View allAll Photos Tagged Nonwoven
CTrail train 4407 from Springfield to New Haven, passes the Windsor Locks Canal and Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens plant on a summer afternoon in July.
A pair of GP38-2s lead Connecticut Southern train CSO-4 past the Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens plant in Windsor Locks.
On a spring Thursday afternoon in Windsor Locks, a B39-8 and a GP38-2 head Connecticut Southern train CSO-4 towards Hartford, passing the Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens plant. The rails here snake their way between Route 159 and the Windsor Locks Canal, making it a popular location for photos.
When it comes to photographing trains in Windsor Locks, Route 159 along the canal is a popular area, especially next to the Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens plant. A spot that's usually overlooked is the former New Haven Railroad station, which is owned by the town of Windsor Locks and on the National Register of Historic Places. The fate of this 1875 brick structure is unknown, but eventually a new Windsor Locks station for Amtrak and CTrail will be constructed in this area, so get your photos before it changes. I have photographed the freights rolling past the depot numerous times, with all different power consists, but I’ve always hoped to get Providence & Worcester’s Super 7 2215. On a sunny afternoon in January, Connecticut Southern CSO-4 with 27 cars in tow, makes its way towards Hartford, passing the depot.
Ohio Central B39-8 8530 and New England Central GP38-2 2048 with 87 cars in tow, lead Connecticut Southern train CSO-4 towards Hartford, passing the Windsor Locks Canal and Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens plant.
P&W Super 7 2215 leading in May of 2019: flic.kr/p/2g5RT2L
Wishing all my Flickrites a Merry Christmas and Happy Holidays!
On a March afternoon in 2022, Providence & Worcester B39-8 3905 and B23-7R 2215, led Connecticut Southern train CSO-4 southbound back to Hartford. The freight is passing the Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens plant in Windsor Locks.
On a frigid first day of February, CTrail 4407 from Springfield to New Haven, rolls alongside the frozen Windsor Locks Canal and Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens plant. The company manufactures fiber-based materials. CDOT GP40-3H 6694 was originally a straight GP40, built in August of 1971 for the Baltimore & Ohio, then saw service on CSX before coming to Connecticut, wearing the inspired New Haven McGinnis scheme. The locomotive was first rebuilt into a GP40-2H, with head end power (HEP) at AMF Technotransport in Montreal. It was rebuilt again by National Railway Equipment Co. in Mt. Vernon, IL.
On a delightful spring afternoon in May, Providence & Worcester GE B23-7R 2215 leads a colorful Connecticut Southern CSO-4 towards Hartford. The train is passing the Windsor Locks Canal and Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens plant. 2215 is one of two General Electric Super 7 Demonstrator rebuilds of the Providence & Worcester. Its sister 2216 was transferred to the Ohio Central Railroad.
On an overcast December 5, 2024, afternoon in Windsor Locks, the daily freight from Springfield, MA to Hartford, CT, rolls south with various power, including a B23-7R and an SD40-2. While the Providence & Worcester Super 7 would have been great leading, catching four locomotives on this job made for a cool shot since it’s usually the two B39-8s 8530 and 3901. It's always good to see 2215, whether leading or trailing, especially with it rumored to be retired due to strict EPA regulations. Its sister, 2216 on the Ohio Central has already been retired. The building complex on the right is home to Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens, which manufactures fiber-based materials.
Connecticut Southern CSO-4 is led by a trio of GP38-2s with cars from the CSX interchange in West Springfield, MA. The southbound freight rolls through Windsor Locks, where the rails snake their way between Route 159, the Windsor Locks Canal, and the Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens plant, making it a popular photo location.
Connecticut Southern CSO-4 is led by two GP38-2s sandwiching a B39-8E with 70 inbounds for Hartford Yard. The train passes through Windsor Locks, where the rails snake their way between Route 159, the Windsor Locks Canal, and the Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens plant, making it a popular photo location.
🎏 Koinobori, meaning 'carp streamer' in Japanese, are carp-shaped windsocks traditionally flown in Japan to celebrate Tango no sekku (端午の節句), a traditional calendrical event which is now designated as Children's Day (子供の日, Kodomo no hi), a national holiday in Japan. Koinobori are made by drawing carp patterns on paper, cloth, or other nonwoven fabric. They are then allowed to flutter in the wind. They are also known as satsuki-nobori (皐のぼり).
Children's Day takes place on May 5, the last day of Golden Week, the largest break for workers and also a week in which many businesses, state schools, and some private schools close for up to 9–10 days for the designated national holidays. Landscapes across Japan are decorated with koinobori from April to early May, in honor of children for a good future and in the hope that they will grow up healthy and strong.
A typical koinobori set consists of, from the top of the pole down, a pair of arrow-spoked wheels (矢車, yaguruma) with a ball-shaped spinning vane, a mounting windsock (吹流し, fukinagashi), and finally the koinobori. For the windsock above the koinobori, two main kinds are used: the five-colored windsock (五色吹流し), based on the five elements of Chinese philosophy, and patterned windsocks (柄物吹流し), often featuring a mon (家紋, family crest). The number and meaning of the carp streamers or koinobori that fly beneath the windsock has changed over time. Traditionally, the set would contain a black koinobori representing the father, followed by a smaller, red koinobori representing his eldest son. This is why, according to the Japanese American National Museum, in the traditional "children's song," the red one (higoi) represents the eldest son. If more boys were in the household, an additional blue, green, and then, depending on the region, either purple or orange koinobori were added. After the government's decree that converted Boy's Day (Tango no Sekku) into the present Children's Day (Kodomo no Hi), the holiday came to celebrate the happiness of both boys and girls. As a result, the red koinobori came to represent the mother of the family and it is not uncommon for the color to be varied as pink. Similarly, the other colors and sizes of carp came to represent all the family's children, both sons and daughters.
At present, the koinobori are commonly flown above the roofs of houses with children, with the biggest (black) koinobori for the father, next biggest (red or pink) for the mother, and additional smaller carps of a different color for each child in decreasing order by age.
Koinobori range from a few centimetres to a few metres long. In 1988, a 100 m (330 ft) long koinobori weighing 350 kg (770 lb) was made in Kazo, Saitama.
Kinugawa Onsen 鬼怒川温泉, Nikkō, Tochigi, Japan
Connecticut Southern CSO-4 rolls alongside the Windsor Locks Canal and the Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens plant which manufactures fiber-based materials. Two GP38-2s and a B39-8E lead the freight from West Springfield to Hartford.
When it comes to Connecticut Southern‘s 4 job, which runs from Hartford to West Springfield and back, I have plenty of pictures and the same goes for their B39-8E 8530. Route 159 by the Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens plant in Windsor Locks is very popular for southbound shots. Most of mine from here are standing by the road but I decided to change it up and go down lower on the embankment. This shot is nothing special and on Friday, February 9, 2024, they had a small pickup from CSX in West Springfield Yard. When you live in Connecticut or anywhere in New England for that matter, you must take advantage of the sunnier days, especially since it seems like we get more overcast days than blue skies.
Southbound CSO-1, with 74 cars for Cedar Hill yard, passes the Ahlstrom-Munksjo Nonwovens plant in Windsor Locks. The company manufactures fiber-based materials.
A B39-8 / GP38 pair bring the days interchange from CSX to Hartford, passing the 48.4 automatic signal along the canal and the Ahlstrom Nonwovens plant in Windsor Locks, Ct.
P&W B23-7R 2215 leads Connecticut Southern train CSO-4 south along the canal in Windsor Locks, Ct., passing alongside the Ahlstrom Nonwovens plant, formerly C.H. Dexters. The 2215 still wears it's P&W paint, teamed with NECR GP38-2 2048, wearing the "Corporate Image" scheme.
Koinobori ,meaning carp streamer in Japanese ,are carp -shaped wind socks traditionally flown in Japan to celebrate Tango no sekku ,a traditional calendrical event which is now designated a national holiday ,Children Days [ Kodomo no Hi ] These wind socks are made by drawing carp patterns on paper ,cloth or other nonwoven fabric .They are then allowend to flutter in the wind .They are also known as satsuki -nobori .Children Day takes place on May 5 ,the last day of Golden Week ,the largest break for workers and also a week in which businesses usually close for up to 9-10 days .Landscapes across Japan are decorated whith koinobori from April to early May ,in honor of children for a good future and in the hope that they will grow up healthy and strong .
KOINOBORI OR CARP STREAMERS
Koinobori (鯉幟), meaning "carp streamer" in Japanese, are carp-shaped wind socks traditionally flown in Japan to celebrate Tango no Sekku (端午の節句), a traditional calendrical event which is now designated a national holiday; Children's Day. These wind socks are made by drawing carp patterns on paper, cloth or other nonwoven fabric. They are then allowed to flutter in the wind. They are also known as satsuki-nobori (皐幟).
Children's Day takes place on May 5. Landscapes across Japan are decorated with koinobori from April to early May, in honor of sons and in the hope that they will grow up healthy and strong.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koinobori
no rules, no limitations, no boundaries it's like an art™
© All Rights Reserved by ajpscs
KOINOBORI OR CARP STREAMERS
Koinobori (鯉幟), meaning "carp streamer" in Japanese, are carp-shaped wind socks traditionally flown in Japan to celebrate Tango no Sekku (端午の節句), a traditional calendrical event which is now designated a national holiday; Children's Day. These wind socks are made by drawing carp patterns on paper, cloth or other nonwoven fabric. They are then allowed to flutter in the wind. They are also known as satsuki-nobori (皐幟).
Children's Day takes place on May 5. Landscapes across Japan are decorated with koinobori from April to early May, in honor of sons and in the hope that they will grow up healthy and strong.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koinobori
no rules, no limitations, no boundaries it's like an art™
© All Rights Reserved by ajpscs
Итак, я его закончила. Это лучший парик из всех, что я делала. Шапочка из нетканой салфетки плюс силиконовый клей, проклейка прядей тоже силиконом (в следующий раз возьму другой клей, этот очень долго сохнет). Макушка прошивная. Трессы - коза, распрямленная средством для химической завивки.
So, I have finished it. It is my best wig ). The materials: the goat wool straightened by means for a permanent wave. The cap is made from nonwoven fabric and silicone glue. Silicone long dries therefore next time I will use other glue. The top of the wig is stitched by strands of goat hair (I hope I write correctly).
🎏 Koinobori (鯉のぼり), meaning 'carp streamer' in Japanese, are carp-shaped windsocks traditionally flown in Japan to celebrate Tango no sekku (端午の節句), a traditional calendrical event which is now designated as Children's Day (子供の日, Kodomo no hi), a national holiday in Japan. Koinobori are made by drawing carp patterns on paper, cloth, or other nonwoven fabric. They are then allowed to flutter in the wind. They are also known as satsuki-nobori (皐のぼり).
Children's Day takes place on May 5, the last day of Golden Week, the largest break for workers and also a week in which many businesses, state schools, and some private schools close for up to 9–10 days for the designated national holidays. Landscapes across Japan are decorated with koinobori from April to early May, in honor of children for a good future and in the hope that they will grow up healthy and strong.
A typical koinobori set consists of, from the top of the pole down, a pair of arrow-spoked wheels (矢車, yaguruma) with a ball-shaped spinning vane, a mounting windsock (吹流し, fukinagashi), and finally the koinobori. For the windsock above the koinobori, two main kinds are used: the five-colored windsock (五色吹流し), based on the five elements of Chinese philosophy, and patterned windsocks (柄物吹流し), often featuring a mon (家紋, family crest). The number and meaning of the carp streamers or koinobori that fly beneath the windsock has changed over time. Traditionally, the set would contain a black koinobori representing the father, followed by a smaller, red koinobori representing his eldest son. This is why, according to the Japanese American National Museum, in the traditional "children's song," the red one (higoi) represents the eldest son. If more boys were in the household, an additional blue, green, and then, depending on the region, either purple or orange koinobori were added. After the government's decree that converted Boy's Day (Tango no Sekku) into the present Children's Day (Kodomo no Hi), the holiday came to celebrate the happiness of both boys and girls. As a result, the red koinobori came to represent the mother of the family and it is not uncommon for the color to be varied as pink. Similarly, the other colors and sizes of carp came to represent all the family's children, both sons and daughters.
At present, the koinobori are commonly flown above the roofs of houses with children, with the biggest (black) koinobori for the father, next biggest (red or pink) for the mother, and additional smaller carps of a different color for each child in decreasing order by age.
Koinobori range from a few centimetres to a few metres long. In 1988, a 100 m (330 ft) long koinobori weighing 350 kg (770 lb) was made in Kazo, Saitama.
Kinugawa Onsen 鬼怒川温泉, Nikkō, Tochigi, Japan
R&N WHHB1 works PF Nonwovens at the Humbold Industrial Park in Hazelton, PA, with SD40-2 3052, SD50 5014 and SD40-2 3068 for power.
Koinobori (鯉のぼり), meaning "carp streamer" in Japanese, are carp-shaped windsocks traditionally flown in Japan to celebrate Tango no sekku (端午の節句), a traditional calendrical event which is now designated a national holiday; Children's Day (Kodomo no Hi, 子供の日). These wind socks are made by drawing carp patterns on paper, cloth or other nonwoven fabric. They are then allowed to flutter in the wind. They are also known as satsuki-nobori (皐のぼり).
Children's Day takes place on May 5, the last day of Golden Week, the largest break for workers and also a week in which businesses usually close for up to 9–10 days. Landscapes across Japan are decorated with koinobori from April to early May, in honor of children for a good future and in the hope that they will grow up healthy and strong.
Connecticut Southern train CSO-4 heads south through Windsor Locks, Ct., passing the Ahlstrom Nonwovens plant.
no rules, no limitations, no boundaries it's like an art
© All Rights Reserved by ajpscs
Koi-nobori (鯉 幟)
Carp Banner or Koi-Nobori in Japanese, are carp-shaped wind socks traditionally flown in Japan to celebrate Tango no Sekku (端午の節句), a traditional calendrical event which is now designated a National holiday; Children's Day. These wind socks are made by drawing carp patterns on paper, cloth or other nonwoven fabric. They are then allowed to flutter in the wind. They are also known as satsuki-nobori (皐幟).
Children's Day takes place on May 5. Landscapes across Japan are decorated with koinobori from April to early May, in honor of sons and in the hope that they will grow up healthy and strong.
The wearing of face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic has received varying recommendations from different public health agencies and governments. The topic has been a subject of debate,[1] with various public health agencies and governments disagreeing on a protocol for wearing face masks. As of early May, 88% of the world's population lives in countries that recommend or mandate the usage of masks in public and 75+ countries have mandated the use of masks.[2] Debates have emerged regarding whether masks should be worn even when social distancing at six feet (2 meters),[3][4][5] whether they should be worn during exercise,[6] worn in the home to reduce viral load,[7][8] and whether there are mitigating factors.[9][7] Additionally, public health agencies of different countries and territories have often changed their recommendations regarding face masks over time.[10] Face masks have been a subject of shortages, and also been made compulsory in some countries.
Types of face masks, from least to most protective, include cloth face masks, medical (non-surgical) masks,[11][12] surgical masks, and filtering facepiece respirators such as N95 masks and FFP masks. Face shields and medical goggles are other types of protective equipment often used together with face masks.
Contents
1Types of masks
1.1Face shields
1.2Cloth masks
1.2.1Sterilizing and re-use
1.3Surgical masks
1.4Disposable filtering respirators
1.4.1Sterilizing and re-use
1.5Elastomeric respirators
1.6Powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs)
1.7Novel face masks (research and development)
2Recommendations
2.1World Health Organization recommendations
2.2US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
2.3China and Asia
3Rationale for wearing masks
4Shortages of face masks
4.1Early epidemic in China
4.2National stocks and shortages
4.3N95 and FFP masks
5The mask industry
5.1Manufacturing
5.2Distribution
6Culture
6.1Attitudes
6.2Fashion
7Mask use and policies by country and territory
8References
Types of masks[edit]
Small particles zigzag due to Brownian motion, and are easily captured. Large particles get strained out, or have too much inertia to turn, and hit a fiber. Mid-size particles follow flowlines and are more likely to get through the filter; the hardest size to filter is 0.3 microns diameter.[13]
Certified medical masks are disposable (except some faceshields). They are made of non-woven material. They are mostly multi-layer. Filter material may be made of microfibers with an electrostatic charge; that is, the fibers are electrets. An electret filter increases the chances that smaller particles will veer and hit a fiber, rather than going straight through (electrostatic capture).[13][14][15][better source needed][medical citation needed] Typically, efficiency of the filtering materials decreases when washed or used multiple times.[16]
Many medical masks are respirators; they are designed to protect the wearer. Surgical masks, on the other hand, are meant to protect others against infection transmission from the wearer (so called "source control").[17] Some respirators and masks have valves,[18] which let exhaled air out unfiltered. This makes them bad for source control.[19] It may, however, reduce inwards leakage, thus improving wearer protection.[18]
Face shields[edit]
Person wearing a face shield over a green surgical mask. A simple 3D-printed face shield: curved visor, drawstring lanyard, sheet of transparent plastic curved from side to side.
Person wearing a face shield and a surgical mask.
