in the west), the eastern entrance and the southern rampart were damaged; marks of cannonballs fired are seen on the southern façade of the fort.

 

Ganga Singh was the best-known king among the Rajasthan princes. A favourite of the British Raj, he earned the title of Knight Commander of the Star of India. He served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, represented the country at the Imperial First World War Conferences and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference and was aware of the shift of fortunes in the World War II but died in 1943, before the war was won by the allies. His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audience in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions. The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee as a ruler of Bikaner is now a museum. He also got a new palace - north of Junagarh fort - designed and built by Swinton, the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner and named it Lalgarh Palace in the name of his father and shifted his residence from Junagarh fort to this palace in 1902. The royal family still lives in a special suite in the Lalbagh palace, which they have converted into a heritage hotel.

 

STRUCTURES

The structures built within the Junagarh fort are the palaces and temples, which are made of red sandstone (Dulmera) and marble. The palaces are described as picturesque with their assortment of courtyards, balconies, kiosks and windows. The fort, the temples and the palaces are preserved as museums and provide insight into the grandiose living style of the past Maharanas of Rajasthan. The fort is called “a paradox between medieval military architecture and beautiful interior decoration”.

 

OVERVIEW

The massive fort built in the plains of Bikaner has a rectangular (quadrangular) layout with a peripheral length of 986 m. The fort walls are 4.4 m wide and 12 m in height. It encompasses an area of 5.28 ha. It was surrounded by a moat which was 6.1–7.6 m deep with a base width of 4.6 m and top width of 9.1 m. However, the moat no longer exists. The fort is well fortified with 37 bastions (‘burj’ in local language) and seven gates (two are main gates) to counter enemy attacks. The fort was built as a “new stronghold” outside of the ruins of an old fort built by Rao Bika and on the periphery of the Bikaner city walls (1.5 kilometres from the city centre); the old fort was demolished a century after it was built.

 

The fort with seven gates contains several palaces, pavilions and many temples of Hindu and Jain religions - the earliest dated to the 16th century. A major feature of the fort is the stone carving done in red and gold coloured sandstones. The interiors of the palaces are decorated and painted in traditional Rajasthani style. The Junagarh palaces have a large number of rooms, as every king built his own separate set of rooms, not wanting to live in his predecessors’ rooms. These structures were considered as “at par with those of Louis’s France or of Imperial Russia”. Several types of architectural style are discerned in the fort complex and hence it is called a true depiction of composite culture. The earliest style is of Rajput architecture, defined by Gujarati and Mughal architectural influence reflecting the association with Mughal rulers, the second type is of semi-western architecture reflecting British influence, and finally the revivalists Rajput architecture that evolved particularly during the rule of Maharaja Ganga Singh. Only the most representative of all these architectural styles are on display for visitors. Thus, the unique monuments on display in the Junagarh Fort represent sixteen successive generations of the rulers of Bikaner, starting from the end of the 16th century.

 

GATES

While the main entry gate was Karan Pol or Parole, facing east, the current gate of entry is called Suraj Pol (meaning the Sun gate), 'pol' also colloquially spelt prol, built in gold coloured or yellow sandstone, unlike the other gates and buildings built in red sandstone. It is the east facing gate permitting the rising Sun’s rays to fall on the gate, which is considered a good omen. The doors of this gate are strengthened with iron spikes and studs to prevent ramming by elephants during an attack. At the entrance to the gate, two red stone statues of elephants with mahouts stand as sentinels. The gate was also the location for announcing the arrival and departure of royalty by musicians playing the trumpet from a gallery in the gate. The other gates are Karan Pol, Daulat Pol, Chand Pol (a double gate) and Fateh Pol; these provided access to various monuments in the fort. The Karan Pol gate is also braced with iron spikes to prevent battering of the gate by elephants. To the right of this gate is Daulat Pol. Forty-one hand imprints are seen on the Daulat Pol gate wall, in red colour, of the wives of the Maharajas of Bikaner, who committed sati (self immolation) on the funeral pyres of their husbands who died in battle.

 

Between the main gate and the palace, there is a quadrangle, and then another gate called the Tripolia gate (triple gateway) before accessing the royal chambers. Next to this gate is a small temple called the Har Mandir, where the Royal family used to offer worship. In the quadrangle, which houses a large pavilion with a water pool built in Carrara Italian marble. The Karan Mahal, where public audience was held in the Diwan-i-Am by Karan Singh (1631–39) and his successors till the 20th century, can also be seen in the same quadrangle.

 

TEMPLES

Har Mandir temple was the royal chapel - private temple of the royal family. The royal family celebrated the Hindu festival of Dussera and Gangaur here, apart from celebrating other family functions such as birthdays and marriages. In the Dussera celebrations, weapons and horses were worshipped here. The main deities worshipped in this temple are the Hindu deities Lakshmi Narayan, a combined representation of god Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi.

 

The Ratan Behari temple located near the Junagarh Fort, was built in 1846 by the 18th ruler of Bikaner. It was built in Indo-Mughal architectural style using white marble. The Hindu god Krishna is deified in this temple.

 

PALACES

Karan mahal (Public Audience Hall) was built by Karan Singh in c.1680 to mark his victory over the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. It is considered as one of the most exquisite palaces built with gardens, which displays the aesthetic sensibilities of the royalty of Rajasthan. It has stained glass windows and intricately carved balconies built in stone and wood fluted columns. Later Rajas, Anup Singh and Surat Singh, also added lot of glitter to this palace with inlaid polychrome glass, intricate mirror patterns, and red and gold paint. In the coronation chamber, there is a shored up alcove, which was used as a throne.

 

Phool Mahal ("Flower Palace") is the oldest part of the palace and was built by king Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner, who ruled between 1571-1668.

 

Anup Mahal is a multi-storey structure, which functioned as the administrative headquarters of the kingdom. It has ornate wooden ceilings with inlaid mirrors, Italian tiles, and fine lattice windows and balconies. It has some gold leaf paintings. It is considered as one of the “grandest construction”.

 

Chandra Mahal has the most luxurious room in the palace, which houses gold plated deities and paintings inlaid with precious stones. In the royal bedroom, mirrors have been strategically placed so that the Maharaja could see from his bed, any intruder entering his room.

 

Ganga Mahal was built in the 20th century by Ganga Singh who reigned for 56 years from 1887 to 1943, has a large durbar hall known as the Ganga Singh Hall that houses the Museum. The museum has exhibits of war weaponry and also a World War I aeroplane (biplane), which is stated to be well maintained.

 

Badal Mahal (The weather palace) is part of the Anup Mahal extensions. It has paintings of Shekhawati Dundlod chiefs paying respects to the Maharaja of Bikaner in different types of turbans. Photos of people standing on nails, wood, swords and saws are also depicted here – a display of faith and endurance. The walls in this palace depict fresco paintings of the Hindu god Krishna and his consort Radha amidst the rain clouds.

 

Bikaneri Havelies located both within and outside the fort in the Bikaner city’s by lanes are also of unique architectural style in home architecture. Aldous Huxley who visited these havelis reportedly said “They are the pride of Bikaner.”

 

FORT MUSEUM

The museum within the fort called the Junagarh Fort Museum was established in 1961 by Maharaja Dr.Karni Singhji under the control of "Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust". The Museum exhibits Sanskrit and Persian manuscripts, miniature paintings, jewels, royal costumes, farmans (royal orders), portrait galleries, costumes, headgear and dresses of gods’ idols, enamelware, silver, palanquins, howdahs and war drums. The museum also displays armoury that consists of one of the assorted collection of post medieval arms.

 

MAHARAJA RAI SINGHJI TRUST

Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust has been set up by the 'Royal family of Bikaner' with the basic objective to showcase the fort with professional inputs in various areas and to improve the experience for visitors. Another objective is to promote education and research scholarships, cultural activities, setting up of libraries and integration with other such trusts.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Junagarh Fort (Rajasthani: जुनाग्द क़िला) is a fort in the city of Bikaner, Rajasthan, India. The fort was originally called Chintamani and was renamed Junagarh or "Old Fort" in the early 20th century when the ruling family moved to Lalgarh Palace outside the fort limits. It is one of the few major forts in Rajasthan which is not built on a hilltop. The modern city of Bikaner has developed around the fort.

 

The fort complex was built under the supervision of Karan Chand, the Prime Minister of Raja Rai Singh, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611 AD. Construction of the walls and associated moat commenced in 1589 and was completed in 1594. It was built outside the original fort of the city, about 1.5 kilometres from the city centre. Some remnants of the old fort are preserved near the Lakshmi Narayan temple.

 

Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort, it was not taken, except for a lone one-day occupation by Kamran Mirza. Kamran was the second son of the Mughal Emperor Babur who attacked Bikaner in 1534, which was then ruled by Rao Jait Singh. In the battle, the Mughals were defeated by Rathors. Kamran then returned to Lahore.

 

The 5.28 hectares large fort precinct is studded with palaces, temples and pavilions. These buildings depict a composite culture, manifest in the mix of architectural styles.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Junagarh fort is located in the arid region of the Thar desert of Rajasthan bordered on the northwest by the Aravalli range, a range of mountains in western India. Part of the desert area is in Bikaner city, which is one of the three desert triangle cities; the other two cities are Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The name of the place where Bikaner city with its forts was established was then known as Jungladesh.

 

HISTORY

Before the present Junagarh Fort was built, an old stone fort existed in the city. This fort was built in 1478 by Rao Bika who established the city of Bikaner in 1472. Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur city. He conquered the large arid lands to the northern region of Rajasthan to set up his domain. As the second son of Jodha he had no chance of inheriting his father’s territory of Jodhpur or to the title of Maharaja. He, therefore, reconciled and decided to build his own kingdom at Bikaner at the place then called "Jungladesh". Bikaner, though a partly of the Thar Desert, was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast since it had adequate spring water sources. Bika’s name was thus tagged to the Bikaner city as well as to the then state of Bikaner (“the settlement of Bika”) that he established. The history of Bikaner and the fort within it thus start with Bika. It was only about 100 years later that Bikaner’s fortunes flourished under Raja Rai Singhji, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611. During the Mughal Empire’s rule in the country, he accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high position of an army general in the court of Emperor Akbar and his son Emperor Jahangir. His successful war exploits by way of winning half of Mewar kingdom won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors. He was gifted the jagirs (lands) of Gujarat and Burhanpur. With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Junagarh fort on a plain land, which has an average elevation of 230 m. The formal foundation ceremony for the fort was held on 17 February 1589 and the fort was completed on 17 January 1594. Raja Rai Singhji, was an expert in arts and architecture and the knowledge that he acquired during his several sojourns to several countries are amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built in the Junagarh fort. Thus the fort, a composite structure, became an outstanding example of architecture and a unique centre of art, amidst the Thar desert.

 

Karan Singh who ruled from 1631 to 1639, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh, who ruled from 1669–98, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter (royal dwelling for females). He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Gaj Singh who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace). Following him, Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and he lavishly decorated the audience hall (see picture in info box) with glass and lively paintwork. Dungar Singh who reigned from 1872 to 1887 built the Badal Mahal (the weather palace) named so in view of a painting of falling rain and clouds (a rare event in arid Bikaner). Ganga Singh who ruled from 1887 to 1943 built the Ganga Niwas Palace, which has towers at the entrance patio. This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob. Ganga Singh’s son Sadul Singh succeeded his father in 1943 but acceded to the Union of India in 1949. He died in 1950.

 

Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British Raj under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818, where after the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily on refurbishing their Junagarh fort. However, during the 18th century, before this treaty was signed, there was internecine war between rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other Thakur, which was put down by the British troops. It is reported that during the attack by Jodhpur army, of the two entrances to the fort (one in the east and the other in the west), the eastern entrance and the southern rampart were damaged; marks of cannonballs fired are seen on the southern façade of the fort.

