View allAll Photos Tagged LIBERALISM
This is what the story looked like in the newspaper today. Also, the story was on their website too: www.bt.no/innenriks/article332174.ece
A rough translation:
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A German photographer is threatening to go to court after Unge Høyres membership paper used her photo for the cover page without her consent.
-I’m asking for back pay for the use and for breach of the copyright, and also for moral rights, say Mareen Fischinger from Düsseldorf.
Last Tuesday the German freelance photographer sent a letter to Unge Høyre in which she calls to their attention that one of her photos are being used illegally as cover illustration on their membership paper Xtra.
The edition in question came out in September last year, the number printed being 20.000. The theme of the issue as women, feminism, and liberalism, something the cover illustrates by the photo of a young woman, Mareen Fischingers sister Vivien.
The photographer was not asked
The picture was taken by Mareen Fischinger, who in august posted it on flickr.com – a website where people interested in photography can view and comment on each other’s photos. Only recently did she see the comment by a Norwegian flickr user who had seen the picture on the cover of Xtra – a use Fischinger had neither heard about, nor given permission to.
I followed it up at once, and found several cases of the photo being used in the website of Unge Høyre, says Fischinger.
Was the photo protected in any way, either technically of through a copyright warning?
The photo can only be downloaded by registered flickr-users and carries the copyright mark © All rights reserved next to it. In my flickr profile I even ask people to send me an email should they wish to use photos privately, something a lot of people do…
Demands 67.000 kroner
In the letter to Unge Høyre Fischinger demand a fee of €1240, and an additional fee of €2800 for breach of the copyright. She also demands a similar fee on behalf of her sister, something that puts the total demand at over 67000 kroner.
In addition she demand that Unge Høyre sign a paper stating that they will never use the photo again, with a penalty fee of €41000 should they ever break the contract.
I will take the issue to court if Editor Ida Mjelde doesn’t answer or follow my instructions, says Fischinger.
That her photo is used in a political relation is extra bad to her. –Not even a big agency would approve of the political message without reservation, so Unge Høyre must have thought they got around that hurdle quite easily, says Fischinger, who have experienced similar misuse earlier.
This is probably just one of many cases where my photos are used illegally, but this time it was accidently discovered. In a new world with superfast internet photos are spread more. Everyone has got access to them, but that doesn’t mean they shouldn’t be protected. I put my files on the internet for people to watch them, not for people to exploit them for their own profit, or spread their message says Fischinger.
The young photographer was recently used by international photo agency GettyImages, but stress that the photo in question has never been available any other place than flicr.com.
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-Pure theft
"The leader of The Pressphotograpers Union, Terje Bringedal, is reacting sharply to this case.
There is no doubt that this is pure theft. They must have fetched the photo off the internet. Even Unge Høyre must understand that this is theft, says Bringedal.
There are according to him a lot of people experiencing their photos on the internet being used without permission. He also belives that Fischinger has a good case, should it ever get that far.
-I don't know about anyone having to go to trial about this, because most of the thieves acknowledge the fact."
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-Will look into the case
-We have recived the letter today and will look into the case as soon as possible.
This is what the general secretary of Unge Høyre, Gunnar Kongsrud, said when BT contacted him Tuesday. By this time Xtra-editor Ida Mjelde asked that all questions be directed at him. According to Mjelde it is Unge Høyre Landsforbund who is responsible for the graphic design of the paper. However, on the content page in Xtra the following is stated: "The content is not edited by any part of Unge Høyre, but by an independent editorial staff." Short time after BT's inquiry the web edition of the paper in question was unavailable.
Whether you're pro or anti Trump, no one can deny that American politics are in complete chaos since Donald Trump became President two weeks ago.
And apologies to my American friends for the upside down U.S. flag.
Toronto held its second anti-Trump protest in as many days outside of the U.S. Consulate General on University Avenue today. The rally was attended by thousands despite the frigid temperature. The anti-Trump protesters came from many walks of life: liberalists, left-wing and centrist people, Socialists, Communists, Black Lives Matter (BLM), labour unions, mainstream population and visible minorities, and groups from many religious groups.
Day 23 of Occupy Wall Street - the faces of the people in Zuccotti Park (Liberty Park). October 8, 2011
Good Magazine: The (Un)Official Occupy Wall Street Photographer's 15 Favorite Frames
The Occupy Wall Street Creative Commons Project
Day 1 September 17 Photos - Preoccupation and Occupation Begins
Day 2 September 18 Photos - People settle in; cardboard sign menage begins
Day 3 September 19 Photos - Community forms; protest signs
Day 7 September 23 Photos - First rain, protest signs, life
Day 8 September 24 Photos - Pepper spray day, Zuni Tikka, people
Day 21 October 6 Photos - Naomi Klein
Day 23 October 8 - Faces of OWS
Day 28 October 13 - Tom Morello of RATM
Day 31 - protesting Chihuahua and The Daily Show
Day 36 - Parents and Kids Day and quite a crowd
Day 40 - protesting hotties, Reverend Billy and tents
Day 43 Photos - Snow storm at OWS of the first NYC winter snowfall
Day 47 - Solidarity with Occupy Oakland
Day 52 November 7 - Jonathan Lethem, Lynn Nottage and Jennifer Egan
Day 53 November 8 - David Crosby and Graham Nash play OWS
Day 57 November 12 - Former NJ Gov. Jim McGreevey
Day 60 November 15 - Police evict protesters from Zuccotti
Occupy Colorado Springs Colorado on November 20
Do you want to see the Occupy Wall Street series laid out thematically? Click here
Kynžvart Chateau
Come and take a look at a place visited by Goethe and the Russian tsars.
Lord Byron’s amulet, Marie Antoinette’s prayer book, Alexander Dumas’ desk or an un-smoked cigarette of Emperor Napoleon III are all to be seen in the extensive collection of curiosities, which the Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich gathered at his chateau. Despite the fact that he was unpopular and feared in the Czech lands and lived most of his life in Vienna, he did love his summer residence in the spa region of West Bohemia. He borrowed a staggering amount from the banker Rothschild to repair it and instead of repaying the money, elevated Rothschild’s children to the peerage.
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Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (full name German: Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar, Fürst von Metternich-Winneburg zu Beilstein, anglicised as Clement Wenceslas Lothair, Prince von Metternich-Winneburg-Beilstein; 15 May 1773 – 11 June 1859) was a politician and statesman of Rhenish extraction and one of the most important diplomats of his era, serving as the Austrian Empire's Foreign Minister from 1809 and Chancellor from 1821 until the liberal revolutions of 1848 forced his resignation. One of his first tasks was to engineer a détente with France that included the marriage of Napoleon to the Austrian archduchess Marie Louise. Soon after, he engineered Austria's entry into the War of the Sixth Coalition on the Allied side, signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau that sent Napoleon into exile, and led the Austrian delegation at the Congress of Vienna that divided post-Napoleonic Europe amongst the major powers. For his service to the Austrian Empire he was given the title of Prince in October 1813. Under his guidance, the "Metternich system" of international congresses continued for another decade as Austria aligned herself with Russia and, to a lesser extent, Prussia. This marked the high point of Austria's diplomatic importance, and thereafter Metternich slowly slipped into the periphery of international diplomacy. At home, Metternich held the post of Chancellor of State from 1821 until 1848, under both Francis I and his son Ferdinand I. After brief exile in London, Brighton, and Brussels that lasted until 1851, he returned to the Viennese court, this time to offer only advice to Ferdinand's successor, Franz Josef. Having outlived his generation of politicians, Metternich died at the age of 86 in 1859.
Born into the House of Metternich in 1773, the son of a diplomat, he was named after his godfather, Clement-Wenceslas, Archbishop of Trier. Metternich received a good education at the universities of Strasbourg and Mainz. He was of help during the coronation of Francis II in 1792 and that of his predecessor, Leopold II, in 1790. After a brief trip to England, Metternich was named as the Austrian ambassador to the Netherlands, a short-lived post, since the country was brought under French control the next year. He married his first wife, Eleonore von Kaunitz, in 1795, which aided his entry into Viennese society. Despite having numerous affairs, he was devastated by her death in 1825. He would later remarry, wedding Baroness Antoinette Leykam in 1827 and, after her death in 1829, Countess Melanie Zichy-Ferraris in 1831. She would predecease him by five years. Before taking office as Foreign Minister, Metternich held numerous smaller posts, including ambassadorial roles in the Kingdom of Saxony, the Kingdom of Prussia and Napoleonic France. One of Metternich's sons, Richard von Metternich, was also a successful diplomat; many of Metternich's twelve other acknowledged children predeceased him. A traditional conservative, Metternich was keen to maintain the balance of power, in particular by resisting Russian territorial ambitions in Central Europe and lands belonging to the Ottoman Empire. He disliked liberalism and worked to prevent the breakup of the Austrian empire, for example, by crushing nationalist revolts in Austrian north Italy and the German states. At home, he pursued a similar policy, using censorship and a wide ranging spy network to suppress unrest.
Metternich has been both praised and heavily criticised for the policies he pursued. His supporters point out that he presided over the "Age of Metternich", when international diplomacy helped prevent major wars in Europe. His qualities as a diplomat are commended, some noting that his achievements were considerable in light of the weakness of his negotiating position. His decision to oppose Russian imperialism is seen as a good one. His detractors describe him as a boor who stuck to ill-thought-out, conservative principles out of vanity and a sense of infallibility. They argue he could have done much to secure Austria's future; instead, his 1817 proposals for administrative reform were largely rejected, and his opposition to German nationalism is blamed for Germany's unification under Prussia and not Austria. Other historians have argued that he had far less power than this view suggests and that his policies were only exercised when they were in accord with the views of Austria's Habsburg monarchy.
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Kynžvart se vám představuje
Na samém úpatí čarokrásného a rozlehlého Slavkovského lesa, v těsné blízkosti proslavených Mariánských Lázní, na soutoku tří potoků leží zámek jako z pohádky. Běloskvoucí budova s monumentální kašnou vás přivítá ve své náruči a vy pochopíte, že jste se rozhodli správně, když jste si za místo vaší dovolené či výletu zvolili zámek Kynžvart.
Budete nadšeni rozlehlostí parku, který ho obklopuje a který ve svých komnatách ukrývá nádherné rybníky, malebná zákoutí jako z obrázku, lesní altánky a kapličky i přírodní pískovcové koupaliště. V zámeckých sálech a salonech budete obdivovat nepřeberné sbírky uměleckých děl, unikátního zlaceného nádobí, drahého nábytku, exotických exponátů přivezených z dalekých zemí, egyptských mumií, všelijakých kuriozit i vzácných osobních předmětů různých slavných osobností.
V nedalekých Lázních Kynžvart se můžete projít po lázeňské kolonádě, pokochat se pohledem na luxusní budovy z předminulého století, ochutnat a osvěžit se vodou z několika léčivých pramenů či se projít starobylou lázeňskou alejí. A třeba si k tomu zakousnout lázeňské oplatky. Pokud je máte rádi…
Až se nasytíte pohledem na všechnu tu krásu zámeckého i lázeňského areálu, můžete si udělat výlet do Slavkovského lesa, projít se vlastníma nohama po naučné stezce přes rašeliniště Smraďoch nebo se nechat okouzlit podmanivou scenérií kolem zámečku Kladská. A až vás omrzí romantická příroda? Není nic snazšího, než ji vyměnit za atraktivní prohlídku některého ze slavných českých měst v okolí. Poslechnout si zpívající fontánu v Mariánských Lázních, podívat se, kde byl v Chebu zavražděn Albrecht z Valdštejna, nebo se projít po přeslavné kolonádě v Karlových Varech. Cestou se můžete zastavit na některém z mnoha hradů, zámků, klášterů či vrchů s fantastickou vyhlídkou, které Kynžvart obklopují.
Zkrátka na Kynžvartě vás čeká pokocháníčko kulturní i estetické, romantická příroda, okouzlující prostředí malého města i řada zážitků a dobrodružství při výletech do okolí. Na své si tu přijde prostě každý.
Mao Zedong (left), leader of China’s Communist Party; Nikolai Bulganin (center), Deputy Prime Minister of the Soviet Union; and Josef Stalin (right), General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in December 1949 on the occasion of Stalin’s 71st birthday and shortly after Mao’s communist-led forces defeated the Nationalist army in China and consolidated power throughout the country.
Mao traveled to Moscow to cement an alliance and work out terms of Soviet-Chinese economic and military cooperation. With Mao’s victory, about 1/3 of the world’s population lived in countries led by communists while millions more were members or supported communist parties around the world.
Truncated versions of Stalin’s and Mao’s biographies follow:
Josef Stalin
As General Secretary of the Communist Party and as the government premier of the Soviet Union, Josef Stalin was the undisputed leader of the country from the mid 1920s until his death.
Stalin built socialism in the Soviet Union by consolidating state owned industry and by collectivizing agriculture. He also attempted to lead the re-making of society through socialist realism in the arts and literature. Universal education, health care and pensions were also implemented along with guaranteed employment.
He rallied the country to first halt and then defeat Hitler’s Nazi regime after the German army invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941.
Economic progress under Stalin’s version of socialism was remarkable, particularly after the devastation of three major wars—WWI 1914-17, The Civil War 1917-22 and World War II 1941-45. The Soviet Union transformed its economy from primarily peasant-based to an industrial superpower.
Stalin made two devastating errors during the period of his leadership.
The collectivization of agriculture between 1928 and 1940 was first conducted hastily and with poor planning, initially resulting in grain shortages. Many areas of the countryside were hit with famine resulting in many deaths through a combination of wealthier peasants hoarding grain, poor weather and plantings at the new collective farms that took place too late in the year. Farm equipment provided by the state often lacked supporting equipment, training and maintenance.
However, by 1940 approximately 99% of farm production was done on either collective or state-owned farms and famine was eliminated in the Soviet Union and the cities well supplied with food.
Stalin also largely believed that capitalism was only a threat to socialism through external enemies or through former capitalists or wealthier peasants who sought to restore it in the Soviet Union.
His failure to grasp the serious threat posed through the rise of state bureaucracy and a stratum of managers led him and his followers to target many innocent people as agents of foreign powers. The regime thought that by executing, imprisoning or exiling opponents, they would eliminate the threats to socialism. At least several hundred thousand were imprisoned or executed. Some estimates are considerably higher.
The brutal tactic did not prevent the gradual restoration of capitalism following his death culminating with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989-91.
Stalin was criticized on the left by Leon Trotsky and others for attempting to build socialism in one country. However, efforts during and after the Civil War 1917-22 to foment revolution in other countries such as Poland, Germany, Finland and Hungary met with demoralizing defeats.
Later attempts during the so-called Third Period from 1928-1933 also led to disasters in China and Germany. The Nazi rise to power in 1933 and subsequent crushing of the largest Communist Party in the West led Stalin to re-evaluate the policy. He ultimately led Communist Parties into broad alliances, including pro-capitalist parties, against fascists.
Stalin is criticized in the West for making a non-aggression pact with Hitler’s Nazi Germany regime in 1939 and later failing to recognize the imminent Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941.
However, Soviet efforts to reach mutual aid pacts with Great Britain and France were fruitless prior to 1939 with the Western powers secretly hoping Stalin and Hitler would go to war with each other. The pact bought Stalin two years before the Nazi’s eventually invaded.
Stalin’s desire to do nothing to aggravate Hitler while he built up the Soviet armament industry and armed forces ultimately proved a correct strategy as the Soviets turned back the Nazis and led the drive on Berlin culminating in the total defeat of the Nazi regime.
The Western criticism of Stalin rarely takes note of the unexpected Japanese attack on the U.S. base Pearl Harbor that occurred under similar circumstances later in 1941 with Japanese sweeping through the Pacific seizing island after island before the tide turned against them.
At the time of his death, nearly one-third of the world’s population lived under communist-led governments that acknowledged Stalin as the principal leader of the movement. Millions more followed communist parties that viewed Stalin as their ideological leader.
Stalin is generally reviled in the West—often labeled a mass murderer--but he retains a good reputation in many areas of the former Soviet Union and other formerly communist-led countries.
Some of Stalin’s principal essays that widened Marxist understanding include, “Marxism and the National Question,” “The Foundations of Leninism,” “Stalin’s Speeches on the American Communist Party,” “Dialectical and Historical Materialism,” “History of the CPSU(B) Short Course,” and “Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR.”
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong (Tse-tung) (1893-1976) was a revolutionary Chinese leader who routed the bourgeoisie Nationalist government after a long Civil War in 1949 and established the People’s Republic of China. As chair of China’s Communist Party, he was the effective leader of the country from 1949-1976.
Mao was a founding member of the Communist Party of China who assumed leadership of the party in 1930 after the communists had suffered a series of military defeats at the hands of the Nationalists.
Conventional Marxists had believed that urban uprisings and conventional warfare would defeat the reactionary forces that had attacked their erstwhile allies in the Chinese nationalist regime.
Mao had little faith in this approach and believed that the peasants, who comprised the overwhelming majority of the Chinese populations, would have to be won to the cause of revolution in order to be successful.
Mao focused on attacking the invading Japanese Army, building his base areas and establishing a government that served the people in the areas his forces controlled. By 1945 when the Japanese ceased hostile activities, Mao’s forces were stronger than the nationalist Kuomintang (KMT). By 1949, the communist-led forces defeated the KMT.
Mao’s communists governed in coalition with others and carried out a series of reforms, including land reform, establishment of universal education and health care.
Seeking to drive China’s semi-feudal economy forward on a socialist basis, Mao identified capitalist tendencies that were coming to dominate the economy.
He attempted to drive the nation forward on a socialist model by enlisting China’s millions in the cause of collectivization of agriculture during the Great Leap Forward in 1958-62. Problems in implementation led to a resurgence of those advocating capitalist methods.
Again in 1966, Mao attempted to lead China on the socialist path by initiating the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution where China’s millions again set out to eliminate elites which had formed in place of the old vanquished feudal lords and capitalist owners.
The Cultural Revolution inspired activists around the world in a period of great upheaval to believe that real socialism could be built in contrast to the decay that had already infested the Soviet Union.
Despite initial successes, the excesses of the Cultural Revolution led to its demise in 1969 and an uneasy truce between Mao’s adherents and those advocating an expansion of capitalist economic relations came to pass.
When Mao died in 1976, his opponents arrested his leading allies, including his wife, and imprisoned them. Other supporters were also jailed or executed.
The new leadership has led the country to significant economic progress, but much of the inequality that existed prior to the revolution in 1949 has been restored in the country. The current leadership defends their system as similar to Vladimir Lenin’s “New Economic Policy” when the fledgling Soviet Union was devastated by the effects of World War I and the long civil war that followed the Bolshevik revolution in 1917.
The anti-revisionist movement argues that economic progress could have been attained in China without surrendering significant portions of the economy to private investment and ownership and the resulting widening inequality of wealth. They cite the gains the Soviet Union made from the mid 1920s to the mid 1950s when nearly all industry and agriculture became state or collectively owned.
Mao is primarily remembered for his willingness to attempt to remake society along socialist lines by relying on workers and peasants and his contributions to Marxist theory. His wrings on Marxist theory are known as Mao Tse-tung thought. Some of his prominent essays that expand Marxist understanding include “Oppose Book Worship,” “On Guerilla Warfare,” “On Practice,” “On Contradiction,” “Combat Liberalism,” “On Protracted War,” and “Serve the People.”
Nikolai Bulganin
Bulganin was a Soviet leader who served as Minister of Defense (1953–1955) and Premier of the Soviet Union (1955–1958) under Nikita Khrushchev, following service in the Red Army and as defense minister under Joseph Stalin.
He broke with Stalin’s approach to socialism after Stalin’s death and supported Nikita Khrushchev’s so-called liberalization efforts.
By 1957, however, Bulganin had come to share the doubts held about Khrushchev's policies by the opposition group (which Khrushchev and his supporters labeled the "Anti-Party Group") led by Vyacheslav Molotov.
In June, when the dissenters tried to remove Khrushchev from power at a meeting of the Politburo, Bulganin vacillated between the two camps. When the dissenters were defeated and removed from power, Bulganin held on to his position for a while, but in March 1958, at a session of the Supreme Soviet, Khrushchev forced his resignation.
While Khrushchev was later removed from power, the policies that he initiated in the Soviet Union led the country down a long road toward the restoration of capitalism that culminated in the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991.
For other random radicals, see flic.kr/s/aHske413N1
The photographer is unknown. The image was distributed by United Press International and was obtained via an Internet sale.
SMITH, GOLDWIN, writer, journalist, and controversialist; b. 13 Aug. 1823 in Reading, England, son of Richard Pritchard Smith, an Oxford-educated physician and railway promoter and director, and Elizabeth Breton, and the only one of their seven children to survive to adulthood; d. 7 June 1910 in Toronto.
After attending a private school and Eton College, Goldwin Smith in 1841 went to Christ Church and then in 1842 to Magdalen College, both at Oxford. He was awarded a first class in literae humaniores and obtained a ba in 1845 and an ma in 1848. He also carried off a series of prizes in classical studies, including one for a Latin essay on the position of women in ancient Greece. He both translated and wrote Latin verse, interests he would retain throughout his life. His education was intended as a preparation for the law and in 1842 his name had been entered at Lincoln’s Inn. He was called to the bar in 1850 but he never pursued a legal career.
When Smith was at Oxford the university was racked with religious controversy which focused on John Henry Newman and the Oxford Movement. Smith apparently admired Newman’s style but he was repelled by the movement’s ritualistic tendencies and its affinities with Roman Catholicism. Although he was a member of the Church of England, as was required of all Oxford students at the time, his mother’s Huguenot background may have contributed to his developing religious liberalism and dislike of clericalism. He would remain interested in religious issues until the end of his life, but his knowledge of theology was superficial. In addition, his understanding of the scientific controversies that were beginning to arise in pre-Darwinian Oxford was modest and was probably gained at the geological lectures of William Buckland, who upheld William Paley’s view that God’s existence was demonstrated by design in nature. Although Smith would come to accept a version of evolution and to realize, as he wrote in 1883, that it had “wrought a great revolution,” he never fully understood Charles Darwin’s hypothesis.
Smith spent the late 1840s in London and in travels on the Continent with Oxford friends. His growing interest in liberal reforms, especially in reducing the privileged status of the Church of England, was stimulated by events and personalities at home and abroad, though he quickly joined the side of authority during the Chartist disturbances in 1848. His first reformist thrusts were directed at Oxford. A fellow in civil law at University College from 1846, he joined in a demand for a reduction in clerical control over the university. Partly as a result of the agitation, which included letters from Smith to the Times of London in 1850, a royal commission, with Smith as assistant secretary, was struck in that year to investigate the university. The commission reported in 1852 and the Oxford University Act two years later relaxed but did not abolish religious tests.
During his years with the royal commission Smith widened his contacts in the political and intellectual world and turned to journalism, which was to be his permanent vocation. In 1850 he began contributing to the Morning Chronicle and in 1855 to the Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art, both published in London, reviewing poetry and advocating university reform. In 1858 he was made a member of a new royal commission, chaired by the Duke of Newcastle, to examine Britain’s educational system, and he wrote part of the report which appeared in 1862. Meanwhile, also in 1858, the Conservative government of Lord Derby appointed Smith regius professor of modern history at Oxford. This post carried such prestige that Smith, who was only 35, might have been expected to settle into it for the rest of his life. In 1861 he indicated his intention to withdraw from active journalism and devote himself to his new profession as an historian. He apparently planned to write some serious scholarly works, but this goal proved incompatible with his intense interest in contemporary affairs. Lack of detachment was the most prominent characteristic of Smith’s historical writing. He always knew which side was right. For him history was not an arid, scientific search for objective accuracy. “History,” he argued, “without moral philosophy, is a mere string of facts; and moral philosophy, without history, is apt to become a dream.”
Smith used his chair largely to engage in controversies over political and religious questions. Although he was undoubtedly a stimulating and devoted lecturer and tutor, he showed no interest in original research and published nothing of scholarly merit. His later historical publications and literary biographies, including histories of the United States and the United Kingdom and studies on William Cowper and Jane Austen, were little more than a reworking of secondary sources usually spiced up with a dose of his principles and prejudices. He was a man of letters, not a research scholar, and he also published travel books and Latin and Greek authors in translation. His first book was typical. Of his five Lectures on modern history (1861), three dealt with religious controversies related to rationalism and agnosticism, another with the idea of progress, and only one with a historical topic, the founding of the American colonies. Though denying that history was a science, Smith was quite prepared to draw moral laws from his reading of the past. In the first place, he considered “the laws of the production and distribution of wealth . . . the most beautiful and wonderful of the natural laws of God. . . . To buy in the cheapest and sell in the dearest market, the supposed concentration of economical selfishness, is simply to fulfil the commands of the Creator.” These laws, discovered by Adam Smith, whom he viewed as a prophet, expressed a tenet of political economy from which he would never deviate: a market economy guided by the “hidden hand” was divinely sanctioned and if faithfully observed would lead to a just social order. Secondly, Smith’s reading of history convinced him that religion provided the cement holding the social order in place. “Religion,” he warned those who contended that progress had made Christianity obsolete, “is the very core, centre, and vital support of our social and political organization; so that without a religion the civil tie would be loosened, personal would completely prevail over public motives, selfish ambition and cupidity would break loose in all directions, and society and the body politic would be in danger of dissolution.”