Main article: Face shield
It is not yet known whether face shields are effective at preventing disease transmission. They protect against splash and splatter. Cough simulation experiments show that they protect[18] the wearer[20] against large drops immediately after the cough, but do not keep out smaller aerosols. The longer it was after the simulated cough, the more particles found their way around. Because there is no evidence they prevent the wearer from getting ill, face shields are used with nose-mouth masks, and to protect nose-mouth masks, but use of face shields alone is not recommended.[18]
Cloth masks[edit]
Homemade cloth face mask
Sneezing. There is limited evidence that cloth masks can significantly reduce aerosol droplet dispersal.[18]
Main article: Cloth face mask
A cloth face mask is a mask made of a common textile, usually cotton, worn over the mouth and nose. Although they are less effective than medical-grade masks, many health authorities recommend that the general public use them because medical-grade masks are in short supply.[21][22]
They were routinely used by healthcare workers starting from the late 19th century until the mid 20th century. In the 1960s they fell out of use in the developed world in favor of modern surgical masks, but their use has persisted in developing countries.[23][24][25]
There were calls for research into the effectiveness of improvised masks even before the emergence of COVID-19, motivated also by past epidemics and modelling of likely mask shortages. However, little research has been done. There are no studies of the use of cloth masks by the general public, one study on the use of cloth masks in hospitals (by healthcare workers, not patients), and many controlled-setting/lab studies of cloth masks' effects on aerosols as of May 2020.[18]
Cloth masks are low-cost and reusable. They vary widely in effectiveness depending on material, fit/seal, and number of layers, among other factors. Unlike disposable masks, there are no legal standards for cloth masks. Fit is important (as with disposable masks). Measures to improve fit, such as an outer layer made from sheer nylon stockings or sheer tights around the head, reduce leakage.[18]
Improvised cloth masks seem to be worse than standard commercial disposable masks, but better than nothing. There is, however, little good evidence on them. A single study gives evidence that an improvised mask was better than nothing, but not as good as soft electret-filter surgical mask, for protecting health care workers simulating treating a simulated infected patient, regardless of whether "patient" or carers wore the mask.[18] Another study had volunteers wear masks they made themselves, to a pattern like that of a standard surgical mask, but with ties rather than earloops,[26] from cotton T-shirts, and found that the number of microscopic particles that leaked inside the homemade masks was twice the number that leaked into the commercial masks, and that the homemade mask let three times as many microorganisms expelled by the wearer escape (median averages). There is limited evidence that cloth masks can significantly reduce droplet dispersal.[18]
Cloth masks are commonly made with one layer, two layers, or two layers with a pocket for a removable-filter interlayer [18] (disposable surgical mask also have three layers, with the filter layer midmost[citation needed]). The CDC recommends more than one layer.[27] There is no research on the usefulness of a filter interlayer, as of May 2020. There were until recently no non-disposable materials designed for making masks (see end of paragraph). Common household fabrics which could be utilized (turned to a new use) as mask materials have been tested.[28][29][30][31] Cloth materials vary widely in filtration efficiency. Some cotton and polyester household fabrics have been found to compare with disposable surgical masks for dry particle filtering. Cotton T-shirt material, pillowcase material, and 70% cotton/30% polyester sweatshirt material are among the common materials that performed well in lab tests, with T-shirts preferred to pillowcases because it was thought that it would probably fit better. Teatowels and vacuum-cleaner bags were effective at filtering, but had a very high air resistance, so were not recommended. Scarves filtered poorly. Surgical sterilisation wrap, a polypropylene non-woven fabric made for wrapping sterilized things to keep them sterile, is designed to filter germs from the air. Using surgical sterilisation wrap to make masks, or as a filter interlayer in cloth masks, has been suggested. There are, however, no tests on using surgical sterilisation wrap for masks, as of May 2020.[18] Other suggested materials for filter interlayers include air filter materials used in ventilation, heating, and air conditioning, some of which are similar to rigid electret masks in the size ranges of particles they filter. Electrostatic cotton and non-woven, meltblown fabric are the conventional materials used in disposible masks, but are not readily available during the COVID-19 epidemic. A new type of filter, a washable electrostatic cotton filter, has been reported since the start of the pandemic; it is said to withstand repeated washing and folding.[18] It is made of electrospun nanofibers; flanking insulating blocks lay these into quasi-aligned nonwoven sheets, which are layered criss-cross to make a meshlike multilayer mask.[32][33] There is a need for research comparing how well these materials work.[18][34]
Sterilizing and re-use[edit]
There is no research on sterilizing and reusing cloth masks, as of May 2020.[18] The CDC recommends doffing the mask by handling only the ear loops or ties, placing it directly in a washing machine, and immediately washing your hands in soap and water for at least 20 seconds. They also recommend handwashing before donning the mask and again immediately after any time you touch it.[35]
There is no information on reusing a interlayer filter, and disposing of it after a single use may be desirable.[18]
Surgical masks[edit]
Main article: Surgical mask
A surgical mask
A surgical mask is a loose-fitting, disposable device that creates a physical barrier between the mouth and nose of the wearer and potential contaminants in the immediate environment. If worn properly, a surgical mask is meant to help block large-particle droplets, splashes, sprays, or splatter that may contain viruses and bacteria, keeping it from reaching the wearer's mouth and nose. Surgical masks may also help reduce exposure of the wearer's saliva and respiratory secretions to others.[36] A surgical mask, by design, does not filter or block very small particles in the air that may be transmitted by coughs, sneezes, or certain medical procedures. Surgical masks also do not provide complete protection from germs and other contaminants because of the loose fit between the surface of the face mask and the face.[36] However, in practice, with respect to some infections like influenza surgical masks appear as effective as respirators (such as N95 or FFP masks).[37] Surgical masks may be labeled as surgical, isolation, dental, or medical procedure masks.[36] Surgical masks are made of a nonwoven fabric created using a melt blowing process.[38][39]
Surgical masks made to different standards in different parts of the world have different ranges of particles which they filter. Similar-looking single-use masks are one-layer and only filter larger particles (e.g. Chinese standard YY/T0969 masks).[40][medical citation needed]
Disposable filtering respirators[edit]
An N95 mask
Main article: Mechanical filter respirator
An N95 mask is a particulate-filtering facepiece respirator that meets the N95 air filtration rating of the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, meaning that it filters at least 95 percent of airborne particles, while not resistant to oil like the P95. It is the most common particulate-filtering facepiece respirator.[41] It is an example of a mechanical filter respirator, which provides protection against particulates, but not gases or vapors.[42] Like the middle layer of[citation needed] surgical masks, the N95 mask is made of four layers[18] of melt-blown nonwoven polypropylene fabric.[43][44][unreliable medical source?] The corresponding face mask used in the European Union is the FFP2 respirator.[45][46]
Hard electret-filter masks like N95 and FFP masks must fit the face to provide full protection. Untrained users often get a reasonable fit, but fewer than one in four gets a perfect fit. Fit testing is thus standard. A line of vaseline on the edge of the mask[47] has been shown to reduce edge leakage[18] in lab tests using manikins that simulate breathing.[47]
Sterilizing and re-use[edit]
Hard electret-filter masks are designed to be disposable, for 8 hours of continuous or intermittent use. One laboratory found that there was a decrease in fit quality after five consecutive donnings.[18]
Hard electret-filter masks are often reused,[citation needed] especially during pandemics when there are shortages. Infectious particles could survive on the masks for up to 24 hours after the end of use, according to studies using models of SARS-CoV-2;[18] In the COVID-19 epidemic, the US CDC recommended that if masks run short, each health care worker should be issued with five masks, one to be used per day, such that each mask spends at least five days stored in a paper bag between each use. If there are not enough masks to do this, they recommend sterilizing the masks between uses.[48] Some hospitals have been stockpiling used masks as a precaution.[49] The US CDC issued guidelines on stretching N95 supplies, recommending extended use over re-use. They highlighted the risk of infection from touching the contaminated outer surface of the mask, which even professionals frequently unintentionally do, and recommended washing hands every time before touching the mask. To reduce mask surface contamination, they recommended face shields, and asking patients to wear masks too ("source masking").[50]
Apart from time, other methods of disinfection have been tested. Physical damage to the masks has been observed when microwaving them, microwaving them in a steam bag, letting them sit in moist heat, and hitting them with excessively high doses of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI). Chlorine-based methods, such as chlorine bleach, may cause residual smell, offgassing of chlorine when the mask becomes moist, and in one study, physical breakdown of the nosepads, causing increased leakage.[18] Fit and comfort do not seem to be harmed by UVGI, moist heat incubation, and microwave-generated steam.[18]
Some methods may not visibly damage the mask, but they ruin the mask's ability to filter. This has been seen in attempts to sterilize by soaking in soap and water, heating dry to 160°C, and treating with 70% isopropyl alcohol, and hydrogen peroxide gas plasma[18] (made under a vacuum with radio waves[51]). The static electrical charge on the microfibers (which attracts or repels particles passing through the mask, making them more likely to move sideways and hit and stick to a fiber[citation needed]) is destroyed by some cleaning methods. UVGI (ultraviolet light), boiling water vapour, and dry oven heating do not seem to reduce the filter efficiency, and these methods successfully decontaminate masks.[18]
UVGI (an ultraviolet method), ethylene oxide, dry oven heating and (highly toxic[citation needed]) vaporized hydrogen peroxide are currently the most-favoured methods in use in hospitals, but none have been properly tested.[18] Where enough masks are available, cycling them and reusing a mask only after letting it sit unused for 5 days is preferred.[48]
Elastomeric respirators[edit]
Main article: Mechanical filter respirator
Elastomeric full-face masks
Elastomeric respirators are reusable devices with exchangeable cartridge filters that offer comparable protection to N95 masks.[52] They were used as a substitute for N95 masks among shortages during the COVID-19 pandemic.[19]
The filters which must be replaced when soiled, contaminated, or clogged. These components may be hard to find amidst shortages; the filters may thus be sterilized, in a way that does not harm the filter, and re-used. In medical use, they must be cleaned and disinfected, as some germs can survive on them for weeks.[19]
Full-face versions of elastomeric respirators seal better and protect the eyes. If they have exhalation valves, then they are counterrecommended in settings where the unfiltered exhaled air might infect others (for instance, surgery). Fitting and inspection is essential to effectiveness.[19]
Powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs)[edit]
A PAPR in a level-3 biosafety lab. Note waist pack and hose to blow air into headpiece.
Main article: Powered air-purifying respirator
PAPRs are expensive masks with a battery-powered blower that blows air through a filter to the wearer. Because they create positive pressure, they need not be tightly-fitted.[53] PAPRs typically do not filter exhaust from the wearer.[54] They are not generally designed for healthcare use, as of 2017.[17]
Novel face masks (research and development)[edit]
On 15 April 2020 scientists claimed to have developed a biodegradable material for face masks which is effective at removing particles smaller than 100 nanometres including viruses and has a high breathability.[55][56] Two Israeli companies reportedly have developed antiviral face masks – one of which is infused with antiviral copper oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles, the other is made out of cotton embedded with accelerated copper oxide particles and a nanofiber textile.[57][58][59] Other Israeli researchers have developed a 3D-printed nanoscale fiber sticker coated with antiseptics which can be attached to a traditional mask for extra protection.[59] Other reseachers report that laser-induced graphene may be used to add self-cleaning and photothermal properties to face masks.[59] In March 2020 Jiaxing Huang became the first scientist to receive a $200,000 grant by the United States' National Science Foundation to develop a chemical which can be safely built into common face masks to make them protect against SARS-CoV-2 and self-sanitize passing droplets.[59][60]
Recommendations[edit]
Health organizations have recommended that people cover their mouth and nose with a bent elbow or a tissue when coughing or sneezing, and dispose of any tissue immediately.[61][62] Surgical masks are recommended for those who may be infected,[63][64][65] as wearing a mask can limit the volume and travel distance of expiratory droplets dispersed when talking, sneezing, and coughing.[66]
Masks have also been recommended for use by those who are taking care of someone who may have the disease.[65] The WHO has recommended the wearing of masks by healthy people only if they are at high risk, such as those who are caring for a person with COVID-19, though they also acknowledge that wearing masks may help people avoid touching their face.[65] Several countries have started to encourage the use of face masks by members of the public.[67]
As of May 2020, 88% of the world's population lived in countries where their government and leading disease experts recommended the use of masks in public places to limit the spread of COVID-19.[2]
World Health Organization recommendations[edit]
World Health Organization advice to the public in the context of COVID-19 endorsed the use of masks only under the following conditions:[68]
If you are healthy, you only need to wear a mask if you are taking care of a person with suspected 2019-nCoV infection.
Wear a mask if you are coughing or sneezing.
Masks are effective only when used in combination with frequent hand-cleaning with alcohol-based hand sanitizer or soap and water.
If you wear a mask, then you must know how to use it and dispose of it properly.
— World Health Organization
US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention[edit]
Guidance from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on using and making cloth masks during the COVID-19 pandemic[69]
The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended in April 2020 that the general public wear cloth face coverings in public settings where other social distancing measures are difficult to maintain, such as grocery stores and pharmacies, especially in areas of significant community-based transmission, due to the significance of asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic disease transmission.[69][70]
In March 2020, the CDC recommended that if neither respirators nor surgical masks are available, as a last resort, it may be necessary for healthcare workers to use masks that have never been evaluated or approved by NIOSH or homemade masks, though caution should be exercised when considering this option.[71]
In March and April 2020, the CDC faced backlash over their earlier statements advising that most healthy people did not need to wear a mask. The earlier recommendations had been made to try to conserve supplies for medical professionals,[dubious – discuss][medical citation needed] but damaged the agency's credibility.[72][73][74]
In January 2020, there was no evidence on whether masks were useful for people who were not sick in a community setting.[75][dubious – discuss]
China and Asia[edit]
China has specifically recommended the use of disposable non-surgical medical masks by healthy members of the public,[11][76] particularly when coming into close contact (1 metre (3 ft) or less) with other people.[77] Hong Kong recommends wearing a surgical mask when taking public transport or in crowded places.[78][79] Thailand's health officials are encouraging people to make cloth face masks at home and wash them daily.[80] The Taiwanese, South Korean, and Japanese governments have also recommended the use of face masks in public.
When asked about the mistakes that other countries were making in the pandemic in March, the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention director-general George Fu Gao said:
"The big mistake in the U.S. and Europe, in my opinion, is that people aren't wearing masks. This virus is transmitted by droplets and close contact. Droplets play a very important role − you've got to wear a mask, because when you speak, there are always droplets coming out of your mouth. Many people have asymptomatic or presymptomatic infections. If they are wearing face masks, it can prevent droplets that carry the virus from escaping and infecting others."[81]
Rationale for wearing masks[edit]
Queue to buy face masks in Hong Kong, 30 January 2020. Everyone in the line is already wearing a disposable medical mask.
File:Qualitative-Real-Time-Schlieren-and-Shadowgraph-Imaging-of-Human-Exhaled-Airflows-An-Aid-to-Aerosol-pone.0021392.s002.ogv
Shadowgraphs. Left, videos of the outer airflow during a sneeze, comparing different methods of covering one's mouth and nose (and none).[82] Right, conversation. Convection also shown.
Among the reasons cited by Chinese health officials for the wearing of masks, even by healthy individuals, are the following:
Asymptomatic transmission. Many people can be infected without symptoms or only with mild symptoms.[83]
Impossibility of appropriate social distancing in many public places at all times.[83]
Cost-benefit mismatch. If only the infected individuals wear a mask, they would possibly have a negative incentive to do so. An infected individual might get nothing positive, but only bear the costs such as inconvenience, purchasing expenses, and even prejudice.[83]
There is no shortage of masks in China, which has been producing 100 million masks per day since early March.[83]
Leading microbiologist Yuen Kwok-yung from the University of Hong Kong cites a large viral load in sputum and saliva of an infected person and asymptomatic cases as the reasons why even healthy individuals should wear a mask.[84][85]
According to Stephen Griffin, a virologist at the University of Leeds, "Wearing a mask can reduce the propensity [of] people to touch their faces, which is a major source of infection without proper hand hygiene."[86] The precautionary principle has also been cited by the British Medical Journal as a reason some may encourage universal face mask wearing.[87]
Asian health officials and experts have been promoting universal masking. For instance, Linfa Wang (a leading infectious disease expert who heads a joint Duke University and National University of Singapore research team) stated that masking is about "preventing the spread of disease rather than preventing getting the disease", remarking that the point is to cover the faces of people who are infected but do not know it, so it is imperative for everyone to wear one in public.[88]
Recent studies have suggested that the required six feet of social distancing is insufficient and based on debunked studies from the 1930s or error.[89][90][1]
Shortages of face masks[edit]
See also: Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic
Early epidemic in China[edit]
People in Wuhan lining up in front of a drug store to buy surgical masks.
A notice at a supermarket in Beijing, which says each person can only buy one pack of surgical masks and one bottle of 84 disinfectant liquid a day.
Chinese electronics manufacturers, such as BYD Electronic, began to produce surgical masks after the outbreak.
As the epidemic accelerated, the mainland market in China saw a shortage of face masks due to increased public demand.[91] In Shanghai, customers had to queue for nearly an hour to buy a pack of face masks; stocks were sold out in another in half an hour.[92] Hoarding and price gouging drove up prices, so the market regulator said it would crack down on such acts.[93][94] In January 2020, price controls were imposed on all face masks on Taobao and Tmall.[95] Other Chinese e-commerce platforms – JD.com,[96] Suning.com,[97] Pinduoduo[98] – did likewise; third-party vendors would be subject to price caps, with violators subject to sanctions.
By March China had quadrupled its production capacity (100 million masks per day).[83]
National stocks and shortages[edit]
In 2006, 156 million masks were added to the US Strategic National Stockpile in anticipation of a flu pandemic.[99] After they were used against the 2009 flu pandemic, neither the Obama administration nor the Trump administration renewed the stocks.[99] By 1 April, the US's Strategic National Stockpile was nearly emptied.[100][clarification needed]
In France, 2009 H1N1-related spending rose to €382 million, mainly on supplies and vaccines, which was later criticised.[101][102] It was decided in 2011 to not replenish its stocks and rely more on supply from China and just-in-time logistics.[101] In 2010, its stock included 1 billion surgical masks and 600 million FFP2 masks; in early 2020 it was 150 millions and zero, respectively.[101] While stocks were progressively reduced, a 2013 rationale stated the aim to reduce costs of acquisition and storage, now distributing this effort to all private enterprises as an optional best practice to ensure their workers' protection.[101] This was especially relevant to FFP2 masks, more costly to acquire and store.[101][103] As the COVID-19 pandemic in France took an increasing toll on medical supplies, masks and PPE supplies ran low, causing national outrage. France needs 40 millions masks per week, according to French president Emmanuel Macron.[104] France instructed its few remaining mask-producing factories to work 24/7 shifts, and to ramp up national production to 40 million masks per month.[104] French lawmakers opened an inquiry on the past management of these strategic stocks.[105] The mask shortage has been called a "scandal d'État" (State scandal).[106]
In late-March/early-April 2020, as Western countries were in turn dependent on China for supplies of masks and other equipment, China was seen as making soft-power play to influence world opinion.[107][12] However, a batch of masks purchased by the Netherlands was reportedly rejected as being sub-standard. The Dutch health ministry issued a recall of 600,000 face masks from a Chinese supplier on 21 March which did not fit properly and whose filters did not work as intended despite them having a quality certificate.[107][12] The Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded that the customer should "double-check the instructions to make sure that you ordered, paid for and distributed the right ones. Do not use non-surgical masks for surgical purposes".[12] Eight million of 11 million masks delivered to Canada in May also failed to meet standards.[108][109]
N95 and FFP masks[edit]
A woman in Ukraine wearing an FFP mask after masking in public places was made mandatory.
N95 and FFP masks were in short supply and high demand during the COVID-19 pandemic.[110][101] Production of N95 masks was limited due to constraints on the supply of nonwoven polypropylene fabric (which is used as the primary filter), as well as the cessation of exports from China.[43][111] China controls 50 percent of global production of masks, and facing its own coronavirus epidemic, dedicated all its production for domestic use, only allowing exports through government-allocated humanitarian assistance.[43]
In March 2020, US President Donald Trump applied the Defense Production Act against the American company 3M, which allows the Federal Emergency Management Agency to obtain N95 respirators from 3M.[112][113] White House trade adviser Peter Navarro stated that there were concerns that 3M products were not making their way to the US.[112] 3M replied that it has not changed the prices it charges, and was unable to control the prices its dealers or retailers charge.[112]
In early April 2020, Berlin politician Andreas Geisel alleged that a shipment of 200,000 N95 masks that it had ordered from American producer 3M's China facility were intercepted in Bangkok and diverted to the United States. Berlin police president Barbara Slowik stated that she believed "this is related to the US government's export ban."[114] 3M said they had no knowledge of the shipment, stating "We know nothing of an order from the Berlin police for 3M masks that come from China," and the US government denied that any confiscation had taken place and said that they use appropriate channels for all their purchases.[114][115] Berlin police later confirmed that the shipment was not seized by US authorities, but was said to have simply been bought at a better price, widely believed to be from a German dealer or China. This revelation outraged the Berlin opposition, whose CDU parliamentary group leader Burkard Dregger accused Geisel of "deliberately misleading Berliners" in order "to cover up its own inability to obtain protective equipment". FDP interior expert Marcel Luthe said "Big names in international politics like Berlin's senator Geisel are blaming others and telling US piracy to serve anti-American clichés."[116] Politico Europe reported that "the Berliners are taking a page straight out of the Trump playbook and not letting facts get in the way of a good story."[117] The Guardian also reported that "There is no solid proof Trump [nor any other American official] approved the [German] heist".[118]
Jared Moskowitz, head of the Florida Division of Emergency Management, accused 3M of selling N95 masks directly to foreign countries for cash, instead of the US. Moskowitz stated that 3M agreed to authorized distributors and brokers to represent they were selling the masks to Florida, but instead his team for the last several weeks "get to warehouses that are completely empty." He then said the 3M-authorized US distributors later told him the masks Florida contracted for never showed up because the company instead prioritized orders that came in later, for higher prices, from foreign countries (including Germany, Russia, and France). As a result, Moskowitz highlighted the issue on Twitter, saying he decided to “troll” 3M.[119][120][121] Forbes reported that "roughly 280 million masks from warehouses around the US had been purchased by foreign buyers [on March 30, 2020] and were earmarked to leave the country, according to the broker — and that was in one day", causing massive critical shortages of masks in the US.[122][123]
As more and more countries restricted the export of N95 masks, Novo Textiles in British Columbia had plans to become the number-one manufacturer in Canada.[124] AMD Medicom in Quebec also plans to become the second Canadian manufacturer of N95 masks, with a contract to supply the Government of Canada.[125]
The mask industry[edit]
Manufacturing[edit]
The government of Taiwan instituted a mask rationing system. With population of 24 million, Taiwan has been producing more than 10 million masks per day since March.
The U.S. National Guard sews facemasks
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As of 2019, mainland China manufactured half the world output of masks.[126] As Covid-19 spread, enterprises in several countries quickly started or increased the production of face masks.[127] Cottage industries and volunteer groups also emerged, manufacturing cloth masks for localised use. They used various patterns, including some with a bend-to-fit nosepiece inserts. Individual hospitals developed and requested a library of specific patterns.[128][129][130][131]
Distribution[edit]
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Some clinical stockpiles have proved inadequate in scale, and markets have expanded as non-medical consumers started obeying mandated mask-wearing or determined that masks might help or encourage them. Worldwide demand for face masks has resulted in masks shipping around the globe as a result of commercial transactions or of donations.[132]
Culture[edit]
A sign language interpreter (on the right) is wearing a transparent mask to allow lip reading.
