View allAll Photos Tagged Polypropylene
History
The use of ropes for hunting, pulling, fastening, attaching, carrying, lifting, and climbing dates back to prehistoric times.
It is likely that the earliest "ropes" were naturally occurring lengths of plant fibre, such as vines, followed soon by the first attempts at twisting and braiding these strands together to form the first proper ropes in the modern sense of the word. The earliest evidence of suspected rope is a very small fragment of three-ply cord from a Neanderthal site dated 50,000 years ago.
This item was so small, it was only discovered and described with the help of a high power microscope. It is slightly thicker than the average thumb-nail, and would not stretch from edge-to-edge across a little finger-nail.
There are other ways fibres can twist in nature, without deliberate construction.
A tool dated between 35,000 and 40,000 years found in the Hohle Fels cave in south-western Germany has been identified as a means for making rope.
It is a 20 cm (8 in) strip of mammoth ivory with four holes drilled through it.
Each hole is lined with precisely cut spiral incisions.
The grooves on three of the holes spiral in a clockwise direction from each side of the strip.
The grooves on one hole spiral clockwise on one side, but counter-clockwise from the other side.
Plant fibres have been found on it that could have come from when they fed through the holes and the tool twisted, creating a single ply yarn. Fiber-making experiments with a replica found that the perforations served as effective guides for raw fibers, making it easier to make a strong, elastic rope than simply twisting fibers by hand spiral incisions would have tended to keep the fibres in place.
But the incisions cannot impart any twist to the fibres pulled through the holes.
Other 15,000-year-old objects with holes with spiral incisions, made from reindeer antler, found across Europe are thought to have been used to manipulate ropes, or perhaps some other purpose.
They were originally named "batons", and thought possibly to have been carried as badges of rank.
Impressions of cordage found on fired clay provide evidence of string and rope-making technology in Europe dating back 28,000 years.
Fossilized fragments of "probably two-ply laid rope of about 7 mm [0.28 in] diameter" were found in one of the caves at Lascaux, dating to approximately 15,000 BC.
The ancient Egyptians were probably the first civilization to develop special tools to make rope.
Egyptian rope dates back to 4000 to 3500 BC and was generally made of water reed fibres.
Other rope in antiquity was made from the fibres of date palms, flax, grass, papyrus, leather, or animal hair. The use of such ropes pulled by thousands of workers allowed the Egyptians to move the heavy stones required to build their monuments. Starting from approximately 2800 BC, rope made of hemp fibres was in use in China.
Rope and the craft of rope making spread throughout Asia, India, and Europe over the next several thousand years.
From the Middle Ages until the 18th century, in Europe ropes were constructed in ropewalks, very long buildings where strands the full length of the rope were spread out and then laid up or twisted together to form the rope.
The cable length was thus set by the length of the available rope walk. This is related to the unit of length termed cable length. This allowed for long ropes of up to 300 yards (270 m) long or longer to be made.
These long ropes were necessary in shipping as short ropes would require splicing to make them long enough to use for sheets and halyards.
The strongest form of splicing is the short splice, which doubles the cross-sectional area of the rope at the area of the splice, which would cause problems in running the line through pulleys.
Any splices narrow enough to maintain smooth running would be less able to support the required weight.
Rope intended for naval use would have a coloured yarn, known as the "rogue's yarn", included in the layup.
This enabled the source to be identified and to detect pilfering.
Leonardo da Vinci drew sketches of a concept for a ropemaking machine, but it was never built.
Remarkable feats of construction were accomplished using rope but without advanced technology:
In 1586, Domenico Fontana erected the 327 ton obelisk on Rome's Saint Peter's Square with a concerted effort of 900 men, 75 horses, and countless pulleys and meters of rope.
By the late 18th century several working machines had been built and patented.
Some rope is still made from natural fibres, such as coir and sisal, despite the dominance of synthetic fibres such as nylon and polypropylene, which have become increasingly popular since the 1950s.
Nylon was discovered in the late 1930s and was first introduced into fiber ropes during World War II.
Indeed, the first synthetic fiber ropes were small braided parachute cords and three-strand tow ropes for gliders, made of nylon during World War II.
Pentax kr
smc P-A 70-210mm F4
WIkipedia :
Geomag est la marque d'un jeu de construction créé en 1998, inventée par Edoardo Tusacciu, qui a créé la société Plastwood à Calangianus en Sardaigne. Cela consiste principalement en des boules plaquées au nickel (sphères) et des bâtonnets courts avec un aimant de chaque côté (tiges). Il existe également des panneaux pour aider à solidifier davantage la structure et économiser des sphères et des bâtonnets. Les modèles sont construits en connectant par magnétisme les tiges aux sphères.
Geomag is a magnetic construction toy. The original toy comprised bars with a magnet on each end (neodymium alloy) all attached by a magnetic plug (coated with polypropylene), and nickel-coated metal spheres. Magnetic forces hold the bars and spheres together, creating the possibility for many constructions. Invented and patented by Claudio Vincetelli in May 1998, production is currently undertaken by Geomagworld SA at the production facilities in Novazzano, Switzerland. Product lines have been added to the original model (now called Geomag PRO), growing the Geomag range of construction toys. Since the introduction of the 2009/48/EC law on 20 July 2013 restricted the content of nickel in toys, Geomag has re-modelled the spheres with a bronze alloy coating, in order to comply with the new regulations.
Shot with two off-camera flashes (Leica SF60/Leica SF C1 trigger). Flash A positioned above subject, modified with modified with MagMod MagGrid. Flash 2 behind polypropylene scrim, modified with blue filter.
Stack Ring by Chris Kabel, at the exhibition "Project Rotterdam", Museum Boijmans van Beuningen, Rotterdam
Custom-coloured polypropylene stools
Most small hay bales are held together with baling twine, which in our part of the world is a polypropylene twine that is usually either orange or blue.
I am sure this piece has been danging on the field shelter for more than 10 years. Exposed to light and weather, the formerly blue baling twine has faded to a light grey.
It and other bits of plastic are shedding fine particles of microplastic into the environment I am sure.
MacroMondays theme - String
Nouvelle Vague - Fade to Grey
Focus stack (10 images). Shot with two off-camera flashes (Leica SF60 /Leica SF C1 trigger) placed along sides of a 15 inch Foldio Studio light box at 90 degrees to subject. Strobes also modified with MagMod MagSphere diffusers to spread light off translucent polypropylene sides of Foldio Studio.
Focus stack of 12 images. Shot with two off camera strobes (Leica SF 60 / Leica SF C1 trigger) with subject inside 15 inch Foldio
Studio. Flash 1 from right side, undiffused through polypropylene side. Flash 2 from top opening, diffused with MagMod MagSphere and a velum scrim over opening to eliminate reflections
I was tagged by Dolldiva67, jade n_n, LesPoupéesD'Olivia, Michaela Unbehau, Bogostick, and imida73. Thanks so much! I'm not sure who already played, so I just tagged people back who tagged me and a few others. If you see this and weren't tagged, consider yourself tagged, too! :)
Rules:
Create a gallery of portraits of as many of your dolls as you can! However, when creating this collage, I decided to only include photos that I really love. Sorry to the MARVEL gals who didn't make the cut!
First Row:
Chrome Noir Erin (Scarlet Witch) www.flickr.com/photos/63559873@N06/34689152310/in/album-7...
Exotic Fire Veronique (Rogue)
www.flickr.com/photos/63559873@N06/21339004523/in/album-7...
Dress Code Vanessa (Silver Sable)
www.flickr.com/photos/63559873@N06/20209236675/in/album-7...
Shock Bon Bon Vanessa (Polaris)
www.flickr.com/photos/63559873@N06/32297041013/in/album-7...
Second Row:
J'Adore Paris Tatyana (Mystique)
www.flickr.com/photos/63559873@N06/35471199493/in/album-7...
Scene Stealer Isha (Shadowcat)
www.flickr.com/photos/63559873@N06/25132504416/in/album-7...
Black Orchid Vanessa (White Queen)
www.flickr.com/photos/63559873@N06/22560219737/in/album-7...
Rare Appeal Dominique (Haven)
www.flickr.com/photos/63559873@N06/sets/72157634235892033
Third Row:
London Mist Imogen (Sersi)
www.flickr.com/photos/63559873@N06/17661268584/in/album-7...
Goldstroke Adele (Storm)
www.flickr.com/photos/63559873@N06/17133498833/in/album-7...
Quicksilver Kyori (Psylocke)
www.flickr.com/photos/63559873@N06/24622017261/in/album-7...
Ooh La La Poppy Parker (Black Cat)
www.flickr.com/photos/63559873@N06/31159946223/in/album-7...
