+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

In September 1939, the US Army was ill-prepared as far as armored vehicles, training and tactics went. Soon, it became clear that a new model, which could be favorably compared to the European models, had to be studied for mass production. The very early M1 Combat Car was nothing more than a very small tank with two machine guns. Its main purpose was scouting and as such ordered for “cavalry” units. This was in 1937, and became the forerunner of all light tanks to come.

In 1935, a new model, the M2 Light Tank, was designed. At first, it was an immediate upgrade of the M1, but with the heavier .50 (12.7 mm) caliber machine gun, immediately followed by the M2A2 with twin turrets equipped with .30 (7.62 mm) caliber M1919 machine guns. The “Mae West” gave way in 1938 to a small series of M2A3 37 mm (1.45 in) single turret tanks, and then to the final M2A4 in 1940, with improved armor, motorization and equipment. These fought at Guadalcanal with the US Marine Corps, and with the British Army through Lend-Lease, performing well in Burma and India against the Japanese, despite being obsolete.

 

The following M3 was built under the light of recent events in France. The quick fall of France, due to inadequate tactics, quickly led the US Army Corps to think about a new doctrine, which led to an independent US armored force. From the material point of view, the latest M2A4 and the M3 were both designed to be more effective than only infantry support units, their main duty was scouting and screening.

The M3 was, at first, a simple upgrade of the last M2, with a more powerful Continental petrol engine, a new vertical volute spring suspension system and up to four machine guns in addition to a main, quick-firing M5 (and later M6) 37 mm (1.45 in) anti-tank gun, with a new gun recoil system.

 

Most of the initial M3 tanks were provided to the British and Commonwealth forces through Lend-Lease. Some were immediately thrown into action in Northern Africa, where they immediately became popular for their speed, sturdiness and reliability. Although the official British designation was “Stuart”, paying homage to Civil War Confederate general J.E.B. Stuart, they found themselves affectuously dubbed “Honey”, because of their smooth ride.

Beyond British and Commonwealth forces, the US Forces used many M3s in their first major operation in the west, the North African invasion in November 1942 (Operation Torch). They had some success against Italian tanks, but were butchered by German 88 mm (3.46 in) artillery and the up-gunned Panzer IIIs and IVs. It was clear that their high profile and the flat squared hull was too vulnerable. However, the M3 was popular, reliable and mobile, and the introduction of a diesel engine in the M3A1 made the small tank even more suitable for reconnaissance missions, so that the British Army asked by late 1941 for a dedicated scout variant that would trade-in the weak cannon armament (and the fourth crewman associated with it) for more mobility and range. This led to the M3A2, better known under the British name “Parsival”, because it was never adopted and operated by the U.S. Army.

 

The Parsival Mk. I used the standard M3 hull, but the lateral sponsons that formerly housed fixed machine guns were outright deleted in order to save weight and to reduce manufacturing effort as well as frontal area. Another major modification concerned the running gear: in order to improve speed and handling at higher speed, the M3’s vertical springs were replaced by a modified Christie running gear, which consisted of the standard drive wheel at the front, four large road wheels and three return rollers per side. The last pair of road wheels was mounted on trailing swing arms for increased ground contact and also acted as idler wheels. The M3A1’s optional 9-cylinder Guiberson T-1020 diesel became the Parsival’s standard engine, and, beyond the internal tanks, two additional external fuel drums could be mounted to the rear hull, extending range from 100 to 150 miles.

 

A new cast turret, similar in shape to the airborne M22 Locust tank, was mounted, which had a much lower profile and offered better ballistic protection than the M3’s original turret with vertical side walls. The reduced height was a trade-off for firepower, though: the turret did not carry a full-fledged cannon anymore, only a medium 0.5” (12.7 mm) machine gun as well as a light, coaxial 0.303” (7.62 mm) machine gun, all operated by the commander. The machine gun in the front bow, handled by the radio operator, was retained, and another light machine gun could optionally be mounted on top of the turret against aircraft. The turret was furthermore equipped with a set of two smoke grenade launchers.

 

Through the different weight saving measures, the Parsival’s weight could be reduced from 12.7 to 10.8 tons, resulting in a slight improvement in overall performance but with a much better handling, esp. when moving off-road.

 

In the summer of 1942, the first Parsival Mk. Is arrived in the North African theatre of operations where they excelled in their dedicated reconnaissance role. Concerning the standard M3, the British usually kept the Stuarts out of direct tank-to-tank combat, using them primarily for reconnaissance, too. In consequence, the turret was removed from some British M3 examples to save weight and improve speed and range, but these were inferior to the Parsival and became known as "Stuart Recce". Some others were converted to armored personnel carriers known as the "Stuart Kangaroo", and some were converted into command vehicles and known as "Stuart Command".

After the Africa campaign, British Stuarts and Parsival took successfully part in the liberation of Italy. About 500 were produced, 160 of them were delivered to the Soviet Union under Lend-Lease, the rest was exclusively operated by the British Army in Europe. Parsivals, M3s, M3A3s, and M5s continued in British service until the end of the war.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Three (commander, driver, radio operator)

Weight: 10.8 tons

Length: 14ft 2in (4.33 m)

Width: 7ft 4in (2.33 m)

Height: 2.49 metres (8 ft 1 1/2 in)

Suspension: Christie system

Ground clearance: 16.5" (419 mm)

Fuel capacity: 54 US gal (200 l)

Armor:

0.52 - 2 in (13 - 51 mm)

 

Performance:

Speed:

- Maximum, road: 40 mph (65 km/h)

- Cross country: 22 mph (36 km/h)

Climbing capability:

- 40% side slope and 60% max grade

- Vertical obstacle of 24 inches (61 cm)

- 72 inches (1,8 m) trench crossing

Fording depth: 36 inches (91 cm)

Operational range: 100 ml (160 km) on road with internal fuel

Power/weight: 23.1 hp/t

 

Engine:

1× Guiberson T-1020 9-cylinder radial diesel engine with a 1,021 cu in (16.73 l) displacement,

delivering 250 hp (190 kW)

 

Transmission:

Hydramatic, 4 speeds forward, 1 reverse

 

Armament:

1× 0.5” (12.7) mm M2 machine gun with 900 rounds

3× 0.303” (7,62 mm) M1919A4 machine guns

(co-axial in the turret, in the front bow and as an AA weapon on top of the turret)

with a total of 6,750 rounds

2× smoke dischargers on the turret’s right side

  

The kit and its assembly:

This M3 conversion was spawned by the idea of a dedicated recce variant of the popular Stuart tank. Originally, I just planned to use the chassis from a Hasegawa 1:72 kit and replace the turret with a smaller option (including lighter armament), I already had organized a resin turret for/from an American T17 “Staghound” WWII recce car. But, as always, you can drive a simple idea easily further, so that I also thought about a different suspension and other modifications that would improve the tank’s agility. This led to a Christie-style running gear and the deletion of the M3’s machine gun sponsons, which were in practice used as storage space after the machine guns had been deleted.

 

The Staghound turret came from a ModelTrans/Silesian Models conversion set, which also includes a nice commander figure as well as two fuel drums. The sponsons were simply cut away and the gaps filled with 0.5 mm styrene sheet – a small modification, and thanks to the M3’s boxy hull design a simple affair. Only some small PSR on the side wall implants as well as on the mudguards (which are segmented) was necessary, and this modification changes the M3’s look considerably!

 

The running gear was scratched and more complicated, in particular because assembly and painting had to go hand in hand. The eight road wheels actually come from a 1:72 T-72 tank from ModelCollect, their width perfectly matched the track’s and they had the same size as the M3’s large idler wheel at the rear. The road wheels’ depth just looks a little disturbing, but not implausible. The trailing idler wheel (using the original suspension arm) defined the stance and the other wheels were mounted on plastic rods to the hull, with simulated suspensions arms (styrene profile) behind them. Since the drive and idler wheels’ position effectively remained unchanged, I was able to use the OOB vinyl tracks, which are really smooth and easy to handle. However, this move necessitated to retain the return wheels – I wanted to omit them, for an even more Christie-esque look, but without them the track would have been too long and slacked through, with a lot of space between the tracks and the mudguards. Nevertheless, the return wheels’ position was slightly changed, in order to reflect the modified road wheels’ position. And the whole affair simply looks different from the original, so I am fine with it.

 

In order to liven the small tank up, I added the fuel drums from the Staghound set to the rear fenders and added some more boxes and folded tarpaulins (made from paper tissue drenched in thinned white glue) on the mudguards, somewhat masking the new side walls from sight. I also mounted the M3’s OOB AA machine gun to the turret.

  

Painting and markings:

I wanted a Northern Africa paint scheme and at first considered the iconic Caunter scheme, but then I thought that, since this livery was also used on the real British Stuarts, I rather wanted something different.

I eventually settled for a simple two-tone scheme, used on British cruiser tanks like the Crusader as well as on M3 Lee medium tanks of American origin. The basic colors I used are Humbrol 168 (Hemp) for the Light Stone tone, and Humbrol 98 (Chocolate) for the dull, dark brown.

 

As common practice, the basic colors were separated with thin, white lines in order to emphasize the contrast between them. Sometimes in practice, an additional black line was added, too, but due to the model’s small size I just painted a white line.

Another common practice of the British army, esp. on cruiser tanks with large wheels, was to paint the front and rear road wheels in a uniform, light color, while the wheels between them became dark – an attempt to mimic a lorry, esp. when a light “Sunshield” canopy was mounted over the hull that resembled a truck’s outline.

 

The model received a light wash with a mix of black, grey and brown, the decals (taken from the OOB sheet) were applied next. Over this came some dry-brushing with light grey and ochre and the kit was sealed with matt acrylic varnish (from the rattle can). Once the tracks were mounted, the lower areas of the tank were finally dusted with a mix of sand and light grey pigments.

  

Even though the Hasegawa M3 was a simple basis to start with, the conversions, esp. the running gear, were quite challenging. But I like the result a lot: the Parsival looks like a slimmed-down race variant of the M3, just what I wanted to achieve, and the British camouflage suits the small tank well, too – the white contrast line adds an exotic touch.

 

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

In September 1939, the US Army was ill-prepared as far as armored vehicles, training and tactics went. Soon, it became clear that a new model, which could be favorably compared to the European models, had to be studied for mass production. The very early M1 Combat Car was nothing more than a very small tank with two machine guns. Its main purpose was scouting and as such ordered for “cavalry” units. This was in 1937, and became the forerunner of all light tanks to come.

In 1935, a new model, the M2 Light Tank, was designed. At first, it was an immediate upgrade of the M1, but with the heavier .50 (12.7 mm) caliber machine gun, immediately followed by the M2A2 with twin turrets equipped with .30 (7.62 mm) caliber M1919 machine guns. The “Mae West” gave way in 1938 to a small series of M2A3 37 mm (1.45 in) single turret tanks, and then to the final M2A4 in 1940, with improved armor, motorization and equipment. These fought at Guadalcanal with the US Marine Corps, and with the British Army through Lend-Lease, performing well in Burma and India against the Japanese, despite being obsolete.

 

The following M3 was built under the light of recent events in France. The quick fall of France, due to inadequate tactics, quickly led the US Army Corps to think about a new doctrine, which led to an independent US armored force. From the material point of view, the latest M2A4 and the M3 were both designed to be more effective than only infantry support units, their main duty was scouting and screening.

The M3 was, at first, a simple upgrade of the last M2, with a more powerful Continental petrol engine, a new vertical volute spring suspension system and up to four machine guns in addition to a main, quick-firing M5 (and later M6) 37 mm (1.45 in) anti-tank gun, with a new gun recoil system.

 

Most of the initial M3 tanks were provided to the British and Commonwealth forces through Lend-Lease. Some were immediately thrown into action in Northern Africa, where they immediately became popular for their speed, sturdiness and reliability. Although the official British designation was “Stuart”, paying homage to Civil War Confederate general J.E.B. Stuart, they found themselves affectuously dubbed “Honey”, because of their smooth ride.

Beyond British and Commonwealth forces, the US Forces used many M3s in their first major operation in the west, the North African invasion in November 1942 (Operation Torch). They had some success against Italian tanks, but were butchered by German 88 mm (3.46 in) artillery and the up-gunned Panzer IIIs and IVs. It was clear that their high profile and the flat squared hull was too vulnerable. However, the M3 was popular, reliable and mobile, and the introduction of a diesel engine in the M3A1 made the small tank even more suitable for reconnaissance missions, so that the British Army asked by late 1941 for a dedicated scout variant that would trade-in the weak cannon armament (and the fourth crewman associated with it) for more mobility and range. This led to the M3A2, better known under the British name “Parsival”, because it was never adopted and operated by the U.S. Army.