To these lessons of history Smith added a third which would serve as a permanent guide to his judgements on the way of the world, a conviction that “colonial emancipation” should take place as rapidly as possible because it was – except for India and Ireland – inevitable. This conclusion appeared in a series of articles published in the London Daily News in 1862–63 and then in pamphlet form as The empire in 1863. There he presented a distillation of the opinions of his friends John Bright, Richard Cobden, and others of the so-called Manchester school who believed that Britain’s economic power, under free trade, was so great that the formal, political empire could be disbanded without economic loss. The lesson of the American revolution, for Smith a disaster which had divided the Anglo-Saxon people, was simply that colonies should be allowed to grow naturally into nations. Once they were freed of the yoke of dependency, “something in the nature of a great Anglo-Saxon federation may, in substance if not form, spontaneously arise out of affinity and mutual affection.” Though condemned by the Times and attacked by Benjamin Disraeli as one of the “prigs and pedants” who should make way for statesmen, Smith clung tenaciously to his anti-imperial faith.
A drastic alteration in Smith’s personal circumstances led to his departure from England in 1868. He had resigned his chair at Oxford in 1866 in order to attend to his father, who had suffered permanent injury in a railway accident. In the autumn of 1867, when Smith was briefly absent, his father took his own life. Doubtless blaming himself for the tragedy – and now without an Oxford appointment – he decided to travel to North America, which he had previously visited in 1864, when Andrew Dickson White, president of Cornell University at Ithaca, N.Y., invited him to take up a teaching post at the newly founded institution. Smith was attracted by the determination of its founder, Ezra Cornell, to organize a university that was non-sectarian and open to all classes of society, though he had no sympathy for its commitment to coeducation. He remained at Cornell on a full-time basis for only two years but his connection with the university, which in 1906 named a building after him, continued for life. Whether it was the climate or the presence of women, admitted in 1869, that caused Smith to leave, he decided in 1871 to move to Toronto and to be near some relatives. Four years later that move became permanent as a consequence of his marriage in Toronto on 3 Sept. 1875 to William Henry Boulton*’s widow, Harriet Elizabeth Mann, née Dixon, who was two years his junior, an American by birth, and possessor of a significant fortune which included the estate named the Grange. Smith settled into a late-blooming marital bliss and the Grange’s affluent surroundings with ease: “a union for the afternoon and evening of life,” he told his American friend Charles Eliot Norton. He was, as he remarked after Harriet died in 1909, “finally bound to Canada by the happiest event of my life.”
The marriage, a personal healing of the unfortunate breach of 1776, was an extremely successful one. After years of transiency and a life seemingly limited to male friendships, Smith had found a perfect mate. His new wife was socially sophisticated and apparently utterly devoted to her austere husband who, in contrast to her first, spent his waking hours in reading, writing, and good talk. His circle of friends and visitors, the intellectual élite of the English-speaking world, joined local celebrities and politicians in the drawing-room of the Grange. “Here one is suddenly set down in an old English house,” Albert Venn Dicey wrote, “surrounded by grounds, with old four-post beds, old servants, all English, and English hosts . . . an English mansion in some English county.” For the remaining 35 years of his life, Smith lived in Canada, but he was never quite of it. From his “English mansion,” this talented and acerbic political and literary critic would hurl his jeremiads at a world that irritatingly deviated from the Manchester liberal faith in which he was steeped.
The move to Canada and marriage and domestic tranquillity did nothing to diminish Smith’s intellectual energy or his eagerness to improve public morality. Indeed, what he viewed as the underdeveloped, overly partisan state of Canadian public discussion spurred him on to greater effort. No sooner had he arrived in Toronto than he began reviewing for the Globe, but he quickly fell out with George Brown*, the paper’s proprietor, whose dogmatic righteousness brooked no competition. Smith soon turned to a series of attempts to establish independent organs, though independence usually meant agreement with Smith. First, he assisted Graeme Mercer Adam* in the founding of the Canadian Monthly and National Review (Toronto), where in February 1872 he adopted the nom de plume that would become his most characteristic signature, A Bystander. It was intended to imply that he was an outsider and therefore detached and analytical. In fact, it was soon obvious enough to readers that the author was a committed, often fierce, partisan, even if somewhat of an outsider. When the supporters of the Canada First movement launched the Nation in Toronto in 1874, Smith signed on as one of the principal contributors, both financially and as a writer. Then, in April 1876, he participated in a more ambitious project, the establishment, with John Ross Robertson* as publisher, of the Evening Telegram, a daily to compete with Brown’s Globe. It soon developed Conservative sympathies and Smith departed.
In June 1878 Smith returned to Toronto following an 18-month sojourn with Harriet in England more convinced than ever that the country needed the benefit of his intellectual guidance. Within a year he opened his own one-man show, the Bystander, subtitled “A monthly review of current events, Canadian and general.” The performance was a breathtaking one. For three years Smith’s outpourings filled its pages with brilliant, opinionated comment on virtually every political, cultural, and intellectual development in Europe and North America. He was determined to broaden the mental horizons of Canadians and by 1880 was pleased to admit that “the great questions of religious philosophy are beginning to engage a good many Canadian minds.” He expounded Adam Smith’s political economy, denounced women’s suffrage as a threat to the family, warned of the dangers of Herbert Spencer’s social Darwinism, castigated Bismarck, expatiated on the Eastern Question, and sniped at Disraeli. He even found space, when Sarah Bernhardt visited Canada in 1881, to agree with Bishop Édouard-Charles Fabre* and the Presbyterian (Montreal) in condemning her for her unsanctified liaisons. The Bystander’s suspicious eye frequently detected clerical power in Quebec and Ireland, and Jewish control over the European press. When Smith decided to give his active pen a rest in June 1881, he had established himself as a vigorous intellectual voice in Canada. A second series of the Bystander, this time published quarterly from January to October 1883, began after his return from another lengthy stay in England. The third and final series appeared between October 1889 and September 1890. In the interim he lent his support to another new journal, the Week, edited by Charles George Douglas Roberts*, which began publication in December 1883. Smith’s final venture in Canadian journalism came in 1896 when he acquired a controlling interest in the faltering Canada Farmers’ Sun (Toronto), a paper which, under George Weston Wrigley, had actively supported such radical causes as the political insurgency of the Patrons of Industry. The Bystander promptly put the paper back on orthodox rails by calling for free trade, retrenchment, and opposition to Canadian participation in the South African War. All of this activity still left time for a flood of articles in the international press: the Fortnightly Review, the Contemporary Review, and the Nineteenth Century, a Monthly Review in London, the Atlantic Monthly in Boston, and the Sun, the Nation, and the Forum in New York. Indeed, he published in any daily or monthly that would print his articles, reviews, and letters. His output was prodigious, the writing crisp and often epigrammatic.
Smith’s activities were not confined to intellectual labour. A public-spirited person, he devoted both money and energy to a variety of causes. Civic affairs especially concerned him for he believed that local governments should take greater responsibility for the welfare of citizens than was the case in Toronto. He chaired a citizens’ reform committee, advocated the commission system for city government, fought for the preservation and extension of parks for public recreation, campaigned for Sunday streetcars, and opposed free public lending libraries. (“A novel library,” he told Andrew Carnegie, “is to women mentally pretty much what the saloon is physically to men.”) He was distressed by problems of urban unemployment and poverty, and contributed generously to such charities and benevolent societies as the Associated City Charities of Toronto, which he founded, and the St Vincent de Paul Society. He also supported the building of a synagogue. For two decades he urged the appointment of a city welfare officer to supervise grants to social agencies, a cause that succeeded in 1893 only after Smith agreed to pay the officer’s salary for the first two years. Underlying these and other humanitarian endeavours was a philosophy of noblesse oblige, the Christian duty of the fortunate towards their weaker brethren. He feared that the failure of Christian voluntary charity would increase the popularity of those who advocated radical social programs. “Care for their own safety, then, as well as higher considerations, counsels the natural leaders of society to be at the post of duty,” Smith told a conference of the combined charities of Toronto in May 1889.
Education was another concern which Smith brought with him to Canada. In 1874 he was elected by Ontario teachers to represent them on the Council of Public Instruction and he was subsequently chosen president of the Ontario Teachers’ Association. But once again, university reform captured his deepest interest, and as in so many things, he advocated reforms that revealed his Oxford connections. Almost from the time of his arrival he proposed the federation of Ontario’s scattered universities on an Oxford model. He followed progress towards that federation in the 1880s and 1890s, regularly participating in University of Toronto functions and advocating university autonomy. In 1905 he accepted membership on, but not the chair of, a royal commission on the University of Toronto. One outcome was a new act in 1906 establishing a board of governors for the university, to which Smith was appointed. Among the many honorary degrees which Smith received from the great universities of the English-speaking world he must have particularly savoured the one conferred on him in 1902 by the University of Toronto; seven years earlier he had withdrawn his name from nomination for a degree in the face of the furious opposition of George Taylor Denison* and other imperial federationists who protested against the granting of the degree to a “traitor.”
For all of his breadth of knowledge and interest, Smith’s overriding concern was the contemporary world. His reputation rests on that collection of ideas which he regularly, and with remarkable consistency, applied to the issues of his time. Though he has most often been categorized as a “Victorian liberal,” it is not his liberal principles but rather his faith in the superiority of Anglo-Saxon civilization that is his most striking trait. That faith not only frequently contradicted his liberalism, but also, in its application to Canada, limited his ability to understand and sympathize with the aspirations of the people among whom he had chosen to take up residence.
Smith’s liberalism expressed itself most fulsomely in his commitment to free market economics, the secularization of public life, and opposition to empire. Though a firm believer in individualism and parliamentary government, Smith showed no special interest in civil liberties, except in his criticism of clericalism, and he favoured neither universal manhood nor women’s suffrage. He distrusted democracy and pronounced the French revolution (an event admired by most liberals) “of all the events in history, the most calamitous.” Inequality, he believed, was mankind’s permanent condition. While he repeatedly professed sympathy for labour and supported trade unions, he abhorred strikes and denounced as “chimeras” those reforms – single tax, currency inflation, public ownership, the regulation of hours of work – which labour radicals began to advocate in the late 19th century; progress he thought possible, but “there is no leaping into the millennium.” Although limited government intervention in the economy might sometimes be justified (he reluctantly supported Sir John A. Macdonald*’s arguments for a National Policy), collectivism and socialism were anathema He opposed income tax, old-age pensions, and even publicly financed education. In his introduction to Essays on questions of the day (1893), he summed up his social philosophy by confessing that “the opinions of the present writer are those of a Liberal of the old school as yet unconverted to State Socialism, who looks for further improvement not to an increase of the authority of government, but to the same agencies, moral, intellectual, and economical, which have brought us thus far, and one of which, science, is now operating with immensely increased power.” Clearly, it was not just “state socialism” that had failed to convert the master of the Grange; the new social liberalism of Thomas Hill Green and Leonard Trelawney Hobhouse was equally heretical to him. Indeed, by the late Victorian era one of Smith’s own adages could reasonably be applied to its author: “There is no reactionary,” the Bystander informed the readers of the Week in 1884, “like the exhausted Reformer.”
Had Smith’s social philosophy become threadbare merely as a result of the passage of time, then he might none the less rank as a significant liberal, if only of the “old school.” But the limits of his liberalism are even more evident when placed in the context of his nationalism – his belief in Anglo-Saxon superiority. In common with most 19th-century political thinkers, especially liberals, Smith believed that “nations” were “an ordinance of nature, and a natural bond.” Like John Stuart Mill, and in contrast to Lord Acton, he defined a nation in terms of the concept of cultural homogeneity. And although he opposed imperialism, he was nevertheless utterly at one with those imperialists who believed that the Anglo-Saxon cultural community, centred in Great Britain with branches around the world, was a superior civilization. Its political institutions, economic system, morality, and culture were all signs of its primacy in a world of diverse nations. In his first, and most famous, critique of the empire, he gave voice to his own form of nationalism, one which verged on cultural imperialism. “I am no more against Colonies than I am against the solar system,” he wrote in The empire. “I am against dependencies, when nations are fit to be independent. If Canada were made an independent nation she would still be a Colony of England, and England would still be her Mother Country in the full sense in which those names have been given to the most famous examples of Colonization in history. Our race and language, our laws and liberties, will be hers.”
For Smith the great failure, even tragedy, of Anglo-Saxon history was the American revolution. “Before their unhappy schism they were one people,” and the healing of that schism through the “moral, diplomatic and commercial union of the whole English-speaking race throughout the world” became the goal to which all else was secondary. He shared that goal with those Canadians who advocated imperial federation – Denison, George Monro Grant, George Robert Parkin* – but because his chosen route began with the annexation of Canada to the United States he found himself in permanent head-to-head combat with those same men.
Smith’s convictions about the superiority of Anglo-Saxon values are most strikingly illustrated in his attitude towards “lesser breeds without the Law.” His advocacy of colonial freedom was limited to those colonies which had English majorities. India, a conquered territory, was exempt; for Britain to relinquish what he called this “splendid curse” would be to abdicate its responsibility and leave the subcontinent to certain anarchy. If India troubled Smith, Ireland infuriated him. He mistrusted Roman Catholicism everywhere; in Ireland he despised it. As an ethnic group the Irish were an “amiable but thriftless, uncommercial, saint-worshipping, priest-ridden race.” He fought Home Rule as though his very life depended upon its defeat. “Statesmen might as well provide the Irish people with Canadian snowshoes,” he declaimed sarcastically, “as extend to them the Canadian Constitution.” His one-time associate William Ewart Gladstone was denounced as “an unspeakable old man” when he took up the Irish cause.
Other non-Anglo-Saxon groups fared little better. Though Smith occasionally expressed sympathy for “the wild-stocks of humanity” – the people of Africa, for example – he saw no reason to lament the oppressed state of the native North American. The doomed state of the native people was not the fault of the British who “had always treated [them] with humanity and justice”; with their disappearance, “little will be lost by humanity,” he concluded callously.
For the Jewish people, Smith reserved a special place in his catalogue of “undesirables.” The critical problem with the Jews was what Smith saw as their stubborn unwillingness to assimilate, to give up their religious beliefs and cultural practices, to become “civilized.” He regularly stereotyped them as “tribal,” “usurious,” “plutopolitans,” incapable of loyalty to their country of residence. The Talmud, the Bystander affirmed, “is a code of casuistical legalism . . . of all reactionary productions the most debased, arid, and wretched.” If the Jews would not assimilate they should be returned to their homeland. In a sentence that reeked with racist arrogance he declared that “two greater calamities perhaps have never befallen mankind than the transportation of the negro and the dispersion of the Jews.” Smith’s extreme ethnocentricity in the case of the Jewish people, as Gerald Tulchinsky has shown, can only be described as anti-Semitism.
Smith’s belief in Anglo-Saxon superiority and the importance that he attached to the reunification of the “race” provided him with both his questions and his answers when he analysed “Canada and the Canadian question.” On his arrival in Toronto Smith had discovered a nascent nationalist movement. He threw his support behind this amorphous group of young men whose platform was set out in William Alexander Foster*’s pamphlet Canada First; or, our new nationality: an address (Toronto, 1871), which called for the promotion of a national sentiment and the clarification of Canada’s status in the empire as well as for a number of political reforms. While Smith believed that the movement would promote Canadian independence, others favoured some form of equal partnership with the other members of the empire. For a time the movement attracted the sympathy of the prominent Liberal party intellectual Edward Blake*, but by the mid 1870s it had disintegrated, and its organ, the Nation, disappeared in 1876. This brief experience apparently convinced Smith that Canada could never become a genuine nation and that its destiny lay in union with the United States. In 1877 he set out these conclusions in an article for the Fortnightly Review and then in the Canadian Monthly, conclusions which he would repeat over the remainder of his life and which found their most famous expression in his Canada and the Canadian question in 1891. At the heart of his case was the claim that Canada could not be a nation because it lacked cultural homogeneity. The principal obstacle to nationhood was Quebec, composed as it was of an “unprogressive, religious, submissive, courteous, and, though poor, not unhappy people. . . . They are governed by the priest, with the occasional assistance of the notary. . . . The French-Canadians . . . retain their exclusive national character.” Confederation had failed to meld the competing “races” and regions into a single community and only political corruption, bribes to the regions, and the vested interests which benefited from the protective tariff kept this artificial country from collapsing. “Sectionalism,” he had written in 1878, “still reigns in everything, from the composition of a Cabinet down to that of a Wimbledon Rifle team.” In Smith’s mind the natural geographical and economic forces of North America worked against the unnatural political and sentimental opinions of Canadians. Like the United States, Canada was a North American nation and once this fact was recognized the two communities would achieve their destiny in unity. “The more one sees of society in the New World, the more convinced one is that its structure essentially differs from that of society in the Old World, and that the feudal element has been eliminated completely and forever.” Everything pointed towards “an equal and honorable alliance like that of Scotland and England” between Canada and her southern neighbour, “Canadian nationality being a lost cause.”
Over the years Smith’s conviction about Canada’s destiny intensified, his observation of French Canada hardening his hostility to that community. By 1891 he was willing to state emphatically that one of the principal benefits of union with the United States would be the final solution of the French Canadian problem. “Either the conquest of Quebec was utterly fatuous or it is to be desired that the American Continent should belong to the English tongue and to Anglo-Saxon civilisation.” Though the opposition of French Canadians to the South African War moderated these sentiments somewhat – Smith even considered joining forces with Henri Bourassa* in an anti-imperialist movement – he continued to fear, as he told Bourassa in 1905, “the connexion of your national aspirations with those of an ambitious and aggressive priesthood.” His ideal of cultural homogeneity left no room for a political nationality based on cultural diversity, the cornerstone of confederation. For him the call of race was irresistible: “In blood and character, language, religion, institutions, laws and interests, the two portions of the Anglo-Saxon race on this continent are one people.”
In all of his pronouncements on politics, economics, and Canada’s destiny, Smith seemed a self-confident, even dogmatic, pundit. But underneath that confidence was a profoundly uneasy man. The unease arose not only from Smith’s personal religious uncertainty but even more from his anxiety about the future of society in an age of religious scepticism. Though Smith does not seem to have experienced that typical Victorian “crisis of faith,” Darwinism and the higher criticism of the Bible certainly left him with little more than a thin deism and a vague humanism founded on Christian ethics. Throughout his life he struggled with religious questions, and his inconclusive answers were recorded in his Guesses at the riddle of existence (1897). But it was always to the social implications of the decline of faith that he returned. In an essay entitled “The prospect of a moral interregnum,” published in 1879, he observed: “That which prevails as Agnosticism among philosophers and the highly educated prevails as secularism among mechanics, and in that form is likely soon to breed mutinous questionings about the present social order among those who get the poorer share, and who can no longer be appeased by promises of compensation in another world.” For 30 years he repeated this gloomy theme, revealing his forebodings about the decline and fall of practically everything he accepted as eternal verities. Everywhere “prophets of unrest” loomed – Karl Marx, Henry George, Edward Bellamy, assorted socialists and anarchists, and the leaders of “the revolt of women” – questioning the established order, no longer satisfied by the opiate of religion. His increasingly shrill polemics signified his alienation from a world that had passed him by. He was simply too set in his ways to admit, as he was urged to do by Alphonse Desjardins*, the leader of the Quebec cooperative movement, “that improvements can be got by recognizing that the old liberal school of Political Economy has not discovered everything.”
Harriet Smith died at the Grange on 9 Sept. 1909. The following March the old man slipped and broke his thigh. He died on 7 June 1910 and was buried in St James cemetery. The Grange, which remained his wife’s property, was willed by her to the city of Toronto to serve as a public art gallery. The £20,000 Smith had inherited from his father had grown to more than $830,000 by the time of his death. He left his excellent library to the University of Toronto. Most of his fortune and his private papers went to Cornell University as a mark, Smith’s will revealingly declared, of his “attachment as an Englishman to the union of the two branches of our race on this continent with each other, and with their common mother.”
The vote in the London West riding saw the Liberal candidate Kate Young unseat the Conservative incumbent Ed Holder 45% to 35% as part of Justin Trudeau's sweep into power nationwide.
The Liberal Party of Canada (French: Parti libéral du Canada), colloquially known as the Grits, is the oldest federal political party in Canada. The party espouses the principles of liberalism, and generally sits at the centre of the Canadian political spectrum. The Liberal Party is positioned to the left of the Conservative Party of Canada and to the right of the New Democratic Party (NDP).
The party has dominated federal politics for much of Canada's history, holding power for almost 69 years in the 20th century—more than any other party in a developed country—and as a result, it is sometimes referred to as Canada's "natural governing party". The Liberals' signature policies and legislative decisions include universal health care, the Canada Pension Plan, Canada Student Loans, peacekeeping, multilateralism, official bilingualism, official multiculturalism, patriating the Canadian constitution and the entrenchment of Canada's Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Clarity Act, restoring balanced budgets in the 1990s, and making same-sex marriage legal nationwide.
During the beginning of the 21st century, the party lost a significant amount of support, to the benefit of both the Conservatives and the NDP. In the 2011 federal election, the Liberals had the worst showing in its history, capturing only 19 percent of the popular vote and 34 seats—becoming the third-place party in the House of Commons for the first time. In the 2015 federal election, the Liberal Party under Justin Trudeau returned to prominence with its best showing since the 2000 election, winning 39.5 percent of the popular vote and 184 seats, thus regaining a majority of seats in the House of Commons.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada#Justin_Trudeau
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_...
January 11th, 2010
sooooooo. this is different.
like it? i do.
This is going to be a rainbow project, take a picture for every color of the rainbow for a week. I made it up :)
So today wasn't very exciting. I took a test in AP on the Russian Revolution. I'm pretty sure I failed. >.<
My friend Emily wrote FML on her paper when she handed it in, and my teacher was like "What does Eff Em EL mean?"
We played it off like it was some kind of social studies acronym, Feudalism, Militarism, Liberalism....
we're nerds.
(why are all my pictures getting into explore? I'm sencing an apocalypse.)
No Walls. No Bannon. No difference between us.
Referring to Steve K. Bannon (Chief Strategist in the Donald Trump administration) and wittily a bi-lingual English-French sign.
No Bannon is English. 'No' in French is "non," so Mr. Steve K.'s family name Bannon already says no to himself.
French postcard by Editions P.I., offered by Les Carbones Korès 'Carboplane', no. 593. Photo: Paramount, 1953.
Tall, well built and ruggedly handsome American actor Charlton Heston (1923-2008) appeared in 100 Hollywood films over the course of 60 years. With features chiselled in stone, he became famous for playing a long list of historical figures, particularly in Biblical epics.
His film debut was in the film noir Dark City (1950). His breakthrough came when Cecil B. DeMille cast him as a circus manager in The Greatest Show on Earth (1952). Heston became an icon for portraying Moses in the hugely successful film The Ten Commandments (1956). Furthermore, he is best known for his roles in Orson Welles' widely acclaimed film noir Touch of Evil (1958), Ben-Hur (1959) - for which he won the Oscar for Best Actor, El Cid (1961), and Planet of the Apes (1968).
These starring roles gave the actor a grave, authoritative persona and embodied responsibility, individualism and masculinity. Heston rejected scripts that did not emphasize those virtues. He was a supporter of Democratic politicians and civil rights in the 1960s, but eventually he rejected liberalism, founded a conservative political action committee and supported Ronald Reagan. Heston's most famous role in politics came as the five-term president of the National Rifle Association from 1998 to 2003. In 2001, Heston made a cameo appearance as an elderly, dying chimpanzee in Tim Burton's remake of Planet of the Apes.
Sources: Wikipedia and IMDb.
The "Ringstraßendom (Ring Road Cathedral)" was consecrated on April 24, 1879
The Votive Church is one of the most important neo-Gothic religious edifices in the world. The emergence of the "Ring Road Cathedral" next to the main building of the University of Vienna is linked to the assassination of the young emperor Franz Joseph I on 18 February 1853 by the tailor's apprentice Janos Libenyi.
The emperor's brother, archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, later emperor of Mexico, after the assassination "in gratitude for the salvation of His Majesty" called for donations to build a new church in Vienna. The church should be built as a "thank-you present to God" (votive offering, hence the name) of the peoples of the monarchy for the salvation of Francis Joseph. 300,000 citizens followed the call for donations. In the new "cathedral" all nations of the Austro-Hungarian Empire should have found their spiritual and political "home".
The church building in an architect competition in April 1854 was tendered. Of 75 projects submitted by architects from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Germany, England and France, a jury awarded the project of the then only 26-year-old architect Heinrich von Ferstel. 1856 construction began. After 23 years of construction, the church was consecrated on 24 April 1879, the day of the silver wedding of the imperial couple.
The three-aisled basilica in neo-Gothic French cathedral style is one of the most important buildings of European historicism. Arosen from the environment of the revival of Dombauhütten (Cathedral masonry works), it represents the culmination of the historicist church architecture in Vienna.