I Introduce you my collection of the new Generation of Disney Princess.
Tangled limited Edition Doll 17" By Disney Store.
Anna Singing Wedding Doll 17" full reroot by me with carrot Cake Nylon hair 38". I was make the restyle hair with tinsels and tiny curls. She wears a wondeful wedding dress and true eyelashes.
Giselle Limited Edition doll (Enchanted Movie) is full repaint by the fabulous Artist Arnodolls. Arnodolls make this amazing dress and accessories. Giselle by Enchanted Movie is full reroot by me with an amazing color, Polypropylene Daring Hair. Hairstyle is realized by me with tiny curls.
Arc de Triomphe "Wrapped" 21/09/2021 18h07
One of the biggest projects of Christo and Jeanne-Claude they both ever made. The Arc de Triomphe "Wrapped" could be seen from September 18 to Sunday, October 3, 2021.
I visited the Arc de Triomphe "Wrapped" two times in this period. This was during an early evening.
Arc de Triomphe "Wrapped"
L'Arc de Triomphe, Wrapped is an artwork by Christo and Jeanne-Claude in 2021 that wrapped the Parisian Arc de Triomphe in a silver-blue fabric.
Christo and Jeanne-Claude are known for their wrapping of public monuments, including Wrapped Reichstag, The Pont Neuf Wrapped, and The Gates in New York. L'Arc de Triomphe, Wrapped, one of their largest works, will use 25,000 square meters of silver-blue fabric fastened with 3,000 meters of red rope. Its polypropylene fabric.
Christo first thought of wrapping the Arc de Triomphe when he lived nearby in 1961. Actual planning began in 2018 in preparation for a Pompidou Center exhibition. While the show will display documentation of the artists' The Pont-Neuf Wrapped, Christo wanted to work "beyond the exhibition". Governmental approval came easily in comparison to the waits for their prior projects. Initially slated to run for two weeks in April 2020, the work was first delayed until September to accommodate the nesting of kestrel falcons who nest in the monument during the spring and then delayed until September 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The work will be self-financed through sales of project documentation, including drawings and models. It will be the first work in their signature style since Jeanne-Claude's death in 2009.
On May 31, 2020 France 24 announced, the project in Paris will be - in accordance with Christo's wishes - continued.
Christo Vladimirov Javacheff (1935–2020) and Jeanne-Claude Denat de Guillebon (1935–2009), known as Christo and Jeanne-Claude, were artists noted for their large-scale, site-specific environmental installations, often large landmarks and landscape elements wrapped in fabric, including the Wrapped Reichstag, The Pont Neuf Wrapped, Running Fence in California, and The Gates in New York City's Central Park.
[ Wikipedia 2021 ]
Headed back to where we started, two servings (Rich and myself) of stinking early generation polypropylene waiting for a ride, Hoh Visitor Center, Bailey Range / Mount Olympus Traverse, Olympic National Park, Washington State (1986)
OOAK London Mist Imogen wearing LIPSTICK "Ribbon Dress" created by Yuko Stevens. You can visit her lovely etsy shop at www.etsy.com/shop/yukostevens. Great doll items at great prices. :)
Some people may have mildly observed that Flickr has had a few less rants and incompetent monologues recently. A very small subset of these may even have thought, “that fool has not posted much recently”. An even smaller circle in the Venn diagram of life would have cared. But to those who inhabit this near-infinitesimally small group, I can finally reveal the reason for my absence.
A few months ago, Pete, the resident village chimney sweep, announced to the pub regulars that he had lost the keys to his beloved Citroen Berlingo Van. Immediately the elders of the village’s pagan worshipping society put down their pints of mead and assorted virgins and announced they were going to hold a midnight séance. The last time Pete the Seep had mislaid his brush extension a benevolent guiding spirit from the other side had helped locate its whereabouts. So, just before the church bell struck midnight, we all gathered around the Ouija board. Now, I must declare that I was a bit apprehensive about all this back-magic stuff. On the previous occasion we were visited by Pocahontas and being a native American of the 17th century it took a long, long time to explain to her what a chimney was, why someone would want to sweep it, and what a De Vielle Chimney Cleaning Kit 8 x 920mm polypropylene rod with zinc-alloy end connections looked like. Explaining the workings of a Berlingo key fob could take all night. However, on this occasion, it turns out we had a spectral visitation from a very different figure of historic worth. Arthur C. Clarke, no less! I won’t bore you with some of the other witterings that he was prone to (it was all Space Odyssey this, Rama that) and get straight to the part where he addressed me directly. In the making of his early-eighties TV series, “Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World”, there was an episode that was never aired. The mystery involved the legend of a lake inhabited by merpeople. Despite much investigation, Clarkie boy and his team never found the lake. He now implored me to take up the search and reveal the truth. And this I can now do. After careful examination of Clark’s notes and many underwater recces that resulted in dead-ends, I can finally announce we discovered the merpeople’s lake in middle England. Deep, deep, in the darkest murky recesses we found the remains of these enigmatic beings. Alas, the evidence we found was only of their whitened bones; no living creature was discovered. Our investigations go on as to why these beautiful people are no more. Further reports to come…
un-edited photo
Miss Sally Rice hair colour matching - comparisons of:
Turquoise Saran - too light / slightly too greenish
Sky Blue Saran - MATCH!
Daiquari Ice Nylon - way off - far too light
Heartless Polypropylene - way off - far too light
Yards and Yards of buried blue polypropylene rope on a remote and beautiful Scottish beach, Scotland's west coast.
realized I never uploaded this piece on my stream. here it is. variable collar. you can play with the layers and wear it in different configurations. Rather not for everyday use...
made it in 2006
Lovely blouse, great quality material, fits well. ❤️ A Satin blouse, something every girl should have in their closet a staple piece that can transform you from day to night it’s a piece that is sophisticated and sexy at the same time.
My favorit Short Hair Wig Grandma Agathe Ladies Greisin Old Woman Grandmother Granny Hairstyle 😛 This old-fashioned short haired granny wig is the perfect accessory if you want to dress up authentically as a governan, red hood grandmother or adorable old lady.
One size for women.
Material:
100% polypropylene.
…..who remembers High-waisted mom jeans? . Bright colorblock windbreakers? Butterfly shaped frames were popular in the seventies and oversized square frames? This eye-catching style was everyone’s fave in the 70s, and even in the 80s, they were still outrageously popular. They had large square frames, often featured a top bar, and could be worn both as prescription glasses and sunglasses. , oversized square frames could be a great style go-to.
When it comes to vintage eyewear the 70s can sometimes be a decade that is overlooked. People often think of the 50s & 60s cat eyes or 80s huge oversized specs, but let me assure you the eyewear in the 70s was just as hot as the mini skirts, bell sleeves and flares that graced the decade.
37705 heads the distinctive orange banded pressure tanks working the TFO 6E21 Baglan Bay to Humber empty Polypropylene service pictured at Somerton, Newport
Summer 2001 dated shot.
www.unipartdorman.co.uk/traffic-management/
The ConeLITE Synchro utilises the innovative synchro technology, designed to direct drivers away from hazards and lane closures by giving the appearance of a light pulse travelling along the lamps. The lamps can be used in any combination within a cone taper and they will synchronise correctly in a few seconds.
- Automatic operation from a single battery, activated by a contact switch when placed on a cone
- Outstanding performance, high intensity LED coupled with low intensity back light
- Battery life of 1400 hours when used with a Unipart Dorman Air Alkaline DAAB 50
- Quick & easy battery change reduces worker exposure
- Durable high intensity polypropylene body with polycarbonate unidirectional lens
- Lens colour options available: Amber and Blue
Of special note
That passing Ford Focus is 18 years old. Note the missing boot badges. All the MOTs from 2008 to 2022 are clean. Mileage has slowly risen from 9,893 miles to 33,533 miles.
From an article published on 2 January 2019:
"Work on a new boardwalk is underway at the Leonabelle Turnbull Birding Center. The old structure was destroyed by Hurricane Harvey in August 2017. A 700-foot replacement will connect the birding center to the Port Aransas Nature Preserve at Charlie’s Pasture. It’s the first new construction to take place in the preserve since the hurricane.
The new boardwalk, which will cost about $670,000, is more than a replacement, according to officials. It will be the first leg of future boardwalks designed to link sections of the preserve for better wildlife viewing.
It is being built of fiberglass-reinforced polypropylene grating rather than wood, which will make it stronger and less likely to be damaged by future storms. Because it is not buoyant, waves will crash through it and not lift it. At 7 feet above the surface, the new boardwalk is 2 feet higher than the previous structure."
www.ccbiznews.com/news/new-boardwalk-underway-at-port-ara...