 

Ganga Singh was the best-known king among the Rajasthan princes. A favourite of the British Raj, he earned the title of Knight Commander of the Star of India. He served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, represented the country at the Imperial First World War Conferences and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference and was aware of the shift of fortunes in the World War II but died in 1943, before the war was won by the allies. His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audience in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions. The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee as a ruler of Bikaner is now a museum. He also got a new palace - north of Junagarh fort - designed and built by Swinton, the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner and named it Lalgarh Palace in the name of his father and shifted his residence from Junagarh fort to this palace in 1902. The royal family still lives in a special suite in the Lalbagh palace, which they have converted into a heritage hotel.

 

STRUCTURES

The structures built within the Junagarh fort are the palaces and temples, which are made of red sandstone (Dulmera) and marble. The palaces are described as picturesque with their assortment of courtyards, balconies, kiosks and windows. The fort, the temples and the palaces are preserved as museums and provide insight into the grandiose living style of the past Maharanas of Rajasthan. The fort is called “a paradox between medieval military architecture and beautiful interior decoration”.

 

OVERVIEW

The massive fort built in the plains of Bikaner has a rectangular (quadrangular) layout with a peripheral length of 986 m. The fort walls are 4.4 m wide and 12 m in height. It encompasses an area of 5.28 ha. It was surrounded by a moat which was 6.1–7.6 m deep with a base width of 4.6 m and top width of 9.1 m. However, the moat no longer exists. The fort is well fortified with 37 bastions (‘burj’ in local language) and seven gates (two are main gates) to counter enemy attacks. The fort was built as a “new stronghold” outside of the ruins of an old fort built by Rao Bika and on the periphery of the Bikaner city walls (1.5 kilometres from the city centre); the old fort was demolished a century after it was built.

 

The fort with seven gates contains several palaces, pavilions and many temples of Hindu and Jain religions - the earliest dated to the 16th century. A major feature of the fort is the stone carving done in red and gold coloured sandstones. The interiors of the palaces are decorated and painted in traditional Rajasthani style. The Junagarh palaces have a large number of rooms, as every king built his own separate set of rooms, not wanting to live in his predecessors’ rooms. These structures were considered as “at par with those of Louis’s France or of Imperial Russia”. Several types of architectural style are discerned in the fort complex and hence it is called a true depiction of composite culture. The earliest style is of Rajput architecture, defined by Gujarati and Mughal architectural influence reflecting the association with Mughal rulers, the second type is of semi-western architecture reflecting British influence, and finally the revivalists Rajput architecture that evolved particularly during the rule of Maharaja Ganga Singh. Only the most representative of all these architectural styles are on display for visitors. Thus, the unique monuments on display in the Junagarh Fort represent sixteen successive generations of the rulers of Bikaner, starting from the end of the 16th century.

 

GATES

While the main entry gate was Karan Pol or Parole, facing east, the current gate of entry is called Suraj Pol (meaning the Sun gate), 'pol' also colloquially spelt prol, built in gold coloured or yellow sandstone, unlike the other gates and buildings built in red sandstone. It is the east facing gate permitting the rising Sun’s rays to fall on the gate, which is considered a good omen. The doors of this gate are strengthened with iron spikes and studs to prevent ramming by elephants during an attack. At the entrance to the gate, two red stone statues of elephants with mahouts stand as sentinels. The gate was also the location for announcing the arrival and departure of royalty by musicians playing the trumpet from a gallery in the gate. The other gates are Karan Pol, Daulat Pol, Chand Pol (a double gate) and Fateh Pol; these provided access to various monuments in the fort. The Karan Pol gate is also braced with iron spikes to prevent battering of the gate by elephants. To the right of this gate is Daulat Pol. Forty-one hand imprints are seen on the Daulat Pol gate wall, in red colour, of the wives of the Maharajas of Bikaner, who committed sati (self immolation) on the funeral pyres of their husbands who died in battle.

 

Between the main gate and the palace, there is a quadrangle, and then another gate called the Tripolia gate (triple gateway) before accessing the royal chambers. Next to this gate is a small temple called the Har Mandir, where the Royal family used to offer worship. In the quadrangle, which houses a large pavilion with a water pool built in Carrara Italian marble. The Karan Mahal, where public audience was held in the Diwan-i-Am by Karan Singh (1631–39) and his successors till the 20th century, can also be seen in the same quadrangle.

 

TEMPLES

Har Mandir temple was the royal chapel - private temple of the royal family. The royal family celebrated the Hindu festival of Dussera and Gangaur here, apart from celebrating other family functions such as birthdays and marriages. In the Dussera celebrations, weapons and horses were worshipped here. The main deities worshipped in this temple are the Hindu deities Lakshmi Narayan, a combined representation of god Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi.

 

The Ratan Behari temple located near the Junagarh Fort, was built in 1846 by the 18th ruler of Bikaner. It was built in Indo-Mughal architectural style using white marble. The Hindu god Krishna is deified in this temple.

 

PALACES

Karan mahal (Public Audience Hall) was built by Karan Singh in c.1680 to mark his victory over the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. It is considered as one of the most exquisite palaces built with gardens, which displays the aesthetic sensibilities of the royalty of Rajasthan. It has stained glass windows and intricately carved balconies built in stone and wood fluted columns. Later Rajas, Anup Singh and Surat Singh, also added lot of glitter to this palace with inlaid polychrome glass, intricate mirror patterns, and red and gold paint. In the coronation chamber, there is a shored up alcove, which was used as a throne.

 

Phool Mahal ("Flower Palace") is the oldest part of the palace and was built by king Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner, who ruled between 1571-1668.

 

Anup Mahal is a multi-storey structure, which functioned as the administrative headquarters of the kingdom. It has ornate wooden ceilings with inlaid mirrors, Italian tiles, and fine lattice windows and balconies. It has some gold leaf paintings. It is considered as one of the “grandest construction”.

 

Chandra Mahal has the most luxurious room in the palace, which houses gold plated deities and paintings inlaid with precious stones. In the royal bedroom, mirrors have been strategically placed so that the Maharaja could see from his bed, any intruder entering his room.

 

Ganga Mahal was built in the 20th century by Ganga Singh who reigned for 56 years from 1887 to 1943, has a large durbar hall known as the Ganga Singh Hall that houses the Museum. The museum has exhibits of war weaponry and also a World War I aeroplane (biplane), which is stated to be well maintained.

 

Badal Mahal (The weather palace) is part of the Anup Mahal extensions. It has paintings of Shekhawati Dundlod chiefs paying respects to the Maharaja of Bikaner in different types of turbans. Photos of people standing on nails, wood, swords and saws are also depicted here – a display of faith and endurance. The walls in this palace depict fresco paintings of the Hindu god Krishna and his consort Radha amidst the rain clouds.

 

Bikaneri Havelies located both within and outside the fort in the Bikaner city’s by lanes are also of unique architectural style in home architecture. Aldous Huxley who visited these havelis reportedly said “They are the pride of Bikaner.”

 

FORT MUSEUM

The museum within the fort called the Junagarh Fort Museum was established in 1961 by Maharaja Dr.Karni Singhji under the control of "Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust". The Museum exhibits Sanskrit and Persian manuscripts, miniature paintings, jewels, royal costumes, farmans (royal orders), portrait galleries, costumes, headgear and dresses of gods’ idols, enamelware, silver, palanquins, howdahs and war drums. The museum also displays armoury that consists of one of the assorted collection of post medieval arms.

 

MAHARAJA RAI SINGHJI TRUST

Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust has been set up by the 'Royal family of Bikaner' with the basic objective to showcase the fort with professional inputs in various areas and to improve the experience for visitors. Another objective is to promote education and research scholarships, cultural activities, setting up of libraries and integration with other such trusts.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The P-47 Thunderbolt, which would become one of the most successful and widely produced fighters in history, began as the brainchild of two Russian aircraft designers who fled the Soviet Union—Alexander de Seversky and Alexander Kartveli. Kartveli had begun designing fighters for Seversky, including the P-35, and staying on with Seversky Aircraft after it was renamed Republic Aviation. Kartveli had designed the radial-engined P-43 Lancer and P-44 Rocket, and was working on the inline-engined XP-47 when the US Army Air Force cancelled all three programs in 1940, citing that they were inferior to the German Messerschmitt Bf 109.

 

Kartveli then proposed a new design based on the P-43/44, but much larger, with a turbocharged R-2800 Double Wasp engine, one of the most powerful radials available at the time. The size of the turbocharger and the engine meant that the fuselage had to be much larger as well; as the USAAF wanted an eight-gun fighter along the lines of the Supermarine Spitfire and Hawker Hurricane, the new design was equipped with elliptical wings containing eight .50 caliber machine guns. The resulting design, designated XP-47B Thunderbolt, was huge: it was 65 percent heavier than the P-43 and nearly twice the weight of the Spitfire. Even Kartveli himself referred to it as a “dinosaur.” When pilots saw it, they thought that its size and shape (and likely, its flying characteristics) resembled that of a milk jug, forever earning the Thunderbolt its moniker of “Jug.” Though the first XP-47B prototype crashed soon after its first flight in May 1941, its speed and performance were impressive.

 

Minor problems with the P-47B production version led to the P-47C, the first combat-ready version of the Thunderbolt, which arrived in England in January 1943. Assigned to the 4th Fighter Group, whose pilots were used to flying Spitfires, initially the Thunderbolt seemed a failure. It could not turn with either the Bf 109 or the new Focke-Wulf 190, and its climbing ability left much to be desired. Pilots hated the Thunderbolt’s size, its lack of performance as compared with the Spitfire, and its low ground clearance, though they did appreciate the comfortable and roomy cockpit, and especially the armor around it.

 

The indifferent performance of the P-47C and high accident rate led Republic to refine the design in the definitive P-47D variant, which introduced better cooling for the engine and, most importantly, paddle-bladed propeller blades. Now the Thunderbolt began to prove Kartveli’s faith in the fighter. The 56th Fighter Group, led by Hubert Zemke, had been trained from the start in the P-47 and benefited from earlier experience. Zemke, assisted by future aces Francis Gabreski and Robert Johnson, developed ambush tactics that emphasized the Thunderbolt’s advantage in weight; the P-47D’s improved engine and propeller gave it an edge over the Luftwaffe over 15,000 feet that the Germans were not able to equal until the introduction of the Messerschmitt 262 jet in 1944. This was a huge advantage for USAAF pilots, as the majority of air combat over Germany took place at altitudes of 20,000 feet. While the P-51 Mustang was more maneuverable, longer-ranged, and better in the vertical, it was Gabreski and Johnson, in their P-47s, who became the top American aces in Europe. In response to pilots complaining about the lack of rear vision in the “razorback” P-47D, Republic introduced the “bubbletop” version, which cut down the rear fuselage and added a P-51 style bubble canopy, giving the Thunderbolt pilot superb visibility.

 

What endeared the Thunderbolt to its pilots, however, was its legendary toughness. Since it was far more survivable than the inline-engined P-38 and P-51, much of the European Theater’s P-47s were shifted away from bomber escort and to 9th Air Force’s ground-attack force. Armed with rockets, bombs, and their eight machine guns, Thunderbolts proved to be devastating in this role, attacking anything that moved in Western Europe: by war’s end, ground attack P-47s had destroyed over 6000 tanks; it was especially deadly to trains, accounting for 9000 locomotives. 3752 German fighters became victims of P-47 pilots in the air. P-47Ds also served in the Pacific theater, though in fewer numbers compared to the P-38; nonetheless, they also turned in a stellar combat record, and the third highest ranking ace in the Pacific, Neel Kearby, was a Thunderbolt pilot. Allied air forces also flew P-47s, including the RAF (mainly in the Pacific), and expeditionary units of the Brazilian and Mexican Air Forces.