 

The Parsival Mk. I used the standard M3 hull, but the lateral sponsons that formerly housed fixed machine guns were outright deleted in order to save weight and to reduce manufacturing effort as well as frontal area. Another major modification concerned the running gear: in order to improve speed and handling at higher speed, the M3’s vertical springs were replaced by a modified Christie running gear, which consisted of the standard drive wheel at the front, four large road wheels and three return rollers per side. The last pair of road wheels was mounted on trailing swing arms for increased ground contact and also acted as idler wheels. The M3A1’s optional 9-cylinder Guiberson T-1020 diesel became the Parsival’s standard engine, and, beyond the internal tanks, two additional external fuel drums could be mounted to the rear hull, extending range from 100 to 150 miles.

 

A new cast turret, similar in shape to the airborne M22 Locust tank, was mounted, which had a much lower profile and offered better ballistic protection than the M3’s original turret with vertical side walls. The reduced height was a trade-off for firepower, though: the turret did not carry a full-fledged cannon anymore, only a medium 0.5” (12.7 mm) machine gun as well as a light, coaxial 0.303” (7.62 mm) machine gun, all operated by the commander. The machine gun in the front bow, handled by the radio operator, was retained, and another light machine gun could optionally be mounted on top of the turret against aircraft. The turret was furthermore equipped with a set of two smoke grenade launchers.

 

Through the different weight saving measures, the Parsival’s weight could be reduced from 12.7 to 10.8 tons, resulting in a slight improvement in overall performance but with a much better handling, esp. when moving off-road.

 

In the summer of 1942, the first Parsival Mk. Is arrived in the North African theatre of operations where they excelled in their dedicated reconnaissance role. Concerning the standard M3, the British usually kept the Stuarts out of direct tank-to-tank combat, using them primarily for reconnaissance, too. In consequence, the turret was removed from some British M3 examples to save weight and improve speed and range, but these were inferior to the Parsival and became known as "Stuart Recce". Some others were converted to armored personnel carriers known as the "Stuart Kangaroo", and some were converted into command vehicles and known as "Stuart Command".

After the Africa campaign, British Stuarts and Parsival took successfully part in the liberation of Italy. About 500 were produced, 160 of them were delivered to the Soviet Union under Lend-Lease, the rest was exclusively operated by the British Army in Europe. Parsivals, M3s, M3A3s, and M5s continued in British service until the end of the war.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Three (commander, driver, radio operator)

Weight: 10.8 tons

Length: 14ft 2in (4.33 m)

Width: 7ft 4in (2.33 m)

Height: 2.49 metres (8 ft 1 1/2 in)

Suspension: Christie system

Ground clearance: 16.5" (419 mm)

Fuel capacity: 54 US gal (200 l)

Armor:

0.52 - 2 in (13 - 51 mm)

 

Performance:

Speed:

- Maximum, road: 40 mph (65 km/h)

- Cross country: 22 mph (36 km/h)

Climbing capability:

- 40% side slope and 60% max grade

- Vertical obstacle of 24 inches (61 cm)

- 72 inches (1,8 m) trench crossing

Fording depth: 36 inches (91 cm)

Operational range: 100 ml (160 km) on road with internal fuel

Power/weight: 23.1 hp/t

 

Engine:

1× Guiberson T-1020 9-cylinder radial diesel engine with a 1,021 cu in (16.73 l) displacement,

delivering 250 hp (190 kW)

 

Transmission:

Hydramatic, 4 speeds forward, 1 reverse

 

Armament:

1× 0.5” (12.7) mm M2 machine gun with 900 rounds

3× 0.303” (7,62 mm) M1919A4 machine guns

(co-axial in the turret, in the front bow and as an AA weapon on top of the turret)

with a total of 6,750 rounds

2× smoke dischargers on the turret’s right side

  

The kit and its assembly:

This M3 conversion was spawned by the idea of a dedicated recce variant of the popular Stuart tank. Originally, I just planned to use the chassis from a Hasegawa 1:72 kit and replace the turret with a smaller option (including lighter armament), I already had organized a resin turret for/from an American T17 “Staghound” WWII recce car. But, as always, you can drive a simple idea easily further, so that I also thought about a different suspension and other modifications that would improve the tank’s agility. This led to a Christie-style running gear and the deletion of the M3’s machine gun sponsons, which were in practice used as storage space after the machine guns had been deleted.

 

The Staghound turret came from a ModelTrans/Silesian Models conversion set, which also includes a nice commander figure as well as two fuel drums. The sponsons were simply cut away and the gaps filled with 0.5 mm styrene sheet – a small modification, and thanks to the M3’s boxy hull design a simple affair. Only some small PSR on the side wall implants as well as on the mudguards (which are segmented) was necessary, and this modification changes the M3’s look considerably!

 

The running gear was scratched and more complicated, in particular because assembly and painting had to go hand in hand. The eight road wheels actually come from a 1:72 T-72 tank from ModelCollect, their width perfectly matched the track’s and they had the same size as the M3’s large idler wheel at the rear. The road wheels’ depth just looks a little disturbing, but not implausible. The trailing idler wheel (using the original suspension arm) defined the stance and the other wheels were mounted on plastic rods to the hull, with simulated suspensions arms (styrene profile) behind them. Since the drive and idler wheels’ position effectively remained unchanged, I was able to use the OOB vinyl tracks, which are really smooth and easy to handle. However, this move necessitated to retain the return wheels – I wanted to omit them, for an even more Christie-esque look, but without them the track would have been too long and slacked through, with a lot of space between the tracks and the mudguards. Nevertheless, the return wheels’ position was slightly changed, in order to reflect the modified road wheels’ position. And the whole affair simply looks different from the original, so I am fine with it.

 

In order to liven the small tank up, I added the fuel drums from the Staghound set to the rear fenders and added some more boxes and folded tarpaulins (made from paper tissue drenched in thinned white glue) on the mudguards, somewhat masking the new side walls from sight. I also mounted the M3’s OOB AA machine gun to the turret.

  

Painting and markings:

I wanted a Northern Africa paint scheme and at first considered the iconic Caunter scheme, but then I thought that, since this livery was also used on the real British Stuarts, I rather wanted something different.

I eventually settled for a simple two-tone scheme, used on British cruiser tanks like the Crusader as well as on M3 Lee medium tanks of American origin. The basic colors I used are Humbrol 168 (Hemp) for the Light Stone tone, and Humbrol 98 (Chocolate) for the dull, dark brown.

 

As common practice, the basic colors were separated with thin, white lines in order to emphasize the contrast between them. Sometimes in practice, an additional black line was added, too, but due to the model’s small size I just painted a white line.

Another common practice of the British army, esp. on cruiser tanks with large wheels, was to paint the front and rear road wheels in a uniform, light color, while the wheels between them became dark – an attempt to mimic a lorry, esp. when a light “Sunshield” canopy was mounted over the hull that resembled a truck’s outline.

 

The model received a light wash with a mix of black, grey and brown, the decals (taken from the OOB sheet) were applied next. Over this came some dry-brushing with light grey and ochre and the kit was sealed with matt acrylic varnish (from the rattle can). Once the tracks were mounted, the lower areas of the tank were finally dusted with a mix of sand and light grey pigments.

  

Even though the Hasegawa M3 was a simple basis to start with, the conversions, esp. the running gear, were quite challenging. But I like the result a lot: the Parsival looks like a slimmed-down race variant of the M3, just what I wanted to achieve, and the British camouflage suits the small tank well, too – the white contrast line adds an exotic touch.

 

Image Ref: Port Lincoln Times 9-11-1934.

 

Port Lincoln Institute was formed in 1867 with inaugural meetings held in the courthouse, and it seems that it was not until 1869 that a small building was erected on the site of the present one by a Mr Henderson. It was an unpretentious square building, the size of a small cottage, fronted by two double windows each side of a door, and consisting at first of two rooms, the western of which was a combined library and members' reading room, and the eastern a public reading room.

 

Six years later the late Mr James Shepperd constructed two rooms behind the original two, comprising a public meeting room — the forerunner of the hall – and a new library room, thus freeing the front room for separate use as a members’ reading room only. At some date not determined, the building was fronted by a verandah.

 

In 1879 an important development occurred in the erection of a separate hall, which flanked the eastern wall of the original building, but it was not until 1898 that a stage was added at the back of the hall, and a supper room across the rear of the old building. [Ref: Port Lincoln Times 9-11-1934]

 

PORT LINCOLN INSTITUTE.

The Lecture Hall of the above Institute being completed, and the original design of the building carried to a successful issue, the opening was advertised to take place on Thursday, March 21st, with a grand musical and dramatic entertainment.

 

The building, ie the Lecture Hall and other rooms, had been erected at an entire cost of over £625, £300 being the amount voted by Parliament over four years ago. The remaining money had been raised in the district, and it was to be noted that they were not a little indebted to the kindness of those ladies, who, from time to time, have assisted at concerts and entertainments, for a very considerable portion of the amount referred to. [Ref: South Australian Chronicle and Weekly Mail 6-4-1872]

 

OPENING OF THE PORT LINCOLN [larger] INSTITUTE

by telegraph - Port Lincoln June 29

Opening of the Institute Hall, took place today. Mr Browne, in his opening address stated that when the present committee took office £260 had been raised by previous committees towards erecting the building. Subscription-lists were issued and resulted in raising £210. The land which already belonged to the Institute was too small, and the Government on being asked gave the committee permission to use a portion of the adjoining reserve.

 

Special credit is due to the contractors, Messrs Garrett and Sons, who made several improvements and additions to the original design without charge as the work progressed. The total cost, including furniture, had been £900. The alterations, when complete, will embrace the subdivision of the old hall into three rooms and the erection of a verandah with seats under it round the old building. The report further stated that the committee had bought a piano at a coat of £90: that 400 new works were nearly to hand. The library consists of nearly 3,000 volumes, 25 per cent, being novels carefully selected: the remainder of the works comprise history, biography, travels, science, and poetry, which were much in demand. A chess club was being formed. The old hall is capable of seating 130 persons, and the new hall 200. The former was never sufficiently large, and it was hoped that the new hall would meet the long-wished want.

The new Institute Lecture Hall is a plain unpretentious structure, built entirely of limestone free dressed. The quoins are cemented, and there is an ornamental keystone in cement dressings with a neat pediment also in cement and a bold cement moulding under. The dimensions inside are 65 feet by 30 feet, with a plain domed ceiling 21 feet high. [Ref: South Australian Register 30-6-1881]

 

Soldiers’ Memorial Hall

On Wednesday the town was en fete, the occasion being the laying of the foundation stone of the memorial hall, for which Mr J G Moseley, MP and Mrs Moseley, and Mr G Ritchie and Mrs Ritchie, arrived by the ‘Wandana’ in the morning, about two hours behind the usual time.

The president of the institute then asked Mr Moseley to accept a silver trowel as a present from the institute committee, and to perform the ceremony of laying the stone, which he did in his usual and characteristic style, after which he delivered a speech. West Coast Sentinel (Streaky Bay) 8-9-1923]

 

The opening of the Port Lincoln memorial hall was conducted on Wednesday, July 30th.

Numerous stalls in the hall were beautifully decorated, and the ladies from every viewpoint were at their best, and the result of the day's business was that the handsome sum of £350 was realised.

 

The president of the Port Lincoln Institute (Dr A R Goode) after referring to the history of the building and the work which has been accomplished by his committee, asked His Worship the Mayor (Mr Arthur Leech) to open the building in behalf of the people of the town. Mr W McMurtie, president of the Returned Soldiers' association, spoke at length in behalf of the soldiers.

[Architect: E H McMichael] [Ref: West Coast Sentinel (Streaky Bay) 9-8-1924]

 

It is proposed to erect on that land a new institute, comprising library with 50 per cent more floor space than the present room, lecture and reading rooms.