This evening, I have flooded my photostream, (yet again) with another 22 images taken on 22 March, Day 4 of our 13-day trip to South Texas, 19-31 March 2019. I don't seem to have all that many photos from that day - thought I took a lot more than I did at the Leonabelle Turnbull Birding Centre, at the Port Aransas Nature Reserve, South Texas.
Day 4, 22 March 2019, was a day of birding and also driving from Rockport, where we had stayed for three nights, to Kingsville. Most of these 22 photos were taken at the Port Aransas Nature Preserve. When we arrived at that location, we discovered that only a small area near the beach was open to the public, as other parts had been closed because of damage from Hurricane Harvey in 2017. We had a short walk there, enjoying seeing a tiny - and fast! - Sedge Wren. We also all took photos of a white caterpillar, only to discover when we got back to Calgary, that in fact it was not a caterpillar after all, but two white moths mating : )
Shortly after leaving that area, we stopped to take a quick shot or two of a Loggerhead Shrike, perched high up on a wire. I have seen a Loggerhead Shrike before, here in Alberta, but I had never seen one this close.
After we left this area, we stopped at the Leonabelle Turnbull Birding Center, on the edge of the Port Aransas Nature Reserve. We really enjoyed this birding centre and their new boardwalk and tower. Lots of birds; even a huge Alligator.
Usually when hair fiber has felt OFF to me in the past, I always thought it was nylon by exclusion (clearly not saran, clearly not kanekalon, so prolly gotta be nylon!). So I assumed this stiff, dry fiber on this Defa Lucy doll was nylon and would take regular Rit Dye.
No ma'am. NO. MA'AM!
If a doll's hair fiber is obviously not saran or kanekalon by touch, and won't take regular Rit dye, does that make it polypropylene? For all of the screaming and wailing over polypropylene in the past few years on fashion dolls(looking at you, Clawdeen), I've never seen a guide to identifying it that has actually helped me to identify it (apparently it disintegrates over time, but that doesn't help me NOW!).
Except for maybe now that I know the hard way that whatever this crap is it will just NOT take Rit dye 😬 But then what is acetate hair? Something old and crappy that doesn't get used anymore? Whereas polypropylene is the new and crappy fiber? So since this is a newer doll who's hair feels like total gross crap and doesn't take Rit dye, it's probably poly? And nylon is more plasticy and dry than saran but not as plasticy and dry as poly? I don't know. I would like to know.
Anyway, I tried three or four times to do this! The first time I thought I'd just picked the wrong colors, didn't use enough dye, didn't get the water hot enough. And the second time I thought I washed the hair too soon with soap. But it just kept washing out completely. And the last time I was just so pissed. I dropped the doll in the hot water and left her there, following the instructions on the dye to a T and used vinegar (ugh) and soap along with the dye and scalding hot water. It stained the vinyl on her HEAD (which I didn't even know was possible with Rit for non-synthetic material) but washed completely out of this accursed hair.😒 It left the plastic ties in her head leftover from her packaging basically, like, BLACK, but the hair is still snow white. She was a cheap doll so I don't care too too much, but GEEZ.
WHAT IS IN THIS HAIR, ASBESTOS? I just wanna know😭
Meet Señor Del Barrio, el jefe de jefes. Moves like a kingpin, but talks like your cousin's wise uncle. Runs things from the shadows — or from the recycled polypropylene chair outside his house (which is definitely not su casa).
Favorite Booty Rizz line: "Ese culo no es sólo para mirar, es para recordarlo toda la vida."
Poderoso como una AK-47: Cartel de Santa - Perros
Siemens Taurus 1116 023-3, utilizată de Rail Cargo Carrier Romania, fabricație 2001 cu număr de serie 20420, repartizată ca împingătoare la un tren de polipropilenă pe distanța Câmpina-Brașov.
Electric locomotive Siemens Taurus 1116 023-3, operated by Rail Cargo Carrier Romania, built in 2001 with works number 20420, assigned as a pusher locomotive for a polypropylene freight train on the Câmpina–Brașov route.
Dârste, Brașov (RO)
Lighting info:
I shot this inside a cylinder of thin translucent polypropylene plastic which served as a diffuser and to control reflections. I place a black felt backdrop at the back of the cylinder. Three lights including my old Canon 300TL which I pulled out of the closet.
From the left, an old Canon 300TL set to low power, zoomed to 80mm and triggered by a pocket wizard
From the right, a Canon 580EX, set to 1/16 power, zoomed to 85mm and triggered by an ST-E2
Tucked in behind the blender and firing up through a snoot into the water, a Canon 430EX zoomed to 105mm and triggered by an ST-E2
Other notes:
I put dry ice in the blender to create the smoke.
The yellow at the surface of the water is actually specular reflection of the rear flash causing the red channel of my sensor to blow out.
OOAK London Mist Imogen wearing LIPSTICK "Ribbon Dress" created by Yuko Stevens. You can visit her lovely etsy shop at www.etsy.com/shop/yukostevens. Great doll items at great prices. :)
29/05/2025, Smit Lamnalco Port of Gladstone tug base (16 tugs), Queensland, Australia 🦘.
How good to see that these tug crew members are trained to splice their own polypropylene mooring line eyes.
The wearing of face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic has received varying recommendations from different public health agencies and governments. The topic has been a subject of debate,[1] with various public health agencies and governments disagreeing on a protocol for wearing face masks. As of early May, 88% of the world's population lives in countries that recommend or mandate the usage of masks in public and 75+ countries have mandated the use of masks.[2] Debates have emerged regarding whether masks should be worn even when social distancing at six feet (2 meters),[3][4][5] whether they should be worn during exercise,[6] worn in the home to reduce viral load,[7][8] and whether there are mitigating factors.[9][7] Additionally, public health agencies of different countries and territories have often changed their recommendations regarding face masks over time.[10] Face masks have been a subject of shortages, and also been made compulsory in some countries.
Types of face masks, from least to most protective, include cloth face masks, medical (non-surgical) masks,[11][12] surgical masks, and filtering facepiece respirators such as N95 masks and FFP masks. Face shields and medical goggles are other types of protective equipment often used together with face masks.
Contents
1Types of masks
1.1Face shields
1.2Cloth masks
1.2.1Sterilizing and re-use
1.3Surgical masks
1.4Disposable filtering respirators
1.4.1Sterilizing and re-use
1.5Elastomeric respirators
1.6Powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs)
1.7Novel face masks (research and development)
2Recommendations
2.1World Health Organization recommendations
2.2US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
2.3China and Asia
3Rationale for wearing masks
4Shortages of face masks
4.1Early epidemic in China
4.2National stocks and shortages
4.3N95 and FFP masks
5The mask industry
5.1Manufacturing
5.2Distribution
6Culture
6.1Attitudes
6.2Fashion
7Mask use and policies by country and territory
8References
Types of masks[edit]
Small particles zigzag due to Brownian motion, and are easily captured. Large particles get strained out, or have too much inertia to turn, and hit a fiber. Mid-size particles follow flowlines and are more likely to get through the filter; the hardest size to filter is 0.3 microns diameter.[13]
Certified medical masks are disposable (except some faceshields). They are made of non-woven material. They are mostly multi-layer. Filter material may be made of microfibers with an electrostatic charge; that is, the fibers are electrets. An electret filter increases the chances that smaller particles will veer and hit a fiber, rather than going straight through (electrostatic capture).[13][14][15][better source needed][medical citation needed] Typically, efficiency of the filtering materials decreases when washed or used multiple times.[16]
Many medical masks are respirators; they are designed to protect the wearer. Surgical masks, on the other hand, are meant to protect others against infection transmission from the wearer (so called "source control").[17] Some respirators and masks have valves,[18] which let exhaled air out unfiltered. This makes them bad for source control.[19] It may, however, reduce inwards leakage, thus improving wearer protection.[18]
Face shields[edit]
Person wearing a face shield over a green surgical mask. A simple 3D-printed face shield: curved visor, drawstring lanyard, sheet of transparent plastic curved from side to side.
Person wearing a face shield and a surgical mask.
