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Belgian collectors card by Publesca for Le Cinéma Ritz, no. 123. Photo: Warner Bros. John Garfield in The Breaking Point (Michael Curtiz, 1950).
American actor John Garfield (1913-1952) played brooding, rebellious, working-class characters. Garfield is seen as a predecessor of such Method actors as Marlon Brando, Montgomery Clift, and James Dean. Called to testify before the U.S. Congressional House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC), he denied communist affiliation and refused to 'name names', which effectively ended his film career. The stress led to his premature death at 39 from a heart attack.
John Garfield was born Jacob Julius Garfinkle on the Lower East Side of New York City, to Hannah Basia (Margolis) and David Garfinkle, who were Jewish immigrants from Zhytomyr (now in Ukraine). Jules was raised by his father, a clothes presser and part-time cantor, after his mother's death in 1920, when he was 7. He grew up in the heart of the Yiddish Theatre District. Jacob was sent to a special school for problem children, where he was introduced to boxing and drama. As a boy, he won a state-wide oratory contest sponsored by the New York Times with Benjamin Franklin as his subject. Garfield later won a scholarship to Maria Ouspenskaya's drama school. In 1932, he landed a non-paying job at Eva Le Gallienne's Civic Repertory, where he was recommended to by his acting teachers Maria Ouspenskaya and Richard Boleslawski. He changed his name to Jules Garfield and according to IMDb, he made his Broadway debut in that company's Counsellor-at-Law, written by Elmer Rice and starring Paul Muni. (Wikipedia writes that this was actually his second Broadway appearance and that Garfield made his Broadway debut in 1932 in a play called Lost Boy, which ran for only two weeks). Later, he joined the Group Theatre company, winning acclaim for his role as Ralph, the sensitive young son who pleads for "a chance to get to the first base" in Awake and Sing. The play opened in February 1935, and Garfield was singled out by critic Brooks Atkinson for having a "splendid sense of character development." However, Garfield was passed over for the lead in Golden Boy, which had especially been written for him by author Clifford Odets. When the play was first produced by the Group Theatre in 1938, the powers that be decided Garfield wasn't 'ready' to play the role of the young violinist turned boxer. Luther Adler subsequently created the role. Embittered, Garfield signed a contract with Warner Brothers, who changed his name to John Garfield. Because both Garfield and his wife did not want to 'go Hollywood,' he had a clause in his Warner contract that allowed him to perform in a legitimate play every year at his option. The couple also refused to own a home in Tinseltown. Garfield won enormous praise for his role as the cynical and tragic composer Mickey Borden in Four Daughters (Michael Curtiz, 1938), starring Claude Rains. For his part, he was nominated for the Oscar as Best Actor in a Supporting Role. After the breakout success of Four Daughters, Warner Bros created a name-above-the-title vehicle for him, the crime film They Made Me a Criminal (Busby Berkeley, 1939). Garfield had already made a B movie called Blackwell's Island (William C. McGann, 1939). Not wanting their new star to appear in a low-budget film, Warners ordered an A movie upgrade by adding $100,000 to its budget and recalling director Michael Curtiz to shoot newly scripted scenes.
At the onset of World War II, John Garfield immediately attempted to enlist in the armed forces but was turned down because of his heart condition. Frustrated, he turned his energies to supporting the war effort. He and actress Bette Davis were the driving forces behind the opening of the Hollywood Canteen, a club offering food and entertainment for American servicemen. He traveled overseas to help entertain the troops, made several bond selling tours and starred in a string of popular, patriotic films like Air Force (Howard Hawks, 1943), Destination Tokyo (Delmer Daves, 1943) with Cary Grant, and Pride of the Marines (Delmer Faves, 1945) with Eleanor Parker. All were box office successes. Throughout his film career, John Garfield, again and again, brooding played rebellious roles despite his efforts to play varied parts. Garfield became one of Warner Bros' most suspended stars. He was suspended 11 times during his nine years at the studio. After the war, Garfield starred in a series of successful films such as the Film Noir The Postman Always Rings Twice (Tay Garnett, 1946) with Lana Turner, and the showbiz melodrama Humoresque (Jean Negulesco, 1946) with Joan Crawford. When his Warner Bros. contract expired in 1946, he did not re-sign with the studio, opting to start his own independent production company instead. Garfield was one of the first Hollywood actors to do so. In the Best Picture Oscar-winning Gentleman's Agreement (Elia Kazan, 1947), Garfield took a featured but supporting, part because he believed deeply in the film's exposé of antisemitism in America. In 1948, he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his starring role in Body and Soul (Robert Rossen, 1947) with Lilli Palmer. That same year, Garfield returned to Broadway in the play Skipper Next to God.