 

After war’s end, though more advanced “Pacific” versions of the Thunderbolt had been introduced in the P-47M/N, it was rapidly retired from service in favor of jets (namely the F-84 Thunderjet) and the P-51. A few lingered on until 1953 in Air National Guard service, when it was retired. France used a few P-47s during the Algerian War of Independence in the mid-1950s, while it persisted in South American air forces into the late 1960s. In 1993, Croatia seriously considered returning a museum-piece P-47 to active service during the Croat-Serbian War. 15,686 P-47s were produced, making it second only to the P-51 in US service; today, about 47 survive.

 

This P-47D is 45-49385, which was delivered to the USAAF less than a month before World War II ended. Deemed obsolete, it may have gone into storage immediately, or possibly served with an Air National Guard unit until 1953, when it was supplied to the Peruvian Air Force. It was retired in 1963, and once more went back into storage until 1969, when it was acquired by a warbird collector and shipped back to the United States.

 

45-49385 was restored back to flyable condition by 1973, and joined the Confederate (now Commemorative) Air Force, but was only with the CAF a year before being acquired by the Chino, California based Military Aircraft Restoration Corporation (MARC). 45-49385 suffered a crash in 1980 that led to six years of restoration, then went on display at the Mid-America Air Museum in Liberal, Kansas until 1990. Returning to Chino that year, it crashed again (though with less damage this time), and would be out of action until 1993. Finally, in 2004, it was acquired by Westpac Aviation, which did yet another restoration job, this time with original P-47 parts, including a turbocharger--making 45-49385 one of only three P-47s with a functioning one.

 

Since then, it's been part of the National Museum of World War II Aviation's collection, displayed (and still flyable) as an aircraft of the 78th Fighter Group, based at RAF Duxford, complete with invasion stripes. I saw 45-49385 in August 2020.

Facing Hyde Street, the rear of the building is almost as ornate as the frontage overlooking Hindmarsh Square. Originally “Young Women Christian Association” was stuccoed along the rear with “YWCA” in the central panel. [Photo from State Library of SA: PRG 631/2/164 (1901)]

 

Foundation stone 12 Jul 1900 by Miss Colton, opened 22 Nov 1900 for Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA), architect G de Lacy Evans & R J Haddon, purchased 1914 by SA Branch of British Medical Association, Lady Colton Hall renamed Lister Hall, used for medical meetings & social activities, purchased 1929 by Royal Automobile Association, sold 1954, but re-purchased by RAA 1980s, now business premises. The site was originally the location of Heinrich Wilhelm Ehmcke’s sawmill & timberyard (later Ehmcke & Gaetjen).

 

“Young Women's Christian Association. . . The site for the new home is upon the western side of Hindmarsh-square, a little south of Grenfell-street, and on part of the block known for many years as Messrs. Ehmcke & Gaetjen's timberyard. A right-of-way along the north side of the building affords light and air on that aspect, and Hyde-street at the rear does the some on the west, while the architects have left an open passage along the best part of the south side, thus ensuring cross ventilation in every direction. The design is that of Messrs. de Lacy Evans and R. J. Haddon, of Melbourne, and shows a sensibly-treated work, which partakes somewhat of the style of architecture known as ‘Queen Anne’. Red brick and details in cement work form the exterior. The north-east salient angle carries a circular turret, with lead roof, while the main entrance is marked by a flight of steps, and a group of columns on each side. . . and the supervising architect is Mr. A. Barnaul Black, F.S.A.I.A.” [Advertiser 11 Jul 1900]

 

“The members of the Y.W.C.A. were unfortunate in having a wet day for the ceremony of laying the foundation-stone of their new building, the Lady Colton Memorial Institute. . . the stone, which was inscribed ‘Y.W.C.A. This stone was laid by Miss Colton, July 12, 1900’. The stone was presented by Mr. Torode, and the tablet and inscription were given by Mr. W. H. Martin.” [Advertiser 13 Jul 1900]

 

“the Lady Colton Memorial Institute, which, will be the future home of the Young Women's Christian Association. . . the accomplishment of the scheme which was set on foot nearly two years ago for the purpose of raising funds to erect a worthy memorial to the memory of Lady Colton, the founder and first President of the. Association [Register 12 Jul 1900]

 

“The South Australian branch of the British Medical Association has purchased the land and buildings of the Y.W.CA. in Hindrnarsh-square for £5,500. . . [Y.W.C.A.] have between 800 and 900 paid-up members. Connected with the different clubs and classes there are hundreds more, the actual total last year being 1,150 girls. You will understand, therefore, that the Institution cannot do its work properly in cramped quarters. The new boarding-home in Carrington-street is a magnificent branch. . . It is not proposed that the place shall be converted into a club for doctors. It will be purely an office and place of meeting to discuss subjects of interest to the profession. The Lady Colton Hall will be utilised as a lecture and demonstration theatre, in addition to a hall for meetings connected with lie Medical Association.” [Advertiser 13 Aug 1913]

 

“discuss the question of the location of the new building to be erected to replace the present hall, which has been sold to the South Australian branch of the British Medical Association. The matter was freely debated, and it was decided to build on the block of land south of the- Lady Colton Hall. That site has been the property of the Y.W.C.A. for several years.” [Register 28 Aug 1913]

 

“At the end of the present month the Young Women's Christian Association will relinquish possession, of Lady Colton Hall, which it sold to the British Medical Association. . . The present building was erected nearly 15 years ago, . . The initial meeting was held in the Pirie Street Methodist Church Lecture Hall in 1879. . . . In . . . rooms were taken in Franklin street. . . From 1888 to 1889 the home was in Flinders street, where, for the first time, a few beds were provided. In 1889 the association took the flat over Craven & Armstrong’s, in Pulteney street.” [Register 23 Apr 1914]

 

“The work of the Y.W.C.A. has progressed to such an extent that the accommodation at the headquarters, the Lady Colton Hall, has now become inadequate for carrying on the work. New, spacious, and more modern premises are therefore being erected on an adjoining site.” [Advertiser 25 Apr 1914]

 

“The new headquarters of the South Australian branch of the British Medical Association were opened yesterday afternoon and the hall was dedicated to the memory of the illustrious Lord Lister. . . the premises in Hindmarsh-square formerly occupied by the Young Women's Christian Association. The building has been renovated throughout, and will provide an excellent headquarters for the medical profession in South Australia. The opening ceremony was performed in the Lister Hall in the presence of a large gathering of medical practitioners and students..” [Advertiser 26 Jun 1914]

 

“Messrs. William Silver and Eugene Alderman entertained a number of friends at an "at home" at their new music-rooms, in the British Medical Association House, in Hindmarsh-square. The rooms are artistically decorated in sepia tones and blue dadoes; the walls being hung with pictures of the old masters.” [Chronicle 18 Jul 1914]

 

“Mr. Matthew McGregor announces that his classes for ballroom dancing will resume on March 1 at the British Medical Association Building, Hindmarsh square. The latest dance measures and fashionable figures will be included in the season's programme.” [The Mail 20 Feb 1915]

 

“Members of the Automobile Association of South Australia will occupy their own building in Hindmarsh square in about four months. Situated near the Young Women's Christian Association and known as the British Medical Association Building, it was purchased by the association some months ago. . . The interior of the building, which comprises two floors and a basement, will be reconstructed. . . The main hall, known as Lister Hall, will be used as a large general office,” [News 9 Oct 1928]

 

“The Royal Automobile Association head office in Hindmarsh square will be sold when the association moves to its new premises nearby, now known as 'Open House,' at the corner of Grenfell street and Hindmarsh square.” [Advertiser 4 Nov 1954]

 

“RAA. . . The association bought its present head office building in 1926 for £11,000 In recent years, it has acquired a 70 ft. by 100 ft. property a few doors south, formerly owned by Kean Oil Co., and a garage and workshops in Hyde street, at the rear of Hindmarsh square. It is likely that the present head office will be sold, but that the association will retain the other two properties.” [News 30 Sep 1954]

 

THE SITE

“Ehmcke's Steam Saw-Mills and Timber-Yard. — This establishment, situated in Hindmarsh Square. . . premises occupy about two acres of land, and the quantity of timber on band, including every variety of wood applied to colonial uses, is extremely large, all is studded from the injurious influences of weather by galvanized iron roofing. One of these timber-sheds is said to be the largest in the colony, its dimensions bring 100 feet by about 47. feet. Massive piles of cedar, deal, stringybark, and the other varieties of timber in request, and about 50 tons of galvanized roofing iron, . . a machine adapted for the cutting of backs and tops of chairs; another for cutting cedar planks, of which from 20 to 25 may be produced at once; and a large machine for cutting deals. . . A showroom, specially intended for the exhibition of doors and windows on sale, is all but completed; and an extensive range of stables and carriage-houses is in a similar stage of forwardness.” [Adelaide Observer 2 Jul 1864]

 

“a little girl lost her life, and another was seriously injured. Several children were playing in Mr. Ehmcke's timber yard at the corner of Hindmarsh-square, and the two girls . . . The yard was being fenced in, but since Mr. Ehmcke had bought the land there had not been time to complete the fencing.” [Weekly Chronicle 10 Dec 1864]

 

EHMCKE.— On the 14th August, at his residence, Wakefield-street, Heinrich Wilhelm Ehmcke, born Province of Hanover, Germany, aged 60 years. A colonist of 29 years.” [Register 15 Aug 1877]

 

“Mr. W. H. Ehmcke . . . was a native of the province of Hanover, but had been a -resident for 29 years in this colony, and was 60 years of age at the time of his death. . .Messrs. W. and T. Ehmcke, sons of the deceased; Messrs. R. Ziegler, F. Gaetjens, A. Kiedel, and R. Menz, sons-in-law.” [Chronicle & Weekly Mail 25 Aug 1877]

 

“W. Ehmcke & Gaetjens have much pleasure in intimating to their numerous Friends and the Public in general that having succeeded to that Old-established Business known as the Hindmarsh-Square Sawmills and Timber-Yards, So long and favourably conducted by the late H. W. Ehmcke.” [Register 15 Nov 1877]

 

“the premises of Messrs. Ehmcke & Gaetjens, timber merchants, of Grenfell-street, were discovered to be on fire, and before the conflagration, which lasted some hours, was suppressed, damage to the extent of about £7,000 was caused.” [Advertiser 27 Oct 1884]

 

“the premises of Messrs. H. W. Ehmcke & Gaetjens, proprietors of a large timber-yard fronting Hindmarsh square. The premises attacked by the flames form part of the Hindmarsh-square Sawmills and Timber-yard, which covered a large area of ground fronting the square. . . The property owned by Messrs. Ehmcke & Gaetjens is divided by Hyde street, a narrow thoroughfare leading from Grenfell-street to Pirie-street. On the east of this street are the sawmills, workshops, and a large stack of timber. On the west of Hyde-street, where the fire occurred, is a long row of seven sheds, containing Baltic and American timber, galvanized iron, sheeting, &c, and stables. The sheds were built of wood, brick, and galvanized iron.” [Register 8 Nov 1884]

 

“W. Ehmcke & Gaetjens, Hindmarsh-square Timber Yards, beg to inform Builders, Contractors, and the Public in General that having decided to Relinquish Business are now offering their Superior and Well-assorted Stock of Thoroughly Seasoned Timber, including Best Brands Joiners' Deal. Cedar, Walnut, Ash, Oak, Mahogany, Cherry, and Kauri Pine, American, Red and Clear Pine, Shelving, V.D.L. Stringybark, Jarrah, Oregon . . .” [Advertiser 1 Jun 1899]

 

YWCA

The YWCA began 1884 in rented rooms in Franklin St, 1887 in Flinders St, by 1890 they were in rooms over Cravens & Armstrong store on corner Rundle & Pulteney Sts. After the sale of the Hindmarsh Square building, they built adjacent, with foundation stone 7 Jul 1914 by Governor Sir Henry Galway, opened 14 Dec 1914. This building was converted to a munition-workers hostel during WWII. There was a club, “Open House”, for servicemen & women. The hostel closed 14 Aug 1946 & building later sold and became headquarters of RAA.