Main article: Face shield
It is not yet known whether face shields are effective at preventing disease transmission. They protect against splash and splatter. Cough simulation experiments show that they protect[18] the wearer[20] against large drops immediately after the cough, but do not keep out smaller aerosols. The longer it was after the simulated cough, the more particles found their way around. Because there is no evidence they prevent the wearer from getting ill, face shields are used with nose-mouth masks, and to protect nose-mouth masks, but use of face shields alone is not recommended.[18]
Cloth masks[edit]
Homemade cloth face mask
Sneezing. There is limited evidence that cloth masks can significantly reduce aerosol droplet dispersal.[18]
Main article: Cloth face mask
A cloth face mask is a mask made of a common textile, usually cotton, worn over the mouth and nose. Although they are less effective than medical-grade masks, many health authorities recommend that the general public use them because medical-grade masks are in short supply.[21][22]
They were routinely used by healthcare workers starting from the late 19th century until the mid 20th century. In the 1960s they fell out of use in the developed world in favor of modern surgical masks, but their use has persisted in developing countries.[23][24][25]
There were calls for research into the effectiveness of improvised masks even before the emergence of COVID-19, motivated also by past epidemics and modelling of likely mask shortages. However, little research has been done. There are no studies of the use of cloth masks by the general public, one study on the use of cloth masks in hospitals (by healthcare workers, not patients), and many controlled-setting/lab studies of cloth masks' effects on aerosols as of May 2020.[18]
Cloth masks are low-cost and reusable. They vary widely in effectiveness depending on material, fit/seal, and number of layers, among other factors. Unlike disposable masks, there are no legal standards for cloth masks. Fit is important (as with disposable masks). Measures to improve fit, such as an outer layer made from sheer nylon stockings or sheer tights around the head, reduce leakage.[18]
Improvised cloth masks seem to be worse than standard commercial disposable masks, but better than nothing. There is, however, little good evidence on them. A single study gives evidence that an improvised mask was better than nothing, but not as good as soft electret-filter surgical mask, for protecting health care workers simulating treating a simulated infected patient, regardless of whether "patient" or carers wore the mask.[18] Another study had volunteers wear masks they made themselves, to a pattern like that of a standard surgical mask, but with ties rather than earloops,[26] from cotton T-shirts, and found that the number of microscopic particles that leaked inside the homemade masks was twice the number that leaked into the commercial masks, and that the homemade mask let three times as many microorganisms expelled by the wearer escape (median averages). There is limited evidence that cloth masks can significantly reduce droplet dispersal.[18]
Cloth masks are commonly made with one layer, two layers, or two layers with a pocket for a removable-filter interlayer [18] (disposable surgical mask also have three layers, with the filter layer midmost[citation needed]). The CDC recommends more than one layer.[27] There is no research on the usefulness of a filter interlayer, as of May 2020. There were until recently no non-disposable materials designed for making masks (see end of paragraph). Common household fabrics which could be utilized (turned to a new use) as mask materials have been tested.[28][29][30][31] Cloth materials vary widely in filtration efficiency. Some cotton and polyester household fabrics have been found to compare with disposable surgical masks for dry particle filtering. Cotton T-shirt material, pillowcase material, and 70% cotton/30% polyester sweatshirt material are among the common materials that performed well in lab tests, with T-shirts preferred to pillowcases because it was thought that it would probably fit better. Teatowels and vacuum-cleaner bags were effective at filtering, but had a very high air resistance, so were not recommended. Scarves filtered poorly. Surgical sterilisation wrap, a polypropylene non-woven fabric made for wrapping sterilized things to keep them sterile, is designed to filter germs from the air. Using surgical sterilisation wrap to make masks, or as a filter interlayer in cloth masks, has been suggested. There are, however, no tests on using surgical sterilisation wrap for masks, as of May 2020.[18] Other suggested materials for filter interlayers include air filter materials used in ventilation, heating, and air conditioning, some of which are similar to rigid electret masks in the size ranges of particles they filter. Electrostatic cotton and non-woven, meltblown fabric are the conventional materials used in disposible masks, but are not readily available during the COVID-19 epidemic. A new type of filter, a washable electrostatic cotton filter, has been reported since the start of the pandemic; it is said to withstand repeated washing and folding.[18] It is made of electrospun nanofibers; flanking insulating blocks lay these into quasi-aligned nonwoven sheets, which are layered criss-cross to make a meshlike multilayer mask.[32][33] There is a need for research comparing how well these materials work.[18][34]
Sterilizing and re-use[edit]
There is no research on sterilizing and reusing cloth masks, as of May 2020.[18] The CDC recommends doffing the mask by handling only the ear loops or ties, placing it directly in a washing machine, and immediately washing your hands in soap and water for at least 20 seconds. They also recommend handwashing before donning the mask and again immediately after any time you touch it.[35]
There is no information on reusing a interlayer filter, and disposing of it after a single use may be desirable.[18]
Surgical masks[edit]
Main article: Surgical mask
A surgical mask
A surgical mask is a loose-fitting, disposable device that creates a physical barrier between the mouth and nose of the wearer and potential contaminants in the immediate environment. If worn properly, a surgical mask is meant to help block large-particle droplets, splashes, sprays, or splatter that may contain viruses and bacteria, keeping it from reaching the wearer's mouth and nose. Surgical masks may also help reduce exposure of the wearer's saliva and respiratory secretions to others.[36] A surgical mask, by design, does not filter or block very small particles in the air that may be transmitted by coughs, sneezes, or certain medical procedures. Surgical masks also do not provide complete protection from germs and other contaminants because of the loose fit between the surface of the face mask and the face.[36] However, in practice, with respect to some infections like influenza surgical masks appear as effective as respirators (such as N95 or FFP masks).[37] Surgical masks may be labeled as surgical, isolation, dental, or medical procedure masks.[36] Surgical masks are made of a nonwoven fabric created using a melt blowing process.[38][39]
Surgical masks made to different standards in different parts of the world have different ranges of particles which they filter. Similar-looking single-use masks are one-layer and only filter larger particles (e.g. Chinese standard YY/T0969 masks).[40][medical citation needed]
Disposable filtering respirators[edit]
An N95 mask
Main article: Mechanical filter respirator
An N95 mask is a particulate-filtering facepiece respirator that meets the N95 air filtration rating of the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, meaning that it filters at least 95 percent of airborne particles, while not resistant to oil like the P95. It is the most common particulate-filtering facepiece respirator.[41] It is an example of a mechanical filter respirator, which provides protection against particulates, but not gases or vapors.[42] Like the middle layer of[citation needed] surgical masks, the N95 mask is made of four layers[18] of melt-blown nonwoven polypropylene fabric.[43][44][unreliable medical source?] The corresponding face mask used in the European Union is the FFP2 respirator.[45][46]
Hard electret-filter masks like N95 and FFP masks must fit the face to provide full protection. Untrained users often get a reasonable fit, but fewer than one in four gets a perfect fit. Fit testing is thus standard. A line of vaseline on the edge of the mask[47] has been shown to reduce edge leakage[18] in lab tests using manikins that simulate breathing.[47]
Sterilizing and re-use[edit]
Hard electret-filter masks are designed to be disposable, for 8 hours of continuous or intermittent use. One laboratory found that there was a decrease in fit quality after five consecutive donnings.[18]
Hard electret-filter masks are often reused,[citation needed] especially during pandemics when there are shortages. Infectious particles could survive on the masks for up to 24 hours after the end of use, according to studies using models of SARS-CoV-2;[18] In the COVID-19 epidemic, the US CDC recommended that if masks run short, each health care worker should be issued with five masks, one to be used per day, such that each mask spends at least five days stored in a paper bag between each use. If there are not enough masks to do this, they recommend sterilizing the masks between uses.[48] Some hospitals have been stockpiling used masks as a precaution.[49] The US CDC issued guidelines on stretching N95 supplies, recommending extended use over re-use. They highlighted the risk of infection from touching the contaminated outer surface of the mask, which even professionals frequently unintentionally do, and recommended washing hands every time before touching the mask. To reduce mask surface contamination, they recommended face shields, and asking patients to wear masks too ("source masking").[50]
Apart from time, other methods of disinfection have been tested. Physical damage to the masks has been observed when microwaving them, microwaving them in a steam bag, letting them sit in moist heat, and hitting them with excessively high doses of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI). Chlorine-based methods, such as chlorine bleach, may cause residual smell, offgassing of chlorine when the mask becomes moist, and in one study, physical breakdown of the nosepads, causing increased leakage.[18] Fit and comfort do not seem to be harmed by UVGI, moist heat incubation, and microwave-generated steam.[18]
Some methods may not visibly damage the mask, but they ruin the mask's ability to filter. This has been seen in attempts to sterilize by soaking in soap and water, heating dry to 160°C, and treating with 70% isopropyl alcohol, and hydrogen peroxide gas plasma[18] (made under a vacuum with radio waves[51]). The static electrical charge on the microfibers (which attracts or repels particles passing through the mask, making them more likely to move sideways and hit and stick to a fiber[citation needed]) is destroyed by some cleaning methods. UVGI (ultraviolet light), boiling water vapour, and dry oven heating do not seem to reduce the filter efficiency, and these methods successfully decontaminate masks.[18]
UVGI (an ultraviolet method), ethylene oxide, dry oven heating and (highly toxic[citation needed]) vaporized hydrogen peroxide are currently the most-favoured methods in use in hospitals, but none have been properly tested.[18] Where enough masks are available, cycling them and reusing a mask only after letting it sit unused for 5 days is preferred.[48]
Elastomeric respirators[edit]
Main article: Mechanical filter respirator
Elastomeric full-face masks
Elastomeric respirators are reusable devices with exchangeable cartridge filters that offer comparable protection to N95 masks.[52] They were used as a substitute for N95 masks among shortages during the COVID-19 pandemic.[19]
The filters which must be replaced when soiled, contaminated, or clogged. These components may be hard to find amidst shortages; the filters may thus be sterilized, in a way that does not harm the filter, and re-used. In medical use, they must be cleaned and disinfected, as some germs can survive on them for weeks.[19]
Full-face versions of elastomeric respirators seal better and protect the eyes. If they have exhalation valves, then they are counterrecommended in settings where the unfiltered exhaled air might infect others (for instance, surgery). Fitting and inspection is essential to effectiveness.[19]
Powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs)[edit]
A PAPR in a level-3 biosafety lab. Note waist pack and hose to blow air into headpiece.