Active in liberal political and social causes, John Garfield found himself embroiled in the Communist scare of the late 1940s. Blacklisted during the McCarthy era in the early 1950s for his left-wing political beliefs, he adamantly refused to "name names" in testimony before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) in April 1951. In his only TV appearance, Garfield played Joe Bonaparte and Kim Stanley played Lorna Moon in a scene from Clifford Odets' 'Golden Boy' on Cavalcade of Stars: John Garfield, Kim Stanley, Paul Winchell & Jerry Mahoney (1950). With film work scarce because of the blacklist, Garfield returned to Broadway and starred in a 1951 or 1952 revival (the sources differ) of Golden Boy. Garfield finally played the role which Odets had written for him and which was denied him years before at the Group Theater. His final film was the Film Noir He Ran All the Way (John Berry, 1951), with Shelley Winters. On 21 May 1952, John Garfield was found dead of a heart attack in the apartment of a friend, former showgirl Iris Whitney. A week before he had separated from his wife, and hours before his death he completed a statement modifying his 1951 testimony about his Communist affiliations. A day earlier Clifford Odets had testified before HUAC and reaffirmed that Garfield had never been a member of the Communist Party. Garfield was the fourth actor to die after being subjected to HUAC investigation. The others were Mady Christians (at 59), J. Edward Bromberg (at 47) and Canada Lee (at 45). The official cause of his death was coronary thrombosis due to a blood clot blocking an artery in his heart. His funeral was mobbed by thousands of fans, in the largest funeral attendance for an actor since Rudolph Valentino. Garfield had been married to his childhood sweetheart Roberta Seidman, from 1935 till his death. They had three children, Katherine (1938-1945), actor David Garfield (1942-1995) and actress Julie Garfield (1946-). His six-year-old daughter Katharine died of an allergic reaction in 1945. He never got over the loss. John Garfield is buried at Westchester Hills Cemetery, Hastings-on-Hudson, New York.
Sources: Jim Beaver (IMDb), Wikipedia and IMDb.
And, please check out our blog European Film Star Postcards.
Eric Ryan and Adam Lowry make it clear that Method has NEVER been tested on actual Bunnies of any kind.
Saw a similar shot on photigy, and decided to deconstruct it and then shoot it with my own twist. Shot with Alien Bee 800 with Chimera 24x36 softbox, and Yongnuo YN-560ii for background. Foamcore reflectors.
Here's a third shot of my nephew and his wife. This is another "bokehrama" or "Brenizer method" shot.
My third try of the Brenizer Method
The idea
www.amazon.com/gp/blog/post/PLNK1JWPN65CVOSZV
The shooting:
blog.buiphotography.com/2009/07/the-brenizer-method-expla...
content.photojojo.com/tutorials/get-greater-depth-of-fiel...
www.facebook.com/video/video.php?v=575352237342
The processing:
Copyright - All Rights Reserved - Black Diamond Images
This video shows a number of methods of feeding bees during the inevitable periods when drought or absence of flowering trees make it difficult for bees to maintain colony strength.
One of the introduced pest species that now impact beehives is the Small Hive Beetle (Aethina tumida). It can be seen in this video.
If not controlled it contaminates the hive by laying its eggs in the cells of the comb. Ultimately these eggs hatch to be maggots which develop into beetles. Small Hive Beetle can be difficult to eliminate entirely however installation of a tray in the base of the hive containing vegetable oil is as effective a method as is currently available. The hives do however need regular maintenance to keep the numbers of beetles manageable. Out of control infestations ultimately could result in colony collapse.
My family were among the first white settlers on the NSW Mid North Coast and no doubt survived much hardship in establishing homes and businesses. Survival depended on having a range of personal attributes, stoicism and resilience being among them. However without knowledge of the climate, soil, land and forests as well as the skills to plan, farm and build effectively early pioneers would inevitably certainly have been defeated.
From the outset the early pioneers would certainly have recognised the importance of beekeeping as a necessary contribution to their survival effort. Therefore its no surprise that beekeeping has been passed down through the generations.