The church originally was thought as a Hall of Fame for great Austrian people, similar to the Westminster Abbey in London. Realized this idea was only through the installation of the Tumba (grave) of count Niklas Salm. Although the Votive Church could be completed in 1879, but a "cathedral of the nations" it became not. Meanwhile prevailed in the Habsburg monarchy compared to 1853 a completely new general mood; the political victory of National Liberalism led to fierce nationality battles.
In 1880, the Votive Church was elevated to the status of a parish church, with a parish area stretching on the land of the former glacis from the Bellaria to Roßauer Lände (landing site).
Today: parish church and "cosmopolitan" House of God
On the parish territory of the Votive Church live around 2,700 Catholics (men and women). As the homestead of various foreign-language congregations of Vienna, the Votive Church is also a very "cosmopolitan" God's house. The peoples encompassing thought that was at the beginning of the foundation of the Votive Church is different today, but even more comprehensively alive in the Votive Church. Thus, the Votive Church closes the arc of the peoples of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which should find a spiritual home in this church, with the States that are now reconnected by the EU enlargement in a new Europe with Austria.
The church is used by the German-speaking parish and the English-speaking community in Vienna. In addition, there is the important role of the church for the Latin-Americans in Vienna, because a side altar is dedicated to Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico. Very close is also the Afro-Asian Institute with students from many non-European nations.
A pastoral emphasis in the Votive Church is put on the care of foreign visitors. Pastor Joseph Farrugia's is tourism pastoral worker of the Archdiocese of Vienna.
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British statesman, soldier, and writer who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, from 1940 to 1945 during the Second World War, and again from 1951 to 1955. Apart from two years between 1922 and 1924, he was a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1900 to 1964 and represented a total of five constituencies. Ideologically an adherent to economic liberalism and imperialism, he was for most of his career a member of the Conservative Party, which he led from 1940 to 1955. He was a member of the Liberal Party from 1904 to 1924.
Of mixed English and American parentage, Churchill was born in Oxfordshire into the wealthy, aristocratic Spencer family. He joined the British Army in 1895 and saw action in British India, the Mahdist War (also known as the Anglo-Sudan War), and the Second Boer War, later gaining fame as a war correspondent and writing books about his campaigns. Elected a Conservative MP in 1900, he defected to the Liberals in 1904. In H. H. Asquith's Liberal government, Churchill served as President of the Board of Trade and Home Secretary, championing prison reform and workers' social security. As First Lord of the Admiralty during the First World War, he oversaw the Gallipoli campaign but, after it proved a disaster, he was demoted to Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He resigned in November 1915 and joined the Royal Scots Fusiliers on the Western Front for six months. In 1917, he returned to government under David Lloyd George and served successively as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, and Secretary of State for the Colonies, overseeing the Anglo-Irish Treaty and British foreign policy in the Middle East. After two years out of Parliament, he served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in Stanley Baldwin's Conservative government, returning the pound sterling in 1925 to the gold standard at its pre-war parity, a move widely seen as creating deflationary pressure and depressing the UK economy.
Out of government during his so-called "wilderness years" in the 1930s, Churchill took the lead in calling for British rearmament to counter the growing threat of militarism in Nazi Germany. At the outbreak of the Second World War he was re-appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. In May 1940, he became prime minister, succeeding Neville Chamberlain. Churchill formed a national government and oversaw British involvement in the Allied war effort against the Axis powers, resulting in victory in 1945. After the Conservatives' defeat in the 1945 general election, he became Leader of the Opposition. Amid the developing Cold War with the Soviet Union, he publicly warned of an "iron curtain" of Soviet influence in Europe and promoted European unity. Between his terms as prime minister, he wrote several books recounting his experience during the war. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953. He lost the 1950 election but was returned to office in 1951. His second term was preoccupied with foreign affairs, especially Anglo-American relations and preservation of what remained of the British Empire with India now no longer part of it. Domestically, his government emphasised housebuilding and completed the development of a nuclear weapon (begun by his predecessor). In declining health, Churchill resigned as prime minister in 1955, remaining an MP until 1964. Upon his death in 1965, he was given a state funeral.
One of the 20th century's most significant figures, Churchill remains popular in the UK and the rest of the Anglosphere where he is generally viewed as a victorious wartime leader who played an important role in defending liberal democracy against the spread of fascism. While he has been criticised for his views on race and empire alongside some of his wartime decisions, historians often rank Churchill as the greatest prime minister in British history.
Early life
Churchill was born on 30 November 1874 at his family's ancestral home, Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire. On his father's side, he was a member of the British aristocracy as a descendant of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. His father, Lord Randolph Churchill, representing the Conservative Party, had been elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Woodstock in 1874. His mother, Jennie, was a daughter of Leonard Jerome, a wealthy American businessman.
In 1876, Churchill's paternal grandfather, John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough, was appointed Viceroy of Ireland, then part of the United Kingdom. Randolph became his private secretary and the family relocated to Dublin. Winston's brother, Jack, was born there in 1880. Throughout much of the 1880s, Randolph and Jennie were effectively estranged, and the brothers were mostly cared for by their nanny, Elizabeth Everest. When she died in 1895, Churchill wrote that "she had been my dearest and most intimate friend during the whole of the twenty years I had lived".
Churchill began boarding at St George's School in Ascot, Berkshire, at age seven but was not academic and his behaviour was poor. In 1884, he transferred to Brunswick School in Hove, where his academic performance improved. In April 1888, aged 13, he narrowly passed the entrance exam for Harrow School. His father wanted him to prepare for a military career and so his last three years at Harrow were in the army form. After two unsuccessful attempts to gain admittance to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, he succeeded on his third. He was accepted as a cadet in the cavalry, starting in September 1893. His father died in January 1895, a month after Churchill graduated from Sandhurst.
Cuba, India, and Sudan: 1895–1899
In February 1895, Churchill was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 4th Queen's Own Hussars regiment of the British Army, based at Aldershot. Eager to witness military action, he used his mother's influence to get himself posted to a war zone. In the autumn of 1895, he and his friend Reggie Barnes, then a subaltern, went to Cuba to observe the war of independence and became involved in skirmishes after joining Spanish troops attempting to suppress independence fighters. Churchill sent reports about the conflict to the Daily Graphic in London. He proceeded to New York City and, in admiration of the United States, wrote to his mother about "what an extraordinary people the Americans are!". With the Hussars, he went to Bombay in October 1896. Based in Bangalore, he was in India for 19 months, visiting Calcutta three times and joining expeditions to Hyderabad and the North West Frontier.
In India, Churchill began a self-education project, reading a range of authors including Plato, Edward Gibbon, Charles Darwin and Thomas Babington Macaulay. The books were sent to him by his mother, with whom he shared frequent correspondence when abroad. In order to learn about politics, he also asked his mother to send him copies of The Annual Register, the political almanac. In one 1898 letter to her, he referred to his religious beliefs, saying: "I do not accept the Christian or any other form of religious belief". Churchill had been christened in the Church of England but, as he related later, he underwent a virulently anti-Christian phase in his youth, and as an adult was an agnostic. In another letter to one of his cousins, he referred to religion as "a delicious narcotic" and expressed a preference for Protestantism over Roman Catholicism because he felt it "a step nearer Reason".
Interested in British parliamentary affairs, he declared himself "a Liberal in all but name", adding that he could never endorse the Liberal Party's support for Irish home rule. Instead, he allied himself to the Tory democracy wing of the Conservative Party and on a visit home, gave his first public speech for the party's Primrose League at Claverton Down, near Bath. Mixing reformist and conservative perspectives, he supported the promotion of secular, non-denominational education while opposing women's suffrage.
Churchill volunteered to join Bindon Blood's Malakand Field Force in its campaign against Mohmand rebels in the Swat Valley of north-west India. Blood accepted him on condition that he was assigned as a journalist, the beginning of Churchill's writing career. He returned to Bangalore in October 1897 and there wrote his first book, The Story of the Malakand Field Force, which received positive reviews. He also wrote his only work of fiction, Savrola, a Ruritanian romance. To keep himself fully occupied, Churchill embraced writing as what Roy Jenkins calls his "whole habit", especially through his political career when he was out of office. Writing was his main safeguard against recurring depression, which he referred to as his "black dog".
Using his contacts in London, Churchill got himself attached to General Herbert Kitchener's campaign in the Sudan as a 21st Lancers subaltern while, additionally, working as a journalist for The Morning Post. After fighting in the Battle of Omdurman on 2 September 1898, the 21st Lancers were stood down. In October, Churchill returned to England and began writing The River War, an account of the campaign which was published in November 1899; it was at this time that he decided to leave the army. He was critical of Kitchener's actions during the war, particularly the latter's unmerciful treatment of enemy wounded and his desecration of Muhammad Ahmad's tomb in Omdurman.
On 2 December 1898, Churchill embarked for India to settle his military business and complete his resignation from the 4th Hussars. He spent a lot of his time there playing polo, the only ball sport in which he was ever interested. Having left the Hussars, he sailed from Bombay on 20 March 1899, determined to launch a career in politics.
Politics and South Africa: 1899–1901
Seeking a parliamentary career, Churchill spoke at Conservative meetings and was selected as one of the party's two parliamentary candidates for the June 1899 by-election in Oldham, Lancashire. While campaigning in Oldham, Churchill referred to himself as "a Conservative and a Tory Democrat". Although the Oldham seats had previously been held by the Conservatives, the result was a narrow Liberal victory.
Anticipating the outbreak of the Second Boer War between Britain and the Boer Republics, Churchill sailed to South Africa as a journalist for the Morning Post under the editorship of James Nicol Dunn. In October, he travelled to the conflict zone near Ladysmith, then besieged by Boer troops, before heading for Colenso. After his train was derailed by Boer artillery shelling, he was captured as a prisoner of war (POW) and interned in a Boer POW camp in Pretoria. In December, Churchill escaped from the prison and evaded his captors by stowing away aboard freight trains and hiding in a mine. He eventually made it to safety in Portuguese East Africa. His escape attracted much publicity.
In January 1900, he briefly rejoined the army as a lieutenant in the South African Light Horse regiment, joining Redvers Buller's fight to relieve the Siege of Ladysmith and take Pretoria. He was among the first British troops into both places. He and his cousin, the Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough, demanded and received the surrender of 52 Boer prison camp guards. Throughout the war, he had publicly chastised anti-Boer prejudices, calling for them to be treated with "generosity and tolerance", and after the war he urged the British to be magnanimous in victory. In July, having resigned his lieutenancy, he returned to Britain. His Morning Post despatches had been published as London to Ladysmith via Pretoria and had sold well.
Churchill rented a flat in London's Mayfair, using it as his base for the next six years. He stood again as one of the Conservative candidates at Oldham in the October 1900 general election, securing a narrow victory to become a Member of Parliament at age 25. In the same month, he published Ian Hamilton's March, a book about his South African experiences, which became the focus of a lecture tour in November through Britain, America and Canada. Members of Parliament were unpaid and the tour was a financial necessity. In America, Churchill met Mark Twain, President McKinley and Vice President Theodore Roosevelt; he did not get on well with Roosevelt. Later, in spring 1901, he gave more lectures in Paris, Madrid and Gibraltar.
Conservative MP: 1901–1904
Commons, where his maiden speech gained widespread press coverage. He associated with a group of Conservatives known as the Hughligans, but he was critical of the Conservative government on various issues, especially increases in army funding. He believed that additional military expenditure should go to the navy. This upset the Conservative front bench but was supported by Liberals, with whom he increasingly socialised, particularly Liberal Imperialists like H. H. Asquith. In this context, Churchill later wrote that he "drifted steadily to the left" of parliamentary politics. He privately considered "the gradual creation by an evolutionary process of a Democratic or Progressive wing to the Conservative Party", or alternately a "Central Party" to unite the Conservatives and Liberals.
By 1903, there was real division between Churchill and the Conservatives, largely because he opposed their promotion of economic protectionism. As a free trader, he took part in the foundation of the Free Food League. Churchill sensed that the animosity of many party members would prevent him from gaining a Cabinet position under a Conservative government. The Liberal Party was then attracting growing support, and so his defection in 1904 may also have been influenced by personal ambition. He increasingly voted with the Liberals against the government. For example, he opposed an increase in military expenditure; he supported a Liberal bill to restore legal rights to trade unions; and he opposed the introduction of tariffs on goods imported into the British Empire, describing himself as a "sober admirer" of the principles of free trade. Arthur Balfour's government announced protectionist legislation in October 1903. Two months later, incensed by Churchill's criticism of the government, the Oldham Conservative Association informed him that it would not support his candidature at the next general election.
In May 1904, Churchill opposed the government's proposed Aliens Bill, designed to curb Jewish migration into Britain. He stated that the bill would "appeal to insular prejudice against foreigners, to racial prejudice against Jews, and to labour prejudice against competition" and expressed himself in favour of "the old tolerant and generous practice of free entry and asylum to which this country has so long adhered and from which it has so greatly gained". On 31 May 1904, he crossed the floor, defecting from the Conservatives to sit as a member of the Liberal Party in the House of Commons.
Liberal MP: 1904–1908
As a Liberal, Churchill attacked government policy and gained a reputation as a radical under the influences of John Morley and David Lloyd George. In December 1905, Balfour resigned as prime minister and King Edward VII invited the Liberal leader Henry Campbell-Bannerman to take his place. Hoping to secure a working majority in the House of Commons, Campbell-Bannerman called a general election in January 1906, which the Liberals won. Churchill won the Manchester North West seat. In the same month, his biography of his father was published; he received an advance payment of £8,000. It was generally well received. It was also at this time that the first biography of Churchill himself, written by the Liberal Alexander MacCallum Scott, was published.
In the new government, Churchill became Under-Secretary of State for the Colonial Office, a junior ministerial position that he had requested. He worked beneath the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Victor Bruce, 9th Earl of Elgin, and took Edward Marsh as his secretary; Marsh remained Churchill's secretary for 25 years. Churchill's first task was helping to draft a constitution for the Transvaal; and he helped oversee the formation of a government in the Orange River Colony. In dealing with southern Africa, he sought to ensure equality between the British and the Boers. He also announced a gradual phasing out of the use of Chinese indentured labourers in South Africa; he and the government decided that a sudden ban would cause too much upset in the colony and might damage the economy. He expressed concerns about the relations between European settlers and the black African population; after the Zulu launched their Bambatha Rebellion in Natal, Churchill complained about the "disgusting butchery of the natives" by Europeans.
Asquith government: 1908–1915
Asquith succeeded the terminally ill Campbell-Bannerman on 8 April 1908 and, four days later, Churchill was appointed President of the Board of Trade, succeeding Lloyd George who became Chancellor of the Exchequer. Aged 33, Churchill was the youngest Cabinet member since 1866. Newly appointed Cabinet ministers were legally obliged to seek re-election at a by-election and on 24 April, Churchill lost the Manchester North West by-election to the Conservative candidate by 429 votes. On 9 May, the Liberals stood him in the safe seat of Dundee, where he won comfortably.
In private life, Churchill proposed marriage to Clementine Hozier; they were married on 12 September 1908 at St Margaret's, Westminster and honeymooned in Baveno, Venice, and Veveří Castle in Moravia. They lived at 33 Eccleston Square, London, and their first daughter, Diana, was born in July 1909. Churchill and Clementine were married for over 56 years until his death. The success of his marriage was important to Churchill's career as Clementine's unbroken affection provided him with a secure and happy background.
One of Churchill's first tasks as a minister was to arbitrate in an industrial dispute among ship-workers and employers on the River Tyne. He afterwards established a Standing Court of Arbitration to deal with future industrial disputes, establishing a reputation as a conciliator. In Cabinet, he worked with Lloyd George to champion social reform. He promoted what he called a "network of State intervention and regulation" akin to that in Germany.
Continuing Lloyd George's work, Churchill introduced the Mines Eight Hours Bill, which legally prohibited miners from working more than an eight-hour day. In 1909, he introduced the Trade Boards Bill, creating Trade Boards which could prosecute exploitative employers. Passing with a large majority, it established the principle of a minimum wage and the right of workers to have meal breaks. In May 1909, he proposed the Labour Exchanges Bill to establish over 200 Labour Exchanges through which the unemployed would be assisted in finding employment. He also promoted the idea of an unemployment insurance scheme, which would be part-funded by the state.
To ensure funding for their reforms, Lloyd George and Churchill denounced Reginald McKenna's policy of naval expansion, refusing to believe that war with Germany was inevitable. As Chancellor, Lloyd George presented his "People's Budget" on 29 April 1909, calling it a war budget to eliminate poverty. With Churchill as his closest ally Lloyd George proposed unprecedented taxes on the rich to fund the Liberal welfare programmes. The budget was vetoed by the Conservative peers who dominated the House of Lords. His social reforms under threat, Churchill became president of the Budget League, and warned that upper-class obstruction could anger working-class Britons and lead to class war. The government called the January 1910 general election, which resulted in a narrow Liberal victory; Churchill retained his seat at Dundee. After the election, he proposed the abolition of the House of Lords in a cabinet memorandum, suggesting that it be succeeded either by a unicameral system or by a new, smaller second chamber that lacked an in-built advantage for the Conservatives. In April, the Lords relented and the People's Budget passed into law. Churchill continued to campaign against the House of Lords and assisted passage of the Parliament Act 1911 which reduced and restricted its powers.
Home Secretary: 1910–1911
In February 1910, Churchill was promoted to Home Secretary, giving him control over the police and prison services; he implemented a prison reform programme. Measures included a distinction between criminal and political prisoners, with prison rules for the latter being relaxed. There were educational innovations like the establishment of libraries for prisoners, and a requirement for each prison to stage entertainments four times a year. The rules on solitary confinement were relaxed somewhat, and Churchill proposed the abolition of automatic imprisonment of those who failed to pay fines. Imprisonment of people aged between 16 and 21 was abolished except for the most serious offences. Churchill reduced ("commuted") 21 of the 43 death ("capital") sentences passed while he was Home Secretary
One of the major domestic issues in Britain was women's suffrage. Churchill supported giving women the vote, but he would only back a bill to that effect if it had majority support from the (male) electorate. His proposed solution was a referendum on the issue, but this found no favour with Asquith and women's suffrage remained unresolved until 1918. Many suffragettes believed that Churchill was a committed opponent of women's suffrage, and targeted his meetings for protest. In November 1910, the suffragist Hugh Franklin attacked Churchill with a whip; Franklin was arrested and imprisoned for six weeks.
In November 1910, Churchill had to deal with the Tonypandy riots, in which coal miners in the Rhondda Valley violently protested against their working conditions. The Chief Constable of Glamorgan requested troops to help police quell the rioting. Churchill, learning that the troops were already travelling, allowed them to go as far as Swindon and Cardiff, but blocked their deployment; he was concerned that the use of troops could lead to bloodshed. Instead he sent 270 London police, who were not equipped with firearms, to assist their Welsh counterparts. As the riots continued, he offered the protesters an interview with the government's chief industrial arbitrator, which they accepted. Privately, Churchill regarded both the mine owners and striking miners as being "very unreasonable". The Times and other media outlets accused him of being too soft on the rioters; in contrast, many in the Labour Party, which was linked to the trade unions, regarded him as having been too heavy-handed. In consequence of the latter, Churchill incurred the long-term suspicion of the labour movement.
Asquith called a general election in December 1910 and the Liberals were re-elected with Churchill secure in Dundee. In January 1911, Churchill became involved in the Siege of Sidney Street; three Latvian burglars had killed several police officers and hidden in a house in the East End of London, which was surrounded by police. Churchill stood with the police though he did not direct their operation. After the house caught fire, he told the fire brigade not to proceed into the house because of the threat posed by the armed men. Afterwards, two of the burglars were found dead. Although he faced criticism for his decision, he stated that he "thought it better to let the house burn down rather than spend good British lives in rescuing those ferocious rascals".
In March 1911, Churchill introduced the second reading of the Coal Mines Bill in parliament. When implemented, it imposed stricter safety standards at coal mines. He also formulated the Shops Bill to improve the working conditions of shop workers; it faced opposition from shop owners and only passed into law in a much emasculated form. In April, Lloyd George introduced the first health and unemployment insurance legislation, the National Insurance Act 1911, which Churchill had been instrumental in drafting. In May, Clementine gave birth to their second child, Randolph, named after Churchill's father. In response to escalating civil strife in 1911, Churchill sent troops into Liverpool to quell protesting dockers and rallied against a national railway strike.
During the Agadir Crisis of April 1911, when there was a threat of war between France and Germany, Churchill suggested an alliance with France and Russia to safeguard the independence of Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands to counter possible German expansionism. The Agadir Crisis had a profound effect on Churchill and he altered his views about the need for naval expansion.
First Lord of the Admiralty
In October 1911, Asquith appointed Churchill First Lord of the Admiralty, and he took up official residence at Admiralty House. He created a naval war staff and, over the next two and a half years, focused on naval preparation, visiting naval stations and dockyards, seeking to improve morale, and scrutinising German naval developments. After the German government passed its 1912 Naval Law to increase warship production, Churchill vowed that Britain would do the same and that for every new battleship built by the Germans, Britain would build two. He invited Germany to engage in a mutual de-escalation of naval building projects, but this was refused.
Churchill pushed for higher pay and greater recreational facilities for naval staff, an increase in the building of submarines, and a renewed focus on the Royal Naval Air Service, encouraging them to experiment with how aircraft could be used for military purposes. He coined the term "seaplane" and ordered 100 to be constructed. Some Liberals objected to his levels of naval expenditure; in December 1913 he threatened to resign if his proposal for four new battleships in 1914–15 was rejected. In June 1914, he convinced the House of Commons to authorise the government purchase of a 51 percent share in the profits of oil produced by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, to secure continued oil access for the Royal Navy.
The central issue in Britain at the time was Irish Home Rule and, in 1912, Asquith's government introduced the Home Rule Bill. Churchill supported it and urged Ulster Unionists to accept it as he opposed the partition of Ireland. Concerning the possibility of the Partition of Ireland, Churchill stated: "Whatever Ulster's right may be, she cannot stand in the way of the whole of the rest of Ireland. Half a province cannot impose a permanent veto on the nation. Half a province cannot obstruct forever the reconciliation between the British and Irish democracies". Speaking in the House of Commons on 16 February 1922, Churchill said: "What Irishmen all over the world most desire is not hostility against this country, but the unity of their own". Later, following a Cabinet decision, he boosted the naval presence in Ireland to deal with any Unionist uprising.[ Seeking a compromise, Churchill suggested that Ireland remain part of a federal United Kingdom but this angered Liberals and Irish nationalists.
As First Lord, Churchill was tasked with overseeing Britain's naval effort when the First World War began in August 1914. In the same month, the navy transported 120,000 British troops to France and began a blockade of Germany's North Sea ports. Churchill sent submarines to the Baltic Sea to assist the Russian Navy and he sent the Marine Brigade to Ostend, forcing a reallocation of German troops. In September, Churchill assumed full responsibility for Britain's aerial defence. On 7 October, Clementine gave birth to their third child, Sarah. In October, Churchill visited Antwerp to observe Belgian defences against the besieging Germans and promised British reinforcements for the city. Soon afterwards, Antwerp fell to the Germans and Churchill was criticised in the press. He maintained that his actions had prolonged resistance and enabled the Allies to secure Calais and Dunkirk. In November, Asquith called a War Council, consisting of himself, Lloyd George, Edward Grey, Kitchener, and Churchill. Churchill set the development of the tank on the right track and financed its creation with Admiralty funds.
Churchill was interested in the Middle Eastern theatre and wanted to relieve pressure on the Russians in the Caucasus by staging attacks against Turkey in the Dardanelles. He hoped that the British could even seize Constantinople. Approval was given and, in March 1915, an Anglo-French task force attempted a naval bombardment of Turkish defences in the Dardanelles. In April, the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, including the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), began its assault at Gallipoli. Both campaigns failed and Churchill was held by many MPs, particularly Conservatives, to be personally responsible.
In May, Asquith agreed under parliamentary pressure to form an all-party coalition government, but the Conservatives' condition of entry was that Churchill must be removed from the Admiralty. Churchill pleaded his case with both Asquith and Conservative leader Bonar Law but had to accept demotion and became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.
Military service, 1915–1916
Churchill decided to return to active service with the Army and was attached to the 2nd Grenadier Guards, on the Western Front. In January 1916, he was temporarily promoted to lieutenant-colonel and given command of the 6th Royal Scots Fusiliers. After a period of training, the battalion was moved to a sector of the Belgian Front near Ploegsteert. For over three months, they faced continual shelling although no German offensive. Churchill narrowly escaped death when, during a visit by his staff officer cousin the 9th Duke of Marlborough, a large piece of shrapnel fell between them. In May, the 6th Royal Scots Fusiliers were merged into the 15th Division. Churchill did not request a new command, instead securing permission to leave active service. His temporary promotion ended on 16 May 1916, when he returned to the rank of major.
Back in the House of Commons, Churchill spoke out on war issues, calling for conscription to be extended to the Irish, greater recognition of soldiers' bravery, and for the introduction of steel helmets for troops. It was in November 1916 that he penned "The greater application of mechanical power to the prosecution of an offensive on land", but it fell on deaf ears. He was frustrated at being out of office as a backbencher, but he was repeatedly blamed for Gallipoli, mainly by the pro-Conservative press. Churchill argued his case before the Dardanelles Commission, whose published report placed no blame on him personally for the campaign's failure.