Main article: Powered air-purifying respirator
PAPRs are expensive masks with a battery-powered blower that blows air through a filter to the wearer. Because they create positive pressure, they need not be tightly-fitted.[53] PAPRs typically do not filter exhaust from the wearer.[54] They are not generally designed for healthcare use, as of 2017.[17]
Novel face masks (research and development)[edit]
On 15 April 2020 scientists claimed to have developed a biodegradable material for face masks which is effective at removing particles smaller than 100 nanometres including viruses and has a high breathability.[55][56] Two Israeli companies reportedly have developed antiviral face masks – one of which is infused with antiviral copper oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles, the other is made out of cotton embedded with accelerated copper oxide particles and a nanofiber textile.[57][58][59] Other Israeli researchers have developed a 3D-printed nanoscale fiber sticker coated with antiseptics which can be attached to a traditional mask for extra protection.[59] Other reseachers report that laser-induced graphene may be used to add self-cleaning and photothermal properties to face masks.[59] In March 2020 Jiaxing Huang became the first scientist to receive a $200,000 grant by the United States' National Science Foundation to develop a chemical which can be safely built into common face masks to make them protect against SARS-CoV-2 and self-sanitize passing droplets.[59][60]
Recommendations[edit]
Health organizations have recommended that people cover their mouth and nose with a bent elbow or a tissue when coughing or sneezing, and dispose of any tissue immediately.[61][62] Surgical masks are recommended for those who may be infected,[63][64][65] as wearing a mask can limit the volume and travel distance of expiratory droplets dispersed when talking, sneezing, and coughing.[66]
Masks have also been recommended for use by those who are taking care of someone who may have the disease.[65] The WHO has recommended the wearing of masks by healthy people only if they are at high risk, such as those who are caring for a person with COVID-19, though they also acknowledge that wearing masks may help people avoid touching their face.[65] Several countries have started to encourage the use of face masks by members of the public.[67]
As of May 2020, 88% of the world's population lived in countries where their government and leading disease experts recommended the use of masks in public places to limit the spread of COVID-19.[2]
World Health Organization recommendations[edit]
World Health Organization advice to the public in the context of COVID-19 endorsed the use of masks only under the following conditions:[68]
If you are healthy, you only need to wear a mask if you are taking care of a person with suspected 2019-nCoV infection.
Wear a mask if you are coughing or sneezing.
Masks are effective only when used in combination with frequent hand-cleaning with alcohol-based hand sanitizer or soap and water.
If you wear a mask, then you must know how to use it and dispose of it properly.
— World Health Organization
US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention[edit]
Guidance from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on using and making cloth masks during the COVID-19 pandemic[69]
The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended in April 2020 that the general public wear cloth face coverings in public settings where other social distancing measures are difficult to maintain, such as grocery stores and pharmacies, especially in areas of significant community-based transmission, due to the significance of asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic disease transmission.[69][70]
In March 2020, the CDC recommended that if neither respirators nor surgical masks are available, as a last resort, it may be necessary for healthcare workers to use masks that have never been evaluated or approved by NIOSH or homemade masks, though caution should be exercised when considering this option.[71]
In March and April 2020, the CDC faced backlash over their earlier statements advising that most healthy people did not need to wear a mask. The earlier recommendations had been made to try to conserve supplies for medical professionals,[dubious – discuss][medical citation needed] but damaged the agency's credibility.[72][73][74]
In January 2020, there was no evidence on whether masks were useful for people who were not sick in a community setting.[75][dubious – discuss]
China and Asia[edit]
China has specifically recommended the use of disposable non-surgical medical masks by healthy members of the public,[11][76] particularly when coming into close contact (1 metre (3 ft) or less) with other people.[77] Hong Kong recommends wearing a surgical mask when taking public transport or in crowded places.[78][79] Thailand's health officials are encouraging people to make cloth face masks at home and wash them daily.[80] The Taiwanese, South Korean, and Japanese governments have also recommended the use of face masks in public.
When asked about the mistakes that other countries were making in the pandemic in March, the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention director-general George Fu Gao said:
"The big mistake in the U.S. and Europe, in my opinion, is that people aren't wearing masks. This virus is transmitted by droplets and close contact. Droplets play a very important role − you've got to wear a mask, because when you speak, there are always droplets coming out of your mouth. Many people have asymptomatic or presymptomatic infections. If they are wearing face masks, it can prevent droplets that carry the virus from escaping and infecting others."[81]
Rationale for wearing masks[edit]
Queue to buy face masks in Hong Kong, 30 January 2020. Everyone in the line is already wearing a disposable medical mask.
File:Qualitative-Real-Time-Schlieren-and-Shadowgraph-Imaging-of-Human-Exhaled-Airflows-An-Aid-to-Aerosol-pone.0021392.s002.ogv
Shadowgraphs. Left, videos of the outer airflow during a sneeze, comparing different methods of covering one's mouth and nose (and none).[82] Right, conversation. Convection also shown.
Among the reasons cited by Chinese health officials for the wearing of masks, even by healthy individuals, are the following:
Asymptomatic transmission. Many people can be infected without symptoms or only with mild symptoms.[83]
Impossibility of appropriate social distancing in many public places at all times.[83]
Cost-benefit mismatch. If only the infected individuals wear a mask, they would possibly have a negative incentive to do so. An infected individual might get nothing positive, but only bear the costs such as inconvenience, purchasing expenses, and even prejudice.[83]
There is no shortage of masks in China, which has been producing 100 million masks per day since early March.[83]
Leading microbiologist Yuen Kwok-yung from the University of Hong Kong cites a large viral load in sputum and saliva of an infected person and asymptomatic cases as the reasons why even healthy individuals should wear a mask.[84][85]
According to Stephen Griffin, a virologist at the University of Leeds, "Wearing a mask can reduce the propensity [of] people to touch their faces, which is a major source of infection without proper hand hygiene."[86] The precautionary principle has also been cited by the British Medical Journal as a reason some may encourage universal face mask wearing.[87]
Asian health officials and experts have been promoting universal masking. For instance, Linfa Wang (a leading infectious disease expert who heads a joint Duke University and National University of Singapore research team) stated that masking is about "preventing the spread of disease rather than preventing getting the disease", remarking that the point is to cover the faces of people who are infected but do not know it, so it is imperative for everyone to wear one in public.[88]
Recent studies have suggested that the required six feet of social distancing is insufficient and based on debunked studies from the 1930s or error.[89][90][1]
Shortages of face masks[edit]
See also: Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic
Early epidemic in China[edit]
People in Wuhan lining up in front of a drug store to buy surgical masks.
A notice at a supermarket in Beijing, which says each person can only buy one pack of surgical masks and one bottle of 84 disinfectant liquid a day.
Chinese electronics manufacturers, such as BYD Electronic, began to produce surgical masks after the outbreak.
As the epidemic accelerated, the mainland market in China saw a shortage of face masks due to increased public demand.[91] In Shanghai, customers had to queue for nearly an hour to buy a pack of face masks; stocks were sold out in another in half an hour.[92] Hoarding and price gouging drove up prices, so the market regulator said it would crack down on such acts.[93][94] In January 2020, price controls were imposed on all face masks on Taobao and Tmall.[95] Other Chinese e-commerce platforms – JD.com,[96] Suning.com,[97] Pinduoduo[98] – did likewise; third-party vendors would be subject to price caps, with violators subject to sanctions.