 

“The lately formed Y.W.C.A., will hold their meetings in the Y.M.C.A., until suitable premises can be secured.” [Christian Colonist 31 Oct 1884]

 

“The members of the Young Women's Christian Association will give their first 'social' at their rooms, Franklin-street, this evening.” [Register 17 Jan 1885]

 

“Y.W.C.A. now occupy the Old Military Club premises in Pulteney-street.” [Evening Journal 10 Mar 1890]

 

“the Y.W.C.A. is an educational and philanthropic society of many and varied activities. . . the foundation stone of which is to be laid to-day by Sir Henry Galway. The association is temporarily housed on the eastern side of Hindmarsh square. . . the basement, which includes gymnasium, teacher's room, lockers, baths, junior clubroom, and various storerooms. The other floors provide for the many classes, clubs, offices, lunchroom, and assembly hall.” [Register 7 Jul 1914]

 

“the handsome structure erected in Hindmarsh-square, on the block of land adjoining the original Y.W.C.A. building, now the property of the British Medical Association. When the association sold the old structure, and decided to put up a new one, it was necessary to look round for a temporary home, and the hall attached to the Hindmarsh-square Congregational Church was secured. Messrs. English & Soward, architects, were instructed to prepare plans for the new building, . . the facade is striking. It is of classic design, carried out in a special cement, which gives the effect of cut freestone. The wide entrance steps are composed of Angaston marble slabs, and ornamental tiles. Two large doors of Australian polished oak.” [Advertiser 8 Dec 1914]

 

“Among the many fine rooms in the building, perhaps the best is the Lady Colton Hall. There was a Lady Colton Hall in the old structure, and the marble tablet which commemorated it has been let into the walls of the new room.” [Register 12 Dec 1914]

 

“Reconstruction of the Y.W.C.A. Building at Hindmarsh square into a hostel for women munition workers is progressing very rapidly, and the completed quarters will soon be ready for occupation. The hall and gymnasium are being partitioned into cubicles. Other rooms will be made into bedrooms for four beds. What was the Y.W.C.A. library will be the new hostel lounge. New bathrooms are being constructed, partitions put up, and the building painted throughout. The finished hostel will house approximately 80 girls.” [News 29 Dec 1941]

 

“The problem of both leave and permanent accommodation for service women has been acute. All of the existing women's hostels in Adelaide — those of the YWCA at Carrington street and Hindmarsh square. St. Mary’s Catholic Hostel, those of the Girls' Friendly Society, the Travellers' Aid Society the WCTU, and the Salvation Army — have the same tale to tell of 'full house, and dozens turned away'. During a recent week-end, eight WAAAF’s slept in four beds at the YWCA. Hindmarsh Square Hostel, and many a time an extra bed has been made in the secretary's and other administrative offices.” [Advertiser 26 Aug 1942]

“Clubs and more clubs for the fighting services is the order of the day. The latest — Open House. YWCA's new rendezvous for men and women in uniform—in Grenfell street near Hindmarsh square, is one of the finest in Adelaide.” [Advertiser 15 Jul 1942]

 

“OPEN HOUSE, corner of Grenfell street and Hindmarsh square. — Men and women of the services may bring one civilian friend. Recreational facilities and cafeteria meals. Saturday night, dancing: Sunday night, concert.” [The Mail 20 Mar 1943]

 

“The SA National Football League may shortly take over the YWCA building in Hindmarsh square as its headquarters. The sale of the premises to the league has been completed except for the formal ratification by the YWCA at a meeting tonight.” [Advertiser 23 Jul 1946]

 

“the offices of the [SA] League and the Australian National Football Council will be changed to 55 Hindmarsh Square, Adelaide (former premise.ls of the Y.W.C.A.) as from Monday next, October 28. 1946.” [News 25 Oct 1946]

 

“It was decided that the name of the South Australian Football League's new buildings at Hindmarsh square be known as Football House.” [Advertiser 4 Feb 1947]

 

IAC renaming Eduardo J. Padron Campus, May 17, 2019

opened as 16-room Windsor Hotel, c. 1925, later named Marquette Hotel • purchased, 1945, by Loree & Walter Bailey (1915-1988), renamed Lorraine after Bailey's spouse and the song Sweet Lorraine, a 1940 hit by Nat King Cole • added second floor, 12 rooms • later addition converted Lorraine to motel with more guest rooms and drive up access • upscale motel for African American clientele • guests included musicians recording at Stax Records, e.g., Ray Charles, Lionel Hampton, Ethel Waters, Otis Redding, Staple Singers, Wilson Pickett • at least two hits written here, “In the Midnight Hour” and “Knock on Wood”

 

site of April 4,1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968) as he left his room, No. 306 • Bailey set aside King's Room and adjoining 307 as memorial • hours after assassination, while on the switchboard, Loree suffered a stroke, died five days later • James Earl Ray (1928-1998) charged with murder of King, pled guilty, convicted, 1969, later recanted his confession

 

Bailey declared bankruptcy, 1982, building to be auctioned • self-described “black radical” D’Army Bailey (b. 1941), a circuit court judge, organized Memphis philanthropists to "Save the Lorraine" from foreclosure and possible demolition • motel building now part of the National Civil Rights Museum (1991) • Wikipedia

 

SepiaTown • The Crucible –Memphis Magazine • Memphis Manhunt –History Matters • Findings on MLK Assassination -National Archives • King Assassination Conspiracy Theories —NPR • King Assassination Conspiracy Trial • trial transcript

 

Marker: Originally the Windsor Hotel (c.1925) and later one of only a few hotels for blacks, it hosted such entertainers as Cab Calloway, Aretha Franklin, Count Basie, B.B. King, and Nat King Cole. Walter and Loree Bailey bought it in 1942, renaming it the Lorraine. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated outside room 306 on April 4, 1968, making it a symbol for the civil rights movement. In 1982, a local nonprofit group saved the site from foreclosure for use as America's first civil rights museum.

Foundation stone 19 Aug 1878 by F Basedow, designed by G R Johnson of Melbourne, opened Jul 1879 as German Club, complex sold 1899 to Salvation Army, used as citadel & People’s Palace, damaged by fire 1938, renovated & third floor added, architect Harold Griggs, re-opened 26 Nov 1938, sold 1979, redeveloped as offices, sold 2019 to Pelligra Group, renamed Allianz House and later Pirie House, now a facade in front of yet another multi-storey building.

 

“The German residents form a very important portion of the population of South Australia, and for more than 23 years has the Deutscher Club, been in existence, its members now numbering upwards of 400, including a few German-speaking Englishmen. . . Up till the present time the Hotel Europe, in Grenfell-street, has been the head-quarters of the Club, but owing to its increasing strength and prosperity it has become necessary to find more extensive accommodation for the Club in a building of its own. With this view a piece of ground has been purchased in Pirie-street, next the Freemasons' Hotel, and on which the Circus now stands, at a cost of £3,000.” [Express & Telegraph 5 Jan 1878]

 

“The ceremony of laying the foundation-stone of the new German Club-House in Pirie-street was performed on Monday, August 19. in the presence of upwards of 500 spectators. . . It is also proposed to build a large hall for dramatic purposes in the rear of the Club-House.” [Advertiser 20 Aug 1878]

 

“The design of the front elevation of the Club-House is French Renaissance in style, and is chaste and elegant, the monotony of the front being relieved by a fine central porch, surmounted by a balustraded balcony. The front part of the lower floor of the building will consist of offices which will be for business purposes, the kitchens, and dwelling-rooms for the porter. Above these will be the Club apartments, consisting of a handsome billiard-room. . . a room for social meetings. . . a library, reading-room, cardrooms, smoking-room, and six bedrooms. . . The bedrooms are intended for the use of country members.” [Register 20 Aug 1878]

 

“Opening of the New German Clubhouse. . . The supervising architect was Mr. G. Joachimi, and the contractor Mr. C. Farr. . . The plans and designs have been the work of Mr. G. R. Johnson, a Victorian architect, and the front elevation is French Renaissance in style. The Concordia Band having played ‘The Watch on the Rhine’, and the Liedertafel having sung ‘Hurrah, Germania’, from the balcony. . . A short time having been spent looking over the building, a move was made to the dining-room, where about 200 gentlemen sat down to a dinner laid out in first-class style by the caterer of the Club, Mr. Knick.” [Evening Journal 15 Jul 1879]

 

“The ordinary half-yearly general meeting of the. Metropolitan Brick Company was held at the office, German Club Buildings, Pirie street.” [Advertiser 27 Aug 1899]

 

“The offer of the Salvation Army for the German Club in Pirie street has been accepted, and the building will soon change hands. . . There are now only 84 subscribers to the club, which is altogether too big to be run by such a small coterie. . . The Allgemeiner Deutscher Verein in Grenfell street has taken most of the old members of the club.” [Northern Argus 16 Sep 1898]

 

“The German Club, which now has dwindled down to 84 members, has accepted the offer of £9,000 from the Salvation Army for the Albert Hall.” [Critic, Adelaide 17 Sep 1899]

 

“As extraordinary meeting of the Thebarton Distilling Company was held at the registered office, German Club buildings. Pirie-street.” [Advertiser 15 Oct 1899]

 

“The Salvation Army has not yet got into possession of the Albert Hall and its surrounding offices, although the German Club vacated it and passed into thin air before the end of last month. Most of the members of the defunct club have joined the Allgemeiner Deutscher Verein, but some have attached themselves to a little coterie who meet in Gay's Arcade. Soon, no doubt, the Army will be in full blast in Pine-street. . . At present Pirie-street is a comparatively quiet avenue, but its peace will soon be broken by cymbals, and there will be no more silence while the evening is young. I wonder what the proprietor of the next-door tavern will do when the Army comes.” [Mount Barker Courier 25 Nov 1899]

 

“The Salvation Army has renovated the Albert Hall in Pirie street, and it looks as good as new. The architectural design is, thanks to the judicious application of paint, now seen to the best advantage, and the building altogether is cleaner than it has ever been during the last 10 or 12 years. So far the inscription on the old foundation stone has not been obliterated, although it has been painted over. That is now the only sign that the edifice was once used as a German club. The select few who now remain to the institution are now located in a building in Grenfell street east, the private residence of Mr. P. .Gay having been

transformed for their use.” [Northern Argus 6 |Jan 1899]

 

“The Albert Hall in Pirie-street, which for many years has been known as the German Club, exists no longer in that capacity, for the Salvation Army, having taken the building over, has caused a complete transformation. The name has been altered from ’Albert’ to ‘Memorial’ Hall, to perpetuate the memory of the wife of the Army's founder, General Booth, and by liberal treatment with the paint brush, the carpenter's implements of trade, the old characteristics of the interior have vanished. Busy Salvation officers are now engaged in the room where the Single Tax League held its meetings, and the juvenile headquarters' officers are to be seen in the old meeting-place of the Lothian Club. The flasks and the haggis are supplanted by piles of juvenile literature, while the old time bar, at which the regular habitues of the premises were wont to foregather, is also devoted to the furtherance of the Army's operations.” [Advertiser 23 Feb 1899]

 

“An alteration has taken place in the staff of the Salvation Army, People's Palace, Pirie street. Matron Ensign Frost has been transferred to a similar position in Sydney, and Adjutant Harper from Melbourne, takes her place.” [Register 22 Jan 1916]

 

“The investigation of the conditions of the employee of hotels and coffee palaces. . . Staff Captain J. T. Ford of the Peoples Palace, Pirie street, said the establishment was carried on as a restaurant. They sold meals, let beds, and carried on on the restaurants award. They had found it difficult to carry on under that award at first, but now they were getting on all right.” [Daily Herald 20 Feb 1918]

 

“Staff-Capt. P. Dale (official architect of the Salvation Army) recently visited Adelaide and inspected the People's Palace in Pirie street. Salvation Army authorities hope to establish a modern building on the site of the existing premises. Capt. Dale has returned, to Melbourne, where plans for the new structure will be prepared.” [News 19 Feb 1929]