Lloyd George government: 1916–1922
In October 1916, Asquith resigned as prime minister and was succeeded by Lloyd George who, in May 1917, sent Churchill to inspect the French war effort. In July, Churchill was appointed Minister of Munitions. He quickly negotiated an end to a strike in munitions factories along the Clyde and increased munitions production. In his October 1917 letter to his Cabinet colleagues, he penned the plan of attack for the next year that would bring final victory to the Allies. He ended a second strike, in June 1918, by threatening to conscript strikers into the army. In the House of Commons, Churchill voted in support of the Representation of the People Act 1918, which gave some British women the right to vote. In November 1918, four days after the Armistice, Churchill's fourth child, Marigold, was born.
Secretary of State for War and Air: 1919–1921
With the war over, Lloyd George called a general election with voting on Saturday, 14 December 1918. During the election campaign, Churchill called for the nationalisation of the railways, a control on monopolies, tax reform, and the creation of a League of Nations to prevent future wars. He was returned as MP for Dundee and, although the Conservatives won a majority, Lloyd George was retained as prime minister. In January 1919, Lloyd George moved Churchill to the War Office as both Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for Air.
Churchill was responsible for demobilising the British Army, although he convinced Lloyd George to keep a million men conscripted for the British Army of the Rhine. Churchill was one of the few government figures who opposed harsh measures against Germany, and he cautioned against demobilising the German Army, warning that they might be needed as a bulwark against Soviet Russia. He was an outspoken opponent of Vladimir Lenin's new Communist Party government in Russia. He initially supported using British troops to assist the anti-Communist White forces in the Russian Civil War, but soon recognised the desire of the British people to bring them home. After the Soviets won the civil war, Churchill proposed a cordon sanitaire around the country.
In the Irish War of Independence, he supported the use of the paramilitary Black and Tans to combat Irish revolutionaries. After British troops in Iraq clashed with Kurdish rebels, Churchill authorised two squadrons to the area, proposing that they be equipped with "poison gas" to be used to "inflict punishment upon recalcitrant natives without inflicting grave injury upon them", although this was never implemented. More broadly, he saw the occupation of Iraq as a drain on Britain and proposed, unsuccessfully, that the government should hand control back to Turkey.
Secretary of State for the Colonies: 1921–1922
Churchill as Secretary of State for the Colonies during his visit to Mandatory Palestine, Tel Aviv, 1921.
Churchill as Secretary of State for the Colonies during his visit to Mandatory Palestine, Tel Aviv, 1921
Churchill's main home was Chartwell in Kent. He purchased it in 1922 after his daughter Mary was born.
Churchill became Secretary of State for the Colonies in February 1921. The following month, the first exhibit of his paintings took place in Paris, with Churchill exhibiting under a pseudonym. In May, his mother died, followed in August by his two-year-old daughter Marigold who died from septicaemia. Marigold's death devastated her parents and Churchill was haunted by the tragedy for the rest of his life.
Churchill was involved in negotiations with Sinn Féin leaders and helped draft the Anglo-Irish Treaty. He was responsible for reducing the cost of occupying the Middle East, and was involved in the installations of Faisal I of Iraq and his brother Abdullah I of Jordan. Churchill travelled to Mandatory Palestine where, as a supporter of Zionism, he refused an Arab Palestinian petition to prohibit Jewish migration. He did allow temporary restrictions following the 1921 Jaffa riots.
In September 1922, the Chanak Crisis erupted as Turkish forces threatened to occupy the Dardanelles neutral zone, which was policed by the British army based in Chanak (now Çanakkale). Churchill and Lloyd George favoured military resistance to any Turkish advance but the majority Conservatives in the coalition government opposed it. A political debacle ensued which resulted in the Conservative withdrawal from the government, precipitating the November 1922 general election.
Also in September, Churchill's fifth and last child, Mary, was born, and in the same month he purchased Chartwell, in Kent, which became his family home. In October 1922, he underwent an operation for appendicitis. While he was in hospital, Lloyd George's coalition was dissolved. In the general election, Churchill lost his Dundee seat to Edwin Scrymgeour, a prohibitionist candidate. Later, he wrote that he was "without an office, without a seat, without a party, and without an appendix". He was elevated as one of 50 members of the Order of the Companions of Honour, as named in Lloyd George's 1922 Dissolution Honours list.
Out of Parliament: 1922–1924
Churchill spent much of the next six months at the Villa Rêve d'Or near Cannes, where he devoted himself to painting and writing his memoirs. He wrote an autobiographical history of the war, The World Crisis. The first volume was published in April 1923 and the rest over the next ten years.
After the 1923 general election was called, seven Liberal associations asked Churchill to stand as their candidate, and he selected Leicester West, but he did not win the seat. A Labour government led by Ramsay MacDonald took power. Churchill had hoped they would be defeated by a Conservative-Liberal coalition. He strongly opposed the MacDonald government's decision to loan money to Soviet Russia and feared the signing of an Anglo-Soviet Treaty.
On 19 March 1924, alienated by Liberal support for Labour, Churchill stood as an independent anti-socialist candidate in the Westminster Abbey by-election but was defeated. In May, he addressed a Conservative meeting in Liverpool and declared that there was no longer a place for the Liberal Party in British politics. He said that Liberals must back the Conservatives to stop Labour and ensure "the successful defeat of socialism". In July, he agreed with Conservative leader Stanley Baldwin that he would be selected as a Conservative candidate in the next general election, which was held on 29 October. Churchill stood at Epping, but he described himself as a "Constitutionalist". The Conservatives were victorious, and Baldwin formed the new government. Although Churchill had no background in finance or economics, Baldwin appointed him as Chancellor of the Exchequer.
Chancellor of the Exchequer: 1924–1929
Main article: Winston Churchill as Chancellor of the Exchequer
Becoming Chancellor on 6 November 1924, Churchill formally rejoined the Conservative Party. As Chancellor, he intended to pursue his free trade principles in the form of laissez-faire economics, as under the Liberal social reforms. In April 1925, he controversially albeit reluctantly restored the gold standard in his first budget at its 1914 parity against the advice of some leading economists including John Maynard Keynes. The return to gold is held to have caused deflation and resultant unemployment with a devastating impact on the coal industry. Churchill presented five budgets in all to April 1929. Among his measures were reduction of the state pension age from 70 to 65; immediate provision of widow's pensions; reduction of military expenditure; income tax reductions and imposition of taxes on luxury items.
During the General Strike of 1926, Churchill edited the British Gazette, the government's anti-strike propaganda newspaper. After the strike ended, he acted as an intermediary between striking miners and their employers. He later called for the introduction of a legally binding minimum wage. In a House of Commons speech in 1926 Churchill made his unique feelings on the issue of Irish unity clear. He stated that Ireland should be united within itself but also "united to the British Empire." In early 1927, Churchill visited Rome where he met Mussolini, whom he praised for his stand against Leninism.
The "Wilderness Years": 1929–1939
In the 1929 general election, Churchill retained his Epping seat, but the Conservatives were defeated, and MacDonald formed his second Labour government. Out of office, Churchill was prone to depression (his "black dog") but addressed this by writing. He began work on Marlborough: His Life and Times, a four-volume biography of his ancestor John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. It was by this time that he had developed a reputation for being a heavy drinker of alcoholic beverages, although Jenkins believes that was often exaggerated.
Hoping that the Labour government could be ousted, he gained Baldwin's approval to work towards establishing a Conservative-Liberal coalition, although many Liberals were reluctant. In October 1930, after his return from a trip to North America, Churchill published his autobiography, My Early Life, which sold well and was translated into multiple languages.
In January 1931, Churchill resigned from the Conservative Shadow Cabinet because Baldwin supported the government's decision to grant Dominion status to India. Churchill believed that enhanced home rule status would hasten calls for full independence. He was particularly opposed to Mohandas Gandhi, whom he considered "a seditious Middle Temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir". His views enraged Labour and Liberal opinion although he was supported by many grassroot Conservatives.
The October 1931 general election was a landslide victory for the Conservatives. Churchill nearly doubled his majority in Epping, but he was not given a ministerial position. The Commons debated Dominion Status for India on 3 December and Churchill insisted on dividing the House, but this backfired as only 43 MPs supported him. He embarked on a lecture tour of North America, hoping to recoup financial losses sustained in the Wall Street Crash. On 13 December, he was crossing Fifth Avenue in New York City when he was knocked down by a car, suffering a head wound from which he developed neuritis. To further his convalescence, he and Clementine took ship to Nassau for three weeks but Churchill became depressed there about his financial and political losses. He returned to America in late January 1932 and completed most of his lectures before arriving home on 18 March.
Having worked on Marlborough for much of 1932, Churchill in late August decided to visit his ancestor's battlefields. In Munich, he met Ernst Hanfstaengl, a friend of Hitler, who was then rising in prominence. Hanfstaengl tried to arrange a meeting between Churchill and Hitler, but Hitler was unenthusiastic: "What on earth would I talk to him about?" he asked. Soon after visiting Blenheim, Churchill was affected by paratyphoid fever and spent two weeks at a sanatorium in Salzburg. He returned to Chartwell on 25 September, still working on Marlborough. Two days later, he collapsed while walking in the grounds after a recurrence of paratyphoid which caused an ulcer to haemorrhage. He was taken to a London nursing home and remained there until late October.
Warnings about Germany and the abdication crisis: 1933–1936
After Hitler came to power on 30 January 1933, Churchill was quick to recognise the menace of such a regime and expressed alarm that the British government had reduced air force spending and warned that Germany would soon overtake Britain in air force production. Armed with official data provided clandestinely by two senior civil servants, Desmond Morton and Ralph Wigram, Churchill was able to speak with authority about what was happening in Germany, especially the development of the Luftwaffe. He told the people of his concerns in a radio broadcast in November 1934, having earlier denounced the intolerance and militarism of Nazism in the House of Commons. While Churchill regarded Mussolini's regime as a bulwark against the perceived threat of communist revolution, he opposed the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, despite describing the country as a primitive, uncivilised nation. He admired the exiled king of Spain Alfonso XIII and feared that Communism was making inroads during the Spanish Civil War. He referred to Franco's army as the "anti-red movement", but later became critical of Franco as too close to Mussolini and Hitler.
Between October 1933 and September 1938, the four volumes of Marlborough: His Life and Times were published and sold well. In December 1934, the India Bill entered Parliament and was passed in February 1935. Churchill and 83 other Conservative MPs voted against it. In June 1935, MacDonald resigned and was succeeded as prime minister by Baldwin. Baldwin then led the Conservatives to victory in the 1935 general election; Churchill retained his seat with an increased majority but was again left out of the government.
In January 1936, Edward VIII succeeded his father, George V, as monarch. His desire to marry an American divorcee, Wallis Simpson, caused the abdication crisis. Churchill supported Edward and clashed with Baldwin on the issue. Afterwards, although Churchill immediately pledged loyalty to George VI, he wrote that the abdication was "premature and probably quite unnecessary".
Anti-appeasement: 1937–1939
In May 1937, Baldwin resigned and was succeeded as prime minister by Neville Chamberlain. At first, Churchill welcomed Chamberlain's appointment but, in February 1938, matters came to a head after Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden resigned over Chamberlain's appeasement of Mussolini, a policy which Chamberlain was extending towards Hitler.
In 1938, Churchill warned the government against appeasement and called for collective action to deter German aggression. In March, the Evening Standard ceased publication of his fortnightly articles, but the Daily Telegraph published them instead. Following the German annexation of Austria, Churchill spoke in the House of Commons, declaring that "the gravity of the events[...] cannot be exaggerated"...
A country like ours, possessed of immense territory and wealth, whose defence has been neglected, cannot avoid war by dilating upon its horrors, or even by a continuous display of pacific qualities, or by ignoring the fate of the victims of aggression elsewhere. War will be avoided, in present circumstances, only by the accumulation of deterrents against the aggressor.
— Winston Churchill,
He began calling for a mutual defence pact among European states threatened by German expansionism, arguing that this was the only way to halt Hitler. This was to no avail as, in September, Germany mobilised to invade the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. Churchill visited Chamberlain at Downing Street and urged him to tell Germany that Britain would declare war if the Germans invaded Czechoslovak territory; Chamberlain was not willing to do this. On 30 September, Chamberlain signed up to the Munich Agreement, agreeing to allow German annexation of the Sudetenland. Speaking in the House of Commons on 5 October, Churchill called the agreement "a total and unmitigated defeat". Following the final dismemberment of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, Churchill and his supporters called for the foundation of a national coalition. His popularity increased and people began to agitate for his return to office.
First Lord of the Admiralty: September 1939 to May 1940
Main article: Winston Churchill in the Second World War
Phoney War and the Norwegian Campaign
On 3 September 1939, the day Britain declared war on Germany, Chamberlain reappointed Churchill as First Lord of the Admiralty and he joined Chamberlain's war cabinet. Churchill was one of the highest-profile ministers during the so-called "Phoney War". Churchill was ebullient after the Battle of the River Plate on 13 December 1939 and afterwards welcomed home the crews, congratulating them on "a brilliant sea fight". On 16 February 1940, Churchill personally ordered Captain Philip Vian of the destroyer HMS Cossack to board the German supply ship Altmark in Norwegian waters freeing 299 British merchant seamen who had been captured by the Admiral Graf Spee. These actions, supplemented by his speeches, considerably enhanced Churchill's reputation.
He was concerned about German naval activity in the Baltic Sea and initially wanted to send a naval force there but this was soon changed to a plan, codenamed Operation Wilfred, to mine Norwegian waters and stop iron ore shipments from Narvik to Germany. There were disagreements about mining, both in the war cabinet and with the French government. As a result, Wilfred was delayed until 8 April 1940, the day before the German invasion of Norway.
Norway Debate and Chamberlain's resignation
After the Allies failed to prevent the German occupation of Norway, the Commons held an open debate from 7 to 9 May on the government's conduct of the war. This has come to be known as the Norway Debate, one of the most significant events in parliamentary history. On the second day, the Labour opposition called for a division which was in effect a vote of no confidence in Chamberlain's government. Churchill was called upon to wind up the debate, which placed him in the difficult position of having to defend the government without damaging his own prestige. Although the government won the vote, its majority was drastically reduced amid calls for a national government to be formed.
Early on 10 May, German forces invaded Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands as a prelude to their assault on France. Since the division vote, Chamberlain had been trying to form a coalition but Labour declared on the Friday afternoon that they would not serve under his leadership, although they would accept another Conservative. The only two candidates were Churchill and Lord Halifax, the Foreign Secretary. The matter had already been discussed at a meeting on the 9th between Chamberlain, Halifax, Churchill, and David Margesson, the government Chief Whip. Halifax admitted that he could not govern effectively as a member of the House of Lords and so Chamberlain advised the King to send for Churchill, who became prime minister. Churchill later wrote of feeling a profound sense of relief in that he now had authority over the whole scene. He believed that his life so far had been "a preparation for this hour and for this trial".
Prime Minister: 1940–1945
Main article: First premiership of Winston Churchill
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the first premiership of Winston Churchill.
Further information: Churchill war ministry
See also: Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II and British Empire in World War II
Dunkirk to Pearl Harbor: May 1940 to December 1941
Churchill takes aim with a Sten sub-machine gun in June 1941. The man in the pin-striped suit and fedora to the right is his bodyguard, Walter H. Thompson.
War ministry created
Main article: Churchill war ministry
In May, Churchill was still generally unpopular with many Conservatives and probably most of the Labour Party. Chamberlain remained Conservative Party leader until October when ill health forced his resignation. By that time, Churchill had won the doubters over and his succession as party leader was a formality.
He began his premiership by forming a war cabinet: Chamberlain as Lord President of the Council, Labour leader Clement Attlee as Lord Privy Seal (later as Deputy Prime Minister), Halifax as Foreign Secretary and Labour's Arthur Greenwood as a minister without portfolio. In practice, these five were augmented by the service chiefs and ministers who attended the majority of meetings. The cabinet changed in size and membership as the war progressed, one of the key appointments being the leading trades unionist Ernest Bevin as Minister of Labour and National Service. In response to previous criticisms that there had been no clear single minister in charge of the prosecution of the war, Churchill created and assumed the position of Minister of Defence, making him the most powerful wartime prime minister in British history. He drafted outside experts into government to fulfil vital functions, especially on the Home Front. These included personal friends like Lord Beaverbrook and Frederick Lindemann, who became the government's scientific advisor.
Resolve to fight on
At the end of May, with the British Expeditionary Force in retreat to Dunkirk and the Fall of France seemingly imminent, Halifax proposed that the government should explore the possibility of a negotiated peace settlement using the still-neutral Mussolini as an intermediary. There were several high-level meetings from 26 to 28 May, including two with the French premier Paul Reynaud. Churchill's resolve was to fight on, even if France capitulated, but his position remained precarious until Chamberlain resolved to support him. Churchill had the full support of the two Labour members but knew he could not survive as prime minister if both Chamberlain and Halifax were against him. By gaining the support of his outer cabinet, Churchill outmanoeuvred Halifax and won Chamberlain over.
Churchill succeeded as an orator despite being handicapped from childhood with a speech impediment. He had a lateral lisp and was unable to pronounce the letter s, verbalising it with a slur. He worked hard on his pronunciation by repeating phrases designed to cure his problem with the sibilant "s". He was ultimately successful, turning the impediment into an asset, as when he called Hitler a "Nar-zee" (rhymes with "khazi"; emphasis on the "z"), rather than a Nazi ("ts").
His first speech as prime minister, delivered to the Commons on 13 May, was the "blood, toil, tears and sweat" speech. It was little more than a short statement but, Jenkins says, "it included phrases which have reverberated down the decades". Churchill made it plain to the nation that a long, hard road lay ahead and that victory was the final goal
I would say to the House... that I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat. We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. You ask, what is our policy? I will say: it is to wage war, by sea, land and air, with all our might and with all the strength that God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous tyranny, never surpassed in the dark, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: it is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be; for without victory, there is no survival.
Churchill's use of rhetoric hardened public opinion against a peaceful resolution – Jenkins says Churchill's speeches were "an inspiration for the nation, and a catharsis for Churchill himself".
Operation Dynamo, the evacuation of 338,226 Allied servicemen from Dunkirk, ended on 4 June when the French rearguard surrendered. The total was far in excess of expectations and it gave rise to a popular view that Dunkirk had been a miracle, and even a victory.[312] Churchill himself referred to "a miracle of deliverance" in his "we shall fight on the beaches" speech to the Commons that afternoon, though he shortly reminded everyone that: "We must be very careful not to assign to this deliverance the attributes of a victory. Wars are not won by evacuations". The speech ended on a note of defiance coupled with a clear appeal to the United States:
We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air. We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender, and even if, which I do not for a moment believe, this island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving, then our Empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British Fleet, would carry on the struggle, until, in God's good time, the New World, with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and the liberation of the old.
Germany initiated Fall Rot the following day and Italy entered the war on the 10th. The Wehrmacht occupied Paris on the 14th and completed their conquest of France on 25 June. It was now inevitable that Hitler would attack and probably try to invade Great Britain. Faced with this, Churchill addressed the Commons on 18 June with one of his most famous speeches, ending with this peroration:
What General Weygand called the "Battle of France" is over. I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin. Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this island or lose the war. Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duty and so bear ourselves that if the British Commonwealth and Empire lasts for a thousand years, men will still say: "This was their finest hour".
Churchill ordered the commencement of the Western Desert campaign on 11 June, an immediate response to the Italian declaration of war. This went well at first while the Italian army was the sole opposition and Operation Compass was a noted success. In early 1941, however, Mussolini requested German support and Hitler sent the Afrika Korps to Tripoli under the command of Generalleutnant Erwin Rommel, who arrived not long after Churchill had halted Compass so that he could reassign forces to Greece where the Balkans campaign was entering a critical phase.
In other initiatives through June and July 1940, Churchill ordered the formation of both the Special Operations Executive (SOE) and the Commandos. The SOE was ordered to promote and execute subversive activity in Nazi-occupied Europe while the Commandos were charged with raids on specific military targets there. Hugh Dalton, the Minister of Economic Warfare, took political responsibility for the SOE and recorded in his diary that Churchill told him: "And now go and set Europe ablaze".
Battle of Britain and the Blitz
The gratitude of every home in our Island, in our Empire, and indeed throughout the world, except in the abodes of the guilty, goes out to the British airmen who, undaunted by odds, unwearied in their constant challenge and mortal danger, are turning the tide of the World War by their prowess and by their devotion. Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.
The Luftwaffe altered its strategy from 7 September 1940 and began the Blitz, which was especially intensive through October and November. Churchill's morale during the Blitz was generally high and he told his private secretary John Colville in November that he thought the threat of invasion was past. He was confident that Great Britain could hold its own, given the increase in output, but was realistic about its chances of actually winning the war without American intervention.
Lend-Lease
In September 1940, the British and American governments concluded the Destroyers for Bases Agreement, by which fifty American destroyers were transferred to the Royal Navy in exchange for free US base rights in Bermuda, the Caribbean and Newfoundland. An added advantage for Britain was that its military assets in those bases could be redeployed elsewhere.
Churchill's good relations with United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt helped secure vital food, oil and munitions via the North Atlantic shipping routes. It was for this reason that Churchill was relieved when Roosevelt was re-elected in 1940. Upon re-election, Roosevelt set about implementing a new method of providing necessities to Great Britain without the need for monetary payment. He persuaded Congress that repayment for this immensely costly service would take the form of defending the US. The policy was known as Lend-Lease and it was formally enacted on 11 March 1941.
Operation Barbarossa
Hitler launched his invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941. Churchill had known since early April, from Enigma decrypts at Bletchley Park, that the attack was imminent. He had tried to warn Joseph Stalin via the British ambassador to Moscow, Stafford Cripps, but to no avail as Stalin did not trust Churchill. The night before the attack, already intending an address to the nation, Churchill alluded to his hitherto anti-communist views by saying to Colville: "If Hitler invaded Hell, I would at least make a favourable reference to the Devil".
Atlantic Charter
In August 1941, Churchill made his first transatlantic crossing of the war on board HMS Prince of Wales and met Roosevelt in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland. On 14 August, they issued the joint statement that has become known as the Atlantic Charter. This outlined the goals of both countries for the future of the world and it is seen as the inspiration for the 1942 Declaration by United Nations, itself the basis of the United Nations which was founded in June 1945.
Pearl Harbor and United States entry into the war
On 7–8 December 1941, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor was followed by their invasion of Malaya and, on the 8th, Churchill declared war on Japan. With the hope of using Irish ports for counter-submarine operations, Churchill sent a telegram to the Irish Prime Minister Éamon de Valera (December 8) in which he obliquely offers Irish unity: "Now is your chance. Now or never! A nation once again! I will meet you wherever you
I think she is CBC News Toronto reporter Ali Chiasson, but not 100% certain.
Toronto held its second anti-Trump protest in as many days outside of the U.S. Consulate General on University Avenue today. The rally was attended by thousands despite the frigid temperature. The anti-Trump protesters came from many walks of life: liberalists, left-wing and centrist people, Socialists, Communists, Black Lives Matter (BLM), labour unions, mainstream population and visible minorities, and groups from many religious groups.
Today (July 1, 2017), I cycled into central London with my son Tyler to support the ‘Not One Day More’ protest called by the People’s Assembly Against Austerity, and to take photos. We caught the march on Whitehall, as the tens of thousands of protestors who had marched from BBC HQ in Portland Place advanced on Parliament Square, and it was exhilarating to stand by the Monument to the Women of World War II in the middle of Whitehall, near 10 Downing Street, as a wave of protestors advanced, chanting, “Oh, Jeremy Corbyn” and “Tories, Tories, Tories, out, out, out.”
Many of the placards, understandably, dealt with the Grenfell Tower disaster two weeks ago, when an untold number of residents died in an inferno that should never have happened, but that was entirely due to the greed and exploitation of the poorer members of society that is central to the Tories’ austerity agenda, waged relentlessly over the last seven years, and the neo-liberalism — insanely, unstoppably greedy, and utterly indifferent to the value of human lives — that has been driving politics since the 1980s.
Jeremy Corbyn spoke at the rally, telling the crowd, “We are the people, we are united and we are determined, we are not going to be divided or let austerity divide us. We are increasing in support and we are determined to force another election as soon as we can.”
This is positive, of course, but there is an elephant in the room — Brexit. At present, the Tories, severely damaged by Theresa May’s decision to call a General Election at which she then performed so dismally that she lost her majority, is clinging onto power, and is still responsible for the nationwide car crash that is Brexit, but if the Labour Party is to take power, Jeremy Corbyn’s supporters need to be sure that his intention is to stop Brexit and not to insist that it must take place because that is the “will of the people.” As I have stated repeatedly, the referendum result was only advisory, the majority was too slim for a referendum involving major constitutional change, and leaving the EU will be an act of economic suicide on such a scale that it will destroy whoever is responsible for implementing it. I believe it can — and must — be stopped, or else all Jeremy Corbyn’s plans to reinvigorate public sector spending will be impossible, as the economy collapses.
For the Guardian’s report about the march and rally article, see: www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jul/01/jeremy-corbyn-to...
