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Hans-Georg Gadamer (February 11, 1900 – March 13, 2002) was a German philosopher of the continental tradition, most famous for his 1960 magnum opus, Truth and Method.
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AI/GIMP/PIXLR
My undergraduate students should make now a commentary about "hermeneutic circularity and unity of meaning in Gadamer's Wahrheit und Methode". It's easy, honest. Classroom F3, Dept. of Philosophy. University of Sevilla. Camilo José Cela St. [Sevilla], 26.6.2014, 11:29h.
Those who are frequent visitors of my flickr account might wonder why is it called "fusion-of-horizons". It is an homage to my favorite philosopher, Hans Georg Gadamer to whom "fusion-of-horizons" was another name for how understanding, interpretation, knowledge, meaning and truth actually work. Gadamer's goal was to uncover the nature of human understanding. He rejected as unachievable the goal of objectivity, and instead suggested that meaning is created through intersubjective communication. During discourse, a fusion of “horizons” takes place between the speaker and listeners, or between a reader and a text, or between a viewer and an image/icon.
"Every finite presentation has its limitations. We define the concept of “situation” by saying that it represents a standpoint that limits the possibility of vision. Hence an essential part of the concept of situation is the concept of “Horizon.” The horizon is the range of vision that includes everything that can be seen from a particular vantage point…. A person who has no horizon is a man who does not see far enough and hence overvalues what is nearest to him. Contrariwise, to have an horizon means not to be limited to what is nearest, but to be able to see beyond it…. The working out of the hermeneutical situation means the achievement of the right horizon of enquiry for the questions evoked by the encounter with tradition."
Hopefully it may be already clear that I created this flickr account purposefully to enlarge my horizon of orthodox church architecture, my main professional interest.
fusion of horizons
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_of_horizons
Hans-Georg Gadamer
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer
Truth and Method
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_and_Method
Hermeneutics
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutics
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fragments from an interview with Hans Georg Gadamer were he talks about Orthodoxy
from the Romanian philosophical paper Krisis nr. 4/1996
fil.unibuc.ro/krisis/krisis4/krisis4.pdf
4. Orthodoxy and readings
“This inclination towards mysticism, towards theology, of Heidegger… was, of course, for the world of the Far-East, influenced by Confucius, rather acceptable than anything else. We must admit that even Islam proves an astonishing endurance. If we think that 300 years ago they were still at the gates of Vienna and between us and them -the Balkans… There [in the Balkans] is Panait Istrati, whom I’ve read once a lot. He has a description of it, something from this time, when Islam dominated the Balkans.
Romanians are mostly orthodox?! … Orthodoxy was, surely, in the eyes of Heidegger the correct Christian confession, because it has no theology and no metaphysics [Gadamer thinks of theology here in Aristotelian terms, as a science - in the eastern orthodox tradition theology is prayer, not a science]. It has only practical spiritual assistance. This is what mattered in the eyes of Heidegger. To the question: What can save us, in fact, from this transformation [of our world] into a deafening factory hall? the answer was: Only a God can save us. This was a sort of testament and it is an affirmation that can be understood in many ways. Perhaps he wanted to say that, in the end, it is the Greek-Orthodox Christianity that has to stand up against the destructive tendencies of the enlightened thinking.
I don’t know if you realize that all my generation was formed with Russian novels; yes, Russian novels. We read Dostoyevsky and we read Gogol, and Chekhov, and, of course, Tolstoy; these were our readings.
This is the truth. This was the generation who began studying in 1918-1919 and the same was in Heidegger’s time. For Heidegger it was the same. The red volumes of Dostoyevsky’s work in the Piper edition where on the desk of any of us.
No, this was something that never entirely disappeared and, again, today there is a strong echo [reminder] of this.”
5. About revelations
“I would say it like this: modern Enlightenment, who influenced our whole scientific culture, makes us to hardly be able to define what revelation is. We must probably say… I personally do not attribute any value to dogmatic atheism, this seems to me a self-deception. A religious predisposition seems to me apriorical because of the impossibility of understanding death. This impossibility can be found in every religion. The human being is human because it buries his dead. This is not specific for any other living being. So, what does this mean? Yes, what does it mean? Him who lived cannot disappear all together. We know all those votive offerings that are placed in tombs. As an archeologist one knows that these are not tools, but have a symbolic meaning.
So the question you're asking derives, finally, from theology. It is Gnostic, in theology. Gnosis means knowledge. This is the way the divine might be recognized… Theology doesn’t play an important role in the Orthodox Church. But the orthodox have, much more so because of that the rituals, isn’t it? This is the decisive thing. This is the weak point, I would say, of Protestantism, that the ritual adds so little. Because of that the Catholic Church is superior to the Protestant Church , because of the importance of rituals, which is also right for Islam.
I was razed in a protestant spirit.
But, as I said, in the modern enlightenment the question regarding faith is problematic. In the Gospel according to Saint Mark there is a well-known affirmation: ”I believe, o Lord! Help my unbelief!” Do you know it?
In this dilemma any thinking man finds himself and this means that he is capable, through what we call faith, to anchor himself in the divinity that he believes. In the Christian tradition this is always the faith; the same for the orthodox. This means that faith is a question of grace. It is not a question of will.
This is the final answer to your question: I believe him to be Gnostic, making an error of judgment, who thinks that the existence of revelations can be proven.”
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a video of Gadamer in conversation with Rüdiger Safranski [in german]
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photo:
a German visitor reading the history of the place at
Stavropoleos Monastery, Bucharest, Romania
www.flickr.com/groups/stavropoleos/
www.monumenteromania.ro/index.php/monumente/detalii/en/St...
music:
Shostakovich - 5 Preludes - No.3 in G major (Opus 2, No.2) - Part 2/5 Andante
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"Only the religious picture [icon] shows the full ontological power of the picture... in it we can see without doubt that a picture is not a copy of a copied being [as in Plato], but is in ontological communion with what is copied.
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Essential to an emanation is that what emanates is an overflow. What it flows from does not thereby become less. The development of this concept by Neoplatonic philosophy, which uses it to get beyond Greek substance ontology, is the basis of the positive ontological status of the picture. For if the original One is not diminished by the outflow of the many from it, this means that being increases.
It seems that the Greek fathers [of the Church] used this kind of Neoplatonic thinking in overcoming the Old Testament's hatred of images when it came to christology. They regarded the incarnation of God as a fundamental acknowledgement of the worth of visible appearance, and thus they legitimated works of art. In their overcoming the ban on images we can see the decisive event that enabled the development of plastic arts in the Christian West."
fragments from "Truth and Method" by Hans-Georg Gadamer
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photo:
mosaic icon of the Theotokos, temporary resting outside the Trinity church at Cheia Monastery
www.monumenteromania.ro/index.php/monumente/detalii/en/Ma...
www.monumenteromania.ro/index.php/monumente/detalii/en/Bi...
«Ogni comprensione del singolo elemento è condizionato dalla comprensione del tutto. Ogni spiegazione del singolo elemento presuppone la comprensione del tutto.»(Hans Georg Gadamer)
"Every understanding of the individual element is made conditional from the understanding of everything. Every explanation of the individual element presupposes the understanding of everything." (Hans Georg Gadamer)
Heidelberg is known for its institutions of higher education. The most famous of those is Heidelberg University. Founded in 1386, it is one of Europe's oldest institutions. In fact, Heidelberg is the oldest university town of today's Germany. Among the prominent thinkers associated with the institution are Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Jaspers, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Jürgen Habermas, Karl-Otto Apel and Hannah Arendt. The campus is situated in two urban areas and several buildings.
FangruidaWorks：
Fangruida's natural philosophy: super-spinning super-rotating cosmic structural system and multi-dimensional multi-directionality of natural philosophy. The original theory of "three sexes" (intensive reading)
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(Original: Fangruida May 2012 in Athens, Bonn, London, revised finalized in New York)
Edit Translation: Cole Susan 2012 electronic version 2012V1.1 version
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Key words: ██ Multidimensionality of philosophy
█ The three principles of philosophy
● Three-dimensional multidimensional theory
Absolute relativity of the natural world
Abstract macro concrete microscopic concrete macro abstract ultramicro
The breadth and limitations of human wisdom
Natural Revolution, Cosmic Revolution and Social Revolution
Assimilation or alienation of super-smart humans and super-bio-smart players
The end of life, the multi-spin system of the universe
The structure of thinking: convergence and divergence
The chemical abundance of the universe, homogeneity, heterogeneity
Substance-Species-Organics-Inorganics Life Macromolecules Life and Wisdom Human Life ▲▲
Philosophy and history
Studying world history, studying human history, including natural science research, such as the structure and evolution of the universe, the ultra-microsystems of particles, the evolution of life, the future of the universe, the developmental variation of the human world and the future, etc., are a big end. The philosophical thoughts, the colorful flowers, can be described as colorful and magnificent. History of philosophy, history of thought, history of civilization, history of religion, and various research works are full of enthusiasm. Masters of world philosophy, masters of thought, and masters of science have left us with an extremely precious cultural heritage, which is worthy of repeated study and in-depth study. For example, the question of thinking and existence, consciousness and material as the source: cosmic structure, particle structure, origin of life, the future of man and the universe, the society of the planet and the universe, the end of the universe and humanity, the pioneering and limitations of science and technology Sex, human brain thinking structure and highly intelligent biological robots, the existence and destruction of the Earth and the solar system, the large-scale structure of the universe and the homogeneity of the universe, the advanced intelligent animals and life macromolecules, matter and species, the space and time of the universe, black holes And dark matter, big bang and steady state, initial, normal ground state and final state, super-spin and super-spin, classical mechanics and quantum mechanics, evolutionary structure of human society, and so on. Of course, philosophy and natural science and technology are inseparable. Here we mainly discuss natural philosophy. Therefore, there are not many discussions on physical mechanics, etc., mainly in the basic categories of philosophy and natural philosophy. Natural science research papers refer to the author's related works.
The history of world philosophy and the history of thought have an extremely important position and extremely important guiding role in human history. With the rapid development of modern science and technology, with the substantial growth and leap of the world economy, the development of human society and new Civilized rationality has reached a new milestone. Economic history, civilization history, social history, political history, military history, cultural history, religious history, intellectual history, philosophy history, and history of the universe are very grand and complex. Here, we mainly study and discuss the history of human understanding, the history of thought, and the history of philosophy. . The big end, the clear veins and trajectories of the world, all kinds of doctrines, all kinds of academics, all kinds of thoughts, various schools, flowers and flowers, quite new. Of course, it is not possible to talk about things, but to involve in-depth research and exploration in the field of natural science and technology, as well as other important areas of research, in order to profoundly understand and understand, what is the great revolution of modern philosophy. Otherwise, there is no way to talk about it, or to go biased and extreme. Western philosophy, Eastern philosophy, religious philosophy, etc.
European Philosophy and Western Philosophy
Ancient Greek philosophy school
The early four universities in ancient Greece were the Ionian, Pythagoras, Elia, and the elemental school; the late four-school school: the cynicism school, the Stoic school, the Epicurean school, New Platon School
Ionian
Miletus School
(Thales, etc.) (to attribute the world to a specific phenomenon or substance of nature, such as water and gas)
Pythagoras School
(Pythagoras) (everything is counted)
Heraclitus
(The universe is a changing fire, dominated by logos (laws))
Democritus
(propose atomism)
Elijah
(Parmenid) (the origin of all things, is the eternal "consciousness of existence", denying change and movement
Socrates
(emphasizes access to knowledge by introspection)
Plato
(The concrete behind everything is the eternal prototype concept)
Aristotle
(The distinction between material and form, the universe consists of five elements: earth, water, gas, fire, and ether, presenting the existence of the first promoter "God", etc., the most comprehensive early philosophy)
Neo-Platonicism
(Protino) ("Taiyi" is the foundation of the world, rational laws, souls, and specific things are too super-existing)
Epicurean school
(Ibi-Ji-lu) (everything and soul are atoms, happiness is the purpose of life)
Cynic school
(Diogenes) (contempt for external utilitarianism, advocates poverty-stricken life)
Stoia
(Marco Aurelius, Abigail Ted) (emphasis on the "goodness" and "de" of human beings, advocating obedience to fate while grasping self)
Medieval Christian philosophy
Augustine
(In the philosophical theory to explain the existence of God, the Trinity, the salvation of the soul)
(Scholastic philosophy)
Aristotle
(Thomas Aquinas) (using Aristotle's rational philosophy to explain the nature, existence, virtue of God)
Willism
(Scott) (with the natural will as the cause of the world movement, the source is God)
Aokangism
(
Modern western philosophy
Early natural philosophy
(Bacon, Da Vinci, Newton and many other scientists, philosophical theorists) (proposes experimental observation-based science to support the theory of interpretation of nature)
Rationalism (rationalism)
(Descartes) (I think so I am, the ultimate source of knowledge is God, material and soul are parallel to each other)
(Spennosha) (emphasizing thinking/concepts and prolongation/substance are two different manifestations of the infinite God, one for the inner and one for the external)
(Leibnitz) (The world consists of consecutive "singles" of nature, including spirit and matter)
Empiricism (empiricalism)
(Locke) (Experience is the only source of knowledge, matter has the first nature and the second nature, the former is in the object itself, and the latter is the product of perception)
(Hume) (Initial perception is the only source of knowledge, time and space are both products of perception)
(Beckley) (The existence is self-perception, and the perception of the whole world is God) (German classical philosophy)
Transcendental idealism
(Kant) (Knowledge originally originated from the inexpressible "object self", which became a formable knowledge or concept/phenomenon after the subject's subjective norms of time, space and causality were recognized.
Absolute idealism
(Ficht) (Experience knowledge is the absolute self in the depths of consciousness, produced by constantly setting non-I, grasping non-I)
(Xie Lin) (Nature gradually self-awake, develops into a self-consciousness that opposes objective nature, and then returns self-consciousness to nature, and will eventually reach the absolute same with objective nature, that is, it can sense its absolute reality)
(Hegel) (ideal dialectics, objective idealism, the world is on the one hand, the evolution of objective existential history, and on the other hand, the continuous leap of subjective consciousness from sensibility to rationality, when realizing the development of self-awareness When the development of objective existence, you reach the absolute truth of God)
Young Hegelian
(Feuerbach) (materialism, pointing out that God is the externalization of the essence of human pursuit, admiring "love") (practical materialism, emphasizing the decisive role of practical labor, so that nature presents objective laws in front of human beings.
Modern western philosophy
Early irrationalism
(Kerkegaard) (denying that people have the essence of fixed unity, emphasizing the contingency and freedom of individual existence, this is the road to God, the pioneer of existentialism)
Voluntarism
(Schopenhauer) (The ontology of the world is the natural will without cause and effect, time and space, causality is the result of rational understanding of the will, and life is endless because of the endless desire and hindrance of desire)
(Nietzsche) (Destiny is controlled by oneself, not the norm of God, so it advocates the "power will" of the weak meat)
Philosophy of life
(Borgsen, Dilthey) (The world is the "stretching" and evolution of "the stream of life" in time)
New hegelism
(Bradley) (Development of Absolute Ideal Dialectics)
Neo-Kantianism
(Cohen, Cassirer) (a product of the combination of transcendental idealism and scientific philosophy, but denying the existence of self-physical independence from consciousness)
utilitarianism
(Bentham, Mill) (Social behavior is actually pursuing the maximization of personal happiness)
pragmatism
(James, Dewey) (The premise that things become the object of knowledge is its practicality. Only through human pursuit and experimentation can the truth be obtained)
Early analytic philosophy
(Freig, Russell, Wittgenstein) (Proposing logical ontology, the ontology of the world is not a separate entity, but an interrelated logical relationship)
Post-analytic philosophy
(Wittgenstein, Strawson, Rorty, etc.) (I believe that the emergence of philosophical problems is the result of misunderstanding of everyday language, and advocates the analysis of semantics to achieve the essential relationship between language and reality)
Falsificationist philosophy of science
(Popper) (Rejecting science can reach absolute truth, proposing three worlds - the material world, the spiritual world, the conceptual world)
Historic philosophy of science
(Kun, Feyerabend) (opposing the pure logic of separation from practice as a way of expressing the world, while emphasizing the accumulation of scientific experience in history)
Freudianism
(Floyd) (emphasizing the decisive role of subconsciousness and sexual desire on individual behavior, dreams, civilized activities, etc. are the result of subconsciousness being suppressed by external morality and disguised at the level of consciousness)
Western Marxism
The Frankfurt School (Marcuse, Habermas) (in Marx's dialectics, Freud's instinct, focuses on the enslavement and alienation of material civilization, advocates changing the social interaction model, and alleviates capitalism Social crisis)
Phenomenology / European Philosophy
(Husser) (Proposed a phenomenological approach, advocating returning to the matter itself, and studying the constructive role of consciousness in knowledge)
Existentialism
(Heidegger, Sartre, Coronation, etc.) (emphasizing the existence of the individual's pre-reflective consciousness in the world is the source of all knowledge. The existence of human beings is different from the existence of objects. The existence of human beings is free, not being Fully prescribed - existence precedes essence
Hermeneutics
(Gadamer, Derrida) (Thinking that the study of history cannot be reduced to historical facts, but the dialogue between modern perspectives and historical relics)
Structuralism
(Sausul, Artusai, Strauss, Lacan) (proposes the study of the overall structure of the various knowledge systems, and emphasizes the a priori and permanence of this structure, it is the correct research system Premise of each element)
Deconstruction
(Derrida, Foucault, Deleuze) (denying the existence of a unified knowledge structure, critical reason loses the richness of the world while unilaterally pursuing the essence, and believes that the relationship between man and the world, author and reader is not the relationship between subject and object. , but the dialogue between the subjects, affirming the diversity of ideas)
Essentials of philosophy science
The history of world philosophy, the history of world science and technology, the history of world social development, and the history of European and American philosophy all have brilliant historical memories.
Thales (about 585 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, was honored as the ancestor of Western philosophy from Aristotle.
Heracletitos (about 504-501 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of dialectics.
Parmenides (in the year 504-501 BC), the founder of the ancient Greek philosopher, ontology (ontology).
Demokritos (about 420 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, founder of atomism.
Socrates (468-399 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher.
Platon (427-347 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, with dialogues such as "Socratic Defence", "Ideology", "Barmenid", "The Wise", etc. Works.
Aristotles, Plato's students, Greek philosophers, encyclopedic philosophers, founders of many disciplines, masterpieces "Tools", "Physics", "metaphysics", "Nico Marco's Ethics, Political Science.
Lucretius (b.c.99-55) Ancient Roman materialist philosopher. I believe that everything is made up of atoms. The atom is infinitely moving in the universe and is infinite. It advocates atheism. The main work: "The Theory of Physical Property."
Aurelius Augustinus (354-430 AD), the greatest representative of the medieval godfather philosophy, is entitled "Confessions" and "City of God."
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), the greatest representative of the philosophy of the medieval scholasticism, with the book "Anti-Beast Encyclopedia" and "Theological Encyclopedia"
(Thomas Aquinas) (using Aristotle's rational philosophy to explain the nature, existence, virtue of God)
Willism
(Scott) (with the natural will as the cause of the world movement, the source is God)
Aokangism
(
Modern western philosophy
Early natural philosophy
(Bacon, Da Vinci, Newton and many other scientists, philosophical theorists) (proposes experimental observation-based science to support the theory of interpretation of nature)
Rationalism (rationalism)
(Descartes) (I think so I am, the ultimate source of knowledge is God, material and soul are parallel to each other)
(Spennosha) (emphasizing thinking/concepts and prolongation/substance are two different manifestations of the infinite God, one for the inner and one for the external)
(Leibnitz) (The world consists of consecutive "singles" of nature, including spirit and matter)
Empiricism (empiricalism)
(Locke) (Experience is the only source of knowledge, matter has the first nature and the second nature, the former is in the object itself, and the latter is the product of perception)
(Hume) (Initial perception is the only source of knowledge, time and space are both products of perception)
(Beckley) (The existence is self-perception, and the perception of the whole world is God) (German classical philosophy)
Transcendental idealism
(Kant) (Knowledge originally originated from the inexpressible "object self", which became a formable knowledge or concept/phenomenon after the subject's subjective norms of time, space and causality were recognized.
Absolute idealism
(Ficht) (Experience knowledge is the absolute self in the depths of consciousness, produced by constantly setting non-I, grasping non-I)
(Xie Lin) (Nature gradually self-awake, develops into a self-consciousness that opposes objective nature, and then returns self-consciousness to nature, and will eventually reach the absolute same with objective nature, that is, it can sense its absolute reality)
(Hegel) (ideal dialectics, objective idealism, the world is on the one hand, the evolution of objective existential history, and on the other hand, the continuous leap of subjective consciousness from sensibility to rationality, when realizing the development of self-awareness When the development of objective existence, you reach the absolute truth of God)
Young Hegelian
(Feuerbach) (materialism, pointing out that God is the externalization of the essence of human pursuit, admiring "love") (practical materialism, emphasizing the decisive role of practical labor, so that nature presents objective laws in front of human beings.
Modern western philosophy
Early irrationalism
(Kerkegaard) (denying that people have the essence of fixed unity, emphasizing the contingency and freedom of individual existence, this is the road to God, the pioneer of existentialism)
Voluntarism
(Schopenhauer) (The ontology of the world is the natural will without cause and effect, time and space, causality is the result of rational understanding of the will, and life is endless because of the endless desire and hindrance of desire)
(Nietzsche) (Destiny is controlled by oneself, not the norm of God, so it advocates the "power will" of the weak meat)
Philosophy of life
(Borgsen, Dilthey) (The world is the "stretching" and evolution of "the stream of life" in time)
New hegelism
(Bradley) (Development of Absolute Ideal Dialectics)
Neo-Kantianism
(Cohen, Cassirer) (a product of the combination of transcendental idealism and scientific philosophy, but denying the existence of self-physical independence from consciousness)
utilitarianism
(Bentham, Mill) (Social behavior is actually pursuing the maximization of personal happiness)
pragmatism
(James, Dewey) (The premise that things become the object of knowledge is its practicality. Only through human pursuit and experimentation can the truth be obtained)
Early analytic philosophy
(Freig, Russell, Wittgenstein) (Proposing logical ontology, the ontology of the world is not a separate entity, but an interrelated logical relationship)
Post-analytic philosophy
(Wittgenstein, Strawson, Rorty, etc.) (I believe that the emergence of philosophical problems is the result of misunderstanding of everyday language, and advocates the analysis of semantics to achieve the essential relationship between language and reality)
Falsificationist philosophy of science
(Popper) (Rejecting science can reach absolute truth, proposing three worlds - the material world, the spiritual world, the conceptual world)
Historic philosophy of science
(Kun, Feyerabend) (opposing the pure logic of separation from practice as a way of expressing the world, while emphasizing the accumulation of scientific experience in history)
Freudianism
(Floyd) (emphasizing the decisive role of subconsciousness and sexual desire on individual behavior, dreams, civilized activities, etc. are the result of subconsciousness being suppressed by external morality and disguised at the level of consciousness)
Western Marxism
The Frankfurt School (Marcuse, Habermas) (in Marx's dialectics, Freud's instinct, focuses on the enslavement and alienation of material civilization, advocates changing the social interaction model, and alleviates capitalism Social crisis)
Phenomenology / European Philosophy
(Husser) (Proposed a phenomenological approach, advocating returning to the matter itself, and studying the constructive role of consciousness in knowledge)
Existentialism
(Heidegger, Sartre, Coronation, etc.) (emphasizing the existence of the individual's pre-reflective consciousness in the world is the source of all knowledge. The existence of human beings is different from the existence of objects. The existence of human beings is free, not being Fully prescribed - existence precedes essence
Hermeneutics
(Gadamer, Derrida) (Thinking that the study of history cannot be reduced to historical facts, but the dialogue between modern perspectives and historical relics)
Structuralism
(Sausul, Artusai, Strauss, Lacan) (proposes the study of the overall structure of the various knowledge systems, and emphasizes the a priori and permanence of this structure, it is the correct research system Premise of each element)
Deconstruction
(Derrida, Foucault, Deleuze) (denying the existence of a unified knowledge structure, critical reason loses the richness of the world while unilaterally pursuing the essence, and believes that the relationship between man and the world, author and reader is not the relationship between subject and object. , but the dialogue between the subjects, affirming the diversity of ideas)
Essentials of philosophy science
The history of world philosophy, the history of world science and technology, the history of world social development, and the history of European and American philosophy all have brilliant historical memories.
Thales (about 585 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, was honored as the ancestor of Western philosophy from Aristotle.
Heracletitos (about 504-501 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of dialectics.
Parmenides (in the year 504-501 BC), the founder of the ancient Greek philosopher, ontology (ontology).
Demokritos (about 420 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, founder of atomism.
Socrates (468-399 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher.
Platon (427-347 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, with dialogues such as "Socratic Defence", "Ideology", "Barmenid", "The Wise", etc. Works.
Aristotles, Plato's students, Greek philosophers, encyclopedic philosophers, founders of many disciplines, masterpieces "Tools", "Physics", "metaphysics", "Nico Marco's Ethics, Political Science.
Lucretius (b.c.99-55) Ancient Roman materialist philosopher. I believe that everything is made up of atoms. The atom is infinitely moving in the universe and is infinite. It advocates atheism. The main work: "The Theory of Physical Property."
Aurelius Augustinus (354-430 AD), the greatest representative of the medieval godfather philosophy, is entitled "Confessions" and "City of God."
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), the greatest representative of the philosophy of the medieval scholasticism, is entitled "Anti-Beast Encyclopedia" and "Theological Encyclopedia".
Bruno (1548-1600) Italian materialist philosopher and natural scientist. Propagating Copernicus's heliocentric theory, that the universe has no center, the sun is just an ordinary planet, the solar system is just a celestial system, and matter is the common common essence of all things in the universe. The main work: "On the reasons, the essence and one."
Hobbes (1588-1679) was a British materialist philosopher who used to be the secretary and assistant of Bacon. He systematically embodies Bacon's philosophical ideas and advocates the use of mechanics and mathematics to illustrate the world. He is the founder of mechanical materialism. The main works: "On matter", "On the people."
Francis Bacon (1561-1626), the ancestor of British empiricism, and the "New Tools".
René Descartes (1596-1650), French philosopher, founder of modern philosophy, the founder of the theory, is the "Method Discussion", "The First Philosophical Contemplation", "Philosophy Principles".
Benedicus de Spinoza (1632-1677), a Dutch philosopher, one of the main representatives of the theory, with "Ethics" and so on.
John Locke (1632-1704), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Theory of Human Reason."
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the theory, is entitled "Single Theory" and "New Theory of Human Reason."
George Berkeley (1685-1753), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Principles of Human Knowledge."
David Hume (1711-1776), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Theory of Human Nature" and "The Study of Human Reason."
Montesquieu (1689-1755), a French enlightenment thinker, with the Persian Letters and The Spirit of the Law.
Voltaire (1694-1778), a French enlightenment thinker, and author of "Philosophy Communication."
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), a French enlightenment thinker, entitled "The Origin and Foundation of Human Inequality", "Social Contract Theory", "Emil", and "Confessions".
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), the founder of German classical philosophy, is entitled "Critique of Pure Reason", "Critique of Practical Reason" and "Critique of Judgment".
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), a master of German classical philosophy, is known for his dialectic in the world, and he is the author of "Psychophenomenology", "Logic" and "Philosophy of Philosophy".
Auguste Comte (1798-1857), French philosopher, founder of positivism, and the "Experimental Philosophy Course".
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), British philosopher, one of the representatives of positivism, is entitled "Conde and positivism", "system of logic", "utilitarianism".
"Arther Schopenhauer (1788-1860), a German philosopher, a voluntarist, has a "world of will and appearance."
Karl Marx (May 5, 1818 - 1883, 3, 1)
Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law (1843), on Jewish Nationality (1843), Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (1844), Feuerbach (1845), Poverty of Philosophy (1845), Employment Labor With Capital (1847), Louis Bonaparte's Misty Moon 18th (1852), Capital Theory Volume 2 (1893), Capital Theory Volume III (1894), etc.
William James (1842-1910), an American philosopher, one of the main representatives of pragmatism, is the "Psychology Principles", "Pragmatism", "Complete Empiricism Proceedings".
Friedrich Willhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900), a German philosopher, with "The Other Side of Good and Evil", "Zarathustra", "Strong Will".
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), a Swiss linguist, founder of structuralism, and a course in General Linguistics.
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), German philosopher, founder of phenomenology, with "Logical Studies", "Phenomenon of Phenomenology", "The Contemplation of Descartes" and "The Crisis of European Science and Transcendental Phenomenology, etc.
Sigmund Freud (1865-1939), an Austrian psychologist, founder of the psychoanalytic school, with "An Analysis of Dreams" and "Introduction to Psychoanalysis."
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) British philosopher and educator wrote "The History of Western Philosophy", "Education", "Philosophy Problems", etc., won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1950.
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), German philosopher, founder of existential philosophy, with "Existence and Time", "Introduction to Metaphysics", "Lin Zhong Lu" and so on.
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), one of the founders of Austrian-American philosophy, linguistic philosophy or analytic philosophy, is the author of The Philosophy of Logic and Philosophical Studies.
Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of logical positivism, is entitled "The Logical Structure of the World" and "The Logical Syntax of Language."
Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976) is a British philosopher, one of the representatives of the everyday language school, and has the concept of "heart".
Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900-), the German philosopher, the founder of philosophical hermeneutics, is the author of The Truth and Method.
Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), a German philosopher and founder of the Frankfurt School, is the author of Critical Theory, Research in Social Philosophy, and Dialectics of Enlightenment (co-authored with Adorno).
Theoder Wiesengrund Adorno (1903-1969), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the Frankfurt School, is entitled "Negative Dialectics".
Herbert Marcuse (1895-1979), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the Frankfurt School, with "Ration and Revolution", "Eros and
Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of existentialism, with "existence and nothingness", "existentialism is a kind of humanitarianism" and "criticism of dialectical reason".
Claude Levi-Strauss (1908-), French philosopher, anthropologist, one of the main representatives of structuralism, is entitled "Structural Anthropology" and "Wild Thinking."
Willard van Orman Quine (1908-), one of the main representatives of analytic philosophy, "from a logical point of view", "logic philosophy."
Tomas Kuhn (1922-), an American scientific philosopher, a historian of science, a representative of the Historic School, and the "Structure of the Scientific Revolution" and "Necessary Tension."
Michel Foucault (1926-1984), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of post-structuralism and post-modernism, is entitled "Knowledge Archaeology", "Discipline and Punishment" and so on.
Jacques Derrida (1931-), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of postmodernism, with "writing and difference", "casting", "the edge of philosophy", "the ghost of Marx" and so on.
Richard. M. Rorty (1931-), an American philosopher, one of the representatives of post-modern philosophy, is the Mirror of Philosophy and Nature and Post-Philosophy Culture.
Fredric Jamason (1931-), an American philosopher and literary critic, one of the main representatives of postmodernism, is entitled "Marxism and Form", "Political Unconsciousness", and "Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism".
John Rawls (1921-), an American political philosopher, is the author of The Theory of Justice and Political Liberalism.
Robert Nozick (1938-), an American political philosopher, is entitled "Anarchy, State, and Utopia."
Western philosophy European and American philosophy has a huge influence on the world. Of course, philosophy and thought are often inseparable. Philosophers also mean thinkers.
Philosophers, thinkers, schools of thought, and main ideology
Ancient Greek period: 7th century BC - 2nd century BC
Thales (about 624-about 547, the first philosopher of ancient Greece, the founder of the Miletus School)
Anaximandros (about 610-before 546, ancient Greek Miletus school materialist philosopher)
Anaximenes (about 588-about 525, ancient Greek Miletus school materialist philosopher)
Pythagoras (about 580 - about 500 before, ancient Greek mathematician, idealist philosopher)
Xenophanes (about 565-about 473, the ancient Greek philosopher, the first representative of the Elia school)
Herakleitos (between 540 and about 480 and 470 before, the ancient Greek materialist philosopher, the founder of the Efes school)
Kratylos (former fifth century, ancient Greek Efesian philosopher, Heraclitus student)
Parmenides (before the end of the sixth century - about the middle of the first half of the fifth century, the idealist philosopher of the Elia school of ancient Greece) Leukippos (about 500-about 440, the ancient Greek materialist philosopher , the atom said one of the founders)
Anaxagoras (about 500 before - 428 BC, ancient Greek materialist philosopher)
Zeno Eleates (about 490 - about 436 before, ancient Greek idealist philosopher, student of Parmenides) Empedokles (Em. 490 - about 430, Ancient Greek materialist philosopher, founder of rhetoric)
Gorgias (about 483 - about 375, the ancient Greek wise philosopher)
Protagoras (formerly 481-about 411, ancient Greek wise philosopher)
Socrates (formerly 469-before 399, ancient Greek idealist philosopher)
Demokratos (Demokritos, 460- 370 BC, ancient Greek materialist philosopher, and the founder of the atomic theory of Rebecca) Antisthenes (about 435-about 370, ancient Greece Philosopher, founder of the cynic school
Aristippos (about 435-front 360?, ancient Greek philosopher, founder of the Cyrene School, disciple of Socrates)
Plato (Plato, former 427-before 347, ancient Greek objective idealist philosopher, founder of the school, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle) - "Ideology", "politician", "Bammenides" and "Plato Dialogues"
Diogenes o Sinopeus (about 404-about 323, ancient Greek cynic philosopher)
Aristotles (Aristotles, 384- 322 BC, Ancient Greek philosopher, scientist, Plato's student, Alexander the Great's teacher, the founder of the Happy School) - Metaphysics, Tool Theory, Nigma Ethics, Physics, Politics
, "The Complete Works of Aristotle"
Pyrrhon (about 365-about 275, ancient Greek philosopher, skeptic)
Epikouros (formerly 341-pre-270, ancient Greek materialist philosopher)
Zeno (Zionon Kitieus), about 336-about 264, founder of the ancient Greek Stoic school
Roman period: the second century BC - the fifth century AD
Cousero (Marcus Tullius Cicero, former 106-43, ancient Roman politician, eloquent, philosopher, philosophically representative of eclecticism)
Titus Lucretius Carus (about 99-about 55, ancient Roman poet, materialist philosopher) - "The Theory of Materiality"
Tertullianus (between 150 and 160 - about 222, one of the Christian godfathers)
Aurelius Augustinus (354-430, the Roman Empire Christian thinker, the main representative of the godfather philosophy) - "Confessions", "On Free Will", "The Monologue", "The City of God", "The Handbook of Doctrine"
Hypatia (about 370-about 415, female mathematician, astronomer, neo-Platonic philosopher of the Roman Empire)
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, 480-524 or 525, the idealist philosopher in late Roman times
Medieval: 5th century AD - end of the 14th century
Johannes Scotus Erigena (circa 810-877, a philosopher of the pre-European medieval scholasticism) - "On God's Presupposition", "On the Division of Nature"
Anselmus (1033-1109, a medieval Christian thinker in Europe, the main representative of realism, known as "the last godfather and the first scholastic philosopher")
Roscellinus (about 1050 - about 1112, medieval French philosopher, nominalist)
Guillaume de Champeaux (circa 1070-1121, medieval French philosopher, realist)
Abel (Petrus Abailardus, 1079-1142, philosopher of the medieval French Academy, "concept theory")
Albertus Magnus (1193 or 1206 or 1207-1280, Medieval German philosopher, theologian, Catholic Dominican monk)
Thomas Aquinas (1226-1274, Medieval Theologian and scholastic philosopher, Catholic Dominican Fellow) - Theological Encyclopedia and Anti-Beast Encyclopedia
Sigerus de Brantia (circa 1240-1281 to 1284, Netherland philosopher, Averroist)
Meister Johannes Eckhart (circa 1260-1327, medieval German theologian and mystic philosopher) Johannes Duns Scotus (circa 1265-1308, medieval Scottish scholastic philosopher, nominalist ) - "On Oxford", "Paris on"
William of Occam (or Ockham), about 1300 - about 1350, philosopher of the medieval Soviet scholastic philosopher, nominalist) Jan Hus (circa 1369-1415, Czech patriot and religious reformer)
Dante Alighièri (1265-1321, Italian poet.
Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374, Italian poet, one of the pioneers of humanism in the European Renaissance) - "Secret"
Geovanni Boccàccio (1313-1375, Italian writer of the Renaissance, one of the main representatives of humanism) - "Ten Days"
Paul (John Ball, ?-1381, British folk missionary, one of the leaders of the Wat Taylor Uprising)
John Wycliffe (circa 1320-1384, British, pioneer of the European Reformation Movement)
Nikola (Kusa's) (Nicolaus Cusanus, 1401-1464, Renaissance German philosopher, cardinal, pantheist)
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519, Renaissance Italian artist, natural scientist, engineer, philosopher)
Pietro Pomponazzi (1462-1524 or 1525, the Italian philosopher of the Renaissance, one of the main representatives of humanism)
Desiderius Erasmus (circa 1469-1536, the Renaissance Netherland humanist, formerly known as Gerhard Gerhards, born in Rotterdam, the Netherlands) - "The Fools"
Thomas More (1478-1535, Renaissance British Utopian Communist)
Martin Luther (1483-1546, the founder of the 16th century German Reformation, Christian (Protestant) Road
Thomas Münzer (about 1490-1525, leader of the German peasant war of 1524-1525, German peasant and religious reformer of urban civilians)
Calvin (1509-1564, French, European Reformer, founder of Christian Calvin) - "On Benevolence", "Christian Essentials", "Faith Guide", "Christian Masterpieces Integration", From the Renaissance to the Selected Works of Humanitarian Humanity in the 19th Century by Bourgeois Literati Artists, Selected Works of Western Ethical Masterpieces, and History of Medieval Philosophy in Western Europe (Bernardino Telesio, 1509-1588, Renaissance Italy philosopher)
Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1533-1592, a translation of Montagne, French thinkers and prose writers during the Renaissance) - "Meng Tian Wenxuan"
Pierre Charron (1541-1603, French philosopher of the Renaissance)
Giordano Bruno (1548-1600, Italian philosopher of the Renaissance) - "On Reason, Primitive and Taiyi", "On Infinity, Universe and Worlds", "Basting the Beast", "On Heroic Passion" 》
Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639, Renaissance Italian Utopian Communist)
Jakob B?hme, 1575-1624, Renaissance German mystic philosopher
Grouseus (Hugo Grotius, 1583-1645, Dutch bourgeois jurist, early theorist of the natural law school, studied law, theology, history, literature, and natural sciences, with international law Research is well known)
Lucilio Vanini (1584-1619, Italian philosopher of the Renaissance)
Francis Bacon (1561-1626, "-"Chongxue", "New Tools", "Bacon's Anthology", "New Daxi"
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679, British materialist philosopher) - "Leviathan", "On Objects", "On Man", "On Freedom, Inevitability and Accident"
Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655, a translation of garrison, French materialist philosopher, physicist, astronomer) Descartes (1596-1650, French philosopher, physicist, mathematician) , physiologist, founder of analytic geometry) - "Methodology", "The First Philosophical Contemplation", "Philosophical Principles", "On the Passion of the Soul"
Hendrik van Roy (French name Henri Le Roy, Latin name Henricus Regius, 1598-1679, Dutch doctor, philosopher, representative of early mechanical materialism)
Gerrard Winstanley (circa 1609-about 1652, the leader of the bourgeois revolutionary movement in the British bourgeois revolution, the imaginary communist)
John Lilburne (circa 1614-1657, petty bourgeois democrat of the British bourgeois revolution, average leader)
Arnold Geulincx (1625-1669, the Dutch Descartes idealist philosopher, he and Malebranches are also called the causemen)
Spinoza (later renamed Benedictus) Spinoza, 1632-1677, Dutch materialist philosopher) - "Ethics", "Intellectual Improvement", "Theological Politics", "The Principles of Descartes"
Locke (John Locke, 1632-1704, British materialist philosopher) - "Human Understanding", "On the Government", "The Rationality of Christianity"
Nicolas Malebranche (1638-1715, French idealist philosopher) - "The Search for Truth", "Dialogue on Metaphysics"
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716, German natural scientist, mathematician, idealist philosopher) - "Theory of God", "New Theory of Human Reason", "Son Theory", "metaphysical conversation"
Pierre Bayle (1647-1706, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "The Letter about Comet", "General Critique of the History of Calvinism" by Manbull, "Dictionary of Historical Criticism"
Christian Wolff (1679-1754, German idealist philosopher)
George Berkeley (1685-1753, British idealist philosopher) - "New Theory of Vision", "Principles of Human Knowledge" Charles Louis de Secondat Montesquieu (1689-1755, French Enlightenment Thinker, Jurist ) - "Persian Letters", "The Causes of the Rise and Fall of Rome", "The Spirit of the Law", "On the Interests of Nature and Art"
Voltaire (1694-1778, French enlightenment thinker, writer, philosopher. Formerly known as François Marie Arouet) - "Oedipus the King", "Philosophy Communication ", Metaphysics", "Philosophy Dictionary"
David Hartley (1705-1757, British materialist philosopher, one of the founders of the psychological association, the deism) Gabriel Bonnot de Mably, 1709-1785, French imaginary communist, Kong Brother of Diak
Ramien Offroy de La Mettrie (1709-1751, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "Man is a machine", "The work of Penelope", "The soul Natural History, "Man is a plant"
Thomas Reid (1710-1796, British philosopher, founder of the Scottish school, the common sense school)
Lomonosov (Миxaил Вacильевич Ломoносοв1711-1765, Russian scholar, poet, founder of Russian materialistic philosophy and natural science)
Hume (David Hume, 1711-1776, British idealist philosopher, agnostic, historian, economist) - "The Theory of Human Nature", "Human Understanding", "Ethics and Politics"
Rousseau (Jean Jacques Rousseau, 1712-1778, French enlightenment thinker, philosopher, educator, writer) - "Confessions", "Fashionable Muse", "Village Wizard", "On the Origin of Human Inequality" And Foundation, "Social Contract Theory", "Ai Mier" ("On Education")
Denis Diderot (1713-1784, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher, atheist, writer, editor-in-chief of Encyclopedia) - "Philosophy of Thought", "Stroll of Skeptics", "For The letter of the blind person, the book on the book of deaf and dumb, the interpretation of nature, the conversation of D'Alembert and Diderot, The Continuation of the Talk, The Deaf of Rama Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714-1762, German philosopher, advocate of the Wolff philosophy system) Claude Adrien Helvétius (1715-1771, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "On the spirit "On the rationality and education of human beings", "The Tablet of Love Knowledge", "The Tablet of Happiness", "The Tablet of Rational Pride and Laziness"
Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780, French enlightenment thinker, sensory theorist, Marbury's brother) - "Sensory Theory", "The Origin of Human Knowledge", "System Theory"
Jean Le Rond d' Alembert (1717-1783, a translator of Lambert, French mathematician, enlightenment thinker, philosopher, former deputy editor of the Encyclopedia)
Paul Heinrich Dietrich d' Holbach (1723-1789, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher, atheist) - "Debunked Christianity", "Pocket Theology", "Sacred Plague", "Sound Thought, Natural System, Social System, Universal Ethics
Kanman (Immanuel Kant, 1724-1804, the founder of German classical idealism) - "Critique of Pure Reason", "Critique of Practical Reason", "Critique of Judgment", "Introduction to Future Metaphysics", "Principles of Moral Metaphysics", On Perpetual Peace and the Collection of Critical Criticism of History
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781, thinker, literary theorist, playwright of the German Enlightenment) Henry Dodwell (-1784, British deism)
Jean Baptiste René Robinet (1735-1820, French philosopher)
Jean Antoine Condorcet (1743-1794, French bourgeois revolutionary bourgeois theorist)
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743-1819, German idealist philosopher)
Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803, German literary theorist, philosopher, arrogant movement (the theory of the German bourgeois literary movement in the 1970s and 1980s))
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832, British ethicist, jurist, main representative of bourgeois utilitarianism) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832, German poet, playwright, thinker)
William Godwin (1756-1836, British writer, social thinker, pastor, and later supported atheism and enlightenment)
Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis (1757-1808, French bourgeois revolutionary bourgeois theorist, physiologist, vulgar materialist)
Claude Henri de Saint-Simon, 1760-1825, French utopian socialist
Filippo Michele Buonarrotti (1761-1837, French imaginary communist. Originally from Italy, participated in the French Revolution of 1789, won the title of "Citizen of the French Republic")
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814, German classical idealist philosopher) - "The Foundation of All Knowledge", "The Foundation of Natural Law under the Principles of Knowledge", "The Moral System under the Principles of Knowledge", "On the Mission of Scholars" and "The Mission of Man" Hegel (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, 1770-1831, the master of German classical idealism) - "Psychiatry Phenomenology", "Logic", "Little Logic" , Principles of Legal Philosophy, Philosophy of History, Philosophy of Nature, Philosophy of Spirit, Philosophy of Art, Lectures on History of Philosophy, Hegel Letters
Robert Owen (1771-1858, British Utopian Socialist)
Charles Fourier (1772-1837, French Utopian Socialist)
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775-1854, German idealist philosopher) - "Transcendental Idealism System", "On the World Soul"
Bernhard Bolzano (1781-1848, Czech mathematician, philosopher, logician)
Etienne Cabet (1788-1856, French Utopian Communist)
Schopenhauer (1788-1860, German idealist philosopher, voluntarist)
Victor Cousin (1792-1867, French idealist philosopher, professing his philosophical system as eclecticism)
Heinrich Heine (1797-1856, German poet, political commentator, thinker)
Auguste Comte (1798-1857, French positivist philosopher)
Théodore Dézamy (1803-1850, French Utopian Communist)
Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach (1804-1872, German materialist philosopher) - "The selection of Feuerbach's philosophical works", "The Essence of Christianity", "Critique of Hegel's Philosophy", "Principles of Future Philosophy" Herzen (1812-1870): "Nature Research Newsletter", "Scientific Tastes", "To Old Friends"
Louis Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881, French Revolutionary, Utopian Communist)
Max Stirner (1806-1856, Kaspar Schmidt's pseudonym, German idealist philosopher, one of the young Hegelian representatives, the so-called theorists, the anarchist's forerunner By)
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873, British idealist philosopher, economist, logician, son of James Muller)
Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865, French petty bourgeois economist and sociologist, one of the founders of anarchism)
Powell (Bruno Bauer, 1809-1882, German idealist philosopher, the main representative of the young Hegelian)
Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский,1811-1848, Russian revolutionary democrat, literary critic, philosopher) - "Selection of Bilinsky's Philosophical Works"
Jean Josehp Charles Louis Blanc (1811-1882, French petty bourgeois socialist, historian)
Herzen (Александр Иванович Герцен, 1812-1870, Russian revolutionary democrat, materialist philosopher, writer)
Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855, Danish idealist philosopher, his thought became one of the theoretical basis of modern bourgeois philosophical genre existentialism)
Rudolf Hermann Lotze (1817-1881, German idealist philosopher, professing his philosophy as "the teleological idealism")
Grünn (1817-1887, German petty bourgeois socialist)
Karl Vogt (1817-1895, German naturalist, vulgar materialist, professing his philosophy as "physiology
Marx (1818.5.5-1883.3.14, - "Capital", "Economic Manuscript", "The Outline of Feuerbach", "German Ideology"
Spencer (Herbert Spencer, 1820-1903, British sociologist, agnostic, idealist philosopher)
Jacob Moleschott (1822-1893, a Dutch physiologist, philosopher, one of the representatives of vulgar materialism) Ludwig Büchner (1824-1899, German doctor, one of vulgar materialist representatives)
Ferdinand Lassalle (1825-1864, leader of the opportunistic faction in the German workers' movement)
Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895, British naturalist) - "Beautiful New World"
Friedrich überweg (1826-1871, German philosopher) - "Introduction to the History of Philosophy"
Friedrich Albert Lange (1828-1875, German idealist philosopher, early neo-Kantian) Joseph Dietzgen (1828-1888, German socialist writer and philosopher, tanner) Chernyshevsky (Николай Гаврилович Чернышевский,
1828-1889, Russian revolutionary democrats, materialist philosophers, literary critics, writers) - "The Aesthetic Relationship between Art and Reality", "An Overview of the Gothic Period in the Russian Literature Circle", "Philosophy Humanism Principles" 》
Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (1828-1893, a translation of Dana, French literary theorist, historian, one of the heirs of Conde's empirical philosophy)
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920, German psychologist, philosopher, one of the founders of structural psychology)
Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911, a German idealist philosopher who originally belonged to neo-Kantianism and later turned to philosophy of life)
Karl Eugen Dühring (1833-1921, German philosopher, vulgar economist)
Harris Torrey Harris (1835-1909, American educator, idealist philosopher, the earliest communicator of Hegelian philosophy in the United States)
Green Hill (Thomas Hill Green, 1836-1882, British idealist philosopher)
Wilhelm Schuppe (1836-1913, German idealist philosopher, founder of internalism)
Ernst Mach (1838-1916, Austrian physicist, idealist philosopher, one of the founders of empirical criticism) Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914, American idealist philosopher, founder of pragmatism)
James (William James, 1842-1910, American idealist philosopher, psychologist, pragmatist, founder of functional psychology)
Eduart Hartmann (1842-1906, German idealist philosopher)
Richard Avenarius (1843-1896, German subjective idealist philosopher, one of the founders of empirical criticism)
Nietzsche (Friedrich Nietzsche, 1844-1900, German idealist philosopher, voluntarist)
Merlin (Franz Mehring, 1846-1919, one of the left-wing leaders of the German Social Democratic Party, political commentator, historian)
Francis Herbert Bradley (1846-1924, British idealist philosopher, new Hegelian) R (Rudolf Eucken, 1846-1926, German idealist philosopher)
Richard Schubert-Soldern (1852-1935, German idealist philosopher, representative of internalism
Karl Pearson (1857-1936, British idealist philosopher, mathematician, one of the advocates of eugenics) Samuel Alexander (1859-1938, British idealist philosopher, new realist)
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938, German idealist philosopher, founder of modern phenomenology)
Henri Bergson (1859-1941, French idealist philosopher, life philosophy and the main representative of modern irrationalism)
John Dewey (1859-1952, American idealist philosopher, sociologist, educator, pragmatist) Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947, British idealist philosopher, mathematician)
Josef Petzoldt (1862-1929, German idealist philosopher, empirical critic)Heinrich Rickert (1863-1936, German idealist philosopher, one of the main representatives of the New Kant's Freiburg School)
Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller (1864-1937, British philosopher, pragmatist, called his pragmatic philosophy "humanism")
Benedetto Croce (1866-1952, a translation of Croce, Italian idealist philosopher, historian, new Hegelian)
Hans Driesch (1867-1941, German idealist philosopher, biologist, new vitalist)
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970, British idealist philosopher, mathematician, logician)
Bogdanov (Александр Александрович Богданов, 1873-1928, Russian idealist philosopher)
George Edward Moore (1873-1958, British idealist philosopher, one of the main representatives of the new realism)
Giovanni Gentile (1875-1944, Italian idealist philosopher, new Hegelian)
Oswald Spengler (1880-1936, German idealist philosopher, historian)
Deborin (Абрам Моиесевич Деборин, 1881-1963, Soviet philosopher,
Moritz Schlick (1882-1936, idealist philosopher, born in Germany, taught at the University of Vienna, Austria, one of the founders of the Vienna School, one of the founders of logical positivism)
Jalques Maritain (1882-1973, French theologian, idealist philosopher, main representative of new Thomasism) Karl Jaspers (1883-1969, German existentialist philosopher)
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951, Austrian idealist philosopher, logician. After Hitler annexed Austria in 1838, he entered British nationality and taught at Cambridge University)
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976, a German existentialist philosopher who served as university president and professor during Hitler's reign, and supported Nazism)
Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980, French existentialist philosopher.) - "Imagination", "Existence and Nihility", "Existentialism is a Humanism", "Critique of Dialectical Reason", Several Issues in Methodology
Beauvoir Simone de (1908-1986, French existentialist scholar, writer)
Merleau Ponty (1908-1961, French existentialist philosopher)
Of course, philosophy and religion, politics, literature, etc. are also closely related. If you want to know the avenue, you must know the history. Repeated reading of the history of philosophy, world history, benefited a lot, and imagination came together.
Eastern philosophy Arabic philosophy Indian philosophy
In the history of the world, the East and the Arab countries also have important status and influence. Countries such as India, China, and Arabia are particularly important.
The great wise man of life
(The legend is about 600 years ago - about 470 years ago), surnamed Li Ming Er, the word Bo Yang, Han nationality, Chu State Bian County, is a great ancient Chinese philosopher, thinker, Taoist school founder, and in the Valley It was written in the ethics of the Five Thousand Words.
Confucius
Confucius (September 28th, 551th to April 11th, 479th) Mingqiu, the word Zhongni, Lu Guoyu, Han nationality at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period. English: Confucius, Kung Tze. Confucius was a great educator and thinker in ancient China, the founder of the Confucian school, and a world cultural celebrity. Confucius's thoughts and doctrines have had a profound impact on later generations.
Zhuangzi (about 369 years ago - 286 years ago), Han nationality. A famous thinker, philosopher, and writer is the representative of the Taoist school, the successor and developer of Laozi's philosophy, and the founder of the pre-Qin Zhuangzi school. His doctrine covers all aspects of social life at that time, but the fundamental spirit is still dependent on Laozi's philosophy. Later generations will call him and Laozi "Laozhuang", and their philosophy is "Lao Zhuang philosophy."
Mencius, the pioneer of the people-oriented thinking
Mencius (from 372 to 289) Han nationality, Zoucheng, Shandong. The great thinker of ancient China. One of the representative figures of Confucianism during the Warring States Period. He is the author of "Meng Zi", a collection of essays. "The Book of Mencius" is a compilation of Mencius's remarks, written by Mencius and his disciples, and records the Confucian classics of Mencius' words and deeds.
Xunzi (Xunzi 313 years ago - 238 years ago), the name of the famous thinker, writer, politician, representative of the Confucian school, - Han Fei, Li Si is his disciple.
Dong Zhongshu (before 179~104), Dong Zi, Han Dynasty thinker, politician. Great contribution to the orthodox status of Confucianism. It is a thinker of the Western Han Dynasty who is advancing with the times. He is a famous idealist philosopher in the Western Han Dynasty and a master of modern Chinese studies. When Emperor Jingdi was a Ph.D., he taught "The Ram Spring and Autumn." In the first year of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (134 BC), Dong Zhongshu put forward the basic points of his philosophical system in the famous "Measures for Raising the Virtue," and suggested that "the slogan of 100 schools and the unique Confucianism" should be adopted by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. Later generations have different opinions on this.
Master of Science
Zhu Xi was a master of Song's agency studies. He inherited the science of Cheng Song and Cheng Wei of the Northern Song Dynasty and completed the system of objective idealism. It is said that reason is the essence of the world, "reasonable first, gas is behind", and puts forward "preserving the heavens, destroying human desires." Zhu Xi has a profound knowledge of the study of Confucian classics, history, literature, music, and even the natural sciences.
The development of Indian philosophy can be roughly divided into ancient philosophy (about 3000 BC ~ 750 AD), medieval philosophy (750 to 18th century AD), modern philosophy (about 18th century to 1947), modern philosophy (after 1947) ) Four periods.
Ancient
India has emerged as the bud of the worldview in the era of the Rigveda in the end of the original commune. After entering the slavery society, it began to form a systematic philosophy. The earliest philosophical book "The Upanishads."
middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, religion dominated, and the philosophy of the ruling class was included in the Hindu theology system. India traditionally recognized the Vatican’s authoritative figures, the Yoga School, the Victory School, the Orthodox School, and the Vedanta School. The Six-sect philosophy, such as the Miman sentiment, is called the orthodox school, and the Shunshi, Buddhism, Jainism, etc., which deny the authority of the Vedic, are called unorthodox.
Islam Arabia
The main differences between the Moor Taiqilai and the Hadith in philosophy are: the nature of Allah and the relationship between Allah and the world. MooreThe Taiqilai faction denies that Allah has all kinds of unfounded virtues such as knowledge, energy, sight, hearing, speech, life, etc., because these are considered to be the beginning of virtue and the personalization of Allah, and the true The uniqueness is incompatible; the Hadith is recognized as the virtue of Allah. Secondly, the debate about "freedom of will" and "pre-determination", that is, the relationship between man and Allah, the Hadith believes that the good and evil of man is the premise of Allah, and the act of man is created by Allah. The Moor Taiqilai faction believes that people have unlimited freedom of will, and that human behavior is created by themselves. Allah is rewarded and punished according to his good and evil, thus proving that Allah is fair.
After the 10th century, the Sunni philosophical system, the "New Kailam", the doctrine of Islam, was formed. The founder, Ashley, and his disciples reconciled the doctrines of “pre-determination” and “freedom of will”, emphasizing the all-powerfulness of Allah, and there is no causal connection between all things in the world, created by Allah. They try to show that all actions of human beings are determined by Allah, but people have the ability to "reach" their own actions, so people are responsible for their actions before Allah. The faction was supported by the ruling class and was regarded as an orthodox official creed.
Philosophy-theologians and their schools In the 9th and 12th centuries, there were numerous famous philosophers in the vast areas under the caliphate state, and there were also groups and factions of philosophers. These philosophers and factions, called "Hokma" by the Arabs, formed the main body of Arab medieval philosophy at that time, divided into two things, centered on Baghdad and Córdoba. Many of these philosophers are engaged in secular affairs (doctors, natural scientists, etc.), attaching importance to empirical knowledge and emphasizing theoretical understanding. Although they still have not got rid of the control of orthodox theology, they have largely accepted the influence of Greek-Roman philosophy, especially Aristotle and Neo-Platonicism and Eastern traditional ideas.
The philosopher Lacy and the sincere brothers. They attempted to reconcile Greek natural philosophy (including mathematics, astronomy, astrology, music, alchemy, medicine, etc.) and Islamic teachings to create a religious philosophy. Lacy's medical theory begins with the recognition of the close connection between the body and the soul, asserting that matter is eternal, that movement is an inseparable property of objects, and that feelings cause people to have an understanding of the object. The sincere Brothers Society was originally a politically-religious group of religious and philosophical groups in the Basra area in the 10th century. They collectively compiled an encyclopedic collection of essays. Their cosmology is Islam Shiite, New Pythago The combination of lasism and neo-Platonicism.