Negotiations are in train between the institute committee and the corporation for the sale to the latter of the present Memorial Hall building for £5,500, which amount will eliminate the overdraft and provide a balance sufficient to defray the cost of the new building. [Ref: Port Lincoln Times 9-11-1934]

 

Heavy Loss by Institute Fire

SYMPATHY is extended to the Port Lincoln Institute Committee, returned soldiers and tenants who sustained loss through the disastrous fire at the Soldiers' Memorial Hall on Sunday. Although most of the financial loss is covered by insurance, many possessions were lost or damaged which money cannot replace.

One of the most regrettable features is that the honour roll in the main hall, bearing the names of those who went from Port Lincoln and district to the Great War, was damaged. [Ref: Port Lincoln Times 30-11-1934]

 

The present Port Lincoln Soldiers’ Memorial Town hall [also known as the Civic Hall]

The foundation stone of the Port Lincoln Soldiers' Memorial Town Hall was laid today by the mayor (Mr R F Poole).

The architect Mr P R Claridge) congratulated the council on its enterprise in undertaking the scheme.

Cr Mitton expressed thanks to Mr Claridge, for his donation of the foundation stone, and to Miller's Lime Ltd, for a donation of £50.

[Ref: Port Lincoln Times 9-8-1935]

 

*The Art Deco details of the Port Lincoln Soldiers’ Memorial Hall were designed by Russell Ellis of P R Claridge, Architects.

 

Civic Hall opens – Archway unveiled

His Excellency the Governor (Sir Winston Dugan), accompanied by Lady Dugan and attended by Commander Phillips, were present at a gathering of old folks of Port Lincoln and District in the new civic hall on Wednesday.

Subsequently, His Excellency unveiled Flinders Arch and the accompanying bronze tablets which were erected by the joint efforts of the Flinder's Commemoration Committee, the Institute Committee and the Town Council. The Arch spans a laneway between the Civic Hall and the Institute and joins the buildings.

The Chairman of the Flinders Commemoration Committee said it was fitting that in the Centenary year such a memorial should be erected in memory of a man who had played an important part in the exploration and mapping of the South Australian Coastline.

 

His Excellency said he felt it an honour to unveil the Arch, Captain Flinders was one of the greatest early adventurers and came to Port Lincoln more than 130 years ago. He gave the navigator credit for knowing a good spot when he saw one. The people of Port Lincoln should be proud that Flinders named this charming spot after his beloved birthplace in Lincolnshire.

 

It is fitting that the Civic Hall and the Institute should be joined by the Arch, for they represented the community centre of the town.

 

On the departure of the Vice-Regal party, Mrs L O Derrington, of Port Lincoln, (daughter of Mr J G Moseley, who for many years represented the district in the House of Assembly), unveiled the foundation stone of the Old Soldiers' Memorial Hall, which her father laid in1923.

The stone has been built into the wall of the vestibule in the new hall. [Ref: West Coast Sentinel (Streaky Bay) 29-5-1936]

 

Designer: Lin Zhen (李震), Wang Baishun (王百顺)

1979, July

A forerunner of liberated thought, a warrior in the protection of truth - The martyr Zhang Zhixin, a good daughter of the Party, will live forever

Sixiang jiefang de xianqu hanwei zhenli de zhanshi - Dang de hao nü'er Zhang Zhixin lieshi yongsheng (思想解放的先驱捍卫真理的战士-党的好女儿张志新烈士永生)

Call nr.: PC-1979-l-001 (Private collection)

 

More? See: chineseposters.net

This was for sale on eBay today.

 

Background:

www.nysm.nysed.gov/publications/record/vol_01/pdfs/CH04El...

 

IROQUOIS BEADWORK:

A Haudenosaunee Tradition and Art

Dolores Elliott

The Iroquois tradition of raised beadwork began in west- ern New York in the late eighteenth century. It is slightly older than the other great North American Indian bead- working tradition that the Lakota, Cheyenne, and other people of the Plains developed. Raised beadwork is unique to the Haudenosaunee; it is made nowhere else in the world. The Senecas, who decorated clothes, sashes, and small pincushions with small glass beads in the eigh- teenth century, probably invented the style of Iroquois beadwork that still exists today. They were making bead- ed pincushions by 1799 and purses by 1807. In the mid- nineteenth century, ethnohistorian Lewis H. Morgan noted in his League of the Ho-de’-no-sau-see, or Iroquois the “delicacy, even brilliancy of their bead-work embroidery” on women’s clothing (1851, Book 3:384), and he included illustrations of beadwork on a needle case, woman’s skirt, cradleboard, heart-shaped pincushion, and work bag, the forerunner of a modern purse. He reported that in 1849 he had purchased five varieties of work bags as well as three varieties of pin cushions and five varieties of needle books (Morgan 1850, 57).

 

(Figure 4.1). While they sold their goods at nearby Montreal, the Mohawks also traveled extensively throughout North America to sell at fairs, exhibitions, wild west shows, and Indian medicine shows. Some even sold their beadwork when they traveled to England to perform Indian dances at Earls Court, an exhibition ground in London. Photographs taken in 1905 show these performers attired in clothing decorated with Mohawk beadwork.

 

The Iroquois tradition of beadwork continued to evolve in the nineteenth century, and by 1860 Mohawks near Montreal and Tuscaroras near Niagara Falls were creating elaborate pincushions, purses, and wall hangings adorned with raised beadwork. Despite the similarity of items created, the two geographic areas developed different styles of beadwork (Table 4.1). Throughout the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, at the height of beadwork production, the Tuscaroras sold their beadwork mostly at Niagara Falls, on their reservation, and at the New York State Fair. They preferred to use small clear and white beads. During this same period, the Mohawks used larger clear beads and also employed red, blue, green, and yellow beads on most of their early pieces

Figure 4.1. Two needle cases that illustrate differences in nineteenth- century Mohawk (left) and Niagara (right) beadwork.

 

My personal family experience illustrates typical Iroquois beadwork transactions in the twentieth century. My story starts in 1903 when my grandmother went to the Afton Fair, a small agricultural fair in central New York. She took my nine-year-old father, but his sister, then eleven, was sick and could not go. My grandmother brought her home a present from the fair. It was a beauti- ful pink satin-covered bird-shaped pincushion that sparkled with light green beads (Figure 4.2). My aunt treasured this bird throughout her long life and displayed it proudly in her china cabinet, where I saw it when I was a child. At her death this cherished heirloom was passed on to her daughter who later donated it to the Afton Historical Society in Chenango County, where it is presently on view.

 

My research indicates that this bird was made by a skilled Mohawk beadworker from a Mohawk community located near Montreal and several hundred miles from the Afton Fair. This pincushion probably got to the fair with a group of Mohawks who traveled by train or wagon to perform at fairs, medicine shows, and exhibi- tions. While at these venues, they also sold their hand- made baskets and beadwork.

 

In 1958 I bought a small red heart-shaped pincushion at a booth in the Indian Village at the New York State Fair, which is held near Syracuse (Figure 4.3). It was a present for my mother, who displayed it prominently on her bed- room dresser for the next twenty-five years until I inher- ited it. Mary Lou Printup, a leading Tuscarora sewer, later identified this pincushion as one she had made. She, like most Tuscarora beadworkers prefer to be called “sewers,” a term not popular with some other Iroquois beadwork- ers. In my research and writing, I use the word “bead- worker” to refer to all except those individuals who specifically prefer to be called “sewers.”

 

When I purchased the red heart I had no idea that this pincushion had anything in common with the bird that my grandmother acquired fifty-five years earlier. I knew that I wanted to get something special for my mother, and this pincushion was special because it was beautiful and made by a native artist. In buying it I shared something with my grandmother, who died before I was born, that is, the purchase of a piece of Iroquois beadwork. Most likely the purchase of the bird was my German-born grandmother’s only interaction with a Haudenosaunee woman, and my purchase at the State Fair was my first interaction with a Tuscarora sewer, the first of many.

 

In a similar manner Iroquois beadworkers and their non- Indian customers, often tourists or attendees at a public entertainment venue, have been brought together by bead-work for over two centuries. These transactions undoubtedly number in the tens of thousands.1 During honeymoon trips to Niagara Falls and visits to agricultural fairs, exhibitions, and other attractions, people purchased Iroquois beadwork as mementos to remember these places and experiences. The beads often form designs featuring birds and flowers, natural themes that appealed to the Victorian women who drove the market of souvenir sales in the nine- teenth century. Studies by Beverly Gordon (1984; 1986) and Ruth B. Phillips (1998) describe the souvenir trade and point out the importance of these items to the people on both sides of the transactions.

 

Souvenir beadwork was so treasured that the pieces were frequently kept in cedar chests or keepsake boxes. Therefore, when unwrapped one hundred or more years later, they are often in pristine condition. Ironically, few contemporary beadworkers have samples of their ancestors’ work because it was usually made for sale to strangers, although some beadwork was created as gifts for family and friends.

 

Because most pieces were made for sale to tourists, many people have dismissed Iroquois beadwork as “souvenir trinkets” not important enough to collect, study, or exhibit. In fact, they are often called whimsies, a term that I believe trivializes them and diminishes their artistic and cultural value. But within the last two decades Iroquois beadwork has become the subject of serious study and museum exhibitions. At least four traveling exhibits of Iroquois beadwork have been installed in over a dozen museums and seen by thousands of museum visitors in the United States and Canada since 1999.2 This scholarly recognition has resulted in an increased appreciation of these beadwork creations and the artists who made them. What were considered curious tourist souvenirs when they were made are now generating increased respect from both the general public and the Haudenosaunee.

ry pieces, the back is a colorful calico. Some pieces, mainly in the Niagara Tradition, have a silk or cotton binding around their perimeters to cover the cut edges and attach the front and back fabrics. Tight beadwork on the edging often binds Mohawk pieces together so a cloth binding is not necessary. Flat purses as well as fist and box purses are constructed in the same manner, with cardboard as the base.

 

Contemporary beadworkers see their work as a signif- icant part of Haudenosaunee culture and an important link to the past. In Haudenosaunee communities bead- workers are admired as continuing a revered tradition. Although there are a few male beadworkers, the majority are women, and in a matrilineal-society with powerful clan matrons, the economic benefit of beadwork sales increases the influence of the women even more.

 

Pincushions were usually stuffed with sawdust, but sweet grass, cotton, cattail fluff, newspapers, and poly- ester have also been used. Contemporary craftsmen remember that their mothers preferred pine sawdust because of the nice aroma.4 Small strawberry-shaped pin- cushions are traditionally filled with emery, used to sharpen and polish needles. Velvet and twill-covered pic- ture frames and other wall hangings on cardboard bases have polished cotton backs on earlier pieces and calico on more recent ones. European glass beads were often aug- mented with metal sequins on nineteenth-century pieces and with plastic sequins and other plastic novelty beads since the late twentieth century. Bone and shell beads and leather, which are often used in other American Indian beadwork, rarely occur in Iroquois beadwork.

 

Iroquois beadwork is still sold at Niagara Falls, the New York State Fair, and several pow wows and festivals in the northeast; the methods of beadwork distribution have changed little over two hundred years. The bead-work itself, however, has changed tremendously. Over the last two centuries the styles of beadwork have evolved from simple small pincushions and purses to highly elaborate shapes, becoming works of art in the tra- ditional sense. The beads selected have progressed from the very small seed beads used around 1800 to the larger seed beads of 1900 and finally, by 2000, to a wider variety of bead sizes and colours.

 

The most common form of Iroquois beadwork, and the form most easily recognizable by people who are not familiar with Iroquois beadwork, is the flat black purse or bag featuring identical colorful, beaded floral designs on both sides. Most flat bags have flaps on both sides, but the opening is across the top where the two sides meet. The face fabric is usually black or very dark brown velvet, and the interior is often a light-colored linen or polished cot- ton. A binding, usually red, is attached around the closed sides of the purses. A beaded fringe is sometimes added. The fringe is merely sewn to the binding and does not hold the two sides of the bag together; it is purely deco- rative. The flaps usually are edged with white beads that are larger than the beads that outline the flaps and body (Figure 4.4). The flaps and body are sometimes outlined with short parallel lines like a stockade. The faces of the flap and body are covered by stylized flowers in shades of blue, red, yellow, and white connected with green stems, which are sometimes striped in two shades of green. Some bags feature a small slit pocket under one of the flaps. It may have been meant to hold a comb or mirror.