For the People’s Assembly, see: www.thepeoplesassembly.org.uk
For my article about the Grenfell disaster, see: www.andyworthington.co.uk/2017/06/16/deaths-foretold-at-g...
Also check out the video of my band The Four Fathers playing ’Stand Down Theresa’, a a rough but passionate (and updated) cover of The Beat’s protest classic. ’Stand Down Margaret’: www.youtube.com/watch?v=mpVb06VXkOM
For my most interesting photos, see: www.flickriver.com/photos/andyworthington/popular-interes...
Ο κρατισμός επιβιώνει με το πλιάτσικο, μια ελεύθερη χώρα επιβιώνει από την παραγωγή.
Ayn #Rand #statism_is_wrong
Remarkably, Penn South's shareholders have consistently voted against "going private," although if they gave themselves the right to sell their apartments on the open market, they certainly would be able to get very high prices for them. Instead, they've decided to give others the same opportunity for affordable middle-income housing that they had.
Penn South's decision shouldn't be surprising, because it is known for its political liberalism - one gets the feeling that the complex is a mini-Blue State unto itself. Many of the early residents were members of the ILGWU (International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, the complex's original sponsor) and other unions. On the dais at the complex's opening ceremonies in 1962 were President John F. Kennedy, Eleanor Roosevelt and David Dubinsky, head of the ILGWU. As a matter of fact, Penn South (meaning "south of Penn Station") was known at first as the ILGWU Houses.
Wednesday, Day 12, September 28 and Wall Street remains barricaded to the public and tourists alike. Occupy Wall Street has effectively shut down the main strip of the financial district. Photos from Zuccotti Park, September 28 2011.
Good Magazine: The (Un)Official Occupy Wall Street Photographer's 15 Favorite Frames
The Occupy Wall Street Creative Commons Project
Day 1 September 17 Photos - Preoccupation and Occupation Begins
Day 2 September 18 Photos - People settle in; cardboard sign menage begins
Day 3 September 19 Photos - Community forms; protest signs
Day 7 September 23 Photos - First rain, protest signs, life
Day 8 September 24 Photos - Pepper spray day, Zuni Tikka, people
Day 21 October 6 Photos - Naomi Klein
Day 23 October 8 - Faces of OWS
Day 28 October 13 - Tom Morello of RATM
Day 31 - protesting Chihuahua and The Daily Show
Day 36 - Parents and Kids Day and quite a crowd
Day 40 - protesting hotties, Reverend Billy and tents
Day 43 Photos - Snow storm at OWS of the first NYC winter snowfall
Day 47 - Solidarity with Occupy Oakland
Day 52 November 7 - Jonathan Lethem, Lynn Nottage and Jennifer Egan
Day 53 November 8 - David Crosby and Graham Nash play OWS
Day 57 November 12 - Former NJ Gov. Jim McGreevey
Day 60 November 15 - Police evict protesters from Zuccotti
Occupy Colorado Springs Colorado on November 20
Do you want to see the Occupy Wall Street series laid out thematically? Click here
Fotograaf onbekend.
Uit het huldeboek opgedragen aan François Schauvliege, ondernemer en gemeenteraadslid van Gent, en stichter van de liberale kring van het Rabot en de Brugse Poort. Een mooie illustratie van de bloei van het liberale verenigingsleven in de vroege 20ste eeuw.
Photographer unknown.
Part of the commemoration book dedicated to François Schauvlieghe, entrepreneur and councillor of Ghent, founder of the Liberal Circle of the Rabot and Brugse Poort districts. A fine example of the prospering of liberal associations in the Belgian cities of the early 20th century.
Liberas/Liberaal Archief
Kramersplein 23
9000 Gent
Photos from Zuccotti Park on Friday, October 21, Day 36 of Occupy Wall Street.
Good Magazine: The (Un)Official Occupy Wall Street Photographer's 15 Favorite Frames
The Occupy Wall Street Creative Commons Project
Day 1 September 17 Photos - Preoccupation and Occupation Begins
Day 2 September 18 Photos - People settle in; cardboard sign menage begins
Day 3 September 19 Photos - Community forms; protest signs
Day 7 September 23 Photos - First rain, protest signs, life
Day 8 September 24 Photos - Pepper spray day, Zuni Tikka, people
Day 21 October 6 Photos - Naomi Klein
Day 23 October 8 - Faces of OWS
Day 28 October 13 - Tom Morello of RATM
Day 31 - protesting Chihuahua and The Daily Show
Day 36 - Parents and Kids Day and quite a crowd
Day 40 - protesting hotties, Reverend Billy and tents
Day 43 Photos - Snow storm at OWS of the first NYC winter snowfall
Day 47 - Solidarity with Occupy Oakland
Day 52 November 7 - Jonathan Lethem, Lynn Nottage and Jennifer Egan
Day 53 November 8 - David Crosby and Graham Nash play OWS
Day 57 November 12 - Former NJ Gov. Jim McGreevey
Day 60 November 15 - Police evict protesters from Zuccotti
Occupy Colorado Springs Colorado on November 20
Do you want to see the Occupy Wall Street series laid out thematically? Click here
Morella, Castelló (Spain).
Charlist cannon on the gate to the second level. / Cañón carlista sobre la puerta del segundo nivel.
ENGLISH
Carlism is a traditionalist and legitimist political movement in Spain seeking the establishment of a separate line of the Bourbon family on the Spanish throne.
An exceptionally long-lived movement, it was a significant player in Spanish politics from 1833 until the demise of the Franco regime in 1975 as a social and political force, one of the main actors in the Spanish Kulturkampf or cultural war of Catholicism and monarchism against liberalism and modernism.
In this capacity, it was the cause of several major wars during the 19th century, and an important factor during the most recent Spanish Civil War.
The period of the Carlist Wars, in which the party tried to get to power mainly through military means, is both the classical in terms of political history as, because of the wars — or the threat of them — Carlism was at the center stage; and formative as it is the period where the cultural and sociological Carlist world, that would last for well over a hundred years, took shape.
One of the most decisive chapters in the history of Morella is the first Charlist War. The governor of Morella and the baron of Herbers proclaimed king Charles V Bourbon in November 1833, but this situation did not last. Later, and during a period of 2 years (1838-40) Ramon Cabrera leadered a small independent state. We celebrate the bicentenary of the general in 2006.
The Groc War in this land and the Matiners War in Catalonia, made Elizabethan authorities to be wary of the repetition of the conflict, so they reorganized the territory militarily. First, they created a "Comandancia General del Maestrazgo" (1849-1879) that comprised lands in Catalonia, Aragon and Valencia, with its capital in Morella and origin of a certain confusion about which were the different areas of the zone. Later, they tried to create a military province of Castelló together with the Catalonian lands placed in the south of the river Ebre. Once the third Charlist War ended, this last province generated more problems than solutions, so the military province was restricted again to its civil limits.
More info: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlism, www.morella.net
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CASTELLANO
El carlismo fue un movimiento político legitimista de carácter antiliberal y antirrevolucionario surgido en España en el siglo XIX que pretendía el establecimiento de una rama alternativa de la dinastía de los Borbones en el trono español, y que en sus orígenes propugnaba la vuelta al Antiguo Régimen.
En el siglo XIX se produjeron varias insurrecciones de los carlistas contra el gobierno de Isabel II y sucesivos, denominadas en aquella época guerras civiles. Al producirse una nueva insurrección en 1936, que llevó a una guerra más destructiva, se hizo habitual designar como «guerras carlistas» a las del siglo XIX, y reservar el término «Guerra Civil» para la de 1936-1939.
Uno de los episodios más decisivos de la historia de Morella es la primera guerra carlista.El gobernador de Morella y el barón de Herbers proclamaron rey a Carlos V de Borbón en noviembre de 1833 pero el pronunciamiento no duró mucho. Más tarde, sin embargo, y durante un período de dos años (1838-40), resistió un pequeño estado independiente bajo la autoridad del general Ramon Cabrera.
La guerra del Groc aquí y la de los Matiners en Cataluña hicieron temer a las autoridades del nuevo estado liberal la reproducción del conflicto bélico ypor eso reformaron la organización militar de la zona, primero creando una Comandancia General del Maestrazgo (1849-1871) que alcanzaba territorios de Cataluña, Aragón y Valencia, con capital en Morella y origen de una cierta confusión sobre cuáles son las comarcas de la zona. Más tarde se ensayó una provincia militar de Castellón con capital en Morella (1871-1879) que comprendía la provincia civil de Castellón y el trozo de la de Tarragona al sur del Ebro y que, una vez acabada la tercera guerra carlista, creaba más inconvenientes que los que solucionaba, hecho por el que la provincia militar se ajustó de nuevo a los límites civiles.
Más info: es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlistas, www.morella.net
False morality is often abused as a way of repression, sure! Still it seems strange that in a city like Amsterdam, widely known for its liberalism and even "immorality", a text like this can be found...
FangruidaWorks：
Fangruida's natural philosophy: super-spinning super-rotating cosmic structural system and multi-dimensional multi-directionality of natural philosophy. The original theory of "three sexes" (intensive reading)
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(Original: Fangruida May 2012 in Athens, Bonn, London, revised finalized in New York)
Edit Translation: Cole Susan 2012 electronic version 2012V1.1 version
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Key words: ██ Multidimensionality of philosophy
█ The three principles of philosophy
● Three-dimensional multidimensional theory
Absolute relativity of the natural world
Abstract macro concrete microscopic concrete macro abstract ultramicro
The breadth and limitations of human wisdom
Natural Revolution, Cosmic Revolution and Social Revolution
Assimilation or alienation of super-smart humans and super-bio-smart players
The end of life, the multi-spin system of the universe
The structure of thinking: convergence and divergence
The chemical abundance of the universe, homogeneity, heterogeneity
Substance-Species-Organics-Inorganics Life Macromolecules Life and Wisdom Human Life ▲▲
Philosophy and history
Studying world history, studying human history, including natural science research, such as the structure and evolution of the universe, the ultra-microsystems of particles, the evolution of life, the future of the universe, the developmental variation of the human world and the future, etc., are a big end. The philosophical thoughts, the colorful flowers, can be described as colorful and magnificent. History of philosophy, history of thought, history of civilization, history of religion, and various research works are full of enthusiasm. Masters of world philosophy, masters of thought, and masters of science have left us with an extremely precious cultural heritage, which is worthy of repeated study and in-depth study. For example, the question of thinking and existence, consciousness and material as the source: cosmic structure, particle structure, origin of life, the future of man and the universe, the society of the planet and the universe, the end of the universe and humanity, the pioneering and limitations of science and technology Sex, human brain thinking structure and highly intelligent biological robots, the existence and destruction of the Earth and the solar system, the large-scale structure of the universe and the homogeneity of the universe, the advanced intelligent animals and life macromolecules, matter and species, the space and time of the universe, black holes And dark matter, big bang and steady state, initial, normal ground state and final state, super-spin and super-spin, classical mechanics and quantum mechanics, evolutionary structure of human society, and so on. Of course, philosophy and natural science and technology are inseparable. Here we mainly discuss natural philosophy. Therefore, there are not many discussions on physical mechanics, etc., mainly in the basic categories of philosophy and natural philosophy. Natural science research papers refer to the author's related works.
The history of world philosophy and the history of thought have an extremely important position and extremely important guiding role in human history. With the rapid development of modern science and technology, with the substantial growth and leap of the world economy, the development of human society and new Civilized rationality has reached a new milestone. Economic history, civilization history, social history, political history, military history, cultural history, religious history, intellectual history, philosophy history, and history of the universe are very grand and complex. Here, we mainly study and discuss the history of human understanding, the history of thought, and the history of philosophy. . The big end, the clear veins and trajectories of the world, all kinds of doctrines, all kinds of academics, all kinds of thoughts, various schools, flowers and flowers, quite new. Of course, it is not possible to talk about things, but to involve in-depth research and exploration in the field of natural science and technology, as well as other important areas of research, in order to profoundly understand and understand, what is the great revolution of modern philosophy. Otherwise, there is no way to talk about it, or to go biased and extreme. Western philosophy, Eastern philosophy, religious philosophy, etc.
European Philosophy and Western Philosophy
Ancient Greek philosophy school
The early four universities in ancient Greece were the Ionian, Pythagoras, Elia, and the elemental school; the late four-school school: the cynicism school, the Stoic school, the Epicurean school, New Platon School
Ionian
Miletus School
(Thales, etc.) (to attribute the world to a specific phenomenon or substance of nature, such as water and gas)
Pythagoras School
(Pythagoras) (everything is counted)
Heraclitus
(The universe is a changing fire, dominated by logos (laws))
Democritus
(propose atomism)
Elijah
(Parmenid) (the origin of all things, is the eternal "consciousness of existence", denying change and movement
Socrates
(emphasizes access to knowledge by introspection)
Plato
(The concrete behind everything is the eternal prototype concept)
Aristotle
(The distinction between material and form, the universe consists of five elements: earth, water, gas, fire, and ether, presenting the existence of the first promoter "God", etc., the most comprehensive early philosophy)
Neo-Platonicism
(Protino) ("Taiyi" is the foundation of the world, rational laws, souls, and specific things are too super-existing)
Epicurean school
(Ibi-Ji-lu) (everything and soul are atoms, happiness is the purpose of life)
Cynic school
(Diogenes) (contempt for external utilitarianism, advocates poverty-stricken life)
Stoia
(Marco Aurelius, Abigail Ted) (emphasis on the "goodness" and "de" of human beings, advocating obedience to fate while grasping self)
Medieval Christian philosophy
Augustine
(In the philosophical theory to explain the existence of God, the Trinity, the salvation of the soul)
(Scholastic philosophy)
Aristotle
(Thomas Aquinas) (using Aristotle's rational philosophy to explain the nature, existence, virtue of God)
Willism
(Scott) (with the natural will as the cause of the world movement, the source is God)
Aokangism
(
Modern western philosophy
Early natural philosophy
(Bacon, Da Vinci, Newton and many other scientists, philosophical theorists) (proposes experimental observation-based science to support the theory of interpretation of nature)
Rationalism (rationalism)
(Descartes) (I think so I am, the ultimate source of knowledge is God, material and soul are parallel to each other)
(Spennosha) (emphasizing thinking/concepts and prolongation/substance are two different manifestations of the infinite God, one for the inner and one for the external)
(Leibnitz) (The world consists of consecutive "singles" of nature, including spirit and matter)
Empiricism (empiricalism)
(Locke) (Experience is the only source of knowledge, matter has the first nature and the second nature, the former is in the object itself, and the latter is the product of perception)
(Hume) (Initial perception is the only source of knowledge, time and space are both products of perception)
(Beckley) (The existence is self-perception, and the perception of the whole world is God) (German classical philosophy)
Transcendental idealism
(Kant) (Knowledge originally originated from the inexpressible "object self", which became a formable knowledge or concept/phenomenon after the subject's subjective norms of time, space and causality were recognized.
Absolute idealism
(Ficht) (Experience knowledge is the absolute self in the depths of consciousness, produced by constantly setting non-I, grasping non-I)
(Xie Lin) (Nature gradually self-awake, develops into a self-consciousness that opposes objective nature, and then returns self-consciousness to nature, and will eventually reach the absolute same with objective nature, that is, it can sense its absolute reality)
(Hegel) (ideal dialectics, objective idealism, the world is on the one hand, the evolution of objective existential history, and on the other hand, the continuous leap of subjective consciousness from sensibility to rationality, when realizing the development of self-awareness When the development of objective existence, you reach the absolute truth of God)
Young Hegelian
(Feuerbach) (materialism, pointing out that God is the externalization of the essence of human pursuit, admiring "love") (practical materialism, emphasizing the decisive role of practical labor, so that nature presents objective laws in front of human beings.
Modern western philosophy
Early irrationalism
(Kerkegaard) (denying that people have the essence of fixed unity, emphasizing the contingency and freedom of individual existence, this is the road to God, the pioneer of existentialism)
Voluntarism
(Schopenhauer) (The ontology of the world is the natural will without cause and effect, time and space, causality is the result of rational understanding of the will, and life is endless because of the endless desire and hindrance of desire)
(Nietzsche) (Destiny is controlled by oneself, not the norm of God, so it advocates the "power will" of the weak meat)
Philosophy of life
(Borgsen, Dilthey) (The world is the "stretching" and evolution of "the stream of life" in time)
New hegelism
(Bradley) (Development of Absolute Ideal Dialectics)
Neo-Kantianism
(Cohen, Cassirer) (a product of the combination of transcendental idealism and scientific philosophy, but denying the existence of self-physical independence from consciousness)
utilitarianism
(Bentham, Mill) (Social behavior is actually pursuing the maximization of personal happiness)
pragmatism
(James, Dewey) (The premise that things become the object of knowledge is its practicality. Only through human pursuit and experimentation can the truth be obtained)
Early analytic philosophy
(Freig, Russell, Wittgenstein) (Proposing logical ontology, the ontology of the world is not a separate entity, but an interrelated logical relationship)
Post-analytic philosophy
(Wittgenstein, Strawson, Rorty, etc.) (I believe that the emergence of philosophical problems is the result of misunderstanding of everyday language, and advocates the analysis of semantics to achieve the essential relationship between language and reality)
Falsificationist philosophy of science
(Popper) (Rejecting science can reach absolute truth, proposing three worlds - the material world, the spiritual world, the conceptual world)
Historic philosophy of science
(Kun, Feyerabend) (opposing the pure logic of separation from practice as a way of expressing the world, while emphasizing the accumulation of scientific experience in history)
Freudianism
(Floyd) (emphasizing the decisive role of subconsciousness and sexual desire on individual behavior, dreams, civilized activities, etc. are the result of subconsciousness being suppressed by external morality and disguised at the level of consciousness)
Western Marxism
The Frankfurt School (Marcuse, Habermas) (in Marx's dialectics, Freud's instinct, focuses on the enslavement and alienation of material civilization, advocates changing the social interaction model, and alleviates capitalism Social crisis)
Phenomenology / European Philosophy
(Husser) (Proposed a phenomenological approach, advocating returning to the matter itself, and studying the constructive role of consciousness in knowledge)
Existentialism
(Heidegger, Sartre, Coronation, etc.) (emphasizing the existence of the individual's pre-reflective consciousness in the world is the source of all knowledge. The existence of human beings is different from the existence of objects. The existence of human beings is free, not being Fully prescribed - existence precedes essence
Hermeneutics
(Gadamer, Derrida) (Thinking that the study of history cannot be reduced to historical facts, but the dialogue between modern perspectives and historical relics)
Structuralism
(Sausul, Artusai, Strauss, Lacan) (proposes the study of the overall structure of the various knowledge systems, and emphasizes the a priori and permanence of this structure, it is the correct research system Premise of each element)
Deconstruction
(Derrida, Foucault, Deleuze) (denying the existence of a unified knowledge structure, critical reason loses the richness of the world while unilaterally pursuing the essence, and believes that the relationship between man and the world, author and reader is not the relationship between subject and object. , but the dialogue between the subjects, affirming the diversity of ideas)
Essentials of philosophy science
The history of world philosophy, the history of world science and technology, the history of world social development, and the history of European and American philosophy all have brilliant historical memories.
Thales (about 585 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, was honored as the ancestor of Western philosophy from Aristotle.
Heracletitos (about 504-501 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of dialectics.
Parmenides (in the year 504-501 BC), the founder of the ancient Greek philosopher, ontology (ontology).
Demokritos (about 420 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, founder of atomism.
Socrates (468-399 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher.
Platon (427-347 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, with dialogues such as "Socratic Defence", "Ideology", "Barmenid", "The Wise", etc. Works.
Aristotles, Plato's students, Greek philosophers, encyclopedic philosophers, founders of many disciplines, masterpieces "Tools", "Physics", "metaphysics", "Nico Marco's Ethics, Political Science.
Lucretius (b.c.99-55) Ancient Roman materialist philosopher. I believe that everything is made up of atoms. The atom is infinitely moving in the universe and is infinite. It advocates atheism. The main work: "The Theory of Physical Property."
Aurelius Augustinus (354-430 AD), the greatest representative of the medieval godfather philosophy, is entitled "Confessions" and "City of God."
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), the greatest representative of the philosophy of the medieval scholasticism, with the book "Anti-Beast Encyclopedia" and "Theological Encyclopedia"
(Thomas Aquinas) (using Aristotle's rational philosophy to explain the nature, existence, virtue of God)
Willism
(Scott) (with the natural will as the cause of the world movement, the source is God)
Aokangism
(
Modern western philosophy
Early natural philosophy
(Bacon, Da Vinci, Newton and many other scientists, philosophical theorists) (proposes experimental observation-based science to support the theory of interpretation of nature)
Rationalism (rationalism)
(Descartes) (I think so I am, the ultimate source of knowledge is God, material and soul are parallel to each other)
(Spennosha) (emphasizing thinking/concepts and prolongation/substance are two different manifestations of the infinite God, one for the inner and one for the external)
(Leibnitz) (The world consists of consecutive "singles" of nature, including spirit and matter)
Empiricism (empiricalism)
(Locke) (Experience is the only source of knowledge, matter has the first nature and the second nature, the former is in the object itself, and the latter is the product of perception)
(Hume) (Initial perception is the only source of knowledge, time and space are both products of perception)
(Beckley) (The existence is self-perception, and the perception of the whole world is God) (German classical philosophy)
Transcendental idealism
(Kant) (Knowledge originally originated from the inexpressible "object self", which became a formable knowledge or concept/phenomenon after the subject's subjective norms of time, space and causality were recognized.
Absolute idealism
(Ficht) (Experience knowledge is the absolute self in the depths of consciousness, produced by constantly setting non-I, grasping non-I)
(Xie Lin) (Nature gradually self-awake, develops into a self-consciousness that opposes objective nature, and then returns self-consciousness to nature, and will eventually reach the absolute same with objective nature, that is, it can sense its absolute reality)
(Hegel) (ideal dialectics, objective idealism, the world is on the one hand, the evolution of objective existential history, and on the other hand, the continuous leap of subjective consciousness from sensibility to rationality, when realizing the development of self-awareness When the development of objective existence, you reach the absolute truth of God)
Young Hegelian
(Feuerbach) (materialism, pointing out that God is the externalization of the essence of human pursuit, admiring "love") (practical materialism, emphasizing the decisive role of practical labor, so that nature presents objective laws in front of human beings.
Modern western philosophy
Early irrationalism
(Kerkegaard) (denying that people have the essence of fixed unity, emphasizing the contingency and freedom of individual existence, this is the road to God, the pioneer of existentialism)
Voluntarism
(Schopenhauer) (The ontology of the world is the natural will without cause and effect, time and space, causality is the result of rational understanding of the will, and life is endless because of the endless desire and hindrance of desire)
(Nietzsche) (Destiny is controlled by oneself, not the norm of God, so it advocates the "power will" of the weak meat)
Philosophy of life
(Borgsen, Dilthey) (The world is the "stretching" and evolution of "the stream of life" in time)
New hegelism
(Bradley) (Development of Absolute Ideal Dialectics)
Neo-Kantianism
(Cohen, Cassirer) (a product of the combination of transcendental idealism and scientific philosophy, but denying the existence of self-physical independence from consciousness)
utilitarianism
(Bentham, Mill) (Social behavior is actually pursuing the maximization of personal happiness)
pragmatism
(James, Dewey) (The premise that things become the object of knowledge is its practicality. Only through human pursuit and experimentation can the truth be obtained)
Early analytic philosophy
(Freig, Russell, Wittgenstein) (Proposing logical ontology, the ontology of the world is not a separate entity, but an interrelated logical relationship)
Post-analytic philosophy
(Wittgenstein, Strawson, Rorty, etc.) (I believe that the emergence of philosophical problems is the result of misunderstanding of everyday language, and advocates the analysis of semantics to achieve the essential relationship between language and reality)
Falsificationist philosophy of science
(Popper) (Rejecting science can reach absolute truth, proposing three worlds - the material world, the spiritual world, the conceptual world)
Historic philosophy of science
(Kun, Feyerabend) (opposing the pure logic of separation from practice as a way of expressing the world, while emphasizing the accumulation of scientific experience in history)
Freudianism
(Floyd) (emphasizing the decisive role of subconsciousness and sexual desire on individual behavior, dreams, civilized activities, etc. are the result of subconsciousness being suppressed by external morality and disguised at the level of consciousness)
Western Marxism
The Frankfurt School (Marcuse, Habermas) (in Marx's dialectics, Freud's instinct, focuses on the enslavement and alienation of material civilization, advocates changing the social interaction model, and alleviates capitalism Social crisis)
Phenomenology / European Philosophy
(Husser) (Proposed a phenomenological approach, advocating returning to the matter itself, and studying the constructive role of consciousness in knowledge)
Existentialism
(Heidegger, Sartre, Coronation, etc.) (emphasizing the existence of the individual's pre-reflective consciousness in the world is the source of all knowledge. The existence of human beings is different from the existence of objects. The existence of human beings is free, not being Fully prescribed - existence precedes essence
Hermeneutics
(Gadamer, Derrida) (Thinking that the study of history cannot be reduced to historical facts, but the dialogue between modern perspectives and historical relics)
Structuralism
(Sausul, Artusai, Strauss, Lacan) (proposes the study of the overall structure of the various knowledge systems, and emphasizes the a priori and permanence of this structure, it is the correct research system Premise of each element)
Deconstruction
(Derrida, Foucault, Deleuze) (denying the existence of a unified knowledge structure, critical reason loses the richness of the world while unilaterally pursuing the essence, and believes that the relationship between man and the world, author and reader is not the relationship between subject and object. , but the dialogue between the subjects, affirming the diversity of ideas)
Essentials of philosophy science
The history of world philosophy, the history of world science and technology, the history of world social development, and the history of European and American philosophy all have brilliant historical memories.