Attitudes[edit]
In East Asian societies, a primary reason for mask-wearing is to protect others from oneself.[133][134] It is seen as a collective responsibility to reduce the transmission of the virus.[135] The broad assumption behind the act is that anyone, including seemingly healthy people, can be a carrier of the coronavirus.[134] A face mask is thus seen as a symbol of solidarity.[135] Elsewhere, the need for mask-wearing is often seen in an individual's perspective where masks only serve to protect oneself.[133]
Cultural norms and social pressure may also impede mask-wearing in public.[136] According to the Hong Kong doctor and infectious disease expert Joseph Tsang, the promotion of universal masking may resolve perceptions against mask-wearing, because mask-wearing is intimidating if few people wear masks due to cultural barriers, but if all people wear masks it shows a message that people are in this together.[88]
In the western world, the public usage of masks still often carries a large stigma,[133][135][137] as it is seen as a sign of sickness.[137] This stigmatization is a large obstacle to overcome, because people may feel too ashamed to wear a mask in public and therefore opt to not wear one.[138] Secondly, it is heavily racialized as an Asian phenomenon.[135] This has been reinforced in a lot of media discourses, where unrelated stories about the pandemic are often accompanied by imagery of Asian people in masks.[139] The focus on race has brought hostility towards Asians who are confronted with the choice to mask as precaution while they face discrimination for it.[140] However, there is also a divide within the western world, as seen in the Czech Republic and Slovakia where mass mobilization has occurred to reinforce the solidarity in mask-wearing since March 2020.[133]
On social media, there has been an effort with the #masks4all campaign to encourage people to use masks.[141] Mask-wearing has been called a prosocial behavior in which one protects others within their community.[142][143]
In the US, mask-wearing was politicized and is seen as a political statement by some people. Democrats were more likely than Republicans to say that they are wearing a mask when leaving home, 76% to 59% according to one poll.[144]
Fashion[edit]
Face masks have had an impact on fashion, with the masks themselves becoming a fashion statements, haute couture brands having pivoted to address both public health and aesthetic needs.[145][146][147][148]
Mask use and policies by country and territory[edit]
See also: COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory and National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic
Beijing Subway advises passengers to wear masks when taking trains
Argentina Argentina: After appearance of three asymptomatic cases, the capital Buenos Aires introduced compulsory masking since 14 April. Wearing a mask was made obligatory for everyone on public transit and everyone who contacts with the public in their position. Violators can face a fine. Authorities also prohibited the sale of N95 face masks to non-medical workers, suggesting the general public to use home-made masks instead.[149]
Austria Austria: Everyone entering a supermarket, a grocery store, or a drug store or using public transportation must wear a face mask, mandatory since 14 April.[150][151][152]
The Bahamas Bahamas: On 19 April, the prime minister announced that wearing a mask or covering one's face with clothing is mandatory in public. Employers must provide their employees who are serving the general public with masks.[153]
Bahrain Bahrain: The Kingdom made wearing face masks in public areas compulsory for citizens and residents as well as shop workers.[154]
Benin Benin: From 8 April, Benin's authorities began enforcing the mandatory wearing of face masks to halt the coronavirus.[155]
Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina: Wearing a face mask is compulsory.[156][157]
Bulgaria Bulgaria: Bulgaria's government passed an order imposing an obligation to wear face masks on 30 March. The order was cancelled the next day and changed into a recommendation, due to legal complaints.[158]
Cambodia Cambodia: Many Cambodians started wearing face masks soon after the outbreak began in Wuhan. Businesses started to require customers to wear masks.[159]
Cameroon Cameroon: On 6 April, mayor of Douala announced that wearing a mask will be mandatory to slow the spread of coronavirus.[160]
Canada Canada: Since 6 April, health officials recommend wearing non-medical masks in situations where physical distancing from others is difficult (like buying groceries, or public transit).[161]
Chile Chile: From 8 April, Chilean Health Minister announced wearing a mask is mandatory in public transit.[162]
China China: Healthy individuals are advised to wear disposable medical masks in public places.[11][77] Some local governments require wearing masks when going outside. Shanghai makes wearing masks mandatory in public places.[163]
Colombia Colombia: In response to the most recent recommendations of the WHO, Colombia changed its policy on the use of masks and made it mandatory throughout the country for the use of public transport during the coronavirus emergency.[164]
Cuba Cuba: On 11 March, the government urged citizens to make their own masks, while the textile industry was drafted to fabricate them. People were advised to carry several cloth masks with them, depending on how many hours they plan to spend in public areas.[165] Later, wearing a mask was made mandatory.[166]
Czech Republic Czech Republic: Forbidden to go out in public without wearing a mask, or covering one's nose and mouth.[167]
Dominican Republic: Since 16 April, the use of face mask is mandatory in all public spaces and in the workplace.[168]
Democratic Republic of the Congo DR Congo: Since 20 April, wearing masks in the capital of Kinshasa is mandatory.[169]
Ecuador Ecuador: On 8 April, the Emergency Operations Committee (COE) decided to make face masks obligatory in public spaces.[170]
Ethiopia Ethiopia: The Council of Ministers approved a regulation that outlaws handshakes, and obligates the use of face masks in public places.[171]
France France: On 3 March, the government issued a degree announcing requisition of stocks of FFP2 and anti-splash masks until 31 May 2020.[172]
Gabon Gabon: On 10 April, the Gabonese government announced individuals in all parts of the country are required to wear masks in public to limit the spread of COVID-19.[173]
Germany Germany: On 31 March, city-county Jena, Thuringia, was the first large German city to introduce an obligation to wear masks, or makeshift masks including scarves, in supermarkets, public transport, and buildings with public traffic, from 6 April, very successfully. On 2 April, the Robert Koch Institute, the federal epidemic authority, changed its previous recommendation that only people with symptoms should wear masks to also include people without symptoms.[174][175] County Nordhausen, Thuringia, followed the example of Jena, since 13 April, several other cities later. German chancellor Merkel and state governors first gave "strong advice" to wear face masks in public from 20 April, Saxony made it mandatory from that day, Saxony-Anhalt followed from 23 April and (the rest of) Thurinigia from 24 April, finally the governors agreed to make it mandatory, so most other states followed from 27 April, except Schleswig-Holstein, from 29 April, and Berlin, where shops were excluded first, they were included from 29 April.[176]
Guinea Guinea: Guinean President Alpha Conde decided to make wearing masks compulsory.[177]
Honduras Honduras: From 7 April, Honduras President announced all citizens will now be required to cover their mouths when they are outside.[178]
Hong Kong Hong Kong: Members of the public are recommended to wear a surgical mask when taking public transport or staying in crowded places.[78]
India India: From 9 April, masking is compulsory in the state of Odisha. When leaving their home, people must cover their mouth and nose with masks or multilayered cloth (like handkerchief, dupatta, towel, etc.).[179]
Indonesia Indonesia: Citizens were ordered to wear face masks when they leave the house.[180]
Republic of Ireland Ireland: Starting monday 18th of May, the use of cloth face covering is recommend in enclosed public spaces where it's difficult to maintain social distance.[181][182]
Israel Israel: All residents are asked to wear face masks when in public.[183]
Italy Italy: Regions of Lombardy and Tuscany made wearing a face mask compulsory before going out in early April.[184]
Ivory Coast Ivory Coast: From April, 26 masks have become compulsory to enter shopping malls or supermarkets in the Southern suburb of Abidjan, Marcory.[185]
Japan Japan: Masks have been widely used by healthy individuals despite absence of official advice to do so.[186] On 1 March, prime minister Shinzo Abe enacted a policy in Hokkaido instructing manufacturers to sell face masks directly to the government, which would then deliver them to residents.[187]
Kenya Kenya: Wearing a face mask is compulsory since April 4. The government has Kenyans to strictly observe social distancing, which has been proved to one of the most efficient ways of preventing infection risks.[188]
Liberia Liberia: From 21 April, it is now compulsory to wear a face mask or covering in public.[189]
Lithuania Lithuania: Wearing a face mask or any other means of covering one's nose and mouth in public places is compulsory since 10 April 2020.
Luxembourg Luxembourg: From 20 April, wearing a mask is mandatory in places where it is not possible to keep enough distance to others such as supermarkets or on public transport.[190]
Malaysia Malaysia: Masks have been widely used by healthy individuals despite absence of official advice to do so.[191] On 17 March, Malaysia banned exports of medical and surgical masks, to meet local demand.[192] In April, the government was set to distribute 24.62 million masks, four for each household, while advising people to only use them if they have symptoms.[180]
Mexico Mexico: From 17 April, all Mexico City Metro passengers must wear masks while inside stations and on trains, Mayor Claudia Sheinbaum announced on 15 April.[193]
Mongolia Mongolia: Wearing a mask is now mandatory while riding public transportation in Ulaanbaatar. Public officials and news broadcasters had even adopted to wearing masks through press conferences and news broadcasts.[194]
Morocco Morocco: Wearing a face mask is compulsory.[195]
Mozambique Mozambique: The Mozambican government announced on 8 April that wearing face masks is now compulsory on all forms of passenger transport, and wherever groups of people are gathered.[196]
North Macedonia North Macedonia: As of 22 April, citizens of Kumanovo, Tetovo, and Prilep must wear protective masks and gloves outside their homes, at public places, outdoor and indoor areas, markets, and shops announced the government.[197]
Pakistan Pakistan: The Balochistan government on 18 April told citizens to wear face masks when going outside. According to provincial government spokesperson Liaquat Shahwani, citizens have been urged to wear masks or to cover their faces with any cloth in the wake of the COVID-19 outbreak.[198]
Panama Panama: Panama has made it obligatory to wear a face mask whenever going outside, while also recommending the manufacture of a homemade cloth face mask to those who cannot purchase face masks.[199]
Peru Peru: From 7 April, the Peruvian government started distributing free masks after decreeing their mandatory use in the streets to chase away the new coronavirus, said President Martin Vizcarra.[200]
Philippines Philippines: From 2 April, the government required all those living in areas under enhanced community quarantine to wear face masks.[201]
Poland Poland: Since 16 April, covering lips and nose is compulsory before leaving one's house (e.g., by a disposable mask, cloth mask, or scarf).[202]
Russia Russia: Khabarovsk has made the wearing of face masks obligatory to fight the spike in respiratory diseases and prevent the spread of the coronavirus.[203]
Rwanda Rwanda: On 20 April, Cabinet Minister of Health Daniel Ngamije said the latest guidelines require everyone to wear a mask in public, and at home during the lockdown and thereafter.[169]
Scotland Scotland: On 28 April, the First Minister for Scotland Nicola Sturgeon advised the voluntary use of cloth face masks in enclosed spaces such as shops and public transport (but not generally in public), while noting their limitation.[204]
Singapore Singapore: Masks have been widely used by healthy individuals despite initial absence of official advice to do so.[205] General mask-wearing was no longer discouraged from 3 April,[206] and made mandatory outside of one's residence from 14 April.[207]
Spain Spain: Wearing masks has been required since 4 May while on public transportation, which includes taxis, trains and buses. The government is providing masks to the majority of people riding public transportation, regardless of if they have a mask on.[208][209]
Slovakia Slovakia: Forbidden to go out in public without wearing a mask or covering one's nose and mouth.[167][156]
Slovenia Slovenia: From 29 March, wearing a face mask, even one made at home, or equivalents such as scarves that cover the mouth and nose is mandatory along with protective gloves; the decree stipulates that masks and gloves need to be worn in indoor public spaces.[210]
South Africa South Africa: On 10 April, Minister of Health recommended that the general public use cloth face masks when going out in public (in addition to hand-washing and social distancing).[211] After 1 May, covering one's nose and mouth will be mandatory in public (with a cloth mask, scarf, T-shirt, etc.).[212]
South Korea South Korea: Masks have been widely used by healthy individuals despite absence of official advice to do so.[213] The government implemented a policy of centralized procurement and rationing of face masks, purchasing 80 percent of national production since early March.[214]
Sweden Sweden: Sweden's Public Health Agency doubts the effectiveness of face masks, and the agency does not recommend public use of face masks.[215] The government has also warned that wearing them might create a false sense of security.[216]
Taiwan Taiwan: On 21 January, the government announced a temporary ban on the export of face masks.[217] On 6 February, the government instituted a mask rationing system.[218] Taiwan has been producing ten million masks per day since mid-March.[219] On 1 April, passengers on trains and intercity buses were required to wear face masks,[220] unmasked riders facing a fine.[221]
Turkey Turkey: Residents will be required to wear masks at markets, as Turkish president announced.[222]
Ukraine Ukraine: Since 6 April, wearing a face mask is required by the government in public places. In Kyiv, public places were clarified to include parks and streets.[223]
United States United States: On 6 April, the CDC recommended the wearing of non-medical cloth face coverings when in public places.[224][225] Since 17 April, residents of New York, must wear masks in public; New Jersey and Maryland issued similar requirements for their residents.[226]
Uzbekistan Uzbekistan: Officials made protective masks mandatory in all major cities in order to prevent the spread of coronavirus. Officials on 22 March said citizens not wearing masks in public in major cities would be fined $22 for the first offense and $67 for repeat offenses.[227]
Venezuela Venezuela: The government ordered the country’s citizens to wear face masks in public in response to the arrival of the novel coronavirus.[228]
Vietnam Vietnam: Since 16 March, everyone must wear a face mask when going to public places (such as grocery stores, transportation hubs, and public transport).[229]
Zambia Zambia: The government made it mandatory to wear face masks to minimise the spread in the country.[230]
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pand...
鯉幟 (Koinobori) - meaning "carp banner" in Japanese, are carp-shaped wind socks traditionally flown in Japan to celebrate Tango no Sekku (端午の節句), a traditional calendrical event which is now designated a National holiday; Children's Day. These wind socks are made by drawing carp patterns on paper, cloth or other nonwoven fabric. They are then allowed to flutter in the wind. They are also known as satsuki-nobori (皐幟 ). - Wikipedia
1xp RAW HDR shot taken on the last day of our Golden Week vacation in Chiba.
Chiba, Japan.
GP40-3H 6694 leads train 4407 past the Ahlstrom Nonwovens plant at Windsor Locks on its trip south to New Haven, Ct., from Springfield, Ma.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, face masks, such as surgical masks and cloth masks, have been employed as a public and personal health control measure against the spread of SARS-CoV-2. In both community and healthcare settings, their use is intended as source control to limit transmission of the virus and personal protection to prevent infection. Their function for source control is emphasized in community settings.
The use of face masks (or coverings in some cases) has been recommended by American immunologist and NIAID director Anthony Fauci to reduce the risk of contagion. In the COVID-19 pandemic, governments recommend the use of face masks with a main purpose for the general population: to avoid the contagion from infected people to others. Masks with exhalation valves are not recommended, because they expel the breath of the wearer outwards, and an infected wearer would transmit the viruses through the valve. A second purpose of the face masks is to protect to each wearer from environments that can be infected, which can be achieved by many models of masks..Between the different types of face masks that have been recommended throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, with higher or lower effectivity, it is possible to include: cloth face masks surgical masks (medical masks) uncertified face-covering dust masks certified face-covering masks, considered respirators, with certifications such as N95 and N99, and FFP filtering respirators with certifications such as N95 and N99, and FFP other respirators, including elastomeric respirators, some of which may also be considered filtering masks There are some other types of personal protective equipment (PPE), as face shields and medical goggles, that are sometimes used in conjunction with face masks but are not recommended as a replacement. Other kinds of PPE include gloves, aprons, gowns, shoe covers and hair covers. A cloth face mask is worn over the mouth and nose and made of commonly available textiles. Masks vary widely in effectiveness, depending on material, fit and seal, number of layers, and other factors. Although they are usually less effective than medical-grade masks,[citation needed] some health authorities recommend their use by the general public when medical-grade masks are in short supply, as a low-cost and reusable option. Unlike disposable masks, there are no required standards for cloth masks. One study gives evidence that an improvised mask was better than nothing, but not as good as soft electret-filter surgical mask, for protecting healthcare workers while simulating treatment of an artificially infected patient. Research on commonly available fabrics used in cloth masks found that cloth masks can provide significant protection against the transmission of particles in the aerosol size range, with enhanced performance across the nano- and micronscale when masks utilize both mechanical and electrostatic-based filtration, but that leakage due to improper fit can degrade performance.[10] A review of available research published in January 2021 concludes that cloth masks are not considered adequate to protect healthcare practitioners in a clinical setting. Another study had volunteers wear masks they made themselves, from cotton T-shirts and following the pattern of a standard tie behind the head surgical mask, and found the number of microscopic particles that leaked to the inside of the homemade masks were twice that of commercial masks. Wearing homemade masks also leaked a median average of three times as many microorganisms as commercial masks. But another study found that masks made of at least two layers T-shirt fabric could be as protective against virus droplets as medical masks, and as breathable. A woman sews a multi-layered woven cloth face mask on a sewing machine. Many people made cloth face masks at home during the pandemic. World Health Organization infographic on how to wear a non-medical fabric mask safely. A peer-reviewed summary of published literature on the filtration properties of cloth and cloth masks suggested two to four layers of plain-weave cotton or flannel, of at least 100 threads per inch. There is a necessary trade-off: increasing the number of layers increases the filtration of the material but decreases breathability. Decreased breathability makes it harder to wear a mask and also increases the amount of leak around the edge of the mask. A plain-language summary of this work,[16] along with a hand-sewn design, suggestions on materials and layering, and how to put on, take off, and clean cloth masks are available. As of May 2020, there was no research on decontaminating and reusing cloth masks. The CDC recommends removing a mask by handling only the ear loops or ties, placing it directly in a washing machine, and immediately washing hands in soap and water for at least twenty seconds. Cold water is considered as effective as warm water for decontamination. The CDC also recommends washing hands before putting on the mask, and again immediately after touching it. There is no information on reusing an interlayer filter. Disposing of filters after a single use may be desirable. A narrative review of the literature on filtration properties of cloth and other household materials did not find support for the idea of using a filter. A layer of cloth, if tolerated, was suggested instead, or a PM2.5 filter, as a third layer. A surgical mask is a loose-fitting, disposable mask that creates a physical barrier separating the mouth and nose of the wearer from potential contaminants in the immediate environment. If worn properly, a surgical mask is meant to help block large-particle droplets, splashes, sprays, or splatter that may contain viruses and bacteria, keeping them from reaching the wearer's mouth and nose. Surgical masks may also help reduce exposure of others to the wearer's saliva and respiratory secretions. Certified medical masks are made of non-woven material and they are mostly multi-layer. Filters may be made of microfibers with an electrostatic charge; that is, the fibers are electrets. An electret filter increases the chances that smaller particles will veer and hit a fiber, rather than going straight through (electrostatic capture). While there is some development work on making electret filtering materials that can be washed and reused, current commercially produced electret filters are ruined by many forms of disinfection, including washing with soap and water or alcohol, which destroys the electric charge.[30] During the COVID-19 pandemic, public health authorities issued guidelines on how to save, disinfect and reuse electret-filter masks without damaging the filtration efficiency. Standard disposable surgical masks are not designed to be washed. Surgical masks may be labeled as surgical, isolation, dental, or medical procedure masks. The material surgical masks are made from is much poorer at filtering very small particles (in range a tenth of a micrometre to a micrometre across) than that of filtering respirators (for example N95, FFP2) and the fit is much poorer. Surgical masks are made of a non-woven fabric created using a melt blowing process. Random control studies of respiratory infections like influenza find little difference in protection between surgical masks and respirators (such as N95 or FFP masks). However, the filtering performance of correctly worn N95/FFP2 type filtering respirators is clearly superior to surgical and to cloth masks and for influenza, work by the UK Health and Safety executive found that live virus penetrated all surgical masks tested but properly fitted respirators reduced the viral dose by a factor of at least a hundred. Tsai Ing-wen, President of Taiwan, wearing a surgical mask Surgical masks made to different standards in different parts of the world have different ranges of particles which they filter. For example, the People's Republic of China regulates two types of such masks: single-use medical masks (Chinese standard YY/T 0969) and surgical masks (YY 0469). The latter ones are required to filter bacteria-sized particles (BFE ≥ 95%) and some virus-sized particles (PFE ≥ 30%), while the former ones are required to only filter bacteria-sized particles. The effectiveness of surgical masks in limiting particle transmission is a function of material and fit. Since the start of the pandemic, scientists have evaluated various modifications to ear loop surgical masks aimed at improving mask efficacy by reducing or eliminating gaps between the mask and face. The CDC evaluated and recommends two such modifications to ear loop masks to reduce transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Under normal use, the CDC found that a surgical mask worn by a coughing individual blocked 41.3% of simulated cough aerosols (0.1–7.0 μm particle size) from reaching a second individual six feet away. However, by applying a knot and tuck technique,[a] 62.9% of particles were blocked. When the surgical mask was covered with a larger cloth mask, 82% of particles were blocked. When both the source and recipient wore masks, 84% of particles were blocked. The number increased to more than 95% when both parties either wore double masks (surgical mask with larger cloth mask) or used the knot and tuck technique. Il Another type of modifications was aimed to improve the comfort of the wearers. Early on in the pandemic, healthcare workers were required to continue wearing surgical masks for 12 or more hours a day. This caused the ear loops of the masks to chafe the back of their ears. Ear savers, plastic straps and hooks that go around wearer's heads, were invented to move the ear loops away from the wearer's ears. They could be made on demand by using 3D printing process. An N95 mask is a particulate-filtering facepiece respirator that meets the N95 air filtration rating of the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, meaning it filters at least 95 percent of airborne particles, while not resistant to oil like the P95. It is the most common particulate-filtering facepiece respirator. It is an example of a mechanical filter respirator, which provides protection against particulates, but not gases or vapors. Like the middle layer of surgical masks, the N95 mask is made of four layers[ of melt-blown nonwoven polypropylene fabric. The corresponding face mask used in the European Union is the FFP2 respirator. Hard electret-filter masks like N95 and FFP masks must fit the face to provide full protection. Untrained users often get a reasonable fit, but fewer than one in four gets a perfect fit. Fit testing is thus standard. A line of petroleum jelly on the edge of the mask. has been shown to reduce edge leakage in lab tests using mannequins that simulate breathing. Some N95 series respirators, especially those intended for industrial use, have an exhalation valve to improve comfort, making exhalation easier and reducing leakage on exhalation and steaming-up of glasses. But those respirators are not reliable for the control of infected people (source control) in respiratory diseases such as COVID-19, because infected users (asymptomatic or not) would transmit the virus to others through the valve. During the COVID-19 pandemic, there were shortages of filtering facepiece respirators, and they had to be used for extended periods, and/or disinfected and reused. At the time, public health authorities issued guidelines on how to save, disinfect and reuse masks, as some disinfection methods damaged their filtration efficiency. Some hospitals stockpiled used masks as a precaution, and some had to sanitize and reuse masks. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) does not recommend the use of face shields as a substitute for masks to help slow the spread of COVID-19.[54] In a study by Lindsley et al. (7 January 2021) funded by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, part of the CDC, face shields were found to block very few cough aerosols in contrast to face coverings – such as cloth masks, procedure masks, and N95 respirators – indicating that face shields are not effective as source control devices for small respiratory aerosols and that face coverings are more effective than face shields as source control devices to reduce the community transmission of SARS-CoV-2. In a scoping review, Godoy et al. (5 May 2020) said face shields are used for barrier protection against splash and splatter contamination, but should not be used as primary protection against respiratory disease transmission due to the lack of a peripheral seal rather than as an adjunct to other facial protection. They remarked that face shields have been used like this alongside medical-grade masks during the COVID-19 pandemic. They cited a cough simulation study by Lindsley et al. (2014) in which face shields were shown to reduce the risk of inhalation exposure up to 95% immediately following aerosol production, but the protection was decreased with smaller aerosol particles and persistent airborne particles around the sides. A systematic review of observational studies on the transmission of coronaviruses, funded by the World Health Organization found that eye protection including face shields was associated with less infection (adjusted odds ratio 0.22; 95% confidence interval 0·12 to 0·39), but the evidence was rated as low certainty. Elastomeric respirators are reusable personal protective equipment comprising a tight-fitting half-facepiece or full-facepiece respirator with exchangeable filters such as cartridge filters. They provide an alternative respiratory protection option to filtering facepiece respirators such as N95 masks for healthcare workers during times of short supply caused by the pandemic, as they can be reused over an extended period in healthcare settings. However, elastomeric respirators have a vent to exhalate the air outwards and unfiltered, so the wearer must be attentive that he or she is not infected with SARS-CoV-2, to prevent a possible transmission of the virus to others through the vent. For the COVID-19 response when supplies are short, the US CDC says contingency and crisis strategies should be followed: Each elastomeric respirator is issued for the exclusive use of an individual healthcare provider, but must be cleaned and disinfected as often as necessary to remain unsoiled and sanitary. If there is no other option than to share a respirator between healthcare providers, the respirator must be cleaned and disinfected before it is worn by a different individual. Filters (except for unprotected disc types) may be used for an extended period, but the filter housing of cartridge types must be disinfected after each patient interaction. A powered air-purifying respirator (PAPR) is a personal protective equipment in which a device with a filter and fan creates a highly filtered airflow towards the headpiece and a positive outflow of air from the headpiece. There is an increased risk for healthcare workers to become exposed to SARS-CoV-2 when they conduct aerosol-generating procedures on COVID-19 patients, which is why it is argued that such situations may require enhanced personal protective equipment (i.e., higher than N95) such as PAPRs for healthcare workers. In a systematic review, Licina, Silvers, and Stuart (8 August 2020) said field studies indicate that there was equivalent rates of infection between healthcare workers, who performed airway procedures on critical COVID-19 patients, utilizing PAPRs or other appropriate respiratory equipment (such as N95 or FFP2), but remarked that there is a need to further collect field data about optimal respiratory protection during highly virulent pandemics. Some masks include an exhalation valve to expel the breath outwards, but that current of air is not filtered. Certification (as N95 or FFP2) is about the mask itself and does not warrant any safety about the air that is exhaled. Putting tape over the exhalation valve can make a mask or respirator as effective as one without a valve. Scientists have visualized droplet dispersal for masks with exhalation valves and face shields, and concluded that they can be ineffective against COVID-19 spread (e.g., after a cough) and recommended alternatives. The use of face masks or coverings by the general public has been recommended by health officials to minimize the risk of transmissions, with authorities either requiring their use in certain settings, such as on public transport and in shops, or universally in public. Health officials have advised that medical-grade face masks, such as respirators, should be prioritized for use by healthcare workers in view of critical shortages, so they generally first and foremost recommend cloth masks for the general public. The recommendations have changed as the body of scientific knowledge evolved. According to #Masks4All, about 95% of the world population lives in countries where the government and leading disease experts recommend or require the use of masks in public places to limit the spread of COVID-19. Early in 2020, the WHO had only recommended medical masks for people with suspected infection and respiratory symptoms, their caregivers and those sharing living space, and healthcare workers.[71][72][73] In April 2020, the WHO acknowledged that wearing a medical mask can limit the spread of certain respiratory viral diseases including COVID-19, but claimed that medical masks would create a false sense of security and neglect of other necessary measures, such as hand hygiene. The early WHO advice on limited mask usage was scrutinized for several reasons. First, experts and researchers pointed out the asymptomatic transmission of the virus. Second, according to Marteau et al. (27 July 2020), available evidence does not support the notion that masking adversely affects hand hygiene: Dame Theresa Marteau, one of the researchers, remarked that "The concept of risk compensation, rather than risk compensation itself, seems the greater threat to public health through delaying potentially effective interventions that can help prevent the spread of disease." The WHO revised its mask guidance in June 2020, with its officials acknowledging that studies indicated asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic spread.[81] The updated advice recommended that the general public should wear non-medical fabric masks where there is known or suspected widespread transmission and where physical distancing is not possible, and that vulnerable people (60 and over, or with underlying health risks) and people with any symptoms suggestive of COVID-19 as well as caregivers and healthcare workers should wear surgical or procedure masks.[68] They stated that the purpose of mask usage is to prevent the wearer transmitting the virus to others (source control) and to offer protection to healthy wearers against infection (prevention). The WHO advises that non-medical fabric masks should comprise a minimum of three layers, suggesting an inner layer made of absorbent material (such as cotton), a middle layer made of non-woven material (such as polypropylene) which may enhance filtration or retain droplets, and an outer layer made of non-absorbent material (such as polyester or its blends) which may limit external contamination from penetration. On 21 August 2020, the WHO and UNICEF released an annex guidance for children.[83] For children five and younger, they advise that masks should not be required in consideration to a child's developmental milestones, compliance challenges, and autonomy required to use a mask properly, but recognized that the evidence supporting their cut-off age is limited and countries may hold a different and lower age of cut-off. For children 6–11, they advise that mask usage should be decided in consideration of several factors including the intensity of local viral transmission, (the latest evidence about) the risk of infection for the age group, the social and cultural environment (which influences social interactions in communities and populations), the capacity to comply with appropriate mask usage, the availability of appropriate adult supervision, and the potential impact on learning and psychosocial development, as well as additional factors involving specific settings or circumstances (such as disabilities, underlying diseases, elderly people, sport activities, and schools). For children 12 and older, they advise that masks should be worn under the same conditions for adults in accordance to WHO guidance or national guidelines. Regarding the use of non-medical fabric masks in the general population, the WHO has stated that high-quality evidence for its widespread use is limited, but advises governments to encourage its use as physical distancing may not be possible in some settings, there is some evidence for asymptomatic transmission, and masks could be helpful to provide a barrier to limit the spread of potentially infectious droplets.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_masks_during_the_COVID-19_pand...