Iroquois beadwork remains a unique art form distin- guished by several characteristics found only in work created by Haudenosaunee beadworkers. Iroquois beadwork features a design in glass beads that have been sewn on a fabric that is stretched over a backing of cardboard or cloth lining. The materials used in the beadwork are predominately small seed beads, cloth, cardboard, paper, and in pincushions, a stuffing. The beads are sewn onto the fabric in geometric or natural designs using waxed, doubled white thread.3 The beads are usually sewn over a paper pattern that remains in place under the beaded elements. Although not practiced at all times in the histo- ry of Iroquois beadwork, the most distinctive trait is that the beads are raised above the surface of the cloth face. Some pieces have raised beaded elements that are over an inch high. The beads are raised by putting more beads on the thread than is needed to span the pattern so that the beads form an arch above the pattern. The amount of extra beads determines how high the arches are, that is, how much the beadwork is raised. Various velvets were and still are the favored fabrics, but other fabrics such as wool, twills, silk, and satin are also used. Pincushions often have beaded velvet fronts and polished cotton backs. Polished cotton is a shiny stiff material that is also referred to as chintz or oilcloth. On the majority of late twentieth-century and contemporary twenty-first-century...

 

Preserving Tradition and Understanding the Past: Papers from the Conference on Iroquois Research, 2001–2005, Edited by Christine Sternberg Patrick, New York State Museum Record 1 © 2010, by The University of the State of New York, The State Education Department, Albany, New York 12230. All rights reserved.

History of the Russian Settlement at Fort Ross, California

 

For the small group of California natives, that cool, overcast day in March 1812 was a forerunner of massive change. They stood there in astonishment as a large sailing ship came to anchor in the little cove beneath their quiet bluff top settlement. For the next few days, they continued to watch as some twenty-five Russians and eighty Alaskans came ashore, set up a temporary camp, and began building houses and a sturdy wooden stockade - the colony and fortification of Ross.

 

The Kashaya people assembled to watch the spectacle had no way of knowing that their hunting and gathering lifestyle would be changed forever. These Russians had come to hunt sea otter, to grow wheat and other crops for the Russian settlements in Alaska, and to trade with Spanish California.

 

In addition, though they were careful not to say so, they came with an eye toward continuing the saga of Russian eastward expansion, a process that had begun some 250 years earlier, in the time of Ivan the Terrible, Russia's first Tsar.

 

The presence of Russian fur hunters in the North Pacific induced Spain to occupy Alta California in 1769. For forty years thereafter, development of the province continued on a gradual basis. By 1812, though, San Francisco Bay still marked the northern limit of Spanish settlement.

 

That summer, while the establishment was being built, Spain, France, Russia, and the other great colonial powers of the day were preoccupied with a major war. Napoleon's army was deep inside Russia, driving toward Moscow. Great Britain was at war with its upstart ex-colony, the small but restless United States of America. Nobody was ready to block the Russian move. In fact, it was several months before the civil and military leaders of Alta California were even aware of the development at Ross, and by then it was too late. The fort was complete, and though it was made of wood, it was well armed and vigilantly manned.

 

Russian Movement into the Americas

 

The first steps toward Russian colonization of California were taken in 1578, when an outlaw band of Cossacks crossed the Ural Mountains and conquered the Tartars of central Russia. After that the lure of furs, riches, and glory continued to propel these early fur hunters and free spirits rapidly eastward. By 1706, they had swept across the whole of Siberia, and occupied the Kamchatka Peninsula, northeast of Japan. The stage was set for further expansion to the east, across the Bering Strait.

 

Starting in 1742, Russian fur hunters, or "promysloviki," as they were called, began to leave the mainland to seek furs on and near the many islands to the east. Emel'ian Basov holds the distinction of being the first to leave the Asian mainland to gather furs. He and his crew spent the winter of 1742-43 on Bering Island. Another Russian, Mikhail Nevodchikov, reached Attu (the westernmost Aleutian island) on September 25, 1745, becoming the first of the flood of fur hunters to reach territory that was later to become part of the United States.

 

The first permanent settlement on Kodiak Island in what is now Alaska was built by Gregor Shelikov in 1784. The organization he put together and led became the Russian-American Company in 1799. That same year, Tsar Paul granted the company a charter that gave it a complete monopoly over all Russian enterprises in North America. In 1806, the company was even granted its own flag, a replica of which is on display in the visitor center at Fort Ross. Following elimination of competition from other fur traders, events moved rapidly in Russian America. Sitka, which the Russians called New Archangel, was founded in 1799 and became the capital of the region in 1804. Large profits began to flow to company shareholders, who included members of the royal family. The operation expanded still further in 1804, when American ship captains began to contract with the Russians for joint ventures, seeking sea otter pelts along the coast of Alta and Baja California.

 

The man behind this surge of activity in Russian America was Alexander Baranov, an employee of the Russian-American Company since its founding, and a resident of North America since 1791. It was he who developed the system in which native Alaskan hunters traveled south aboard American ships to hunt sea otters along the coast of California. Under Baranov's leadership, schools were established in the Sitka territory, more equitable treatment was given to the natives, and creature comforts began to replace the harsh realities of frontier life in Russian America.

 

Early Contact Between the Russians and the Spanish

 

The first significant contact between the Russians and the Spanish came in April 1806. Nikolai Resanov had arrived in Sitka the previous year as an "imperial inspector and plenipotentiary of the Russian-American Company." He found the colony on the verge of starvation, and decided to sail southward to Spanish California in hopes of obtaining relief supplies for the beleaguered Alaskan colony. On April 5, he and his scurvy stricken crew passed through the Golden Gate. Rezanov knew that foreign ships were not allowed to trade in California, but he sailed his ship, the Juno, boldly past the Spanish guns at the harbor mouth. For the next six weeks, the Juno lay at anchor in San Francisco Bay while a battle of wits went on between the Russians and the Spanish. The impasse was broken when Rezanov proposed to marry Concepcion Arguello, the teen-age daughter of the Spanish commander at San Francisco. The Juno was soon being loaded with grain for the starving settlement to the north, and on May 21 passed again through the Golden Gate.

 

Plans for a Russian Settlement on the California Coast

 

Rezanov brought back two ideas from his venture into Spanish California - the desire to establish permanent trade relations, and the wish to found a trading base on what the Russians referred to as the "New Albion" coast north of Spanish territory. Rezanov convinced Baranov of the value of his ideas, and Baranov sent Ivan Kuskov, a company employee of long standing, on a voyage to locate a site suitable for the planned settlement. Moving southward on the ship Kodiak, Kuskov arrived at Bodega Bay on January 8, 1804, remaining there until late August. He and his party of 40 Russians and 150 Alaskan natives explored the entire region, and brought back more than 2,000 sea otter pelts.

 

By November 1811, Kuskov was ready to head south again this time to build a colony on the New Albion shore. After arriving at Bodega Bay in early 1812 aboard the Chirikov, he decided that the most suitable location for the colony was the site of a Kashaya Indian village, 18 miles to the north.

The spot was called Meteni by the local Indians. According to one account, the entire area was acquired from the natives for "three blankets, three pairs of breeches, two axes, three hoes, and some beads."

 

The land offered a harbor of sorts, plentiful water, good forage, and a nearby supply of wood for the necessary construction. It was also relatively distant from the Spanish, who were to be unwilling neighbors for the next 29 years. The fort was completed in a few weeks, and was formally dedicated on August 13,1812. The name "Ross" is generally considered to be a shortened version of "Rossiya," the Russia of Tsarist days.

     

Watercolor of Fort Ross by Il'ia Voznesenky, 1841

Life at the Ross Colony

 

The structures were built of redwood using joinery techniques that were typical of maritime carpentry in those days. A wooden palisade surrounded the site, in much the same configuration as seen today. It included two blockhouses, one on the north corner and one to the south, complete with cannons that could command the entire area. The Russian-American Company flag, with its double-headed eagle, flew over the stockade.

 

The interior of the stockade contained the two story house of the manager, the officials' quarters, barracks for the Russian employees, and various storehouses as well as lesser structures The chapel was added in 1824. A well in the center provided the colonists with water. Outside the walls were the homes of company laborers, a native Alaskan village, and the dwellings of the local native Americans, whom we refer to today as the Kashaya Pomo.

 

In the early years, life at the colony under Kuskov revolved around the hunting of sea otter whose pelts were extraordinarily valuable in the China trade. Most of the hunting was done by Kodiak islanders in the service of the company. They would go out in their bidarkas (hunting kayaks), and use the atlatl (a throwing board for darts). These hunters and their families had their own village just west of the stockade, on the bluff above the ocean The Alaskans and their Russian overseers ranged the coast from Baja California to Oregon, in search of marine mammals. Only a small number of Russians actually lived at Ross, and very few Russian women (usually wives of officials) lived there. However, inter-marriage between Russians and the natives of Alaska and California was commonplace. Natives and people of mixed ancestry as well as lower-ranking company men lived in a village complex of some 60 to 70 buildings that gradually grew up outside the stockade walls.

 

By 1820, extensive sea otter hunting had depleted the otter population to such a degree that agriculture and stock raising became the main occupation of the colony. The company's Alaskan outposts still needed supplies, but try as the might, the Russian colony in Northern California never fulfilled their agricultural goals. Coastal fog, gophers, mice and lack of genuine interest on the part of men who thought of themselves primarily as hunters all combined to thwart the agricultural effort. Ranches and farms were established at inland sites - at Willow Creek on the "Slavyanka" (now known as the Russian River), and near the towns of Bodega and Graton - but still, the colonists could not produce enough to make a profit.

 

The Russians Leave

 

In 1839, the Russian-American Company signed an agreement with the Hudson Bay Company to supply Sitka with provisions from its settlements in present-day Washington and Oregon. Soon afterward, the Russian-American Company decided to abandon the Ross Colony. First, they tried to sell it to the Mexican government. When that failed, they approached Mariano Vallejo and others. In December 1841, they reached an agreement with John Sutter of Sutter's Fort in the Sacramento Valley. Within a few months, the Russians were gone. Sutter sent his trusted assistant, John Bidwell, to Fort Ross to gather up the arms, ammunition, hardware, and other valuables, including herds of cattle, sheep, and other animals, and transport them to Sutter's Fort in the Sacramento Valley. Thereafter, the buildings at Fort Ross that were not dismantled and removed by Sutter were used for a variety of purposes by successive owners. In 1873, the area was acquired by George W. Call, who established the 15,000 acre Call Ranch.

 

The Call family continued to hold the property until 1903, when the fort and about three acres of land were purchased by the California Historical Landmarks Committee. In March 1906, the site was turned over to the State of California for preservation and restoration as a state historic monument. Since then, more acreage has been acquired (a total of 3,277 acres as of 1992) to preserve the site of the old Russian establishment and some of its surrounding environment. Extensive restoration and reconstruction work has been carried out by the California Department of Parks and Recreation, so that today you can again see Fort Ross somewhat as it looked when the Russians were here.

  

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the model, the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

Shortly after the end of World War II, the South Korean Air Construction Association was founded on August 10, 1946, to publicize the importance of air power. Despite the then-scanty status of Korean armed forces, the first air unit was formed on May 5, 1948, under the direction of Dong Wi-bu, the forerunner to the modern South Korean Ministry of National Defense. On September 13, 1949, the United States contributed 10 L-4 Grasshopper observation aircraft to the South Korean air unit. An Army Air Academy was founded in January 1949, and the ROKAF was officially founded in October 1949.

 

The 1950s were a critical time for the ROKAF as it expanded tremendously during the Korean War. At the outbreak of the war, the ROKAF consisted of 1,800 personnel but was equipped with only 20 trainers and liaison aircraft, including 10 North American T-6 Texan advanced trainers purchased from Canada. The North Korean air force had acquired a considerable number of Yak-9 and La-7 fighters from the Soviet Union, dwarfing the ROKAF in terms of size and strength. However, in the course of the war the ROKAF acquired 110 aircraft from the USA which equipped three fighter squadrons and one fighter wing. The first combat aircraft received were North American F-51D Mustangs, along with a contingent of US Air Force instructor pilots, as part of Bout One Project.

 

From the start of the Korean War, the Mustang proved useful. A "substantial number" of stored or in-service F-51Ds were shipped, via aircraft carriers, to the combat zone, and were used by the USAF, the South African Air Force, and the ROKAF. The F-51 was used for ground attack, fitted with rockets and bombs, and photo reconnaissance, rather than as interceptors or "pure" fighters. However, the losses of the rather fragile Mustang due to AA fire and even through small caliber weapons were high – especially the ventral radiator for the liquid-cooled engine turned out to be highly vulnerable.