By March China had quadrupled its production capacity (100 million masks per day).[83]
National stocks and shortages[edit]
In 2006, 156 million masks were added to the US Strategic National Stockpile in anticipation of a flu pandemic.[99] After they were used against the 2009 flu pandemic, neither the Obama administration nor the Trump administration renewed the stocks.[99] By 1 April, the US's Strategic National Stockpile was nearly emptied.[100][clarification needed]
In France, 2009 H1N1-related spending rose to €382 million, mainly on supplies and vaccines, which was later criticised.[101][102] It was decided in 2011 to not replenish its stocks and rely more on supply from China and just-in-time logistics.[101] In 2010, its stock included 1 billion surgical masks and 600 million FFP2 masks; in early 2020 it was 150 millions and zero, respectively.[101] While stocks were progressively reduced, a 2013 rationale stated the aim to reduce costs of acquisition and storage, now distributing this effort to all private enterprises as an optional best practice to ensure their workers' protection.[101] This was especially relevant to FFP2 masks, more costly to acquire and store.[101][103] As the COVID-19 pandemic in France took an increasing toll on medical supplies, masks and PPE supplies ran low, causing national outrage. France needs 40 millions masks per week, according to French president Emmanuel Macron.[104] France instructed its few remaining mask-producing factories to work 24/7 shifts, and to ramp up national production to 40 million masks per month.[104] French lawmakers opened an inquiry on the past management of these strategic stocks.[105] The mask shortage has been called a "scandal d'État" (State scandal).[106]
In late-March/early-April 2020, as Western countries were in turn dependent on China for supplies of masks and other equipment, China was seen as making soft-power play to influence world opinion.[107][12] However, a batch of masks purchased by the Netherlands was reportedly rejected as being sub-standard. The Dutch health ministry issued a recall of 600,000 face masks from a Chinese supplier on 21 March which did not fit properly and whose filters did not work as intended despite them having a quality certificate.[107][12] The Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded that the customer should "double-check the instructions to make sure that you ordered, paid for and distributed the right ones. Do not use non-surgical masks for surgical purposes".[12] Eight million of 11 million masks delivered to Canada in May also failed to meet standards.[108][109]
N95 and FFP masks[edit]
A woman in Ukraine wearing an FFP mask after masking in public places was made mandatory.
N95 and FFP masks were in short supply and high demand during the COVID-19 pandemic.[110][101] Production of N95 masks was limited due to constraints on the supply of nonwoven polypropylene fabric (which is used as the primary filter), as well as the cessation of exports from China.[43][111] China controls 50 percent of global production of masks, and facing its own coronavirus epidemic, dedicated all its production for domestic use, only allowing exports through government-allocated humanitarian assistance.[43]
In March 2020, US President Donald Trump applied the Defense Production Act against the American company 3M, which allows the Federal Emergency Management Agency to obtain N95 respirators from 3M.[112][113] White House trade adviser Peter Navarro stated that there were concerns that 3M products were not making their way to the US.[112] 3M replied that it has not changed the prices it charges, and was unable to control the prices its dealers or retailers charge.[112]
In early April 2020, Berlin politician Andreas Geisel alleged that a shipment of 200,000 N95 masks that it had ordered from American producer 3M's China facility were intercepted in Bangkok and diverted to the United States. Berlin police president Barbara Slowik stated that she believed "this is related to the US government's export ban."[114] 3M said they had no knowledge of the shipment, stating "We know nothing of an order from the Berlin police for 3M masks that come from China," and the US government denied that any confiscation had taken place and said that they use appropriate channels for all their purchases.[114][115] Berlin police later confirmed that the shipment was not seized by US authorities, but was said to have simply been bought at a better price, widely believed to be from a German dealer or China. This revelation outraged the Berlin opposition, whose CDU parliamentary group leader Burkard Dregger accused Geisel of "deliberately misleading Berliners" in order "to cover up its own inability to obtain protective equipment". FDP interior expert Marcel Luthe said "Big names in international politics like Berlin's senator Geisel are blaming others and telling US piracy to serve anti-American clichés."[116] Politico Europe reported that "the Berliners are taking a page straight out of the Trump playbook and not letting facts get in the way of a good story."[117] The Guardian also reported that "There is no solid proof Trump [nor any other American official] approved the [German] heist".[118]
Jared Moskowitz, head of the Florida Division of Emergency Management, accused 3M of selling N95 masks directly to foreign countries for cash, instead of the US. Moskowitz stated that 3M agreed to authorized distributors and brokers to represent they were selling the masks to Florida, but instead his team for the last several weeks "get to warehouses that are completely empty." He then said the 3M-authorized US distributors later told him the masks Florida contracted for never showed up because the company instead prioritized orders that came in later, for higher prices, from foreign countries (including Germany, Russia, and France). As a result, Moskowitz highlighted the issue on Twitter, saying he decided to “troll” 3M.[119][120][121] Forbes reported that "roughly 280 million masks from warehouses around the US had been purchased by foreign buyers [on March 30, 2020] and were earmarked to leave the country, according to the broker — and that was in one day", causing massive critical shortages of masks in the US.[122][123]
As more and more countries restricted the export of N95 masks, Novo Textiles in British Columbia had plans to become the number-one manufacturer in Canada.[124] AMD Medicom in Quebec also plans to become the second Canadian manufacturer of N95 masks, with a contract to supply the Government of Canada.[125]
The mask industry[edit]
Manufacturing[edit]
The government of Taiwan instituted a mask rationing system. With population of 24 million, Taiwan has been producing more than 10 million masks per day since March.
The U.S. National Guard sews facemasks
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As of 2019, mainland China manufactured half the world output of masks.[126] As Covid-19 spread, enterprises in several countries quickly started or increased the production of face masks.[127] Cottage industries and volunteer groups also emerged, manufacturing cloth masks for localised use. They used various patterns, including some with a bend-to-fit nosepiece inserts. Individual hospitals developed and requested a library of specific patterns.[128][129][130][131]
Distribution[edit]
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This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2020)
Some clinical stockpiles have proved inadequate in scale, and markets have expanded as non-medical consumers started obeying mandated mask-wearing or determined that masks might help or encourage them. Worldwide demand for face masks has resulted in masks shipping around the globe as a result of commercial transactions or of donations.[132]
Culture[edit]
A sign language interpreter (on the right) is wearing a transparent mask to allow lip reading.