Koinobori (鯉幟 ,Koi-nobori), meaning "carp banner" in Japanese, are carp-shaped wind socks traditionally flown in Japan to celebrate Tango no Sekku (端午の節句), a traditional calendrical event which is now designated a National holiday; Children's Day[1]. These wind socks are made by drawing carp patterns on paper, cloth or other nonwoven fabric. They are then allowed to flutter in the wind. They are also known as satsuki-nobori (皐幟 ).
Children's Day takes place on May 5. Landscapes across Japan are decorated with koinobori from April to early May, in honor of sons and in the hope that they will grow up healthy and strong.
☆Explore
Koinobori , meaning "carp streamer" in Japanese, are carp-shaped wind socks traditionally flown in Japan to celebrate Tango no Sekku , a traditional calendrical event which is now designated a national holiday; Children's Day.[1] These wind socks are made by drawing carp patterns on paper, cloth or other nonwoven fabric. They are then allowed to flutter in the wind. They are also known as satsuki-nobori .
Children's Day takes place on May 5. Landscapes across Japan are decorated with koinobori from April to early May, in honor of sons and in the hope that they will grow up healthy and strong.
R&N WHHB1 drills out PFN NonWovens within Hazelton, PA's Humboldt Industrial Park behind an SD40-2/SD50M/SD50-2 trio.
Koinobori (鯉のぼり), meaning "carp streamer" in Japanese, are carp-shaped wind socks traditionally flown in Japan to celebrate Tango no sekku (端午の節句), a traditional calendrical event which is now designated a national holiday; Children's Day (Kodomo no Hi, 子供の日).[1] These wind socks are made by drawing carp patterns on paper, cloth or other nonwoven fabric. They are then allowed to flutter in the wind. They are also known as satsuki-nobori (皐のぼり). (Source: Wikipedia). Today at the Japanese Festival at West Village. Part of Japan Week
R&N WHHB-1 catches a quick shot of sun as they shove back towards PF Nonwovens off of Green Mountain Road.
I made several and this is the one I like best. It's shaped to have a space between your nose and mouth which will probably be more comfortable in the summer. Made with 2 layers of cotton with iron-on interfacing; short wire for shaping to nose: open sides to insert additional filter, and elastic ear loops. The nonwoven interfacing provides a good barrier. I'm cutting up HEPA vacuum bags to make rectangular pieces to slip inside if the situation gets worse. Some people are using paper coffee filters. Even paper towels would provide additional protection. I did not feel any air coming into the mask from the sides or edges. if you want a link to the tutorial flicr mail me or ask in the comments section. Be safe. april 2020
Fangruida: human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology
[Fangruida- human landing on Mars 10 innovative and sophisticated technologies]
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
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Aerospace Science Space Science and Technology on behalf of the world's most cutting-edge leader in high technology, materials, mechatronics, information and communication, energy, biomedical, marine, aviation aerospace, microelectronics, computer, automation, intelligent biochips, use of nuclear energy, light mechanical and electrical integration, astrophysics, celestial chemistry, astrophysics and so a series of geological science and technology. Especially after the moon landing, the further development of mankind to Mars and other planets into the powerful offensive, the world's major powers eager to Daxian hand of God, increase investment, vigorously develop new sophisticated technology projects for space to space. Satellite, space station, the new spacecraft, the new space suits, the new radiation protection materials, intelligent materials, new manufacturing technology, communications technology, computer technology, detector technology, rover, rover technology, biomedical technology, and so one after another, is expected to greater breakthroughs and leaps. For example, rocket technology, spacecraft design, large power spacecraft, spacesuits design improvements, radiation multifunctional composite materials, life health care technology and space medicine, prevention against microgravity microgravity applicable drugs, tracking control technology, landing and return technology. Mars lander and returned safely to Earth as a top priority. Secondly, Mars, the Moon base and the use of transforming Mars, the Moon and other development will follow. Whether the former or the latter, are the modern aerospace science, space science basic research, applied basic research and applied research in the major cutting-edge technology. These major cutting-edge technology research and innovation, not only for human landing on Mars and the safe return of great significance, but for the entire space science, impact immeasurable universe sciences, earth sciences and human life. Here the most critical of the most important research projects of several sophisticated technology research and development as well as its core technology brief. Limit non-scientific techniques include non-technical limits of technology, the key lies in technology research and development of technology maturity, advanced technology, innovative, practical, reliable, practical application, business value and investment costs, and not simply like the idea mature technology achievements, difficult to put into things. This is the high-tech research and development, testing, prototype, test application testing, until the outcome of industrialization. Especially in aerospace technology, advanced, novelty, practicality, reliability, economy, maturity, commercial value and so on. For technical and research purely science fiction and the like may be irrelevant depth, but not as aerospace engineering and technology practice. Otherwise, Mars will become a dream fantasy, and even into settling crashed out of danger.
Regardless of the moon or Mars, many technical difficulties, especially a human landing on Mars and return safely to Earth, technical difficulties mainly in the following aspects. (Transformation of Mars and the Moon and other planets and detect other livable technology more complex and difficult, at this stage it is difficult to achieve and therefore not discussed in detail in this study). In fact, Mars will be the safe return of a full set of technology, space science, aerospace crucial scientific research development, its significance is not confined to Mars simply a return to scientific value, great commercial value, can not be measure.
1. Powered rocket, the spacecraft overall structural design not be too complex large, otherwise, the safety factor to reduce the risk of failure accidents. Fusion rocket engine main problem to be solved is the high-temperature materials and fuel ignition chamber (reaction chamber temperatures of up to tens of millions of supreme billion degrees), fissile class rocket engine whose essence is the miniaturization of nuclear reactors, and placed on the rocket. Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues unresolved. Electrothermal rocket engine utilizing heat energy (resistance heating or electric arc heating) working medium (hydrogen, amines, hydrazine ), vaporized; nozzle expansion accelerated after discharged from the spout to generate thrust. Static rocket engine working fluid (mercury, cesium, hydrogen, etc.) from the tank enter the ionization chamber is formed thrust ionized into a plasma jet. Electric rocket engines with a high specific impulse (700-2500 sec), extremely long life (can be repeated thousands of times a starter, a total of up to thousands of hours of work). But the thrust of less than 100N. This engine is only available for spacecraft attitude control, station-keeping and the like. One nuclear - power rocket design is as follows: Firstly, the reactor heats water to make it into steam, and then the high-speed steam ejected, push the rocket. Nuclear rocket using hydrogen as working substance may be a better solution, it is one of the most commonly used liquid hydrogen rocket fuel rocket carrying liquid hydrogen virtually no technical difficulties. Heating hydrogen nuclear reactor, as long as it eventually reaches or exceeds current jet velocity hydrogen rocket engine jet speed, the same weight of the rocket will be able to work longer, it can accelerate the Rockets faster. Here there are only two problems: First, the final weight includes the weight of the rocket in nuclear reactors, so it must be as light as possible. Ultra-small nuclear reactor has been able to achieve. Furthermore, if used in outer space, we can not consider the problem of radioactive residues, simply to just one proton hydrogen nuclei are less likely to produce induced radioactivity, thus shielding layer can be made thinner, injected hydrogen gas can flow directly through the reactor core, it is not easy to solve, and that is how to get back at high speed heated gas is ejected.
Rocket engine with a nuclear fission reactor, based on the heating liquid hydrogen propellant, rather than igniting flammable propellant
High-speed heavy rocket is a major cutting-edge technology. After all, space flight and aircraft carriers, submarines, nuclear reactors differ greatly from the one hand, the use of traditional fuels, on the one hand can be nuclear reactor technology. From the control, for security reasons, the use of nuclear power rocket technology, safe and reliable overriding indicators. Nuclear atomic energy in line with the norms and rules of outer space. For the immature fetal abdominal hatchery technology, and resolutely reject use. This is the most significant development of nuclear-powered rocket principle.
Nuclear-powered spaceship for Use of nuclear power are three kinds:
The first method: no water or air space such media can not be used propeller must use jet approach. Reactor nuclear fission or fusion to produce a lot of heat, we will propellant (such as liquid hydrogen) injection, the rapid expansion of the propellant will be heated and then discharged from the engine speed tail thrust. This method is most readily available.
The second method: nuclear reactor will have a lot of fast-moving ions, these energetic particles moving very fast, so you can use a magnetic field to control their ejection direction. This principle ion rocket similar to the tail of the rocket ejected from the high-speed mobile ions, so that the recoil movement of a rocket. The advantage of this approach is to promote the unusually large ratio, without carrying any medium, continued strong. Ion engine, which is commonly referred to as "electric rocket", the principle is not complicated, the propellant is ionized particles,
Plasma Engine
Electromagnetic acceleration, high-speed spray. From the development trend, the US research scope covers almost all types of electric thrusters, but mainly to the development of ion engines, NASA in which to play the most active intake technology and preparedness plans. "
The third method: the use of nuclear explosions. It is a bold and crazy way, no longer is the use of a controlled nuclear reaction, but to use nuclear explosions to drive the ship, this is not an engine, and it is called a nuclear pulse rocket. This spacecraft will carry a lot of low-yield atomic bombs out one behind, and then detonated, followed by a spacecraft propulsion installation disk, absorbing the blast pushing the spacecraft forward. This was in 1955 to Orion (Project Orion) name of the project, originally planned to bring two thousand atomic bombs, Orion later fetal nuclear thermal rocket. Its principle is mounted on a small rocket reactor, the reactor utilizing thermal energy generated by the propellant is heated to a high temperature, high pressure and high temperature of the propellant from the high-speed spray nozzle, a tremendous impetus.
Common nuclear fission technologies, including nuclear pulse rocket engines, nuclear rockets, nuclear thermal rocket and nuclear stamping rockets to nuclear thermal rocket, for example, the size of its land-based nuclear power plant reactor structure than the much smaller, more uranium-235 purity requirements high, reaching more than 90%, at the request of the high specific impulse engine core temperature will reach about 3000K, require excellent high temperature properties of materials.
Research and test new IT technologies and new products and new technology and new materials, new equipment, things are difficult, design is the most important part, especially in the overall design, technical solutions, technical route, technical process, technical and economic particularly significant. The overall design is defective, technology there are loopholes in the program, will be a major technical route deviation, but also directly related to the success of research trials. so, any time, under any circumstances, a good grasp of the overall control of design, technical design, is essential. otherwise, a done deal, it is difficult save. aerospace technology research and product development is true.
3, high-performance nuclear rocket
Nuclear rocket nuclear fission and fusion energy can rocket rocket two categories. Nuclear fission and fusion produce heat, radiation and shock waves and other large amounts of energy, but here they are contemplated for use as a thermal energy rocket.
Uranium and other heavy elements, under certain conditions, will split their nuclei, called nuclear fission reaction. The atomic bomb is the result of nuclear fission reactions. Nuclear fission reaction to release energy, is a million times more chemical rocket propellant combustion energy. Therefore, nuclear fission energy is a high-performance rocket rockets. Since it requires much less propellant than chemical rockets can, so to its own weight is much lighter than chemical rockets energy. For the same quality of the rocket, the rocket payload of nuclear fission energy is much greater than the chemical energy of the rocket. Just nuclear fission energy rocket is still in the works.
Use of nuclear fission energy as the energy of the rocket, called the atomic rockets. It is to make hydrogen or other inert gas working fluid through the reactor, the hydrogen after the heating temperature quickly rose to 2000 ℃, and then into the nozzle, high-speed spray to produce thrust.
A vision plan is to use liquid hydrogen working fluid, in operation, the liquid hydrogen tank in the liquid hydrogen pump is withdrawn through the catheter and the engine cooling jacket and liquid hydrogen into hydrogen gas, hydrogen gas turbine-driven, locally expansion. Then by nuclear fission reactors, nuclear fission reactions absorb heat released, a sharp rise in temperature, and finally into the nozzle, the rapid expansion of high-speed spray. Calculations show that the amount of atomic payload rockets, rocket high chemical energy than 5-8 times.
Hydrogen and other light elements, under certain conditions, their nuclei convergent synthesis of new heavy nuclei, and release a lot of energy, called nuclear fusion reaction, also called thermonuclear reaction.
Using energy generated by the fusion reaction for energy rocket, called fusion energy rocket or nuclear thermal rockets. But it is also not only take advantage of controlled nuclear fusion reaction to manufacture hydrogen bombs, rockets and controlled nuclear fusion reaction needs still studying it.
Of course there are various research and development of rocket technology and technical solutions to try.
It is envisaged that the rocket deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen with deuterium nuclear fusion reaction of helium nuclei, protons and neutrons, and release huge amounts of energy, just polymerized ionized helium to temperatures up to 100 million degrees the plasma, and then nozzle expansion, high-speed ejection, the exhaust speed of up to 15,000 km / sec, atomic energy is 1800 times the rocket, the rocket is the chemical energy of 3700 times.
Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. In a nuclear reactor, nuclear energy into heat to heat the working fluid, the working fluid is heated after expansion nozzle to accelerate to the speed of 6500 ~ 11,000 m / sec from the discharge orifice to produce thrust. Nuclear rocket engine specific impulse (250 to 1000 seconds) long life, but the technology is complex, apply only to long-term spacecraft. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues not resolved, is still in the midst of trials. Nuclear rocket technology is cutting-edge aerospace science technology, centralized many professional and technical sciences and aerospace, nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry, materials science, the long term future ___-- wide width. The United States, Russia and Europe, China, India, Japan, Britain, Brazil and other countries in this regard have studies, in particular the United States and Russia led the way, impressive. Of course, at this stage of nuclear rocket technology, technology development there are still many difficulties. Fully formed, still to be. But humanity marching to the universe, nuclear reactor applications is essential.
Outer Space Treaty (International Convention on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space) ****
Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space Principle 15
General Assembly,
Having considered the report of its thirty-fifth session of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and the Commission of 16 nuclear
It can be attached in principle on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space of the text of its report, 17
Recognize that nuclear power sources due to small size, long life and other characteristics, especially suitable for use even necessary
For some missions in outer space,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources in outer space should focus on the possible use of nuclear power sources
Those uses,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources should include or probabilistic risk analysis is complete security in outer space
Full evaluation is based, in particular, the public should focus on reducing accidental exposure to harmful radiation or radioactive material risk
risk,
Recognizing the need to a set of principles containing goals and guidelines in this regard to ensure the safety of outer space makes
With nuclear power sources,
Affirming that this set principles apply exclusively on space objects for non-power generation, which is generally characteristic
Mission systems and implementation of nuclear power sources in outer space on similar principles and used by,
Recognizing this need to refer to a new set of principles for future nuclear power applications and internationally for radiological protection
The new proposal will be revised
By the following principles on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space.
Principle 1. Applicability of international law
Involving the use of nuclear power sources in outer space activities should be carried out in accordance with international law, especially the "UN
Principles of the Charter "and" States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Activities
Treaty "3
.
2. The principle terms
1. For the purpose of these principles, "launching State" and "launching State ......" two words mean, in related
Principles related to a time of nuclear power sources in space objects exercises jurisdiction and control of the country.
2. For the purpose of principle 9, wherein the definition of the term "launching State" as contained in that principle.
3. For the purposes of principle 3, the terms "foreseeable" and "all possible" two words are used to describe the actual hair
The overall likelihood of students that it is considered for safety analysis is credible possibilities for a class of things
Member or circumstances. "General concept of defense in depth" when the term applies to nuclear power sources in outer space refers to various settings
Count form and space operations replace or supplement the operation of the system in order to prevent system failures or mitigate thereafter
"Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 20" 16 (A / 47/20).