After the first North Korean invasion, USAF units were forced to fly from bases in Japan and the F-51Ds, with their long range and endurance, could attack targets in Korea that short-ranged F-80 jets could not. Due to its lighter structure and a shortage of spare parts, the newer, faster F-51H was not used in Korea, and the F-47 Thunderbolt, which would have been better suited for most typical missions over the Korean peninsula, was not available in sufficient numbers to employ them overseas.

 

Nevertheless, the ROKAF participated with its F-51s in bombing operations and flew independent sorties. The only other suitable piston engine aircraft at hand and available in sufficient numbers was the Vought F4U Corsair. As ROKAF F-51 losses rose, a handful of F4U-4s were transferred in 1952 to fill these operational gaps. These were revamped USN and USMC aircraft from local field workshops that had been damaged and grounded through enemy fire or accidents, replaced in American service with new machines from overseas.

The F4U-4 was the last Corsair variant that had been introduced during WWII, but it only saw action during the final weeks of the conflict. At the outbreak of the Korean War, it was the USN and USMC’s most common carrier-borne aircraft. It had a 2,100 hp (1,600 kW) dual-stage-supercharged -18W engine, and when the cylinders were injected with the water/alcohol mixture, power was boosted to 2,450 hp (1,830 kW). The aircraft required an air scoop under the nose and the unarmored wing fuel tanks of 62 US gal (230 L) capacities were removed for better maneuverability at the expense of maximum range. The partly fabric-covered outer wings from the former Corsair versions were retained. To better cope with the additional power, the propeller was changed to a four-blade type. Maximum speed was increased to 448 miles per hour (721 km/h) and climb rate to over 4,500 feet per minute (1,400 m/min) as opposed to the 2,900 feet per minute (880 m/min) of the F4U-1A. Other detail improvements were introduced with the F4U-4, too: The windscreen was now flat bullet-resistant glass to avoid optical distortion, a change from the curved Plexiglas windscreens with the internal plate glass of the earlier Corsairs. The cockpit hood was furthermore without bracing and slightly bulged, similar to the P-51B/Cs’ Malcolm hood, to give the pilot a better field of view, esp. backwards.

 

The "4-Hog" retained the original armament of six 0.5” machine guns and had all the external load (i.e., drop tanks, bombs) capabilities of the F4U-1D. A major sub-type, the F4U-4B, was the same but featured an alternate gun armament of four 20 millimeters (0.79 in) AN/M3 cannon, 300 were built. The F4U-4P was a rare photo reconnaissance variant (only eleven were built) with an additional camera compartment in the rear fuselage, but fully combat-capable. The F4U-4 was the oldest active Corsair variant during the Korean War, and new post-WWII variants like the AU-1 for the USMC, optimized for ground attacks and low-level operations, or the F4U-5 and its F4U-5N night fighter sub-variant with onboard radar, were exclusively used by American forces.

 

The ROKAF Corsairs were constantly and heavily used. They operated primarily as fighter bombers because of the type’s ability to absorb a lot of damage and to carry up to 4,000 lb of ordnance on centerline and underwing pylon racks. The machines, all standard F4U-4s with six machine guns to maintain ammunition commonality with the F-51Ds, were allocated to ROKAF 1 Squadron. They equipped a dedicated attack wing within the unit and were flown by both South Korean and American pilots. To differentiate them from American machines, the first Korean F4U-4s were stripped off of their characteristic allover dark blue paint, received large ROKAF roundels on fuselage and wings and colorful ID-markings. These included a yellow band around the fuselage, a large “K” on the fin, and a red ring around the cowling as a unit identifier. Some machines featured additional individual highlights, like colored fin tips and tail sections, some had the canopy frame painted in individual colors, too, or had taglines (in Hangul writing) added on the flanks.

Major maintenance and repairs were, however, still carried out by American personnel at USMC workshops, so that transfer flights were common practice and limited the number of operational machines to only about half a dozen at a time. As battle damage and losses were frequent, repairs with cannibalized parts from American aircraft and full replacements with revamped or operational American F4U-4s were common – resulting in a large variety of liveries within the unit, as some machine retained the American all-blue paint scheme or received blue replacement parts to speed up repairs.

Due to this practice the exact number of ROKAF Corsairs until the end of hostilities in mid-1953 remains uncertain. However, less than 25 documented complete airframes were supplied in total, and no more than 15 machines were active at any time.

 

Together with Mustangs, the Corsairs continued flying with USAF, USN, USMC and other ROKAF fighter-bomber units on close support and interdiction missions in Korea until July 1953, when the fighting ended and the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed. By then, most piston engine fighter bombers had been largely replaced by USAF F-84s and by United States Navy (USN) Grumman F9F Panthers. After the war, the ROKAF quickly switched to F-86 Sabre fighters and all ROKAF F4Us were scrapped by late 1953 as they were regarded as outdated and disposable.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: One

Length: 33 ft 8 in (10.26 m)

Wingspan: 41 ft 0 in (12.50 m)

Height: 14 ft 9 in (4.50 m)

Wing area: 314 sq ft (29.17 m²)

Empty weight: 9,205 lb (4,238 kg)

Gross weight: 14,670 lb (6,654 kg)

Max takeoff weight: 14,533 lb (6,592 kg)

 

Powerplant:

1× Pratt & Whitney R-2800-18W radial engine with 2,100 hp (1,600 kW),

temporary 2,450 hp (1,830 kW) output when boosted with water/alcohol injection,

driving a 4-bladed propeller

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 446 mph (717 km/h, 385 kn) at sea level

Cruise speed: 215 mph (346 km/h, 187 kn) at sea level

Stall speed: 89 mph (143 km/h, 77 kn)

Range with internal fuel, clean: 1,005 mi (1,617 km, 873 nmi)

Combat range with max. ordnance: 328 mi (528 km, 285 nmi)

Service ceiling: 41,500 ft (12,600 m)

Rate of climb: 4,360 ft/min (22.1 m/s)

 

Armament:

6× 0.5 in (12,7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns in the outer wings, 400 RPG

11× hardpoints under the wings and the fuselage for a total ordnance of 4,000 pounds,

including drop tanks, up to 8× 5 in (12.7 cm) high velocity aircraft rockets and/or bombs or

napalm tanks of up to 1.000 lb (454 kg) caliber

  

The kit and its assembly:

This what-if model was spawned from a leftover decal sheet from an Academy F-51D kit, which features markings for South Korean aircraft from the Korean War. This made me wonder if there could have been another type supplied to the South Korean forces beyond the Mustang? A fighter bomber would have made sense, and the P/F-47 was an immediate favorite. However, this was quickly discarded since maintenance and supplies for another type in the theatre would have been very complicated, and the potential, small number would also make no sense. So, I looked for alternatives and eventually settled upon the F4U from American sources. The F4U-4 was chosen because it was the oldest type in service at the time, and from there the model unspun almost naturally.

 

Another selling point for the F4U-4 was that I had a respective Hobby Boss kit in store without a proper plan yet. Since I did not want to change much about the aircraft to represent a former USN/USMC aircraft, I built the simple Hobby Boss kit almost OOB. Purists will certainly look down upon the toylike Hobby Boss offering – and you must not take a close look, esp. at the interior details. But when you only want a “canvas”, the kit is not too bad. You get fine recessed panels, a clear canopy (over a rudimentary cockpit without leg room but with separate gunsight!) in two pieces and a closed single-piece alternative, and the kit’s construction with good fit leaves almost no seam to sand or fill. The fabric-covered outer wing panels are there, but they are IMHO exaggerated and very deep, as if they had been made from corrugated sheet metal?

 

The weakest point is the kit’s HVAR armament: It comes with eight unguided missiles that are molded onto their launch rails (with separate tail fins, though), and the gap between the two small pylons that hold the rail under the wing in real life are molded into a single massive and deep piece. These pylons are to be mounted into 2mm wide and just as deep “slots” in the lower wing surface – a very crude and toylike solution. Even though I’d have liked to use the HVARs on the model (after all, it’s supposed to be a fighter bomber), I omitted them altogether and filled up the slots. To keep the attack profile visible, I cut the small pylons off from the OOB drop tanks and replaced them with American 750 lb (340 kg) M117 bombs from the spares bin – they look modern, but they were actually introduced during the Korea War.

  

Painting and markings:

Well, F4Us handed over from American to Korean units would certainly have left them in their typical all-blue paint scheme, with the “Stars and Bars” simply replaced by the South Korean “yin-yang” symbol and former tactical markings painted over. The ex-American F-51s were handled in a similar fashion, just that they came from overstock in bare metal finish.

To provide the ROKAF F4U with an individual touch I decided to strip the original Navy paint off and give it an NMF with colorful markings similar to the Mustangs. And for a weirdo touch the outer foldable wings would become blue donor parts from an American Corsair, together with a single rudder on the stabilizer.

 

The bare metal fuselage was painted with Revell 99 (Aluminum), post-shaded with Humbrol 27001 (Matt Aluminum MetalCote); the dark blue sections, including the landing gear, were painted with FS 35042 (Modelmaster 1718), the fabric-covered rudders on the tail with Humbrol 56 (Aluminum Dope). The landing gear wells and the cockpit were painted with Humbrol 80 (Grass Green) to simulate Zinc Chromate primer. To hide the lack of space inside of the cowling its interior walls were painted in a darker shade of green, with a dark grey engine block.

An olive drab anti-glare panel was added in front of the windscreen, the red unit markings on cowling, fin and tail tip were painted with Humbrol 19. The yellow ID fuselage band was created with decal sheet.

The ROKAF roundels came from the aforementioned Academy Mustang kit – and, yes, some ROKAF machines had national markings in six places instead of the US-style four. The tagline on the cowling comes from the same sheet, and it might read “I fly with confidence!” (uncertain, though). The tactical codes were created with single USAF 45° numbers from Superscale aftermarket sheets.

 

Graphite was used to create soot stains around the gun and the exhaust areas, and Tamiya “Smoke” was used to mimic oil spills from the engine around the forward fuselage. Finally, the kit was sealed with acrylic varnish; the bare metal sections became semi-gloss, the blue areas and the fabric-covered tail sections a slightly more matt finish.

  

An interesting result – an F4U in NMF looks pretty odd, and with the red and blue sections the Corsair somehow looks like a Reno Racer or a Red Bull heritage aircraft? But the ROKAF Corsair appears pretty plausible in its role and in the Korean War’s time frame: a whif nicely shoehorned into a historic framework. The simple Hobby Boss kit is certainly not the best model of the Corsair, but for a simple “livery variant” it was an O.K. basis, and the result is quite presentable. Just do not look into the cockpit or the landing gear wells.

The ancient site at Kot Diji (Urdu: کوٹ ڈیجی‎) was the forerunner of the Indus Civilization. The people of this site lived about 3000 BCE. The remains consist of two parts; the citadel area on high ground (about 12 m), and outer area. The Pakistan Department of Archaeology excavated at Kot Diji in 1955 and 1957.

 

Located about 22 kilometers south of Khairpur in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. The site is situated at the foot of the Rohri Hills where a fort (Kot Diji Fort) was built around 1790 by Talpur dynasty ruler of Upper Sindh, Mir Suhrab who reigned from 1783 to 1830 AD. This fort built on the ridge of a steep narrow hill is well preserved.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kot_Diji

  

History :

  

On March 31, 1913, Faisanterie Buitenlust, the forerunner of the current modern animal park Burgers' Zoo, opens its doors to the public for the first time. Since its foundation by Johan Burgers, the first owner and the one who named the animal park in Arnhem, the park has always remained a real family business.

     

Already from its inception the zoo caused a sensation due to its daring new organisation, which naturally is in the way the animals' accommodations are shaped as well as in the way the experiences for the visitors are created. Burgers' Zoo has a rich history, which has shaped the zoo into the way it is today, and as you can still find it now in the wooded area just north of Arnhem

 

The Bell X-1 had taken mankind over the Mach 1 supersonic mark; subsequent X-1s and X-2s would reach Mach 2 and Mach 3, respectively. Yet as technology progressed, still faster speeds were made possible, and space travel was within reach. The problem was how to enable human beings to survive at speeds above Mach 3, and in the airless environment of space. German rocket designer Walter Dornberger had proposed a design for a hypersonic test aircraft, and this was adapted by North American Aircraft into a project commissioned by NACA (the forerunner of NASA) as the X-15.