Thales (about 585 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, was honored as the ancestor of Western philosophy from Aristotle.
Heracletitos (about 504-501 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of dialectics.
Parmenides (in the year 504-501 BC), the founder of the ancient Greek philosopher, ontology (ontology).
Demokritos (about 420 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, founder of atomism.
Socrates (468-399 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher.
Platon (427-347 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, with dialogues such as "Socratic Defence", "Ideology", "Barmenid", "The Wise", etc. Works.
Aristotles, Plato's students, Greek philosophers, encyclopedic philosophers, founders of many disciplines, masterpieces "Tools", "Physics", "metaphysics", "Nico Marco's Ethics, Political Science.
Lucretius (b.c.99-55) Ancient Roman materialist philosopher. I believe that everything is made up of atoms. The atom is infinitely moving in the universe and is infinite. It advocates atheism. The main work: "The Theory of Physical Property."
Aurelius Augustinus (354-430 AD), the greatest representative of the medieval godfather philosophy, is entitled "Confessions" and "City of God."
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), the greatest representative of the philosophy of the medieval scholasticism, is entitled "Anti-Beast Encyclopedia" and "Theological Encyclopedia".
Bruno (1548-1600) Italian materialist philosopher and natural scientist. Propagating Copernicus's heliocentric theory, that the universe has no center, the sun is just an ordinary planet, the solar system is just a celestial system, and matter is the common common essence of all things in the universe. The main work: "On the reasons, the essence and one."
Hobbes (1588-1679) was a British materialist philosopher who used to be the secretary and assistant of Bacon. He systematically embodies Bacon's philosophical ideas and advocates the use of mechanics and mathematics to illustrate the world. He is the founder of mechanical materialism. The main works: "On matter", "On the people."
Francis Bacon (1561-1626), the ancestor of British empiricism, and the "New Tools".
René Descartes (1596-1650), French philosopher, founder of modern philosophy, the founder of the theory, is the "Method Discussion", "The First Philosophical Contemplation", "Philosophy Principles".
Benedicus de Spinoza (1632-1677), a Dutch philosopher, one of the main representatives of the theory, with "Ethics" and so on.
John Locke (1632-1704), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Theory of Human Reason."
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the theory, is entitled "Single Theory" and "New Theory of Human Reason."
George Berkeley (1685-1753), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Principles of Human Knowledge."
David Hume (1711-1776), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Theory of Human Nature" and "The Study of Human Reason."
Montesquieu (1689-1755), a French enlightenment thinker, with the Persian Letters and The Spirit of the Law.
Voltaire (1694-1778), a French enlightenment thinker, and author of "Philosophy Communication."
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), a French enlightenment thinker, entitled "The Origin and Foundation of Human Inequality", "Social Contract Theory", "Emil", and "Confessions".
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), the founder of German classical philosophy, is entitled "Critique of Pure Reason", "Critique of Practical Reason" and "Critique of Judgment".
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), a master of German classical philosophy, is known for his dialectic in the world, and he is the author of "Psychophenomenology", "Logic" and "Philosophy of Philosophy".
Auguste Comte (1798-1857), French philosopher, founder of positivism, and the "Experimental Philosophy Course".
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), British philosopher, one of the representatives of positivism, is entitled "Conde and positivism", "system of logic", "utilitarianism".
"Arther Schopenhauer (1788-1860), a German philosopher, a voluntarist, has a "world of will and appearance."
Karl Marx (May 5, 1818 - 1883, 3, 1)
Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law (1843), on Jewish Nationality (1843), Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (1844), Feuerbach (1845), Poverty of Philosophy (1845), Employment Labor With Capital (1847), Louis Bonaparte's Misty Moon 18th (1852), Capital Theory Volume 2 (1893), Capital Theory Volume III (1894), etc.
William James (1842-1910), an American philosopher, one of the main representatives of pragmatism, is the "Psychology Principles", "Pragmatism", "Complete Empiricism Proceedings".
Friedrich Willhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900), a German philosopher, with "The Other Side of Good and Evil", "Zarathustra", "Strong Will".
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), a Swiss linguist, founder of structuralism, and a course in General Linguistics.
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), German philosopher, founder of phenomenology, with "Logical Studies", "Phenomenon of Phenomenology", "The Contemplation of Descartes" and "The Crisis of European Science and Transcendental Phenomenology, etc.
Sigmund Freud (1865-1939), an Austrian psychologist, founder of the psychoanalytic school, with "An Analysis of Dreams" and "Introduction to Psychoanalysis."
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) British philosopher and educator wrote "The History of Western Philosophy", "Education", "Philosophy Problems", etc., won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1950.
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), German philosopher, founder of existential philosophy, with "Existence and Time", "Introduction to Metaphysics", "Lin Zhong Lu" and so on.
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), one of the founders of Austrian-American philosophy, linguistic philosophy or analytic philosophy, is the author of The Philosophy of Logic and Philosophical Studies.
Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of logical positivism, is entitled "The Logical Structure of the World" and "The Logical Syntax of Language."
Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976) is a British philosopher, one of the representatives of the everyday language school, and has the concept of "heart".
Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900-), the German philosopher, the founder of philosophical hermeneutics, is the author of The Truth and Method.
Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), a German philosopher and founder of the Frankfurt School, is the author of Critical Theory, Research in Social Philosophy, and Dialectics of Enlightenment (co-authored with Adorno).
Theoder Wiesengrund Adorno (1903-1969), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the Frankfurt School, is entitled "Negative Dialectics".
Herbert Marcuse (1895-1979), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the Frankfurt School, with "Ration and Revolution", "Eros and
Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of existentialism, with "existence and nothingness", "existentialism is a kind of humanitarianism" and "criticism of dialectical reason".
Claude Levi-Strauss (1908-), French philosopher, anthropologist, one of the main representatives of structuralism, is entitled "Structural Anthropology" and "Wild Thinking."
Willard van Orman Quine (1908-), one of the main representatives of analytic philosophy, "from a logical point of view", "logic philosophy."
Tomas Kuhn (1922-), an American scientific philosopher, a historian of science, a representative of the Historic School, and the "Structure of the Scientific Revolution" and "Necessary Tension."
Michel Foucault (1926-1984), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of post-structuralism and post-modernism, is entitled "Knowledge Archaeology", "Discipline and Punishment" and so on.
Jacques Derrida (1931-), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of postmodernism, with "writing and difference", "casting", "the edge of philosophy", "the ghost of Marx" and so on.
Richard. M. Rorty (1931-), an American philosopher, one of the representatives of post-modern philosophy, is the Mirror of Philosophy and Nature and Post-Philosophy Culture.
Fredric Jamason (1931-), an American philosopher and literary critic, one of the main representatives of postmodernism, is entitled "Marxism and Form", "Political Unconsciousness", and "Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism".
John Rawls (1921-), an American political philosopher, is the author of The Theory of Justice and Political Liberalism.
Robert Nozick (1938-), an American political philosopher, is entitled "Anarchy, State, and Utopia."
Western philosophy European and American philosophy has a huge influence on the world. Of course, philosophy and thought are often inseparable. Philosophers also mean thinkers.
Philosophers, thinkers, schools of thought, and main ideology
Ancient Greek period: 7th century BC - 2nd century BC
Thales (about 624-about 547, the first philosopher of ancient Greece, the founder of the Miletus School)
Anaximandros (about 610-before 546, ancient Greek Miletus school materialist philosopher)
Anaximenes (about 588-about 525, ancient Greek Miletus school materialist philosopher)
Pythagoras (about 580 - about 500 before, ancient Greek mathematician, idealist philosopher)
Xenophanes (about 565-about 473, the ancient Greek philosopher, the first representative of the Elia school)
Herakleitos (between 540 and about 480 and 470 before, the ancient Greek materialist philosopher, the founder of the Efes school)
Kratylos (former fifth century, ancient Greek Efesian philosopher, Heraclitus student)
Parmenides (before the end of the sixth century - about the middle of the first half of the fifth century, the idealist philosopher of the Elia school of ancient Greece) Leukippos (about 500-about 440, the ancient Greek materialist philosopher , the atom said one of the founders)
Anaxagoras (about 500 before - 428 BC, ancient Greek materialist philosopher)
Zeno Eleates (about 490 - about 436 before, ancient Greek idealist philosopher, student of Parmenides) Empedokles (Em. 490 - about 430, Ancient Greek materialist philosopher, founder of rhetoric)
Gorgias (about 483 - about 375, the ancient Greek wise philosopher)
Protagoras (formerly 481-about 411, ancient Greek wise philosopher)
Socrates (formerly 469-before 399, ancient Greek idealist philosopher)
Demokratos (Demokritos, 460- 370 BC, ancient Greek materialist philosopher, and the founder of the atomic theory of Rebecca) Antisthenes (about 435-about 370, ancient Greece Philosopher, founder of the cynic school
Aristippos (about 435-front 360?, ancient Greek philosopher, founder of the Cyrene School, disciple of Socrates)
Plato (Plato, former 427-before 347, ancient Greek objective idealist philosopher, founder of the school, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle) - "Ideology", "politician", "Bammenides" and "Plato Dialogues"
Diogenes o Sinopeus (about 404-about 323, ancient Greek cynic philosopher)
Aristotles (Aristotles, 384- 322 BC, Ancient Greek philosopher, scientist, Plato's student, Alexander the Great's teacher, the founder of the Happy School) - Metaphysics, Tool Theory, Nigma Ethics, Physics, Politics
, "The Complete Works of Aristotle"
Pyrrhon (about 365-about 275, ancient Greek philosopher, skeptic)
Epikouros (formerly 341-pre-270, ancient Greek materialist philosopher)
Zeno (Zionon Kitieus), about 336-about 264, founder of the ancient Greek Stoic school
Roman period: the second century BC - the fifth century AD
Cousero (Marcus Tullius Cicero, former 106-43, ancient Roman politician, eloquent, philosopher, philosophically representative of eclecticism)
Titus Lucretius Carus (about 99-about 55, ancient Roman poet, materialist philosopher) - "The Theory of Materiality"
Tertullianus (between 150 and 160 - about 222, one of the Christian godfathers)
Aurelius Augustinus (354-430, the Roman Empire Christian thinker, the main representative of the godfather philosophy) - "Confessions", "On Free Will", "The Monologue", "The City of God", "The Handbook of Doctrine"
Hypatia (about 370-about 415, female mathematician, astronomer, neo-Platonic philosopher of the Roman Empire)
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, 480-524 or 525, the idealist philosopher in late Roman times
Medieval: 5th century AD - end of the 14th century
Johannes Scotus Erigena (circa 810-877, a philosopher of the pre-European medieval scholasticism) - "On God's Presupposition", "On the Division of Nature"
Anselmus (1033-1109, a medieval Christian thinker in Europe, the main representative of realism, known as "the last godfather and the first scholastic philosopher")
Roscellinus (about 1050 - about 1112, medieval French philosopher, nominalist)
Guillaume de Champeaux (circa 1070-1121, medieval French philosopher, realist)
Abel (Petrus Abailardus, 1079-1142, philosopher of the medieval French Academy, "concept theory")
Albertus Magnus (1193 or 1206 or 1207-1280, Medieval German philosopher, theologian, Catholic Dominican monk)
Thomas Aquinas (1226-1274, Medieval Theologian and scholastic philosopher, Catholic Dominican Fellow) - Theological Encyclopedia and Anti-Beast Encyclopedia
Sigerus de Brantia (circa 1240-1281 to 1284, Netherland philosopher, Averroist)
Meister Johannes Eckhart (circa 1260-1327, medieval German theologian and mystic philosopher) Johannes Duns Scotus (circa 1265-1308, medieval Scottish scholastic philosopher, nominalist ) - "On Oxford", "Paris on"
William of Occam (or Ockham), about 1300 - about 1350, philosopher of the medieval Soviet scholastic philosopher, nominalist) Jan Hus (circa 1369-1415, Czech patriot and religious reformer)
Dante Alighièri (1265-1321, Italian poet.
Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374, Italian poet, one of the pioneers of humanism in the European Renaissance) - "Secret"
Geovanni Boccàccio (1313-1375, Italian writer of the Renaissance, one of the main representatives of humanism) - "Ten Days"
Paul (John Ball, ?-1381, British folk missionary, one of the leaders of the Wat Taylor Uprising)
John Wycliffe (circa 1320-1384, British, pioneer of the European Reformation Movement)
Nikola (Kusa's) (Nicolaus Cusanus, 1401-1464, Renaissance German philosopher, cardinal, pantheist)
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519, Renaissance Italian artist, natural scientist, engineer, philosopher)
Pietro Pomponazzi (1462-1524 or 1525, the Italian philosopher of the Renaissance, one of the main representatives of humanism)
Desiderius Erasmus (circa 1469-1536, the Renaissance Netherland humanist, formerly known as Gerhard Gerhards, born in Rotterdam, the Netherlands) - "The Fools"
Thomas More (1478-1535, Renaissance British Utopian Communist)
Martin Luther (1483-1546, the founder of the 16th century German Reformation, Christian (Protestant) Road
Thomas Münzer (about 1490-1525, leader of the German peasant war of 1524-1525, German peasant and religious reformer of urban civilians)
Calvin (1509-1564, French, European Reformer, founder of Christian Calvin) - "On Benevolence", "Christian Essentials", "Faith Guide", "Christian Masterpieces Integration", From the Renaissance to the Selected Works of Humanitarian Humanity in the 19th Century by Bourgeois Literati Artists, Selected Works of Western Ethical Masterpieces, and History of Medieval Philosophy in Western Europe (Bernardino Telesio, 1509-1588, Renaissance Italy philosopher)
Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1533-1592, a translation of Montagne, French thinkers and prose writers during the Renaissance) - "Meng Tian Wenxuan"
Pierre Charron (1541-1603, French philosopher of the Renaissance)
Giordano Bruno (1548-1600, Italian philosopher of the Renaissance) - "On Reason, Primitive and Taiyi", "On Infinity, Universe and Worlds", "Basting the Beast", "On Heroic Passion" 》
Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639, Renaissance Italian Utopian Communist)
Jakob B?hme, 1575-1624, Renaissance German mystic philosopher
Grouseus (Hugo Grotius, 1583-1645, Dutch bourgeois jurist, early theorist of the natural law school, studied law, theology, history, literature, and natural sciences, with international law Research is well known)
Lucilio Vanini (1584-1619, Italian philosopher of the Renaissance)
Francis Bacon (1561-1626, "-"Chongxue", "New Tools", "Bacon's Anthology", "New Daxi"
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679, British materialist philosopher) - "Leviathan", "On Objects", "On Man", "On Freedom, Inevitability and Accident"
Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655, a translation of garrison, French materialist philosopher, physicist, astronomer) Descartes (1596-1650, French philosopher, physicist, mathematician) , physiologist, founder of analytic geometry) - "Methodology", "The First Philosophical Contemplation", "Philosophical Principles", "On the Passion of the Soul"
Hendrik van Roy (French name Henri Le Roy, Latin name Henricus Regius, 1598-1679, Dutch doctor, philosopher, representative of early mechanical materialism)
Gerrard Winstanley (circa 1609-about 1652, the leader of the bourgeois revolutionary movement in the British bourgeois revolution, the imaginary communist)
John Lilburne (circa 1614-1657, petty bourgeois democrat of the British bourgeois revolution, average leader)
Arnold Geulincx (1625-1669, the Dutch Descartes idealist philosopher, he and Malebranches are also called the causemen)
Spinoza (later renamed Benedictus) Spinoza, 1632-1677, Dutch materialist philosopher) - "Ethics", "Intellectual Improvement", "Theological Politics", "The Principles of Descartes"
Locke (John Locke, 1632-1704, British materialist philosopher) - "Human Understanding", "On the Government", "The Rationality of Christianity"
Nicolas Malebranche (1638-1715, French idealist philosopher) - "The Search for Truth", "Dialogue on Metaphysics"
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716, German natural scientist, mathematician, idealist philosopher) - "Theory of God", "New Theory of Human Reason", "Son Theory", "metaphysical conversation"
Pierre Bayle (1647-1706, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "The Letter about Comet", "General Critique of the History of Calvinism" by Manbull, "Dictionary of Historical Criticism"
Christian Wolff (1679-1754, German idealist philosopher)
George Berkeley (1685-1753, British idealist philosopher) - "New Theory of Vision", "Principles of Human Knowledge" Charles Louis de Secondat Montesquieu (1689-1755, French Enlightenment Thinker, Jurist ) - "Persian Letters", "The Causes of the Rise and Fall of Rome", "The Spirit of the Law", "On the Interests of Nature and Art"
Voltaire (1694-1778, French enlightenment thinker, writer, philosopher. Formerly known as François Marie Arouet) - "Oedipus the King", "Philosophy Communication ", Metaphysics", "Philosophy Dictionary"
David Hartley (1705-1757, British materialist philosopher, one of the founders of the psychological association, the deism) Gabriel Bonnot de Mably, 1709-1785, French imaginary communist, Kong Brother of Diak
Ramien Offroy de La Mettrie (1709-1751, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "Man is a machine", "The work of Penelope", "The soul Natural History, "Man is a plant"
Thomas Reid (1710-1796, British philosopher, founder of the Scottish school, the common sense school)
Lomonosov (Миxaил Вacильевич Ломoносοв1711-1765, Russian scholar, poet, founder of Russian materialistic philosophy and natural science)
Hume (David Hume, 1711-1776, British idealist philosopher, agnostic, historian, economist) - "The Theory of Human Nature", "Human Understanding", "Ethics and Politics"
Rousseau (Jean Jacques Rousseau, 1712-1778, French enlightenment thinker, philosopher, educator, writer) - "Confessions", "Fashionable Muse", "Village Wizard", "On the Origin of Human Inequality" And Foundation, "Social Contract Theory", "Ai Mier" ("On Education")
Denis Diderot (1713-1784, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher, atheist, writer, editor-in-chief of Encyclopedia) - "Philosophy of Thought", "Stroll of Skeptics", "For The letter of the blind person, the book on the book of deaf and dumb, the interpretation of nature, the conversation of D'Alembert and Diderot, The Continuation of the Talk, The Deaf of Rama Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714-1762, German philosopher, advocate of the Wolff philosophy system) Claude Adrien Helvétius (1715-1771, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "On the spirit "On the rationality and education of human beings", "The Tablet of Love Knowledge", "The Tablet of Happiness", "The Tablet of Rational Pride and Laziness"
Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780, French enlightenment thinker, sensory theorist, Marbury's brother) - "Sensory Theory", "The Origin of Human Knowledge", "System Theory"
Jean Le Rond d' Alembert (1717-1783, a translator of Lambert, French mathematician, enlightenment thinker, philosopher, former deputy editor of the Encyclopedia)
Paul Heinrich Dietrich d' Holbach (1723-1789, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher, atheist) - "Debunked Christianity", "Pocket Theology", "Sacred Plague", "Sound Thought, Natural System, Social System, Universal Ethics
Kanman (Immanuel Kant, 1724-1804, the founder of German classical idealism) - "Critique of Pure Reason", "Critique of Practical Reason", "Critique of Judgment", "Introduction to Future Metaphysics", "Principles of Moral Metaphysics", On Perpetual Peace and the Collection of Critical Criticism of History
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781, thinker, literary theorist, playwright of the German Enlightenment) Henry Dodwell (-1784, British deism)
Jean Baptiste René Robinet (1735-1820, French philosopher)
Jean Antoine Condorcet (1743-1794, French bourgeois revolutionary bourgeois theorist)
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743-1819, German idealist philosopher)
Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803, German literary theorist, philosopher, arrogant movement (the theory of the German bourgeois literary movement in the 1970s and 1980s))
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832, British ethicist, jurist, main representative of bourgeois utilitarianism) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832, German poet, playwright, thinker)
William Godwin (1756-1836, British writer, social thinker, pastor, and later supported atheism and enlightenment)
Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis (1757-1808, French bourgeois revolutionary bourgeois theorist, physiologist, vulgar materialist)
Claude Henri de Saint-Simon, 1760-1825, French utopian socialist
Filippo Michele Buonarrotti (1761-1837, French imaginary communist. Originally from Italy, participated in the French Revolution of 1789, won the title of "Citizen of the French Republic")
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814, German classical idealist philosopher) - "The Foundation of All Knowledge", "The Foundation of Natural Law under the Principles of Knowledge", "The Moral System under the Principles of Knowledge", "On the Mission of Scholars" and "The Mission of Man" Hegel (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, 1770-1831, the master of German classical idealism) - "Psychiatry Phenomenology", "Logic", "Little Logic" , Principles of Legal Philosophy, Philosophy of History, Philosophy of Nature, Philosophy of Spirit, Philosophy of Art, Lectures on History of Philosophy, Hegel Letters
Robert Owen (1771-1858, British Utopian Socialist)
Charles Fourier (1772-1837, French Utopian Socialist)
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775-1854, German idealist philosopher) - "Transcendental Idealism System", "On the World Soul"
Bernhard Bolzano (1781-1848, Czech mathematician, philosopher, logician)
Etienne Cabet (1788-1856, French Utopian Communist)
Schopenhauer (1788-1860, German idealist philosopher, voluntarist)
Victor Cousin (1792-1867, French idealist philosopher, professing his philosophical system as eclecticism)
Heinrich Heine (1797-1856, German poet, political commentator, thinker)
Auguste Comte (1798-1857, French positivist philosopher)
Théodore Dézamy (1803-1850, French Utopian Communist)
Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach (1804-1872, German materialist philosopher) - "The selection of Feuerbach's philosophical works", "The Essence of Christianity", "Critique of Hegel's Philosophy", "Principles of Future Philosophy" Herzen (1812-1870): "Nature Research Newsletter", "Scientific Tastes", "To Old Friends"
Louis Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881, French Revolutionary, Utopian Communist)
Max Stirner (1806-1856, Kaspar Schmidt's pseudonym, German idealist philosopher, one of the young Hegelian representatives, the so-called theorists, the anarchist's forerunner By)
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873, British idealist philosopher, economist, logician, son of James Muller)
Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865, French petty bourgeois economist and sociologist, one of the founders of anarchism)
Powell (Bruno Bauer, 1809-1882, German idealist philosopher, the main representative of the young Hegelian)
Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский,1811-1848, Russian revolutionary democrat, literary critic, philosopher) - "Selection of Bilinsky's Philosophical Works"
Jean Josehp Charles Louis Blanc (1811-1882, French petty bourgeois socialist, historian)
Herzen (Александр Иванович Герцен, 1812-1870, Russian revolutionary democrat, materialist philosopher, writer)
Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855, Danish idealist philosopher, his thought became one of the theoretical basis of modern bourgeois philosophical genre existentialism)
Rudolf Hermann Lotze (1817-1881, German idealist philosopher, professing his philosophy as "the teleological idealism")
Grünn (1817-1887, German petty bourgeois socialist)
Karl Vogt (1817-1895, German naturalist, vulgar materialist, professing his philosophy as "physiology
Marx (1818.5.5-1883.3.14, - "Capital", "Economic Manuscript", "The Outline of Feuerbach", "German Ideology"
Spencer (Herbert Spencer, 1820-1903, British sociologist, agnostic, idealist philosopher)
Jacob Moleschott (1822-1893, a Dutch physiologist, philosopher, one of the representatives of vulgar materialism) Ludwig Büchner (1824-1899, German doctor, one of vulgar materialist representatives)
Ferdinand Lassalle (1825-1864, leader of the opportunistic faction in the German workers' movement)
Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895, British naturalist) - "Beautiful New World"
Friedrich überweg (1826-1871, German philosopher) - "Introduction to the History of Philosophy"
Friedrich Albert Lange (1828-1875, German idealist philosopher, early neo-Kantian) Joseph Dietzgen (1828-1888, German socialist writer and philosopher, tanner) Chernyshevsky (Николай Гаврилович Чернышевский,
1828-1889, Russian revolutionary democrats, materialist philosophers, literary critics, writers) - "The Aesthetic Relationship between Art and Reality", "An Overview of the Gothic Period in the Russian Literature Circle", "Philosophy Humanism Principles" 》
Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (1828-1893, a translation of Dana, French literary theorist, historian, one of the heirs of Conde's empirical philosophy)
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920, German psychologist, philosopher, one of the founders of structural psychology)
Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911, a German idealist philosopher who originally belonged to neo-Kantianism and later turned to philosophy of life)
Karl Eugen Dühring (1833-1921, German philosopher, vulgar economist)
Harris Torrey Harris (1835-1909, American educator, idealist philosopher, the earliest communicator of Hegelian philosophy in the United States)
Green Hill (Thomas Hill Green, 1836-1882, British idealist philosopher)
Wilhelm Schuppe (1836-1913, German idealist philosopher, founder of internalism)
Ernst Mach (1838-1916, Austrian physicist, idealist philosopher, one of the founders of empirical criticism) Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914, American idealist philosopher, founder of pragmatism)
James (William James, 1842-1910, American idealist philosopher, psychologist, pragmatist, founder of functional psychology)
Eduart Hartmann (1842-1906, German idealist philosopher)
Richard Avenarius (1843-1896, German subjective idealist philosopher, one of the founders of empirical criticism)
Nietzsche (Friedrich Nietzsche, 1844-1900, German idealist philosopher, voluntarist)
Merlin (Franz Mehring, 1846-1919, one of the left-wing leaders of the German Social Democratic Party, political commentator, historian)
Francis Herbert Bradley (1846-1924, British idealist philosopher, new Hegelian) R (Rudolf Eucken, 1846-1926, German idealist philosopher)
Richard Schubert-Soldern (1852-1935, German idealist philosopher, representative of internalism
Karl Pearson (1857-1936, British idealist philosopher, mathematician, one of the advocates of eugenics) Samuel Alexander (1859-1938, British idealist philosopher, new realist)
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938, German idealist philosopher, founder of modern phenomenology)
Henri Bergson (1859-1941, French idealist philosopher, life philosophy and the main representative of modern irrationalism)
John Dewey (1859-1952, American idealist philosopher, sociologist, educator, pragmatist) Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947, British idealist philosopher, mathematician)
Josef Petzoldt (1862-1929, German idealist philosopher, empirical critic)Heinrich Rickert (1863-1936, German idealist philosopher, one of the main representatives of the New Kant's Freiburg School)
Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller (1864-1937, British philosopher, pragmatist, called his pragmatic philosophy "humanism")
Benedetto Croce (1866-1952, a translation of Croce, Italian idealist philosopher, historian, new Hegelian)
Hans Driesch (1867-1941, German idealist philosopher, biologist, new vitalist)
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970, British idealist philosopher, mathematician, logician)
Bogdanov (Александр Александрович Богданов, 1873-1928, Russian idealist philosopher)
George Edward Moore (1873-1958, British idealist philosopher, one of the main representatives of the new realism)
Giovanni Gentile (1875-1944, Italian idealist philosopher, new Hegelian)
Oswald Spengler (1880-1936, German idealist philosopher, historian)
Deborin (Абрам Моиесевич Деборин, 1881-1963, Soviet philosopher,
Moritz Schlick (1882-1936, idealist philosopher, born in Germany, taught at the University of Vienna, Austria, one of the founders of the Vienna School, one of the founders of logical positivism)
Jalques Maritain (1882-1973, French theologian, idealist philosopher, main representative of new Thomasism) Karl Jaspers (1883-1969, German existentialist philosopher)
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951, Austrian idealist philosopher, logician. After Hitler annexed Austria in 1838, he entered British nationality and taught at Cambridge University)
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976, a German existentialist philosopher who served as university president and professor during Hitler's reign, and supported Nazism)
Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980, French existentialist philosopher.) - "Imagination", "Existence and Nihility", "Existentialism is a Humanism", "Critique of Dialectical Reason", Several Issues in Methodology
Beauvoir Simone de (1908-1986, French existentialist scholar, writer)
Merleau Ponty (1908-1961, French existentialist philosopher)
Of course, philosophy and religion, politics, literature, etc. are also closely related. If you want to know the avenue, you must know the history. Repeated reading of the history of philosophy, world history, benefited a lot, and imagination came together.