My brother, seen here in this video, is an enthusiastic amateur beekeeper (Planet Nectar) and he manages about 25 hives, as does another brother.
They both came by their interest in beekeeping having grown up in the business, as I did, having been expected to lend a hand in our parents commercial beekeeping business.
As commercial beekeepers (Honeygold Apriaries) they operated with up to 1000 hives at various times.
My father, soon to turn 98, continued to maintain at least 100 hives until well into his 80's and while my bothers have no intention of becoming commercial beekeepers they at least keep the family tradition alive.
An uncle's family are also commercial beekeepers having drifted into it when dairying declined. They are nowadays migratory beekeepers managing in excess of 1000 hives. They follow the honey flows right across the Australian east coast and hinterland no matter where trees or crops are flowering.
Another uncle also ran up to 100 hives as a sideline and several cousins also operated smaller numbers of hives as amateur beekeepers.
Drought and increasing disease issues associated with commercial beekeeping in recent years have certainly tested the skills and resolve of beekeepers across NSW and elsewhere.
While honey production remains the core business of large beekeeping operations many commercial beekeepers survive by transporting their hives long distances overnight to various fruit growing areas to help pollinate commercial orchards, without which, hand pollination would be an enormously costly and inefficient way of growing fruit or other crops.
In some countries this process of placing pollination hives in commercial orchards and food crop growing areas has managed to keep whole food producing industries viable.
In those countries where bee killing diseases exist they ultimately sound a death knell to the hives and beekeepers know that their hives will not survive the season due to disease killing their hives (colony collapse disorders).
These beekeepers need to operate at scale to ensure they have a regular turnaround of hives to meet the annual increasing demand for bees as vectors of pollination.
Climate change, drought and disease have increasingly impacted the beekeeping industry the world over and stringent biosecurity measures are now both urgent and essential if the industry is to survive and see global food security guaranteed.
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OM1n Olympus
Ilford FP4+ @ Box
R09 1+100 for 60mins @ 18Deg C
Prewash = 3 mins
Develop: 30 Secs agitation to start, at 20 mins and at 40 mins
Wash with water = 2 mins
Fix
Wash 5 mins
Final rinse woth wetting agent
PlusTek 8200i SE @ 3600 ppi
Lightroom Classic
DxO Silver Efex 6
I had such an awesome time in NYC attending the Brenizer Workshop. Check out the full review of it here: danielstarkphotography.com/blog/2010/04/21/ryan-brenizer-...
Photo done using the Brenizer Method. 13 photos stitched together.
_____
Photo captured via Minolta MD Rokkor-X 50mm F/1.7 lens and the bracketing method of photography in the census-designated place of Westhaven-Moonstone via Scenic Drive, County Road 4M310. Humboldt County. Early August 2014.
This was taken by R. J. Gibson Studio, 65 Steinway Avenue, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. He uses antique equipment and production methods in a period studio.
My E46: Brenizer method, 21 shots with the 85mm f/1.4
These photos are too much fun and the results are exceptional.
Just heard about this effect today, multiple shots of an area with a narrow depth of field, stitched together to create a wider angle view. This is a test shot to see how a simple flower would turn out :)
11 shots with the 50mm ƒ1.8 @ ƒ1.8
Brenizer method, photomerged from 75 shots. I seems like an overkill but I was very close to the subject so many shots were needed to have a wider frame. Used D300 with 85mm @ f1.8.
More info about this method: www.flickr.com/groups/brenizermethod/
One of the shot from my latest Winter stylized shoot with Ana.
Stepped out of my circle and tried something new!
Brenizer Method of 24 different photos stitched together.
1.5 hours of hard work spent on this photo. So happy and proud of the results.
I still have a lot more to learn and improve.
Express your opinions and critiques! :)
Follow me on FB for more updates from this session!
Brenizer method, photomerged from 76 shots. I seems like an overkill but I was very close to the subject so many shots were needed to have a wider frame. Used D300 with 85mm @ f1.8.
More info about this method: www.flickr.com/groups/brenizermethod/
Outkast "Hey Ya" hand-painted sign. It says "What's cooler ... than being cool? ICE COLD. Alright alright alright alright alright alright alright alright."
One Shot on found wood, 27" in diameter. Make me an offer if you want it I'm really trying to get rid of things.