17 Ibid., Annex.
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fruit. To achieve this purpose is not necessarily required for each individual member has redundant safety systems. Given space
Use and special requirements of various space missions, impossible to any particular set of systems or features can be specified as
Necessary to achieve this purpose. For the purpose of Principle 3 (d) of paragraph 2, "made critical" does not include
Including such as zero-power testing which are fundamental to ensuring system safety required.
Principle 3. Guidelines and criteria for safe use
To minimize the risk of radioactive material in space and the number involved, nuclear power sources in outer space
Use should be limited to non-nuclear power sources in space missions can not reasonably be performed
1. General goals for radiation protection and nuclear safety
(A) States launching space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall endeavor to protect individuals, populations and the biosphere
From radiation hazards. The design and use of space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall ensure that risk with confidence
Harm in the foreseeable operational or accidental circumstances, paragraph 1 (b) and (c) to define acceptable water
level.
Such design and use shall also ensure that radioactive material does not reliably significant contamination of outer space.
(B) the normal operation of nuclear power sources in space objects, including from paragraph 2 (b) as defined in foot
High enough to return to the track, shall be subject to appropriate anti-radiation recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection of the public
Protection goals. During such normal operation there shall be no significant radiation exposure;
(C) To limit exposure in accidents, the design and construction of nuclear power source systems shall take into account the international
Relevant and generally accepted radiological protection guidelines.
In addition to the probability of accidents with potentially serious radiological consequences is extremely low, the nuclear power source
Design systems shall be safely irradiated limited limited geographical area, for the individual radiation dose should be
Limited to no more than a year 1mSv primary dose limits. Allows the use of irradiation year for some years 5mSv deputy agent
Quantity limit, but the average over a lifetime effective dose equivalent annual dose not exceed the principal limit 1mSv
degree.
Should make these conditions occur with potentially serious radiological consequences of the probability of the system design is very
small.
Criteria mentioned in this paragraph Future modifications should be applied as soon as possible;
(D) general concept of defense in depth should be based on the design, construction and operation of systems important for safety. root
According to this concept, foreseeable safety-related failures or malfunctions must be capable of automatic action may be
Or procedures to correct or offset.
It should ensure that essential safety system reliability, inter alia, to make way for these systems
Component redundancy, physical separation, functional isolation and adequate independence.
It should also take other measures to increase the level of safety.
2. The nuclear reactor
(A) nuclear reactor can be used to:
39
(I) On interplanetary missions;
(Ii) the second high enough orbit paragraph (b) as defined;
(Iii) low-Earth orbit, with the proviso that after their mission is complete enough to be kept in a nuclear reactor
High on the track;
(B) sufficiently high orbit the orbital lifetime is long enough to make the decay of fission products to approximately actinides
Element active track. The sufficiently high orbit must be such that existing and future outer space missions of crisis
Risk and danger of collision with other space objects to a minimum. In determining the height of the sufficiently high orbit when
It should also take into account the destroyed reactor components before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere have to go through the required decay time
between.
(C) only 235 nuclear reactors with highly enriched uranium fuel. The design shall take into account the fission and
Activation of radioactive decay products.
(D) nuclear reactors have reached their operating orbit or interplanetary trajectory can not be made critical state
state.
(E) nuclear reactor design and construction shall ensure that, before reaching the operating orbit during all possible events
Can not become critical state, including rocket explosion, re-entry, impact on ground or water, submersion
In water or water intruding into the core.
(F) a significant reduction in satellites with nuclear reactors to operate on a lifetime less than in the sufficiently high orbit orbit
For the period (including during operation into the sufficiently high orbit) the possibility of failure, there should be a very
Reliable operating system, in order to ensure an effective and controlled disposal of the reactor.
3. Radioisotope generators
(A) interplanetary missions and other spacecraft out of Earth's gravitational field tasks using radioactive isotopes
Su generator. As they are stored after completion of their mission in high orbit, the Earth can also be used
track. We are required to make the final treatment under any circumstances.
(B) Radioisotope generators shall be protected closed systems, design and construction of the system should
Ensure that in the foreseeable conditions of the track to withstand the heat and aerodynamic forces of re-entry in the upper atmosphere, orbit
Conditions including highly elliptical or hyperbolic orbits when relevant. Upon impact, the containment system and the occurrence of parity
Physical morpheme shall ensure that no radioactive material is scattered into the environment so you can complete a recovery operation
Clear all radioactive impact area.
Principle 4. Safety Assessment
1. When launching State emission consistent with the principles defined in paragraphs 1, prior to the launch in applicable under the
Designed, constructed or manufactured the nuclear power sources, or will operate the space object person, or from whose territory or facility
Transmits the object will be to ensure a thorough and comprehensive safety assessment. This assessment shall cover
All relevant stages of space mission and shall deal with all systems involved, including the means of launching, the space level
Taiwan, nuclear power source and its equipment and the means of control and communication between ground and space.
2. This assessment shall respect the principle of 3 contained in the guidelines and criteria for safe use.
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3. The principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
Results of about 11, this safety assessment should be published prior to each transmit simultaneously to the extent feasible
Note by the approximate intended time of launch, and shall notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations, how to be issued
This safety assessment before the shot to get the results as soon as possible.
Principle 5. Notification of re-entry
1. Any State launching a space object with nuclear power sources in space objects that failed to produce discharge
When radioactive substances dangerous to return to the earth, it shall promptly notify the country concerned. Notice shall be in the following format:
(A) System parameters:
(I) Name of launching State, including which may be contacted in the event of an accident to Request
Information or assistance to obtain the relevant authorities address;
(Ii) International title;
(Iii) Date and territory or location of launch;
(Iv) the information needed to make the best prediction of orbit lifetime, trajectory and impact region;
(V) General function of spacecraft;
(B) information on the radiological risk of nuclear power source:
(I) the type of power source: radioisotopes / reactor;
(Ii) the fuel could fall into the ground and may be affected by the physical state of contaminated and / or activated components, the number of
The amount and general radiological characteristics. The term "fuel" refers to as a source of heat or power of nuclear material.
This information shall also be sent to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
2. Once you know the failure, the launching State shall provide information on the compliance with the above format. Information should as far as possible
To be updated frequently, and in the dense layers of the Earth's atmosphere is expected to return to a time when close to the best increase
Frequency of new data, so that the international community understand the situation and will have sufficient time to plan for any deemed necessary
National contingency measures.
3. It should also be at the same frequency of the latest information available to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
Principle 6. consultation
5 According to the national principles provide information shall, as far as reasonably practicable, other countries
Requirements to obtain further information or consultations promptly reply.
Principle 7. Assistance to States
1. Upon receipt of expected with nuclear power sources on space objects and their components will return through the Earth's atmosphere
After know that all countries possessing space monitoring and tracking facilities, in the spirit of international cooperation, as soon as possible to
The Secretary-General of the United Nations and the countries they may have made space objects carrying nuclear power sources
A fault related information, so that the States may be affected to assess the situation and take any
It is considered to be the necessary precautions.
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2. In carrying space objects with nuclear power sources back to the Earth's atmosphere after its components:
(A) launching State shall be requested by the affected countries to quickly provide the necessary assistance to eliminate actual
And possible effects, including nuclear power sources to assist in identifying locations hit the Earth's surface, to detect the re substance
Quality and recovery or cleanup activities.
(B) All countries with relevant technical capabilities other than the launching State, and with such technical capabilities
International organizations shall, where possible, in accordance with the requirements of the affected countries to provide the necessary co
help.
When according to the above (a) and subparagraph (b) to provide assistance, should take into account the special needs of developing countries.
Principle 8. Responsibility
In accordance with the States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies activities, including the principles of Article
About Article, States shall bear international responsibility for their use of nuclear power sources in outer space relates to the activities
Whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or non-governmental entities, and shall bear international responsibility to ensure that this
Such activities undertaken by the country in line with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained therein. If it involves the use of nuclear power sources
Activities in outer space by an international organization, should be done by the international organizations and States to participate in the organization
Undertakes to comply with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained in these responsibilities.
Principle 9. Liability and Compensation
1. In accordance with the principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
And the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects covenant of Article 7
Provisions, which launches or on behalf of the State
Each State launching a space object and each State from which territory or facility a space object is launched
Kinds of space object or damage caused by components shall bear international liability. This fully applies to this
Kind of space object carrying a nuclear power source case. Two or more States jointly launch a space object,
Each launching State shall in accordance with the above Article of the Convention for any damages jointly and severally liable.
2. Such countries under the aforesaid Convention shall bear the damages shall be in accordance with international law and fair and reasonable
The principles set out in order to provide for damages to make a claim on behalf of its natural or juridical persons, national or
International organizations to restore to the state before the occurrence of the damage.
3. For the purposes of this principle, compensation should be made to include reimbursement of the duly substantiated expenses for search, recovery and clean
Cost management work, including the cost of providing assistance to third parties.
10. The principle of dispute settlement
Since the implementation of these principles will lead to any dispute in accordance with the provisions of the UN Charter, by negotiation or
Other established procedures to resolve the peaceful settlement of disputes.
Here quoted the important provisions of the United Nations concerning the use of outer space for peaceful nuclear research and international conventions, the main emphasis on the Peaceful Uses of provisions related constraints .2 the use of nuclear rockets in outer space nuclear studies, etc., can cause greater attention in nuclear power nuclear rocket ship nuclear research, manufacture, use and other aspects of the mandatory hard indicators. this scientists, engineering and technical experts are also important constraints and requirements. as IAEA supervision and management as very important.
2. radiation. Space radiation is one of the greatest threats to the safety of the astronauts, including X-rays, γ-rays, cosmic rays and high-speed solar particles. Better than aluminum protective effect of high polymer composite materials.
3. Air. Perhaps the oxygen needed to rely on oxidation-reduction reaction of hydrogen and ilmenite production of water, followed by water electrolysis to generate oxygen. Mars oxygen necessary for survival but also from the decomposition of water, electrolytically separating water molecules of oxygen and hydrogen, this oxygen equipment has been successfully used in the International Space Station. Oxygen is released into the air to sustain life, the hydrogen system into the water system.
4. The issue of food waste recycling. At present, the International Space Station on the use of dehumidifiers, sucked moisture in the air to be purified, and then changed back to drinkable water. The astronauts' urine and sweat recycling. 5. water. The spacecraft and the space station on purification system also makes urine and other liquids can be purified utilization. 6. microgravity. In microgravity or weightlessness long-term space travel, if protective measures shall not be treated, the astronauts will be muscle atrophy, bone softening health. 7. contact. 8. Insulation, 9 energy. Any space exploration are inseparable from the energy battery is a new super hybrid energy storage device, the asymmetric lead-acid batteries and supercapacitors in the same compound within the system - and the so-called inside, no additional separate electronic control unit, this is an optimal combination. The traditional lead-acid battery PbO2 monomer is a positive electrode plate and a negative electrode plate spongy Pb composition, not a super cell. : Silicon solar cells, multi-compound thin film solar cells, multi-layer polymer-modified electrode solar cells, nano-crystalline solar cells, batteries and super class. For example, the solar aircraft .10. To protect the health and life safety and security systems. Lysophosphatidic acid LPA is a growth factor-like lipid mediators, the researchers found that this substance can on apoptosis after radiation injury and animal cells was inhibited. Stable lysophosphatidic acid analogs having the hematopoietic system and gastrointestinal tract caused by acute radiation sickness protection, knockout experiments show that lysophosphatidic acid receptors is an important foundation for the protection of radiation injury. In addition to work under high pressure, the astronauts face a number of health threats, including motion sickness, bacterial infections, blindness space, as well as psychological problems, including toxic dust. In the weightless environment of space, the astronaut's body will be like in preadolescents, as the emergence of various changes.
Plantar molt
After the environment to adapt to zero gravity, the astronaut's body will be some strange changes. Weightlessness cause fluid flow around the main flow torso and head, causing the astronauts facial swelling and inflammation, such as nasal congestion. During long-term stay in space
Bone and muscle loss
Most people weightlessness caused by the impact may be known bone and muscle degeneration. In addition, the calcium bones become very fragile and prone to fracture, which is why some of the astronauts after landing need on a stretcher.
Space Blindness
Space Blindness refers astronaut decreased vision.
Solar storms and radiation is one of the biggest challenges facing the long-term space flight. Since losing the protection of Earth's magnetic field, astronauts suffer far more than normal levels of radiation. The cumulative amount of radiation exposure in low earth orbit them exceeded by workers close to nuclear reactors, thereby increasing the risk of cancer.
Prolonged space flight can cause a series of psychological problems, including depression or mood swings, vulnerability, anxiety and fear, as well as other sequelae. We are familiar with the biology of the Earth, the Earth biochemistry, biophysics, after all, the Earth is very different astrophysics, celestial chemistry, biophysics and astrophysics, biochemistry and other celestial bodies. Therefore, you must be familiar with and adapt to these differences and changes.
Osteoporosis and its complications ranked first in the space of disease risk.
Long-term health risks associated with flying Topics
The degree of influence long-term biological effects of radiation in human flight can withstand the radiation and the maximum limit of accumulated radiation on physiology, pathology and genetics.
Physiological effects of weightlessness including: long-term bone loss and a return flight after the maximum extent and severity of the continued deterioration of other pathological problems induced by the; maximum flexibility and severity of possible long-term Flight Center in vascular function.
Long-term risk of disease due to the high risk of flight stress, microbial variation, decreased immune function, leading to infections
Radiation hazards and protection
1) radiation medicine, biology and pathway effects Features
Radiation protection for interplanetary flight, since the lack of protective effect of Earth's magnetic field, and by the irradiation time is longer, the possibility of increased radiation hazard.
Analysis of space flight medical problems that may occur, loss of appetite topped the list, sleep disorders, fatigue and insomnia, in addition, space sickness, musculoskeletal system problems, eye problems, infections problems, skin problems and cardiovascular problems
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Development of diagnostic techniques in orbit, the development of the volume of power consumption, features a wide range of diagnostic techniques, such as applied research of ultrasound diagnostic techniques in the abdominal thoracic trauma, bone, ligament damage, dental / sinus infections and other complications and integrated;
Actively explore in orbit disposal of medical technology, weightlessness surgical methods, development of special surgical instruments, the role of narcotic drugs and the like.
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However, space technology itself is integrated with the use of the most advanced technology, its challenging technical reserves and periodic demanding
With the continuous development of science and technology, space agencies plan a manned landing on the moon and Mars, space exploration emergency medicine current concern.
Space sickness
In the weightless environment of space, in the weightless environment of space, surgery may be extremely difficult and risky.
Robot surgeons
Space disease in three days after entering the space started to ease, although individual astronauts might subsequently relapse. January 2015 NASA declared working on a fast, anti-nausea and nasal sprays. In addition, due to the zero-gravity environment, and anti-nausea drugs can only be administered by injection or transdermal patches manner.
Manned spaceflight in the 21st century is the era of interplanetary flight, aerospace medicine is closely watched era is the era of China's manned space flourish. Only the central issue, and grasp the opportunity to open up a new world of human survival and development.
Various emergency contingency measures in special circumstances. Invisible accident risk prevention. Enhancing drugs and other screening methods immunity aerospace medicine and tissue engineering a microgravity environment. Drug mixture of APS, ginseng polysaccharides, Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides, polysaccharides and Lentinan, from other compounds. Drug development space syndrome drug, chemical structure modification will be an important part.
These issues are very sensitive, cutting-edge technology is a major difficulty landing on Mars. Countries in the world, especially the world's major space powers in the country strategies and technical research, the results of all kinds continue to emerge. United States, Russia, China, Europe, India, Japan and other countries is different. United States, Russia extraordinary strength. Many patented technology and health, and most belong to the top-secret technology. Especially in aerospace engineering and technological achievements is different from the general scientific literature, practical, commercial, industrial great, especially the performance of patents, know-how, technical drawings, engineering design and other aspects. Present Mars and return safely to Earth, the first manned, significance, everything is hard in the beginning, especially the first person to land on Mars This Mars for Human Sciences Research Mars, the moon, the earth, the solar system and the universe, life and other significant. Its far greater than the value of direct investments and business interests.
In addition, it is the development of new materials, suitable for deep space operations universe, life, and other detection, wider field.
Many aerospace materials, continuous research and development of materials are key areas of aerospace development, including material rocket, the spacecraft materials, the suit materials, radiation materials, materials and equipment, instruments, materials and so on biochemistry.
Temperature metal-based compound with a metal matrix composite body with a more primordial higher temperature strength, creep resistance, impact resistance, thermal fatigue and other excellent high temperature performance.
In B, C, SiC fiber reinforced Ti3Al, TiAl, Ni3Al intermetallic matrix composites, etc.
W Fiber Reinforced with nickel-based, iron-based alloys as well as SiC, TiB2, Si3N4 and BN particle reinforced metal matrix composites
High temperature service conditions require the development of ceramic and carbon-based composite materials, etc., not in this eleven Cheung said.
Fuel storage
In order to survive in space, people need many things: food, oxygen, shelter, and, perhaps most importantly, fuel. The initial quality Mars mission somewhere around 80 percent of the space launch humans will be propellant. The fuel amount of storage space is very difficult.
This difference in low Earth orbit cause liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen - rocket fuel - vaporization.
Hydrogen is particularly likely to leak out, resulting in a loss of about 4% per month.
When you want to get people to Mars speed to minimize exposure to weightlessness and space radiation hazards
Mars
Landings on the Martian surface, they realized that they reached the limit. The rapid expansion of the thin Martian atmosphere can not be very large parachute, such as those that will need to be large enough to slow down, carry human spacecraft.
Therefore, the parachute strong mass ratio, high temperature resistance, Bing shot performance and other aspects of textile materials used have special requirements, in order to make a parachute can be used in rockets, missiles, Yu arrows spacecraft and other spacecraft recovery, it is necessary to improve the canopy heat resistance, a high melting point polymeric fiber fabric used, the metal fabric, ceramic fiber fabrics, and other devices.
Super rigid parachute to help slow the landing vehicle.
Spacecraft entered the Martian atmosphere at 24,000 km / h. Even after slowing parachute or inflatable, it will be very
Once we have the protection of the Earth magnetic field, the solar radiation will accumulate in the body, a huge explosion threw the spacecraft may potentially lethal doses of radiation astronauts.
In addition to radiation, the biggest challenge is manned trip to Mars microgravity, as previously described.
The moon is sterile. Mars is another case entirely.
With dust treatment measures.
Arid Martian environment to create a super-tiny dust particles flying around the Earth for billions of years.
Apollo moon dust encountered. Ultra-sharp and abrasive lunar dust was named something that can clog the basic functions of mechanical damage. High chloride salt, which can cause thyroid problems in people.
*** Mars geological structure and geological structure of the moon, water on Mars geology, geology of the Moon is very important, because he, like the Earth's geology is related to many important issues. Water, the first element of life, air, temperature, and complex geological formations are geological structure. Cosmic geology research methods, mainly through a variety of detection equipment equipped with a space probe, celestial observations of atmospheric composition, composition and distribution of temperature, pressure, wind speed, vertical structure, composition of the solar wind, the water, the surface topography and Zoning, topsoil the composition and characteristics of the component surface of the rock, type and distribution, stratigraphic sequence, structural system and the internal shell structure.
Mars internal situation only rely on its surface condition of large amounts of data and related information inferred. It is generally believed that the core radius of 1700 km of high-density material composition; outsourcing a layer of lava, it is denser than the Earth's mantle some; outermost layer is a thin crust. Compared to other terrestrial planets, the lower the density of Mars, which indicates that the Martian core of iron (magnesium and iron sulfide) with may contain more sulfur. Like Mercury and the Moon, Mars and lack active plate movement; there is no indication that the crust of Mars occurred can cause translational events like the Earth like so many of folded mountains. Since there is no lateral movement in the earth's crust under the giant hot zone relative to the ground in a stationary state. Slight stress coupled with the ground, resulting in Tharis bumps and huge volcano. For the geological structure of Mars is very important, which is why repeated explorations and studies of Martian geological reasons.
Earth's surface
Each detector component landing site soil analysis:
Element weight percent
Viking 1
Oxygen 40-45
Si 18-25
Iron 12-15
K 8
Calcium 3-5
Magnesium 3-6
S 2-5
Aluminum 2-5
Cesium 0.1-0.5
Core
Mars is about half the radius of the core radius, in addition to the primary iron further comprises 15 to 17% of the sulfur content of lighter elements is also twice the Earth, so the low melting point, so that the core portion of a liquid, such as outside the Earth nuclear.
Mantle
Nuclear outer coating silicate mantle.
Crust
The outermost layer of the crust.
Crustal thickness obtained, the original thickness of the low north 40 km south plateau 70 kilometers thick, an average of 50 kilometers, at least 80 km Tharsis plateau and the Antarctic Plateau, and in the impact basin is thin, as only about 10 kilometers Greece plains.
Canyon of Mars there are two categories: outflow channels (outflow channel) and tree valley (valley network). The former is very large, it can be 100 km wide, over 2000 km long, streamlined, mainly in the younger Northern Hemisphere, such as the plain around Tyre Chris Canyon and Canyon jam.