Philosophers Kendi, Farabi, and Ibn Sina, influenced by Greek Aristotle and Neo-Platonicism. Kendy is known as an Arab philosopher. He systematically studied Greek philosophy and tried to combine it with Islamic teachings, arguing that matter is a form of “flowing out” from the spirit of Allah, and that the soul can leave the body and be independent. Faraby is recognized as the "first philosopher" after Aristotle. His philosophical system is a mixture of Plato, Aristotle and Sufism, propagating the immortal "ration of Allah" . I think that the world is made up of many elements, and people can know the world through feelings. Ibn Sinah proposed the "dual truth theory" of religion and science. He is arrogant between materialism and idealism. He believes that the material world is eternal. They are not created by Allah, but they also think that the spirit overflows from Allah. The spirit gives form to the material and then forms everything. It is also claimed that the soul and the body are different and are a special ability that goes beyond the physical properties of ordinary things. On the issue of commonality, it is believed that the common phase exists before things, as the idea of creation, exists in things; as the essence of things, after things, is the form of existence of concepts.
Sufism and orthodox theology - philosopher Ansari. The Sufism faction appeared at the end of the 7th century and has undergone significant development since the end of the 8th century. Influenced by Neo-Platonicism and the Indian Yoga School, they promoted the "oneness of man and God" and "the connection between man and God" and advocated the doctrine of abstinence, perseverance, self-restraint, and was suppressed by the orthodox Islam. The orthodox school of the famous theology-philosopher Ansari, who was the master of
~ Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
The focus of subjectivity is a distorting mirror.
~ Hans-Georg Gadamer
*
someday i'll find that road....
*
Begin challenging your own assumptions. Your assumptions are your windows on the world.
Scrub them off every once in awhile, or the light won't come in.
~ Alan Alda
by Yoko Ono
Performed by Yoko Ono on July 20, 1964
at Yamaichi Concert Hall, Kyoto, Japan.
Photographer unknown;
courtesy Lenono Photo Archive.
YOKO ONO’S CUT PIECE From Text to Performance and Back Again
by Kevin Concannon
Art is inexorably bound up in the situation where it is
produced and where it is experienced. You can emphasize this,
or you can emphasize where it is produced or experienced: you
can even equate them, and emphasize the equation. The
relationship exists in any case, and, either as artist or as
audience, we are in a situation analogous to a swimmer who
may fight the surf, dive through it and struggle against it
until he gets out beyond where the surf is noticeable: or
else this swimmer can roll with the waves.
Dick Higgins, Postface (1964) [1]
The seemingly sudden and recent popularity of reprise
performances of live artworks of the 1960s and 1970s has been
greeted with an equally abundant supply of critical analysis,
much of which frames these events as “reenactments.” Such is
the case with Yoko Ono’s 2003 performance of her 1964 Cut
Piece. It was performed by Ono on at least six occasions and
by others many times more. The first two performances took
place in Kyoto and Tokyo in July and August 1964. The third
performance was presented at Carnegie Recital Hall in New
York City in March 1965. And the fourth and fifth
performances were offered as part of the Destruction in Art
Symposium presentation of Two Evenings with Yoko Ono at the
Africa Centre in London in September 1966. While Ono
“directed” later performances of the work, these were - until
September 2003 - the only confirmed occasions on which she
herself publicly performed it.
In these first performances by Ono, the artist sat kneeling
on the concert hall stage, wearing her best suit of clothing,
with a pair of scissors placed on the floor in front of her.
Members of the audience were invited to approach the stage,
one at a time, and cut a bit of her clothes off - which they
were allowed to keep. The score for Cut Piece appears, along
with those for several other works, in a document from
January 1966 called Strip Tease Show.
Cut Piece First version for single performer:
Performer sits on stage with a pair of scissors in front of him.
It is announced that members of the audience may come on stage
- one at a time - to cut a small piece of the performer’s
clothing to take with them.
Performer remains motionless throughout the piece.
Piece ends at the performer’s option.
Second version for audience:
It is announced that members of the audience may cut each other’s
clothing.
The audience may cut as long as they wish.
And in the 1971 paperback edition of her book, Grapefruit,
Ono included not so much a score as a description, concluding
with the statement that, “the performer, however, does not
have to be a woman.”
In her catalogue essay for the 2005 exhibition, Life, Once
More: Forms of Reenactment in Contemporary Art, Jennifer
Allen characterizes Ono’s 2003 performance of Cut Piece as a
“reenactment,” and imputes to the artist rather grand
ambitions for the event.
In September 2003 at Paris’s Ranelagh Theatre, Yoko Ono
reenacted her own Cut Piece as an expression of her hope for
world peace…. One could argue that the original performances
of the sixties and seventies needed to be reenacted in order
to catch up with the spectacle, in order to be reproduced, in
order to exist. Ono’s intervention seems to differ since she
decided to reenact Cut Piece, not for an exhibition, but for
the mass media, and not merely to ensure the continued
existence of her work, but in order to make a difference in
the present. In France, the organizers placed a full - page
advert for the event with a statement by Ono who described
her intervention as a response to the political changes in
the wake of 9/11. Her statement appeared around the world for
a little bit longer than fifteen minutes. It seems that Ono
hoped that her performance would reenact the peace movement
of the sixties on a global scale. In this case, the
reenactment searched for a lost totality, not in the
performance, but in an entire generation. [2]
There are a number of problems with this assessment. Most
importantly, the very notion that Ono reenacted her own work
seems to miss the point of an event score entirely. In the
two score variations quoted above, Ono refers to the
performer in the third person - and makes it clear that the
performer may be either male or female. Thus there is no
sense of an “original” performance - or any sense of priority
for the artist’s own performances - even after the fact. The
texts are not so much documents of a singular performance as
the performances are realizations of the score. And whether
these realizations are made by the artist herself or another
performer - or whether they are made in 1964 or 2007 - makes
little difference in this regard. While Allen suggests that
performances of the sixties and seventies might be reenacted
“in order to be reproduced, in order to exist,” she seems to
recognize that there is more than this behind Ono’s 2003
performance when she notes that Ono mounted her Paris
performance “not merely to ensure the continued existence of
her work, but in order to make a difference in the present.”
Having conceived Cut Piece as an event score, Ono foresaw the
work’s realization in a succession of presents. And from the
start, she understood that in each of these presents the work
would be transformed - not from any authentic original, but
from an idea into an experience - each one distinct from the
others. Ono has described her instruction works - or scores - as
“seeds,” activated individually and collectively in the minds
and actions of those who receive them. And as is often the
case with her work, this germinating idea is manifest in
multiple variations.
At earlier performances of Cut Piece, Ono has discussed the
work in several different ways. As will be clarified below,
she has characterized it as a test of her commitment to life
as an artist, as a challenge to artistic ego, as a gift, and
as a spiritual act. Critics over the years have interpreted
Cut Piece as a striptease, a protest against violence and
against war (specifically the Vietnam War), and most recently
(and most frequently) as a feminist work. In September 2003,
at the age of seventy, Ono performed Cut Piece in Paris “for
world peace.” Thirty - nine years after her first performance
of the work, she told Reuters News Agency that she did it
“against ageism, against racism, against sexism, and against
violence.” Although neither Ono nor her critics framed Cut
Piece as a feminist work in the 1960s when she was first
performing it, she has clearly subsumed the subsequent
feminist interpretations of her piece into her own revised
intention all these years later.
John Lennon noted on more than one occasion that Ono was “the
world’s most famous unknown artist.” Although Ono had already
established a fairly substantial reputation in London by the
time she first met Lennon in November 1966, her subsequent
liaison with the married Beatle soon eclipsed her growing
reputation as a prominent avant - garde artist. And after
marrying Lennon she became “the woman who broke up the
Beatles,” and consequently an object of scorn in the
worldwide press. In addition to losing her artistic identity
(in the popular press) and being labeled a homewrecker, Ono
bore the brunt of an onslaught of racism and sexism that is
still hard to fathom thirty - odd years later. It is hardly
surprising then that she now offers her performance against
racism and against sexism. And, having last performed it in
the eighth decade of her life, ageism has become part of her
personal experience as well. To borrow Higgins’s metaphor,
she is rolling with the waves (or perhaps the punches).
In recent years, even before the current vogue for
“reenactment,” Ono’s work has become an increasingly popular
subject of art - historical reclamation, culminating in the
recent retrospective exhibition and book, Yes Yoko Ono. Since
her reemergence onto the art scene (having been virtually
ignored by the artworld during her years with Lennon) with a
small exhibition of bronzes at the Whitney Museum in 1989,
the majority of authors who have considered her work as a
visual artist (or a recording artist, for that matter) have
presented her work as “proto - feminist,” typically citing Cut
Piece, as a major example from the sixties. The act of art
historical description and interpretation is a form of
“reenactment” as well, of course. Allen’s contention that
performances might be reenacted “to catch up with the
spectacle, in order to be reproduced, in order to exist,”
seems to imply that the “event” of the performance is a
“media event” of sorts - prompting the consequential press (or
art - historical literature) as its objective. In the case of
the performance reenactments of which she writes, however, it
seems more likely that it is exactly the other way around.
That is, it is the art - historical attention that prompts the
“reenactments.”
While Ono’s own earlier discussions of the work’s inspiration
and “meaning” certainly accommodate any number of different
readings, the current dominance of feminist
approaches - something the artist herself has clearly accepted
and reinvested into her 2003 performance - or at least her
discussion of it - has had the cumulative effect of recasting
Cut Piece as one - dimensional - and in the process ironically
marginalizing the very work these feminist scholars seek to
reclaim for history - and indeed have. As shall become clear,
the differences between Ono’s own earlier explanations of the
piece and the feminist framings by critics writing since
Ono’s 1989 reemergence are substantial, though certainly not
irreconcilable. These differences can be understood, of
course, in the context of the hermeneutics to which Higgins
alludes in the epigraph. Elsewhere, he has proposed that
hermeneutics is an ideal approach with which to critically
consider Fluxus performances. Paraphrasing Hans - Georg
Gadamer, Higgins explains:
The performer performs the work. He or she establishes a
horizon of experience - what is done, its implications and
whatever style the performer uses are all aspects of this
horizon.
The viewer has his or her own horizon of experience. He or
she watches the performance, and the horizons are matched up
together. To some extent there is a fusion of these horizons
(Horizontverschmelzung). When the horizons fuse, wholly or in
part, they are bent, warped, displaced, altered. The
performance ends, and the horizons are no longer actively
fused. The viewer examines his or her horizon. It is changed,
for the better or for the worse. The best piece is the one
that permanently affects the recipient’s horizon, and the
worst is the piece which the recipient, acting in good faith,
cannot accept at all. [3]
While Ono’s Cut Piece is not necessarily a Fluxus work,
Gadamer’s hermeneutic model is entirely appropriate, as I
will demonstrate below. But first, a review of the work’s
critical reception is in order. My first example raises the
important question of documentation in addition to the
current pervasiveness of the work’s feminist interpretation.
In 1992 artist Lynn Hershman was commissioned to re - document
Cut Piece for European television. Working from photos and
texts, as well as a first - hand account of one of Ono’s
performances that a colleague of hers had seen, Hershman
created a fifteen - minute video documentation of a 1993
performance staged with three actors specifically for this
purpose. Her attempts to interview Ono for the project were
unsuccessful. Cut Piece: A Video Homage to Yoko Ono concludes
with a discussion between art historians Moira Roth and
Whitney Chadwick; the tape had been produced with the
classroom in mind, Hershman told an interviewer in 1993.
One of the most obvious ways in which the video seems to
deviate from the original performance score is in its
splicing together of three performances by three different
women. Hershman saw Cut Piece in terms of “feminism,
violence, and risk” and recreated it with the idea of “video
cutting as a type of violence as well.” When asked why she
chose to present performances by three women, Hershman
replied: “I think she represented everywoman, not just one.”
[4]
Another scene, in which a man from the audience approaches
the stage and raises the scissors in a threatening gesture
(though ultimately lowering his arm and simply cutting her
dress) is based on written accounts of a similar event that
is said to have occurred during the first performance in
Kyoto.
While some of the earlier accounts of Cut Piece performances
refer to the audience’s behavior as sexually aggressive, it
is not until Barbara Haskell and John G. Hanhardt’s 1991
book, Yoko Ono: Objects and Arias, that Cut Piece is given a
specifically feminist reading - and a somewhat qualified
feminist reading at that:
Running through much of Ono’s work is a bold commentary on
women. Yet far from being strident feminist tracts on the
subordination and victimization of women, her pieces achieve
power because of their ambiguity; their willingness to
forfeit the illusion of politically proper thinking throws
responsibility for judgment upon the viewer. [5]
Three years later, though, in Marcia Tanner’s catalogue essay
for the 1994 Bad Girls exhibition, the author calls Cut Piece
“fiercely feminist in content” and explains:
Ono’s inspiration for Cut Piece was the legend of the Buddha,
who had renounced his life of privilege to wander the world,
giving whatever was asked of him. His soul achieved supreme
enlightenment when he allowed a tiger to devour his body, and
Ono saw parallels between the Buddha’s selfless giving and
the artist’s. When addressing serious issues - in this case
voyeurism, sexual aggression, gender subordination, violation
of a woman’s personal space, violence against women - Ono
invariably found means to combine dangerous confrontation
with poetry, spirituality, personal vulnerability, and edgy
laughter. [6]
Within five years, Haskell and Hanhardt’s rather tentative
feminist interpretation had become dominant, cropping up
regularly in the popular press as well. Cut Piece wasn’t
always a feminist statement, however. Cut Piece is an
incredibly rich and poetic work that raises questions about
the nature of the artist - audience relationship, and in so
doing, deliberately offers its performers, audiences, and
critics an opportunity to project their own “meaning” into
the work.
While Ono clearly has no objections to the feminist readings
that currently prevail, her recent comments also suggest that
she understands that “hindsight is twentytwenty.” In 1994
interviewer Robert Enright asked her, while discussing one of
her films, “Did you think of yourself as a proto - feminist?”
She responded: “I didn’t have any notion of feminism. When I
went to London and got together with John that was the
biggest macho scene imaginable. That’s when I made the
statement ‘Woman is the Nigger of the World.’”7 It was 1969
when she made that statement to Nova, a British women’s
magazine. And in 1972 she and Lennon would issue a
controversial pop single of the same title.
Two years earlier, after she had met Lennon, but before she
had “gotten together” with him, she directed a performance of
Cut Piece as part of a “happening.” The 14 Hour Technicolour
Dream Extravaganza at London’s Alexandra Palace in April 1967
was the epitome of swinging London - and the epitome of the
macho scene to which Ono referred. Lennon was in the audience
that night, and the band Pink Floyd was also on the bill. A
film of the event shows Ono’s then - husband, Tony Cox,
presiding over the performance, which featured model Carol
Mann. An enormous crowd presses against Mann, who is perched
on a large stepladder, wearing granny glasses and smoking a
cigarette. In contrast to the solemn air that envelops Ono in
her own performances of Cut Piece, the Alexandra Palace
performance seems a mob scene - a spectacle. While one would be
hard - pressed to present this performance as feminist, Ono
clearly accepted authorship of this performance as
photographs of this event were used in subsequent publicity
for her later concerts.
How, then, did Ono herself talk about Cut Piece when she was
first performing it? Discussing the work in a 1967 article in
a London underground magazine, Ono told her interviewers: It
was a form of giving, giving and taking. It was a kind of
criticism against artists, who are always giving what they
want to give. I wanted people to take whatever they wanted
to, so it was very important to say you can cut wherever you
want to. It is a form of giving that has a lot to do with
Buddhism. There’s a small allegorical story about Buddha. He
left his castle with his wife and children and was walking
towards a mountain to go into meditation. As he was walking
along, a man said that he wanted Buddha’s children because he
wanted to sell them or something. So Buddha gave him his
children. Then someone said he wanted Buddha’s wife and he
gave him his wife. Someone calls that he is cold, so Buddha
gives him his clothes. Finally a tiger comes along and says
he wants to eat him and Buddha lets the tiger eat him. And in
the moment the tiger eats him, it became enlightened or
something. That’s a form of total giving as opposed to
reasonable giving like “logically you deserve this” or “I
think this is good, therefore I am giving this to you.” [8]
This is the very same story alluded to by Bad Girls author
Tanner, above. Yet Tanner characterizes the story as a kind
of poetic spirituality in which Ono cloaked her “serious
issues,” namely feminist issues.
By 1973 Ono was widely considered a “radical feminist.” Only
a year earlier, for example, the record Woman is the Nigger
of the World had been greeted with great controversy in the
mainstream press. Yet in 1974 she discussed Cut Piece at
length in an autobiographical essay written for a Japanese
magazine - with no reference at all to feminist politics.
Traditionally, the artist’s ego is in the artist’s work. In
other words, the artist must give the artist’s ego to the
audience. I had always wanted to produce work without ego in
it. I was thinking of this motif more and more, and the
result of this was Cut Piece.
Instead of giving the audience what the artist chooses to
give, the artist gives what the audience chooses to take.
That is to say, you cut and take whatever part you want; that
was my feeling about its purpose. I went onto the stage
wearing the best suit I had. To think that it would be OK to
use the cheapest clothes because it was going to be cut
anyway would be wrong; it’s against my intentions.
I was poor at the time, and it was hard. This event I
repeated in several different places, and my wardrobe got
smaller and smaller. However, when I sat on stage in front of
the audience, I felt that this was my genuine contribution.
This is how I really felt.
The audience was quiet and still, and I felt that everyone
was holding their breath. While I was doing it, I was staring
into space. I felt kind of like I was praying. I also felt
that I was willingly sacrificing myself. [9]
The idea of giving the audience what it wishes to take is
very much bound up with hermeneutics - or reception theory - the
idea that it is the viewer as much as the artist who invests
a work of art with meaning. Cut Piece’s reception - the meaning
with which it is invested - is as varied as its audiences.
One of the earliest reviews of Cut Piece that I have been
able to find is of Ono’s second performance of the work in
August 1964 in Tokyo. The headline translates as: “The title
is ‘Stripping’ - avant - garde musician, Ono Yoko’s recital.” And
it continues: In the center of the stage without any props,
under the hazy spot light, a woman sits. From their seats,
members of the audience ran up onto the stage and started to
cut off her clothing with scissors. Soon, the scissors cut
even to her underwear. With the theme ‘Stripping,’ it is a
scene from Ono Yoko’s recital held at Sogetsu Art Center the
other day. [10]
After listing the other works performed, it concludes: “Now,
one may say ‘there, the sign of essence was performed’ and
bow down his head, and others may say ‘If no sounds were
made, give me back my money’ and raise their arms in the air.
Anyway, avant - garde music is a mysterious thing.” This
anything - but - feminist reading of Cut Piece in the Japanese
press can perhaps be better understood when one realizes that
another piece on the program, listed in this review as Chair
Piece, was actually titled Strip Tease for Three. It involved
simply a curtain rising to reveal three empty chairs on the
stage and then descending.
In June 1968, however, a similar characterization of Cut
Piece - along with a suite of provocative photographs - was
presented in the pages of TAB, a New York “gentlemen’s
magazine.” With a headline, “The Hippiest Artistic Happening:
‘Step Up and Strip Me Nude,’” the brief article continued:
Though Time magazine called her performance “music of the
mind,” and Art and Artists in London described it as “the
next logical step,” Yoko Ono’s “art” striptease still seems
like a striptease to excited viewers. The difference here is
that Yoko, a Japanese lovely now performing on the continent,
does not take her clothing off . . . the audience does it for
her. Guys who used to sit back and yell “Take it off!” now
have the golden opportunity to take it off for her. [11]
Published only weeks prior to the revelation of Ono’s affair
with Lennon, the author’s characterization of the artist as a
“Japanese lovely” stands in stark contrast to the
descriptions of her as “ugly” that would soon predominate.
A canonically feminist work since the 1990s, Cut Piece began
its life quite differently. But Ono’s aesthetics of reception
accommodate both these readings and many more too numerous to
review in these pages. Interpretations of Cut Piece as a
feminist work and as a striptease are ultimately at least as
revealing of those respective interpreters as they are of the
artist who conceived the work. For if Cut Piece is both these
things and more, it is foremost a work that challenges our
notions of what a work of art is and who actually makes it - a
conceptual work.
Curiously, Cut Piece has received considerably more press in
the past seventeen years than during the three or four years
that Ono initially performed it - all incidentally before her
famous liaison with Lennon. And for the most part, this
expert opinion has been based on previously published
descriptions and photographs. As it turns out, while Ono’s
staff had unknowingly informed artist Lynn Hershman
otherwise, there is a film of the 1965 Carnegie Recital Hall
performance of Cut Piece made by Albert and David Maysles - and
others as well. I discovered this film in late 1996 while
researching a catalogue essay for Ono’s 1996 FLY exhibition
and subsequently found other films as well. While I had
screened it at conferences in 1997, its first major public
showings occurred within the Out of Actions exhibition at
L.A. MoCA in 1998. From this point on, most writers and
performers worked from this film document.
As noted earlier, Ono had always intended Cut Piece to be
performed by men or women. The first documented male
performance of Cut Piece (that I’ve been able to find,
anyway) took place in Central Park on September 9, 1966, as
part of the Fourth Annual Avant - Garde Festival organized by
Charlotte Moorman. Ono had been scheduled to perform Cut
Piece, but left suddenly for London and the Destruction in
Art Symposium. Ono’s performance had already been publicized
though, so Moorman hastily arranged for two men to perform
the piece in Ono’s stead. Apparently facing problems with
nudity and her parks permit, the performers appeared in large
black bags that were cut off instead of their clothing - a
conflation of Ono’s Bag Piece and Cut Piece. For what was in
all likelihood the first male performance of Cut Piece, then,
the performers wore bags, under which they were fully
clothed. Due to specifically stated park policy, nudity was
prohibited.
The next known male solo performance of Cut Piece was in the
fall of 1968, and the performer was Jon Hendricks, then
director of the Judson Gallery, and now Ono’s exhibitions
manager as well as curator of the Gilbert and Lila Silverman
Fluxus Collection. Hendricks was a guest instructor for a
“Semester in New York” program sponsored by a consortium of
Midwest colleges. The students were living at the Paris
Hotel, where the course was taught. Hendricks performed Cut
Piece as part of their introduction to the course.
I was kind of nervous so I decided to do Cut Piece. I bought
a suit at the thrift store, put the scissors down in front of
me and explained the work. I saw it as a kind of leveling of
the student - teacher relationship and a way of getting into
something that was timely in terms of both performance and
social issues - the war in Vietnam, riots, and the feeling of
some of us against authority in society. And here I was, the
authority figure . . . . [12] Hendricks’s performance seems
to have been more about challenging the authority of the
performer rather than his vulnerability.
Thus a feminist interpretation of the piece seems to presume
a female performer - something never mandated by the artist
herself. This in turn likely reflects a commonly held notion
that an original performer and an original performance
constitute an authentic version of the piece. Curiously, more
recent performances by men (Jim Bovino at the Walker Art
Center in 2001 and John Noga at the University of Akron in
2007, for example) have more closely kept to Ono’s score.
Both Bovino and Noga assumed the seated position indicated in
Ono’s instruction and maintained a calm, passive demeanor.
Thus performed, the more recent feminist framings seem
irrelevant - and the “content” seems more clearly to be the
actions of the audience members themselves.
This notion of the “original” performance work that underlies
much of the recent interest in performance “reenactment”
might well hold true for other performances by other artists,
but not of performances encoded in scores - Fluxus or
otherwise. Marina Abramović, who recently performed a number
of well - known performance works from the 1960s and 1970s at
the Guggenheim Museum (Seven Easy Pieces, November 2005),
spoke about her own work of the 1970s at a symposium that
followed the week of performances: “We never wanted to repeat
things . . . . We never even wanted to be photographed. We
were pure pure pure.” [13] Curiously, her week of historic
performances was made possible by what Nancy Princenthal
characterizes as a “radical response.”
By treating the irremediably category - resistant performance
form as if it were, say, popular music, and translating
“instructions” as “score,” a performance could be
re - presented by anyone with the necessary stamina and
determination (no small qualifications). If the original
artists were credited and paid, the whole messy medium could
be brought into the world of copyright and distribution and
licensing fees - in a word, into the marketplace. To use
another mouthful of a word, it could also, Abramović argues,
thereby be brought into the academic discourse of history.”
[14]
Of course, this concept of performance score has existed
within the Fluxus orbit since at least the early 1960s - the
very period at stake in Abramović’s project. More
problematic, however, is the idea that new performances
provide an object of sorts for art historical study. As
demonstrated above, reformulations of Cut Piece have arguably
contributed to a distortion of the work, more so than an
illumination of it. On the other hand, the nature of Ono’s
work seems not merely to allow this, but encourage it.
Indeed, one might argue that Cut Piece, more than anything
else, exploits the hermeneutic circle among artist, score,
performer, audience, and critic.
Readings of Cut Piece as feminist, pacifist,
anti - authoritarian, Buddhist, Christian - and even as a
striptease - are all valid. The many and varied interpretations
of Cut Piece by artist, performers, audiences, and critics
testify to the work’s great power - a power embedded in its
score. But most importantly, Cut Piece is an incredibly rich
and poetic work that poses seldom - asked questions about the
nature of art itself and in the process opens itself up to a
multitude of readings. To assert that any of its performances
or interpretations are definitive denies the work the very
multivalence at its core and minimizes the qualities that
make it forever vital and alive.
NOTES
1. Dick Higgins, Postface, New York: Something Else Press,
1964, 2.
2. Jennifer Allen, “‘Einmal ist keinmal’: Observations on
Reenactment,” in Life, Once More: Forms of Reenactment in
Contemporary Art, edited by Sven Lütticken, Rotterdam: Witte
de With, Center for Contemporary Art, 2005, 211–13.
3. Dick Higgins, “Fluxus Theory and Reception,” in The Fluxus
Reader, New York: Academy Editions, 1998, 230.
4. E - mail correspondence with the author, March 28, 1997.
5. Barbara Haskell and John G. Hanhardt, Yoko Ono: Objects
and Arias, Layton, UT: Gibbs Smith, 90.
6. Marcia Tanner, “Mother Laughed: The ‘Bad Girls’ Avant -
Garde,” in Bad Girls, New York: New Museum of Contemporary
Art, 1994, 61.
7. Robert Enright, “Instructions in the Marital Arts: A
Conversation with Yoko Ono,” Border Crossings 13,1 (Winter
1994): 37.
8. Roger Perry and Tony Elliott, “Yoko Ono,” Unit (December
1967): 26–27.
9. Yoko Ono, “If I Don’t Give Birth Now, I Will Never Be Able
To,” Just Me! The Very First Autobiographical Essay by the
World’s Most Famous Japanese Woman, Tokyo: Kodansha
International, 1986, 34–36. This article was originally
published in the summer of 1974 in the Japanese magazine,
Bungei Shunju, during Ono’s “Yoko Ono and Plastic Ono Super
Band: Let’s Have a Dream” tour. This translation was
commissioned by the author from Akira Suzuki.
10. “The title is ‘Stripping’ - avant - garde musician, Ono
Yoko’s recital,” Shukan Taishu 36,10 (September 1964): 1.
This translation was commissioned by the author from Sumie
Ota. Thanks to Mikihiko Hori for providing publication
details for this previously unidentified press cutting from
the artist’s files.
11. “The Hippiest Artistic Happening: ‘Step Up and Strip Me
Nude,’” TAB 18,2 (June 1968): 65–68.
12. Jon Hendricks’s personal communication with the author,
New York City, February 4, 1998. In a personal communication
of June 6, 2001, Hendricks recalled that he was seated in a
chair for his performance.
13. Abramović, quoted in Nancy Princenthal, “Back for One
Night Only!” Art in America (February 2006): 90.
14. Princenthal, 90.
KEVIN CONCANNON is Associate Professor of Art History at the
Myers School of Art at The University of Akron–Ohio. With
John Noga, he is curator of Yoko Ono Imagine Peace Featuring
John & Yoko’s Year of Peace, currently traveling, and Agency:
Art and Advertising, scheduled for September 12 through
November 8, 2008 at the McDonough Museum of Art at Youngtown
State University.
© 2008 Kevin Concannon
Published in PAJ - A Journal of Performance and Art
Sept 90 (2008), pp. 81–93
The University of Freiburg (German Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, colloquially Uni Freiburg), sometimes referred to with its full title, the Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg, is a public research university located in Freiburg im Breisgau, Baden-Württemberg, Germany.