"Flutophone Classroom Method. Learn to read music. Test your musical ability. Prepare for instrumental study. Van Pelt and Ruddick." Handwritten name: "Deborah Chronister."
The cover of Flutophone Classroom Method, by Merrill B. Van Pelt and J. Leon Ruddick (rev. ed., Trophy Products Co., 1948). I like the motto that's printed inside the front cover: "Music Self-played Is Happiness Self-made."
Theurgy (/ˈθiːɜrdʒi/; from Greek θεουργία) describes the practice of rituals, sometimes seen as magical in nature, performed with the intention of invoking the action or evoking the presence of one or more gods, especially with the goal of uniting with the divine, achieving henosis, and perfecting oneself.
Proclus (c. 480): theurgy is "a power higher than all human wisdom embracing the blessings of divination, the purifying powers of initiation and in a word all the operations of divine possession"[1]
Keith Thomas: "Spiritual magic or theurgy was based on the idea that one could reach God in an ascent up the scale of creation made possible by a rigorous course of prayer, fasting and devotional preparation."[2]
Anne Sheppard: "Theurgy, the religious magic practised by the later Neoplatonists, has been commonly regarded as the point at which Neoplatonism degenerates into magic, superstition and irrationalism. A superficial glance at the ancient lives of the Neoplatonists, and in particular at Eunapius' Lives of the Sophists, reveals a group of people interested in animating statues, favoured with visions of gods and demons, and skilled in rain-making"[3]
Pierre A. Riffard: "Theurgy is a type of magic. It consists of a set of magical practices performed to evoke beneficent spirits in order to see them or know them or in order to influence them, for instance by forcing them to animate a statue, to inhabit a human being (such as a medium), or to disclose mysteries."[4]
Neoplatonism[edit]
Theurgy means 'divine-working'. The first recorded use of the term is found in the mid-second century neo-Platonist work, the Chaldean Oracles (Fragment 153 des Places (Paris, 1971): 'For the theourgoí do not fall under the fate-governed herd').[5] The source of Western theurgy can be found in the philosophy of late Neoplatonists, especially Iamblichus. In late Neoplatonism, the spiritual Universe is regarded as a series of emanations from the One. From the One emanated the Divine Mind (Nous) and in turn from the Divine Mind emanated the World Soul (Psyche). Neoplatonists insisted that the One is absolutely transcendent and in the emanations nothing of the higher was lost or transmitted to the lower, which remained unchanged by the lower emanations.
Although the Neoplatonists are considered polytheists, they embraced a form of monism.
For Plotinus, and Iamblichus' teachers Anatolius and Porphyry, the emanations are as follows:
To Hen (τό ἕν), The One: Deity without quality, sometimes called The Good.
Nous (Νοῦς), Mind: The Universal consciousness, from which proceeds
Psychē (Ψυχή), Soul: Including both individual and world soul, leading finally to
Physis (Φύσις), Nature.
Plotinus urged contemplations for those who wished to perform theurgy, the goal of which was to reunite with The Divine (called henosis). Therefore, his school resembles a school of meditation or contemplation. Iamblichus of Calcis (Syria), a student of Porphyry (who was himself a student of Plotinus) taught a more ritualized method of theurgy that involved invocation and religious, as well as magical, ritual.[6] Iamblichus believed theurgy was an imitation of the gods, and in his major work, On the Egyptian Mysteries, he described theurgic observance as "ritualized cosmogony" that endowed embodied souls with the divine responsibility of creating and preserving the cosmos.
Iamblichus' analysis was that the transcendent cannot be grasped with mental contemplation because the transcendent is supra-rational. Theurgy is a series of rituals and operations aimed at recovering the transcendent essence by retracing the divine 'signatures' through the layers of being.[7] Education is important for comprehending the scheme of things as presented by Aristotle, Plato and Pythagoras but also by the Chaldaean Oracles.[8] The theurgist works 'like with like': at the material level, with physical symbols; at the higher level, with mental and purely spiritual practices. Starting with correspondences of the divine in matter, the theurgist eventually reaches the level where the soul's inner divinity unites with The Divine.[9]
Emperor Julian
The Emperor Julian the Apostate (332-363), embraced Neoplatonic philosophy and worked to replace Christianity with a version of Neoplatonic paganism. Because of his death and the hold mainstream Christianity had over the empire at the time, this was ultimately unsuccessful, but he did produce several works of philosophy and theology, including a popular hymn to the sun. In his theology, Helios, the sun, was the ideal example of the perfection of the gods and light, a symbol of divine emanation. He also held the mother goddess Cybele in high esteem.