In addition, the volcanic activity sometimes lava formation lava channels (lava channel); crustal stress generated by fissures, faults, forming numerous parallel extending grooves (fossa), such as around the huge Tharsis volcanic plateau radially distributed numerous grooves, which can again lead to volcanic activity.
Presumably, Mars has an iron as the main component of the nucleus, and contains sulfur, magnesium and other light elements, the nuclear share of Mars, the Earth should be relatively small. The outer core is covered with a thick layer of magnesium-rich silicate mantle, the surface of rocky crust. The density of Earth-like planets Mars is the lowest, only 3.93g / cc.
Hierarchy
The crust
Lunar core
The average density of the Moon is 3.3464 g / cc, the solar system satellites second highest (after Aiou). However, there are few clues mean lunar core is small, only about 350 km radius or less [2]. The core of the moon is only about 20% the size of the moon, the moon's interior has a solid, iron-rich core diameter of about 240 kilometers (150 miles); in addition there is a liquid core, mainly composed of iron outer core, about 330 km in diameter (205 miles), and for the first time compared with the core of the Earth, considered as the earth's outer core, like sulfur and oxygen may have lighter elements [4].
Chemical elements on the lunar surface constituted in accordance with its abundance as follows: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminum (Al), manganese (Mn), titanium ( Ti). The most abundant is oxygen, silicon and iron. The oxygen content is estimated to be 42% (by weight). Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) only traces seem to exist only in trace amounts deposited in the solar wind brings.
Lunar Prospector from the measured neutron spectra, the hydrogen (H) mainly in the lunar poles [2].
Element content (%)
Oxygen 42%
Silicon 21%
Iron 13%
Calcium 8%
Aluminum 7%
Magnesium 6%
Other 3%
Lunar surface relative content of each element (% by weight)
Moon geological history is an important event in recent global magma ocean crystallization. The specific depth is not clear, but some studies have shown that at least a depth of about 500 kilometers or more.
Lunar landscape
Lunar landscape can be described as impact craters and ejecta, some volcanoes, hills, lava-filled depressions.
Regolith
TABLE bear the asteroid and comets billions of years of bombardment. Over time, the impact of these processes have already broken into fine-grained surface rock debris, called regolith. Young mare area, regolith thickness of about 2 meters, while the oldest dated land, regolith thickness of up to 20 meters. Through the analysis of lunar soil components, in particular the isotopic composition changes can determine the period of solar activity. Solar wind gases possible future lunar base is useful because oxygen, hydrogen (water), carbon and nitrogen is not only essential to life, but also may be useful for fuel production. Lunar soil constituents may also be as a future source of energy.
Here, repeatedly stressed that the geological structure and geological structure of celestial bodies, the Earth, Moon, Mars, or that this human existence and development of biological life forms is very important, especially in a series of data Martian geological structure geological structure is directly related to human landing Mars and the successful transformation of Mars or not. for example, water, liquid water, water, oxygen, synthesis, must not be taken lightly.
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Mars landing 10 Technology
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
[
"1" rocket propulsion technology ion fusion nuclear pulse propulsion rocket powered high-speed heavy rocket technology, space nuclear reactors spacecraft] brought big problems reflected in the nuclear reaction, nuclear radiation on spacecraft launch, control, brakes and other impact.
In particular, for the future of nuclear power spacecraft, the need to solve the nuclear reactor design, manufacture, control, cooling, radiation shielding, exhaust pollution, high thermoelectric conversion efficiency and a series of technical problems.
In particular, nuclear reactors produce radiation on astronauts' health will pose a great threat, which requires the spacecraft to be nuclear radiation shielding to ensure astronaut and ship the goods from radiation and heat from the reactor influence, but this will greatly increase the weight of the detector.
Space nuclear process applications, nuclear reaction decay is not a problem, but in a vacuum, ultra-low temperature environment, the nuclear reaction materials, energy transport materials have very high demands.
Space facing the reality of a nuclear reactor cooling cooling problems. To prevent problems with the reactor, "Washington" aircraft carrier to take four heavy protective measures for the radiation enclosed in the warship. These four measures are: the fuel itself, fuel storage pressure vessel, reactor shell and the hull. US Navy fuel all metal fuel, designed to take the impact resistance of the war, does not release fission product can withstand more than 50 times the gravity of the impact load; product of nuclear fission reactor fuel will never enter loop cooling water. The third layer of protection is specially designed and manufactured the reactor shell. The fourth layer is a very strong anti-impact combat ship, the reactor is arranged in the center of the ship, very safe. Engage in a reactor can only be loaded up to the aircraft, so as to drive the motor, and then drive the propeller. That is the core advantage of the heat generated by the heated gas flow, high temperature high pressure gas discharge backward, thereby generating thrust.
.
After installation AMPS1000 type nuclear power plant, a nuclear fuel assembly: He is a core member of the nuclear fuel chain reaction. Usually made into uranium dioxide, of which only a few percent uranium-235, and most of it is not directly involved in the nuclear fission of uranium 238. The uranium dioxide sintered into cylindrical pieces, into a stainless steel or a zirconium alloy do metal tubes called fuel rods or the original, then the number of fuel rods loaded metal cylinder in an orderly composition of the fuel assembly, and finally put a lot of vertical distribution of fuel assemblies in the reactor.
Nuclear reactor pressure vessel is a housing for containing nuclear fuel and reactor internals, for producing high-quality high-strength steel is made to withstand the pressure of dozens MPa. Import and export of the coolant in the pressure vessel.
The top of the pressure vessel closure, and can be used to accommodate the fixed control rod drive mechanism, pressure vessel head has a semi-circular, flat-topped.
Roof bolt: used to connect the locking pressure vessel head, so that the cylinder to form a completely sealed container.
Neutron Source: Plug in nuclear reactors can provide sufficient neutron, nuclear fuel ignition, to start to enhance the role of nuclear reactors and nuclear power. Neutron source generally composed of radium, polonium, beryllium, antimony production. Neutron source and neutron fission reactors are fast neutron, can not cause fission of uranium 235, in order to slow down, we need to moderator ---- full of pure water in a nuclear reactor. Aircraft carriers, submarines use nuclear reactor control has proven more successful.
Rod: has a strong ability to absorb neutrons, driven by the control rod drive mechanism, can move up and down in a nuclear reactor control rods within the nuclear fuel used to start, shut down the nuclear reactor, and maintain, regulate reactor power. Hafnium control rods in general, silver, indium, cadmium and other metals production.
Control rod drive mechanism: He is the executive body of nuclear reactors operating system and security protection systems, in strict accordance with requirements of the system or its operator control rod drives do move up and down in a nuclear reactor, nuclear reactor for power control. In a crisis situation, you also can quickly control rods fully inserted into the reactor in order to achieve the purpose of the emergency shutdown
Upper and lower support plate: used to secure the fuel assembly. High temperature and pressure inside the reactor is filled with pure water (so called pressurized water reactors), on the one hand he was passing through a nuclear reactor core, cooling the nuclear fuel, to act as a coolant, on the other hand it accumulates in the pressure vessel in play moderated neutrons role, acting as moderator.
Water quality monitoring sampling system:
Adding chemical system: under normal circumstances, for adding hydrazine, hydrogen, pH control agents to the primary coolant system, the main purpose is to remove and reduce coolant oxygen, high oxygen water suppression equipment wall corrosion (usually at a high temperature oxygen with hydrogen, especially at low temperatures during startup of a nuclear reactor with added hydrazine oxygen); when the nuclear reactor control rods stuck for some reason can not shutdown time by the the system can inject the nuclear reactor neutron absorber (such as boric acid solution), emergency shutdown, in order to ensure the safety of nuclear submarines.
Water system: a loop inside the water will be reduced at work, such as water sampling and analysis, equipment leaks, because the shutdown process cooling water and reduction of thermal expansion and contraction.
Equipment cooling water system:
Pressure safety systems: pressure reactor primary coolant system may change rapidly for some reason, the need for effective control. And in severe burn nuclear fuel rods, resulting in a core melt accident, it is necessary to promptly increase the pressure. Turn the regulator measures the electric, heating and cooling water. If necessary, also temporary startup booster pump.
Residual Heat Removal System: reactor scram may be due to an accident, such as when the primary coolant system of the steam generator heat exchanger tube is damaged, it must be urgently closed reactors.
Safety Injection System: The main components of this system is the high-pressure injection pump.
Radioactive waste treatment systems:
Decontamination Systems: for the removal of radioactive deposits equipment, valves, pipes and accessories, and other surfaces.
Europe, the United States and Russia and other countries related to aircraft carriers, submarines, icebreakers, nuclear-powered research aircraft, there are lots of achievements use of nuclear energy, it is worth analysis. However, nuclear reactor technology, rocket ships and the former are very different, therefore, requires special attention and innovative research. Must adopt a new new design techniques, otherwise, fall into the stereotype, it will avail, nothing even cause harm Aerospace.
[ "2" spacecraft structure]
[ "3"] radiation technology is the use of deep-sea sedimentation fabric fabrics deepwater technology development precipitated silver metal fibers or fiber lint and other materials and micronaire value between 4.1 to 4.3 fibers made from blends. For radiation protection field, it greatly enhances the effects of radiation and service life of clothing. Radiation resistant fiber) radiation resistant fiber - fiber polyimide polyimide fibers
60 years the United States has successfully developed polyimide fibers, it has highlighted the high temperature, radiation-resistant, fire-retardant properties.
[ "4" cosmic radiation resistant clothing design multifunctional anti-aging, wear underwear] ① comfort layer: astronauts can not wash clothes in a long flight, a lot of sebum, perspiration, etc. will contaminate underwear, so use soft, absorbent and breathable cotton knitwear making.
② warm layer: at ambient temperature range is not the case, warm layer to maintain a comfortable temperature environment. Choose warm and good thermal resistance large, soft, lightweight material, such as synthetic fibers, flakes, wool and silk and so on.
③ ventilation and cooling clothes clothes
Spacesuit
In astronaut body heat is too high, water-cooled ventilation clothing and clothing to a different way of heat. If the body heat production more than 350 kcal / h (ventilated clothes can not meet the cooling requirements, then that is cooled by a water-cooled suit. Ventilating clothing and water-cooled multi-use compression clothing, durable, flexible plastic tubing, such as polyvinyl chloride pipe or nylon film.
④ airtight limiting layer:
⑤ insulation: astronaut during extravehicular activities, from hot or cold insulation protection. It multilayer aluminized polyester film or a polyimide film and sandwiched between layers of nonwoven fabric to be made.
⑥ protective cover layer: the outermost layer of the suit is to require fire, heat and anti-space radiation on various factors (micrometeorites, cosmic rays, etc.) on the human body. Most of this layer with aluminized fabric.
New space suits using a special radiation shielding material, double design.
And also supporting spacesuit helmet, gloves, boots and so on.
[ "5" space - Aerospace biomedical technology, space, special use of rescue medication Space mental health care systems in space without damage restful sleep positions - drugs, simple space emergency medical system
]
[ "6" landing control technology, alternate control technology, high-performance multi-purpose landing deceleration device (parachute)]
[ "7" Mars truck, unitary Mars spacecraft solar energy battery super multi-legged (rounds) intelligent robot] multifunction remote sensing instruments on Mars, Mars and more intelligent giant telescope
[8 <> Mars warehouse activities, automatic Mars lander - Automatic start off cabin
]
[ "9" Mars - spacecraft docking control system, return to the system design]
Space flight secondary emergency life - support system
Spacecraft automatic, manual, semi-automatic operation control, remote control switch system
Automatic return spacecraft systems, backup design, the spacecraft automatic control operating system modular blocks of]
[10 lunar tracking control system
Martian dust storms, pollution prevention, anti-corrosion and other special conditions thereof
Electric light aircraft, Mars lander, Mars, living spaces, living spaces Mars, Mars entry capsule, compatible utilization technology, plant cultivation techniques, nutrition space - space soil]
Aerospace technology, space technology a lot, a lot of cutting-edge technology. Human landing on Mars technology bear the brunt. The main merge the human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology, in fact, these 10 cutting-edge technology, covering a wide range, focused, and is the key to key technologies. They actually shows overall trends and technology Aerospace Science and Technology space technology. Human triumph Mars and safe return of 10 cutting-edge technology is bound to innovation. Moreover, in order to explore the human Venus, Jupiter satellites and the solar system, the Milky Way and other future development of science and laid the foundation guarantee. But also for the transformation of human to Mars, the Moon and other planets livable provides strong technical support. Aerospace Science and Technology which is a major support system.
Preparation of oxygen, water, synthesis, temperature, radiation, critical force confrontation. Regardless of the moon or Mars, survive three elements bear the brunt.
Chemical formula: H₂O
Formula: H-O-H (OH bond between two angle 104.5 °).
Molecular Weight: 18.016
Chemical Experiment: water electrolysis. Formula: 2H₂O = energized = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑ (decomposition)
Molecules: a hydrogen atom, an oxygen atom.
Ionization of water: the presence of pure water ionization equilibrium following: H₂O == == H⁺ + OH⁻ reversible or irreversible H₂O + H₂O = = H₃O⁺ + OH⁻.
NOTE: "H₃O⁺" hydronium ions, for simplicity, often abbreviated as H⁺, more accurate to say the H9O4⁺, the amount of hydrogen ion concentration in pure water material is 10⁻⁷mol / L.
Electrolysis of water:
Water at DC, decomposition to produce hydrogen and oxygen, this method is industrially prepared pure hydrogen and oxygen 2H₂O = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑.
. Hydration Reaction:
Water with an alkaline active metal oxides, as well as some of the most acidic oxide hydration reaction of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Na₂O + H₂O = 2NaOH
CaO + H₂O = Ca (OH) ₂
SO₃ + H₂O = H₂SO₄
P₂O₅ + 3H₂O = 2H₃PO₄ molecular structure
CH₂ = CH₂ + H₂O ← → C₂H₅OH
6. The diameter of the order of magnitude of 10 water molecules negative power of ten, the water is generally believed that a diameter of 2 to 3 this organization. water
7. Water ionization:
In the water, almost no water molecules ionized to generate ions.
H₂O ← → H⁺ + OH⁻
Heating potassium chlorate or potassium permanganate preparation of oxygen
Pressurized at low temperatures, the air into a liquid, and then evaporated, since the boiling point of liquid nitrogen is -196 deg.] C, lower than the boiling point of liquid oxygen (-183 ℃), so the liquid nitrogen evaporated from the first air, remaining the main liquid oxygen.
Of course, the development of research in space there is a great difference, even more special preparation harsh environments on Earth and synthetic water and oxygen, over the need for more technological breakthroughs.
The main component of air oxygen and nitrogen. The use of oxygen and nitrogen with
Mars - Mars - Mars first person / human landing on Mars station tackling cutting-edge technology
Mars--Fangruida//science tech.
Enc:Special multi-purpose anti-radiation suit 50 million dollars
Aerospace Medical Emergency cabin 1.5 billion dollars
Multi-purpose intelligent life support system 10 billion dollars
Mars truck 300 million dollars
Aerospace / Water Planet synthesis 1.2 billion dollars
Cutting-edge aerospace technology transfer 50 million dollars of new rocket radiation material 10 billion dollars against drugs microgravity $ 2 billion contact: Fangda337svb125@gmail.com,banxin123 @ gmail.com, mdin.jshmith @ gmail.com technology entry fee / technical margin of 1 million dollars , signed on demand
Table of Contents
Fangruida: human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology
[Fangruida- human landing on Mars 10 innovative and sophisticated technologies]
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
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Aerospace Science Space Science and Technology on behalf of the world's most cutting-edge leader in high technology, materials, mechatronics, information and communication, energy, biomedical, marine, aviation aerospace, microelectronics, computer, automation, intelligent biochips, use of nuclear energy, light mechanical and electrical integration, astrophysics, celestial chemistry, astrophysics and so a series of geological science and technology. Especially after the moon landing, the further development of mankind to Mars and other planets into the powerful offensive, the world's major powers eager to Daxian hand of God, increase investment, vigorously develop new sophisticated technology projects for space to space. Satellite, space station, the new spacecraft, the new space suits, the new radiation protection materials, intelligent materials, new manufacturing technology, communications technology, computer technology, detector technology, rover, rover technology, biomedical technology, and so one after another, is expected to greater breakthroughs and leaps. For example, rocket technology, spacecraft design, large power spacecraft, spacesuits design improvements, radiation multifunctional composite materials, life health care technology and space medicine, prevention against microgravity microgravity applicable drugs, tracking control technology, landing and return technology. Mars lander and returned safely to Earth as a top priority. Secondly, Mars, the Moon base and the use of transforming Mars, the Moon and other development will follow. Whether the former or the latter, are the modern aerospace science, space science basic research, applied basic research and applied research in the major cutting-edge technology. These major cutting-edge technology research and innovation, not only for human landing on Mars and the safe return of great significance, but for the entire space science, impact immeasurable universe sciences, earth sciences and human life. Here the most critical of the most important research projects of several sophisticated technology research and development as well as its core technology brief. Limit non-scientific techniques include non-technical limits of technology, the key lies in technology research and development of technology maturity, advanced technology, innovative, practical, reliable, practical application, business value and investment costs, and not simply like the idea mature technology achievements, difficult to put into things. This is the high-tech research and development, testing, prototype, test application testing, until the outcome of industrialization. Especially in aerospace technology, advanced, novelty, practicality, reliability, economy, maturity, commercial value and so on. For technical and research purely science fiction and the like may be irrelevant depth, but not as aerospace engineering and technology practice. Otherwise, Mars will become a dream fantasy, and even into settling crashed out of danger.
Regardless of the moon or Mars, many technical difficulties, especially a human landing on Mars and return safely to Earth, technical difficulties mainly in the following aspects. (Transformation of Mars and the Moon and other planets and detect other livable technology more complex and difficult, at this stage it is difficult to achieve and therefore not discussed in detail in this study). In fact, Mars will be the safe return of a full set of technology, space science, aerospace crucial scientific research development, its significance is not confined to Mars simply a return to scientific value, great commercial value, can not be measure.
1. Powered rocket, the spacecraft overall structural design not be too complex large, otherwise, the safety factor to reduce the risk of failure accidents. Fusion rocket engine main problem to be solved is the high-temperature materials and fuel ignition chamber (reaction chamber temperatures of up to tens of millions of supreme billion degrees), fissile class rocket engine whose essence is the miniaturization of nuclear reactors, and placed on the rocket. Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues unresolved. Electrothermal rocket engine utilizing heat energy (resistance heating or electric arc heating) working medium (hydrogen, amines, hydrazine ), vaporized; nozzle expansion accelerated after discharged from the spout to generate thrust. Static rocket engine working fluid (mercury, cesium, hydrogen, etc.) from the tank enter the ionization chamber is formed thrust ionized into a plasma jet. Electric rocket engines with a high specific impulse (700-2500 sec), extremely long life (can be repeated thousands of times a starter, a total of up to thousands of hours of work). But the thrust of less than 100N. This engine is only available for spacecraft attitude control, station-keeping and the like. One nuclear - power rocket design is as follows: Firstly, the reactor heats water to make it into steam, and then the high-speed steam ejected, push the rocket. Nuclear rocket using hydrogen as working substance may be a better solution, it is one of the most commonly used liquid hydrogen rocket fuel rocket carrying liquid hydrogen virtually no technical difficulties. Heating hydrogen nuclear reactor, as long as it eventually reaches or exceeds current jet velocity hydrogen rocket engine jet speed, the same weight of the rocket will be able to work longer, it can accelerate the Rockets faster. Here there are only two problems: First, the final weight includes the weight of the rocket in nuclear reactors, so it must be as light as possible. Ultra-small nuclear reactor has been able to achieve. Furthermore, if used in outer space, we can not consider the problem of radioactive residues, simply to just one proton hydrogen nuclei are less likely to produce induced radioactivity, thus shielding layer can be made thinner, injected hydrogen gas can flow directly through the reactor core, it is not easy to solve, and that is how to get back at high speed heated gas is ejected.
Rocket engine with a nuclear fission reactor, based on the heating liquid hydrogen propellant, rather than igniting flammable propellant
High-speed heavy rocket is a major cutting-edge technology. After all, space flight and aircraft carriers, submarines, nuclear reactors differ greatly from the one hand, the use of traditional fuels, on the one hand can be nuclear reactor technology. From the control, for security reasons, the use of nuclear power rocket technology, safe and reliable overriding indicators. Nuclear atomic energy in line with the norms and rules of outer space. For the immature fetal abdominal hatchery technology, and resolutely reject use. This is the most significant development of nuclear-powered rocket principle.
Nuclear-powered spaceship for Use of nuclear power are three kinds:
The first method: no water or air space such media can not be used propeller must use jet approach. Reactor nuclear fission or fusion to produce a lot of heat, we will propellant (such as liquid hydrogen) injection, the rapid expansion of the propellant will be heated and then discharged from the engine speed tail thrust. This method is most readily available.