The university was founded in 1457 by the Habsburg dynasty as the second university in Austrian-Habsburg territory after the University of Vienna. Today, Freiburg is the fifth-oldest university in Germany, with a long tradition of teaching the humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. The university is made up of 11 faculties and attracts students from across Germany as well as from over 120 other countries. Foreign students constitute about 16% of total student numbers.[1]
Named as one of elite universities of Germany by academics, political representatives and the media,[3] the University of Freiburg stands amongst Europe's top research and teaching institutions.[4][5] With its long-standing reputation of excellence, the university looks both to the past, to maintain its historic academic and cultural heritage, and to the future, developing new methods and opportunities to meet the needs of a changing world.[6] The University of Freiburg has been home to some of the greatest minds of the Western tradition, including such eminent figures as Martin Heidegger, Hannah Arendt, Rudolf Carnap, David Daube, Johann Eck, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Friedrich Hayek, Edmund Husserl, Friedrich Meinecke, and Max Weber. In addition, 19 Nobel laureates are affiliated with the University of Freiburg and 15 academics have been honored with the highest German research prize, the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize, while working at the University of Freiburg. WIKIPEDIA
FangruidaWorks：
Fangruida's natural philosophy: super-spinning super-rotating cosmic structural system and multi-dimensional multi-directionality of natural philosophy. The original theory of "three sexes" (intensive reading)
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(Original: Fangruida May 2012 in Athens, Bonn, London, revised finalized in New York)
Edit Translation: Cole Susan 2012 electronic version 2012V1.1 version
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Key words: ██ Multidimensionality of philosophy
█ The three principles of philosophy
● Three-dimensional multidimensional theory
Absolute relativity of the natural world
Abstract macro concrete microscopic concrete macro abstract ultramicro
The breadth and limitations of human wisdom
Natural Revolution, Cosmic Revolution and Social Revolution
Assimilation or alienation of super-smart humans and super-bio-smart players
The end of life, the multi-spin system of the universe
The structure of thinking: convergence and divergence
The chemical abundance of the universe, homogeneity, heterogeneity
Substance-Species-Organics-Inorganics Life Macromolecules Life and Wisdom Human Life ▲▲
Philosophy and history
Studying world history, studying human history, including natural science research, such as the structure and evolution of the universe, the ultra-microsystems of particles, the evolution of life, the future of the universe, the developmental variation of the human world and the future, etc., are a big end. The philosophical thoughts, the colorful flowers, can be described as colorful and magnificent. History of philosophy, history of thought, history of civilization, history of religion, and various research works are full of enthusiasm. Masters of world philosophy, masters of thought, and masters of science have left us with an extremely precious cultural heritage, which is worthy of repeated study and in-depth study. For example, the question of thinking and existence, consciousness and material as the source: cosmic structure, particle structure, origin of life, the future of man and the universe, the society of the planet and the universe, the end of the universe and humanity, the pioneering and limitations of science and technology Sex, human brain thinking structure and highly intelligent biological robots, the existence and destruction of the Earth and the solar system, the large-scale structure of the universe and the homogeneity of the universe, the advanced intelligent animals and life macromolecules, matter and species, the space and time of the universe, black holes And dark matter, big bang and steady state, initial, normal ground state and final state, super-spin and super-spin, classical mechanics and quantum mechanics, evolutionary structure of human society, and so on. Of course, philosophy and natural science and technology are inseparable. Here we mainly discuss natural philosophy. Therefore, there are not many discussions on physical mechanics, etc., mainly in the basic categories of philosophy and natural philosophy. Natural science research papers refer to the author's related works.
The history of world philosophy and the history of thought have an extremely important position and extremely important guiding role in human history. With the rapid development of modern science and technology, with the substantial growth and leap of the world economy, the development of human society and new Civilized rationality has reached a new milestone. Economic history, civilization history, social history, political history, military history, cultural history, religious history, intellectual history, philosophy history, and history of the universe are very grand and complex. Here, we mainly study and discuss the history of human understanding, the history of thought, and the history of philosophy. . The big end, the clear veins and trajectories of the world, all kinds of doctrines, all kinds of academics, all kinds of thoughts, various schools, flowers and flowers, quite new. Of course, it is not possible to talk about things, but to involve in-depth research and exploration in the field of natural science and technology, as well as other important areas of research, in order to profoundly understand and understand, what is the great revolution of modern philosophy. Otherwise, there is no way to talk about it, or to go biased and extreme. Western philosophy, Eastern philosophy, religious philosophy, etc.
European Philosophy and Western Philosophy
Ancient Greek philosophy school
The early four universities in ancient Greece were the Ionian, Pythagoras, Elia, and the elemental school; the late four-school school: the cynicism school, the Stoic school, the Epicurean school, New Platon School
Ionian
Miletus School
(Thales, etc.) (to attribute the world to a specific phenomenon or substance of nature, such as water and gas)
Pythagoras School
(Pythagoras) (everything is counted)
Heraclitus
(The universe is a changing fire, dominated by logos (laws))
Democritus
(propose atomism)
Elijah
(Parmenid) (the origin of all things, is the eternal "consciousness of existence", denying change and movement
Socrates
(emphasizes access to knowledge by introspection)
Plato
(The concrete behind everything is the eternal prototype concept)
Aristotle
(The distinction between material and form, the universe consists of five elements: earth, water, gas, fire, and ether, presenting the existence of the first promoter "God", etc., the most comprehensive early philosophy)
Neo-Platonicism
(Protino) ("Taiyi" is the foundation of the world, rational laws, souls, and specific things are too super-existing)
Epicurean school
(Ibi-Ji-lu) (everything and soul are atoms, happiness is the purpose of life)
Cynic school
(Diogenes) (contempt for external utilitarianism, advocates poverty-stricken life)
Stoia
(Marco Aurelius, Abigail Ted) (emphasis on the "goodness" and "de" of human beings, advocating obedience to fate while grasping self)
Medieval Christian philosophy
Augustine
(In the philosophical theory to explain the existence of God, the Trinity, the salvation of the soul)
(Scholastic philosophy)
Aristotle
(Thomas Aquinas) (using Aristotle's rational philosophy to explain the nature, existence, virtue of God)
Willism
(Scott) (with the natural will as the cause of the world movement, the source is God)
Aokangism
(
Modern western philosophy
Early natural philosophy
(Bacon, Da Vinci, Newton and many other scientists, philosophical theorists) (proposes experimental observation-based science to support the theory of interpretation of nature)
Rationalism (rationalism)
(Descartes) (I think so I am, the ultimate source of knowledge is God, material and soul are parallel to each other)
(Spennosha) (emphasizing thinking/concepts and prolongation/substance are two different manifestations of the infinite God, one for the inner and one for the external)
(Leibnitz) (The world consists of consecutive "singles" of nature, including spirit and matter)
Empiricism (empiricalism)
(Locke) (Experience is the only source of knowledge, matter has the first nature and the second nature, the former is in the object itself, and the latter is the product of perception)
(Hume) (Initial perception is the only source of knowledge, time and space are both products of perception)
(Beckley) (The existence is self-perception, and the perception of the whole world is God) (German classical philosophy)
Transcendental idealism
(Kant) (Knowledge originally originated from the inexpressible "object self", which became a formable knowledge or concept/phenomenon after the subject's subjective norms of time, space and causality were recognized.
Absolute idealism
(Ficht) (Experience knowledge is the absolute self in the depths of consciousness, produced by constantly setting non-I, grasping non-I)
(Xie Lin) (Nature gradually self-awake, develops into a self-consciousness that opposes objective nature, and then returns self-consciousness to nature, and will eventually reach the absolute same with objective nature, that is, it can sense its absolute reality)
(Hegel) (ideal dialectics, objective idealism, the world is on the one hand, the evolution of objective existential history, and on the other hand, the continuous leap of subjective consciousness from sensibility to rationality, when realizing the development of self-awareness When the development of objective existence, you reach the absolute truth of God)
Young Hegelian
(Feuerbach) (materialism, pointing out that God is the externalization of the essence of human pursuit, admiring "love") (practical materialism, emphasizing the decisive role of practical labor, so that nature presents objective laws in front of human beings.
Modern western philosophy
Early irrationalism
(Kerkegaard) (denying that people have the essence of fixed unity, emphasizing the contingency and freedom of individual existence, this is the road to God, the pioneer of existentialism)
Voluntarism
(Schopenhauer) (The ontology of the world is the natural will without cause and effect, time and space, causality is the result of rational understanding of the will, and life is endless because of the endless desire and hindrance of desire)
(Nietzsche) (Destiny is controlled by oneself, not the norm of God, so it advocates the "power will" of the weak meat)
Philosophy of life
(Borgsen, Dilthey) (The world is the "stretching" and evolution of "the stream of life" in time)
New hegelism
(Bradley) (Development of Absolute Ideal Dialectics)
Neo-Kantianism
(Cohen, Cassirer) (a product of the combination of transcendental idealism and scientific philosophy, but denying the existence of self-physical independence from consciousness)
utilitarianism
(Bentham, Mill) (Social behavior is actually pursuing the maximization of personal happiness)
pragmatism
(James, Dewey) (The premise that things become the object of knowledge is its practicality. Only through human pursuit and experimentation can the truth be obtained)
Early analytic philosophy
(Freig, Russell, Wittgenstein) (Proposing logical ontology, the ontology of the world is not a separate entity, but an interrelated logical relationship)
Post-analytic philosophy
(Wittgenstein, Strawson, Rorty, etc.) (I believe that the emergence of philosophical problems is the result of misunderstanding of everyday language, and advocates the analysis of semantics to achieve the essential relationship between language and reality)
Falsificationist philosophy of science
(Popper) (Rejecting science can reach absolute truth, proposing three worlds - the material world, the spiritual world, the conceptual world)
Historic philosophy of science
(Kun, Feyerabend) (opposing the pure logic of separation from practice as a way of expressing the world, while emphasizing the accumulation of scientific experience in history)
Freudianism
(Floyd) (emphasizing the decisive role of subconsciousness and sexual desire on individual behavior, dreams, civilized activities, etc. are the result of subconsciousness being suppressed by external morality and disguised at the level of consciousness)
Western Marxism
The Frankfurt School (Marcuse, Habermas) (in Marx's dialectics, Freud's instinct, focuses on the enslavement and alienation of material civilization, advocates changing the social interaction model, and alleviates capitalism Social crisis)
Phenomenology / European Philosophy
(Husser) (Proposed a phenomenological approach, advocating returning to the matter itself, and studying the constructive role of consciousness in knowledge)
Existentialism
(Heidegger, Sartre, Coronation, etc.) (emphasizing the existence of the individual's pre-reflective consciousness in the world is the source of all knowledge. The existence of human beings is different from the existence of objects. The existence of human beings is free, not being Fully prescribed - existence precedes essence
Hermeneutics
(Gadamer, Derrida) (Thinking that the study of history cannot be reduced to historical facts, but the dialogue between modern perspectives and historical relics)
Structuralism
(Sausul, Artusai, Strauss, Lacan) (proposes the study of the overall structure of the various knowledge systems, and emphasizes the a priori and permanence of this structure, it is the correct research system Premise of each element)
Deconstruction
(Derrida, Foucault, Deleuze) (denying the existence of a unified knowledge structure, critical reason loses the richness of the world while unilaterally pursuing the essence, and believes that the relationship between man and the world, author and reader is not the relationship between subject and object. , but the dialogue between the subjects, affirming the diversity of ideas)
Essentials of philosophy science
The history of world philosophy, the history of world science and technology, the history of world social development, and the history of European and American philosophy all have brilliant historical memories.
Thales (about 585 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, was honored as the ancestor of Western philosophy from Aristotle.
Heracletitos (about 504-501 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of dialectics.
Parmenides (in the year 504-501 BC), the founder of the ancient Greek philosopher, ontology (ontology).
Demokritos (about 420 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, founder of atomism.
Socrates (468-399 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher.
Platon (427-347 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, with dialogues such as "Socratic Defence", "Ideology", "Barmenid", "The Wise", etc. Works.
Aristotles, Plato's students, Greek philosophers, encyclopedic philosophers, founders of many disciplines, masterpieces "Tools", "Physics", "metaphysics", "Nico Marco's Ethics, Political Science.
Lucretius (b.c.99-55) Ancient Roman materialist philosopher. I believe that everything is made up of atoms. The atom is infinitely moving in the universe and is infinite. It advocates atheism. The main work: "The Theory of Physical Property."
Aurelius Augustinus (354-430 AD), the greatest representative of the medieval godfather philosophy, is entitled "Confessions" and "City of God."
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), the greatest representative of the philosophy of the medieval scholasticism, with the book "Anti-Beast Encyclopedia" and "Theological Encyclopedia"
(Thomas Aquinas) (using Aristotle's rational philosophy to explain the nature, existence, virtue of God)
Willism
(Scott) (with the natural will as the cause of the world movement, the source is God)
Aokangism
(
Modern western philosophy
Early natural philosophy
(Bacon, Da Vinci, Newton and many other scientists, philosophical theorists) (proposes experimental observation-based science to support the theory of interpretation of nature)
Rationalism (rationalism)
(Descartes) (I think so I am, the ultimate source of knowledge is God, material and soul are parallel to each other)
(Spennosha) (emphasizing thinking/concepts and prolongation/substance are two different manifestations of the infinite God, one for the inner and one for the external)
(Leibnitz) (The world consists of consecutive "singles" of nature, including spirit and matter)
Empiricism (empiricalism)
(Locke) (Experience is the only source of knowledge, matter has the first nature and the second nature, the former is in the object itself, and the latter is the product of perception)
(Hume) (Initial perception is the only source of knowledge, time and space are both products of perception)
(Beckley) (The existence is self-perception, and the perception of the whole world is God) (German classical philosophy)
Transcendental idealism
(Kant) (Knowledge originally originated from the inexpressible "object self", which became a formable knowledge or concept/phenomenon after the subject's subjective norms of time, space and causality were recognized.
Absolute idealism
(Ficht) (Experience knowledge is the absolute self in the depths of consciousness, produced by constantly setting non-I, grasping non-I)
(Xie Lin) (Nature gradually self-awake, develops into a self-consciousness that opposes objective nature, and then returns self-consciousness to nature, and will eventually reach the absolute same with objective nature, that is, it can sense its absolute reality)
(Hegel) (ideal dialectics, objective idealism, the world is on the one hand, the evolution of objective existential history, and on the other hand, the continuous leap of subjective consciousness from sensibility to rationality, when realizing the development of self-awareness When the development of objective existence, you reach the absolute truth of God)
Young Hegelian
(Feuerbach) (materialism, pointing out that God is the externalization of the essence of human pursuit, admiring "love") (practical materialism, emphasizing the decisive role of practical labor, so that nature presents objective laws in front of human beings.
Modern western philosophy
Early irrationalism
(Kerkegaard) (denying that people have the essence of fixed unity, emphasizing the contingency and freedom of individual existence, this is the road to God, the pioneer of existentialism)
Voluntarism
(Schopenhauer) (The ontology of the world is the natural will without cause and effect, time and space, causality is the result of rational understanding of the will, and life is endless because of the endless desire and hindrance of desire)
(Nietzsche) (Destiny is controlled by oneself, not the norm of God, so it advocates the "power will" of the weak meat)
Philosophy of life
(Borgsen, Dilthey) (The world is the "stretching" and evolution of "the stream of life" in time)
New hegelism
(Bradley) (Development of Absolute Ideal Dialectics)
Neo-Kantianism
(Cohen, Cassirer) (a product of the combination of transcendental idealism and scientific philosophy, but denying the existence of self-physical independence from consciousness)
utilitarianism
(Bentham, Mill) (Social behavior is actually pursuing the maximization of personal happiness)
pragmatism
(James, Dewey) (The premise that things become the object of knowledge is its practicality. Only through human pursuit and experimentation can the truth be obtained)
Early analytic philosophy
(Freig, Russell, Wittgenstein) (Proposing logical ontology, the ontology of the world is not a separate entity, but an interrelated logical relationship)
Post-analytic philosophy
(Wittgenstein, Strawson, Rorty, etc.) (I believe that the emergence of philosophical problems is the result of misunderstanding of everyday language, and advocates the analysis of semantics to achieve the essential relationship between language and reality)
Falsificationist philosophy of science
(Popper) (Rejecting science can reach absolute truth, proposing three worlds - the material world, the spiritual world, the conceptual world)
Historic philosophy of science
(Kun, Feyerabend) (opposing the pure logic of separation from practice as a way of expressing the world, while emphasizing the accumulation of scientific experience in history)
Freudianism
(Floyd) (emphasizing the decisive role of subconsciousness and sexual desire on individual behavior, dreams, civilized activities, etc. are the result of subconsciousness being suppressed by external morality and disguised at the level of consciousness)
Western Marxism
The Frankfurt School (Marcuse, Habermas) (in Marx's dialectics, Freud's instinct, focuses on the enslavement and alienation of material civilization, advocates changing the social interaction model, and alleviates capitalism Social crisis)
Phenomenology / European Philosophy
(Husser) (Proposed a phenomenological approach, advocating returning to the matter itself, and studying the constructive role of consciousness in knowledge)
Existentialism
(Heidegger, Sartre, Coronation, etc.) (emphasizing the existence of the individual's pre-reflective consciousness in the world is the source of all knowledge. The existence of human beings is different from the existence of objects. The existence of human beings is free, not being Fully prescribed - existence precedes essence
Hermeneutics
(Gadamer, Derrida) (Thinking that the study of history cannot be reduced to historical facts, but the dialogue between modern perspectives and historical relics)
Structuralism
(Sausul, Artusai, Strauss, Lacan) (proposes the study of the overall structure of the various knowledge systems, and emphasizes the a priori and permanence of this structure, it is the correct research system Premise of each element)
Deconstruction
(Derrida, Foucault, Deleuze) (denying the existence of a unified knowledge structure, critical reason loses the richness of the world while unilaterally pursuing the essence, and believes that the relationship between man and the world, author and reader is not the relationship between subject and object. , but the dialogue between the subjects, affirming the diversity of ideas)
Essentials of philosophy science
The history of world philosophy, the history of world science and technology, the history of world social development, and the history of European and American philosophy all have brilliant historical memories.
Thales (about 585 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, was honored as the ancestor of Western philosophy from Aristotle.
Heracletitos (about 504-501 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of dialectics.
Parmenides (in the year 504-501 BC), the founder of the ancient Greek philosopher, ontology (ontology).
Demokritos (about 420 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, founder of atomism.
Socrates (468-399 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher.
Platon (427-347 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, with dialogues such as "Socratic Defence", "Ideology", "Barmenid", "The Wise", etc. Works.
Aristotles, Plato's students, Greek philosophers, encyclopedic philosophers, founders of many disciplines, masterpieces "Tools", "Physics", "metaphysics", "Nico Marco's Ethics, Political Science.
Lucretius (b.c.99-55) Ancient Roman materialist philosopher. I believe that everything is made up of atoms. The atom is infinitely moving in the universe and is infinite. It advocates atheism. The main work: "The Theory of Physical Property."
Aurelius Augustinus (354-430 AD), the greatest representative of the medieval godfather philosophy, is entitled "Confessions" and "City of God."
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), the greatest representative of the philosophy of the medieval scholasticism, is entitled "Anti-Beast Encyclopedia" and "Theological Encyclopedia".
Bruno (1548-1600) Italian materialist philosopher and natural scientist. Propagating Copernicus's heliocentric theory, that the universe has no center, the sun is just an ordinary planet, the solar system is just a celestial system, and matter is the common common essence of all things in the universe. The main work: "On the reasons, the essence and one."
Hobbes (1588-1679) was a British materialist philosopher who used to be the secretary and assistant of Bacon. He systematically embodies Bacon's philosophical ideas and advocates the use of mechanics and mathematics to illustrate the world. He is the founder of mechanical materialism. The main works: "On matter", "On the people."
Francis Bacon (1561-1626), the ancestor of British empiricism, and the "New Tools".
René Descartes (1596-1650), French philosopher, founder of modern philosophy, the founder of the theory, is the "Method Discussion", "The First Philosophical Contemplation", "Philosophy Principles".
Benedicus de Spinoza (1632-1677), a Dutch philosopher, one of the main representatives of the theory, with "Ethics" and so on.
John Locke (1632-1704), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Theory of Human Reason."
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the theory, is entitled "Single Theory" and "New Theory of Human Reason."
George Berkeley (1685-1753), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Principles of Human Knowledge."
David Hume (1711-1776), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Theory of Human Nature" and "The Study of Human Reason."
Montesquieu (1689-1755), a French enlightenment thinker, with the Persian Letters and The Spirit of the Law.
Voltaire (1694-1778), a French enlightenment thinker, and author of "Philosophy Communication."
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), a French enlightenment thinker, entitled "The Origin and Foundation of Human Inequality", "Social Contract Theory", "Emil", and "Confessions".
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), the founder of German classical philosophy, is entitled "Critique of Pure Reason", "Critique of Practical Reason" and "Critique of Judgment".
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), a master of German classical philosophy, is known for his dialectic in the world, and he is the author of "Psychophenomenology", "Logic" and "Philosophy of Philosophy".
Auguste Comte (1798-1857), French philosopher, founder of positivism, and the "Experimental Philosophy Course".
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), British philosopher, one of the representatives of positivism, is entitled "Conde and positivism", "system of logic", "utilitarianism".
"Arther Schopenhauer (1788-1860), a German philosopher, a voluntarist, has a "world of will and appearance."
Karl Marx (May 5, 1818 - 1883, 3, 1)
Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law (1843), on Jewish Nationality (1843), Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (1844), Feuerbach (1845), Poverty of Philosophy (1845), Employment Labor With Capital (1847), Louis Bonaparte's Misty Moon 18th (1852), Capital Theory Volume 2 (1893), Capital Theory Volume III (1894), etc.
William James (1842-1910), an American philosopher, one of the main representatives of pragmatism, is the "Psychology Principles", "Pragmatism", "Complete Empiricism Proceedings".
Friedrich Willhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900), a German philosopher, with "The Other Side of Good and Evil", "Zarathustra", "Strong Will".
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), a Swiss linguist, founder of structuralism, and a course in General Linguistics.
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), German philosopher, founder of phenomenology, with "Logical Studies", "Phenomenon of Phenomenology", "The Contemplation of Descartes" and "The Crisis of European Science and Transcendental Phenomenology, etc.
Sigmund Freud (1865-1939), an Austrian psychologist, founder of the psychoanalytic school, with "An Analysis of Dreams" and "Introduction to Psychoanalysis."
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) British philosopher and educator wrote "The History of Western Philosophy", "Education", "Philosophy Problems", etc., won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1950.
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), German philosopher, founder of existential philosophy, with "Existence and Time", "Introduction to Metaphysics", "Lin Zhong Lu" and so on.
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), one of the founders of Austrian-American philosophy, linguistic philosophy or analytic philosophy, is the author of The Philosophy of Logic and Philosophical Studies.
Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of logical positivism, is entitled "The Logical Structure of the World" and "The Logical Syntax of Language."
Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976) is a British philosopher, one of the representatives of the everyday language school, and has the concept of "heart".
Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900-), the German philosopher, the founder of philosophical hermeneutics, is the author of The Truth and Method.
Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), a German philosopher and founder of the Frankfurt School, is the author of Critical Theory, Research in Social Philosophy, and Dialectics of Enlightenment (co-authored with Adorno).
Theoder Wiesengrund Adorno (1903-1969), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the Frankfurt School, is entitled "Negative Dialectics".
Herbert Marcuse (1895-1979), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the Frankfurt School, with "Ration and Revolution", "Eros and
Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of existentialism, with "existence and nothingness", "existentialism is a kind of humanitarianism" and "criticism of dialectical reason".
Claude Levi-Strauss (1908-), French philosopher, anthropologist, one of the main representatives of structuralism, is entitled "Structural Anthropology" and "Wild Thinking."
Willard van Orman Quine (1908-), one of the main representatives of analytic philosophy, "from a logical point of view", "logic philosophy."
Tomas Kuhn (1922-), an American scientific philosopher, a historian of science, a representative of the Historic School, and the "Structure of the Scientific Revolution" and "Necessary Tension."
Michel Foucault (1926-1984), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of post-structuralism and post-modernism, is entitled "Knowledge Archaeology", "Discipline and Punishment" and so on.
Jacques Derrida (1931-), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of postmodernism, with "writing and difference", "casting", "the edge of philosophy", "the ghost of Marx" and so on.
Richard. M. Rorty (1931-), an American philosopher, one of the representatives of post-modern philosophy, is the Mirror of Philosophy and Nature and Post-Philosophy Culture.
Fredric Jamason (1931-), an American philosopher and literary critic, one of the main representatives of postmodernism, is entitled "Marxism and Form", "Political Unconsciousness", and "Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism".
John Rawls (1921-), an American political philosopher, is the author of The Theory of Justice and Political Liberalism.
Robert Nozick (1938-), an American political philosopher, is entitled "Anarchy, State, and Utopia."
Western philosophy European and American philosophy has a huge influence on the world. Of course, philosophy and thought are often inseparable. Philosophers also mean thinkers.
Philosophers, thinkers, schools of thought, and main ideology
Ancient Greek period: 7th century BC - 2nd century BC
Thales (about 624-about 547, the first philosopher of ancient Greece, the founder of the Miletus School)
Anaximandros (about 610-before 546, ancient Greek Miletus school materialist philosopher)
Anaximenes (about 588-about 525, ancient Greek Miletus school materialist philosopher)
Pythagoras (about 580 - about 500 before, ancient Greek mathematician, idealist philosopher)
Xenophanes (about 565-about 473, the ancient Greek philosopher, the first representative of the Elia school)
Herakleitos (between 540 and about 480 and 470 before, the ancient Greek materialist philosopher, the founder of the Efes school)
Kratylos (former fifth century, ancient Greek Efesian philosopher, Heraclitus student)
Parmenides (before the end of the sixth century - about the middle of the first half of the fifth century, the idealist philosopher of the Elia school of ancient Greece) Leukippos (about 500-about 440, the ancient Greek materialist philosopher , the atom said one of the founders)
Anaxagoras (about 500 before - 428 BC, ancient Greek materialist philosopher)
Zeno Eleates (about 490 - about 436 before, ancient Greek idealist philosopher, student of Parmenides) Empedokles (Em. 490 - about 430, Ancient Greek materialist philosopher, founder of rhetoric)
Gorgias (about 483 - about 375, the ancient Greek wise philosopher)
Protagoras (formerly 481-about 411, ancient Greek wise philosopher)
Socrates (formerly 469-before 399, ancient Greek idealist philosopher)
Demokratos (Demokritos, 460- 370 BC, ancient Greek materialist philosopher, and the founder of the atomic theory of Rebecca) Antisthenes (about 435-about 370, ancient Greece Philosopher, founder of the cynic school
Aristippos (about 435-front 360?, ancient Greek philosopher, founder of the Cyrene School, disciple of Socrates)
Plato (Plato, former 427-before 347, ancient Greek objective idealist philosopher, founder of the school, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle) - "Ideology", "politician", "Bammenides" and "Plato Dialogues"
Diogenes o Sinopeus (about 404-about 323, ancient Greek cynic philosopher)
Aristotles (Aristotles, 384- 322 BC, Ancient Greek philosopher, scientist, Plato's student, Alexander the Great's teacher, the founder of the Happy School) - Metaphysics, Tool Theory, Nigma Ethics, Physics, Politics
, "The Complete Works of Aristotle"
Pyrrhon (about 365-about 275, ancient Greek philosopher, skeptic)
Epikouros (formerly 341-pre-270, ancient Greek materialist philosopher)
Zeno (Zionon Kitieus), about 336-about 264, founder of the ancient Greek Stoic school
Roman period: the second century BC - the fifth century AD
Cousero (Marcus Tullius Cicero, former 106-43, ancient Roman politician, eloquent, philosopher, philosophically representative of eclecticism)
Titus Lucretius Carus (about 99-about 55, ancient Roman poet, materialist philosopher) - "The Theory of Materiality"
Tertullianus (between 150 and 160 - about 222, one of the Christian godfathers)
Aurelius Augustinus (354-430, the Roman Empire Christian thinker, the main representative of the godfather philosophy) - "Confessions", "On Free Will", "The Monologue", "The City of God", "The Handbook of Doctrine"
Hypatia (about 370-about 415, female mathematician, astronomer, neo-Platonic philosopher of the Roman Empire)
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, 480-524 or 525, the idealist philosopher in late Roman times
Medieval: 5th century AD - end of the 14th century
Johannes Scotus Erigena (circa 810-877, a philosopher of the pre-European medieval scholasticism) - "On God's Presupposition", "On the Division of Nature"
Anselmus (1033-1109, a medieval Christian thinker in Europe, the main representative of realism, known as "the last godfather and the first scholastic philosopher")
Roscellinus (about 1050 - about 1112, medieval French philosopher, nominalist)
Guillaume de Champeaux (circa 1070-1121, medieval French philosopher, realist)
Abel (Petrus Abailardus, 1079-1142, philosopher of the medieval French Academy, "concept theory")
Albertus Magnus (1193 or 1206 or 1207-1280, Medieval German philosopher, theologian, Catholic Dominican monk)
Thomas Aquinas (1226-1274, Medieval Theologian and scholastic philosopher, Catholic Dominican Fellow) - Theological Encyclopedia and Anti-Beast Encyclopedia
Sigerus de Brantia (circa 1240-1281 to 1284, Netherland philosopher, Averroist)
Meister Johannes Eckhart (circa 1260-1327, medieval German theologian and mystic philosopher) Johannes Duns Scotus (circa 1265-1308, medieval Scottish scholastic philosopher, nominalist ) - "On Oxford", "Paris on"
William of Occam (or Ockham), about 1300 - about 1350, philosopher of the medieval Soviet scholastic philosopher, nominalist) Jan Hus (circa 1369-1415, Czech patriot and religious reformer)
Dante Alighièri (1265-1321, Italian poet.
Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374, Italian poet, one of the pioneers of humanism in the European Renaissance) - "Secret"
Geovanni Boccàccio (1313-1375, Italian writer of the Renaissance, one of the main representatives of humanism) - "Ten Days"
Paul (John Ball, ?-1381, British folk missionary, one of the leaders of the Wat Taylor Uprising)
John Wycliffe (circa 1320-1384, British, pioneer of the European Reformation Movement)
Nikola (Kusa's) (Nicolaus Cusanus, 1401-1464, Renaissance German philosopher, cardinal, pantheist)
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519, Renaissance Italian artist, natural scientist, engineer, philosopher)
Pietro Pomponazzi (1462-1524 or 1525, the Italian philosopher of the Renaissance, one of the main representatives of humanism)
Desiderius Erasmus (circa 1469-1536, the Renaissance Netherland humanist, formerly known as Gerhard Gerhards, born in Rotterdam, the Netherlands) - "The Fools"
Thomas More (1478-1535, Renaissance British Utopian Communist)
Martin Luther (1483-1546, the founder of the 16th century German Reformation, Christian (Protestant) Road
Thomas Münzer (about 1490-1525, leader of the German peasant war of 1524-1525, German peasant and religious reformer of urban civilians)
Calvin (1509-1564, French, European Reformer, founder of Christian Calvin) - "On Benevolence", "Christian Essentials", "Faith Guide", "Christian Masterpieces Integration", From the Renaissance to the Selected Works of Humanitarian Humanity in the 19th Century by Bourgeois Literati Artists, Selected Works of Western Ethical Masterpieces, and History of Medieval Philosophy in Western Europe (Bernardino Telesio, 1509-1588, Renaissance Italy philosopher)
Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1533-1592, a translation of Montagne, French thinkers and prose writers during the Renaissance) - "Meng Tian Wenxuan"
Pierre Charron (1541-1603, French philosopher of the Renaissance)
Giordano Bruno (1548-1600, Italian philosopher of the Renaissance) - "On Reason, Primitive and Taiyi", "On Infinity, Universe and Worlds", "Basting the Beast", "On Heroic Passion" 》
Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639, Renaissance Italian Utopian Communist)
Jakob B?hme, 1575-1624, Renaissance German mystic philosopher
Grouseus (Hugo Grotius, 1583-1645, Dutch bourgeois jurist, early theorist of the natural law school, studied law, theology, history, literature, and natural sciences, with international law Research is well known)
Lucilio Vanini (1584-1619, Italian philosopher of the Renaissance)
Francis Bacon (1561-1626, "-"Chongxue", "New Tools", "Bacon's Anthology", "New Daxi"
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679, British materialist philosopher) - "Leviathan", "On Objects", "On Man", "On Freedom, Inevitability and Accident"
Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655, a translation of garrison, French materialist philosopher, physicist, astronomer) Descartes (1596-1650, French philosopher, physicist, mathematician) , physiologist, founder of analytic geometry) - "Methodology", "The First Philosophical Contemplation", "Philosophical Principles", "On the Passion of the Soul"
Hendrik van Roy (French name Henri Le Roy, Latin name Henricus Regius, 1598-1679, Dutch doctor, philosopher, representative of early mechanical materialism)
Gerrard Winstanley (circa 1609-about 1652, the leader of the bourgeois revolutionary movement in the British bourgeois revolution, the imaginary communist)
John Lilburne (circa 1614-1657, petty bourgeois democrat of the British bourgeois revolution, average leader)
Arnold Geulincx (1625-1669, the Dutch Descartes idealist philosopher, he and Malebranches are also called the causemen)
Spinoza (later renamed Benedictus) Spinoza, 1632-1677, Dutch materialist philosopher) - "Ethics", "Intellectual Improvement", "Theological Politics", "The Principles of Descartes"
Locke (John Locke, 1632-1704, British materialist philosopher) - "Human Understanding", "On the Government", "The Rationality of Christianity"
Nicolas Malebranche (1638-1715, French idealist philosopher) - "The Search for Truth", "Dialogue on Metaphysics"
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716, German natural scientist, mathematician, idealist philosopher) - "Theory of God", "New Theory of Human Reason", "Son Theory", "metaphysical conversation"
Pierre Bayle (1647-1706, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "The Letter about Comet", "General Critique of the History of Calvinism" by Manbull, "Dictionary of Historical Criticism"
Christian Wolff (1679-1754, German idealist philosopher)
George Berkeley (1685-1753, British idealist philosopher) - "New Theory of Vision", "Principles of Human Knowledge" Charles Louis de Secondat Montesquieu (1689-1755, French Enlightenment Thinker, Jurist ) - "Persian Letters", "The Causes of the Rise and Fall of Rome", "The Spirit of the Law", "On the Interests of Nature and Art"
Voltaire (1694-1778, French enlightenment thinker, writer, philosopher. Formerly known as François Marie Arouet) - "Oedipus the King", "Philosophy Communication ", Metaphysics", "Philosophy Dictionary"
David Hartley (1705-1757, British materialist philosopher, one of the founders of the psychological association, the deism) Gabriel Bonnot de Mably, 1709-1785, French imaginary communist, Kong Brother of Diak
Ramien Offroy de La Mettrie (1709-1751, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "Man is a machine", "The work of Penelope", "The soul Natural History, "Man is a plant"
Thomas Reid (1710-1796, British philosopher, founder of the Scottish school, the common sense school)
Lomonosov (Миxaил Вacильевич Ломoносοв1711-1765, Russian scholar, poet, founder of Russian materialistic philosophy and natural science)
Hume (David Hume, 1711-1776, British idealist philosopher, agnostic, historian, economist) - "The Theory of Human Nature", "Human Understanding", "Ethics and Politics"
Rousseau (Jean Jacques Rousseau, 1712-1778, French enlightenment thinker, philosopher, educator, writer) - "Confessions", "Fashionable Muse", "Village Wizard", "On the Origin of Human Inequality" And Foundation, "Social Contract Theory", "Ai Mier" ("On Education")
Denis Diderot (1713-1784, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher, atheist, writer, editor-in-chief of Encyclopedia) - "Philosophy of Thought", "Stroll of Skeptics", "For The letter of the blind person, the book on the book of deaf and dumb, the interpretation of nature, the conversation of D'Alembert and Diderot, The Continuation of the Talk, The Deaf of Rama Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714-1762, German philosopher, advocate of the Wolff philosophy system) Claude Adrien Helvétius (1715-1771, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "On the spirit "On the rationality and education of human beings", "The Tablet of Love Knowledge", "The Tablet of Happiness", "The Tablet of Rational Pride and Laziness"
Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780, French enlightenment thinker, sensory theorist, Marbury's brother) - "Sensory Theory", "The Origin of Human Knowledge", "System Theory"
Jean Le Rond d' Alembert (1717-1783, a translator of Lambert, French mathematician, enlightenment thinker, philosopher, former deputy editor of the Encyclopedia)
Paul Heinrich Dietrich d' Holbach (1723-1789, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher, atheist) - "Debunked Christianity", "Pocket Theology", "Sacred Plague", "Sound Thought, Natural System, Social System, Universal Ethics
Kanman (Immanuel Kant, 1724-1804, the founder of German classical idealism) - "Critique of Pure Reason", "Critique of Practical Reason", "Critique of Judgment", "Introduction to Future Metaphysics", "Principles of Moral Metaphysics", On Perpetual Peace and the Collection of Critical Criticism of History
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781, thinker, literary theorist, playwright of the German Enlightenment) Henry Dodwell (-1784, British deism)
Jean Baptiste René Robinet (1735-1820, French philosopher)
Jean Antoine Condorcet (1743-1794, French bourgeois revolutionary bourgeois theorist)
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743-1819, German idealist philosopher)
Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803, German literary theorist, philosopher, arrogant movement (the theory of the German bourgeois literary movement in the 1970s and 1980s))
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832, British ethicist, jurist, main representative of bourgeois utilitarianism) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832, German poet, playwright, thinker)
William Godwin (1756-1836, British writer, social thinker, pastor, and later supported atheism and enlightenment)
Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis (1757-1808, French bourgeois revolutionary bourgeois theorist, physiologist, vulgar materialist)
Claude Henri de Saint-Simon, 1760-1825, French utopian socialist
Filippo Michele Buonarrotti (1761-1837, French imaginary communist. Originally from Italy, participated in the French Revolution of 1789, won the title of "Citizen of the French Republic")
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814, German classical idealist philosopher) - "The Foundation of All Knowledge", "The Foundation of Natural Law under the Principles of Knowledge", "The Moral System under the Principles of Knowledge", "On the Mission of Scholars" and "The Mission of Man" Hegel (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, 1770-1831, the master of German classical idealism) - "Psychiatry Phenomenology", "Logic", "Little Logic" , Principles of Legal Philosophy, Philosophy of History, Philosophy of Nature, Philosophy of Spirit, Philosophy of Art, Lectures on History of Philosophy, Hegel Letters
Robert Owen (1771-1858, British Utopian Socialist)
Charles Fourier (1772-1837, French Utopian Socialist)
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775-1854, German idealist philosopher) - "Transcendental Idealism System", "On the World Soul"
Bernhard Bolzano (1781-1848, Czech mathematician, philosopher, logician)
Etienne Cabet (1788-1856, French Utopian Communist)
Schopenhauer (1788-1860, German idealist philosopher, voluntarist)
Victor Cousin (1792-1867, French idealist philosopher, professing his philosophical system as eclecticism)
Heinrich Heine (1797-1856, German poet, political commentator, thinker)
Auguste Comte (1798-1857, French positivist philosopher)
Théodore Dézamy (1803-1850, French Utopian Communist)
Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach (1804-1872, German materialist philosopher) - "The selection of Feuerbach's philosophical works", "The Essence of Christianity", "Critique of Hegel's Philosophy", "Principles of Future Philosophy" Herzen (1812-1870): "Nature Research Newsletter", "Scientific Tastes", "To Old Friends"
Louis Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881, French Revolutionary, Utopian Communist)
Max Stirner (1806-1856, Kaspar Schmidt's pseudonym, German idealist philosopher, one of the young Hegelian representatives, the so-called theorists, the anarchist's forerunner By)
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873, British idealist philosopher, economist, logician, son of James Muller)
Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865, French petty bourgeois economist and sociologist, one of the founders of anarchism)
Powell (Bruno Bauer, 1809-1882, German idealist philosopher, the main representative of the young Hegelian)
Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский,1811-1848, Russian revolutionary democrat, literary critic, philosopher) - "Selection of Bilinsky's Philosophical Works"
Jean Josehp Charles Louis Blanc (1811-1882, French petty bourgeois socialist, historian)
Herzen (Александр Иванович Герцен, 1812-1870, Russian revolutionary democrat, materialist philosopher, writer)
Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855, Danish idealist philosopher, his thought became one of the theoretical basis of modern bourgeois philosophical genre existentialism)
Rudolf Hermann Lotze (1817-1881, German idealist philosopher, professing his philosophy as "the teleological idealism")
Grünn (1817-1887, German petty bourgeois socialist)
Karl Vogt (1817-1895, German naturalist, vulgar materialist, professing his philosophy as "physiology
Marx (1818.5.5-1883.3.14, - "Capital", "Economic Manuscript", "The Outline of Feuerbach", "German Ideology"
Spencer (Herbert Spencer, 1820-1903, British sociologist, agnostic, idealist philosopher)
Jacob Moleschott (1822-1893, a Dutch physiologist, philosopher, one of the representatives of vulgar materialism) Ludwig Büchner (1824-1899, German doctor, one of vulgar materialist representatives)
Ferdinand Lassalle (1825-1864, leader of the opportunistic faction in the German workers' movement)
Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895, British naturalist) - "Beautiful New World"
Friedrich überweg (1826-1871, German philosopher) - "Introduction to the History of Philosophy"
Friedrich Albert Lange (1828-1875, German idealist philosopher, early neo-Kantian) Joseph Dietzgen (1828-1888, German socialist writer and philosopher, tanner) Chernyshevsky (Николай Гаврилович Чернышевский,
1828-1889, Russian revolutionary democrats, materialist philosophers, literary critics, writers) - "The Aesthetic Relationship between Art and Reality", "An Overview of the Gothic Period in the Russian Literature Circle", "Philosophy Humanism Principles" 》
Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (1828-1893, a translation of Dana, French literary theorist, historian, one of the heirs of Conde's empirical philosophy)
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920, German psychologist, philosopher, one of the founders of structural psychology)
Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911, a German idealist philosopher who originally belonged to neo-Kantianism and later turned to philosophy of life)
Karl Eugen Dühring (1833-1921, German philosopher, vulgar economist)
Harris Torrey Harris (1835-1909, American educator, idealist philosopher, the earliest communicator of Hegelian philosophy in the United States)
Green Hill (Thomas Hill Green, 1836-1882, British idealist philosopher)
Wilhelm Schuppe (1836-1913, German idealist philosopher, founder of internalism)
Ernst Mach (1838-1916, Austrian physicist, idealist philosopher, one of the founders of empirical criticism) Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914, American idealist philosopher, founder of pragmatism)
James (William James, 1842-1910, American idealist philosopher, psychologist, pragmatist, founder of functional psychology)
Eduart Hartmann (1842-1906, German idealist philosopher)
Richard Avenarius (1843-1896, German subjective idealist philosopher, one of the founders of empirical criticism)
Nietzsche (Friedrich Nietzsche, 1844-1900, German idealist philosopher, voluntarist)
Merlin (Franz Mehring, 1846-1919, one of the left-wing leaders of the German Social Democratic Party, political commentator, historian)
Francis Herbert Bradley (1846-1924, British idealist philosopher, new Hegelian) R (Rudolf Eucken, 1846-1926, German idealist philosopher)
Richard Schubert-Soldern (1852-1935, German idealist philosopher, representative of internalism
Karl Pearson (1857-1936, British idealist philosopher, mathematician, one of the advocates of eugenics) Samuel Alexander (1859-1938, British idealist philosopher, new realist)
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938, German idealist philosopher, founder of modern phenomenology)
Henri Bergson (1859-1941, French idealist philosopher, life philosophy and the main representative of modern irrationalism)
John Dewey (1859-1952, American idealist philosopher, sociologist, educator, pragmatist) Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947, British idealist philosopher, mathematician)
Josef Petzoldt (1862-1929, German idealist philosopher, empirical critic)Heinrich Rickert (1863-1936, German idealist philosopher, one of the main representatives of the New Kant's Freiburg School)
Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller (1864-1937, British philosopher, pragmatist, called his pragmatic philosophy "humanism")
Benedetto Croce (1866-1952, a translation of Croce, Italian idealist philosopher, historian, new Hegelian)
Hans Driesch (1867-1941, German idealist philosopher, biologist, new vitalist)
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970, British idealist philosopher, mathematician, logician)
Bogdanov (Александр Александрович Богданов, 1873-1928, Russian idealist philosopher)
George Edward Moore (1873-1958, British idealist philosopher, one of the main representatives of the new realism)
Giovanni Gentile (1875-1944, Italian idealist philosopher, new Hegelian)
Oswald Spengler (1880-1936, German idealist philosopher, historian)
Deborin (Абрам Моиесевич Деборин, 1881-1963, Soviet philosopher,
Moritz Schlick (1882-1936, idealist philosopher, born in Germany, taught at the University of Vienna, Austria, one of the founders of the Vienna School, one of the founders of logical positivism)
Jalques Maritain (1882-1973, French theologian, idealist philosopher, main representative of new Thomasism) Karl Jaspers (1883-1969, German existentialist philosopher)
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951, Austrian idealist philosopher, logician. After Hitler annexed Austria in 1838, he entered British nationality and taught at Cambridge University)
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976, a German existentialist philosopher who served as university president and professor during Hitler's reign, and supported Nazism)
Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980, French existentialist philosopher.) - "Imagination", "Existence and Nihility", "Existentialism is a Humanism", "Critique of Dialectical Reason", Several Issues in Methodology
Beauvoir Simone de (1908-1986, French existentialist scholar, writer)
Merleau Ponty (1908-1961, French existentialist philosopher)
Of course, philosophy and religion, politics, literature, etc. are also closely related. If you want to know the avenue, you must know the history. Repeated reading of the history of philosophy, world history, benefited a lot, and imagination came together.
Eastern philosophy Arabic philosophy Indian philosophy
In the history of the world, the East and the Arab countries also have important status and influence. Countries such as India, China, and Arabia are particularly important.
The great wise man of life
(The legend is about 600 years ago - about 470 years ago), surnamed Li Ming Er, the word Bo Yang, Han nationality, Chu State Bian County, is a great ancient Chinese philosopher, thinker, Taoist school founder, and in the Valley It was written in the ethics of the Five Thousand Words.
Confucius
Confucius (September 28th, 551th to April 11th, 479th) Mingqiu, the word Zhongni, Lu Guoyu, Han nationality at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period. English: Confucius, Kung Tze. Confucius was a great educator and thinker in ancient China, the founder of the Confucian school, and a world cultural celebrity. Confucius's thoughts and doctrines have had a profound impact on later generations.
Zhuangzi (about 369 years ago - 286 years ago), Han nationality. A famous thinker, philosopher, and writer is the representative of the Taoist school, the successor and developer of Laozi's philosophy, and the founder of the pre-Qin Zhuangzi school. His doctrine covers all aspects of social life at that time, but the fundamental spirit is still dependent on Laozi's philosophy. Later generations will call him and Laozi "Laozhuang", and their philosophy is "Lao Zhuang philosophy."
Mencius, the pioneer of the people-oriented thinking
Mencius (from 372 to 289) Han nationality, Zoucheng, Shandong. The great thinker of ancient China. One of the representative figures of Confucianism during the Warring States Period. He is the author of "Meng Zi", a collection of essays. "The Book of Mencius" is a compilation of Mencius's remarks, written by Mencius and his disciples, and records the Confucian classics of Mencius' words and deeds.
Xunzi (Xunzi 313 years ago - 238 years ago), the name of the famous thinker, writer, politician, representative of the Confucian school, - Han Fei, Li Si is his disciple.
Dong Zhongshu (before 179~104), Dong Zi, Han Dynasty thinker, politician. Great contribution to the orthodox status of Confucianism. It is a thinker of the Western Han Dynasty who is advancing with the times. He is a famous idealist philosopher in the Western Han Dynasty and a master of modern Chinese studies. When Emperor Jingdi was a Ph.D., he taught "The Ram Spring and Autumn." In the first year of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (134 BC), Dong Zhongshu put forward the basic points of his philosophical system in the famous "Measures for Raising the Virtue," and suggested that "the slogan of 100 schools and the unique Confucianism" should be adopted by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. Later generations have different opinions on this.
Master of Science
Zhu Xi was a master of Song's agency studies. He inherited the science of Cheng Song and Cheng Wei of the Northern Song Dynasty and completed the system of objective idealism. It is said that reason is the essence of the world, "reasonable first, gas is behind", and puts forward "preserving the heavens, destroying human desires." Zhu Xi has a profound knowledge of the study of Confucian classics, history, literature, music, and even the natural sciences.
The development of Indian philosophy can be roughly divided into ancient philosophy (about 3000 BC ~ 750 AD), medieval philosophy (750 to 18th century AD), modern philosophy (about 18th century to 1947), modern philosophy (after 1947) ) Four periods.
Ancient
India has emerged as the bud of the worldview in the era of the Rigveda in the end of the original commune. After entering the slavery society, it began to form a systematic philosophy. The earliest philosophical book "The Upanishads."
middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, religion dominated, and the philosophy of the ruling class was included in the Hindu theology system. India traditionally recognized the Vatican’s authoritative figures, the Yoga School, the Victory School, the Orthodox School, and the Vedanta School. The Six-sect philosophy, such as the Miman sentiment, is called the orthodox school, and the Shunshi, Buddhism, Jainism, etc., which deny the authority of the Vedic, are called unorthodox.
Islam Arabia
The main differences between the Moor Taiqilai and the Hadith in philosophy are: the nature of Allah and the relationship between Allah and the world. MooreThe Taiqilai faction denies that Allah has all kinds of unfounded virtues such as knowledge, energy, sight, hearing, speech, life, etc., because these are considered to be the beginning of virtue and the personalization of Allah, and the true The uniqueness is incompatible; the Hadith is recognized as the virtue of Allah. Secondly, the debate about "freedom of will" and "pre-determination", that is, the relationship between man and Allah, the Hadith believes that the good and evil of man is the premise of Allah, and the act of man is created by Allah. The Moor Taiqilai faction believes that people have unlimited freedom of will, and that human behavior is created by themselves. Allah is rewarded and punished according to his good and evil, thus proving that Allah is fair.
After the 10th century, the Sunni philosophical system, the "New Kailam", the doctrine of Islam, was formed. The founder, Ashley, and his disciples reconciled the doctrines of “pre-determination” and “freedom of will”, emphasizing the all-powerfulness of Allah, and there is no causal connection between all things in the world, created by Allah. They try to show that all actions of human beings are determined by Allah, but people have the ability to "reach" their own actions, so people are responsible for their actions before Allah. The faction was supported by the ruling class and was regarded as an orthodox official creed.
Philosophy-theologians and their schools In the 9th and 12th centuries, there were numerous famous philosophers in the vast areas under the caliphate state, and there were also groups and factions of philosophers. These philosophers and factions, called "Hokma" by the Arabs, formed the main body of Arab medieval philosophy at that time, divided into two things, centered on Baghdad and Córdoba. Many of these philosophers are engaged in secular affairs (doctors, natural scientists, etc.), attaching importance to empirical knowledge and emphasizing theoretical understanding. Although they still have not got rid of the control of orthodox theology, they have largely accepted the influence of Greek-Roman philosophy, especially Aristotle and Neo-Platonicism and Eastern traditional ideas.
The philosopher Lacy and the sincere brothers. They attempted to reconcile Greek natural philosophy (including mathematics, astronomy, astrology, music, alchemy, medicine, etc.) and Islamic teachings to create a religious philosophy. Lacy's medical theory begins with the recognition of the close connection between the body and the soul, asserting that matter is eternal, that movement is an inseparable property of objects, and that feelings cause people to have an understanding of the object. The sincere Brothers Society was originally a politically-religious group of religious and philosophical groups in the Basra area in the 10th century. They collectively compiled an encyclopedic collection of essays. Their cosmology is Islam Shiite, New Pythago The combination of lasism and neo-Platonicism.
Philosophers Kendi, Farabi, and Ibn Sina, influenced by Greek Aristotle and Neo-Platonicism. Kendy is known as an Arab philosopher. He systematically studied Greek philosophy and tried to combine it with Islamic teachings, arguing that matter is a form of “flowing out” from the spirit of Allah, and that the soul can leave the body and be independent. Faraby is recognized as the "first philosopher" after Aristotle. His philosophical system is a mixture of Plato, Aristotle and Sufism, propagating the immortal "ration of Allah" . I think that the world is made up of many elements, and people can know the world through feelings. Ibn Sinah proposed the "dual truth theory" of religion and science. He is arrogant between materialism and idealism. He believes that the material world is eternal. They are not created by Allah, but they also think that the spirit overflows from Allah. The spirit gives form to the material and then forms everything. It is also claimed that the soul and the body are different and are a special ability that goes beyond the physical properties of ordinary things. On the issue of commonality, it is believed that the common phase exists before things, as the idea of creation, exists in things; as the essence of things, after things, is the form of existence of concepts.
Sufism and orthodox theology - philosopher Ansari. The Sufism faction appeared at the end of the 7th century and has undergone significant development since the end of the 8th century. Influenced by Neo-Platonicism and the Indian Yoga School, they promoted the "oneness of man and God" and "the connection between man and God" and advocated the doctrine of abstinence, perseverance, self-restraint, and was suppressed by the orthodox Islam. The orthodox school of the famous theology-philosopher Ansari, who was the master of
FangruidaWorks：
Fangruida's natural philosophy: super-spinning super-rotating cosmic structural system and multi-dimensional multi-directionality of natural philosophy. The original theory of "three sexes" (intensive reading)
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(Original: Fangruida May 2012 in Athens, Bonn, London, revised finalized in New York)
Edit Translation: Cole Susan 2012 electronic version 2012V1.1 version
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Key words: ██ Multidimensionality of philosophy
█ The three principles of philosophy
● Three-dimensional multidimensional theory
Absolute relativity of the natural world
Abstract macro concrete microscopic concrete macro abstract ultramicro
The breadth and limitations of human wisdom
Natural Revolution, Cosmic Revolution and Social Revolution
Assimilation or alienation of super-smart humans and super-bio-smart players
The end of life, the multi-spin system of the universe
The structure of thinking: convergence and divergence
The chemical abundance of the universe, homogeneity, heterogeneity
Substance-Species-Organics-Inorganics Life Macromolecules Life and Wisdom Human Life ▲▲
Philosophy and history
Studying world history, studying human history, including natural science research, such as the structure and evolution of the universe, the ultra-microsystems of particles, the evolution of life, the future of the universe, the developmental variation of the human world and the future, etc., are a big end. The philosophical thoughts, the colorful flowers, can be described as colorful and magnificent. History of philosophy, history of thought, history of civilization, history of religion, and various research works are full of enthusiasm. Masters of world philosophy, masters of thought, and masters of science have left us with an extremely precious cultural heritage, which is worthy of repeated study and in-depth study. For example, the question of thinking and existence, consciousness and material as the source: cosmic structure, particle structure, origin of life, the future of man and the universe, the society of the planet and the universe, the end of the universe and humanity, the pioneering and limitations of science and technology Sex, human brain thinking structure and highly intelligent biological robots, the existence and destruction of the Earth and the solar system, the large-scale structure of the universe and the homogeneity of the universe, the advanced intelligent animals and life macromolecules, matter and species, the space and time of the universe, black holes And dark matter, big bang and steady state, initial, normal ground state and final state, super-spin and super-spin, classical mechanics and quantum mechanics, evolutionary structure of human society, and so on. Of course, philosophy and natural science and technology are inseparable. Here we mainly discuss natural philosophy. Therefore, there are not many discussions on physical mechanics, etc., mainly in the basic categories of philosophy and natural philosophy. Natural science research papers refer to the author's related works.
The history of world philosophy and the history of thought have an extremely important position and extremely important guiding role in human history. With the rapid development of modern science and technology, with the substantial growth and leap of the world economy, the development of human society and new Civilized rationality has reached a new milestone. Economic history, civilization history, social history, political history, military history, cultural history, religious history, intellectual history, philosophy history, and history of the universe are very grand and complex. Here, we mainly study and discuss the history of human understanding, the history of thought, and the history of philosophy. . The big end, the clear veins and trajectories of the world, all kinds of doctrines, all kinds of academics, all kinds of thoughts, various schools, flowers and flowers, quite new. Of course, it is not possible to talk about things, but to involve in-depth research and exploration in the field of natural science and technology, as well as other important areas of research, in order to profoundly understand and understand, what is the great revolution of modern philosophy. Otherwise, there is no way to talk about it, or to go biased and extreme. Western philosophy, Eastern philosophy, religious philosophy, etc.
European Philosophy and Western Philosophy
Ancient Greek philosophy school
The early four universities in ancient Greece were the Ionian, Pythagoras, Elia, and the elemental school; the late four-school school: the cynicism school, the Stoic school, the Epicurean school, New Platon School
Ionian
Miletus School
(Thales, etc.) (to attribute the world to a specific phenomenon or substance of nature, such as water and gas)
Pythagoras School
(Pythagoras) (everything is counted)
Heraclitus
(The universe is a changing fire, dominated by logos (laws))
Democritus
(propose atomism)
Elijah
(Parmenid) (the origin of all things, is the eternal "consciousness of existence", denying change and movement
Socrates
(emphasizes access to knowledge by introspection)
Plato
(The concrete behind everything is the eternal prototype concept)
Aristotle
(The distinction between material and form, the universe consists of five elements: earth, water, gas, fire, and ether, presenting the existence of the first promoter "God", etc., the most comprehensive early philosophy)
Neo-Platonicism
(Protino) ("Taiyi" is the foundation of the world, rational laws, souls, and specific things are too super-existing)
Epicurean school
(Ibi-Ji-lu) (everything and soul are atoms, happiness is the purpose of life)
Cynic school
(Diogenes) (contempt for external utilitarianism, advocates poverty-stricken life)
Stoia
(Marco Aurelius, Abigail Ted) (emphasis on the "goodness" and "de" of human beings, advocating obedience to fate while grasping self)
Medieval Christian philosophy
Augustine
(In the philosophical theory to explain the existence of God, the Trinity, the salvation of the soul)
(Scholastic philosophy)
Aristotle
(Thomas Aquinas) (using Aristotle's rational philosophy to explain the nature, existence, virtue of God)
Willism
(Scott) (with the natural will as the cause of the world movement, the source is God)
Aokangism
(
Modern western philosophy
Early natural philosophy
(Bacon, Da Vinci, Newton and many other scientists, philosophical theorists) (proposes experimental observation-based science to support the theory of interpretation of nature)
Rationalism (rationalism)
(Descartes) (I think so I am, the ultimate source of knowledge is God, material and soul are parallel to each other)
(Spennosha) (emphasizing thinking/concepts and prolongation/substance are two different manifestations of the infinite God, one for the inner and one for the external)
(Leibnitz) (The world consists of consecutive "singles" of nature, including spirit and matter)
Empiricism (empiricalism)
(Locke) (Experience is the only source of knowledge, matter has the first nature and the second nature, the former is in the object itself, and the latter is the product of perception)
(Hume) (Initial perception is the only source of knowledge, time and space are both products of perception)
(Beckley) (The existence is self-perception, and the perception of the whole world is God) (German classical philosophy)
Transcendental idealism
(Kant) (Knowledge originally originated from the inexpressible "object self", which became a formable knowledge or concept/phenomenon after the subject's subjective norms of time, space and causality were recognized.