Julian favored ritual theurgy, with an emphasis on sacrifice and prayer. He was heavily influenced by the ideas of Iamblichus.
Esoteric Christian theurgy
Esoteric Christianity accepts theurgy as a tradition that could greatly benefit a person. The main feat of Esoteric Christianity is to learn the mysteries of God (see Raziel) and to rise to higher consciousness in the understanding of God's relationship relative to individual consciousness. Theurgy, in the esoteric tradition, using this knowledge to heighten one's own spiritual nature.[10] In Esoteric Christianity, theurgy usually is the practice of trying to gain the knowledge and conversation of one's Higher Self, or Inner God, to teach one spiritual truths and wisdom from God that one couldn't learn from man (see Alchemy, Kabbalah, and Theosophy).[citation needed] Some branches of Esoteric Christianity hold that if an Esoteric Christian, Rosicrucian, or Theosophist practices it, he or she could potentially rise to the degree of Magus, or Adept after a certain level of spiritual attainment. In a traditional and magical sense, Theurgy is seen as the opposite of Goetia, even though many argue that they overlap each other.Some organizations, such as The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn claim to teach a type of theurgy that would help one ascend spiritually as well as understand the true nature of the self and its relation to the Divine and the Universe. The Golden Dawn has a somewhat significant historical following and influence; while it is held that many theurgists are usually solitary practitioners and seek the divine light alone through ritual and inner spiritual and psychological equilibration. Theurgy in this hermetic sense stresses the need for the individual to separate and analyze the individual components that constitute everyday consciousness and reunite them in a way that changes one's personal awareness into a state that understands and partakes in spiritual grace.[13]
Jewish theurgy
Following a pattern very similar to the Neoplatonists[citation needed], the Medieval Jewish mystical tradition of Kabbalah developed the concept that the Universe is regarded as a series of emanations from the Godhead, namely, the 10 sephirot. It is said that God created the world using the sephirot, pouring Divinity into creation through these "vessels," which also have personality traits. The highest sephirah, Kether, holds the most divine light and is the least accessible to humanity. The lowest sephirah, Malkuth, is still higher than matter itself, so the parallel with Neoplatonism is not complete, but Malkuth is considered that aspect of God that can be perceived in the material world. It is also known as the Shekhinah.
For the Kabbalist, God is a single oneness, not separate "gods". The teaching avoids polytheism by insisting that the sephirot are not to be prayed to, but rather, to be meditated on and experienced as manifestations of how God acts in the world. They are envisioned as arranged in three columns, in a pattern called the Tree of Life. By meditating on the sephirot and praying for their unification, Kabbalists seek the theurgic goal of healing a shattered world.
For Kabbalists, the sephirot are as follows: Kether (Crown); Chokmah (Wisdom); Binah (Understanding); Chesed (Loving kindness); Geburah (Strength); Tiphareth (Beauty); Netzach (Endurance); Hod (Glory); Yesod (Foundation); and Malkuth (Kingdom or Sovereignty).