The second method: nuclear reactor will have a lot of fast-moving ions, these energetic particles moving very fast, so you can use a magnetic field to control their ejection direction. This principle ion rocket similar to the tail of the rocket ejected from the high-speed mobile ions, so that the recoil movement of a rocket. The advantage of this approach is to promote the unusually large ratio, without carrying any medium, continued strong. Ion engine, which is commonly referred to as "electric rocket", the principle is not complicated, the propellant is ionized particles,
Plasma Engine
Electromagnetic acceleration, high-speed spray. From the development trend, the US research scope covers almost all types of electric thrusters, but mainly to the development of ion engines, NASA in which to play the most active intake technology and preparedness plans. "
The third method: the use of nuclear explosions. It is a bold and crazy way, no longer is the use of a controlled nuclear reaction, but to use nuclear explosions to drive the ship, this is not an engine, and it is called a nuclear pulse rocket. This spacecraft will carry a lot of low-yield atomic bombs out one behind, and then detonated, followed by a spacecraft propulsion installation disk, absorbing the blast pushing the spacecraft forward. This was in 1955 to Orion (Project Orion) name of the project, originally planned to bring two thousand atomic bombs, Orion later fetal nuclear thermal rocket. Its principle is mounted on a small rocket reactor, the reactor utilizing thermal energy generated by the propellant is heated to a high temperature, high pressure and high temperature of the propellant from the high-speed spray nozzle, a tremendous impetus.
Common nuclear fission technologies, including nuclear pulse rocket engines, nuclear rockets, nuclear thermal rocket and nuclear stamping rockets to nuclear thermal rocket, for example, the size of its land-based nuclear power plant reactor structure than the much smaller, more uranium-235 purity requirements high, reaching more than 90%, at the request of the high specific impulse engine core temperature will reach about 3000K, require excellent high temperature properties of materials.
Research and test new IT technologies and new products and new technology and new materials, new equipment, things are difficult, design is the most important part, especially in the overall design, technical solutions, technical route, technical process, technical and economic particularly significant. The overall design is defective, technology there are loopholes in the program, will be a major technical route deviation, but also directly related to the success of research trials. so, any time, under any circumstances, a good grasp of the overall control of design, technical design, is essential. otherwise, a done deal, it is difficult save. aerospace technology research and product development is true.
3, high-performance nuclear rocket
Nuclear rocket nuclear fission and fusion energy can rocket rocket two categories. Nuclear fission and fusion produce heat, radiation and shock waves and other large amounts of energy, but here they are contemplated for use as a thermal energy rocket.
Uranium and other heavy elements, under certain conditions, will split their nuclei, called nuclear fission reaction. The atomic bomb is the result of nuclear fission reactions. Nuclear fission reaction to release energy, is a million times more chemical rocket propellant combustion energy. Therefore, nuclear fission energy is a high-performance rocket rockets. Since it requires much less propellant than chemical rockets can, so to its own weight is much lighter than chemical rockets energy. For the same quality of the rocket, the rocket payload of nuclear fission energy is much greater than the chemical energy of the rocket. Just nuclear fission energy rocket is still in the works.
Use of nuclear fission energy as the energy of the rocket, called the atomic rockets. It is to make hydrogen or other inert gas working fluid through the reactor, the hydrogen after the heating temperature quickly rose to 2000 ℃, and then into the nozzle, high-speed spray to produce thrust.
A vision plan is to use liquid hydrogen working fluid, in operation, the liquid hydrogen tank in the liquid hydrogen pump is withdrawn through the catheter and the engine cooling jacket and liquid hydrogen into hydrogen gas, hydrogen gas turbine-driven, locally expansion. Then by nuclear fission reactors, nuclear fission reactions absorb heat released, a sharp rise in temperature, and finally into the nozzle, the rapid expansion of high-speed spray. Calculations show that the amount of atomic payload rockets, rocket high chemical energy than 5-8 times.
Hydrogen and other light elements, under certain conditions, their nuclei convergent synthesis of new heavy nuclei, and release a lot of energy, called nuclear fusion reaction, also called thermonuclear reaction.
Using energy generated by the fusion reaction for energy rocket, called fusion energy rocket or nuclear thermal rockets. But it is also not only take advantage of controlled nuclear fusion reaction to manufacture hydrogen bombs, rockets and controlled nuclear fusion reaction needs still studying it.
Of course there are various research and development of rocket technology and technical solutions to try.
It is envisaged that the rocket deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen with deuterium nuclear fusion reaction of helium nuclei, protons and neutrons, and release huge amounts of energy, just polymerized ionized helium to temperatures up to 100 million degrees the plasma, and then nozzle expansion, high-speed ejection, the exhaust speed of up to 15,000 km / sec, atomic energy is 1800 times the rocket, the rocket is the chemical energy of 3700 times.
Nuclear rocket engine fuel as an energy source, with liquid hydrogen, liquid helium, liquid ammonia working fluid. Nuclear rocket engine mounted in the thrust chamber of the reactor, cooling nozzle, the working fluid delivery and control systems and other components. In a nuclear reactor, nuclear energy into heat to heat the working fluid, the working fluid is heated after expansion nozzle to accelerate to the speed of 6500 ~ 11,000 m / sec from the discharge orifice to produce thrust. Nuclear rocket engine specific impulse (250 to 1000 seconds) long life, but the technology is complex, apply only to long-term spacecraft. This engine due to nuclear radiation protection, exhaust pollution, reactor control and efficient heat exchanger design and other issues not resolved, is still in the midst of trials. Nuclear rocket technology is cutting-edge aerospace science technology, centralized many professional and technical sciences and aerospace, nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry, materials science, the long term future _-- wide width. The United States, Russia and Europe, China, India, Japan, Britain, Brazil and other countries in this regard have studies, in particular the United States and Russia led the way, impressive. Of course, at this stage of nuclear rocket technology, technology development there are still many difficulties. Fully formed, still to be. But humanity marching to the universe, nuclear reactor applications is essential.
Outer Space Treaty (International Convention on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space) **
Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space Principle 15
General Assembly,
Having considered the report of its thirty-fifth session of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and the Commission of 16 nuclear
It can be attached in principle on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space of the text of its report, 17
Recognize that nuclear power sources due to small size, long life and other characteristics, especially suitable for use even necessary
For some missions in outer space,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources in outer space should focus on the possible use of nuclear power sources
Those uses,
Recognizing also that the use of nuclear power sources should include or probabilistic risk analysis is complete security in outer space
Full evaluation is based, in particular, the public should focus on reducing accidental exposure to harmful radiation or radioactive material risk
risk,
Recognizing the need to a set of principles containing goals and guidelines in this regard to ensure the safety of outer space makes
With nuclear power sources,
Affirming that this set principles apply exclusively on space objects for non-power generation, which is generally characteristic
Mission systems and implementation of nuclear power sources in outer space on similar principles and used by,
Recognizing this need to refer to a new set of principles for future nuclear power applications and internationally for radiological protection
The new proposal will be revised
By the following principles on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space.
Principle 1. Applicability of international law
Involving the use of nuclear power sources in outer space activities should be carried out in accordance with international law, especially the "UN
Principles of the Charter "and" States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Activities
Treaty "3
.
2. The principle terms
1. For the purpose of these principles, "launching State" and "launching State ......" two words mean, in related
Principles related to a time of nuclear power sources in space objects exercises jurisdiction and control of the country.
2. For the purpose of principle 9, wherein the definition of the term "launching State" as contained in that principle.
3. For the purposes of principle 3, the terms "foreseeable" and "all possible" two words are used to describe the actual hair
The overall likelihood of students that it is considered for safety analysis is credible possibilities for a class of things
Member or circumstances. "General concept of defense in depth" when the term applies to nuclear power sources in outer space refers to various settings
Count form and space operations replace or supplement the operation of the system in order to prevent system failures or mitigate thereafter
"Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 20" 16 (A / 47/20).
17 Ibid., Annex.
38
fruit. To achieve this purpose is not necessarily required for each individual member has redundant safety systems. Given space
Use and special requirements of various space missions, impossible to any particular set of systems or features can be specified as
Necessary to achieve this purpose. For the purpose of Principle 3 (d) of paragraph 2, "made critical" does not include
Including such as zero-power testing which are fundamental to ensuring system safety required.
Principle 3. Guidelines and criteria for safe use
To minimize the risk of radioactive material in space and the number involved, nuclear power sources in outer space
Use should be limited to non-nuclear power sources in space missions can not reasonably be performed
1. General goals for radiation protection and nuclear safety
(A) States launching space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall endeavor to protect individuals, populations and the biosphere
From radiation hazards. The design and use of space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall ensure that risk with confidence
Harm in the foreseeable operational or accidental circumstances, paragraph 1 (b) and (c) to define acceptable water
level.
Such design and use shall also ensure that radioactive material does not reliably significant contamination of outer space.
(B) the normal operation of nuclear power sources in space objects, including from paragraph 2 (b) as defined in foot
High enough to return to the track, shall be subject to appropriate anti-radiation recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection of the public
Protection goals. During such normal operation there shall be no significant radiation exposure;
(C) To limit exposure in accidents, the design and construction of nuclear power source systems shall take into account the international
Relevant and generally accepted radiological protection guidelines.
In addition to the probability of accidents with potentially serious radiological consequences is extremely low, the nuclear power source
Design systems shall be safely irradiated limited limited geographical area, for the individual radiation dose should be
Limited to no more than a year 1mSv primary dose limits. Allows the use of irradiation year for some years 5mSv deputy agent
Quantity limit, but the average over a lifetime effective dose equivalent annual dose not exceed the principal limit 1mSv
degree.
Should make these conditions occur with potentially serious radiological consequences of the probability of the system design is very
small.
Criteria mentioned in this paragraph Future modifications should be applied as soon as possible;
(D) general concept of defense in depth should be based on the design, construction and operation of systems important for safety. root
According to this concept, foreseeable safety-related failures or malfunctions must be capable of automatic action may be
Or procedures to correct or offset.
It should ensure that essential safety system reliability, inter alia, to make way for these systems
Component redundancy, physical separation, functional isolation and adequate independence.
It should also take other measures to increase the level of safety.
2. The nuclear reactor
(A) nuclear reactor can be used to:
39
(I) On interplanetary missions;
(Ii) the second high enough orbit paragraph (b) as defined;
(Iii) low-Earth orbit, with the proviso that after their mission is complete enough to be kept in a nuclear reactor
High on the track;
(B) sufficiently high orbit the orbital lifetime is long enough to make the decay of fission products to approximately actinides
Element active track. The sufficiently high orbit must be such that existing and future outer space missions of crisis
Risk and danger of collision with other space objects to a minimum. In determining the height of the sufficiently high orbit when
It should also take into account the destroyed reactor components before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere have to go through the required decay time
between.
(C) only 235 nuclear reactors with highly enriched uranium fuel. The design shall take into account the fission and
Activation of radioactive decay products.
(D) nuclear reactors have reached their operating orbit or interplanetary trajectory can not be made critical state
state.
(E) nuclear reactor design and construction shall ensure that, before reaching the operating orbit during all possible events
Can not become critical state, including rocket explosion, re-entry, impact on ground or water, submersion
In water or water intruding into the core.
(F) a significant reduction in satellites with nuclear reactors to operate on a lifetime less than in the sufficiently high orbit orbit
For the period (including during operation into the sufficiently high orbit) the possibility of failure, there should be a very
Reliable operating system, in order to ensure an effective and controlled disposal of the reactor.
3. Radioisotope generators
(A) interplanetary missions and other spacecraft out of Earth's gravitational field tasks using radioactive isotopes
Su generator. As they are stored after completion of their mission in high orbit, the Earth can also be used
track. We are required to make the final treatment under any circumstances.
(B) Radioisotope generators shall be protected closed systems, design and construction of the system should
Ensure that in the foreseeable conditions of the track to withstand the heat and aerodynamic forces of re-entry in the upper atmosphere, orbit
Conditions including highly elliptical or hyperbolic orbits when relevant. Upon impact, the containment system and the occurrence of parity
Physical morpheme shall ensure that no radioactive material is scattered into the environment so you can complete a recovery operation
Clear all radioactive impact area.
Principle 4. Safety Assessment
1. When launching State emission consistent with the principles defined in paragraphs 1, prior to the launch in applicable under the
Designed, constructed or manufactured the nuclear power sources, or will operate the space object person, or from whose territory or facility
Transmits the object will be to ensure a thorough and comprehensive safety assessment. This assessment shall cover
All relevant stages of space mission and shall deal with all systems involved, including the means of launching, the space level
Taiwan, nuclear power source and its equipment and the means of control and communication between ground and space.
2. This assessment shall respect the principle of 3 contained in the guidelines and criteria for safe use.
40
3. The principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
Results of about 11, this safety assessment should be published prior to each transmit simultaneously to the extent feasible
Note by the approximate intended time of launch, and shall notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations, how to be issued
This safety assessment before the shot to get the results as soon as possible.
Principle 5. Notification of re-entry
1. Any State launching a space object with nuclear power sources in space objects that failed to produce discharge
When radioactive substances dangerous to return to the earth, it shall promptly notify the country concerned. Notice shall be in the following format:
(A) System parameters:
(I) Name of launching State, including which may be contacted in the event of an accident to Request
Information or assistance to obtain the relevant authorities address;
(Ii) International title;
(Iii) Date and territory or location of launch;
(Iv) the information needed to make the best prediction of orbit lifetime, trajectory and impact region;
(V) General function of spacecraft;
(B) information on the radiological risk of nuclear power source:
(I) the type of power source: radioisotopes / reactor;
(Ii) the fuel could fall into the ground and may be affected by the physical state of contaminated and / or activated components, the number of
The amount and general radiological characteristics. The term "fuel" refers to as a source of heat or power of nuclear material.
This information shall also be sent to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
2. Once you know the failure, the launching State shall provide information on the compliance with the above format. Information should as far as possible
To be updated frequently, and in the dense layers of the Earth's atmosphere is expected to return to a time when close to the best increase
Frequency of new data, so that the international community understand the situation and will have sufficient time to plan for any deemed necessary
National contingency measures.
3. It should also be at the same frequency of the latest information available to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
Principle 6. consultation
5 According to the national principles provide information shall, as far as reasonably practicable, other countries
Requirements to obtain further information or consultations promptly reply.
Principle 7. Assistance to States
1. Upon receipt of expected with nuclear power sources on space objects and their components will return through the Earth's atmosphere
After know that all countries possessing space monitoring and tracking facilities, in the spirit of international cooperation, as soon as possible to
The Secretary-General of the United Nations and the countries they may have made space objects carrying nuclear power sources
A fault related information, so that the States may be affected to assess the situation and take any
It is considered to be the necessary precautions.
41
2. In carrying space objects with nuclear power sources back to the Earth's atmosphere after its components:
(A) launching State shall be requested by the affected countries to quickly provide the necessary assistance to eliminate actual
And possible effects, including nuclear power sources to assist in identifying locations hit the Earth's surface, to detect the re substance
Quality and recovery or cleanup activities.
(B) All countries with relevant technical capabilities other than the launching State, and with such technical capabilities
International organizations shall, where possible, in accordance with the requirements of the affected countries to provide the necessary co
help.
When according to the above (a) and subparagraph (b) to provide assistance, should take into account the special needs of developing countries.
Principle 8. Responsibility
In accordance with the States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies activities, including the principles of Article
About Article, States shall bear international responsibility for their use of nuclear power sources in outer space relates to the activities
Whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or non-governmental entities, and shall bear international responsibility to ensure that this
Such activities undertaken by the country in line with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained therein. If it involves the use of nuclear power sources
Activities in outer space by an international organization, should be done by the international organizations and States to participate in the organization
Undertakes to comply with the principles of the Treaty and the recommendations contained in these responsibilities.
Principle 9. Liability and Compensation
1. In accordance with the principle of States in the Exploration and Use, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies Outer Space Activities Article
And the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects covenant of Article 7
Provisions, which launches or on behalf of the State
Each State launching a space object and each State from which territory or facility a space object is launched
Kinds of space object or damage caused by components shall bear international liability. This fully applies to this
Kind of space object carrying a nuclear power source case. Two or more States jointly launch a space object,
Each launching State shall in accordance with the above Article of the Convention for any damages jointly and severally liable.
2. Such countries under the aforesaid Convention shall bear the damages shall be in accordance with international law and fair and reasonable
The principles set out in order to provide for damages to make a claim on behalf of its natural or juridical persons, national or
International organizations to restore to the state before the occurrence of the damage.
3. For the purposes of this principle, compensation should be made to include reimbursement of the duly substantiated expenses for search, recovery and clean
Cost management work, including the cost of providing assistance to third parties.
10. The principle of dispute settlement
Since the implementation of these principles will lead to any dispute in accordance with the provisions of the UN Charter, by negotiation or
Other established procedures to resolve the peaceful settlement of disputes.
Here quoted the important provisions of the United Nations concerning the use of outer space for peaceful nuclear research and international conventions, the main emphasis on the Peaceful Uses of provisions related constraints .2 the use of nuclear rockets in outer space nuclear studies, etc., can cause greater attention in nuclear power nuclear rocket ship nuclear research, manufacture, use and other aspects of the mandatory hard indicators. this scientists, engineering and technical experts are also important constraints and requirements. as IAEA supervision and management as very important.
2. radiation. Space radiation is one of the greatest threats to the safety of the astronauts, including X-rays, γ-rays, cosmic rays and high-speed solar particles. Better than aluminum protective effect of high polymer composite materials.
3. Air. Perhaps the oxygen needed to rely on oxidation-reduction reaction of hydrogen and ilmenite production of water, followed by water electrolysis to generate oxygen. Mars oxygen necessary for survival but also from the decomposition of water, electrolytically separating water molecules of oxygen and hydrogen, this oxygen equipment has been successfully used in the International Space Station. Oxygen is released into the air to sustain life, the hydrogen system into the water system.
4. The issue of food waste recycling. At present, the International Space Station on the use of dehumidifiers, sucked moisture in the air to be purified, and then changed back to drinkable water. The astronauts' urine and sweat recycling. 5. water. The spacecraft and the space station on purification system also makes urine and other liquids can be purified utilization. 6. microgravity. In microgravity or weightlessness long-term space travel, if protective measures shall not be treated, the astronauts will be muscle atrophy, bone softening health. 7. contact. 8. Insulation, 9 energy. Any space exploration are inseparable from the energy battery is a new super hybrid energy storage device, the asymmetric lead-acid batteries and supercapacitors in the same compound within the system - and the so-called inside, no additional separate electronic control unit, this is an optimal combination. The traditional lead-acid battery PbO2 monomer is a positive electrode plate and a negative electrode plate spongy Pb composition, not a super cell. : Silicon solar cells, multi-compound thin film solar cells, multi-layer polymer-modified electrode solar cells, nano-crystalline solar cells, batteries and super class. For example, the solar aircraft .10. To protect the health and life safety and security systems. Lysophosphatidic acid LPA is a growth factor-like lipid mediators, the researchers found that this substance can on apoptosis after radiation injury and animal cells was inhibited. Stable lysophosphatidic acid analogs having the hematopoietic system and gastrointestinal tract caused by acute radiation sickness protection, knockout experiments show that lysophosphatidic acid receptors is an important foundation for the protection of radiation injury. In addition to work under high pressure, the astronauts face a number of health threats, including motion sickness, bacterial infections, blindness space, as well as psychological problems, including toxic dust. In the weightless environment of space, the astronaut's body will be like in preadolescents, as the emergence of various changes.
Plantar molt
After the environment to adapt to zero gravity, the astronaut's body will be some strange changes. Weightlessness cause fluid flow around the main flow torso and head, causing the astronauts facial swelling and inflammation, such as nasal congestion. During long-term stay in space
Bone and muscle loss
Most people weightlessness caused by the impact may be known bone and muscle degeneration. In addition, the calcium bones become very fragile and prone to fracture, which is why some of the astronauts after landing need on a stretcher.
Space Blindness
Space Blindness refers astronaut decreased vision.
Solar storms and radiation is one of the biggest challenges facing the long-term space flight. Since losing the protection of Earth's magnetic field, astronauts suffer far more than normal levels of radiation. The cumulative amount of radiation exposure in low earth orbit them exceeded by workers close to nuclear reactors, thereby increasing the risk of cancer.
Prolonged space flight can cause a series of psychological problems, including depression or mood swings, vulnerability, anxiety and fear, as well as other sequelae. We are familiar with the biology of the Earth, the Earth biochemistry, biophysics, after all, the Earth is very different astrophysics, celestial chemistry, biophysics and astrophysics, biochemistry and other celestial bodies. Therefore, you must be familiar with and adapt to these differences and changes.
Osteoporosis and its complications ranked first in the space of disease risk.
Long-term health risks associated with flying Topics
The degree of influence long-term biological effects of radiation in human flight can withstand the radiation and the maximum limit of accumulated radiation on physiology, pathology and genetics.
Physiological effects of weightlessness including: long-term bone loss and a return flight after the maximum extent and severity of the continued deterioration of other pathological problems induced by the; maximum flexibility and severity of possible long-term Flight Center in vascular function.
Long-term risk of disease due to the high risk of flight stress, microbial variation, decreased immune function, leading to infections
Radiation hazards and protection
1) radiation medicine, biology and pathway effects Features
Radiation protection for interplanetary flight, since the lack of protective effect of Earth's magnetic field, and by the irradiation time is longer, the possibility of increased radiation hazard.
Analysis of space flight medical problems that may occur, loss of appetite topped the list, sleep disorders, fatigue and insomnia, in addition, space sickness, musculoskeletal system problems, eye problems, infections problems, skin problems and cardiovascular problems
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Development of diagnostic techniques in orbit, the development of the volume of power consumption, features a wide range of diagnostic techniques, such as applied research of ultrasound diagnostic techniques in the abdominal thoracic trauma, bone, ligament damage, dental / sinus infections and other complications and integrated;
Actively explore in orbit disposal of medical technology, weightlessness surgical methods, development of special surgical instruments, the role of narcotic drugs and the like.
