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Medieval English towns faced significant air pollution, even before the Industrial Revolution, primarily from the burning of wood and later, coal. Early complaints about air quality in cities like London date back to the 13th century, with citizens fearing the health effects of "sea coal" — coal shipped from Newcastle. This new fuel was increasingly used as forests were cleared and wood became scarce. The pollution wasn't just a result of domestic fires; industries such as lime burning and smelting also contributed heavily to the dirty, smoky air.
The architectural design of medieval houses also exacerbated indoor and outdoor pollution. Many early homes lacked a proper chimney, instead using a central open fire with a "smoke bay" or a "smoke hood" to allow smoke to escape through a hole or louvre in the roof. This meant that a significant amount of smoke and soot billowed through the inside of the home before being released, creating a continuously smoky and unhealthy environment. Over time, as more people and industries concentrated in towns, the combined effect of these individual fires and industrial activities led to a perpetual haze and a constant "smoke nuisance" in urban centers, which was even a subject of legal action.