Absolute idealism
(Ficht) (Experience knowledge is the absolute self in the depths of consciousness, produced by constantly setting non-I, grasping non-I)
(Xie Lin) (Nature gradually self-awake, develops into a self-consciousness that opposes objective nature, and then returns self-consciousness to nature, and will eventually reach the absolute same with objective nature, that is, it can sense its absolute reality)
(Hegel) (ideal dialectics, objective idealism, the world is on the one hand, the evolution of objective existential history, and on the other hand, the continuous leap of subjective consciousness from sensibility to rationality, when realizing the development of self-awareness When the development of objective existence, you reach the absolute truth of God)
Young Hegelian
(Feuerbach) (materialism, pointing out that God is the externalization of the essence of human pursuit, admiring "love") (practical materialism, emphasizing the decisive role of practical labor, so that nature presents objective laws in front of human beings.
Modern western philosophy
Early irrationalism
(Kerkegaard) (denying that people have the essence of fixed unity, emphasizing the contingency and freedom of individual existence, this is the road to God, the pioneer of existentialism)
Voluntarism
(Schopenhauer) (The ontology of the world is the natural will without cause and effect, time and space, causality is the result of rational understanding of the will, and life is endless because of the endless desire and hindrance of desire)
(Nietzsche) (Destiny is controlled by oneself, not the norm of God, so it advocates the "power will" of the weak meat)
Philosophy of life
(Borgsen, Dilthey) (The world is the "stretching" and evolution of "the stream of life" in time)
New hegelism
(Bradley) (Development of Absolute Ideal Dialectics)
Neo-Kantianism
(Cohen, Cassirer) (a product of the combination of transcendental idealism and scientific philosophy, but denying the existence of self-physical independence from consciousness)
utilitarianism
(Bentham, Mill) (Social behavior is actually pursuing the maximization of personal happiness)
pragmatism
(James, Dewey) (The premise that things become the object of knowledge is its practicality. Only through human pursuit and experimentation can the truth be obtained)
Early analytic philosophy
(Freig, Russell, Wittgenstein) (Proposing logical ontology, the ontology of the world is not a separate entity, but an interrelated logical relationship)
Post-analytic philosophy
(Wittgenstein, Strawson, Rorty, etc.) (I believe that the emergence of philosophical problems is the result of misunderstanding of everyday language, and advocates the analysis of semantics to achieve the essential relationship between language and reality)
Falsificationist philosophy of science
(Popper) (Rejecting science can reach absolute truth, proposing three worlds - the material world, the spiritual world, the conceptual world)
Historic philosophy of science
(Kun, Feyerabend) (opposing the pure logic of separation from practice as a way of expressing the world, while emphasizing the accumulation of scientific experience in history)
Freudianism
(Floyd) (emphasizing the decisive role of subconsciousness and sexual desire on individual behavior, dreams, civilized activities, etc. are the result of subconsciousness being suppressed by external morality and disguised at the level of consciousness)
Western Marxism
The Frankfurt School (Marcuse, Habermas) (in Marx's dialectics, Freud's instinct, focuses on the enslavement and alienation of material civilization, advocates changing the social interaction model, and alleviates capitalism Social crisis)
Phenomenology / European Philosophy
(Husser) (Proposed a phenomenological approach, advocating returning to the matter itself, and studying the constructive role of consciousness in knowledge)
Existentialism
(Heidegger, Sartre, Coronation, etc.) (emphasizing the existence of the individual's pre-reflective consciousness in the world is the source of all knowledge. The existence of human beings is different from the existence of objects. The existence of human beings is free, not being Fully prescribed - existence precedes essence
Hermeneutics
(Gadamer, Derrida) (Thinking that the study of history cannot be reduced to historical facts, but the dialogue between modern perspectives and historical relics)
Structuralism
(Sausul, Artusai, Strauss, Lacan) (proposes the study of the overall structure of the various knowledge systems, and emphasizes the a priori and permanence of this structure, it is the correct research system Premise of each element)
Deconstruction
(Derrida, Foucault, Deleuze) (denying the existence of a unified knowledge structure, critical reason loses the richness of the world while unilaterally pursuing the essence, and believes that the relationship between man and the world, author and reader is not the relationship between subject and object. , but the dialogue between the subjects, affirming the diversity of ideas)
Essentials of philosophy science
The history of world philosophy, the history of world science and technology, the history of world social development, and the history of European and American philosophy all have brilliant historical memories.
Thales (about 585 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, was honored as the ancestor of Western philosophy from Aristotle.
Heracletitos (about 504-501 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of dialectics.
Parmenides (in the year 504-501 BC), the founder of the ancient Greek philosopher, ontology (ontology).
Demokritos (about 420 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, founder of atomism.
Socrates (468-399 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher.
Platon (427-347 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, with dialogues such as "Socratic Defence", "Ideology", "Barmenid", "The Wise", etc. Works.
Aristotles, Plato's students, Greek philosophers, encyclopedic philosophers, founders of many disciplines, masterpieces "Tools", "Physics", "metaphysics", "Nico Marco's Ethics, Political Science.
Lucretius (b.c.99-55) Ancient Roman materialist philosopher. I believe that everything is made up of atoms. The atom is infinitely moving in the universe and is infinite. It advocates atheism. The main work: "The Theory of Physical Property."
Aurelius Augustinus (354-430 AD), the greatest representative of the medieval godfather philosophy, is entitled "Confessions" and "City of God."
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), the greatest representative of the philosophy of the medieval scholasticism, with the book "Anti-Beast Encyclopedia" and "Theological Encyclopedia"
(Thomas Aquinas) (using Aristotle's rational philosophy to explain the nature, existence, virtue of God)
Willism
(Scott) (with the natural will as the cause of the world movement, the source is God)
Aokangism
(
Modern western philosophy
Early natural philosophy
(Bacon, Da Vinci, Newton and many other scientists, philosophical theorists) (proposes experimental observation-based science to support the theory of interpretation of nature)
Rationalism (rationalism)
(Descartes) (I think so I am, the ultimate source of knowledge is God, material and soul are parallel to each other)
(Spennosha) (emphasizing thinking/concepts and prolongation/substance are two different manifestations of the infinite God, one for the inner and one for the external)
(Leibnitz) (The world consists of consecutive "singles" of nature, including spirit and matter)
Empiricism (empiricalism)
(Locke) (Experience is the only source of knowledge, matter has the first nature and the second nature, the former is in the object itself, and the latter is the product of perception)
(Hume) (Initial perception is the only source of knowledge, time and space are both products of perception)
(Beckley) (The existence is self-perception, and the perception of the whole world is God) (German classical philosophy)
Transcendental idealism
(Kant) (Knowledge originally originated from the inexpressible "object self", which became a formable knowledge or concept/phenomenon after the subject's subjective norms of time, space and causality were recognized.
Absolute idealism
(Ficht) (Experience knowledge is the absolute self in the depths of consciousness, produced by constantly setting non-I, grasping non-I)
(Xie Lin) (Nature gradually self-awake, develops into a self-consciousness that opposes objective nature, and then returns self-consciousness to nature, and will eventually reach the absolute same with objective nature, that is, it can sense its absolute reality)
(Hegel) (ideal dialectics, objective idealism, the world is on the one hand, the evolution of objective existential history, and on the other hand, the continuous leap of subjective consciousness from sensibility to rationality, when realizing the development of self-awareness When the development of objective existence, you reach the absolute truth of God)
Young Hegelian
(Feuerbach) (materialism, pointing out that God is the externalization of the essence of human pursuit, admiring "love") (practical materialism, emphasizing the decisive role of practical labor, so that nature presents objective laws in front of human beings.
Modern western philosophy
Early irrationalism
(Kerkegaard) (denying that people have the essence of fixed unity, emphasizing the contingency and freedom of individual existence, this is the road to God, the pioneer of existentialism)
Voluntarism
(Schopenhauer) (The ontology of the world is the natural will without cause and effect, time and space, causality is the result of rational understanding of the will, and life is endless because of the endless desire and hindrance of desire)
(Nietzsche) (Destiny is controlled by oneself, not the norm of God, so it advocates the "power will" of the weak meat)
Philosophy of life
(Borgsen, Dilthey) (The world is the "stretching" and evolution of "the stream of life" in time)
New hegelism
(Bradley) (Development of Absolute Ideal Dialectics)
Neo-Kantianism
(Cohen, Cassirer) (a product of the combination of transcendental idealism and scientific philosophy, but denying the existence of self-physical independence from consciousness)
utilitarianism
(Bentham, Mill) (Social behavior is actually pursuing the maximization of personal happiness)
pragmatism
(James, Dewey) (The premise that things become the object of knowledge is its practicality. Only through human pursuit and experimentation can the truth be obtained)
Early analytic philosophy
(Freig, Russell, Wittgenstein) (Proposing logical ontology, the ontology of the world is not a separate entity, but an interrelated logical relationship)
Post-analytic philosophy
(Wittgenstein, Strawson, Rorty, etc.) (I believe that the emergence of philosophical problems is the result of misunderstanding of everyday language, and advocates the analysis of semantics to achieve the essential relationship between language and reality)
Falsificationist philosophy of science
(Popper) (Rejecting science can reach absolute truth, proposing three worlds - the material world, the spiritual world, the conceptual world)
Historic philosophy of science
(Kun, Feyerabend) (opposing the pure logic of separation from practice as a way of expressing the world, while emphasizing the accumulation of scientific experience in history)
Freudianism
(Floyd) (emphasizing the decisive role of subconsciousness and sexual desire on individual behavior, dreams, civilized activities, etc. are the result of subconsciousness being suppressed by external morality and disguised at the level of consciousness)
Western Marxism
The Frankfurt School (Marcuse, Habermas) (in Marx's dialectics, Freud's instinct, focuses on the enslavement and alienation of material civilization, advocates changing the social interaction model, and alleviates capitalism Social crisis)
Phenomenology / European Philosophy
(Husser) (Proposed a phenomenological approach, advocating returning to the matter itself, and studying the constructive role of consciousness in knowledge)
Existentialism
(Heidegger, Sartre, Coronation, etc.) (emphasizing the existence of the individual's pre-reflective consciousness in the world is the source of all knowledge. The existence of human beings is different from the existence of objects. The existence of human beings is free, not being Fully prescribed - existence precedes essence
Hermeneutics
(Gadamer, Derrida) (Thinking that the study of history cannot be reduced to historical facts, but the dialogue between modern perspectives and historical relics)
Structuralism
(Sausul, Artusai, Strauss, Lacan) (proposes the study of the overall structure of the various knowledge systems, and emphasizes the a priori and permanence of this structure, it is the correct research system Premise of each element)
Deconstruction
(Derrida, Foucault, Deleuze) (denying the existence of a unified knowledge structure, critical reason loses the richness of the world while unilaterally pursuing the essence, and believes that the relationship between man and the world, author and reader is not the relationship between subject and object. , but the dialogue between the subjects, affirming the diversity of ideas)
Essentials of philosophy science
The history of world philosophy, the history of world science and technology, the history of world social development, and the history of European and American philosophy all have brilliant historical memories.
Thales (about 585 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, was honored as the ancestor of Western philosophy from Aristotle.
Heracletitos (about 504-501 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of dialectics.
Parmenides (in the year 504-501 BC), the founder of the ancient Greek philosopher, ontology (ontology).
Demokritos (about 420 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, founder of atomism.
Socrates (468-399 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher.
Platon (427-347 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, with dialogues such as "Socratic Defence", "Ideology", "Barmenid", "The Wise", etc. Works.
Aristotles, Plato's students, Greek philosophers, encyclopedic philosophers, founders of many disciplines, masterpieces "Tools", "Physics", "metaphysics", "Nico Marco's Ethics, Political Science.
Lucretius (b.c.99-55) Ancient Roman materialist philosopher. I believe that everything is made up of atoms. The atom is infinitely moving in the universe and is infinite. It advocates atheism. The main work: "The Theory of Physical Property."
Aurelius Augustinus (354-430 AD), the greatest representative of the medieval godfather philosophy, is entitled "Confessions" and "City of God."
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), the greatest representative of the philosophy of the medieval scholasticism, is entitled "Anti-Beast Encyclopedia" and "Theological Encyclopedia".
Bruno (1548-1600) Italian materialist philosopher and natural scientist. Propagating Copernicus's heliocentric theory, that the universe has no center, the sun is just an ordinary planet, the solar system is just a celestial system, and matter is the common common essence of all things in the universe. The main work: "On the reasons, the essence and one."
Hobbes (1588-1679) was a British materialist philosopher who used to be the secretary and assistant of Bacon. He systematically embodies Bacon's philosophical ideas and advocates the use of mechanics and mathematics to illustrate the world. He is the founder of mechanical materialism. The main works: "On matter", "On the people."
Francis Bacon (1561-1626), the ancestor of British empiricism, and the "New Tools".
René Descartes (1596-1650), French philosopher, founder of modern philosophy, the founder of the theory, is the "Method Discussion", "The First Philosophical Contemplation", "Philosophy Principles".
Benedicus de Spinoza (1632-1677), a Dutch philosopher, one of the main representatives of the theory, with "Ethics" and so on.
John Locke (1632-1704), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Theory of Human Reason."
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the theory, is entitled "Single Theory" and "New Theory of Human Reason."
George Berkeley (1685-1753), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Principles of Human Knowledge."
David Hume (1711-1776), one of the main representatives of British empiricism, is entitled "The Theory of Human Nature" and "The Study of Human Reason."
Montesquieu (1689-1755), a French enlightenment thinker, with the Persian Letters and The Spirit of the Law.
Voltaire (1694-1778), a French enlightenment thinker, and author of "Philosophy Communication."
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), a French enlightenment thinker, entitled "The Origin and Foundation of Human Inequality", "Social Contract Theory", "Emil", and "Confessions".
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), the founder of German classical philosophy, is entitled "Critique of Pure Reason", "Critique of Practical Reason" and "Critique of Judgment".
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), a master of German classical philosophy, is known for his dialectic in the world, and he is the author of "Psychophenomenology", "Logic" and "Philosophy of Philosophy".
Auguste Comte (1798-1857), French philosopher, founder of positivism, and the "Experimental Philosophy Course".
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), British philosopher, one of the representatives of positivism, is entitled "Conde and positivism", "system of logic", "utilitarianism".
"Arther Schopenhauer (1788-1860), a German philosopher, a voluntarist, has a "world of will and appearance."
Karl Marx (May 5, 1818 - 1883, 3, 1)
Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law (1843), on Jewish Nationality (1843), Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (1844), Feuerbach (1845), Poverty of Philosophy (1845), Employment Labor With Capital (1847), Louis Bonaparte's Misty Moon 18th (1852), Capital Theory Volume 2 (1893), Capital Theory Volume III (1894), etc.
William James (1842-1910), an American philosopher, one of the main representatives of pragmatism, is the "Psychology Principles", "Pragmatism", "Complete Empiricism Proceedings".
Friedrich Willhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900), a German philosopher, with "The Other Side of Good and Evil", "Zarathustra", "Strong Will".
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), a Swiss linguist, founder of structuralism, and a course in General Linguistics.
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), German philosopher, founder of phenomenology, with "Logical Studies", "Phenomenon of Phenomenology", "The Contemplation of Descartes" and "The Crisis of European Science and Transcendental Phenomenology, etc.
Sigmund Freud (1865-1939), an Austrian psychologist, founder of the psychoanalytic school, with "An Analysis of Dreams" and "Introduction to Psychoanalysis."
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) British philosopher and educator wrote "The History of Western Philosophy", "Education", "Philosophy Problems", etc., won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1950.
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), German philosopher, founder of existential philosophy, with "Existence and Time", "Introduction to Metaphysics", "Lin Zhong Lu" and so on.
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), one of the founders of Austrian-American philosophy, linguistic philosophy or analytic philosophy, is the author of The Philosophy of Logic and Philosophical Studies.
Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of logical positivism, is entitled "The Logical Structure of the World" and "The Logical Syntax of Language."
Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976) is a British philosopher, one of the representatives of the everyday language school, and has the concept of "heart".
Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900-), the German philosopher, the founder of philosophical hermeneutics, is the author of The Truth and Method.
Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), a German philosopher and founder of the Frankfurt School, is the author of Critical Theory, Research in Social Philosophy, and Dialectics of Enlightenment (co-authored with Adorno).
Theoder Wiesengrund Adorno (1903-1969), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the Frankfurt School, is entitled "Negative Dialectics".
Herbert Marcuse (1895-1979), a German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the Frankfurt School, with "Ration and Revolution", "Eros and
Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of existentialism, with "existence and nothingness", "existentialism is a kind of humanitarianism" and "criticism of dialectical reason".
Claude Levi-Strauss (1908-), French philosopher, anthropologist, one of the main representatives of structuralism, is entitled "Structural Anthropology" and "Wild Thinking."
Willard van Orman Quine (1908-), one of the main representatives of analytic philosophy, "from a logical point of view", "logic philosophy."
Tomas Kuhn (1922-), an American scientific philosopher, a historian of science, a representative of the Historic School, and the "Structure of the Scientific Revolution" and "Necessary Tension."
Michel Foucault (1926-1984), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of post-structuralism and post-modernism, is entitled "Knowledge Archaeology", "Discipline and Punishment" and so on.
Jacques Derrida (1931-), a French philosopher, one of the main representatives of postmodernism, with "writing and difference", "casting", "the edge of philosophy", "the ghost of Marx" and so on.
Richard. M. Rorty (1931-), an American philosopher, one of the representatives of post-modern philosophy, is the Mirror of Philosophy and Nature and Post-Philosophy Culture.
Fredric Jamason (1931-), an American philosopher and literary critic, one of the main representatives of postmodernism, is entitled "Marxism and Form", "Political Unconsciousness", and "Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism".
John Rawls (1921-), an American political philosopher, is the author of The Theory of Justice and Political Liberalism.
Robert Nozick (1938-), an American political philosopher, is entitled "Anarchy, State, and Utopia."
Western philosophy European and American philosophy has a huge influence on the world. Of course, philosophy and thought are often inseparable. Philosophers also mean thinkers.
Philosophers, thinkers, schools of thought, and main ideology
Ancient Greek period: 7th century BC - 2nd century BC
Thales (about 624-about 547, the first philosopher of ancient Greece, the founder of the Miletus School)
Anaximandros (about 610-before 546, ancient Greek Miletus school materialist philosopher)
Anaximenes (about 588-about 525, ancient Greek Miletus school materialist philosopher)
Pythagoras (about 580 - about 500 before, ancient Greek mathematician, idealist philosopher)
Xenophanes (about 565-about 473, the ancient Greek philosopher, the first representative of the Elia school)
Herakleitos (between 540 and about 480 and 470 before, the ancient Greek materialist philosopher, the founder of the Efes school)
Kratylos (former fifth century, ancient Greek Efesian philosopher, Heraclitus student)
Parmenides (before the end of the sixth century - about the middle of the first half of the fifth century, the idealist philosopher of the Elia school of ancient Greece) Leukippos (about 500-about 440, the ancient Greek materialist philosopher , the atom said one of the founders)
Anaxagoras (about 500 before - 428 BC, ancient Greek materialist philosopher)
Zeno Eleates (about 490 - about 436 before, ancient Greek idealist philosopher, student of Parmenides) Empedokles (Em. 490 - about 430, Ancient Greek materialist philosopher, founder of rhetoric)
Gorgias (about 483 - about 375, the ancient Greek wise philosopher)
Protagoras (formerly 481-about 411, ancient Greek wise philosopher)
Socrates (formerly 469-before 399, ancient Greek idealist philosopher)
Demokratos (Demokritos, 460- 370 BC, ancient Greek materialist philosopher, and the founder of the atomic theory of Rebecca) Antisthenes (about 435-about 370, ancient Greece Philosopher, founder of the cynic school
Aristippos (about 435-front 360?, ancient Greek philosopher, founder of the Cyrene School, disciple of Socrates)
Plato (Plato, former 427-before 347, ancient Greek objective idealist philosopher, founder of the school, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle) - "Ideology", "politician", "Bammenides" and "Plato Dialogues"
Diogenes o Sinopeus (about 404-about 323, ancient Greek cynic philosopher)
Aristotles (Aristotles, 384- 322 BC, Ancient Greek philosopher, scientist, Plato's student, Alexander the Great's teacher, the founder of the Happy School) - Metaphysics, Tool Theory, Nigma Ethics, Physics, Politics
, "The Complete Works of Aristotle"
Pyrrhon (about 365-about 275, ancient Greek philosopher, skeptic)
Epikouros (formerly 341-pre-270, ancient Greek materialist philosopher)
Zeno (Zionon Kitieus), about 336-about 264, founder of the ancient Greek Stoic school
Roman period: the second century BC - the fifth century AD
Cousero (Marcus Tullius Cicero, former 106-43, ancient Roman politician, eloquent, philosopher, philosophically representative of eclecticism)
Titus Lucretius Carus (about 99-about 55, ancient Roman poet, materialist philosopher) - "The Theory of Materiality"
Tertullianus (between 150 and 160 - about 222, one of the Christian godfathers)
Aurelius Augustinus (354-430, the Roman Empire Christian thinker, the main representative of the godfather philosophy) - "Confessions", "On Free Will", "The Monologue", "The City of God", "The Handbook of Doctrine"
Hypatia (about 370-about 415, female mathematician, astronomer, neo-Platonic philosopher of the Roman Empire)
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, 480-524 or 525, the idealist philosopher in late Roman times
Medieval: 5th century AD - end of the 14th century
Johannes Scotus Erigena (circa 810-877, a philosopher of the pre-European medieval scholasticism) - "On God's Presupposition", "On the Division of Nature"
Anselmus (1033-1109, a medieval Christian thinker in Europe, the main representative of realism, known as "the last godfather and the first scholastic philosopher")
Roscellinus (about 1050 - about 1112, medieval French philosopher, nominalist)
Guillaume de Champeaux (circa 1070-1121, medieval French philosopher, realist)
Abel (Petrus Abailardus, 1079-1142, philosopher of the medieval French Academy, "concept theory")
Albertus Magnus (1193 or 1206 or 1207-1280, Medieval German philosopher, theologian, Catholic Dominican monk)
Thomas Aquinas (1226-1274, Medieval Theologian and scholastic philosopher, Catholic Dominican Fellow) - Theological Encyclopedia and Anti-Beast Encyclopedia
Sigerus de Brantia (circa 1240-1281 to 1284, Netherland philosopher, Averroist)
Meister Johannes Eckhart (circa 1260-1327, medieval German theologian and mystic philosopher) Johannes Duns Scotus (circa 1265-1308, medieval Scottish scholastic philosopher, nominalist ) - "On Oxford", "Paris on"
William of Occam (or Ockham), about 1300 - about 1350, philosopher of the medieval Soviet scholastic philosopher, nominalist) Jan Hus (circa 1369-1415, Czech patriot and religious reformer)
Dante Alighièri (1265-1321, Italian poet.
Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374, Italian poet, one of the pioneers of humanism in the European Renaissance) - "Secret"
Geovanni Boccàccio (1313-1375, Italian writer of the Renaissance, one of the main representatives of humanism) - "Ten Days"
Paul (John Ball, ?-1381, British folk missionary, one of the leaders of the Wat Taylor Uprising)
John Wycliffe (circa 1320-1384, British, pioneer of the European Reformation Movement)
Nikola (Kusa's) (Nicolaus Cusanus, 1401-1464, Renaissance German philosopher, cardinal, pantheist)
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519, Renaissance Italian artist, natural scientist, engineer, philosopher)
Pietro Pomponazzi (1462-1524 or 1525, the Italian philosopher of the Renaissance, one of the main representatives of humanism)
Desiderius Erasmus (circa 1469-1536, the Renaissance Netherland humanist, formerly known as Gerhard Gerhards, born in Rotterdam, the Netherlands) - "The Fools"
Thomas More (1478-1535, Renaissance British Utopian Communist)
Martin Luther (1483-1546, the founder of the 16th century German Reformation, Christian (Protestant) Road
Thomas Münzer (about 1490-1525, leader of the German peasant war of 1524-1525, German peasant and religious reformer of urban civilians)
Calvin (1509-1564, French, European Reformer, founder of Christian Calvin) - "On Benevolence", "Christian Essentials", "Faith Guide", "Christian Masterpieces Integration", From the Renaissance to the Selected Works of Humanitarian Humanity in the 19th Century by Bourgeois Literati Artists, Selected Works of Western Ethical Masterpieces, and History of Medieval Philosophy in Western Europe (Bernardino Telesio, 1509-1588, Renaissance Italy philosopher)
Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1533-1592, a translation of Montagne, French thinkers and prose writers during the Renaissance) - "Meng Tian Wenxuan"
Pierre Charron (1541-1603, French philosopher of the Renaissance)
Giordano Bruno (1548-1600, Italian philosopher of the Renaissance) - "On Reason, Primitive and Taiyi", "On Infinity, Universe and Worlds", "Basting the Beast", "On Heroic Passion" 》
Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639, Renaissance Italian Utopian Communist)
Jakob B?hme, 1575-1624, Renaissance German mystic philosopher
Grouseus (Hugo Grotius, 1583-1645, Dutch bourgeois jurist, early theorist of the natural law school, studied law, theology, history, literature, and natural sciences, with international law Research is well known)
Lucilio Vanini (1584-1619, Italian philosopher of the Renaissance)
Francis Bacon (1561-1626, "-"Chongxue", "New Tools", "Bacon's Anthology", "New Daxi"
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679, British materialist philosopher) - "Leviathan", "On Objects", "On Man", "On Freedom, Inevitability and Accident"
Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655, a translation of garrison, French materialist philosopher, physicist, astronomer) Descartes (1596-1650, French philosopher, physicist, mathematician) , physiologist, founder of analytic geometry) - "Methodology", "The First Philosophical Contemplation", "Philosophical Principles", "On the Passion of the Soul"
Hendrik van Roy (French name Henri Le Roy, Latin name Henricus Regius, 1598-1679, Dutch doctor, philosopher, representative of early mechanical materialism)
Gerrard Winstanley (circa 1609-about 1652, the leader of the bourgeois revolutionary movement in the British bourgeois revolution, the imaginary communist)
John Lilburne (circa 1614-1657, petty bourgeois democrat of the British bourgeois revolution, average leader)
Arnold Geulincx (1625-1669, the Dutch Descartes idealist philosopher, he and Malebranches are also called the causemen)
Spinoza (later renamed Benedictus) Spinoza, 1632-1677, Dutch materialist philosopher) - "Ethics", "Intellectual Improvement", "Theological Politics", "The Principles of Descartes"
Locke (John Locke, 1632-1704, British materialist philosopher) - "Human Understanding", "On the Government", "The Rationality of Christianity"
Nicolas Malebranche (1638-1715, French idealist philosopher) - "The Search for Truth", "Dialogue on Metaphysics"
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716, German natural scientist, mathematician, idealist philosopher) - "Theory of God", "New Theory of Human Reason", "Son Theory", "metaphysical conversation"
Pierre Bayle (1647-1706, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "The Letter about Comet", "General Critique of the History of Calvinism" by Manbull, "Dictionary of Historical Criticism"
Christian Wolff (1679-1754, German idealist philosopher)
George Berkeley (1685-1753, British idealist philosopher) - "New Theory of Vision", "Principles of Human Knowledge" Charles Louis de Secondat Montesquieu (1689-1755, French Enlightenment Thinker, Jurist ) - "Persian Letters", "The Causes of the Rise and Fall of Rome", "The Spirit of the Law", "On the Interests of Nature and Art"
Voltaire (1694-1778, French enlightenment thinker, writer, philosopher. Formerly known as François Marie Arouet) - "Oedipus the King", "Philosophy Communication ", Metaphysics", "Philosophy Dictionary"
David Hartley (1705-1757, British materialist philosopher, one of the founders of the psychological association, the deism) Gabriel Bonnot de Mably, 1709-1785, French imaginary communist, Kong Brother of Diak
Ramien Offroy de La Mettrie (1709-1751, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "Man is a machine", "The work of Penelope", "The soul Natural History, "Man is a plant"
Thomas Reid (1710-1796, British philosopher, founder of the Scottish school, the common sense school)
Lomonosov (Миxaил Вacильевич Ломoносοв1711-1765, Russian scholar, poet, founder of Russian materialistic philosophy and natural science)
Hume (David Hume, 1711-1776, British idealist philosopher, agnostic, historian, economist) - "The Theory of Human Nature", "Human Understanding", "Ethics and Politics"
Rousseau (Jean Jacques Rousseau, 1712-1778, French enlightenment thinker, philosopher, educator, writer) - "Confessions", "Fashionable Muse", "Village Wizard", "On the Origin of Human Inequality" And Foundation, "Social Contract Theory", "Ai Mier" ("On Education")
Denis Diderot (1713-1784, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher, atheist, writer, editor-in-chief of Encyclopedia) - "Philosophy of Thought", "Stroll of Skeptics", "For The letter of the blind person, the book on the book of deaf and dumb, the interpretation of nature, the conversation of D'Alembert and Diderot, The Continuation of the Talk, The Deaf of Rama Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714-1762, German philosopher, advocate of the Wolff philosophy system) Claude Adrien Helvétius (1715-1771, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher) - "On the spirit "On the rationality and education of human beings", "The Tablet of Love Knowledge", "The Tablet of Happiness", "The Tablet of Rational Pride and Laziness"
Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780, French enlightenment thinker, sensory theorist, Marbury's brother) - "Sensory Theory", "The Origin of Human Knowledge", "System Theory"
Jean Le Rond d' Alembert (1717-1783, a translator of Lambert, French mathematician, enlightenment thinker, philosopher, former deputy editor of the Encyclopedia)
Paul Heinrich Dietrich d' Holbach (1723-1789, French enlightenment thinker, materialist philosopher, atheist) - "Debunked Christianity", "Pocket Theology", "Sacred Plague", "Sound Thought, Natural System, Social System, Universal Ethics
Kanman (Immanuel Kant, 1724-1804, the founder of German classical idealism) - "Critique of Pure Reason", "Critique of Practical Reason", "Critique of Judgment", "Introduction to Future Metaphysics", "Principles of Moral Metaphysics", On Perpetual Peace and the Collection of Critical Criticism of History
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781, thinker, literary theorist, playwright of the German Enlightenment) Henry Dodwell (-1784, British deism)
Jean Baptiste René Robinet (1735-1820, French philosopher)
Jean Antoine Condorcet (1743-1794, French bourgeois revolutionary bourgeois theorist)
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743-1819, German idealist philosopher)
Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803, German literary theorist, philosopher, arrogant movement (the theory of the German bourgeois literary movement in the 1970s and 1980s))
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832, British ethicist, jurist, main representative of bourgeois utilitarianism) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832, German poet, playwright, thinker)
William Godwin (1756-1836, British writer, social thinker, pastor, and later supported atheism and enlightenment)
Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis (1757-1808, French bourgeois revolutionary bourgeois theorist, physiologist, vulgar materialist)
Claude Henri de Saint-Simon, 1760-1825, French utopian socialist
Filippo Michele Buonarrotti (1761-1837, French imaginary communist. Originally from Italy, participated in the French Revolution of 1789, won the title of "Citizen of the French Republic")
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814, German classical idealist philosopher) - "The Foundation of All Knowledge", "The Foundation of Natural Law under the Principles of Knowledge", "The Moral System under the Principles of Knowledge", "On the Mission of Scholars" and "The Mission of Man" Hegel (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, 1770-1831, the master of German classical idealism) - "Psychiatry Phenomenology", "Logic", "Little Logic" , Principles of Legal Philosophy, Philosophy of History, Philosophy of Nature, Philosophy of Spirit, Philosophy of Art, Lectures on History of Philosophy, Hegel Letters
Robert Owen (1771-1858, British Utopian Socialist)
Charles Fourier (1772-1837, French Utopian Socialist)
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775-1854, German idealist philosopher) - "Transcendental Idealism System", "On the World Soul"
Bernhard Bolzano (1781-1848, Czech mathematician, philosopher, logician)
Etienne Cabet (1788-1856, French Utopian Communist)
Schopenhauer (1788-1860, German idealist philosopher, voluntarist)
Victor Cousin (1792-1867, French idealist philosopher, professing his philosophical system as eclecticism)
Heinrich Heine (1797-1856, German poet, political commentator, thinker)
Auguste Comte (1798-1857, French positivist philosopher)
Théodore Dézamy (1803-1850, French Utopian Communist)
Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach (1804-1872, German materialist philosopher) - "The selection of Feuerbach's philosophical works", "The Essence of Christianity", "Critique of Hegel's Philosophy", "Principles of Future Philosophy" Herzen (1812-1870): "Nature Research Newsletter", "Scientific Tastes", "To Old Friends"
Louis Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881, French Revolutionary, Utopian Communist)
Max Stirner (1806-1856, Kaspar Schmidt's pseudonym, German idealist philosopher, one of the young Hegelian representatives, the so-called theorists, the anarchist's forerunner By)
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873, British idealist philosopher, economist, logician, son of James Muller)
Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865, French petty bourgeois economist and sociologist, one of the founders of anarchism)
Powell (Bruno Bauer, 1809-1882, German idealist philosopher, the main representative of the young Hegelian)
Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский,1811-1848, Russian revolutionary democrat, literary critic, philosopher) - "Selection of Bilinsky's Philosophical Works"
Jean Josehp Charles Louis Blanc (1811-1882, French petty bourgeois socialist, historian)
Herzen (Александр Иванович Герцен, 1812-1870, Russian revolutionary democrat, materialist philosopher, writer)
Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855, Danish idealist philosopher, his thought became one of the theoretical basis of modern bourgeois philosophical genre existentialism)
Rudolf Hermann Lotze (1817-1881, German idealist philosopher, professing his philosophy as "the teleological idealism")
Grünn (1817-1887, German petty bourgeois socialist)
Karl Vogt (1817-1895, German naturalist, vulgar materialist, professing his philosophy as "physiology
Marx (1818.5.5-1883.3.14, - "Capital", "Economic Manuscript", "The Outline of Feuerbach", "German Ideology"
Spencer (Herbert Spencer, 1820-1903, British sociologist, agnostic, idealist philosopher)
Jacob Moleschott (1822-1893, a Dutch physiologist, philosopher, one of the representatives of vulgar materialism) Ludwig Büchner (1824-1899, German doctor, one of vulgar materialist representatives)
Ferdinand Lassalle (1825-1864, leader of the opportunistic faction in the German workers' movement)
Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895, British naturalist) - "Beautiful New World"
Friedrich überweg (1826-1871, German philosopher) - "Introduction to the History of Philosophy"
Friedrich Albert Lange (1828-1875, German idealist philosopher, early neo-Kantian) Joseph Dietzgen (1828-1888, German socialist writer and philosopher, tanner) Chernyshevsky (Николай Гаврилович Чернышевский,
1828-1889, Russian revolutionary democrats, materialist philosophers, literary critics, writers) - "The Aesthetic Relationship between Art and Reality", "An Overview of the Gothic Period in the Russian Literature Circle", "Philosophy Humanism Principles" 》
Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (1828-1893, a translation of Dana, French literary theorist, historian, one of the heirs of Conde's empirical philosophy)
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920, German psychologist, philosopher, one of the founders of structural psychology)
Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911, a German idealist philosopher who originally belonged to neo-Kantianism and later turned to philosophy of life)
Karl Eugen Dühring (1833-1921, German philosopher, vulgar economist)
Harris Torrey Harris (1835-1909, American educator, idealist philosopher, the earliest communicator of Hegelian philosophy in the United States)
Green Hill (Thomas Hill Green, 1836-1882, British idealist philosopher)
Wilhelm Schuppe (1836-1913, German idealist philosopher, founder of internalism)
Ernst Mach (1838-1916, Austrian physicist, idealist philosopher, one of the founders of empirical criticism) Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914, American idealist philosopher, founder of pragmatism)
James (William James, 1842-1910, American idealist philosopher, psychologist, pragmatist, founder of functional psychology)
Eduart Hartmann (1842-1906, German idealist philosopher)
Richard Avenarius (1843-1896, German subjective idealist philosopher, one of the founders of empirical criticism)
Nietzsche (Friedrich Nietzsche, 1844-1900, German idealist philosopher, voluntarist)
Merlin (Franz Mehring, 1846-1919, one of the left-wing leaders of the German Social Democratic Party, political commentator, historian)
Francis Herbert Bradley (1846-1924, British idealist philosopher, new Hegelian) R (Rudolf Eucken, 1846-1926, German idealist philosopher)
Richard Schubert-Soldern (1852-1935, German idealist philosopher, representative of internalism
Karl Pearson (1857-1936, British idealist philosopher, mathematician, one of the advocates of eugenics) Samuel Alexander (1859-1938, British idealist philosopher, new realist)
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938, German idealist philosopher, founder of modern phenomenology)
Henri Bergson (1859-1941, French idealist philosopher, life philosophy and the main representative of modern irrationalism)
John Dewey (1859-1952, American idealist philosopher, sociologist, educator, pragmatist) Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947, British idealist philosopher, mathematician)
Josef Petzoldt (1862-1929, German idealist philosopher, empirical critic)Heinrich Rickert (1863-1936, German idealist philosopher, one of the main representatives of the New Kant's Freiburg School)
Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller (1864-1937, British philosopher, pragmatist, called his pragmatic philosophy "humanism")
Benedetto Croce (1866-1952, a translation of Croce, Italian idealist philosopher, historian, new Hegelian)
Hans Driesch (1867-1941, German idealist philosopher, biologist, new vitalist)
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970, British idealist philosopher, mathematician, logician)
Bogdanov (Александр Александрович Богданов, 1873-1928, Russian idealist philosopher)
George Edward Moore (1873-1958, British idealist philosopher, one of the main representatives of the new realism)
Giovanni Gentile (1875-1944, Italian idealist philosopher, new Hegelian)
Oswald Spengler (1880-1936, German idealist philosopher, historian)
Deborin (Абрам Моиесевич Деборин, 1881-1963, Soviet philosopher,
Moritz Schlick (1882-1936, idealist philosopher, born in Germany, taught at the University of Vienna, Austria, one of the founders of the Vienna School, one of the founders of logical positivism)
Jalques Maritain (1882-1973, French theologian, idealist philosopher, main representative of new Thomasism) Karl Jaspers (1883-1969, German existentialist philosopher)
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951, Austrian idealist philosopher, logician. After Hitler annexed Austria in 1838, he entered British nationality and taught at Cambridge University)
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976, a German existentialist philosopher who served as university president and professor during Hitler's reign, and supported Nazism)
Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980, French existentialist philosopher.) - "Imagination", "Existence and Nihility", "Existentialism is a Humanism", "Critique of Dialectical Reason", Several Issues in Methodology
Beauvoir Simone de (1908-1986, French existentialist scholar, writer)
Merleau Ponty (1908-1961, French existentialist philosopher)
Of course, philosophy and religion, politics, literature, etc. are also closely related. If you want to know the avenue, you must know the history. Repeated reading of the history of philosophy, world history, benefited a lot, and imagination came together.
Eastern philosophy Arabic philosophy Indian philosophy
In the history of the world, the East and the Arab countries also have important status and influence. Countries such as India, China, and Arabia are particularly important.
The great wise man of life
(The legend is about 600 years ago - about 470 years ago), surnamed Li Ming Er, the word Bo Yang, Han nationality, Chu State Bian County, is a great ancient Chinese philosopher, thinker, Taoist school founder, and in the Valley It was written in the ethics of the Five Thousand Words.
Confucius
Confucius (September 28th, 551th to April 11th, 479th) Mingqiu, the word Zhongni, Lu Guoyu, Han nationality at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period. English: Confucius, Kung Tze. Confucius was a great educator and thinker in ancient China, the founder of the Confucian school, and a world cultural celebrity. Confucius's thoughts and doctrines have had a profound impact on later generations.
Zhuangzi (about 369 years ago - 286 years ago), Han nationality. A famous thinker, philosopher, and writer is the representative of the Taoist school, the successor and developer of Laozi's philosophy, and the founder of the pre-Qin Zhuangzi school. His doctrine covers all aspects of social life at that time, but the fundamental spirit is still dependent on Laozi's philosophy. Later generations will call him and Laozi "Laozhuang", and their philosophy is "Lao Zhuang philosophy."
Mencius, the pioneer of the people-oriented thinking
Mencius (from 372 to 289) Han nationality, Zoucheng, Shandong. The great thinker of ancient China. One of the representative figures of Confucianism during the Warring States Period. He is the author of "Meng Zi", a collection of essays. "The Book of Mencius" is a compilation of Mencius's remarks, written by Mencius and his disciples, and records the Confucian classics of Mencius' words and deeds.
Xunzi (Xunzi 313 years ago - 238 years ago), the name of the famous thinker, writer, politician, representative of the Confucian school, - Han Fei, Li Si is his disciple.
Dong Zhongshu (before 179~104), Dong Zi, Han Dynasty thinker, politician. Great contribution to the orthodox status of Confucianism. It is a thinker of the Western Han Dynasty who is advancing with the times. He is a famous idealist philosopher in the Western Han Dynasty and a master of modern Chinese studies. When Emperor Jingdi was a Ph.D., he taught "The Ram Spring and Autumn." In the first year of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (134 BC), Dong Zhongshu put forward the basic points of his philosophical system in the famous "Measures for Raising the Virtue," and suggested that "the slogan of 100 schools and the unique Confucianism" should be adopted by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. Later generations have different opinions on this.
Master of Science
Zhu Xi was a master of Song's agency studies. He inherited the science of Cheng Song and Cheng Wei of the Northern Song Dynasty and completed the system of objective idealism. It is said that reason is the essence of the world, "reasonable first, gas is behind", and puts forward "preserving the heavens, destroying human desires." Zhu Xi has a profound knowledge of the study of Confucian classics, history, literature, music, and even the natural sciences.
The development of Indian philosophy can be roughly divided into ancient philosophy (about 3000 BC ~ 750 AD), medieval philosophy (750 to 18th century AD), modern philosophy (about 18th century to 1947), modern philosophy (after 1947) ) Four periods.
Ancient
India has emerged as the bud of the worldview in the era of the Rigveda in the end of the original commune. After entering the slavery society, it began to form a systematic philosophy. The earliest philosophical book "The Upanishads."
middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, religion dominated, and the philosophy of the ruling class was included in the Hindu theology system. India traditionally recognized the Vatican’s authoritative figures, the Yoga School, the Victory School, the Orthodox School, and the Vedanta School. The Six-sect philosophy, such as the Miman sentiment, is called the orthodox school, and the Shunshi, Buddhism, Jainism, etc., which deny the authority of the Vedic, are called unorthodox.
Islam Arabia
The main differences between the Moor Taiqilai and the Hadith in philosophy are: the nature of Allah and the relationship between Allah and the world. MooreThe Taiqilai faction denies that Allah has all kinds of unfounded virtues such as knowledge, energy, sight, hearing, speech, life, etc., because these are considered to be the beginning of virtue and the personalization of Allah, and the true The uniqueness is incompatible; the Hadith is recognized as the virtue of Allah. Secondly, the debate about "freedom of will" and "pre-determination", that is, the relationship between man and Allah, the Hadith believes that the good and evil of man is the premise of Allah, and the act of man is created by Allah. The Moor Taiqilai faction believes that people have unlimited freedom of will, and that human behavior is created by themselves. Allah is rewarded and punished according to his good and evil, thus proving that Allah is fair.
After the 10th century, the Sunni philosophical system, the "New Kailam", the doctrine of Islam, was formed. The founder, Ashley, and his disciples reconciled the doctrines of “pre-determination” and “freedom of will”, emphasizing the all-powerfulness of Allah, and there is no causal connection between all things in the world, created by Allah. They try to show that all actions of human beings are determined by Allah, but people have the ability to "reach" their own actions, so people are responsible for their actions before Allah. The faction was supported by the ruling class and was regarded as an orthodox official creed.
Philosophy-theologians and their schools In the 9th and 12th centuries, there were numerous famous philosophers in the vast areas under the caliphate state, and there were also groups and factions of philosophers. These philosophers and factions, called "Hokma" by the Arabs, formed the main body of Arab medieval philosophy at that time, divided into two things, centered on Baghdad and Córdoba. Many of these philosophers are engaged in secular affairs (doctors, natural scientists, etc.), attaching importance to empirical knowledge and emphasizing theoretical understanding. Although they still have not got rid of the control of orthodox theology, they have largely accepted the influence of Greek-Roman philosophy, especially Aristotle and Neo-Platonicism and Eastern traditional ideas.
The philosopher Lacy and the sincere brothers. They attempted to reconcile Greek natural philosophy (including mathematics, astronomy, astrology, music, alchemy, medicine, etc.) and Islamic teachings to create a religious philosophy. Lacy's medical theory begins with the recognition of the close connection between the body and the soul, asserting that matter is eternal, that movement is an inseparable property of objects, and that feelings cause people to have an understanding of the object. The sincere Brothers Society was originally a politically-religious group of religious and philosophical groups in the Basra area in the 10th century. They collectively compiled an encyclopedic collection of essays. Their cosmology is Islam Shiite, New Pythago The combination of lasism and neo-Platonicism.
Philosophers Kendi, Farabi, and Ibn Sina, influenced by Greek Aristotle and Neo-Platonicism. Kendy is known as an Arab philosopher. He systematically studied Greek philosophy and tried to combine it with Islamic teachings, arguing that matter is a form of “flowing out” from the spirit of Allah, and that the soul can leave the body and be independent. Faraby is recognized as the "first philosopher" after Aristotle. His philosophical system is a mixture of Plato, Aristotle and Sufism, propagating the immortal "ration of Allah" . I think that the world is made up of many elements, and people can know the world through feelings. Ibn Sinah proposed the "dual truth theory" of religion and science. He is arrogant between materialism and idealism. He believes that the material world is eternal. They are not created by Allah, but they also think that the spirit overflows from Allah. The spirit gives form to the material and then forms everything. It is also claimed that the soul and the body are different and are a special ability that goes beyond the physical properties of ordinary things. On the issue of commonality, it is believed that the common phase exists before things, as the idea of creation, exists in things; as the essence of things, after things, is the form of existence of concepts.
Sufism and orthodox theology - philosopher Ansari. The Sufism faction appeared at the end of the 7th century and has undergone significant development since the end of the 8th century. Influenced by Neo-Platonicism and the Indian Yoga School, they promoted the "oneness of man and God" and "the connection between man and God" and advocated the doctrine of abstinence, perseverance, self-restraint, and was suppressed by the orthodox Islam. The orthodox school of the famous theology-philosopher Ansari, who was the master of
"The focus of subjectivity is a distorting mirror…" ~Hans-Georg Gadamer
Quick portrait shot with the 85mm, my muse wasn't available, something about the 365 project being over…hahahahaha..j/k she is fast asleep. Not the best shot, I have to work on focusing and framing with the lens for portraits..
Strobists:
SB600 boomed above the camera 5ft from me in collapsed reflective umbrella 1/2 CTO 1/4 @24mm
AB400 camera front 3ft behind me in 7" reflector @1/32
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ISO 100
Nikon 85mm 1.4D ( I used a CP filter to knock out a little extra ambient light, got to pick some ND filters )
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L.M. Sacasas
Technology, Culture, and Ethics
THE FRAILEST THING
The Interrupted Self
APRIL 21, 2018 ~ MICHAEL SACASAS
In Letters From Lake Como: Explorations in Technology and the Human Race, written in the 1920’s, Romano Guardini, related the following experience: “I recall going down a staircase, and suddenly, when my foot was leaving one step and preparing to set itself down on another, I became aware of what I was doing. I then noted what self-evident certainty is displayed in the play of muscles. I felt that a question was thus raised concerning motion.”
“This was a triviality,” Guardini acknowledges, “and yet it tells us what the issue is here.” He goes on to explain the “issue” as follows:
Life needs the protection of nonawareness. We are told this already by the universal psychological law that we cannot perform an intellectual act and at the same time be aware of it. We can only look back on it when it is completed. If we try to achieve awareness of it when we are doing it, we can do so only be always interrupting it and thus hovering between the action and knowledge of it. Obviously the action will suffer greatly as a result. It seems to me that this typifies the life of the mind and spirit as a whole. Our action is constantly interrupted by reflection on it. Thus all our life bears the distinctive character of what is interrupted, broken. It does not have the great line that is sure of itself, the confident movement deriving from the self.
It seems to me that the tendency Guardini identifies here has only intensified during the nearly 100 years since he wrote down his observations.
As an aside, I find works like Guardini’s useful for at least two reasons. The first, perhaps more obvious, reason is that they offer genuine insights that remain applicable in a more or less straightforward way. The second, perhaps less obvious, reason is that they offer a small window into the personal and cultural experience of technological change. When we think about the difference technologies make in our life and for society more broadly, we often have only our experience by which to judge. But, of course, we don’t know what we don’t know, or we can’t remember what we have never known. And this is especially the case when we consider what me might call the existential or even affective aspects of technological change.
Returning to Guardini, has he notes in the letter on “Consciousness” from which that paragraph was taken, literature was only one sphere of culture where this heightened consciousness was making itself evident.
I can’t know what literary works Guardini had in mind, but there is one scene in Tolstoy’s short novel, The Death of Ivan Ilyich (1886), that immediately sprung to mind. Early on in the story, which begins with Ilyich’s death, a co-worker, Peter Ivanovich, has come to Ilyich’s home to pay his respects. Upon entering the room where Ilyich’s body lay, Peter Ivanovich is uncertain as to how to proceed:
Peter Ivanovich, like everyone else on such occasions, entered feeling uncertain what he would have to do. All he knew was that at such times it is always safe to cross oneself. But he was not quite sure whether one should make obeisances while doing so. He therefore adopted a middle course. On entering the room he began crossing himself and made a slight movement resembling a bow.
I’ve come to read this scene as a microcosm of an extended, possibly recurring, cultural moment in the history of modernity, one that illustrates the emergence of self-consciousness.
Here is Peter Ivanovich, entering into a socially and psychologically fraught encounter with the presence of death. It is the sort of moment for which a robust cultural tradition might prepare us by supplying scripts that would relieve us of the burden of knowing just what to do while also conveying to us a meaning that renders the event intelligible. But Peter Ivanovich faces this encounter at a moment when the old traditions are only half-recalled and no new forms have arisen to take there place. He lives, that is, in a moment when, as Gramsci evocatively put it, the old is dying and the new cannot be born. In such a moment, he is thrown back upon himself: he must make choices, he must improvise, he must become aware of himself as one who must do such things.
His action, as Guardini puts it, “bears the distinctive character of what is interrupted.”
“Peter Ivanovich,” we go on to read, “continued to make the sign of the cross slightly inclining his head in an intermediate direction between the coffin, the Reader, and the icons on the table in a corner of the room. Afterwards, when it seemed to him that this movement of his arm in crossing himself had gone on too long, he stopped and began to look at the corpse.”
He is not inhabiting a ritual act, he is performing it and badly, as all such performances must be. “He felt a certain discomfort,” the narrator tells us, “and so he hurriedly crossed himself once more and turned and went out of the door — too hurriedly and too regardless of propriety, as he himself was aware.”
I’m not suggesting that Tolstoy intended this scene as a commentary on the heightened consciousness generated by liquid modernity, only that I have found in Peter Ivanovich’s awkwardness a memorable dramatic illustration of such.
Technology had a role to play in the generation of this state of affairs, particularly technologies of self-expression or technologies that represent the self to itself. It was one of Walter Ong’s key contentions, for example, that “writing heightened consciousness.” This was, in his view, a generally good thing. Of course, writing had been around long before Tolstoy was active in the late 19th century. He lived during an age when new technologies worked more indirectly to heighten self-consciousness by eroding the social structures that anchored the experience of the self.
In the early 20th century, Guardini pointed to, among other things, the rise of statistics and the bureaucracies that they empowered and to newspapers as the sources of a hypertrophied consciousness. We might substitute so-called Big Data and social media for statistics and newspapers. Rather, with regards to consciousness, we should understand the interlocking regimes of the quantified self* and social media as just a further development along the same trajectory. Fitbits and Facebook amplify our consciousness by what they claim to measure and by how they position the self vis-a-vis the self.
It seems to me that this heightened sense of self-consciousness is both a blessing and a curse and that it is the condition out of which much of our digital culture emerges. For those who experience it as a curse it can be, for example, a paralyzing and disintegrating reality. It may, under such circumstances further yield resentment, bitterness, and self-loathing (consider Raskolnikov or the Underground Man). Those who are thus afflicted may seek for renewed integrity through dramatic and/or violent acts, acts that they believe will galvanize their identity. Others may cope by adopting the role of happy nihilist or liberal ironist. Still others may double-down and launch out on the self-defeating quest for authenticity.
“Plants can grow only when their roots are in the dark,” Guardini wrote as he closed his letter on consciousness. “They emerge from the dark into the light. That is the direction of life. The plant and its direction die when the root is exposed. All life must be grounded in what is not conscious and from that root emerge into the brightness of consciousness. Yet I see consciousness becoming more and more deeply the root of our life.”
All of this leads him to ask in conclusion, “Can life sustain this? Can it become consciousness and at the same time remain alive?”
_________________________________________________
* For example: “Now the telescope is turned inward, on the human body in the urban environment. This terrestrial cosmos of data will merge investigations that have been siloed: neuroscience, psychology, sociology, biology, biochemistry, nutrition, epidemiology, economics, data science, urban science.”
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7 thoughts on “The Interrupted Self”
davidjsimpson1952
APRIL 21, 2018 AT 12:20 PM
I actually disagree quite strongly with this analysis. Peter Ivanovich’s problem, which I think Tolstoy is describing quite clearly, is that he is a shallow social conformist (as indeed is Ivan Ilyich until his death), a ‘modern man’, who has simply forgotten, or not learned how to behave in the traditional way, but does not have the autonomy or courage to decide for himself how to behave, in any situation. So he is all at sea. Ivan Illyich on the other hand is perfectly happy to conform, and knows how to do so, and lives an utterly false, shallow, meaningless, but ‘successful’ life, albeit unhappy at a deeper level, until his death agony and spiritual liberation / resurrection (unobserved by anyone, who simply see him dying in apparent agony).
Guardini is typical of a self-conscious individual (and perhaps of many modern people, especially intellectuals) – yes, you cannot think your way down stairs, you have to physically do it, and your intellect is simply an impediment – but an accomplished sportsman is absolutely aware and conscious of what he/she is doing, they are just not doing it with their mind – they have trained and practiced their whole being – mind, body and spirit (for lack of a better term) to do a particular thing well – they are and must be undistracted, particularly by their own mind not being completely engaged in the action itself, in the present moment and nowhere else. Especially not for example thinking about what they will do to win the match, or regretting or dwelling on a previous mistake. ‘keeping your eye on the ball’ is a shorthand for being 100% engaged with the current action (not looking where you hope to hit it, or watching someone in the crowd, or admiring the skill with which your playing the shot).
There is a certain type of intellectual activity, where it is possible to both think, and be aware of what and how you are thinking – the opposite of daydreaming or fantasy. But most modern people, apart from the really happy, effective ones, are living in an almost constant state of distraction, of a lack of proper attention to what they are actually trying to do. And that is undoubtedly in part one of the more pernicious effects of modern information technology. It is designed to distract.
Reply
Michael Sacasas
APRIL 22, 2018 AT 9:00 PM
I’m not sure that I disagree with your disagreement. On the one hand, I’m not wedded to my interpretation as anything like a definitive take on what Tolstoy intended. It is more the case that Ivanovich’s interrupted, self-conscious action struck me as an image of the condition I’m trying to get at. Your reading of Ivanovich, and the general drift of the knowledge, is, as far as I’m concerned, basically correct. That said, what if we were to ask why exactly Ivanovich behaves the way he does, or, alternatively, what the sources of his shallowness may be? I wonder if the significance I’ve imported onto this scene is necessarily at odds with what your suggesting.
I also agree very much with your discussion of an embodied form of attentiveness that is characteristic of the accomplished sportsman or musician or dancer, etc. But that form of attention is, as you suggest, very different than the sort of attention to the self that I think Guardini is analyzing. Some years back, in fact, I wrote about embodied practices as an antidote to the hyper-self-consciousness that characterizes many in our time, myself not excepted: thefrailestthing.com/2012/10/05/low-tech-practices-and-id... See also: iasc-culture.org/THR/channels/Infernal_Machine/2015/04/79...
So, I’d say that, yes, distraction is clearly a problem, and modern information technology is part of the problem (addiction by design, etc.), but I’d also say that it heightens a certain kind of attention or, to put it another way, directs the attention toward the self in a way that aligns with the kind of disordered consciousness that Guardini writes about.
Reply
julian a
APRIL 21, 2018 AT 9:08 PM
I agree with @davidjsimpson1952. The cultivation of mindful awareness in Buddhism is precisely the sort of simultaneity of conscious awareness and action that it seems Guardini considered exceptional, if not impossible.
Reply
Michael Sacasas
APRIL 22, 2018 AT 9:03 PM
Thanks for the comment, Julian. See my reply above to David. The sort of awareness you describe is, I believe, of a different sort than the consciousness Guardini finds problematic, in part, I suspect, because it is not, strictly speaking, mental, or at least not merely mental.
Reply
Daniel David
APRIL 22, 2018 AT 1:19 AM
Excellent…this topic (the intensifying self-consciousness of modern humans) has preoccupied me for a few years now, and I think it’s under discussed. Your mention of irony reminded me; I frequently have the thought that the rise of the ironic attitude is tied to the need to remain ever more socially flexible. The ironic mode is an effective way to remain uncommitted to either seriousness or flippancy. It allows our remaining to remain loosely defined, like a legal contract, until the concrete details of the situation become clear enough to settle on a firmer stance.
I haven’t read a ton of sociology from the early-to-mid-twentieth century, so if you know of other sources on this I’d be interested. Some few thinkers I am aware of seemed to notice this growing self consciousness, though: I feel it lurking throughout Erving Goffman’s work, particularly when he mentions things like the “bureaucratization of the spirit,” which we all undergo “so that we can be relied upon to give a perfectly homogenous performance at ever appointed time.” Surely this new self consciousness is partially a product of a new and more intense social consciousness, born of new pressures and the feedback of new forms of representation.
Georg Simmel seems to have been convinced it was tied to the rise of the modern city. In his essay “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” he writes “The psychological foundation, upon which the metropolitan individuality is erected, is the intensification of emotional life due to the swift and continuous shift of external and internal stimuli.” And prior to that, he asserts that, of the more famous responses to modernity (Nietzschean, socialist), “the same fundamental motive was at work,
namely the resistance of the individual to being levelled, swallowed up in the social- technological mechanism.”