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However, space technology itself is integrated with the use of the most advanced technology, its challenging technical reserves and periodic demanding
With the continuous development of science and technology, space agencies plan a manned landing on the moon and Mars, space exploration emergency medicine current concern.
Space sickness
In the weightless environment of space, in the weightless environment of space, surgery may be extremely difficult and risky.
Robot surgeons
Space disease in three days after entering the space started to ease, although individual astronauts might subsequently relapse. January 2015 NASA declared working on a fast, anti-nausea and nasal sprays. In addition, due to the zero-gravity environment, and anti-nausea drugs can only be administered by injection or transdermal patches manner.
Manned spaceflight in the 21st century is the era of interplanetary flight, aerospace medicine is closely watched era is the era of China's manned space flourish. Only the central issue, and grasp the opportunity to open up a new world of human survival and development.
Various emergency contingency measures in special circumstances. Invisible accident risk prevention. Enhancing drugs and other screening methods immunity aerospace medicine and tissue engineering a microgravity environment. Drug mixture of APS, ginseng polysaccharides, Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides, polysaccharides and Lentinan, from other compounds. Drug development space syndrome drug, chemical structure modification will be an important part.
These issues are very sensitive, cutting-edge technology is a major difficulty landing on Mars. Countries in the world, especially the world's major space powers in the country strategies and technical research, the results of all kinds continue to emerge. United States, Russia, China, Europe, India, Japan and other countries is different. United States, Russia extraordinary strength. Many patented technology and health, and most belong to the top-secret technology. Especially in aerospace engineering and technological achievements is different from the general scientific literature, practical, commercial, industrial great, especially the performance of patents, know-how, technical drawings, engineering design and other aspects. Present Mars and return safely to Earth, the first manned, significance, everything is hard in the beginning, especially the first person to land on Mars This Mars for Human Sciences Research Mars, the moon, the earth, the solar system and the universe, life and other significant. Its far greater than the value of direct investments and business interests.
In addition, it is the development of new materials, suitable for deep space operations universe, life, and other detection, wider field.
Many aerospace materials, continuous research and development of materials are key areas of aerospace development, including material rocket, the spacecraft materials, the suit materials, radiation materials, materials and equipment, instruments, materials and so on biochemistry.
Temperature metal-based compound with a metal matrix composite body with a more primordial higher temperature strength, creep resistance, impact resistance, thermal fatigue and other excellent high temperature performance.
In B, C, SiC fiber reinforced Ti3Al, TiAl, Ni3Al intermetallic matrix composites, etc.
W Fiber Reinforced with nickel-based, iron-based alloys as well as SiC, TiB2, Si3N4 and BN particle reinforced metal matrix composites
High temperature service conditions require the development of ceramic and carbon-based composite materials, etc., not in this eleven Cheung said.
Fuel storage
In order to survive in space, people need many things: food, oxygen, shelter, and, perhaps most importantly, fuel. The initial quality Mars mission somewhere around 80 percent of the space launch humans will be propellant. The fuel amount of storage space is very difficult.
This difference in low Earth orbit cause liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen - rocket fuel - vaporization.
Hydrogen is particularly likely to leak out, resulting in a loss of about 4% per month.
When you want to get people to Mars speed to minimize exposure to weightlessness and space radiation hazards
Mars
Landings on the Martian surface, they realized that they reached the limit. The rapid expansion of the thin Martian atmosphere can not be very large parachute, such as those that will need to be large enough to slow down, carry human spacecraft.
Therefore, the parachute strong mass ratio, high temperature resistance, Bing shot performance and other aspects of textile materials used have special requirements, in order to make a parachute can be used in rockets, missiles, Yu arrows spacecraft and other spacecraft recovery, it is necessary to improve the canopy heat resistance, a high melting point polymeric fiber fabric used, the metal fabric, ceramic fiber fabrics, and other devices.
Super rigid parachute to help slow the landing vehicle.
Spacecraft entered the Martian atmosphere at 24,000 km / h. Even after slowing parachute or inflatable, it will be very
Once we have the protection of the Earth magnetic field, the solar radiation will accumulate in the body, a huge explosion threw the spacecraft may potentially lethal doses of radiation astronauts.
In addition to radiation, the biggest challenge is manned trip to Mars microgravity, as previously described.
The moon is sterile. Mars is another case entirely.
With dust treatment measures.
Arid Martian environment to create a super-tiny dust particles flying around the Earth for billions of years.
Apollo moon dust encountered. Ultra-sharp and abrasive lunar dust was named something that can clog the basic functions of mechanical damage. High chloride salt, which can cause thyroid problems in people.
Mars geological structure and geological structure of the moon, water on Mars geology, geology of the Moon is very important, because he, like the Earth's geology is related to many important issues. Water, the first element of life, air, temperature, and complex geological formations are geological structure. Cosmic geology research methods, mainly through a variety of detection equipment equipped with a space probe, celestial observations of atmospheric composition, composition and distribution of temperature, pressure, wind speed, vertical structure, composition of the solar wind, the water, the surface topography and Zoning, topsoil the composition and characteristics of the component surface of the rock, type and distribution, stratigraphic sequence, structural system and the internal shell structure.
Mars internal situation only rely on its surface condition of large amounts of data and related information inferred. It is generally believed that the core radius of 1700 km of high-density material composition; outsourcing a layer of lava, it is denser than the Earth's mantle some; outermost layer is a thin crust. Compared to other terrestrial planets, the lower the density of Mars, which indicates that the Martian core of iron (magnesium and iron sulfide) with may contain more sulfur. Like Mercury and the Moon, Mars and lack active plate movement; there is no indication that the crust of Mars occurred can cause translational events like the Earth like so many of folded mountains. Since there is no lateral movement in the earth's crust under the giant hot zone relative to the ground in a stationary state. Slight stress coupled with the ground, resulting in Tharis bumps and huge volcano. For the geological structure of Mars is very important, which is why repeated explorations and studies of Martian geological reasons.
Earth's surface
Each detector component landing site soil analysis:
Element weight percent
Viking 1
Oxygen 40-45
Si 18-25
Iron 12-15
K 8
Calcium 3-5
Magnesium 3-6
S 2-5
Aluminum 2-5
Cesium 0.1-0.5
Core
Mars is about half the radius of the core radius, in addition to the primary iron further comprises 15 to 17% of the sulfur content of lighter elements is also twice the Earth, so the low melting point, so that the core portion of a liquid, such as outside the Earth nuclear.
Mantle
Nuclear outer coating silicate mantle.
Crust
The outermost layer of the crust.
Crustal thickness obtained, the original thickness of the low north 40 km south plateau 70 kilometers thick, an average of 50 kilometers, at least 80 km Tharsis plateau and the Antarctic Plateau, and in the impact basin is thin, as only about 10 kilometers Greece plains.
Canyon of Mars there are two categories: outflow channels (outflow channel) and tree valley (valley network). The former is very large, it can be 100 km wide, over 2000 km long, streamlined, mainly in the younger Northern Hemisphere, such as the plain around Tyre Chris Canyon and Canyon jam.
In addition, the volcanic activity sometimes lava formation lava channels (lava channel); crustal stress generated by fissures, faults, forming numerous parallel extending grooves (fossa), such as around the huge Tharsis volcanic plateau radially distributed numerous grooves, which can again lead to volcanic activity.
Presumably, Mars has an iron as the main component of the nucleus, and contains sulfur, magnesium and other light elements, the nuclear share of Mars, the Earth should be relatively small. The outer core is covered with a thick layer of magnesium-rich silicate mantle, the surface of rocky crust. The density of Earth-like planets Mars is the lowest, only 3.93g / cc.
Hierarchy
The crust
Lunar core
The average density of the Moon is 3.3464 g / cc, the solar system satellites second highest (after Aiou). However, there are few clues mean lunar core is small, only about 350 km radius or less [2]. The core of the moon is only about 20% the size of the moon, the moon's interior has a solid, iron-rich core diameter of about 240 kilometers (150 miles); in addition there is a liquid core, mainly composed of iron outer core, about 330 km in diameter (205 miles), and for the first time compared with the core of the Earth, considered as the earth's outer core, like sulfur and oxygen may have lighter elements [4].
Chemical elements on the lunar surface constituted in accordance with its abundance as follows: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminum (Al), manganese (Mn), titanium ( Ti). The most abundant is oxygen, silicon and iron. The oxygen content is estimated to be 42% (by weight). Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) only traces seem to exist only in trace amounts deposited in the solar wind brings.
Lunar Prospector from the measured neutron spectra, the hydrogen (H) mainly in the lunar poles [2].
Element content (%)
Oxygen 42%
Silicon 21%
Iron 13%
Calcium 8%
Aluminum 7%
Magnesium 6%
Other 3%
Lunar surface relative content of each element (% by weight)
Moon geological history is an important event in recent global magma ocean crystallization. The specific depth is not clear, but some studies have shown that at least a depth of about 500 kilometers or more.
Lunar landscape
Lunar landscape can be described as impact craters and ejecta, some volcanoes, hills, lava-filled depressions.
Regolith
TABLE bear the asteroid and comets billions of years of bombardment. Over time, the impact of these processes have already broken into fine-grained surface rock debris, called regolith. Young mare area, regolith thickness of about 2 meters, while the oldest dated land, regolith thickness of up to 20 meters. Through the analysis of lunar soil components, in particular the isotopic composition changes can determine the period of solar activity. Solar wind gases possible future lunar base is useful because oxygen, hydrogen (water), carbon and nitrogen is not only essential to life, but also may be useful for fuel production. Lunar soil constituents may also be as a future source of energy.
Here, repeatedly stressed that the geological structure and geological structure of celestial bodies, the Earth, Moon, Mars, or that this human existence and development of biological life forms is very important, especially in a series of data Martian geological structure geological structure is directly related to human landing Mars and the successful transformation of Mars or not. for example, water, liquid water, water, oxygen, synthesis, must not be taken lightly.
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Mars landing 10 Technology
Aerospace Science and space science and technology major innovation of the most critical of sophisticated technology R & D project
[
"1" rocket propulsion technology ion fusion nuclear pulse propulsion rocket powered high-speed heavy rocket technology, space nuclear reactors spacecraft] brought big problems reflected in the nuclear reaction, nuclear radiation on spacecraft launch, control, brakes and other impact.
In particular, for the future of nuclear power spacecraft, the need to solve the nuclear reactor design, manufacture, control, cooling, radiation shielding, exhaust pollution, high thermoelectric conversion efficiency and a series of technical problems.
In particular, nuclear reactors produce radiation on astronauts' health will pose a great threat, which requires the spacecraft to be nuclear radiation shielding to ensure astronaut and ship the goods from radiation and heat from the reactor influence, but this will greatly increase the weight of the detector.
Space nuclear process applications, nuclear reaction decay is not a problem, but in a vacuum, ultra-low temperature environment, the nuclear reaction materials, energy transport materials have very high demands.
Space facing the reality of a nuclear reactor cooling cooling problems. To prevent problems with the reactor, "Washington" aircraft carrier to take four heavy protective measures for the radiation enclosed in the warship. These four measures are: the fuel itself, fuel storage pressure vessel, reactor shell and the hull. US Navy fuel all metal fuel, designed to take the impact resistance of the war, does not release fission product can withstand more than 50 times the gravity of the impact load; product of nuclear fission reactor fuel will never enter loop cooling water. The third layer of protection is specially designed and manufactured the reactor shell. The fourth layer is a very strong anti-impact combat ship, the reactor is arranged in the center of the ship, very safe. Engage in a reactor can only be loaded up to the aircraft, so as to drive the motor, and then drive the propeller. That is the core advantage of the heat generated by the heated gas flow, high temperature high pressure gas discharge backward, thereby generating thrust.
.
After installation AMPS1000 type nuclear power plant, a nuclear fuel assembly: He is a core member of the nuclear fuel chain reaction. Usually made into uranium dioxide, of which only a few percent uranium-235, and most of it is not directly involved in the nuclear fission of uranium 238. The uranium dioxide sintered into cylindrical pieces, into a stainless steel or a zirconium alloy do metal tubes called fuel rods or the original, then the number of fuel rods loaded metal cylinder in an orderly composition of the fuel assembly, and finally put a lot of vertical distribution of fuel assemblies in the reactor.
Nuclear reactor pressure vessel is a housing for containing nuclear fuel and reactor internals, for producing high-quality high-strength steel is made to withstand the pressure of dozens MPa. Import and export of the coolant in the pressure vessel.
The top of the pressure vessel closure, and can be used to accommodate the fixed control rod drive mechanism, pressure vessel head has a semi-circular, flat-topped.
Roof bolt: used to connect the locking pressure vessel head, so that the cylinder to form a completely sealed container.
Neutron Source: Plug in nuclear reactors can provide sufficient neutron, nuclear fuel ignition, to start to enhance the role of nuclear reactors and nuclear power. Neutron source generally composed of radium, polonium, beryllium, antimony production. Neutron source and neutron fission reactors are fast neutron, can not cause fission of uranium 235, in order to slow down, we need to moderator ---- full of pure water in a nuclear reactor. Aircraft carriers, submarines use nuclear reactor control has proven more successful.
Rod: has a strong ability to absorb neutrons, driven by the control rod drive mechanism, can move up and down in a nuclear reactor control rods within the nuclear fuel used to start, shut down the nuclear reactor, and maintain, regulate reactor power. Hafnium control rods in general, silver, indium, cadmium and other metals production.
Control rod drive mechanism: He is the executive body of nuclear reactors operating system and security protection systems, in strict accordance with requirements of the system or its operator control rod drives do move up and down in a nuclear reactor, nuclear reactor for power control. In a crisis situation, you also can quickly control rods fully inserted into the reactor in order to achieve the purpose of the emergency shutdown
Upper and lower support plate: used to secure the fuel assembly. High temperature and pressure inside the reactor is filled with pure water (so called pressurized water reactors), on the one hand he was passing through a nuclear reactor core, cooling the nuclear fuel, to act as a coolant, on the other hand it accumulates in the pressure vessel in play moderated neutrons role, acting as moderator.
Water quality monitoring sampling system:
Adding chemical system: under normal circumstances, for adding hydrazine, hydrogen, pH control agents to the primary coolant system, the main purpose is to remove and reduce coolant oxygen, high oxygen water suppression equipment wall corrosion (usually at a high temperature oxygen with hydrogen, especially at low temperatures during startup of a nuclear reactor with added hydrazine oxygen); when the nuclear reactor control rods stuck for some reason can not shutdown time by the the system can inject the nuclear reactor neutron absorber (such as boric acid solution), emergency shutdown, in order to ensure the safety of nuclear submarines.
Water system: a loop inside the water will be reduced at work, such as water sampling and analysis, equipment leaks, because the shutdown process cooling water and reduction of thermal expansion and contraction.
Equipment cooling water system:
Pressure safety systems: pressure reactor primary coolant system may change rapidly for some reason, the need for effective control. And in severe burn nuclear fuel rods, resulting in a core melt accident, it is necessary to promptly increase the pressure. Turn the regulator measures the electric, heating and cooling water. If necessary, also temporary startup booster pump.
Residual Heat Removal System: reactor scram may be due to an accident, such as when the primary coolant system of the steam generator heat exchanger tube is damaged, it must be urgently closed reactors.
Safety Injection System: The main components of this system is the high-pressure injection pump.
Radioactive waste treatment systems:
Decontamination Systems: for the removal of radioactive deposits equipment, valves, pipes and accessories, and other surfaces.
Europe, the United States and Russia and other countries related to aircraft carriers, submarines, icebreakers, nuclear-powered research aircraft, there are lots of achievements use of nuclear energy, it is worth analysis. However, nuclear reactor technology, rocket ships and the former are very different, therefore, requires special attention and innovative research. Must adopt a new new design techniques, otherwise, fall into the stereotype, it will avail, nothing even cause harm Aerospace.
[ "2" spacecraft structure]
[ "3"] radiation technology is the use of deep-sea sedimentation fabric fabrics deepwater technology development precipitated silver metal fibers or fiber lint and other materials and micronaire value between 4.1 to 4.3 fibers made from blends. For radiation protection field, it greatly enhances the effects of radiation and service life of clothing. Radiation resistant fiber) radiation resistant fiber - fiber polyimide polyimide fibers
60 years the United States has successfully developed polyimide fibers, it has highlighted the high temperature, radiation-resistant, fire-retardant properties.
[ "4" cosmic radiation resistant clothing design multifunctional anti-aging, wear underwear] ① comfort layer: astronauts can not wash clothes in a long flight, a lot of sebum, perspiration, etc. will contaminate underwear, so use soft, absorbent and breathable cotton knitwear making.
② warm layer: at ambient temperature range is not the case, warm layer to maintain a comfortable temperature environment. Choose warm and good thermal resistance large, soft, lightweight material, such as synthetic fibers, flakes, wool and silk and so on.
③ ventilation and cooling clothes clothes
Spacesuit
In astronaut body heat is too high, water-cooled ventilation clothing and clothing to a different way of heat. If the body heat production more than 350 kcal / h (ventilated clothes can not meet the cooling requirements, then that is cooled by a water-cooled suit. Ventilating clothing and water-cooled multi-use compression clothing, durable, flexible plastic tubing, such as polyvinyl chloride pipe or nylon film.
④ airtight limiting layer:
⑤ insulation: astronaut during extravehicular activities, from hot or cold insulation protection. It multilayer aluminized polyester film or a polyimide film and sandwiched between layers of nonwoven fabric to be made.
⑥ protective cover layer: the outermost layer of the suit is to require fire, heat and anti-space radiation on various factors (micrometeorites, cosmic rays, etc.) on the human body. Most of this layer with aluminized fabric.
New space suits using a special radiation shielding material, double design.
And also supporting spacesuit helmet, gloves, boots and so on.
[ "5" space - Aerospace biomedical technology, space, special use of rescue medication Space mental health care systems in space without damage restful sleep positions - drugs, simple space emergency medical system
]
[ "6" landing control technology, alternate control technology, high-performance multi-purpose landing deceleration device (parachute)]
[ "7" Mars truck, unitary Mars spacecraft solar energy battery super multi-legged (rounds) intelligent robot] multifunction remote sensing instruments on Mars, Mars and more intelligent giant telescope
[8 <> Mars warehouse activities, automatic Mars lander - Automatic start off cabin
]
[ "9" Mars - spacecraft docking control system, return to the system design]
Space flight secondary emergency life - support system
Spacecraft automatic, manual, semi-automatic operation control, remote control switch system
Automatic return spacecraft systems, backup design, the spacecraft automatic control operating system modular blocks of]
[10 lunar tracking control system
Martian dust storms, pollution prevention, anti-corrosion and other special conditions thereof
Electric light aircraft, Mars lander, Mars, living spaces, living spaces Mars, Mars entry capsule, compatible utilization technology, plant cultivation techniques, nutrition space - space soil]
Aerospace technology, space technology a lot, a lot of cutting-edge technology. Human landing on Mars technology bear the brunt. The main merge the human landing on Mars 10 cutting-edge technology, in fact, these 10 cutting-edge technology, covering a wide range, focused, and is the key to key technologies. They actually shows overall trends and technology Aerospace Science and Technology space technology. Human triumph Mars and safe return of 10 cutting-edge technology is bound to innovation. Moreover, in order to explore the human Venus, Jupiter satellites and the solar system, the Milky Way and other future development of science and laid the foundation guarantee. But also for the transformation of human to Mars, the Moon and other planets livable provides strong technical support. Aerospace Science and Technology which is a major support system.
Preparation of oxygen, water, synthesis, temperature, radiation, critical force confrontation. Regardless of the moon or Mars, survive three elements bear the brunt.
Chemical formula: H₂O
Formula: H-O-H (OH bond between two angle 104.5 °).
Molecular Weight: 18.016
Chemical Experiment: water electrolysis. Formula: 2H₂O = energized = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑ (decomposition)
Molecules: a hydrogen atom, an oxygen atom.
Ionization of water: the presence of pure water ionization equilibrium following: H₂O == == H⁺ + OH⁻ reversible or irreversible H₂O + H₂O = = H₃O⁺ + OH⁻.
NOTE: "H₃O⁺" hydronium ions, for simplicity, often abbreviated as H⁺, more accurate to say the H9O4⁺, the amount of hydrogen ion concentration in pure water material is 10⁻⁷mol / L.
Electrolysis of water:
Water at DC, decomposition to produce hydrogen and oxygen, this method is industrially prepared pure hydrogen and oxygen 2H₂O = 2H₂ ↑ + O₂ ↑.
. Hydration Reaction:
Water with an alkaline active metal oxides, as well as some of the most acidic oxide hydration reaction of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Na₂O + H₂O = 2NaOH
CaO + H₂O = Ca (OH) ₂
SO₃ + H₂O = H₂SO₄
P₂O₅ + 3H₂O = 2H₃PO₄ molecular structure
CH₂ = CH₂ + H₂O ← → C₂H₅OH
6. The diameter of the order of magnitude of 10 water molecules negative power of ten, the water is generally believed that a diameter of 2 to 3 this organization. water
7. Water ionization:
In the water, almost no water molecules ionized to generate ions.
H₂O ← → H⁺ + OH⁻
Heating potassium chlorate or potassium permanganate preparation of oxygen
Pressurized at low temperatures, the air into a liquid, and then evaporated, since the boiling point of liquid nitrogen is -196 deg.] C, lower than the boiling point of liquid oxygen (-183 ℃), so the liquid nitrogen evaporated from the first air, remaining the main liquid oxygen.
Of course, the development