Die in den Chaldäischen Orakeln dargelegten Grundsätze und Methoden der Theurgie setzen eine platonische Ontologie und Kosmologie voraus.[7] In diesem Weltbild kommt der Materie der niedrigste Rang zu, sie bildet den unvollkommensten Bereich der Welt. Zuoberst steht der transzendente höchste Gott, der in theurgischen Texten oft Vater genannt und metaphorisch als Feuer bezeichnet wird. Er ist die Quelle von Emanationen, die als feurig oder lichtartig beschrieben werden und für die theurgischen Bestrebungen hilfreich sind. Die aus theurgischer Sicht bedeutsamste Emanation ist die Weltseele, die aus dem Nous (Intellekt) des Vaters hervorgeht. Sie ist das belebende Prinzip des Kosmos. Ihr entspricht in der Mythologie die Göttin Hekate, die im theurgischen Kult eine zentrale Rolle spielt. Sie vermittelt zwischen dem Reich der Götter und der Welt der Menschen, indem sie den Sterblichen göttliche Wohltaten zukommen lässt und den Aufstieg der Seelen ins himmlische Reich ermöglicht. Ihr verdanken die Menschen die Kenntnis vieler theurgischer Rituale. Als Erlöserin verhilft Hekate dem Theurgen zur Erreichung seines Ziels.[8]
Die theurgische Praxis umfasste neben Reinigungen und Einweihungen Rituale, die dem Theurgen die Begegnung mit einer Gottheit ermöglichen sollten. Die Götter konnten dem Theurgen, der sich an sie wandte, in einer körperlichen Gestalt erscheinen. Zur Vorbereitung ließ der Theurg meist göttliches Licht in sich einströmen. Äußerlich geschah dies beispielsweise durch rituelles Einatmen von Sonnenlicht, denn das Sonnenlicht galt als Manifestation des göttlichen Lichts auf der Ebene des sinnlich Wahrnehmbaren. Wichtig waren die Anrufungen der Götter mit ihren wahren, geheimen Namen. Dank seiner Kenntnis der wahren Namen erhielt der Theurg Zugang zu den Namensträgern, denn man glaubte, dass im Namen das Wesen des Benannten enthalten sei. Daher durften die „barbarischen“ (nichtgriechischen) Götternamen nicht übersetzt werden.[9] Auch das göttliche Licht wurde angerufen.[10] Die Theurgen setzten auch Symbole ein, die sie für göttlich und zur Vermittlung zwischen Göttern und Menschen geeignet hielten. Die Symbole sollten den Kontakt zu den Instanzen ermöglichen, deren Repräsentanten auf der materiellen Ebene sie waren. Außerdem galten Trancebotschaften, die im Rahmen der theurgischen Praxis empfangen wurden, als Mitteilungen der Götter.
Aus der Sicht der Theurgen waren theurgische Akte keine mechanischen Vorgänge, die unabhängig von der Würdigkeit und Absicht des Ausführenden ausgelöst werden konnten und wie nach einem Naturgesetz ex opere operato Wirkung zeigten. Vielmehr handelte es sich in jedem Fall um einen göttlichen Gnadenerweis, der nur einem Würdigen zuteilwerden konnte.[11] Allerdings gibt es Belege für die Meinung, der Gott könne sich dem Wunsch des Theurgen nicht willkürlich entziehen, sondern handle zwangsläufig, falls die erforderlichen Voraussetzungen erfüllt sind.[12]
Der Theurg erlangte durch seine kultische Betätigung, die er mit einer philosophischen Lebensweise verband, die Reinigung von den üblen Leidenschaften, welche die Materie im Menschen verursacht, und Befreiung vom Schicksalszwang (heimarménē), dem menschliches Leben ansonsten unterliegt. Dank der Gnade der Gottheit qualifizierte er sich zum Aufstieg in ein himmlisches Reich nach dem Tod seines Körpers. Er konnte aber darauf verzichten und sich dafür entscheiden, weiterhin im irdischen Bereich zu verbleiben, um sich dort für das Erlösungswerk einzusetzen.[13]
Geschichte[Bearbeiten]
Zweites und drittes Jahrhundert[Bearbeiten]
Als ursprüngliche Übermittler der von Gottheiten geoffenbarten theurgischen Verfahren galten zwei legendenumwobene Gestalten des 2. Jahrhunderts, Julian der Chaldäer und sein Sohn Julian der Theurg, der unter Kaiser Mark Aurel († 180) gelebt und als Wundertäter gewirkt haben soll. Ihnen oder einem von ihnen soll die Aufzeichnung der Chaldäischen Orakel zu verdanken sein. Das heute nur in Fragmenten vorliegende Orakelbuch kann tatsächlich in der zweiten Hälfte des 2. Jahrhunderts entstanden sein. Julian der Theurg und sein Vater sind aber möglicherweise erfundene Gestalten, denn in der Zeit vor dem späten dritten Jahrhundert sind in den Quellen keine Hinweise auf ihre Existenz zu finden.[14] Falls die überlieferte Zuschreibung falsch ist, sind die Orakel vielleicht ins 3. Jahrhundert zu datieren.