Eastern philosophy Arabic philosophy Indian philosophy
In the history of the world, the East and the Arab countries also have important status and influence. Countries such as India, China, and Arabia are particularly important.
The great wise man of life
(The legend is about 600 years ago - about 470 years ago), surnamed Li Ming Er, the word Bo Yang, Han nationality, Chu State Bian County, is a great ancient Chinese philosopher, thinker, Taoist school founder, and in the Valley It was written in the ethics of the Five Thousand Words.
Confucius
Confucius (September 28th, 551th to April 11th, 479th) Mingqiu, the word Zhongni, Lu Guoyu, Han nationality at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period. English: Confucius, Kung Tze. Confucius was a great educator and thinker in ancient China, the founder of the Confucian school, and a world cultural celebrity. Confucius's thoughts and doctrines have had a profound impact on later generations.
Zhuangzi (about 369 years ago - 286 years ago), Han nationality. A famous thinker, philosopher, and writer is the representative of the Taoist school, the successor and developer of Laozi's philosophy, and the founder of the pre-Qin Zhuangzi school. His doctrine covers all aspects of social life at that time, but the fundamental spirit is still dependent on Laozi's philosophy. Later generations will call him and Laozi "Laozhuang", and their philosophy is "Lao Zhuang philosophy."
Mencius, the pioneer of the people-oriented thinking
Mencius (from 372 to 289) Han nationality, Zoucheng, Shandong. The great thinker of ancient China. One of the representative figures of Confucianism during the Warring States Period. He is the author of "Meng Zi", a collection of essays. "The Book of Mencius" is a compilation of Mencius's remarks, written by Mencius and his disciples, and records the Confucian classics of Mencius' words and deeds.
Xunzi (Xunzi 313 years ago - 238 years ago), the name of the famous thinker, writer, politician, representative of the Confucian school, - Han Fei, Li Si is his disciple.
Dong Zhongshu (before 179~104), Dong Zi, Han Dynasty thinker, politician. Great contribution to the orthodox status of Confucianism. It is a thinker of the Western Han Dynasty who is advancing with the times. He is a famous idealist philosopher in the Western Han Dynasty and a master of modern Chinese studies. When Emperor Jingdi was a Ph.D., he taught "The Ram Spring and Autumn." In the first year of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (134 BC), Dong Zhongshu put forward the basic points of his philosophical system in the famous "Measures for Raising the Virtue," and suggested that "the slogan of 100 schools and the unique Confucianism" should be adopted by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. Later generations have different opinions on this.
Master of Science
Zhu Xi was a master of Song's agency studies. He inherited the science of Cheng Song and Cheng Wei of the Northern Song Dynasty and completed the system of objective idealism. It is said that reason is the essence of the world, "reasonable first, gas is behind", and puts forward "preserving the heavens, destroying human desires." Zhu Xi has a profound knowledge of the study of Confucian classics, history, literature, music, and even the natural sciences.
The development of Indian philosophy can be roughly divided into ancient philosophy (about 3000 BC ~ 750 AD), medieval philosophy (750 to 18th century AD), modern philosophy (about 18th century to 1947), modern philosophy (after 1947) ) Four periods.
Ancient
India has emerged as the bud of the worldview in the era of the Rigveda in the end of the original commune. After entering the slavery society, it began to form a systematic philosophy. The earliest philosophical book "The Upanishads."
middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, religion dominated, and the philosophy of the ruling class was included in the Hindu theology system. India traditionally recognized the Vatican’s authoritative figures, the Yoga School, the Victory School, the Orthodox School, and the Vedanta School. The Six-sect philosophy, such as the Miman sentiment, is called the orthodox school, and the Shunshi, Buddhism, Jainism, etc., which deny the authority of the Vedic, are called unorthodox.
Islam Arabia
The main differences between the Moor Taiqilai and the Hadith in philosophy are: the nature of Allah and the relationship between Allah and the world. MooreThe Taiqilai faction denies that Allah has all kinds of unfounded virtues such as knowledge, energy, sight, hearing, speech, life, etc., because these are considered to be the beginning of virtue and the personalization of Allah, and the true The uniqueness is incompatible; the Hadith is recognized as the virtue of Allah. Secondly, the debate about "freedom of will" and "pre-determination", that is, the relationship between man and Allah, the Hadith believes that the good and evil of man is the premise of Allah, and the act of man is created by Allah. The Moor Taiqilai faction believes that people have unlimited freedom of will, and that human behavior is created by themselves. Allah is rewarded and punished according to his good and evil, thus proving that Allah is fair.
After the 10th century, the Sunni philosophical system, the "New Kailam", the doctrine of Islam, was formed. The founder, Ashley, and his disciples reconciled the doctrines of “pre-determination” and “freedom of will”, emphasizing the all-powerfulness of Allah, and there is no causal connection between all things in the world, created by Allah. They try to show that all actions of human beings are determined by Allah, but people have the ability to "reach" their own actions, so people are responsible for their actions before Allah. The faction was supported by the ruling class and was regarded as an orthodox official creed.
Philosophy-theologians and their schools In the 9th and 12th centuries, there were numerous famous philosophers in the vast areas under the caliphate state, and there were also groups and factions of philosophers. These philosophers and factions, called "Hokma" by the Arabs, formed the main body of Arab medieval philosophy at that time, divided into two things, centered on Baghdad and Córdoba. Many of these philosophers are engaged in secular affairs (doctors, natural scientists, etc.), attaching importance to empirical knowledge and emphasizing theoretical understanding. Although they still have not got rid of the control of orthodox theology, they have largely accepted the influence of Greek-Roman philosophy, especially Aristotle and Neo-Platonicism and Eastern traditional ideas.
The philosopher Lacy and the sincere brothers. They attempted to reconcile Greek natural philosophy (including mathematics, astronomy, astrology, music, alchemy, medicine, etc.) and Islamic teachings to create a religious philosophy. Lacy's medical theory begins with the recognition of the close connection between the body and the soul, asserting that matter is eternal, that movement is an inseparable property of objects, and that feelings cause people to have an understanding of the object. The sincere Brothers Society was originally a politically-religious group of religious and philosophical groups in the Basra area in the 10th century. They collectively compiled an encyclopedic collection of essays. Their cosmology is Islam Shiite, New Pythago The combination of lasism and neo-Platonicism.
Philosophers Kendi, Farabi, and Ibn Sina, influenced by Greek Aristotle and Neo-Platonicism. Kendy is known as an Arab philosopher. He systematically studied Greek philosophy and tried to combine it with Islamic teachings, arguing that matter is a form of “flowing out” from the spirit of Allah, and that the soul can leave the body and be independent. Faraby is recognized as the "first philosopher" after Aristotle. His philosophical system is a mixture of Plato, Aristotle and Sufism, propagating the immortal "ration of Allah" . I think that the world is made up of many elements, and people can know the world through feelings. Ibn Sinah proposed the "dual truth theory" of religion and science. He is arrogant between materialism and idealism. He believes that the material world is eternal. They are not created by Allah, but they also think that the spirit overflows from Allah. The spirit gives form to the material and then forms everything. It is also claimed that the soul and the body are different and are a special ability that goes beyond the physical properties of ordinary things. On the issue of commonality, it is believed that the common phase exists before things, as the idea of creation, exists in things; as the essence of things, after things, is the form of existence of concepts.
Sufism and orthodox theology - philosopher Ansari. The Sufism faction appeared at the end of the 7th century and has undergone significant development since the end of the 8th century. Influenced by Neo-Platonicism and the Indian Yoga School, they promoted the "oneness of man and God" and "the connection between man and God" and advocated the doctrine of abstinence, perseverance, self-restraint, and was suppressed by the orthodox Islam. The orthodox school of the famous theology-philosopher Ansari, who was the master of
Day 20 of Occupy Wall Street and Liberty Park prepares for the big union march at Foley Square. October 5, 2011
Good Magazine: The (Un)Official Occupy Wall Street Photographer's 15 Favorite Frames
The Occupy Wall Street Creative Commons Project
Day 1 September 17 Photos - Preoccupation and Occupation Begins
Day 2 September 18 Photos - People settle in; cardboard sign menage begins
Day 3 September 19 Photos - Community forms; protest signs
Day 7 September 23 Photos - First rain, protest signs, life
Day 8 September 24 Photos - Pepper spray day, Zuni Tikka, people
Day 21 October 6 Photos - Naomi Klein
Day 23 October 8 - Faces of OWS
Day 28 October 13 - Tom Morello of RATM
Day 31 - protesting Chihuahua and The Daily Show
Day 36 - Parents and Kids Day and quite a crowd
Day 40 - protesting hotties, Reverend Billy and tents
Day 43 Photos - Snow storm at OWS of the first NYC winter snowfall
Day 47 - Solidarity with Occupy Oakland
Day 52 November 7 - Jonathan Lethem, Lynn Nottage and Jennifer Egan
Day 53 November 8 - David Crosby and Graham Nash play OWS
Day 57 November 12 - Former NJ Gov. Jim McGreevey
Day 60 November 15 - Police evict protesters from Zuccotti
Occupy Colorado Springs Colorado on November 20
Do you want to see the Occupy Wall Street series laid out thematically? Click here
Today (July 1, 2017), I cycled into central London with my son Tyler to support the ‘Not One Day More’ protest called by the People’s Assembly Against Austerity, and to take photos. We caught the march on Whitehall, as the tens of thousands of protestors who had marched from BBC HQ in Portland Place advanced on Parliament Square, and it was exhilarating to stand by the Monument to the Women of World War II in the middle of Whitehall, near 10 Downing Street, as a wave of protestors advanced, chanting, “Oh, Jeremy Corbyn” and “Tories, Tories, Tories, out, out, out.”
Many of the placards, understandably, dealt with the Grenfell Tower disaster two weeks ago, when an untold number of residents died in an inferno that should never have happened, but that was entirely due to the greed and exploitation of the poorer members of society that is central to the Tories’ austerity agenda, waged relentlessly over the last seven years, and the neo-liberalism — insanely, unstoppably greedy, and utterly indifferent to the value of human lives — that has been driving politics since the 1980s.
Jeremy Corbyn spoke at the rally, telling the crowd, “We are the people, we are united and we are determined, we are not going to be divided or let austerity divide us. We are increasing in support and we are determined to force another election as soon as we can.”
This is positive, of course, but there is an elephant in the room — Brexit. At present, the Tories, severely damaged by Theresa May’s decision to call a General Election at which she then performed so dismally that she lost her majority, is clinging onto power, and is still responsible for the nationwide car crash that is Brexit, but if the Labour Party is to take power, Jeremy Corbyn’s supporters need to be sure that his intention is to stop Brexit and not to insist that it must take place because that is the “will of the people.” As I have stated repeatedly, the referendum result was only advisory, the majority was too slim for a referendum involving major constitutional change, and leaving the EU will be an act of economic suicide on such a scale that it will destroy whoever is responsible for implementing it. I believe it can — and must — be stopped, or else all Jeremy Corbyn’s plans to reinvigorate public sector spending will be impossible, as the economy collapses.
For the Guardian’s report about the march and rally article, see: www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jul/01/jeremy-corbyn-to...
For the People’s Assembly, see: www.thepeoplesassembly.org.uk
For my article about the Grenfell disaster, see: www.andyworthington.co.uk/2017/06/16/deaths-foretold-at-g...
Also check out the video of my band The Four Fathers playing ’Stand Down Theresa’, a a rough but passionate (and updated) cover of The Beat’s protest classic. ’Stand Down Margaret’: www.youtube.com/watch?v=mpVb06VXkOM
For my most interesting photos, see: www.flickriver.com/photos/andyworthington/popular-interes...
Brian & Barry is an Italian department store chain, which operates as a flagship store and corporate headquarters near Piazza San Babila, central Milan. Designed by Italian architect Giovanni Muzio, with an investment of €70 million. In March 2014, the flagship store Brian & Barry Building – San Babila was opened.
The 12 story mega-concept store lying between via Durini and via Borgogna – aims at conveying the best of Italian style.
On street level, you will find the Eataly cafeteria, serving ice cream, coffee and chocolate. The basement is given over to design and home décor on the one hand, with Ecliss Milano, and Eataly on the other, featuring a food market and a top-level “piadineria”.
Sephora makes it appearance on the first floor with a brand new store that promises a holistic and technological approach to beauty. On the second floor, a multi-brand area stocks several of the world’s most coveted watch and jewelry brands. Eataly returns on the third and fourth floors with its entire range of products and tasting experiences, while floors 5 to 9 hosting 200 fashion labels, including numerous emerging designers, clothing and accessories for men and women, but also everything that comprises the word lifestyle, from technology to gadgets.
Floors 9 and 10 host a stylish gourmet panoramic restaurant (Asola | Cucina Sartoriale) and a terrace lounge where you can enjoy a magnificent view over the city.
The name Brian & Barry comes from:
Brian Barry FBA (13 January 1936 – 10 March 2009) was a moral and political philosopher. He was educated at the Queen's College, Oxford, obtaining the degrees of B.A. and D.Phil under the direction of H. L. A. Hart.
Along with David Braybrooke, Richard E. Flathman, Felix Oppenheim, and Abraham Kaplan, he is widely credited with having fused analytic philosophy and political science.
Barry challenged the prejudice that there was nothing to be said about political values and principles, and sought to explain and justify how we might reach reasonable conclusions about them. Forty-four years on, Political Argument remains a compendium of how we conceptualise, analyse and defend claims about democracy, power and justice.
His political philosophy can best be described as egalitarian liberalism – the view that, along with protecting traditional liberal freedoms, the "just" state must promote economic redistribution from rich to poor and provide equality of access to public services.
Equality of opportunity, in Barry's view, was not compatible with such institutions as private education or private medicine. Genuine equality of opportunity exists only when outcomes depend exclusively on people's choices and decisions, not on factors which are influenced by social class, race or family background.
John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism". Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Sir Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence
British postcard in the Picturegoer Series, London, no. D 506. Photo: Columbia.
Tall, well built and ruggedly handsome American actor Charlton Heston (1923-2008) appeared in 100 Hollywood films over the course of 60 years. With features chiselled in stone, he became famous for playing a long list of historical figures, particularly in Biblical epics.
His film debut was in the film noir Dark City (1950). His breakthrough came when Cecil B. DeMille cast him as a circus manager in The Greatest Show on Earth (1952). Heston became an icon for portraying Moses in the hugely successful film The Ten Commandments (1956). Furthermore, he is best known for his roles in Orson Welles' widely acclaimed film noir Touch of Evil (1958), Ben-Hur (1959) - for which he won the Oscar for Best Actor, El Cid (1961), and Planet of the Apes (1968).
These starring roles gave the actor a grave, authoritative persona and embodied responsibility, individualism and masculinity. Heston rejected scripts that did not emphasize those virtues. He was a supporter of Democratic politicians and civil rights in the 1960s, but eventually he rejected liberalism, founded a conservative political action committee and supported Ronald Reagan. Heston's most famous role in politics came as the five-term president of the National Rifle Association from 1998 to 2003. In 2001, Heston made a cameo appearance as an elderly, dying chimpanzee in Tim Burton's remake of Planet of the Apes.
Sources: Wikipedia and IMDb.
Today (July 1, 2017), I cycled into central London with my son Tyler to support the ‘Not One Day More’ protest called by the People’s Assembly Against Austerity, and to take photos. We caught the march on Whitehall, as the tens of thousands of protestors who had marched from BBC HQ in Portland Place advanced on Parliament Square, and it was exhilarating to stand by the Monument to the Women of World War II in the middle of Whitehall, near 10 Downing Street, as a wave of protestors advanced, chanting, “Oh, Jeremy Corbyn” and “Tories, Tories, Tories, out, out, out.”
This placard refers to May's car crash pre-election interview, in which, when asked what was the naughtiest thing she had done, she claimed that it was "running through the fields of wheat" when she was young, and annoying the farmer whose land it was.
Many of the placards, understandably, dealt with the Grenfell Tower disaster two weeks ago, when an untold number of residents died in an inferno that should never have happened, but that was entirely due to the greed and exploitation of the poorer members of society that is central to the Tories’ austerity agenda, waged relentlessly over the last seven years, and the neo-liberalism — insanely, unstoppably greedy, and utterly indifferent to the value of human lives — that has been driving politics since the 1980s.
Jeremy Corbyn spoke at the rally, telling the crowd, “We are the people, we are united and we are determined, we are not going to be divided or let austerity divide us. We are increasing in support and we are determined to force another election as soon as we can.”
This is positive, of course, but there is an elephant in the room — Brexit. At present, the Tories, severely damaged by Theresa May’s decision to call a General Election at which she then performed so dismally that she lost her majority, is clinging onto power, and is still responsible for the nationwide car crash that is Brexit, but if the Labour Party is to take power, Jeremy Corbyn’s supporters need to be sure that his intention is to stop Brexit and not to insist that it must take place because that is the “will of the people.” As I have stated repeatedly, the referendum result was only advisory, the majority was too slim for a referendum involving major constitutional change, and leaving the EU will be an act of economic suicide on such a scale that it will destroy whoever is responsible for implementing it. I believe it can — and must — be stopped, or else all Jeremy Corbyn’s plans to reinvigorate public sector spending will be impossible, as the economy collapses.
For the Guardian’s report about the march and rally article, see: www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jul/01/jeremy-corbyn-to...
For the People’s Assembly, see: www.thepeoplesassembly.org.uk
For my article about the Grenfell disaster, see: www.andyworthington.co.uk/2017/06/16/deaths-foretold-at-g...
Also check out the video of my band The Four Fathers playing ’Stand Down Theresa’, a a rough but passionate (and updated) cover of The Beat’s protest classic. ’Stand Down Margaret’: www.youtube.com/watch?v=mpVb06VXkOM
For my most interesting photos, see: www.flickriver.com/photos/andyworthington/popular-interes...
Please follow me on Facebook/ Sigueme en Facebook.
www.facebook.com/pages/El-Saskuas-Fotografia/140063046160...
Press L for a better view/ Teclea L para una mejor visión
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You can see my photos in facebook. Thank you for follow me.
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Unless otherwise noted, my photographs are all under full copyright. So please don't use my photos without my permission. If you'd like to use one of my photos, just ask.
Best way to get in touch is through FlickrMail.
Regards and nice day!
----------------------------------------------
Si no hay una nota que diga lo contrario todas mis fotos tienen copyright. Por favor no las uses en ningun sitio web sin mi permiso. Contacta conmigo a traves de flickrmail y te autorizaré o no a utilizarla.
Un saludo y buen dia!!!
Cuéllar (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈkweʎar]) is a small town and local government district in the autonomous community of Castile and León, in Spain. It had a population of 9,725 in 2011.
The town is settled on a hill, and it is 60 km north-east of the capital city of Segovia, and 50 km south of Valladolid. It has an extension of 272 km² and it is 857m above sea level. Flowing though the town are the rivers Cerquilla and Cega. To the north, the town borders the municipality of Bahabón (province of Valladolid); to the south it borders Sanchonuño; to the east is Frumales; and to the west are the municipalities of San Cristóbal de Cuéllar and Vallelado.
Cuéllar has a long-standing agriculture tradition. Specific crops are cereals, vegetables, chicory, legumes, and beet. Specific livestock raised are pigs, sheep and cows. Many years ago, forestry
Professor Ubieto Arteta showed that there is some historical evidence of Cuéllar in the 10th century. Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir (Spanish name Almanzor) sacked the town and enslaved its population, deporting them to Andalusia. King Alfonso VI of León and Castile rebuilt the town again and brought new settlers at the end of the 11th century. This was the origin of the municipality, ruled by its town council. In 1184, king Alfonso VIII of Castile assembled the parliament in Cuéllar; there, he granted knighthood to several noblemen, amongst whom the Count of Tolosa.
In the 13th century, Cuéllar was one of the most important towns in the north of Spain. The wool trade enriched the local economy. Many palaces and Mudéjar churches were built. In 1256, Alfonso X of Castile granted Cuéllar a Royal Fuero (special law with privileges). Queen Maria de Molina, Sancho IV of Castile's wife, inherited the town after the death of her husband. The town was a refgue during her troubled regency while future King Ferdinand IV of Castile was a child.
In the middle of the 14th century, King Pedro I 'the Cruel' married doña Juana de Castro in Cuéllar. The marriage was a fraud because the King was divorced from his former wife in an unlawful way, and because he deserted doña Juana after their wedding night.
In 1464, King Henry IV of Castile gave the town as a Lordship to his favorite nobleman Beltrán de La Cueva, first Duke of Alburquerque. Since then, the town was bound to this family. His great-grandson was raised to Marquess.
n the 17th century, the town suffered a recession, along with many cities and villages in the country. The monarchy moved to Madrid and settled the court there, so the aristocracy also moved there. Also, it was a period of poverty because of the decadence of the wool trade, the taxes to pay the wars, and the plagues.
In the 18th century, thanks to the laws ruled by Charles III, the town recovered some of its social and economic prosperity.
When Napoleon invaded Spain, the town was looted by the French troops, who stole all the treasuries from the churches, monasteries and the castle.
In 1833, the writer and politician Jose de Espronceda was exiled to Cuéllar because of its liberalism ideology. He wrote the novel Sancho Saldaña or the Castilian from Cuéllar when he was living near the church of Santo Tomé.