I’m also reminded me of a talk by Alasdair McIntyre called “A Culture of Choices and Compartmentalization,” but I haven’t read it recently enough to say more than that.
Part of the difficulty here is that even realizing the burdens of an over-abundance of self consciousness does little to cope with them; in fact, it’s much the opposite. But what I think is clear from Simmel and Goffman especially (and we’ve come some way since then, haven’t we?) is that this reserve and hyper-attentive presentation has become a fixture of social life – a necessity. Where humans once gathered resources, we now focus much more on collecting attitudes and cultural snippets as a kind of social currency. And, if that’s correct, it implies that communication is a lot more work than it used to be.
Reply
Michael Sacasas
APRIL 22, 2018 AT 9:23 PM
As it has been for you, so, too, has this been an area of interest for me for some time. I do tend to think it is a crucial aspect of the modern (post-, meta-, etc.) identity. Really, it is at the heart of all of our identity-talk, which is somehow both cause and symptom of the condition. I tend to see it as the product of the formative impact of increasingly sophisticated technologies of the self and the untethering of the self that is characteristic of modernity (the physic consequences of everything melting into air). I think it may have been you who noted in a comment (to which I never replied, my apologies if so) a certain resemblance to communitarian thought in some of what I’ve written. That would be a fair assessment. My thinking on this bears a similar stamp. Along those lines, I’ll have to look up the piece by MacIntyre, I don’t think I’ve come across it before. Several years ago, Thomas de Zengotita’s Mediated covered much of this ground in a useful way.
L.M. Sacasas
Technology, Culture, and Ethics
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THE FRAILEST THING
The Interrupted Self
APRIL 21, 2018 ~ MICHAEL SACASAS
In Letters From Lake Como: Explorations in Technology and the Human Race, written in the 1920’s, Romano Guardini, related the following experience: “I recall going down a staircase, and suddenly, when my foot was leaving one step and preparing to set itself down on another, I became aware of what I was doing. I then noted what self-evident certainty is displayed in the play of muscles. I felt that a question was thus raised concerning motion.”
“This was a triviality,” Guardini acknowledges, “and yet it tells us what the issue is here.” He goes on to explain the “issue” as follows:
Life needs the protection of nonawareness. We are told this already by the universal psychological law that we cannot perform an intellectual act and at the same time be aware of it. We can only look back on it when it is completed. If we try to achieve awareness of it when we are doing it, we can do so only be always interrupting it and thus hovering between the action and knowledge of it. Obviously the action will suffer greatly as a result. It seems to me that this typifies the life of the mind and spirit as a whole. Our action is constantly interrupted by reflection on it. Thus all our life bears the distinctive character of what is interrupted, broken. It does not have the great line that is sure of itself, the confident movement deriving from the self.
It seems to me that the tendency Guardini identifies here has only intensified during the nearly 100 years since he wrote down his observations.
As an aside, I find works like Guardini’s useful for at least two reasons. The first, perhaps more obvious, reason is that they offer genuine insights that remain applicable in a more or less straightforward way. The second, perhaps less obvious, reason is that they offer a small window into the personal and cultural experience of technological change. When we think about the difference technologies make in our life and for society more broadly, we often have only our experience by which to judge. But, of course, we don’t know what we don’t know, or we can’t remember what we have never known. And this is especially the case when we consider what me might call the existential or even affective aspects of technological change.
Returning to Guardini, has he notes in the letter on “Consciousness” from which that paragraph was taken, literature was only one sphere of culture where this heightened consciousness was making itself evident.
I can’t know what literary works Guardini had in mind, but there is one scene in Tolstoy’s short novel, The Death of Ivan Ilyich (1886), that immediately sprung to mind. Early on in the story, which begins with Ilyich’s death, a co-worker, Peter Ivanovich, has come to Ilyich’s home to pay his respects. Upon entering the room where Ilyich’s body lay, Peter Ivanovich is uncertain as to how to proceed:
Peter Ivanovich, like everyone else on such occasions, entered feeling uncertain what he would have to do. All he knew was that at such times it is always safe to cross oneself. But he was not quite sure whether one should make obeisances while doing so. He therefore adopted a middle course. On entering the room he began crossing himself and made a slight movement resembling a bow.
I’ve come to read this scene as a microcosm of an extended, possibly recurring, cultural moment in the history of modernity, one that illustrates the emergence of self-consciousness.
Here is Peter Ivanovich, entering into a socially and psychologically fraught encounter with the presence of death. It is the sort of moment for which a robust cultural tradition might prepare us by supplying scripts that would relieve us of the burden of knowing just what to do while also conveying to us a meaning that renders the event intelligible. But Peter Ivanovich faces this encounter at a moment when the old traditions are only half-recalled and no new forms have arisen to take there place. He lives, that is, in a moment when, as Gramsci evocatively put it, the old is dying and the new cannot be born. In such a moment, he is thrown back upon himself: he must make choices, he must improvise, he must become aware of himself as one who must do such things.
His action, as Guardini puts it, “bears the distinctive character of what is interrupted.”
“Peter Ivanovich,” we go on to read, “continued to make the sign of the cross slightly inclining his head in an intermediate direction between the coffin, the Reader, and the icons on the table in a corner of the room. Afterwards, when it seemed to him that this movement of his arm in crossing himself had gone on too long, he stopped and began to look at the corpse.”
He is not inhabiting a ritual act, he is performing it and badly, as all such performances must be. “He felt a certain discomfort,” the narrator tells us, “and so he hurriedly crossed himself once more and turned and went out of the door — too hurriedly and too regardless of propriety, as he himself was aware.”
I’m not suggesting that Tolstoy intended this scene as a commentary on the heightened consciousness generated by liquid modernity, only that I have found in Peter Ivanovich’s awkwardness a memorable dramatic illustration of such.
Technology had a role to play in the generation of this state of affairs, particularly technologies of self-expression or technologies that represent the self to itself. It was one of Walter Ong’s key contentions, for example, that “writing heightened consciousness.” This was, in his view, a generally good thing. Of course, writing had been around long before Tolstoy was active in the late 19th century. He lived during an age when new technologies worked more indirectly to heighten self-consciousness by eroding the social structures that anchored the experience of the self.
In the early 20th century, Guardini pointed to, among other things, the rise of statistics and the bureaucracies that they empowered and to newspapers as the sources of a hypertrophied consciousness. We might substitute so-called Big Data and social media for statistics and newspapers. Rather, with regards to consciousness, we should understand the interlocking regimes of the quantified self* and social media as just a further development along the same trajectory. Fitbits and Facebook amplify our consciousness by what they claim to measure and by how they position the self vis-a-vis the self.
It seems to me that this heightened sense of self-consciousness is both a blessing and a curse and that it is the condition out of which much of our digital culture emerges. For those who experience it as a curse it can be, for example, a paralyzing and disintegrating reality. It may, under such circumstances further yield resentment, bitterness, and self-loathing (consider Raskolnikov or the Underground Man). Those who are thus afflicted may seek for renewed integrity through dramatic and/or violent acts, acts that they believe will galvanize their identity. Others may cope by adopting the role of happy nihilist or liberal ironist. Still others may double-down and launch out on the self-defeating quest for authenticity.
“Plants can grow only when their roots are in the dark,” Guardini wrote as he closed his letter on consciousness. “They emerge from the dark into the light. That is the direction of life. The plant and its direction die when the root is exposed. All life must be grounded in what is not conscious and from that root emerge into the brightness of consciousness. Yet I see consciousness becoming more and more deeply the root of our life.”
All of this leads him to ask in conclusion, “Can life sustain this? Can it become consciousness and at the same time remain alive?”
_________________________________________________
* For example: “Now the telescope is turned inward, on the human body in the urban environment. This terrestrial cosmos of data will merge investigations that have been siloed: neuroscience, psychology, sociology, biology, biochemistry, nutrition, epidemiology, economics, data science, urban science.”
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The Ethics of Ethical Tools
In "Culture"
Louis C.K. Was Almost Right About Smartphones, Loneliness, Sadness, the Meaning of Life, and Everything
In "Culture"
Facebook as Rear Window: What Hitchcock and Gadamer Can Teach Us About Online Profiles
In "Culture"
POSTED IN MISCELLANEOUS
CONSCIOUSNESSROMANO GUARDINISOCIAL MEDIA
Post navigation
< PREVIOUS
Hot Off the Digital Presses: A New Collection
7 thoughts on “The Interrupted Self”
davidjsimpson1952
APRIL 21, 2018 AT 12:20 PM
I actually disagree quite strongly with this analysis. Peter Ivanovich’s problem, which I think Tolstoy is describing quite clearly, is that he is a shallow social conformist (as indeed is Ivan Ilyich until his death), a ‘modern man’, who has simply forgotten, or not learned how to behave in the traditional way, but does not have the autonomy or courage to decide for himself how to behave, in any situation. So he is all at sea. Ivan Illyich on the other hand is perfectly happy to conform, and knows how to do so, and lives an utterly false, shallow, meaningless, but ‘successful’ life, albeit unhappy at a deeper level, until his death agony and spiritual liberation / resurrection (unobserved by anyone, who simply see him dying in apparent agony).
Guardini is typical of a self-conscious individual (and perhaps of many modern people, especially intellectuals) – yes, you cannot think your way down stairs, you have to physically do it, and your intellect is simply an impediment – but an accomplished sportsman is absolutely aware and conscious of what he/she is doing, they are just not doing it with their mind – they have trained and practiced their whole being – mind, body and spirit (for lack of a better term) to do a particular thing well – they are and must be undistracted, particularly by their own mind not being completely engaged in the action itself, in the present moment and nowhere else. Especially not for example thinking about what they will do to win the match, or regretting or dwelling on a previous mistake. ‘keeping your eye on the ball’ is a shorthand for being 100% engaged with the current action (not looking where you hope to hit it, or watching someone in the crowd, or admiring the skill with which your playing the shot).
There is a certain type of intellectual activity, where it is possible to both think, and be aware of what and how you are thinking – the opposite of daydreaming or fantasy. But most modern people, apart from the really happy, effective ones, are living in an almost constant state of distraction, of a lack of proper attention to what they are actually trying to do. And that is undoubtedly in part one of the more pernicious effects of modern information technology. It is designed to distract.
Reply
Michael Sacasas
APRIL 22, 2018 AT 9:00 PM
I’m not sure that I disagree with your disagreement. On the one hand, I’m not wedded to my interpretation as anything like a definitive take on what Tolstoy intended. It is more the case that Ivanovich’s interrupted, self-conscious action struck me as an image of the condition I’m trying to get at. Your reading of Ivanovich, and the general drift of the knowledge, is, as far as I’m concerned, basically correct. That said, what if we were to ask why exactly Ivanovich behaves the way he does, or, alternatively, what the sources of his shallowness may be? I wonder if the significance I’ve imported onto this scene is necessarily at odds with what your suggesting.
I also agree very much with your discussion of an embodied form of attentiveness that is characteristic of the accomplished sportsman or musician or dancer, etc. But that form of attention is, as you suggest, very different than the sort of attention to the self that I think Guardini is analyzing. Some years back, in fact, I wrote about embodied practices as an antidote to the hyper-self-consciousness that characterizes many in our time, myself not excepted: thefrailestthing.com/2012/10/05/low-tech-practices-and-id... See also: iasc-culture.org/THR/channels/Infernal_Machine/2015/04/79...
So, I’d say that, yes, distraction is clearly a problem, and modern information technology is part of the problem (addiction by design, etc.), but I’d also say that it heightens a certain kind of attention or, to put it another way, directs the attention toward the self in a way that aligns with the kind of disordered consciousness that Guardini writes about.
Reply
julian a
APRIL 21, 2018 AT 9:08 PM
I agree with @davidjsimpson1952. The cultivation of mindful awareness in Buddhism is precisely the sort of simultaneity of conscious awareness and action that it seems Guardini considered exceptional, if not impossible.
Reply
Michael Sacasas
APRIL 22, 2018 AT 9:03 PM
Thanks for the comment, Julian. See my reply above to David. The sort of awareness you describe is, I believe, of a different sort than the consciousness Guardini finds problematic, in part, I suspect, because it is not, strictly speaking, mental, or at least not merely mental.
Reply
Daniel David
APRIL 22, 2018 AT 1:19 AM
Excellent…this topic (the intensifying self-consciousness of modern humans) has preoccupied me for a few years now, and I think it’s under discussed. Your mention of irony reminded me; I frequently have the thought that the rise of the ironic attitude is tied to the need to remain ever more socially flexible. The ironic mode is an effective way to remain uncommitted to either seriousness or flippancy. It allows our remaining to remain loosely defined, like a legal contract, until the concrete details of the situation become clear enough to settle on a firmer stance.
I haven’t read a ton of sociology from the early-to-mid-twentieth century, so if you know of other sources on this I’d be interested. Some few thinkers I am aware of seemed to notice this growing self consciousness, though: I feel it lurking throughout Erving Goffman’s work, particularly when he mentions things like the “bureaucratization of the spirit,” which we all undergo “so that we can be relied upon to give a perfectly homogenous performance at ever appointed time.” Surely this new self consciousness is partially a product of a new and more intense social consciousness, born of new pressures and the feedback of new forms of representation.
Georg Simmel seems to have been convinced it was tied to the rise of the modern city. In his essay “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” he writes “The psychological foundation, upon which the metropolitan individuality is erected, is the intensification of emotional life due to the swift and continuous shift of external and internal stimuli.” And prior to that, he asserts that, of the more famous responses to modernity (Nietzschean, socialist), “the same fundamental motive was at work,
namely the resistance of the individual to being levelled, swallowed up in the social- technological mechanism.”
I’m also reminded me of a talk by Alasdair McIntyre called “A Culture of Choices and Compartmentalization,” but I haven’t read it recently enough to say more than that.
Part of the difficulty here is that even realizing the burdens of an over-abundance of self consciousness does little to cope with them; in fact, it’s much the opposite. But what I think is clear from Simmel and Goffman especially (and we’ve come some way since then, haven’t we?) is that this reserve and hyper-attentive presentation has become a fixture of social life – a necessity. Where humans once gathered resources, we now focus much more on collecting attitudes and cultural snippets as a kind of social currency. And, if that’s correct, it implies that communication is a lot more work than it used to be.
Reply
Michael Sacasas
APRIL 22, 2018 AT 9:23 PM
As it has been for you, so, too, has this been an area of interest for me for some time. I do tend to think it is a crucial aspect of the modern (post-, meta-, etc.) identity. Really, it is at the heart of all of our identity-talk, which is somehow both cause and symptom of the condition. I tend to see it as the product of the formative impact of increasingly sophisticated technologies of the self and the untethering of the self that is characteristic of modernity (the physic consequences of everything melting into air). I think it may have been you who noted in a comment (to which I never replied, my apologies if so) a certain resemblance to communitarian thought in some of what I’ve written. That would be a fair assessment. My thinking on this bears a similar stamp. Along those lines, I’ll have to look up the piece by MacIntyre, I don’t think I’ve come across it before. Several years ago, Thomas de Zengotita’s Mediated covered much of this ground in a useful way.
(in esposizione fino al 5 novembre)
Monate Cocktail Club - Via del Castello, 8 Travedona Monate (Va)
orari: dalle 18:00 alla 1:30 (mercoledi chiuso)
nel corso della serata di inaugurazione di giovedi 9 ottobre verrà proiettato il Nosferatu di Murnau, sonorizzato dal vivo dai gadAmer: Zeno Gabaglio (violoncello) e Andrea Manzoni (pianoforte)
opere ( :P ) esposte:
NYC ATTITUDES (serie a colori)
8 pezzi
stampe su pannelli 49x70 (orizzontali)
in cornice nera
NYC ATTITUDES (serie in bianco e nero)
8 pezzi
stampe grezze A3 (orizzontali)
incollate con fogli di giornale e pastrugni vari su pannelli metallici 50x80 (verticali)
8 pezzi
stampe su pannelli 35x50 (orizzontali)
incastrate in tele 60x90 (verticali) dipinte in toni di neri acrilici e malta sabbiata, divelte e bruciate (qualche giorno in cantina tra ragnatele e polvere farà il resto del lavoro ;) )
2 pezzi
stampe su pannelli 70x100
colgo l'occasione per ringraziare tutti coloro che mi hanno so(u)pportato in questo delirio :P
e naturalmente grazie anche a tutti Voi qui su Flickr, a presto :)
ah dimenticavo, finalmente ho avuto il tempo di disegnarmi un sito: kiQ.it ;)
un abbraccio
kik
Art takes its origins from a more or less stressed distance between its manifestations and reality, through the assumption of artificial shapes
that transcend the natural ones:
a picture, a poetry or a musical piece are always
an added construction that can overcome
the borderlines of contingent reality.
In the conception of the work of art, modern age creates a gap with the natural events.
If we look at the young "prostitute" Olympia of Manet, we notice that the author, by setting aside every emotional involvment, paints her in the way painters of the previous century would have painted a nude of noblewoman.
The work of art carries on the process of outdistancing which will become one of
the characteristics of contemporary art,
and which is regulated from what we can define
the "principle of indifference".
In the same way, the "Bottle Dryer" of Duchamp undertakes a revolutionary and epochal role.
How is it possibile that a normal tool of
everyday life can become a work of art?
Duchamp simply asks himself: "What is a work of art? If I took a bottle dryer from a wine merchant and put it in a gallery, would it be a work of art?"
Yes because the above mentioned bottle dryer would undergo what the surrealist movement
calls a "shock", a translation of reality:
that object is not used anymore to dry bottles
but it becomes a group of shapes that takes
a function alternative to the original one.
The anthropologist Lévi-Strauss, basing himself
on the assumption that usually someone visits
an art gallery to see works of art and not to drain bottles of wines for free, states that the fact of finding himself face to face to an object like this – dark and bristling with arms –
may let him be in awe of it.
This object, in fact, is not anymore what he has been built for, but becomes a kind of ghost,
an element that suggests something else,
and for this reason, gives rise to different feelings.
This suggestion, together with a more complex reflexion that detaches itself from the classical interpretation of the work of art, shows that
the decontestualization of an object may create
a work of art.
We may ask ourselves: what has all of this to do
with the materiality of the work of art?
But most of all: can we interpret history of art using
as main criteria the vision of something that doesn't exist, that cannot be seen, something that the work of art just evokes, recognizing in it the opponent function of the author in relation to the dominant values of every age?
Though been dominated by materialism,
nowadays we live in an immaterial world:
we buy symbols, not products, and we consume virtual entertainement.
Also history of art of last decades,
with the exponential development of digital, highlights the passage to more and more
dematerialized shapes.
The same idea of aesthetich event theorized
by H.G. Gadamer mainteins that the work of
art doesnt's exist thank to its 'materialità',
but thanks to the immaterial processes of information and interpretation which
the dialectics between the finite shape
and what it trascends involves.
We can add to this considerations also the current developments of applied sciences,
in which the democristian assumption of
a "full void" is substituted by a "tingling void"
filled with annihilation and creations of
"virtual" particles.
The physical reality in which we live
is not "complete", or in a better way,
is filled with elements which are difficult to entrust with a status of existence, unless we prepare ourselves – which we are willing to do –
to another idea of reality and materialità.
Immaterialism aims to be exactely this:
a kind of new Fibonnacci's Code which
interprets history of art in a new way,
revealing the contradictions and the different interpretation, taking on the research,
and so the doubt, as guide, and immaterial values
as main factors setting up an order
both ancient and contemporary.
Promoting the awareness of infinite potentials
of the immaterial and showing the ability of art
of filling up the gap between reality and ideal
is the historical task of our generation,
and the NY BIENNALE ART means to be
the Manifesto of this philosophy.
official web site: www.nybiennaleart.org/
official blog: nybiennaleart.blogspot.com/
not present at the table but felt in spirit: huserl, heidegger, merleau-ponty, gadamer, derrida, descartes, plato, aristotle, and many more than i can name at the moment.
Heidelberg is home to one of Europe's oldest educational institutes, the Ruprecht Karls University founded in 1386, more commonly known as the University of Heidelberg. Among the prominent thinkers associated with the university over the centuries are Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Jaspers, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Jürgen Habermas, Karl-Otto Apel and Hannah Arendt. Karl Drais, who invented the bicycle in 1817, was a student there. At the University of Heidelberg, chemists Posselt and Reimann discovered that nicotine was the main pharmacologically active component of tobacco. In 1860, Robert Bunsen and Kirchhoff discovered spectrum analysis here. Despite this long legacy of academic excellence, the University of Heidelberg was the first to expel all its Jewish professors and students when the Nazis rose to power.
The European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Molecular Biology Organization, the German Cancer Research Center, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics and Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law) are located in Heidelberg.
source Wikipedia
we wont all make it to a 100...very few of us in fact...
here is a list from www.deadoralive.com
of famous people that did...
122
Jeanne Calment Other
109
Sarah "Sadie" Delany Literature
108
Marjory Douglas Social Activism
107
George Abbott Theater
106
Soong Mei-Ling Politics
105
Brooke Astor Philanthropy
104
Rose Kennedy Politics
104
Elizabeth "Bessie" Delany Literature
104
Phyllis A. Whitney Literature
103
Señor Wences Entertainment
103
Ted "Double Duty" Radcliffe Sports
103
Ruby Muhammad Religion
102
Hans-Georg Gadamer Philosophy
102
Robert Earl Jones Entertainment
102
Charles Lane Entertainment
102
Albert Hofmann Science
102
Oscar Niemeyer Architecture
101
Grandma Moses Art
101
Thomas Sopwith Inventing
101
Irving Berlin Music
101
Kathleen Hale Literature
101
Jimmie Davis Music,Politics
101
Elizabeth the Queen Mother Politics
101
Hartley Shawcross Law,Politics
101
Leni Riefenstahl Entertainment,Politics
101
George Kennan Politics
101
George Beverly Shea Music
100
Alf Landon Politics
100
Hal Roach Entertainment
100
James Van Fleet Military
100
George Burns Entertainment
100
W. Clement Stone Business,Philanthropy
100
Strom Thurmond Politics
100
Bob Hope Entertainment
100
Ernst Mayr Science
100
Stanley Kunitz Literature
100
Bruce Bennett Entertainment
100
Claude Lévi-Strauss Science
100
Miep Gies Other
100
Dolores Hope Music
100
Exhibition Review - Tyra Tingleff: 'Grinding your teeth to keep out the wind' The Sunday Painter, London till 14th May 2016.
Behind Tyra's tendrils of pauses, silent ellipses.- Drenched Co.
Comment: "I first came across Tyra's paintings at the 2013 RCA graduation show and now as before, Tyra continues to make rare, truly abstract paintings that surprise you with her grounding and dissolving play with paint. She pushes her language beyond itself, constantly giving out possibilities into a void and stroke over stroke, layer over layer a world is disclosed to our consciousness. Such is her play with language... and to our amazement, she keeps doing it, again and again. I love all of Tyra's paintings but I am especially fond of 'When I wear a swimsuit I just don’t swim'" - Raj
See www.thesundaypainter.co.uk/exhibition/grinding-your-teeth...
See also www.soaked.space/2016/05/exhibition-review-tyra-tingleff....
See also www.woundsthatbind.com/2016/05/exhibition-review-tyra-tin...
Caption: Image above: Installation view Tyra Tingleff© The Sunday Painter, London 2016
Image courtesy of the artist and The Sunday Painter, London.
We take great care not to harm the image in any way. And these views, they are ours only and not those of the gallery or artist.
#cutsoverart #drenchedco #soakedspace #TyraTingleff #TheSundayPainter #TheSundayPaintergallery #Grindingyourteethtokeepoutthewind #londonart #artlondon #artinlondon #artberlin #berlinart #artinberlin #artnewyork #newyorkart #artinnewyork #artreview #painting #Gadamer #verbuminterius #RCA2013 #abstractpainting #languageofpainting
From the top:
Leszek Kolakowski, Metaphysical Horror
Slavoj Žižek, First as Tragedy, Then as Farce
Jane Tibbets Schulenburg, Forgetful of Their Sex: Female Sanctity and Society, ca. 500-1100
Catherine H, Zuckert, Postmodern Platos: Nietzsche, Heidegger, Gadamer, Strauss, Derrida
Jean Starobinski, Largesse
Bruce Holsinger, The Premodern Condition: Medievalism and the Making of Theory
William Harmless, Mystics
Plato
Recently, the Glyptothek in Munich acquired a particularly fine Roman copy of a portrait of Plato. Among those who tried to penetrate the stern countenance was the philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer, who detected "Attic wit ..., something of extreme skepticism, abstracted and distant, almost mocking," especially in the mouth and eyes .... Archaeologists have also attempted, with a similarly direct approach, to find in Plato's face a reflection of his character, fortunes, or intellect. So, for example, Wolfgang Helbig saw an "ill-tempered, even malevolent quality," while Ernst Pfuhl found an "inner tension joined with the painful resignation that comes of bitter disappointment." Helga von Heintze discovered how "the innermost thoughts and experiences reveal themselves in the earnest, knowing and concentrated gaze and firmly closed mouth" ... But even archaeologists had to work their way gradually into the Plato portrait before they could arrive at such profound interpretations. "The head occasioned mainly great disappointment when it first became known, for it did not correspond at all to the way people imagined Plato .... They sought in vain a characterization of the 'divine Plato'."
- Paul Zanker, "The Mask of Socrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity"
www.librosyeditores.com/tiendalemoine/3532-la-educacion-e...
Hans- Georg Gadamer nació el 11 de febrero de 1900 en Marburg y pasó su juventud en Breslau. Se doctoró con Paul Naterp en 1992 con una tesis sobre
<>y fue nombrado profesor extraordinario en 1937. En 1949 sucedió a Jasper en la cátedra de Heidelberg en la que enseño hasta después de adquirir la condición de profesor emérito
Editores y distribuidores
ChatGPT - quadralectics architecture
24 August 2023
Quadralectics is a concept in architectural theory and design developed by Dutch architect Marten Kuilman. It's a theory that seeks to explore and understand the complex relationships between architecture, philosophy, culture, and human experience. Quadralectics is essentially a fourfold approach to architecture and the built environment.
The four aspects or dimensions of Quadralectics are:
The Physical Dimension: This aspect deals with the tangible and material aspects of architecture. It involves the design and construction of physical structures, including considerations of form, function, materials, and technology.
The Economic Dimension: Here, Quadralectics looks at the economic factors that influence architecture. This includes budget constraints, cost-effectiveness, and the financial aspects of planning and building structures.
The Social Dimension: This dimension focuses on the social aspects of architecture, considering how buildings and spaces impact human behavior, interaction, and well-being. It explores questions related to human needs, culture, and community.
The Cultural Dimension: This aspect delves into the cultural and symbolic meanings associated with architecture. It considers how architecture reflects and shapes cultural values, identity, and history.
The Quadralectics framework encourages architects and designers to approach their work holistically, taking into account these four dimensions and their interrelationships. It emphasizes the idea that architecture is not just about creating functional buildings but also about creating spaces that resonate with the cultural, social, and economic context in which they exist.
Marten Kuilman's Quadralectics has been influential in expanding the way architects and theorists think about and analyze architecture. It encourages a more comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach to design and planning.
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This evening the Architect Adrian Snodgrass came along on ChatGPT as an initiator of quadralectic architecture.
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Adrian Snodgrass is an Australian architect and scholar in Buddhist studies and Buddhist art. He has developed theories in the area of hermeneutical philosophy and its application to knowledge production and cross-cultural understanding. Snodgrass is co-editor of the journal Architectural Theory Review and Editor of Architectural Theory.
He is an Honorary Life Member of The Asian Arts Society of Australia (TAASA); President of the Australasian Association for Buddhist Studies (AABS); Research Associate in the Faculty of Architecture, Design and Planning in The University of Sydney; Senior Research Fellow in the School of Languages and Cultures at the same university; and Adjunct Professor in the Centre for Cultural Research at the University of Western Sydney. His son, also called Adrian Snodgrass, is a social justice lawyer who started the Melbourne law firm ASA Law in 2015.
Works
Snodgrass is noted for several books on Asian art and symbolism, and for work developing the theme of hermeneutics in relation to architectural design. His scholarship draws substantially on the work of Martin Heidegger, Hans-Georg Gadamer and numerous Japanese and Indian scholars to demonstrate that for us one of the chief values of historical study, and the study of cultures other than our own, resides in our encounter with their "otherness":
Asian Studies should aim not only to provide a knowledge of language, factual information and skills in critical analysis, but also to foster in a learning and research community the dialectics of interpretation, in which what is alien in the text of the other becomes the starting point for a process of questioning the horizons of our own prejudicial world in the hope of expanding and transforming them.
Buenos Días:
Estamos muy contentos de que nos estén acompañando hoy…
Por que el que no se involucra, el que no juega, no alcanza a vivir la experiencia total de la obra de arte. Es que en realidad, no se trata de una cuestión de aprobación o rechazo sino de ser co-creadores, verdaderos protagonistas; ya que la fiesta es comunidad, es la presentación misma de la comunidad en su forma más completa.
Lo simbólico aquí, no es simplemente remitir a su significado, sino que la canción y el momento compartido, la obra de arte configurada desde el sistema de códigos que parten de lo folklórico, lo popular, lo cotidiano pone frente a nosotros el concepto de identidad.
¡Ahora los invito a tomar una copa!
Muchas Gracias