Als der Neuplatonismus entstand und sich ab 244 in Rom ausbreitete, stieß die theurgische Denkweise anfangs im neuplatonischen Milieu auf Ablehnung. Plotin († 270), der Begründer der neuen Richtung, lehrte die Selbsterlösung und unterließ aus grundsätzlichen Erwägungen alle Versuche, mit kultischen Mitteln göttliche Hilfe zu erlangen. An rituellen Opfern und Kultfesten nahm er nicht teil. Dies begründete er mit den Worten: „Jene (die Götter) müssen zu mir kommen, nicht ich zu ihnen.“[16] Plotins namhafteste Schüler Porphyrios und Amelios Gentilianos hingegen nahmen eine positivere Haltung zur kultischen Verbindung mit den Göttern ein. Amelios war ein eifriger Opferer und Besucher der Gottesdienste und Feste, Porphyrios setzte sich mit den Chaldäischen Orakeln auseinander und verfasste mindestens eine Schrift über dieses Thema, die nicht erhalten geblieben ist. Porphyrios teilte Plotins Auffassung, kultische Riten seien kein Erlösungsweg und ein Philosoph sei nicht auf solche Mittel angewiesen, denn es komme nur auf die Tugend und Selbsterkenntnis der Seele an. Er räumte aber ein, dass Theurgie bei unphilosophischen Menschen eine heilsame Wirkung entfalte.
Spätantike[Bearbeiten]
Porphyrios' Schüler und philosophischer Widersacher Iamblichos († um 320/325) erhob die Theurgie zu einem zentralen Bestandteil seiner Lehre und religiösen Praxis. Sie sei nicht, wie Porphyrios glaubte, fürs unphilosophische Volk bestimmt, sondern stehe noch über der Philosophie und sei nur wenigen besonders Qualifizierten vorbehalten. Tugendhaftigkeit sei für den Theurgen unerlässlich, da die Götter nur mit guten Menschen Gemeinschaft hielten. Eine philosophische Ausbildung sei zwar als Vorstufe notwendig, zur Erlösung führe aber nur die Theurgie.Scharf grenzte Iamblichos die Theurgie von der Magie ab. Die Magie oder Zauberei (goēteía) verwarf er, da sie das Göttliche verfehle und Trugbilder erzeuge. Überdies seien die Magier schlechte, gottlose Menschen.Zu den übermenschlichen Wesen, mit denen der Theurg Umgang pflegen kann, zählte Iamblichos nicht nur die Götter, die der Seele des Anrufenden den göttlichen Eros und Kraft (dýnamis) verleihen, sondern auch Engel, gutartige Dämonen und „Kosmosherrscher“. Die Auffassung des Iamblichos setzte sich in der Folgezeit weitgehend durch, sie bildete den Ausgangspunkt der weiteren Entwicklung bei den religiös orientierten Philosophen. Die meisten spätantiken Neuplatoniker bekannten sich zur Theurgie. Zu den namhaften neuplatonischen Theurgen des 4. Jahrhunderts zählten Chrysanthios von Sardes, Sosipatra[22] und Maximos von Ephesos. Maximos vertrat mit seiner Einschätzung der Rolle des Theurgen eine andere Position als die meisten Neuplatoniker. Für ihn war der theurgische Ritus nicht nur eine Vorbereitung des Menschen auf göttliches Einwirken, sondern auch ein Instrument, mit dem der Theurg zwangsläufig die Götter veranlassen kann, ihm ihre Gunst zuzuwenden, auch wenn sie dies ursprünglich nicht wollten. Mit seiner äußerst selbstsicheren Haltung, die ihm als Arroganz angekreidet wurde, erregte Maximos in Philosophenkreisen Anstoß.
Auf entschiedenen Widerspruch stieß das Theurgiekonzept des Maximos bei Eusebios von Myndos, der zu seinen Studienkollegen zählte und in Pergamon neuplatonische Philosophie unterrichtete. Eusebios war wie Plotin der Überzeugung, die Befreiung der Seele sei nicht durch äußerliche Handlungen im Rahmen der Kultpraxis zu erreichen, sondern nur durch eine rein geistige Reinigung mittels der Vernunft. Er meinte, die Wirkungen der Theurgie seien nicht göttlichen Ursprungs, sondern durch materielle Kräfte erzeugte Sinnestäuschungen. Es handle sich um einen Irrweg, der in den Wahnsinn führe. Man solle statt dessen auf die Fähigkeit der Seele zur Selbsterlösung durch philosophische Erkenntnis vertrauen. Eusebios warnte den künftigen Kaiser Julian, der bei ihm studierte, vor Maximos. Damit erreichte er jedoch das Gegenteil: Julian, der von der Theurgie fasziniert war, brach seine Ausbildung in Pergamon ab und begab sich nach Ephesos zu Maximos, dessen Richtung er sich anschloss.[23] Zwischen dem Theurgen und dem künftigen Kaiser entstand eine enge Freundschaft.