[edit]20th century
During the civil war, the town remained part of the country controlled by the nationalist forces so its churches were preserved from the destruction. The castle served as headquarters to the fascist Italian troops, and later as a prison for prisoners. Many years after, the castle was a hospital for consumption patients and a jail for criminals. Now it is a high school and tourism center. Due to the agriculture activities, the people of Cuéllar suffered less troubles after the civil war and did not emigrate as much as other people in the region.
via Instagram One of the great myths strategically perpetuated is the great lie of #Israeli #Liberalism. This manifest itself in various ways, such as exotifying the #LGBTQ movement here, referring to #Haifa has a model of co-existence and the vegan entrees in the #IDF. This street musician works to shine the veneer of this very thin layer of Israeli society, hoping that it never gets broken open and inspected. For when you take a deeper look at the street musicians here, you find that often times they are starving on the streets as a result of the Israeli economy of disparity, the segregation of #Palestinians into little ethnic enclaves that are denied basic services in places like Anata, Beit Hanina, and the Shufat Refugee camp. For more on the idea of using #Liberal values to cover up the brutal military occupation of #Palestine, you can refer to http://bit.ly/1Ue0DQB #TAKE_ACTION Your tangible contribution is act of justice and hope. Be the change in the world. Make a difference, click here: bit.ly/Pics_For_Peace #Jerusalem #StreetPhotograpy #israelioccupation #freepalestine #peace #love #apartheid #israel #الخليل #المقاومة #فلسطين #الاحتلال #שלום #אהבה #צדק #ירושלים #חברון #פלסטין #الحرية
Wednesday, Day 12, September 28 and Wall Street remains barricaded to the public and tourists alike. Occupy Wall Street has effectively shut down the main strip of the financial district. Photos from Zuccotti Park, September 28 2011.
Good Magazine: The (Un)Official Occupy Wall Street Photographer's 15 Favorite Frames
The Occupy Wall Street Creative Commons Project
Day 1 September 17 Photos - Preoccupation and Occupation Begins
Day 2 September 18 Photos - People settle in; cardboard sign menage begins
Day 3 September 19 Photos - Community forms; protest signs
Day 7 September 23 Photos - First rain, protest signs, life
Day 8 September 24 Photos - Pepper spray day, Zuni Tikka, people
Day 21 October 6 Photos - Naomi Klein
Day 23 October 8 - Faces of OWS
Day 28 October 13 - Tom Morello of RATM
Day 31 - protesting Chihuahua and The Daily Show
Day 36 - Parents and Kids Day and quite a crowd
Day 40 - protesting hotties, Reverend Billy and tents
Day 43 Photos - Snow storm at OWS of the first NYC winter snowfall
Day 47 - Solidarity with Occupy Oakland
Day 52 November 7 - Jonathan Lethem, Lynn Nottage and Jennifer Egan
Day 53 November 8 - David Crosby and Graham Nash play OWS
Day 57 November 12 - Former NJ Gov. Jim McGreevey
Day 60 November 15 - Police evict protesters from Zuccotti
Occupy Colorado Springs Colorado on November 20
Do you want to see the Occupy Wall Street series laid out thematically? Click here
Day 23 of Occupy Wall Street - the faces of the people in Zuccotti Park (Liberty Park). October 8, 2011
Good Magazine: The (Un)Official Occupy Wall Street Photographer's 15 Favorite Frames
The Occupy Wall Street Creative Commons Project
Day 1 September 17 Photos - Preoccupation and Occupation Begins
Day 2 September 18 Photos - People settle in; cardboard sign menage begins
Day 3 September 19 Photos - Community forms; protest signs
Day 7 September 23 Photos - First rain, protest signs, life
Day 8 September 24 Photos - Pepper spray day, Zuni Tikka, people
Day 21 October 6 Photos - Naomi Klein
Day 23 October 8 - Faces of OWS
Day 28 October 13 - Tom Morello of RATM
Day 31 - protesting Chihuahua and The Daily Show
Day 36 - Parents and Kids Day and quite a crowd
Day 40 - protesting hotties, Reverend Billy and tents
Day 43 Photos - Snow storm at OWS of the first NYC winter snowfall
Day 47 - Solidarity with Occupy Oakland
Day 52 November 7 - Jonathan Lethem, Lynn Nottage and Jennifer Egan
Day 53 November 8 - David Crosby and Graham Nash play OWS
Day 57 November 12 - Former NJ Gov. Jim McGreevey
Day 60 November 15 - Police evict protesters from Zuccotti
Occupy Colorado Springs Colorado on November 20
Do you want to see the Occupy Wall Street series laid out thematically? Click here
Newcastle upon Tyne – statue in Walker Park. The statue was erected to commemorate the visit by Burns to Newcastle in 1787.
Robert Burns (25 January 1759 – 21 July 1796), also known familiarly as Rabbie Burns, was a Scottish poet and lyricist. He is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and is celebrated worldwide. He is the best known of the poets who have written in the Scots language, although much of his writing is in a "light Scots dialect" of English, accessible to an audience beyond Scotland. He also wrote in standard English, and in these writings his political or civil commentary is often at its bluntest.
He is regarded as a pioneer of the Romantic movement, and after his death he became a great source of inspiration to the founders of both liberalism and socialism, and a cultural icon in Scotland and among the Scottish diaspora around the world. Celebration of his life and work became almost a national charismatic cult during the 19th and 20th centuries, and his influence has long been strong on Scottish literature. In 2009 he was chosen as the greatest Scot by the Scottish public in a vote run by Scottish television channel STV.
As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland, often revising or adapting them. His poem (and song) "Auld Lang Syne" is often sung at Hogmanay (the last day of the year), and "Scots Wha Hae" served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country. Other poems and songs of Burns that remain well known across the world today include "A Red, Red Rose", "A Man's a Man for A' That", "To a Louse", "To a Mouse", "The Battle of Sherramuir", "Tam o' Shanter" and "Ae Fond Kiss".
Toronto held its second anti-Trump protest in as many days outside of the U.S. Consulate General on University Avenue today. The rally was attended by thousands despite the frigid temperature. The anti-Trump protesters came from many walks of life: liberalists, left-wing and centrist people, Socialists, Communists, Black Lives Matter (BLM), labour unions, mainstream population and visible minorities, and groups from many religious groups.
Day 20 of Occupy Wall Street and Liberty Park prepares for the big union march at Foley Square. October 5, 2011
Good Magazine: The (Un)Official Occupy Wall Street Photographer's 15 Favorite Frames
The Occupy Wall Street Creative Commons Project
Day 1 September 17 Photos - Preoccupation and Occupation Begins
Day 2 September 18 Photos - People settle in; cardboard sign menage begins
Day 3 September 19 Photos - Community forms; protest signs
Day 7 September 23 Photos - First rain, protest signs, life
Day 8 September 24 Photos - Pepper spray day, Zuni Tikka, people
Day 21 October 6 Photos - Naomi Klein
Day 23 October 8 - Faces of OWS
Day 28 October 13 - Tom Morello of RATM
Day 31 - protesting Chihuahua and The Daily Show
Day 36 - Parents and Kids Day and quite a crowd
Day 40 - protesting hotties, Reverend Billy and tents
Day 43 Photos - Snow storm at OWS of the first NYC winter snowfall
Day 47 - Solidarity with Occupy Oakland
Day 52 November 7 - Jonathan Lethem, Lynn Nottage and Jennifer Egan
Day 53 November 8 - David Crosby and Graham Nash play OWS
Day 57 November 12 - Former NJ Gov. Jim McGreevey
Day 60 November 15 - Police evict protesters from Zuccotti
Occupy Colorado Springs Colorado on November 20
Do you want to see the Occupy Wall Street series laid out thematically? Click here
the reincarnation
of helen g. wilson
1.
back in college
is where i want to start telling
now, i know what you’re thinking
like, that was a long time ago, mack
so, maybe it’s not all that relevant and all
and maybe you’re right
but here goes
2.
i went to college in a small town
in southern idaho
which isn’t exactly a bastion of liberalism
like, most of the history department there
was still thinking that nixon got a raw deal
if you know what i’m saying
anyway, there was this professor there
and her name was helen g. wilson
with the “g” standing for grace
3.
well, miss wilson taught japanese literature
and journalism
she had a big poster of bobby kennedy
on the door to her office
which announced in no uncertain terms
that she was a subversive and a corrupter of young minds
and if she was feeling particularly saucy
she’d invite senator frank church to speak on campus
because he happened to be a really good friend of hers
if you remember and maybe you don’t
he was a liberal democrat who ran for president
and to this day I have no idea
how he kept getting elected time after time
4.
miss wilson was also the advisor to the student newspaper
of which i was the editor for one year
before we went independent, so to speak,
and i got kicked out of school
which is something i don't want to get into here
5.
anyway, where was i? oh yeah,
well, miss wilson ran this thing called “Pet Haven”
and pretty much any stray dog or cat
or starving horse in the treasure valley
had a powerful advocate in miss wilson
as well as a place to go in times of trouble
and the stray dogs included more than just animals
if you know what i’m saying
6.
which brings me to the llahaur lodge
in the colca canyon
where i met yola
the reincarnation of helen g. wilson
a reawakening in a world
of wonderful women who take in
the stray dogs wandering around this earth
and for a few days
i found myself again in a safe house
yola,
the proprietor
of the llahaur lodge
in the colca canyon,
perú
ilford pan f plus,
with igor,
my leica r7.
standard 50 mm lens
Ana Maria de Jesus Ribeiro Garibaldi, best known as Anita Garibaldi or Ana Maria de Jesusito Ribeiro (August 30, 1821 – August 4, 1849) was the Brazilian wife and comrade-in-arms of Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi. Their partnership epitomized the spirit of the 19th century's age of romanticism and revolutionary liberalism.
Anita Garibaldi is a symbol of brazilian republicanism and was recognized as a national heroine after the fall of the Brazilian Empire and is also called the heroine of both worlds
for his participation in the war of independence in Italy
"Liberalism in religion is the doctrine that there is no positive truth in religion, but that one creed is as good as another, and this is the teaching which is gaining substance and force daily. It is inconsistent with any recognition of any religion, as true. It teaches that all are to be tolerated, for all are matters of opinion. Revealed religion is not a truth, but a sentiment and a taste; not an objective fact, not miraculous; and it is the right of each individual to make it say just what strikes his fancy...
[It] must be borne in mind, that there is much in the liberalistic theory which is good and true; for example, not to say more, the precepts of justice, truthfulness, sobriety, self-command, benevolence, which, as I have already noted, are among its avowed principles, and the natural laws of society.
It is not till we find that this array of principles is intended to supersede, to block out, religion, that we pronounce it to be evil. There never was a device of the Enemy so cleverly framed and with such promise of success".
- from Blessed John Henry Cardinal Newman's 'Biglietto Speech', delivered in Rome on 12 May 1879, upon acceptance of the office of cardinal.
Today, 9 October is his feast day. His words are prophetic and accurate. May he pray for us!
My wife was telling me about Herman Cain over breakfast last Sunday and
she said that he is described in the media as a 'self made' man.. And I said
really? No one is 'self made'. Yes there are people who courageously
persevere and find the resources they need to achieve a goal but it is always
certain that those resources were placed there by someone or some group.
This is especially true when we discuss any 'minority' person in politics.
It may mean nothing now to be an Irish Catholic who aspires to be President
but that's because John Kennedy ran for office and won and proved that a
Catholic could make secular decisions regardless of the Pope.
I find it deeply ironic to hear an African-American or female Presidential
Candidate ranting about 'those evil liberals' when their very presence on
the podium is proof that liberalism works.
These meditations on the lives of some of the visionaries who shaped the United States are my Thanksgiving gift to my friends on Flickr..
This year I give thanks for them and for you.
The story of Thanksgiving is an amazing tale of charity when one considers that the Europeans sickened and enslaved the native people.
Squanto's real name was Tisquantum. On his way back to the Patuxet in 1614, Tisquantum was kidnapped by Englishman Thomas Hunt. Hunt was one of John Smith's lieutenants. Hunt was planning to sell fish, corn, and captured natives in Málaga, Spain. There Hunt attempted to sell Tisquantum and a number of other Native Americans into slavery in Spain for £20 apiece.
Some local friars discovered what Hunt was attempting and took the remaining Native Americans — Tisquantum included — in order to instruct them in the Christian faith. Tisquantum convinced the friars to let him try to return home.
He managed to get to London, where he lived with and worked for a few years with John Slany, a shipbuilder who apparently taught Tisquantum more English. Slany took Tisquantum with him when he sailed to Cuper's Cove, Newfoundland. To get to New England, Tisquantum tried to take part in an expedition to that part of the North American east coast. When that plan fell through, he returned to England in 1618.
At last in 1619 Tisquantum returned to his homeland, having joined an exploratory expedition along the New England coast. He soon discovered that the Patuxet, as well as a majority of coastal New England tribes (mostly Wampanoag and Massachusett), had been decimated the year before by an epidemic plague, possibly smallpox; it has recently been postulated as having been leptospirosis. Native Americans had no natural immunity to European infectious diseases.
Tisquantum finally settled with Pilgrims at the site of his former village, which the English named Plymouth. He helped them recover from an extremely hard first winter by teaching them the native method of Maize cultivation. This method utilized local fish (herring) to fertilize crops. He likewise taught the colonists how to catch the herring necessary to fertilize maize in the native fashion along with the methods by which they could catch eels and other local wildlife for food.
In 1621 Tisquantum was the guide and translator for settlers Stephen Hopkins and Edward Winslow as they traveled upland on a diplomatic mission to the Wampanoag sachem, known today as Massasoit. In a subsequent mission for Governor William Bradford that summer, Tisquantum was captured by Wampanoag while gathering intelligence on the renegade sagamore, Corbitant, at the village of Nemasket (site of present-day Middleborough, Massachusetts.) Myles Standish led a ten-man team of settlers from Plymouth to rescue Tisquantum if he were alive or, if he had been killed, to avenge him.
Tisquantum was found alive and well. He was welcomed back by the Pilgrims at Plymouth, where he continued in his vital role as assistant to the colony.
Although he worked at alliances, Tisquantum ended up distrusted by both the English and the Wampanoag. Massasoit, the sachem who first appointed Tisquantum as liaison to the Pilgrims, nevertheless did not trust him in the tribe's dealings with the settlers. He assigned Hobamok (whose name may have been a pseudonym, as it meant "mischievous"), to watch over Tisquantum and act as a second representative.
On his way back from a meeting to repair damaged relations between the Wampanoag and Pilgrims, Tisquantum became sick with a fever. Some historians have speculated that he was poisoned by the Wampanoag because they believed he had been disloyal to the sachem. Tisquantum died a few days later in 1622 in Chatham, Massachusetts.
He was buried in an unmarked grave, possibly in Plymouth's cemetery Burial Hill.
Peace between the two groups lasted for another fifty years.
Source for the Biography is Wikipedia. The image is from the wiki commons pool.
Phase 1: Too many healthcare workers, ignored, abandoned, scorned by the government, beaten up, gassed by the watchdogs of Macronian ultra liberalism, the population watches them demonstrate from their balconies without obviously going down the street with them.
The gentleman in the picture is the ‘grand old man of Liberalism’, William Ewart Gladstone. He is pictured here in his carriage at the station approach in June 1887. He appears to be well protected by members of the Newport Police Force, who were under the charge of its long-serving Chief Constable, Alan Inderwick Sinclair. I presume that Gladstone is being escorted to a meeting at the Albert Hall on Stow Hill where he was to address a large audience drawn from all over Monmouthshire. This rather drab building opened in 1875, and was a very popular venue for conferences, concerts and lectures because it could accommodate 1,100 people and had several suites of apartments and offices. Some time after this picture was taken the Miners’ Federation of Great Britain held their national conference there, possibly because of Stow Hill’s radical, Chartist connections.
In June1887 Gladstone had not long fallen from power. His Liberal administration, having made an alliance with Irish Nationalists to defeat Lord Salisbury's government the previous year, introduced a Home Rule Bill for Ireland; the Liberal Party then split and a break-away group went on to create the Liberal Unionist Party. The bill, which was thrown out on its second reading, effectively ended Gladstone’s third ministry. After only a few months Lord Salisbury returned to office.
In 1886 Newport had also thrown out its Liberal M.P., Mr E. H. Carbutt, and had elected a Conservative, Sir George Elliot. Nevertheless, Liberalism still had mass grass-root support throughout South Wales in the 1880s and 1890s, and Liberal Associations dominated the social and political life of towns such as Newport. Such levels of support are evident from the vast number of people in this photograph. Indeed, between 1886 and 1892 the Liberal Party was strengthened in Wales by seven by-election victories; more people in the Principality were in favour of Home Rule for Ireland than were opposed to it, and only a minority of Welsh Protestants supported the resistance of Irish Protestants to self-government for Ireland. Gladstone, the High Churchman, therefore, tended to be popular in nonconformist South Wales. He was also the only British politician who had disestablished a Church, in Ireland in 1869, and, by 1887, the disestablishment of the Church of Wales had become part of official Liberal policy.
A&G Taylor was a very important late-Victorian firm of artists and photographers. Founded in London in the 1860s by Andrew and George Taylor, by the late1880s it had expanded enormously, with branches in most parts of the country. The company established offices in Swansea and Cardiff, and later opened a studio at Wesley Chambers, 157 Commercial Street Newport. Portraits at this branch office cost between 3s 6d to 10s 6d per dozen prints. It is not clear from trade directories when A&G Taylor established their offices in Newport, but it would seem that it was after 1887 when Wesley Chambers were re-fitted.
German postcard by ISV, no. E 29. Photo: MGM. Publicity still for Ben-Hur (1959).
Tall, well built and ruggedly handsome American actor Charlton Heston (1923-2008) appeared in 100 Hollywood films over the course of 60 years. With features chiselled in stone, he became famous for playing a long list of historical figures, particularly in Biblical epics. His film debut was in the film noir Dark City (1950). His breakthrough came when Cecil B. DeMille cast him as a circus manager in The Greatest Show on Earth (1952). Heston became an icon for portraying Moses in the hugely successful film The Ten Commandments (1956). Furthermore, he is best known for his roles in Orson Welles' widely acclaimed film noir Touch of Evil (1958), Ben-Hur (1959) - for which he won the Oscar for Best Actor, El Cid (1961), and Planet of the Apes (1968). These starring roles gave the actor a grave, authoritative persona and embodied responsibility, individualism and masculinity. Heston rejected scripts that did not emphasize those virtues. He was a supporter of Democratic politicians and civil rights in the 1960s, but eventually he rejected liberalism, founded a conservative political action committee and supported Ronald Reagan. Heston's most famous role in politics came as the five-term president of the National Rifle Association from 1998 to 2003. In 2001, Heston made a cameo appearance as an elderly, dying chimpanzee in Tim Burton's remake of Planet of the Apes.
Sources: Wikipedia and IMDb.
(for further pictures and information please contact the link at the end of page!)
Maria Theresa monument in Vienna
The Maria Theresa monument is the most important ruler monument of the Habsburg monarchy in Vienna. It is reminiscent of the Empress Maria Theresa, who ruled from 1740 to 1780, and is since 1888 on the Maria Theresa Square on the Vienna ring road (Castle Square - Burgring) between the then Imperial Museums, in 1891 opened the Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museum of Art History) and in 1889 opened the Natural History Museum (Naturhistorisches Museum), in front of the background of the Museum Quarter, then the imperial stables. This by Tritons and Najad Fountains accompanied Ensemble monument counts to the UNESCO World Heritage Site Historic Centre of Vienna.
Historical Background
The Empire of Austria in 1859 and 1866 lost Lombardy and Veneto to the new Kingdom of Italy. It was in 1866 forced to resigne after the defeat of the German war, the Prussians had triggered by violation of the rules of the German Confederation from Germany, which in 1871 was constituted as German Empire under a new empire. In 1867 Emperor Franz Joseph I. in Compromise with Hungary had to agree to the formal division of the empire into a ruled from Vienna cisleithanian and ruled from Budapest transleithanian half of the Empire, with Hungary increasingly presenting itself not as a part of the empire, but as a largely independent state. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leitha
During the World Exhibition 1873 in Vienna an economic crisis had occurred, the "founders' crash - Gründerkrach" that devalued liberalism as the leading political movement and new mass parties, for the time being, the Christian Social Party, and later the Social Democrats, putting forth. In addition, more and more national movements were felt in the multiethnic state.
Those centrifugal and the imperial power eroding tendencies one would counteract by patriotic appeals to splendor and glory of the empire. At the since 1858 under construction and in 1865 opened new Vienna ring road around the old town was offered the chance. On the Maria Theresa Square the center facing adjoining Heldenplatz outside the Hofburg in 1860 and 1865 monuments of the two most important generals of the monarchy were built. For the Maria Theresa square, which with the Heldenplatz should form an Imperial Forum, it was a good occasion to erect a monument to the historical mother of the nation. She had by her marriage to Francis Stephen of Lorraine and his election as emperor, the Roman-German Empire brought back to Vienna and the continuation of the dynasty, now as House of Habsburg-Lorraine, secured. She referred to a time when the development of the monarchy was not dependent on any political party nor on national political considerations, but by the wisdom of the rulers. Her reputation and popularity should radiate to the current empire.
The monument
Gypsum model of a draft of the monument
Maria Theresa surrounded by the allegories of the cardinal virtues
For the execution of the sculptures in 1874 the three sculptors Johannes Benk, Carl Kundmann and Caspar Zumbusch submitted designs. Emperor Franz Joseph I decided for Zumbusch, with his student Anton Brenek around 13 years working on the bronze sculptures, which have a total weight of 44 tons. Carl von Hasenauer designed the architecture of the monument.
With the base, the monument covers an area of 632 square meters and is 19.36 m high, on top the seated figure of the Empress with 6 m height. Base and chain pedestal consist of Mauthausen granite from Enghagen in Upper Austria, pedestal and base of brown hornblende granite from Petersburg-Jeschitz at Pilsen in the Czech Republic, the columns of serpentinite from Wiesen near Sterzing in South Tyrol.
The program's content for the monument came from Alfred von Arneth, director of the Imperial House, Court and State Archives. The monarch herself sits on her throne at the top, in the left hand a scepter and the Pragmatic Sanction, the State and the Constitutional Treaty, her allowing the rule in the Habsburg lands as woman, saluting with the right hand the people. Around the throne on the cornice are sitting as allegorical personifications of the cardinal virtues of justice, strength, gentleness and wisdom four female figures .
At the four sides of the base each is located a circular field with a relief and before that a freestanding statue in thematic context:
The consultants of the Archduchess are represented by Wenzel Anton Kaunitz as a statue and Johann Christoph von Bartenstein, Gundakar Thomas Graf Starhemberg and Florimond Claude of Mercy-Argenteau in relief, the background shows the Gloriette in the garden of Schonbrunn Palace.
For the administration stand Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz (statue) and Antal Grassalkovich I, Samuel Brukenthal, Paul Joseph of Riegger, Karl Anton von Martini and Joseph von Sonnenfels in a consulting room in the Imperial Palace.
For the military stand Joseph Wenzel I (statue) with Franz Moritz von Lacy, Andreas Hadik of Futak and Franz Leopold of Nádasdy in front of the castle in Wiener Neustadt, in which in 1752 the Theresa Military Academy was established.
Science and art are represented by the physician Gerard van Swieten (statue), the numismatist Joseph Hilarius Eckhel, the historian György Pray and the composer Christoph Willibald Gluck, Joseph Haydn and the as child represented Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in front of the Old University.
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On the diagonal axes surround equestrian statues of four commanders from the era of Maria Theresa the monument: Leopold Joseph von Daun (1705-1766), Ludwig Andreas von Khevenhüller (1683-1744), Gideon Ernst von Laudon (1717-1790) and Otto Ferdinand von Abensperg and Traun (1677-1748).
Leopold Joseph von Daun
Ludwig Andreas von Khevenhüller
Gideon Ernst von Laudon
Otto Ferdinand von Abensperg and Traun
Open base during the renovation (2008)
The monument is being totally renovated since October 2008. In a first step, the base whose granite cladding and the foundation were restored. Under the monument in the course of the work a 600-square-foot brick vault was discovered as a supporting structure that is similar to already known components underneath the equestrian statues on Heroes' Square. In a second step, the stone and metal surfaces are being rehabilitated until probably October 2013.
On 19 January 1917, Wellington labourer and former member of the Industrial Workers of the World, Joseph Herbert Jones, was tried for sedition. Jones had told 500 people in Dixon Street, Wellington to resist conscription. “I want the working class to say to the masters,” said Jones, “we don’t want war. We won’t go to the war.” During his court appearance Jones read a long and ‘inflammatory’ poem that received applause from onlookers in the court. The judge was not impressed, and sentenced Jones to twelve months imprisonment with hard labour.
This street-side radicalism was illegal according to the War Regulations put in place during the First World War, especially after conscription was introduced in August 1916. The Military Service Act pressed all non-Māori men aged between 20 and 46 into military service, summoning them through a ballot of the national register. Most labour leaders, including those who supported the war, viewed conscription as an attack on their freedoms. ‘Anti-conscriptionists described the introduction of conscription as the importation of Prussian militarism’ writes Gwen Parsons, and saw it as curtailing age-old principles of British liberalism. By the end of the war, Jones and 286 others had been charged or jailed during the war for seditious or disloyal remarks under the War Regulations.
This image of Jones comes from the 1918 Police Gazette, which notes he was born in 1886, was 5’4” tall, and had a scar on his right forearm and right elbow. The Police Gazettes are a rich source of information, and are well indexed, making them easy to search.
Archives Reference: P12 Box 39/ 52
collections.archives.govt.nz/web/arena/search#/?q=R17068676
Caption information from www.teara.govt.nz/en/conscription-conscientious-objection...
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