Attitudes[edit]
In East Asian societies, a primary reason for mask-wearing is to protect others from oneself.[133][134] It is seen as a collective responsibility to reduce the transmission of the virus.[135] The broad assumption behind the act is that anyone, including seemingly healthy people, can be a carrier of the coronavirus.[134] A face mask is thus seen as a symbol of solidarity.[135] Elsewhere, the need for mask-wearing is often seen in an individual's perspective where masks only serve to protect oneself.[133]
Cultural norms and social pressure may also impede mask-wearing in public.[136] According to the Hong Kong doctor and infectious disease expert Joseph Tsang, the promotion of universal masking may resolve perceptions against mask-wearing, because mask-wearing is intimidating if few people wear masks due to cultural barriers, but if all people wear masks it shows a message that people are in this together.[88]
In the western world, the public usage of masks still often carries a large stigma,[133][135][137] as it is seen as a sign of sickness.[137] This stigmatization is a large obstacle to overcome, because people may feel too ashamed to wear a mask in public and therefore opt to not wear one.[138] Secondly, it is heavily racialized as an Asian phenomenon.[135] This has been reinforced in a lot of media discourses, where unrelated stories about the pandemic are often accompanied by imagery of Asian people in masks.[139] The focus on race has brought hostility towards Asians who are confronted with the choice to mask as precaution while they face discrimination for it.[140] However, there is also a divide within the western world, as seen in the Czech Republic and Slovakia where mass mobilization has occurred to reinforce the solidarity in mask-wearing since March 2020.[133]
On social media, there has been an effort with the #masks4all campaign to encourage people to use masks.[141] Mask-wearing has been called a prosocial behavior in which one protects others within their community.[142][143]
In the US, mask-wearing was politicized and is seen as a political statement by some people. Democrats were more likely than Republicans to say that they are wearing a mask when leaving home, 76% to 59% according to one poll.[144]
Fashion[edit]
Face masks have had an impact on fashion, with the masks themselves becoming a fashion statements, haute couture brands having pivoted to address both public health and aesthetic needs.[145][146][147][148]
Mask use and policies by country and territory[edit]
See also: COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory and National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic
Beijing Subway advises passengers to wear masks when taking trains
Argentina Argentina: After appearance of three asymptomatic cases, the capital Buenos Aires introduced compulsory masking since 14 April. Wearing a mask was made obligatory for everyone on public transit and everyone who contacts with the public in their position. Violators can face a fine. Authorities also prohibited the sale of N95 face masks to non-medical workers, suggesting the general public to use home-made masks instead.[149]
Austria Austria: Everyone entering a supermarket, a grocery store, or a drug store or using public transportation must wear a face mask, mandatory since 14 April.[150][151][152]
The Bahamas Bahamas: On 19 April, the prime minister announced that wearing a mask or covering one's face with clothing is mandatory in public. Employers must provide their employees who are serving the general public with masks.[153]
Bahrain Bahrain: The Kingdom made wearing face masks in public areas compulsory for citizens and residents as well as shop workers.[154]
Benin Benin: From 8 April, Benin's authorities began enforcing the mandatory wearing of face masks to halt the coronavirus.[155]
Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina: Wearing a face mask is compulsory.[156][157]
Bulgaria Bulgaria: Bulgaria's government passed an order imposing an obligation to wear face masks on 30 March. The order was cancelled the next day and changed into a recommendation, due to legal complaints.[158]
Cambodia Cambodia: Many Cambodians started wearing face masks soon after the outbreak began in Wuhan. Businesses started to require customers to wear masks.[159]
Cameroon Cameroon: On 6 April, mayor of Douala announced that wearing a mask will be mandatory to slow the spread of coronavirus.[160]
Canada Canada: Since 6 April, health officials recommend wearing non-medical masks in situations where physical distancing from others is difficult (like buying groceries, or public transit).[161]
Chile Chile: From 8 April, Chilean Health Minister announced wearing a mask is mandatory in public transit.[162]
China China: Healthy individuals are advised to wear disposable medical masks in public places.[11][77] Some local governments require wearing masks when going outside. Shanghai makes wearing masks mandatory in public places.[163]
Colombia Colombia: In response to the most recent recommendations of the WHO, Colombia changed its policy on the use of masks and made it mandatory throughout the country for the use of public transport during the coronavirus emergency.[164]
Cuba Cuba: On 11 March, the government urged citizens to make their own masks, while the textile industry was drafted to fabricate them. People were advised to carry several cloth masks with them, depending on how many hours they plan to spend in public areas.[165] Later, wearing a mask was made mandatory.[166]
Czech Republic Czech Republic: Forbidden to go out in public without wearing a mask, or covering one's nose and mouth.[167]
Dominican Republic: Since 16 April, the use of face mask is mandatory in all public spaces and in the workplace.[168]
Democratic Republic of the Congo DR Congo: Since 20 April, wearing masks in the capital of Kinshasa is mandatory.[169]
Ecuador Ecuador: On 8 April, the Emergency Operations Committee (COE) decided to make face masks obligatory in public spaces.[170]
Ethiopia Ethiopia: The Council of Ministers approved a regulation that outlaws handshakes, and obligates the use of face masks in public places.[171]
France France: On 3 March, the government issued a degree announcing requisition of stocks of FFP2 and anti-splash masks until 31 May 2020.[172]
Gabon Gabon: On 10 April, the Gabonese government announced individuals in all parts of the country are required to wear masks in public to limit the spread of COVID-19.[173]
Germany Germany: On 31 March, city-county Jena, Thuringia, was the first large German city to introduce an obligation to wear masks, or makeshift masks including scarves, in supermarkets, public transport, and buildings with public traffic, from 6 April, very successfully. On 2 April, the Robert Koch Institute, the federal epidemic authority, changed its previous recommendation that only people with symptoms should wear masks to also include people without symptoms.[174][175] County Nordhausen, Thuringia, followed the example of Jena, since 13 April, several other cities later. German chancellor Merkel and state governors first gave "strong advice" to wear face masks in public from 20 April, Saxony made it mandatory from that day, Saxony-Anhalt followed from 23 April and (the rest of) Thurinigia from 24 April, finally the governors agreed to make it mandatory, so most other states followed from 27 April, except Schleswig-Holstein, from 29 April, and Berlin, where shops were excluded first, they were included from 29 April.[176]
Guinea Guinea: Guinean President Alpha Conde decided to make wearing masks compulsory.[177]
Honduras Honduras: From 7 April, Honduras President announced all citizens will now be required to cover their mouths when they are outside.[178]
Hong Kong Hong Kong: Members of the public are recommended to wear a surgical mask when taking public transport or staying in crowded places.[78]
India India: From 9 April, masking is compulsory in the state of Odisha. When leaving their home, people must cover their mouth and nose with masks or multilayered cloth (like handkerchief, dupatta, towel, etc.).[179]
Indonesia Indonesia: Citizens were ordered to wear face masks when they leave the house.[180]
Republic of Ireland Ireland: Starting monday 18th of May, the use of cloth face covering is recommend in enclosed public spaces where it's difficult to maintain social distance.[181][182]
Israel Israel: All residents are asked to wear face masks when in public.[183]
Italy Italy: Regions of Lombardy and Tuscany made wearing a face mask compulsory before going out in early April.[184]
Ivory Coast Ivory Coast: From April, 26 masks have become compulsory to enter shopping malls or supermarkets in the Southern suburb of Abidjan, Marcory.[185]
Japan Japan: Masks have been widely used by healthy individuals despite absence of official advice to do so.[186] On 1 March, prime minister Shinzo Abe enacted a policy in Hokkaido instructing manufacturers to sell face masks directly to the government, which would then deliver them to residents.[187]
Kenya Kenya: Wearing a face mask is compulsory since April 4. The government has Kenyans to strictly observe social distancing, which has been proved to one of the most efficient ways of preventing infection risks.[188]
Liberia Liberia: From 21 April, it is now compulsory to wear a face mask or covering in public.[189]
Lithuania Lithuania: Wearing a face mask or any other means of covering one's nose and mouth in public places is compulsory since 10 April 2020.
Luxembourg Luxembourg: From 20 April, wearing a mask is mandatory in places where it is not possible to keep enough distance to others such as supermarkets or on public transport.[190]
Malaysia Malaysia: Masks have been widely used by healthy individuals despite absence of official advice to do so.[191] On 17 March, Malaysia banned exports of medical and surgical masks, to meet local demand.[192] In April, the government was set to distribute 24.62 million masks, four for each household, while advising people to only use them if they have symptoms.[180]
Mexico Mexico: From 17 April, all Mexico City Metro passengers must wear masks while inside stations and on trains, Mayor Claudia Sheinbaum announced on 15 April.[193]
Mongolia Mongolia: Wearing a mask is now mandatory while riding public transportation in Ulaanbaatar. Public officials and news broadcasters had even adopted to wearing masks through press conferences and news broadcasts.[194]
Morocco Morocco: Wearing a face mask is compulsory.[195]
Mozambique Mozambique: The Mozambican government announced on 8 April that wearing face masks is now compulsory on all forms of passenger transport, and wherever groups of people are gathered.[196]
North Macedonia North Macedonia: As of 22 April, citizens of Kumanovo, Tetovo, and Prilep must wear protective masks and gloves outside their homes, at public places, outdoor and indoor areas, markets, and shops announced the government.[197]