 

By its very nature, the X-15 would have to be revolutionary. It would need to operate at speeds between Mach 4 and Mach 10, at the very edge of space. Paramount amongst the designers’ concerns was heat: at the speeds the X-15 was expected to regularly reach, temperatures along the nose and wings could exceed 1200 degrees Fahrenheit, which would melt any then-known steel. Yet the aircraft still had to be light enough to fly at all. To solve both problems, North American used an airframe made of light, durable, heat-resistant titanium with a covering of a unique nickel alloy. To achieve speed and minimize drag, a long, flattened fuselage was designed, but this also presented a problem: at hypersonic speeds, the X-15 would be uncontrollable. A compromise was reached in which a wedge-shaped tail was added, which added enormous amounts of drag; small tailplanes could be extended in flight to either further stabilize the X-15 or act as speedbrakes.

 

To reach altitude and speed, and overcome the tail’s drag, the engine would need to be large: the Reaction Motors XLR-99 was chosen, a mammoth engine capable of 70,000 pounds of thrust—yet the XLR-99 could be controlled with a conventional throttle, a first in aviation design. Because the XLR-99 ate fuel quickly, the X-15 would be carried to launch altitude by a B-52 Stratofortress mothership. Once detached, the X-15 pilot would ignite the rocket and accelerate to the needed speed and altitude. Once there, at the very edge of space, the air would be so thin the X-15’s control surfaces would be useless, and the pilot would have to switch over to hydrogen peroxide nozzles in the nose and tail to maintain control, in exactly the same fashion as spacecraft. The X-15 would then be glided to a landing on a combination of a conventional nose gear and tail skids; the lower half of the tail, which would scrape the ground otherwise, was jettisoned before landing and recovered later.

 

Three X-15s would be built in various configurations, with the later aircraft carrying auxiliary fuel tanks beneath the wings to extend its miniscule range. The first aircraft (lacking at the time the XLR-99 engine) flew in June 1959. An absolute speed record of 4,520 mph (Mach 6.72) was achieved in October 1967, while its absolute altitude record of 67 miles above sea level was achieved in August 1963; the latter allowed the pilot, Joe Walker, to qualify for astronaut wings. The speed record stands to this day, whereas the altitude record was matched only in 2004 with the flight of the civilian SpaceShip One. The pilots that flew the X-15 read like a list of aviation pioneers and American heroes: Scott Crossfield, Robert White, Joseph Engle, Joseph Walker, and Neil Armstrong were among the best known X-15 pilots. Despite the highly dangerous working environment of the X-15, only one aircraft was lost, when test pilot Michael Adams went into an uncontrollable hypersonic spin and died when the X-15 broke up at 60,000 feet. Otherwise, the program was not marred by significant problems.

 

The X-15 did more than just achieve high speeds and altitudes: the research gained in the program led directly to innovations used in the Apollo moon program, including the peroxide thrusters and heat shielding, while flight profiles and other research led to the Space Shuttle. 199 flights were made before the program ended in October 1968, with the two survivors going on to the National Air and Space Museum and the National Museum of the USAF.

 

Known to the USAF as 56-6671, this was the second X-15 to be built and the fastest: its speed record of Mach 6.7, achieved in 1967, still stands today as the fastest ever achieved by an aircraft. After the X-15 program ended in 1969, 56-6671 was retired to the National Museum of the USAF.

 

Like all X-15s, 56-6671 wears hybrid NASA and USAF markings; though it appears to be black paint, the X-15s were actually bare metal--the nickel alloy covering appeared black. The white and orange objects to either side of the fuselage are fuel tanks, carried aloft to extend the X-15's range and jettisoned before it would go to full speed.

 

After my visit to the NMUSAF in May 2017 and my visit to the Smithsonian in May 2014, I've now seen both surviving X-15s. The other X-15 can be seen here at the National Air and Space Museum: www.flickr.com/photos/31469080@N07/15456762053/in/photoli....

 

My stepfather also built a model of this aircraft for the Malmstrom AFB Museum: www.flickr.com/photos/31469080@N07/16328626108/in/photoli...

PHNOM PENH

Phnom Penh (/pəˌnɒm ˈpɛn, ˌpnɒm -/; Khmer: ភ្នំពេញ, Phnum Pénh [pʰnumˈpɨɲ]; lit. "Penh's Hill") is the capital and most populous city of Cambodia. It has been the national capital since the French protectorate of Cambodia, and has grown to become the nation's economic, industrial, and cultural centre.

 

Phnom Penh was founded in 1434 to succeed Angkor Thom as the capital of the Khmer nation but was abandoned several times before being reestablished in 1865 by King Norodom. The city formerly functioned as a processing center, with textiles, pharmaceuticals, machine manufacturing, and rice milling. Its chief assets, however, were cultural. Institutions of higher learning included the Royal University of Phnom Penh (established in 1960 as Royal Khmer University), with schools of engineering, fine arts, technology, and agricultural sciences, the latter at Chamkar Daung, a suburb. Also located in Phnom Penh were the Royal University of Agronomic Sciences and the Agricultural School of Prek Leap.

 

Once known as the "Pearl of Asia", it was considered one of the loveliest French-built cities in Indochina in the 1920s. Phnom Penh, along with Siem Reap and Sihanoukville, are significant global and domestic tourist destinations for Cambodia. Founded in 1372, the city is noted for its historical architecture and attractions. It became the national capital in 1434 following the fall of Angkor, and remained so until 1497. It regained its capital status during the French colonial era in 1865. There are a number of surviving colonial-era buildings scattered along the grand boulevards.

 

On the banks of the Tonlé Sap, Mekong, and Bassac Rivers, Phnom Penh is home to more than 2 million people, approximately 14% of the Cambodian population. The Phnom Penh metropolitan area includes 5 districts of Kandal Province.

 

ETYMOLOGY

Phnom Penh (lit. 'Penh's Hill') takes its name from the present Wat Phnom (lit. 'Hill Temple') or from the former Funan Kingdom, an ancient kingdom that existed from 1st to 6th century AD in Southeast Asia and the forerunner of the current Cambodian monarchy. Legend has it that in 1372, a wealthy widow named Penh found a Koki tree floating down the Tonlé Sap river after a storm. Inside the tree were four bronze Buddha statues and a stone statue of Vishnu. Penh ordered villagers to raise the height of the hill northeast of her house and used the Koki wood to build a temple on the hill to house the four Buddha statues, and a shrine for the Vishnu image slightly lower down. The temple became known as Wat Phnom Daun Penh, which is now known as Wat Phnom, a small hill 27 metres in height.

 

Phnom Penh's former official name is Krong Chaktomuk Serei Mongkol (Khmer: ក្រុងចតុមុខសិរីមង្គល, lit. 'City of the Brahma's Faces'), in its short form as Krong Chaktomuk (lit. "City of Four Faces"). Krong Chaktomuk is an abbreviation of the full name which was given by King Ponhea Yat, Krong Chaktomuk Mongkol Sakal Kampuchea Thipadei Serei Theakreak Bavar Intabat Borei Roat Reach Seima Moha Nokor (Khmer: ក្រុងចតុមុខមង្គលសកលកម្ពុជាធិបតី សិរីធរបវរ ឥន្ទបត្តបុរី រដ្ឋរាជសីមាមហានគរ, Khmer pronunciation: [ˌkɾoŋˌtɕaʔtoʔmuk̚ˌmŭəŋkŭəlˌsaʔkɒlˌkamputɕiəˌtʰɯp̚paʔdɤjˌseʔɾɤjˌtʰĕəʔɾĕəʔˌɓɒːʋɒːˌʔɤntĕəʔpat̚ˌɓoʔɾɤjˌɾŏət̚tʰaʔˌɾiəc̚ˌsɤjmaːˌmɔhaːˌnɔˈkɔː]). This loosely translates as "The place of four rivers that gives the happiness and success of Khmer Kingdom, the highest leader as well as impregnable city of the God Indra of the great kingdom".

 

HISTORY

The initial settlement of Phnom Penh is believed to have been established since the 5th century AD, according to the discovery of ancient kiln site in Choeung Ek commune of Dangkao district, southern part of central Phnom Penh in early 2000s. Choeung Ek archaeological site was one of the largest kiln pottery center in Cambodia and the earliest known kiln sites in Southeast Asia to produced the ceremonial vessels known as kendi from 5th to 13th century. Archaeologist stated that a large community is surrounded by a circular earthwork structure that is 740 metres in diameter and 4 metres high, built in the 11th century. In addition, there are remnants of other ancient village infrastructure, irrigation system, inscription, Shiva linga as well as an ancient brick temple foundation and its ornate remains which dated back to Funan era.

 

First recorded a century after it is said to have taken place, the legend of the founding of Phnom Penh tells of a local woman, Penh (commonly referred to as Daun Penh ("Grandmother Penh" or "Old Lady Penh") in Khmer), living at Chaktomuk, the future Phnom Penh. It was the late 14th century, and the Khmer capital was still at Angkor near Siem Reap 350 km to the north. Gathering firewood along the banks of the river, Lady Penh spied a floating koki tree in the river and fished it from the water. Inside the tree she found four Buddha statues and one of Vishnu.

 

The discovery was taken as a divine blessing, and to some a sign that the Khmer capital was to be brought to Phnom Penh from Angkor.[citation needed] To house the new-found sacred objects, Penh raised a small hill on the west bank of the Tonle Sap River and crowned it with a shrine, now known as Wat Phnom at the north end of central Phnom Penh. "Phnom" is Khmer for "hill" and Penh's hill took on the name of the founder, and the area around it became known after the hill.

 

Phnom Penh first became the capital of Cambodia after Ponhea Yat, king of the Khmer Empire, moved the capital from Angkor Thom after it was captured and destroyed by Siam a few years earlier. There is a stupa behind Wat Phnom that houses the remains of Ponhea Yat and the royal family as well as the remaining Buddhist statues from the Angkorean era. In the 17th century, Japanese immigrants also settled on the outskirts of present-day Phnom Penh.[16] A small Portuguese community survived in Phnom Penh until the 17th century, undertaking commercial and religious activity in the country.

 

Phnom Penh remained the royal capital for 73 years, from 1432 to 1505. It was abandoned for 360 years (from 1505 to 1865) by subsequent kings due to internal fighting between the royal pretenders. Later kings moved the capital several times and established their royal capitals at various locations in Tuol Basan (Srey Santhor), Pursat, Longvek, Lavear Em and Oudong.

 

It was not until 1866, under the reign of King Norodom I (1860–1904), the eldest son of King Ang Duong, who ruled on behalf of Siam, that Phnom Penh became the permanent seat of government and capital of Cambodia, and also where the current Royal Palace was built. Beginning in 1870, the French colonial authorities turned a riverside village into a city where they built hotels, schools, prisons, barracks, banks, public works offices, telegraph offices, law courts, and health services buildings. In 1872, the first glimpse of a modern city took shape when the colonial administration employed the services of French contractor Le Faucheur to construct the first 300 concrete houses for sale and rental to Chinese traders.

 

By the 1920s, Phnom Penh was known as the "Pearl of Asia", and over the next four decades, Phnom Penh continued to experience rapid growth with the building of railways to Sihanoukville and Pochentong International Airport (now Phnom Penh International Airport). Phnom Penh's infrastructure saw major modernisation under the rule of Sihanouk.