 

“Reconstruction work at the People's Palace, Pirie street. . . It is proposed to build three new stories on to the present structure. . . the building will also act as the divisional headquarters." [News 12 Mar 1929]

 

“Damage estimated at £5,000 was caused by a fire which broke out about 3.30 a.m. today in the People's Palace, conducted by the Salvation Army, in Pirie street, City. The upper story of the building was gutted, and only splendid work by the Adelaide Fire Brigade saved the structure from complete demolition. Forty-five guests who were sleeping on the first floor escaped in their night attire down the main stairway and the fire escape at the rear. Many of the guests lost their personal effects. The entire ceiling of the upper, story collapsed after the people had escaped into the street. Fifty of the 61 bedrooms in the palace were badly damaged by fire and water.” [News 19 Jan 1938]

 

“Tenders will be called this week for the remodelling and modernisation of the Salvation Army People's Palace in Pirie street. . . will include the addition of a third story. . . The existing Renaissance elevation to Pirie street will not be materially altered, but features of the design will be emphasised.” [News 4 Apr 1938]

 

“the Salvation Army People's Palace, in Pirie street. . . A tour of the building today with Mr. H. T. Griggs, architect for the £10,000 remodelling, showed how the beauties of moulded cornices and similar decorative features were lost when big rooms were divided into sleeping cubicles and other small apartments. . . In the internal reconstruction, the dignity of the work done by bygone artisans will be displayed again as far as possible.” [News 21 May 1938]

 

“the People's Palace. . . Re-constructed and enlarged at a cost of £12,000, it now provided modern accommodation for 107 guests.” [Advertiser 28 Nov 1938]

 

“New City Rest Room For Troops. Forty-eight hours after the idea was first suggested, a Red Shield rest room for soldiers has been opened at the People's Palace, Pirie street. The Divisional Commander of the Salvation Army (Brig. R. S. Harewood), who declared the room open, said it had been established because of the pressing need for more such rooms. Troops could call in at any time for tea and biscuits, to play games, write letters, or chat.” [News 26 Mar 1942]

 

“Postwar high wages and dear food caused many restaurants to close. . . the People's Palace, Pirie street, restricted meals to guests.” [The Mail 22 Nov 1952]

 

“In 1912 I boarded at the People's Palace. Pirie street, Adelaide, for 17/6 a week. They also supplied good clean and satisfying meals for sixpence.” [Advertiser 23 Dec 1954, Letter to Editor]

 

ALBERT HALL

Albert Hall opened 4 Oct 1880 behind German Club for entertainment & dancing, architect Beyer & Withall, renamed Memorial Hall by Salvation Army when they purchased German Club 1899, hall extended, destroyed by fire 1975, sold & site redeveloped as offices.

 

“A dinner, to be followed by a ball, is connection with the German Club will take place to-night in the new Albert Hall, Pirie-street.” [Register 4 Oct 1880]

 

“Adelaide Liedertafel. A Grand Concert will be given on Tuesday, October 12, in the new Albert Hall, German Club, Pirie-street, in aid of the Building Fund of same.” [Express & Telegraph 1 Oct 1880 advert]

 

“The opening of the new Albert Hall in connection with the German Club was celebrated on Monday, October 4, by a ball and banquet, upwards of 400 persons attending the former and nearly 200 sitting down to the latter. It is not many months since the spacious and handsome clubhouse in Pirie-street was formally opened, and the additions just completed were at that time contemplated. . . it was decided to construct a spacious and lofty concert hall, with a stage for ordinary entertainments, and a level floor for dancing. These are the purposes to which the Albert Hall will principally be devoted, but it may also be used for meetings and other gatherings of a public character. The building has been erected from designs by Messrs. Beyer and Withall.” [Advertiser 5 Oct 1880]

 

“The hall is 93 feet long by 48 feet wide, and 35 feet high, while the stage has a depth of 28 feet, the proscenium being 21 feet wide and 24 feet high; The main entrance to the hall is through the spacious centre passage of the clubhouse, and there are several exit doors, some of which will be utilised by-and-by to communicate with a gymnasium or other additions contemplated to be erected on the vacant block of ground in the rear. . A balcony or dress circle will also be added to the hall.” [Express & Telegraph 5 Oct 1880]

 

“The Adelaide Liedertafel gave a concert in the Albert Hall of the new German Clubhouse on Tuesday night, October 12, in aid of the Building Fund of the hall. There was a large attendance, and, as is always the case when our German friends give a musical entertainment, there was nothing wanting to make the concert a thorough success. The programme was of a high order, embracing selections from some of the best masters. . . A week ago the Albert Hall was formally opened by a ball, but its acoustic properties were not fairly put to the test till on this occasion.” [Evening Journal 13 Oct 1880]

 

“Professor J. H. Pepper has arranged to deliver under the auspices of the Chamber of Manufactures three popular science lectures in the Albert Hall, German Club-house, Pirie street.” [Advertiser 17 May 1881]

 

“Adelaide Orpheus Society.— The first concert arranged by this Society will be given in the Albert Hall to-night. . . A splendid programme has been arranged both as regards choruses and solos. The Society now numbers about fifty or sixty members, who have been carefully trained by Mr. C. J. Stevens.” Evening Journal 14 Jun 1888]

 

“Salvation Army. . . Considerable alterations and improvements have been made to the Headquarters Memorial Hall in Pirie-street, previously known as the Albert Hall under the auspices of the German Club. These comprise a new gallery affording seating accommodation for 250, a soldiers' platform holding 175 persons, and a new ceiling to improve the acoustic properties of the hall.” [Register 11 Aug 1900]

  

Junagarh Fort (Rajasthani: जुनाग्द क़िला) is a fort in the city of Bikaner, Rajasthan, India. The fort was originally called Chintamani and was renamed Junagarh or "Old Fort" in the early 20th century when the ruling family moved to Lalgarh Palace outside the fort limits. It is one of the few major forts in Rajasthan which is not built on a hilltop. The modern city of Bikaner has developed around the fort.

 

The fort complex was built under the supervision of Karan Chand, the Prime Minister of Raja Rai Singh, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611 AD. Construction of the walls and associated moat commenced in 1589 and was completed in 1594. It was built outside the original fort of the city, about 1.5 kilometres from the city centre. Some remnants of the old fort are preserved near the Lakshmi Narayan temple.

 

Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort, it was not taken, except for a lone one-day occupation by Kamran Mirza. Kamran was the second son of the Mughal Emperor Babur who attacked Bikaner in 1534, which was then ruled by Rao Jait Singh. In the battle, the Mughals were defeated by Rathors. Kamran then returned to Lahore.

 

The 5.28 hectares large fort precinct is studded with palaces, temples and pavilions. These buildings depict a composite culture, manifest in the mix of architectural styles.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Junagarh fort is located in the arid region of the Thar desert of Rajasthan bordered on the northwest by the Aravalli range, a range of mountains in western India. Part of the desert area is in Bikaner city, which is one of the three desert triangle cities; the other two cities are Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The name of the place where Bikaner city with its forts was established was then known as Jungladesh.

 

HISTORY

Before the present Junagarh Fort was built, an old stone fort existed in the city. This fort was built in 1478 by Rao Bika who established the city of Bikaner in 1472. Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur city. He conquered the large arid lands to the northern region of Rajasthan to set up his domain. As the second son of Jodha he had no chance of inheriting his father’s territory of Jodhpur or to the title of Maharaja. He, therefore, reconciled and decided to build his own kingdom at Bikaner at the place then called "Jungladesh". Bikaner, though a partly of the Thar Desert, was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast since it had adequate spring water sources. Bika’s name was thus tagged to the Bikaner city as well as to the then state of Bikaner (“the settlement of Bika”) that he established. The history of Bikaner and the fort within it thus start with Bika. It was only about 100 years later that Bikaner’s fortunes flourished under Raja Rai Singhji, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611. During the Mughal Empire’s rule in the country, he accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high position of an army general in the court of Emperor Akbar and his son Emperor Jahangir. His successful war exploits by way of winning half of Mewar kingdom won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors. He was gifted the jagirs (lands) of Gujarat and Burhanpur. With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Junagarh fort on a plain land, which has an average elevation of 230 m. The formal foundation ceremony for the fort was held on 17 February 1589 and the fort was completed on 17 January 1594. Raja Rai Singhji, was an expert in arts and architecture and the knowledge that he acquired during his several sojourns to several countries are amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built in the Junagarh fort. Thus the fort, a composite structure, became an outstanding example of architecture and a unique centre of art, amidst the Thar desert.

 

Karan Singh who ruled from 1631 to 1639, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh, who ruled from 1669–98, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter (royal dwelling for females). He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Gaj Singh who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace). Following him, Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and he lavishly decorated the audience hall (see picture in info box) with glass and lively paintwork. Dungar Singh who reigned from 1872 to 1887 built the Badal Mahal (the weather palace) named so in view of a painting of falling rain and clouds (a rare event in arid Bikaner). Ganga Singh who ruled from 1887 to 1943 built the Ganga Niwas Palace, which has towers at the entrance patio. This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob. Ganga Singh’s son Sadul Singh succeeded his father in 1943 but acceded to the Union of India in 1949. He died in 1950.

 

Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British Raj under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818, where after the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily on refurbishing their Junagarh fort. However, during the 18th century, before this treaty was signed, there was internecine war between rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other Thakur, which was put down by the British troops. It is reported that during the attack by Jodhpur army, of the two entrances to the fort (one in the east and the other in the west), the eastern entrance and the southern rampart were damaged; marks of cannonballs fired are seen on the southern façade of the fort.

 

Ganga Singh was the best-known king among the Rajasthan princes. A favourite of the British Raj, he earned the title of Knight Commander of the Star of India. He served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, represented the country at the Imperial First World War Conferences and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference and was aware of the shift of fortunes in the World War II but died in 1943, before the war was won by the allies. His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audience in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions. The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee as a ruler of Bikaner is now a museum. He also got a new palace - north of Junagarh fort - designed and built by Swinton, the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner and named it Lalgarh Palace in the name of his father and shifted his residence from Junagarh fort to this palace in 1902. The royal family still lives in a special suite in the Lalbagh palace, which they have converted into a heritage hotel.

 

STRUCTURES

The structures built within the Junagarh fort are the palaces and temples, which are made of red sandstone (Dulmera) and marble. The palaces are described as picturesque with their assortment of courtyards, balconies, kiosks and windows. The fort, the temples and the palaces are preserved as museums and provide insight into the grandiose living style of the past Maharanas of Rajasthan. The fort is called “a paradox between medieval military architecture and beautiful interior decoration”.

 

OVERVIEW

The massive fort built in the plains of Bikaner has a rectangular (quadrangular) layout with a peripheral length of 986 m. The fort walls are 4.4 m wide and 12 m in height. It encompasses an area of 5.28 ha. It was surrounded by a moat which was 6.1–7.6 m deep with a base width of 4.6 m and top width of 9.1 m. However, the moat no longer exists. The fort is well fortified with 37 bastions (‘burj’ in local language) and seven gates (two are main gates) to counter enemy attacks. The fort was built as a “new stronghold” outside of the ruins of an old fort built by Rao Bika and on the periphery of the Bikaner city walls (1.5 kilometres from the city centre); the old fort was demolished a century after it was built.

 

The fort with seven gates contains several palaces, pavilions and many temples of Hindu and Jain religions - the earliest dated to the 16th century. A major feature of the fort is the stone carving done in red and gold coloured sandstones. The interiors of the palaces are decorated and painted in traditional Rajasthani style. The Junagarh palaces have a large number of rooms, as every king built his own separate set of rooms, not wanting to live in his predecessors’ rooms. These structures were considered as “at par with those of Louis’s France or of Imperial Russia”. Several types of architectural style are discerned in the fort complex and hence it is called a true depiction of composite culture. The earliest style is of Rajput architecture, defined by Gujarati and Mughal architectural influence reflecting the association with Mughal rulers, the second type is of semi-western architecture reflecting British influence, and finally the revivalists Rajput architecture that evolved particularly during the rule of Maharaja Ganga Singh. Only the most representative of all these architectural styles are on display for visitors. Thus, the unique monuments on display in the Junagarh Fort represent sixteen successive generations of the rulers of Bikaner, starting from the end of the 16th century.