Pakistan Pakistan: The Balochistan government on 18 April told citizens to wear face masks when going outside. According to provincial government spokesperson Liaquat Shahwani, citizens have been urged to wear masks or to cover their faces with any cloth in the wake of the COVID-19 outbreak.[198]
Panama Panama: Panama has made it obligatory to wear a face mask whenever going outside, while also recommending the manufacture of a homemade cloth face mask to those who cannot purchase face masks.[199]
Peru Peru: From 7 April, the Peruvian government started distributing free masks after decreeing their mandatory use in the streets to chase away the new coronavirus, said President Martin Vizcarra.[200]
Philippines Philippines: From 2 April, the government required all those living in areas under enhanced community quarantine to wear face masks.[201]
Poland Poland: Since 16 April, covering lips and nose is compulsory before leaving one's house (e.g., by a disposable mask, cloth mask, or scarf).[202]
Russia Russia: Khabarovsk has made the wearing of face masks obligatory to fight the spike in respiratory diseases and prevent the spread of the coronavirus.[203]
Rwanda Rwanda: On 20 April, Cabinet Minister of Health Daniel Ngamije said the latest guidelines require everyone to wear a mask in public, and at home during the lockdown and thereafter.[169]
Scotland Scotland: On 28 April, the First Minister for Scotland Nicola Sturgeon advised the voluntary use of cloth face masks in enclosed spaces such as shops and public transport (but not generally in public), while noting their limitation.[204]
Singapore Singapore: Masks have been widely used by healthy individuals despite initial absence of official advice to do so.[205] General mask-wearing was no longer discouraged from 3 April,[206] and made mandatory outside of one's residence from 14 April.[207]
Spain Spain: Wearing masks has been required since 4 May while on public transportation, which includes taxis, trains and buses. The government is providing masks to the majority of people riding public transportation, regardless of if they have a mask on.[208][209]
Slovakia Slovakia: Forbidden to go out in public without wearing a mask or covering one's nose and mouth.[167][156]
Slovenia Slovenia: From 29 March, wearing a face mask, even one made at home, or equivalents such as scarves that cover the mouth and nose is mandatory along with protective gloves; the decree stipulates that masks and gloves need to be worn in indoor public spaces.[210]
South Africa South Africa: On 10 April, Minister of Health recommended that the general public use cloth face masks when going out in public (in addition to hand-washing and social distancing).[211] After 1 May, covering one's nose and mouth will be mandatory in public (with a cloth mask, scarf, T-shirt, etc.).[212]
South Korea South Korea: Masks have been widely used by healthy individuals despite absence of official advice to do so.[213] The government implemented a policy of centralized procurement and rationing of face masks, purchasing 80 percent of national production since early March.[214]
Sweden Sweden: Sweden's Public Health Agency doubts the effectiveness of face masks, and the agency does not recommend public use of face masks.[215] The government has also warned that wearing them might create a false sense of security.[216]
Taiwan Taiwan: On 21 January, the government announced a temporary ban on the export of face masks.[217] On 6 February, the government instituted a mask rationing system.[218] Taiwan has been producing ten million masks per day since mid-March.[219] On 1 April, passengers on trains and intercity buses were required to wear face masks,[220] unmasked riders facing a fine.[221]
Turkey Turkey: Residents will be required to wear masks at markets, as Turkish president announced.[222]
Ukraine Ukraine: Since 6 April, wearing a face mask is required by the government in public places. In Kyiv, public places were clarified to include parks and streets.[223]
United States United States: On 6 April, the CDC recommended the wearing of non-medical cloth face coverings when in public places.[224][225] Since 17 April, residents of New York, must wear masks in public; New Jersey and Maryland issued similar requirements for their residents.[226]
Uzbekistan Uzbekistan: Officials made protective masks mandatory in all major cities in order to prevent the spread of coronavirus. Officials on 22 March said citizens not wearing masks in public in major cities would be fined $22 for the first offense and $67 for repeat offenses.[227]
Venezuela Venezuela: The government ordered the country’s citizens to wear face masks in public in response to the arrival of the novel coronavirus.[228]
Vietnam Vietnam: Since 16 March, everyone must wear a face mask when going to public places (such as grocery stores, transportation hubs, and public transport).[229]
Zambia Zambia: The government made it mandatory to wear face masks to minimise the spread in the country.[230]
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pand...
* Some assembly required.
Although it may not be apparent to the homeviewer, this possesses truncated icosahedron icosidodecahedron nature. Twelve pieces of polypropylene, harvested from Staples poly file folders. From an idea I saw in fdecomite's photostream. The module is right here.
This is nine inches in diameter, a little small for a soccer ball. It can take a kick quite well, but two healthy ten-year-olds would probably reduce it to hash in a couple minutes' time. One would need thicker plastic or a smaller scale. Maybe hackysack size.
From one sheet. Just folded, no cuts or glue
more paper and origami sculpture here: www.polyscene.com
Arcadia Lost Series
(Baltic Sea Series)
ink and Baltic Sea Water on polypropylene paper
6 x 15 inches
2018
A small diptera with 2-3 mm trapped in amber 40 million years ago.
Nikon CF Achromat 4X NA 0.10 160/-
Nikon PB-6 Bellow, 93mm (150mm from base lens to sensor plane; with K2 adapter)
--mm, 1/60s, f/--, ISO 100
Flash with diffuser, SB-80DX, manual mode, 1/4 output level and SB-23 manual mode
Diffuser consisting of eigth sheets of opal polypropylene 5mm thick and 45cm x 62cm
Focus Stacking: 55 slices, step≈0,01mm / 0.55mm of total step size,
Zerene Stacker with PMax method
A portable player by Philips. It is made of ABS plastic with a Polypropylene handle.
Philips is not known for having many cool designs, but this one is surely groovy.
Yes, there is a crack at the blue lid/speaker and we must learn how to live with it.
It has 30cm in diameter.
Update 1/8/08: Flickr user Scleroplex gave me more precise data: This design is from 1969, designed in France by Patrice Dupont. This specimen has a sticker dated 1976.
Thank you, doctor!
Arcadia Lost Series
(Baltic Sea Series)
ink and Baltic Sea Water on polypropylene paper
6 x 15 inches
2018
Arc de Triomphe "Wrapped" 21/09/2021 18h13
One of the biggest projects of Christo and Jeanne-Claude they both ever made. The Arc de Triomphe "Wrapped" could be seen from September 18 to Sunday, October 3, 2021.
I visited the Arc de Triomphe "Wrapped" two times in this period. This was during an early evening.
Arc de Triomphe "Wrapped"
L'Arc de Triomphe, Wrapped is an artwork by Christo and Jeanne-Claude in 2021 that wrapped the Parisian Arc de Triomphe in a silver-blue fabric.
Christo and Jeanne-Claude are known for their wrapping of public monuments, including Wrapped Reichstag, The Pont Neuf Wrapped, and The Gates in New York. L'Arc de Triomphe, Wrapped, one of their largest works, will use 25,000 square meters of silver-blue fabric fastened with 3,000 meters of red rope. Its polypropylene fabric.
Christo first thought of wrapping the Arc de Triomphe when he lived nearby in 1961. Actual planning began in 2018 in preparation for a Pompidou Center exhibition. While the show will display documentation of the artists' The Pont-Neuf Wrapped, Christo wanted to work "beyond the exhibition". Governmental approval came easily in comparison to the waits for their prior projects. Initially slated to run for two weeks in April 2020, the work was first delayed until September to accommodate the nesting of kestrel falcons who nest in the monument during the spring and then delayed until September 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The work will be self-financed through sales of project documentation, including drawings and models. It will be the first work in their signature style since Jeanne-Claude's death in 2009.
On May 31, 2020 France 24 announced, the project in Paris will be - in accordance with Christo's wishes - continued.
Christo Vladimirov Javacheff (1935–2020) and Jeanne-Claude Denat de Guillebon (1935–2009), known as Christo and Jeanne-Claude, were artists noted for their large-scale, site-specific environmental installations, often large landmarks and landscape elements wrapped in fabric, including the Wrapped Reichstag, The Pont Neuf Wrapped, Running Fence in California, and The Gates in New York City's Central Park.
[ Wikipedia 2021 ]
Bracelet folded from a single sheet of polypropylene. No cuts. It could equally well be created in paper.
More work by Polly Verity can be found at www.polyscene.com
This was a pattern in a goodie bag of exchange gifts for the G4G7 Gathering for Gardiner Conference held annually in Atlanta. I didn't go, but when I saw the pattern I said to myself, “This reminds me of Ramin Razani’s stuff, which I love...I must contact Hans to get a PDF to ROBO it.” I sure wasn't going to manually cut-n-score this puppy! In fact, what's preventing me from making much of Razani’s work is that I’d have to redraw it from scan-scratch to make it ROBO-ready.
This took 1-1/2 hours to fold, but less than five minutes to minimally prepare the file for ROBO and then cut-n-score both sides. No X-Acto or scoring tool was used! Not even tweezers; only fingers.
Hans has many incredible sculptures, lamps, sliceforms, and other math- and art-related ephemera on his web site Glass Geometry.
The Summer Architecture Commissions are a new initiative of the Department of Contemporary Design and Architecture offering the opportunity for emerging and established architects to present their architecture to a broad audience in the Grollo Equiset Garden at NGV International. For 2015 John Wardle Architects (JWA) has developed the inaugural Commission.
Taking inspiration from the Sidney Myer Music Bowl, an iconic public performance venue in Melbourne, JWA’s playful steel, timber and textile structure will create a theatrical centrepiece offering shade, retreat and a place for performance and workshops.
Adaptable and evocative, the structure merges the digital and the handmade. The design utilises 3D modelling and cutting edge engineering and fabrication systems to achieve the generous span of a lightweight steel structure. Beneath this outer high-tech layer of precision-engineered steel is a low-tech layer of timber, and a mass array of 1350 hand folded polypropylene elements. These 3-D textile elements are individually suspended to create a textural pink skin that provides colourful shade by day and a unique nocturnal glow.