 

During the Vietnam War, Cambodia was used as a base by the People's Army of Vietnam and the Viet Cong, and thousands of refugees from across the country flooded the city to escape the fighting between their own government troops, the People's Army of Vietnam, the Viet Cong, the South Vietnamese and their allies, the Khmer Rouge, and American air strikes. By 1975, the population was 2–3 million, the bulk of whom were refugees from the fighting. The Khmer Rouge cut off supplies to the city for more than a year before it fell on April 17, 1975. Reports from journalists stated that the Khmer Rouge shelling "tortured the capital almost continuously", inflicting "random death and mutilation" on millions of trapped civilians. The Khmer Rouge forcibly evacuated the entire city after taking it, in what has been described as a death march: François Ponchaud wrote that "I shall never forget one cripple who had neither hands nor feet, writhing along the ground like a severed worm, or a weeping father carrying his ten-year old daughter wrapped in a sheet tied around his neck like a sling, or the man with his foot dangling at the end of a leg to which it was attached by nothing but skin"; Jon Swain recalled that the Khmer Rouge were "tipping out patients from the hospitals like garbage into the streets....In five years of war, this is the greatest caravan of human misery I have seen". All of its residents, including the wealthy and educated, were evacuated from the city and forced to do difficult labour on rural farms as "new people". Tuol Sleng High School was taken over by Pol Pot's forces and was turned into the S-21 prison camp, where people were detained and tortured. Pol Pot sought a return to an agrarian economy and therefore killed many people perceived as educated, "lazy" or political enemies. Many others starved to death as a result of failure of the agrarian society and the sale of Cambodia's rice to China in exchange for bullets and weaponry. The former high school is now the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, where Khmer Rouge torture devices and photos of their victims are displayed. Choeung Ek (The Killing Fields), 15 kilometersaway, where the Khmer Rouge marched prisoners from Tuol Sleng to be murdered and buried in shallow pits, is also now a memorial to those who were killed by the regime.

 

The Khmer Rouge were driven out of Phnom Penh by the People's Army of Vietnam in 1979, and people began to return to the city. Vietnam is historically a state with which Cambodia has had many conflicts, therefore this liberation was and is viewed with mixed emotions by the Cambodians. A period of reconstruction began, spurred by the continuing stability of government, attracting new foreign investment and aid by countries including France, Australia, and Japan. Loans were made from the Asian Development Bank and the World Bank to reinstate a clean water supply, roads and other infrastructure. The 1998 Census put Phnom Penh's population at 862,000; and the 2008 census was 1.3 million. By 2019, its population reached over 2.2 million, based on general population census.

 

GEOGRAPHICS

Phnom Penh is in the south-central region of Cambodia, and is fully surrounded by Kandal Province. The municipality is on the banks of the Tonlé Sap, Mekong, and Bassac Rivers. These rivers provide freshwater and other natural resources to the city. Phnom Penh and the surrounding areas consist of a typical flood plain area for Cambodia. Although Phnom Penh is at 11.89 metres above the river, monsoon season flooding is a problem, and the river sometimes overflows its banks.

 

The city, at 11.55°N 104.91667°E (11°33' North, 104°55' East), covers an area of 678.46 square kilometres, with some 11,401 hectares in the municipality and 26,106 ha of roads. The agricultural land in the municipality amounts to 34.685 km2 with some 1.476 km2 under irrigation.

 

CLIMATE

Phnom Penh has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). The climate is hot year-round with only minor variations. Temperatures typically range from 22 to 35 °C and weather is subject to the tropical monsoons. The southwest monsoon blows inland bringing moisture-laden winds from the Gulf of Thailand and Indian Ocean from May to November. The northeast monsoon ushers in the dry season, which lasts from December to April. The city experiences the heaviest precipitation from September to October with the driest period in January and February.

 

The city has two distinct seasons. The rainy season, which runs from May to November, sees high temperatures accompanied by high humidity. The dry season lasts from December to April; when overnight temperatures can drop to 22 °C.

 

ADMINISTRATION

Phnom Penh is a municipality of area 678.46 square kilometres with a government status equal to that of Cambodian provinces. The municipality is divided into 14 administrative divisions called khans (districts). The district s are subdivided into 105 sangkats (communes), and further subdivided into 953 phums (villages). All khans are under the governance of the Phnom Penh Municipality. Dangkao, Meanchey, Porsenchey, Sen Sok and Russei Keo are considered the outskirts of the city.

 

The municipality is governed by the governor who acts as the top executive of the city as well as overseeing the Municipal Military Police, Municipal Police, and Bureau of Urban Affairs. Below the governor is the first vice governor and five vice governors. The chief of cabinet, who holds the same status as the vice governors, heads the cabinet consisting of eight deputy chiefs of cabinet who in turn are in charge of the 27 administrative departments. Every khan (district) also has a chief.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2019, Phnom Penh had a population of 2,129,371 people, with a total population density of 3,136 inhabitants per square kilometre in a 679 square kilometres city area. The population growth rate of the city is 3.92%. The city area has grown fourfold since 1979, and the metro area will continue to expand in order to support the city's growing population and economy.

 

A survey by the National Institute of Statistics in 2017 showed that 95.3% of the population in Phnom Penh are Khmer, 4% Chams, and 0.7% others, predominantly Chinese, Vietnamese, and other small ethnic groups who are Thai, Budong, Mnong Preh, Kuy and Chong. The state religion is Theravada Buddhism. More than 90% of the people in Phnom Penh are Buddhists. Chams have been practicing Islam for hundreds of years. Since 1993, there has also been an increase in the practice of Christianity which was practically wiped out after 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took over. The official language is Khmer, but English and French are widely used in the city.

 

The number of slum-inhabitants at the end of 2012 was 105,771, compared with 85,807 at the start of 2012.

 

Note: As stated in the "History" paragraph (The 1998 Census put Phnom Penh's population at 862,000; and the 2008 census was 1.3 million.) the information collides with the information provided in the "Historical population" table. Needs editing.

 

POLITIC

Phnom Penh is allocated 12 seats in the National Assembly, making it the largest constituency.

 

ECONOMY

Phnom Penh is Cambodia's economic centre as it accounts for a large portion of the Cambodian economy. Double-digit economic growth rates in recent years have triggered an economic boom in Phnom Penh, with new hotels, restaurants, schools, bars, high rises and residential buildings springing up in the city.

 

The economy is based on commercial interests such as garments, trading, and small and medium enterprises. In the past few years the property business has been booming, with rapidly increasing real estate prices. Tourism is also a major contributor in the capital as more shopping and commercial centres open, making Phnom Penh one of the major tourist destinations in South East Asia along with Siem Reap and Sihanoukville. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, tourism made up 19.2 percent (US$2,053 million) of Cambodia's GDP in 2009 and accounts for 13.7 percent of total employment. One of the most popular areas in Phnom Penh for tourists is Sisowath Quay, alongside the Tonle Sap River. Sisowath Quay is a five kilometre strip of road that includes restaurants, bars, and hotels.

 

The US$2.6 billion new urban development, Camko City, is meant to bolster the city landscape. The Bureau of Urban Affairs of Phnom Penh Municipality has plans to expand and construct new infrastructure to accommodate the growing population and economy. High rise buildings will be constructed at the entrance of the city and near the lakes and riverbanks. Furthermore, new roads, canals, and a railway system will be used to connect Camko City and Phnom Penh.

 

Other projects include:

Grand Phnom Penh International City (under construction)

De Castle Royal Condominium (Completed)

Gold Tower 42 (On hold 32 floors construction begins again in the mid of 2018)

OCIC Tower (Completed)

Kokling super second floor house

Vattanac Capital Tower (completed)

The Bridge (Completed)

The Peak (under construction)

 

With booming economic growth seen since the 1990s, new shopping venues have opened, such as Sorya Center Point, Aeon Mall Phnom Penh, Aeon Mall Sen Sok City and Olympia Mall. Many international brands have opened such as Mango, Salvatore Ferragamo, Hugo Boss, Padini Concept Store, Lily, Timberland, Jimmy Choo, CC Double O, MO, Brands Outlet, Nike, Converse, Pony, Armani Exchange, and Super Dry.

 

The tallest skyscraper in Phnom Penh is Vattanac Capital Tower at a height of 188 metres, dominating Phnom Penh's skyline with its neighbour skyscraper Canadia Tower (OCIC Tower). The tower was completed in December 2014. Modern high rises have been constructed all around the city, not concentrated in any one particular area.

 

The Central Market Phsar Thmei is a tourist attraction. The four wings of the yellow colored market are teeming with numerous stalls selling gold and silver jewelry, antique coins, clothing, clocks, flowers, food, fabrics and shoes. Phsar Thmei is undergoing under a major renovation, along with the creation of newer stalls.

 

ADMINISTRATION

Phnom Penh is a municipality of area 678.46 square kilometres with a government status equal to that of Cambodian provinces. The municipality is divided into 14 administrative divisions called khans (districts). The district s are subdivided into 105 sangkats (communes), and further subdivided into 953 phums (villages). All khans are under the governance of the Phnom Penh Municipality. Dangkao, Meanchey, Porsenchey, Sen Sok and Russei Keo are considered the outskirts of the city.

 

The municipality is governed by the governor who acts as the top executive of the city as well as overseeing the Municipal Military Police, Municipal Police, and Bureau of Urban Affairs. Below the governor is the first vice governor and five vice governors. The chief of cabinet, who holds the same status as the vice governors, heads the cabinet consisting of eight deputy chiefs of cabinet who in turn are in charge of the 27 administrative departments. Every khan (district) also has a chief.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2019, Phnom Penh had a population of 2,129,371 people, with a total population density of 3,136 inhabitants per square kilometre in a 679 square kilometres city area. The population growth rate of the city is 3.92%. The city area has grown fourfold since 1979, and the metro area will continue to expand in order to support the city's growing population and economy.

 

A survey by the National Institute of Statistics in 2017 showed that 95.3% of the population in Phnom Penh are Khmer, 4% Chams, and 0.7% others, predominantly Chinese, Vietnamese, and other small ethnic groups who are Thai, Budong, Mnong Preh, Kuy and Chong. The state religion is Theravada Buddhism. More than 90% of the people in Phnom Penh are Buddhists. Chams have been practicing Islam for hundreds of years. Since 1993, there has also been an increase in the practice of Christianity which was practically wiped out after 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took over. The official language is Khmer, but English and French are widely used in the city.

 

The number of slum-inhabitants at the end of 2012 was 105,771, compared with 85,807 at the start of 2012.

 

Note: As stated in the "History" paragraph (The 1998 Census put Phnom Penh's population at 862,000; and the 2008 census was 1.3 million.) the information collides with the information provided in the "Historical population" table.

 

POLITIC

Phnom Penh is allocated 12 seats in the National Assembly, making it the largest constituency.

 

ECONOMY

Phnom Penh is Cambodia's economic centre as it accounts for a large portion of the Cambodian economy. Double-digit economic growth rates in recent years have triggered an economic boom in Phnom Penh, with new hotels, restaurants, schools, bars, high rises and residential buildings springing up in the city.

 

The economy is based on commercial interests such as garments, trading, and small and medium enterprises. In the past few years the property business has been booming, with rapidly increasing real estate prices. Tourism is also a major contributor in the capital as more shopping and commercial centres open, making Phnom Penh one of the major tourist destinations in South East Asia along with Siem Reap and Sihanoukville. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, tourism made up 19.2 percent (US$2,053 million) of Cambodia's GDP in 2009 and accounts for 13.7 percent of total employment. One of the most popular areas in Phnom Penh for tourists is Sisowath Quay, alongside the Tonle Sap River. Sisowath Quay is a five kilometre strip of road that includes restaurants, bars, and hotels.

 

The US$2.6 billion new urban development, Camko City, is meant to bolster the city landscape. The Bureau of Urban Affairs of Phnom Penh Municipality has plans to expand and construct new infrastructure to accommodate the growing population and economy. High rise buildings will be constructed at the entrance of the city and near the lakes and riverbanks. Furthermore, new roads, canals, and a railway system will be used to connect Camko City and Phnom Penh.

 

Other projects include:

Grand Phnom Penh International City (under construction)

De Castle Royal Condominium (Completed)

Gold Tower 42 (On hold 32 floors construction begins again in the mid of 2018)

 

OCIC Tower (Completed)

Kokling super second floor house

Vattanac Capital Tower (completed)

The Bridge (Completed)

The Peak (under construction)

 

With booming economic growth seen since the 1990s, new shopping venues have opened, such as Sorya Center Point, Aeon Mall Phnom Penh, Aeon Mall Sen Sok City and Olympia Mall. Many international brands have opened such as Mango, Salvatore Ferragamo, Hugo Boss, Padini Concept Store, Lily, Timberland, Jimmy Choo, CC Double O, MO, Brands Outlet, Nike, Converse, Pony, Armani Exchange, and Super Dry.

 

The tallest skyscraper in Phnom Penh is Vattanac Capital Tower at a height of 188 metres, dominating Phnom Penh's skyline with its neighbour skyscraper Canadia Tower (OCIC Tower). The tower was completed in December 2014. Modern high rises have been constructed all around the city, not concentrated in any one particular area.