 

GATES

While the main entry gate was Karan Pol or Parole, facing east, the current gate of entry is called Suraj Pol (meaning the Sun gate), 'pol' also colloquially spelt prol, built in gold coloured or yellow sandstone, unlike the other gates and buildings built in red sandstone. It is the east facing gate permitting the rising Sun’s rays to fall on the gate, which is considered a good omen. The doors of this gate are strengthened with iron spikes and studs to prevent ramming by elephants during an attack. At the entrance to the gate, two red stone statues of elephants with mahouts stand as sentinels. The gate was also the location for announcing the arrival and departure of royalty by musicians playing the trumpet from a gallery in the gate. The other gates are Karan Pol, Daulat Pol, Chand Pol (a double gate) and Fateh Pol; these provided access to various monuments in the fort. The Karan Pol gate is also braced with iron spikes to prevent battering of the gate by elephants. To the right of this gate is Daulat Pol. Forty-one hand imprints are seen on the Daulat Pol gate wall, in red colour, of the wives of the Maharajas of Bikaner, who committed sati (self immolation) on the funeral pyres of their husbands who died in battle.

 

Between the main gate and the palace, there is a quadrangle, and then another gate called the Tripolia gate (triple gateway) before accessing the royal chambers. Next to this gate is a small temple called the Har Mandir, where the Royal family used to offer worship. In the quadrangle, which houses a large pavilion with a water pool built in Carrara Italian marble. The Karan Mahal, where public audience was held in the Diwan-i-Am by Karan Singh (1631–39) and his successors till the 20th century, can also be seen in the same quadrangle.

 

TEMPLES

Har Mandir temple was the royal chapel - private temple of the royal family. The royal family celebrated the Hindu festival of Dussera and Gangaur here, apart from celebrating other family functions such as birthdays and marriages. In the Dussera celebrations, weapons and horses were worshipped here. The main deities worshipped in this temple are the Hindu deities Lakshmi Narayan, a combined representation of god Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi.

 

The Ratan Behari temple located near the Junagarh Fort, was built in 1846 by the 18th ruler of Bikaner. It was built in Indo-Mughal architectural style using white marble. The Hindu god Krishna is deified in this temple.

 

PALACES

Karan mahal (Public Audience Hall) was built by Karan Singh in c.1680 to mark his victory over the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. It is considered as one of the most exquisite palaces built with gardens, which displays the aesthetic sensibilities of the royalty of Rajasthan. It has stained glass windows and intricately carved balconies built in stone and wood fluted columns. Later Rajas, Anup Singh and Surat Singh, also added lot of glitter to this palace with inlaid polychrome glass, intricate mirror patterns, and red and gold paint. In the coronation chamber, there is a shored up alcove, which was used as a throne.

 

Phool Mahal ("Flower Palace") is the oldest part of the palace and was built by king Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner, who ruled between 1571-1668.

 

Anup Mahal is a multi-storey structure, which functioned as the administrative headquarters of the kingdom. It has ornate wooden ceilings with inlaid mirrors, Italian tiles, and fine lattice windows and balconies. It has some gold leaf paintings. It is considered as one of the “grandest construction”.

 

Chandra Mahal has the most luxurious room in the palace, which houses gold plated deities and paintings inlaid with precious stones. In the royal bedroom, mirrors have been strategically placed so that the Maharaja could see from his bed, any intruder entering his room.

 

Ganga Mahal was built in the 20th century by Ganga Singh who reigned for 56 years from 1887 to 1943, has a large durbar hall known as the Ganga Singh Hall that houses the Museum. The museum has exhibits of war weaponry and also a World War I aeroplane (biplane), which is stated to be well maintained.

 

Badal Mahal (The weather palace) is part of the Anup Mahal extensions. It has paintings of Shekhawati Dundlod chiefs paying respects to the Maharaja of Bikaner in different types of turbans. Photos of people standing on nails, wood, swords and saws are also depicted here – a display of faith and endurance. The walls in this palace depict fresco paintings of the Hindu god Krishna and his consort Radha amidst the rain clouds.

 

Bikaneri Havelies located both within and outside the fort in the Bikaner city’s by lanes are also of unique architectural style in home architecture. Aldous Huxley who visited these havelis reportedly said “They are the pride of Bikaner.”

 

FORT MUSEUM

The museum within the fort called the Junagarh Fort Museum was established in 1961 by Maharaja Dr.Karni Singhji under the control of "Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust". The Museum exhibits Sanskrit and Persian manuscripts, miniature paintings, jewels, royal costumes, farmans (royal orders), portrait galleries, costumes, headgear and dresses of gods’ idols, enamelware, silver, palanquins, howdahs and war drums. The museum also displays armoury that consists of one of the assorted collection of post medieval arms.

 

MAHARAJA RAI SINGHJI TRUST

Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust has been set up by the 'Royal family of Bikaner' with the basic objective to showcase the fort with professional inputs in various areas and to improve the experience for visitors. Another objective is to promote education and research scholarships, cultural activities, setting up of libraries and integration with other such trusts.

 

WIKIPEDIA

oldest restaurant in Memphis • Greek immigrant Speros Zepatos bought Paris Cafe, a small, one-story wood-frame building, 1919 • renamed Arcade Restaurant • cooked on pot belly stove • tore down cafe, built (and apparently participated in designing) present Greek Revival building, 1925 • “His original plan was to put a seven-story hotel on top, and they structurally designed it at that time to do that, but money was running short, the Depression was around the corner and they opted to quit with the single story,” -Harry Zepatos, Jr., grandson -Memphis Daily News • across street from Grand Central Station, business thrived on train passengers

 

Harry Zepatos Sr. took over, 1955, remodeled façade & interior • mid-century design remains, with neon signs, & boomerang formica • rock star Elvis Presley (1935-1977) frequently a breakfast customer • was open 24/7; after King assassination riots doors locked first time ever • used as location for movies Mystery Train (1989), Great Balls of Fire (1989), The Firm (1993), The Client (1994), 21 Grams (2003), Walk the Line (2005), others • arcaderestaurant.com • sample menu

 

Marker: On this South Main Street corner in 1988 the modern wave of Memphis moviemaking was born, in great measure through the efforts of Memphis and Shelby County Film Commissioner Linn Sitler and Shelby County government official Alonso Woods. Until Mystery Train Memphis, had not posted a nationally-distributed feature since King Vicor's Hallelujah!, which had been based in the city in 1928 to shoot much of its principal photography here. An independent feature, Mystery Train later won producer/director Jim Jarmusch a major award at the 1989 Cannes Film Festival.

 

"The Mystery Train film was immediately followed in Memphis by Orion Pictures' Great Balls of Fire!, which told the life story of Sun Studio legend Jerry Lee Lewis. Later Memphis-based filmmaking includes such notable and diverse features as The Firm, 21 Grams, Sundance Grand Jury Prize winner Forty Shades of Blue (directed by Memphian Ira Sachs), Academy Award winners Hustle & Flow (directed by Memphian Craig Brewer), and Walk the Line, the life story of yet another Sun Studio legend, Johnny Cash. The Commission's on-going efforts to recruit and develop the film and television industries continue into the 21st century."

The 2001 Mercedes-Benz 0305 with Designline B43DW bodywork captured near the Paraparaumu railway station on the former SH1 (Hokowhitu Rd./“Old Main Road”) NIS on Thursday morning, 25 May 2017, after it had been working the Route 262 service.

 

PLAN TO GIVE SH1 SEVEN 'UNPRONOUNCEABLE' MAORI NAMES DECRIED AS 'PC GONE HAYWIRE'

By JOEL MAXWELL

1 May 2017

Plans for renaming part of State Highway 1 have been blasted for offering "unpronounceable" Maori words and over-complicating a simple strip of asphalt.

Some have called it "PC gone haywire" while others say it's just part of being a Kiwi.

About 18 kilometres of SH1 are set to become local roads after being superseded by the $630 million Kapiti expressway, north of Wellington.

Kapiti Coast District Council's plan to split the continuous road into seven sections and give it seven Maori names has generated 400 public submissions.

The Maori names have been slammed as too difficult to pronounce by some.

But Kapiti's mayor says most people know how to say the All Blacks' haka Ka Mate, so they can probably learn a bit more.

The proposed names are: Matene Te Whiwhi Rd, Katu Rd, Unaiki Rd, Kakakura Rd, Rauoterangi Rd, Hurumutu Rd, and Hokowhitu Rd.

Paraparaumu man Mike Judd said there should be one name for the old SH1, and he believed some of the proposed new Maori names were too difficult to pronounce.

The country needed to stop "looking back over our shoulders" at past history and move on, he said.

"I'm not a racist. I've just come back from a family reunion where there's a very big percentage of Maori, in my family."

Judd described the process to rename SH1 as "political correctness gone haywire". The seven-section approach was ridiculous, confusing and made a simple issue more complicated, he said.

Most of the highway was already known as Main Rd, Main Rd North and Main Rd South.

Waikanae man Brian Wheeler said he preferred Main Rd be kept, with perhaps each nearest town added.

The potential names were often unpronounceable, and to the general public they were "meaningless", he said.

"They do have a meaning to the Maori people, perhaps, if they still follow their language."

Six of the words were names of significant ancestors of Kapiti iwi, and one was the name of the Native Contingent that fought in World War 1, which included many local iwi men.

Local iwi and Te Reo speaker Jack McDonald, the Green Party's candidate for the Te Tai Hauauru electorate, said the language was part of this nation's collective history.

"I would commend the council for taking this step. It's a way of educating the community about our own local history."

Much of that Maori history was not well known, such as the fact Wi Parata - whose name Kakakura is one of the proposals - gifted land to Pakeha, he said.

Making an effort to learn Maori pronunciation was "just part and parcel" of being a New Zealander, he said.

Kapiti Mayor K Gurunathan said the decision was part of a national conversation about Maori involvement in community decision-making.

Maori culture had "given you victory on the rugby field" and he pointed out many people had learned all the words of Ka Mate, the haka used by the All Blacks, which came from local iwi Ngati Toa.

The New Zealand Transport Agency did not respond to questions, including how much it paid for the renaming process.

Waikanae man Roger Bould was not bothered by the proposed Maori names, but said: "giving one long road a whole lot of names" was a waste of time.

"It doesn't matter if they're Maori or English, I don't see the point of giving them a whole lot of names."

The council said the seven sections fitted the current address numbering system along the road, so houses would not need to be re-numbered.

Having one name for the entire road would actually mean people had to renumber their properties, it said.

A final decision on names will be made by councillors later this year. It will take into account community feedback, including alternative name suggestions, and whether the seven-section approach is wanted.

 

PROPOSED NAME CHANGES FOR SH1

- Between Paekakariki and Mackays Crossing becomes Hurumutu Rd

- Between Poplar Ave to Kapiti Rd becomes Hokowhitu Rd

- Between Paraparaumu north and the Waikanae River becomes Rauoterangi Rd

- Main road through Waikanae becomes Kakakura Rd

- Between Waikanae and Peka Peka becomes Unaiki Rd

- Hadfield Rd connection becomes Katu Rd

- Between Peka Peka Road and Te Kowhai Rd becomes Matene Te Whiwhi Rd - Stuff

 

Only the facade survives.

Foundation stone 19 Aug 1878 by F Basedow, designed by G R Johnson of Melbourne, opened Jul 1879 as German Club, complex sold 1899 to Salvation Army, used as citadel & People’s Palace, damaged by fire 1938, renovated & third floor added, architect Harold Griggs, re-opened 26 Nov 1938, sold 1979, redeveloped as offices, sold 2019 to Pelligra Group, renamed Allianz House and later Pirie House, now a facade in front of yet another multi-storey building.