Julian, der von 360 bis 363 regierte, bekannte sich zu den traditionellen Göttern und versuchte das Christentum zurückzudrängen, wobei er sich auf neuplatonisches und theurgisches Gedankengut stützte. In seiner persönlichen Religiosität spielte die Theurgie in der Variante, die ihm Maximos vermittelt hatte, eine wichtige Rolle.[24] Julian glaubte, dass die jüdischen Erzväter Abraham, Isaak und Jakob sowie König Salomo Theurgen gewesen seien.[25]
Nach Julians Tod setzte sich das Christentum endgültig durch. Die Christen betrachteten die pagane Theurgie als Götzenkult. Der Kirchenvater Augustinus glaubte, es seien dabei Dämonen am Werk. Daher wurde die Theurgie im Verlauf der Christianisierung des Römischen Reichs zunehmend marginalisiert und schließlich ausgerottet.[26]
Eine von den christlichen Kaisern lange geduldete pagane Nische war die neuplatonische Philosophenschule von Athen, die erst im frühen 6. Jahrhundert geschlossen wurde. In ihr stand die Theurgie bis zuletzt in hohem Ansehen. Der berühmte Denker Proklos († 485), der diese Schule fast ein halbes Jahrhundert lang als Scholarch (Schuloberhaupt) leitete, verband intensive philosophische Arbeit mit hingebungsvoller theurgischer Praxis. Großen Wert legte er auf die rituellen Reinigungen. Er hielt die Theurgie (womit er deren höchste Stufe meinte) für „mächtiger als alle menschliche Weisheit und Wissenschaft“.[27] Noch der letzte Scholarch der Athener Schule, Damaskios († nach 538), schätzte die Theurgie. Allerdings war er der Meinung, man solle nicht Philosophie und Theurgie zugleich praktizieren und sich als Philosoph eine theurgische Kompetenz anmaßen.[28] Zu den Befürwortern eines Vorrangs der Theurgie vor der Philosophie gehörte Damaskios’ jüngerer Zeitgenosse Olympiodoros der Jüngere († nach 565), ein prominenter Lehrer an der Philosophenschule von Alexandria.
Der spätantike Theologe Pseudo-Dionysius Areopagita, dessen neuplatonisch geprägte Werke im Mittelalter hohes Ansehen genossen, führte den Begriff „Theurgie“ in die christliche Theologie ein. Er bezeichnete damit das Wirken des Heiligen Geistes und Jesu Christi und insbesondere die von Gott herbeigeführte Wirksamkeit der Sakramente.
Primeira tentativa de fazer o método de Brenizer. Algumas falhas, mas achei bom pra uma primeira vez.
Happy. :)
I use fixer in a method I call "1-2-Fix" which is a one-shot, two-bath scheme. So for every roll I make-up a solution using a certain amount of concentrate per roll (10-15 ml, depending on type of film). To insure the concentrate stays fresh in storage, I broke the 5L bottle down into four 1-liter bottles and two 500 ml bottles. The bottles came from spring water and vitamin water drinks, respectively, and are PET, excellent for chemical storage. Although not shown in the picture, I also store concentrate in two smaller bottle sizes, 178ml and 37ml. At any one time I have only one 37 ml bottle that is partially full. When all of the small bottles are empty, I refill them with one of the 178 ml bottles, and when two 178ml bottles and the small bottles are empty, I refill them with one of the 500 ml bottles. This way only a few ml of stock solution is ever exposed to a part-full bottle, which minimizes oxidation. I am careful to label the bottles, as the concentrate still looks like water (I have no small children around the house).
Finally!
Took 3 years and finally I've been able to do this technique.
Ryan's released a pretty awesome tutorial for the price of a few starbucks drinks.
You can buy it/check it out here:
(Note: Step 3. should be labeled "Tiles". And "Tessellations" has two Ls.)
:)
I've always been fascinated by M.C.Escher and tessellations. Here's a simple way to make your own.
Any grid will work: triangles, squares, diamonds, rectangles, hexagons, etc. To really mix it up, do a different squiggle on each side of the tile. The key is to be sure the lines meet at the corners of each tile.
Since I'm not so good with a pen, I'm looking forward to seeing what someone with skill can do with this!