 

“The German residents form a very important portion of the population of South Australia, and for more than 23 years has the Deutscher Club, been in existence, its members now numbering upwards of 400, including a few German-speaking Englishmen. . . Up till the present time the Hotel Europe, in Grenfell-street, has been the head-quarters of the Club, but owing to its increasing strength and prosperity it has become necessary to find more extensive accommodation for the Club in a building of its own. With this view a piece of ground has been purchased in Pirie-street, next the Freemasons' Hotel, and on which the Circus now stands, at a cost of £3,000.” [Express & Telegraph 5 Jan 1878]

 

“The ceremony of laying the foundation-stone of the new German Club-House in Pirie-street was performed on Monday, August 19. in the presence of upwards of 500 spectators. . . It is also proposed to build a large hall for dramatic purposes in the rear of the Club-House.” [Advertiser 20 Aug 1878]

 

“The design of the front elevation of the Club-House is French Renaissance in style, and is chaste and elegant, the monotony of the front being relieved by a fine central porch, surmounted by a balustraded balcony. The front part of the lower floor of the building will consist of offices which will be for business purposes, the kitchens, and dwelling-rooms for the porter. Above these will be the Club apartments, consisting of a handsome billiard-room. . . a room for social meetings. . . a library, reading-room, cardrooms, smoking-room, and six bedrooms. . . The bedrooms are intended for the use of country members.” [Register 20 Aug 1878]

 

“Opening of the New German Clubhouse. . . The supervising architect was Mr. G. Joachimi, and the contractor Mr. C. Farr. . . The plans and designs have been the work of Mr. G. R. Johnson, a Victorian architect, and the front elevation is French Renaissance in style. The Concordia Band having played ‘The Watch on the Rhine’, and the Liedertafel having sung ‘Hurrah, Germania’, from the balcony. . . A short time having been spent looking over the building, a move was made to the dining-room, where about 200 gentlemen sat down to a dinner laid out in first-class style by the caterer of the Club, Mr. Knick.” [Evening Journal 15 Jul 1879]

 

“The ordinary half-yearly general meeting of the. Metropolitan Brick Company was held at the office, German Club Buildings, Pirie street.” [Advertiser 27 Aug 1899]

 

“The offer of the Salvation Army for the German Club in Pirie street has been accepted, and the building will soon change hands. . . There are now only 84 subscribers to the club, which is altogether too big to be run by such a small coterie. . . The Allgemeiner Deutscher Verein in Grenfell street has taken most of the old members of the club.” [Northern Argus 16 Sep 1898]

 

“The German Club, which now has dwindled down to 84 members, has accepted the offer of £9,000 from the Salvation Army for the Albert Hall.” [Critic, Adelaide 17 Sep 1899]

 

“As extraordinary meeting of the Thebarton Distilling Company was held at the registered office, German Club buildings. Pirie-street.” [Advertiser 15 Oct 1899]

 

“The Salvation Army has not yet got into possession of the Albert Hall and its surrounding offices, although the German Club vacated it and passed into thin air before the end of last month. Most of the members of the defunct club have joined the Allgemeiner Deutscher Verein, but some have attached themselves to a little coterie who meet in Gay's Arcade. Soon, no doubt, the Army will be in full blast in Pine-street. . . At present Pirie-street is a comparatively quiet avenue, but its peace will soon be broken by cymbals, and there will be no more silence while the evening is young. I wonder what the proprietor of the next-door tavern will do when the Army comes.” [Mount Barker Courier 25 Nov 1899]

 

“The Salvation Army has renovated the Albert Hall in Pirie street, and it looks as good as new. The architectural design is, thanks to the judicious application of paint, now seen to the best advantage, and the building altogether is cleaner than it has ever been during the last 10 or 12 years. So far the inscription on the old foundation stone has not been obliterated, although it has been painted over. That is now the only sign that the edifice was once used as a German club. The select few who now remain to the institution are now located in a building in Grenfell street east, the private residence of Mr. P. .Gay having been

transformed for their use.” [Northern Argus 6 |Jan 1899]

 

“The Albert Hall in Pirie-street, which for many years has been known as the German Club, exists no longer in that capacity, for the Salvation Army, having taken the building over, has caused a complete transformation. The name has been altered from ’Albert’ to ‘Memorial’ Hall, to perpetuate the memory of the wife of the Army's founder, General Booth, and by liberal treatment with the paint brush, the carpenter's implements of trade, the old characteristics of the interior have vanished. Busy Salvation officers are now engaged in the room where the Single Tax League held its meetings, and the juvenile headquarters' officers are to be seen in the old meeting-place of the Lothian Club. The flasks and the haggis are supplanted by piles of juvenile literature, while the old time bar, at which the regular habitues of the premises were wont to foregather, is also devoted to the furtherance of the Army's operations.” [Advertiser 23 Feb 1899]

 

“An alteration has taken place in the staff of the Salvation Army, People's Palace, Pirie street. Matron Ensign Frost has been transferred to a similar position in Sydney, and Adjutant Harper from Melbourne, takes her place.” [Register 22 Jan 1916]

 

“The investigation of the conditions of the employee of hotels and coffee palaces. . . Staff Captain J. T. Ford of the Peoples Palace, Pirie street, said the establishment was carried on as a restaurant. They sold meals, let beds, and carried on on the restaurants award. They had found it difficult to carry on under that award at first, but now they were getting on all right.” [Daily Herald 20 Feb 1918]

 

“Staff-Capt. P. Dale (official architect of the Salvation Army) recently visited Adelaide and inspected the People's Palace in Pirie street. Salvation Army authorities hope to establish a modern building on the site of the existing premises. Capt. Dale has returned, to Melbourne, where plans for the new structure will be prepared.” [News 19 Feb 1929]

 

“Reconstruction work at the People's Palace, Pirie street. . . It is proposed to build three new stories on to the present structure. . . the building will also act as the divisional headquarters." [News 12 Mar 1929]

 

“Damage estimated at £5,000 was caused by a fire which broke out about 3.30 a.m. today in the People's Palace, conducted by the Salvation Army, in Pirie street, City. The upper story of the building was gutted, and only splendid work by the Adelaide Fire Brigade saved the structure from complete demolition. Forty-five guests who were sleeping on the first floor escaped in their night attire down the main stairway and the fire escape at the rear. Many of the guests lost their personal effects. The entire ceiling of the upper, story collapsed after the people had escaped into the street. Fifty of the 61 bedrooms in the palace were badly damaged by fire and water.” [News 19 Jan 1938]

 

“Tenders will be called this week for the remodelling and modernisation of the Salvation Army People's Palace in Pirie street. . . will include the addition of a third story. . . The existing Renaissance elevation to Pirie street will not be materially altered, but features of the design will be emphasised.” [News 4 Apr 1938]

 

“the Salvation Army People's Palace, in Pirie street. . . A tour of the building today with Mr. H. T. Griggs, architect for the £10,000 remodelling, showed how the beauties of moulded cornices and similar decorative features were lost when big rooms were divided into sleeping cubicles and other small apartments. . . In the internal reconstruction, the dignity of the work done by bygone artisans will be displayed again as far as possible.” [News 21 May 1938]

 

“the People's Palace. . . Re-constructed and enlarged at a cost of £12,000, it now provided modern accommodation for 107 guests.” [Advertiser 28 Nov 1938]

 

“New City Rest Room For Troops. Forty-eight hours after the idea was first suggested, a Red Shield rest room for soldiers has been opened at the People's Palace, Pirie street. The Divisional Commander of the Salvation Army (Brig. R. S. Harewood), who declared the room open, said it had been established because of the pressing need for more such rooms. Troops could call in at any time for tea and biscuits, to play games, write letters, or chat.” [News 26 Mar 1942]

 

“Postwar high wages and dear food caused many restaurants to close. . . the People's Palace, Pirie street, restricted meals to guests.” [The Mail 22 Nov 1952]

 

“In 1912 I boarded at the People's Palace. Pirie street, Adelaide, for 17/6 a week. They also supplied good clean and satisfying meals for sixpence.” [Advertiser 23 Dec 1954, Letter to Editor]

 

ALBERT HALL

Albert Hall opened 4 Oct 1880 behind German Club for entertainment & dancing, architect Beyer & Withall, renamed Memorial Hall by Salvation Army when they purchased German Club 1899, hall extended, destroyed by fire 1975, sold & site redeveloped as offices.

 

“A dinner, to be followed by a ball, is connection with the German Club will take place to-night in the new Albert Hall, Pirie-street.” [Register 4 Oct 1880]

 

“Adelaide Liedertafel. A Grand Concert will be given on Tuesday, October 12, in the new Albert Hall, German Club, Pirie-street, in aid of the Building Fund of same.” [Express & Telegraph 1 Oct 1880 advert]

 

“The opening of the new Albert Hall in connection with the German Club was celebrated on Monday, October 4, by a ball and banquet, upwards of 400 persons attending the former and nearly 200 sitting down to the latter. It is not many months since the spacious and handsome clubhouse in Pirie-street was formally opened, and the additions just completed were at that time contemplated. . . it was decided to construct a spacious and lofty concert hall, with a stage for ordinary entertainments, and a level floor for dancing. These are the purposes to which the Albert Hall will principally be devoted, but it may also be used for meetings and other gatherings of a public character. The building has been erected from designs by Messrs. Beyer and Withall.” [Advertiser 5 Oct 1880]

 

“The hall is 93 feet long by 48 feet wide, and 35 feet high, while the stage has a depth of 28 feet, the proscenium being 21 feet wide and 24 feet high; The main entrance to the hall is through the spacious centre passage of the clubhouse, and there are several exit doors, some of which will be utilised by-and-by to communicate with a gymnasium or other additions contemplated to be erected on the vacant block of ground in the rear. . A balcony or dress circle will also be added to the hall.” [Express & Telegraph 5 Oct 1880]

 

“The Adelaide Liedertafel gave a concert in the Albert Hall of the new German Clubhouse on Tuesday night, October 12, in aid of the Building Fund of the hall. There was a large attendance, and, as is always the case when our German friends give a musical entertainment, there was nothing wanting to make the concert a thorough success. The programme was of a high order, embracing selections from some of the best masters. . . A week ago the Albert Hall was formally opened by a ball, but its acoustic properties were not fairly put to the test till on this occasion.” [Evening Journal 13 Oct 1880]

 

“Professor J. H. Pepper has arranged to deliver under the auspices of the Chamber of Manufactures three popular science lectures in the Albert Hall, German Club-house, Pirie street.” [Advertiser 17 May 1881]

 

“Adelaide Orpheus Society.— The first concert arranged by this Society will be given in the Albert Hall to-night. . . A splendid programme has been arranged both as regards choruses and solos. The Society now numbers about fifty or sixty members, who have been carefully trained by Mr. C. J. Stevens.” Evening Journal 14 Jun 1888]

 

“Salvation Army. . . Considerable alterations and improvements have been made to the Headquarters Memorial Hall in Pirie-street, previously known as the Albert Hall under the auspices of the German Club. These comprise a new gallery affording seating accommodation for 250, a soldiers' platform holding 175 persons, and a new ceiling to improve the acoustic properties of the hall.” [Register 11 Aug 1900]

  

HMS FIFE was sold to Chile on 12 August 1987 and renamed BLANCO ENCALADA. She was taken into refit at Talcahuano on her arrival and, taking advantage of the removed Sea Slug, her deck was extended aft and a new, larger hangar constructed. The rebuild was completed in May 1988. In 1996 Blanco Encalada's Sea Cat launchers were removed and she was fitted with the Barak SAM.

Blanco Encalada was decommissioned from the Chilean Navy on 12 December 2003 and was sold for scrap in November 2005. She was broken up by Turkish shipbreakers Leyal Gemi Sokum in 2013.

Seen at Portsmouth on the 2 Sept 1987 being escorted to her berth by the RMAS tugs BUSTLER (A225) and DALMATIAN (A129)

 

Junagarh Fort (Rajasthani: जुनाग्द क़िला) is a fort in the city of Bikaner, Rajasthan, India. The fort was originally called Chintamani and was renamed Junagarh or "Old Fort" in the early 20th century when the ruling family moved to Lalgarh Palace outside the fort limits. It is one of the few major forts in Rajasthan which is not built on a hilltop. The modern city of Bikaner has developed around the fort.

 

The fort complex was built under the supervision of Karan Chand, the Prime Minister of Raja Rai Singh, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611 AD. Construction of the walls and associated moat commenced in 1589 and was completed in 1594. It was built outside the original fort of the city, about 1.5 kilometres from the city centre. Some remnants of the old fort are preserved near the Lakshmi Narayan temple.

 

Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort, it was not taken, except for a lone one-day occupation by Kamran Mirza. Kamran was the second son of the Mughal Emperor Babur who attacked Bikaner in 1534, which was then ruled by Rao Jait Singh. In the battle, the Mughals were defeated by Rathors. Kamran then returned to Lahore.

 

The 5.28 hectares large fort precinct is studded with palaces, temples and pavilions. These buildings depict a composite culture, manifest in the mix of architectural styles.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Junagarh fort is located in the arid region of the Thar desert of Rajasthan bordered on the northwest by the Aravalli range, a range of mountains in western India. Part of the desert area is in Bikaner city, which is one of the three desert triangle cities; the other two cities are Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The name of the place where Bikaner city with its forts was established was then known as Jungladesh.

 

HISTORY

Before the present Junagarh Fort was built, an old stone fort existed in the city. This fort was built in 1478 by Rao Bika who established the city of Bikaner in 1472. Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur city. He conquered the large arid lands to the northern region of Rajasthan to set up his domain. As the second son of Jodha he had no chance of inheriting his father’s territory of Jodhpur or to the title of Maharaja. He, therefore, reconciled and decided to build his own kingdom at Bikaner at the place then called "Jungladesh". Bikaner, though a partly of the Thar Desert, was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast since it had adequate spring water sources. Bika’s name was thus tagged to the Bikaner city as well as to the then state of Bikaner (“the settlement of Bika”) that he established. The history of Bikaner and the fort within it thus start with Bika. It was only about 100 years later that Bikaner’s fortunes flourished under Raja Rai Singhji, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611. During the Mughal Empire’s rule in the country, he accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high position of an army general in the court of Emperor Akbar and his son Emperor Jahangir. His successful war exploits by way of winning half of Mewar kingdom won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors. He was gifted the jagirs (lands) of Gujarat and Burhanpur. With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Junagarh fort on a plain land, which has an average elevation of 230 m. The formal foundation ceremony for the fort was held on 17 February 1589 and the fort was completed on 17 January 1594. Raja Rai Singhji, was an expert in arts and architecture and the knowledge that he acquired during his several sojourns to several countries are amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built in the Junagarh fort. Thus the fort, a composite structure, became an outstanding example of architecture and a unique centre of art, amidst the Thar desert.

 

Karan Singh who ruled from 1631 to 1639, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh, who ruled from 1669–98, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter (royal dwelling for females). He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Gaj Singh who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace). Following him, Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and he lavishly decorated the audience hall (see picture in info box) with glass and lively paintwork. Dungar Singh who reigned from 1872 to 1887 built the Badal Mahal (the weather palace) named so in view of a painting of falling rain and clouds (a rare event in arid Bikaner). Ganga Singh who ruled from 1887 to 1943 built the Ganga Niwas Palace, which has towers at the entrance patio. This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob. Ganga Singh’s son Sadul Singh succeeded his father in 1943 but acceded to the Union of India in 1949. He died in 1950.

 

Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British Raj under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818, where after the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily on refurbishing their Junagarh fort. However, during the 18th century, before this treaty was signed, there was internecine war between rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other Thakur, which was put down by the British troops. It is reported that during the attack by Jodhpur army, of the two entrances to the fort (one in the east and the other in the west), the eastern entrance and the southern rampart were damaged; marks of cannonballs fired are seen on the southern façade of the fort.

 

Ganga Singh was the best-known king among the Rajasthan princes. A favourite of the British Raj, he earned the title of Knight Commander of the Star of India. He served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, represented the country at the Imperial First World War Conferences and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference and was aware of the shift of fortunes in the World War II but died in 1943, before the war was won by the allies. His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audience in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions. The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee as a ruler of Bikaner is now a museum. He also got a new palace - north of Junagarh fort - designed and built by Swinton, the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner and named it Lalgarh Palace in the name of his father and shifted his residence from Junagarh fort to this palace in 1902. The royal family still lives in a special suite in the Lalbagh palace, which they have converted into a heritage hotel.

 

STRUCTURES

The structures built within the Junagarh fort are the palaces and temples, which are made of red sandstone (Dulmera) and marble. The palaces are described as picturesque with their assortment of courtyards, balconies, kiosks and windows. The fort, the temples and the palaces are preserved as museums and provide insight into the grandiose living style of the past Maharanas of Rajasthan. The fort is called “a paradox between medieval military architecture and beautiful interior decoration”.

 

OVERVIEW

The massive fort built in the plains of Bikaner has a rectangular (quadrangular) layout with a peripheral length of 986 m. The fort walls are 4.4 m wide and 12 m in height. It encompasses an area of 5.28 ha. It was surrounded by a moat which was 6.1–7.6 m deep with a base width of 4.6 m and top width of 9.1 m. However, the moat no longer exists. The fort is well fortified with 37 bastions (‘burj’ in local language) and seven gates (two are main gates) to counter enemy attacks. The fort was built as a “new stronghold” outside of the ruins of an old fort built by Rao Bika and on the periphery of the Bikaner city walls (1.5 kilometres from the city centre); the old fort was demolished a century after it was built.

 

The fort with seven gates contains several palaces, pavilions and many temples of Hindu and Jain religions - the earliest dated to the 16th century. A major feature of the fort is the stone carving done in red and gold coloured sandstones. The interiors of the palaces are decorated and painted in traditional Rajasthani style. The Junagarh palaces have a large number of rooms, as every king built his own separate set of rooms, not wanting to live in his predecessors’ rooms. These structures were considered as “at par with those of Louis’s France or of Imperial Russia”. Several types of architectural style are discerned in the fort complex and hence it is called a true depiction of composite culture. The earliest style is of Rajput architecture, defined by Gujarati and Mughal architectural influence reflecting the association with Mughal rulers, the second type is of semi-western architecture reflecting British influence, and finally the revivalists Rajput architecture that evolved particularly during the rule of Maharaja Ganga Singh. Only the most representative of all these architectural styles are on display for visitors. Thus, the unique monuments on display in the Junagarh Fort represent sixteen successive generations of the rulers of Bikaner, starting from the end of the 16th century.

 

GATES

While the main entry gate was Karan Pol or Parole, facing east, the current gate of entry is called Suraj Pol (meaning the Sun gate), 'pol' also colloquially spelt prol, built in gold coloured or yellow sandstone, unlike the other gates and buildings built in red sandstone. It is the east facing gate permitting the rising Sun’s rays to fall on the gate, which is considered a good omen. The doors of this gate are strengthened with iron spikes and studs to prevent ramming by elephants during an attack. At the entrance to the gate, two red stone statues of elephants with mahouts stand as sentinels. The gate was also the location for announcing the arrival and departure of royalty by musicians playing the trumpet from a gallery in the gate. The other gates are Karan Pol, Daulat Pol, Chand Pol (a double gate) and Fateh Pol; these provided access to various monuments in the fort. The Karan Pol gate is also braced with iron spikes to prevent battering of the gate by elephants. To the right of this gate is Daulat Pol. Forty-one hand imprints are seen on the Daulat Pol gate wall, in red colour, of the wives of the Maharajas of Bikaner, who committed sati (self immolation) on the funeral pyres of their husbands who died in battle.

 

Between the main gate and the palace, there is a quadrangle, and then another gate called the Tripolia gate (triple gateway) before accessing the royal chambers. Next to this gate is a small temple called the Har Mandir, where the Royal family used to offer worship. In the quadrangle, which houses a large pavilion with a water pool built in Carrara Italian marble. The Karan Mahal, where public audience was held in the Diwan-i-Am by Karan Singh (1631–39) and his successors till the 20th century, can also be seen in the same quadrangle.

 

TEMPLES

Har Mandir temple was the royal chapel - private temple of the royal family. The royal family celebrated the Hindu festival of Dussera and Gangaur here, apart from celebrating other family functions such as birthdays and marriages. In the Dussera celebrations, weapons and horses were worshipped here. The main deities worshipped in this temple are the Hindu deities Lakshmi Narayan, a combined representation of god Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi.

 

The Ratan Behari temple located near the Junagarh Fort, was built in 1846 by the 18th ruler of Bikaner. It was built in Indo-Mughal architectural style using white marble. The Hindu god Krishna is deified in this temple.

 

PALACES

Karan mahal (Public Audience Hall) was built by Karan Singh in c.1680 to mark his victory over the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. It is considered as one of the most exquisite palaces built with gardens, which displays the aesthetic sensibilities of the royalty of Rajasthan. It has stained glass windows and intricately carved balconies built in stone and wood fluted columns. Later Rajas, Anup Singh and Surat Singh, also added lot of glitter to this palace with inlaid polychrome glass, intricate mirror patterns, and red and gold paint. In the coronation chamber, there is a shored up alcove, which was used as a throne.

 

Phool Mahal ("Flower Palace") is the oldest part of the palace and was built by king Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner, who ruled between 1571-1668.

 

Anup Mahal is a multi-storey structure, which functioned as the administrative headquarters of the kingdom. It has ornate wooden ceilings with inlaid mirrors, Italian tiles, and fine lattice windows and balconies. It has some gold leaf paintings. It is considered as one of the “grandest construction”.

 

Chandra Mahal has the most luxurious room in the palace, which houses gold plated deities and paintings inlaid with precious stones. In the royal bedroom, mirrors have been strategically placed so that the Maharaja could see from his bed, any intruder entering his room.

 

Ganga Mahal was built in the 20th century by Ganga Singh who reigned for 56 years from 1887 to 1943, has a large durbar hall known as the Ganga Singh Hall that houses the Museum. The museum has exhibits of war weaponry and also a World War I aeroplane (biplane), which is stated to be well maintained.

 

Badal Mahal (The weather palace) is part of the Anup Mahal extensions. It has paintings of Shekhawati Dundlod chiefs paying respects to the Maharaja of Bikaner in different types of turbans. Photos of people standing on nails, wood, swords and saws are also depicted here – a display of faith and endurance. The walls in this palace depict fresco paintings of the Hindu god Krishna and his consort Radha amidst the rain clouds.

 

Bikaneri Havelies located both within and outside the fort in the Bikaner city’s by lanes are also of unique architectural style in home architecture. Aldous Huxley who visited these havelis reportedly said “They are the pride of Bikaner.”

 

FORT MUSEUM

The museum within the fort called the Junagarh Fort Museum was established in 1961 by Maharaja Dr.Karni Singhji under the control of "Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust". The Museum exhibits Sanskrit and Persian manuscripts, miniature paintings, jewels, royal costumes, farmans (royal orders), portrait galleries, costumes, headgear and dresses of gods’ idols, enamelware, silver, palanquins, howdahs and war drums. The museum also displays armoury that consists of one of the assorted collection of post medieval arms.

 

MAHARAJA RAI SINGHJI TRUST

Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust has been set up by the 'Royal family of Bikaner' with the basic objective to showcase the fort with professional inputs in various areas and to improve the experience for visitors. Another objective is to promote education and research scholarships, cultural activities, setting up of libraries and integration with other such trusts.

 

WIKIPEDIA