 

The Central Market Phsar Thmei is a tourist attraction. The four wings of the yellow colored market are teeming with numerous stalls selling gold and silver jewelry, antique coins, clothing, clocks, flowers, food, fabrics and shoes. Phsar Thmei is undergoing under a major renovation, along with the creation of newer stalls.

 

CULTURE

Phnom Penh also has its own dialect of Khmer. Speakers of the Phnom Penh dialect often elide syllables, which has earned it a reputation for being lazy speech. Phnom Penh is also known for its influence on New Khmer Architecture. Phnom Penh is notable for Ka tieu Phnom Penh, its variation on rice noodle soup, a dish available in sit-down cafes as well as street cafes.

 

The city hosts a number of music events throughout the city. 'Indie' bands (those without corporate sponsors) have grown in number due also in part to the emergence of private music schools such as SoundsKool Music (also operating in the city of Siem Reap), and Music Arts School (registered as an NGO). The Cambodian fishing dance originated in Phnom Penh at the Royal University of Fine Arts in the 1960s.

 

The two most visited museums in the city are the National Museum, which is the country's leading historical and archaeological museum, and Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, a former Khmer Rouge prison. The National Museum hosts celebrations of Cambodian dance and music, including a popular classic Apsara dance show of traditional folk dances as well as original creations.

 

CAMBODIAN NEW YEAR

At this time, Phnom Penh celebrates Cambodian New Year, an occasion increasingly popular with tourists. During this typically hottest part of the year, water gets thrown around adding to the party atmosphere along with dancing and music. The precise date changes year-by-year but this holiday lasts, at least, three days. This festival marks the turn of the year based on the ancient Khmer calendar and also marks the end of the prior year harvest.

 

WATER FESTIVAL

The largest annual festival in Phnom Penh, this lively gathering celebrates the reversing of the flow of the Tonlé Sap River. The holiday lasts three days as people flood into the city to enjoy the fireworks, boat races, live concerts, eating and partying. The boat racing dates back to ancient times marking the strengths of the Khmer marine forces during the Khmer Empire.

 

On November 22, 2010, at least 348 people were crushed to death in a bridge stampede at the festival.

 

ANCESTORS DAY

Ancestors' Day, also called Pchum Ben, is a very important aspect of Cambodian culture. It may be translated as "gathering together" to make offerings and is a time of reunion, commemoration, express love and appreciation for one's ancestors. By offering food and good karma to those possibly trapped in the spirit world, living relatives help assuage their misery and guide them back into the cycle of reincarnation.

 

VISAK BOCHEA

Vesākha is an annual holiday observed traditionally by Buddhists in Cambodia. Sometimes informally called "Buddha's Birthday", it actually encompasses the birth, enlightenment (nirvāṇa), and passing away (Parinirvāna) of Gautama Buddha.

 

CITYSCAPE AND ARCHITECTURE

The oldest structure is Wat Phnom from the founding days of the city, constructed in 1373. The main tourist attractions are the Royal Palace with the Silver Pagoda, and the National Museum, constructed during the French colonial era in the late-19th century in the classical Khmer style and hosting a vast collection of Khmer antiquities. The Independence Monument (Khmer: Vimean Akareach), although from the 1950s, is also constructed in the ancient Khmer style.

 

The French, who were the colonial masters from the 19th century to the 1940s, also left their mark, with various colonial villas, French churches, boulevards, and the Art Deco market Phsar Thom Thmei. A notable landmark of the colonial era is the Hotel Le Royal.

 

Starting with independence from the French in the 1950s and lasting until the era of the Khmer Rouge in the 1970s, Phnom Penh underwent tremendous growth as the capital city of a newly independent country. King Sihanouk was eager to present a new style of architecture and thus invigorate the process of nation building. A new golden era of architecture took off, with various projects and young Khmer architects, often educated in France, given opportunities to design and construct. This new movement was called "New Khmer Architecture" and was often characterised by a fusion of Bauhaus, European post-modern architecture, and traditional elements from Angkor. The most prominent architect was Vann Molyvann, who was nominated chief national architect by the king himself in 1956. Molyvann created landmark buildings such as the Preah Suramarit National Theatre and the Council of Ministers building. Other architects helped construct the newly founded Royal Khmer University, the Institute of Foreign Languages, and the National Sports Centre. With the growth of the upper and entrepreneurial middle classes, new suburbs were built in the 1950s and 1960s. Although these buildings survived the Khmer Rouge era and the civil war, today they are under threat due to economic development and financial speculation. Villas and gardens from that era are being destroyed and redeveloped to make place for bigger structures. The landmark National Theatre by Molyvann was razed in 2008 A movement is rising in Cambodia to preserve this modernist heritage. Old villas are sometimes being converted into boutique hotels, such as the Knai Bang Chatt.

 

Monuments and memorials to the genocide of the Khmer Rouge era in the 1970s are the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum (a former high school used as a concentration camp) and, on the outskirts of the city, the Choeung Ek Genocide Center. The Cambodia-Vietnam Friendship Monument was commissioned by the Vietnamese communists as symbol of Khmer-Vietnamese friendship during the late-1970s following the liberation of Cambodia from the Khmer Rouge.

 

The population, foreign investment, and urban development in Phnom Penh grew dramatically during the 1990s and early-2000s. The rapid growth resulted in the city's infrastructure distinctly lacking (the drainage system is particularly notorious, and Phnom Penh frequently floods during the wet season), and a need for both residential and commercial spaces. The simultaneous demand for residential and commercial housing and the increase of international investment has led to the planning, if not construction, of several satellite cities. The largest of these cities are: Grand Phnom Penh International City, CamKo City, Diamond Island City, Boeung Kak Town, and Chruy Cangva City.

 

On the outskirts of the city, farmland has been developed into garment factories and housing for lower economic classes and those displaced by the new development in the city center.

 

2035 MASTER PLAN

Originally intended to be completed by 2020, the 2035 master plan is a French-funded project for the development of Phnom Penh. Although the plan was approved by the Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction in 2005, it has yet to be ratified by the Cabinet of Cambodia. The original plan details five edge-city projects connected to the historical city centre by waterways and tree-lined corridors.

 

SPORT

The martial arts of Bokator, Pradal Serey (Khmer kick boxing) and Khmer traditional wrestling have venues in Phnom Penh watched by dedicated spectators. Cambodia has increasingly become involved in modern sports over the last 30 years. As with the rest of the country, football and the martial arts are particularly popular. Ultimate fighting and freestyle boxing have also become more common in recent years.

 

The most prominent sporting venue in the city is the Phnom Penh National Olympic Stadium with a capacity of 50,000—although the country never hosted the Olympic Games due to disruption by the civil war and the Khmer Rouge in the 1970s. Built in 1964, it is home to the Cambodian national football team. On completion the stadium was one of the largest in Asia. Volleyball, basketball, and Tai-Kwon-Do games are often hosted at the stadium. The stadium closed in 2000, but was redeveloped and reopened.

 

In footballing ventures, Phnom Penh is formally represented by Phnom Penh Crown FC despite being home to numerous football teams who plays in the Cambodian League. Including Visakha, Nagaworld, Boeungket and the aforementioned Phnom Penh Crown, amongst many others.

 

The National Sports Centre of Cambodia hosts swimming, boxing, and volleyball competitions. Noted local football clubs include Phnom Penh Empire, Khemara Keila FC and Military Police. The city will host the 2023 Southeast Asian Games and the 2023 ASEAN Para Games, this will mark the first time that Cambodia has hosted a multi-sport event.

 

TRANSPORT

Phnom Penh International Airport is the largest and busiest airport in Cambodia. It is seven kilometres west of central Phnom Penh. The airport is connected to the city center by taxi, train, and shuttle bus.

 

Cambodia's national flag carrier, Cambodia Angkor Air, launched in 2009, is headquartered in Phnom Penh and has its main hub there, with an additional hub at the Angkor International Airport.

 

Air France used to serve Phnom Penh from Paris-Charles de Gaulle but this service has since stopped. Qatar Airways now flies to and from Phnom Penh, via Ho Chi Minh City.

 

Taxis, pick-ups, and minibuses leave the city for destinations all over the country, but are fast losing ground to cheaper and more comfortable buses. Phnom Penh also has a rail service.

 

There are numerous bus companies, including Phnom Penh Public Transport and GST Express, running services to most provincial capitals, including Sihanoukville, Kampong Chhnang, Oudong and Takéo. Phnom Penh Sorya Transport Co. offers bus service to several provincial destinations along the National Routes and to Ho Chi Minh City. Giant Ibis is another bus company based in Phnom Penh, which travels to Sihanoukville, Kampot, Siem Reap and Ho Chi Minh, and has free Wi-Fi, air conditioning and modest pricing.

 

The city is Cambodia's main freshwater port, a major port on the Mekong River. It is linked to the South China Sea, 290 kilometres distant, via a channel of the Mekong in Vietnam.

 

PUBLIC TRANSPORT

Phnom Penh is served by air conditioned public buses. Initial attempts by the Japanese government to develop a Phnom Penh bus service began in 2001. An update of the JICA urban transport master plan for Phnom Penh was completed and implemented in 2014. The city is now served by 17 bus lines, operated by the Phnom Penh municipal government. Private transportation within the city include the cycle rickshaw, known in Khmer as "cyclo", the motorcycle taxi known in Khmer as "moto", the auto rickshaw known locally as "tuk-tuk", the trailer attached to a motorcycle taxi known in Khmer as "remorque", and the standard automobile taxicab known in Khmer as "taxi". Private forms of transportation used by locals include bicycles, motorbikes, and cars.

 

WATER SUPPLY

Water supply in Phnom Penh has improved dramatically in terms of access, service quality, efficiency, cost recovery and governance between 1993 and 2006. The number of customers has increased ninefold, service quality has improved from intermittent to continuous supply, water losses have been cut dramatically and the city's water utility went from being bankrupt to making a modest profit. These achievements were recognized through international awards such as the 2006 Ramon Magsaysay Award and the 2010 Stockholm Industry Water Award. The city's water utility is the Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (PPWSA). Its main water sources are the Mekong River, the Tonle Sap river and the Tonle Bassac river.

 

WIKIPEDIA

PHNOM PENH

Phnom Penh (/pəˌnɒm ˈpɛn, ˌpnɒm -/; Khmer: ភ្នំពេញ, Phnum Pénh [pʰnumˈpɨɲ]; lit. "Penh's Hill") is the capital and most populous city of Cambodia. It has been the national capital since the French protectorate of Cambodia, and has grown to become the nation's economic, industrial, and cultural centre.

 

Phnom Penh was founded in 1434 to succeed Angkor Thom as the capital of the Khmer nation but was abandoned several times before being reestablished in 1865 by King Norodom. The city formerly functioned as a processing center, with textiles, pharmaceuticals, machine manufacturing, and rice milling. Its chief assets, however, were cultural. Institutions of higher learning included the Royal University of Phnom Penh (established in 1960 as Royal Khmer University), with schools of engineering, fine arts, technology, and agricultural sciences, the latter at Chamkar Daung, a suburb. Also located in Phnom Penh were the Royal University of Agronomic Sciences and the Agricultural School of Prek Leap.

 

Once known as the "Pearl of Asia", it was considered one of the loveliest French-built cities in Indochina in the 1920s. Phnom Penh, along with Siem Reap and Sihanoukville, are significant global and domestic tourist destinations for Cambodia. Founded in 1372, the city is noted for its historical architecture and attractions. It became the national capital in 1434 following the fall of Angkor, and remained so until 1497. It regained its capital status during the French colonial era in 1865. There are a number of surviving colonial-era buildings scattered along the grand boulevards.

 

On the banks of the Tonlé Sap, Mekong, and Bassac Rivers, Phnom Penh is home to more than 2 million people, approximately 14% of the Cambodian population. The Phnom Penh metropolitan area includes 5 districts of Kandal Province.

 

ETYMOLOGY

Phnom Penh (lit. 'Penh's Hill') takes its name from the present Wat Phnom (lit. 'Hill Temple') or from the former Funan Kingdom, an ancient kingdom that existed from 1st to 6th century AD in Southeast Asia and the forerunner of the current Cambodian monarchy. Legend has it that in 1372, a wealthy widow named Penh found a Koki tree floating down the Tonlé Sap river after a storm. Inside the tree were four bronze Buddha statues and a stone statue of Vishnu. Penh ordered villagers to raise the height of the hill northeast of her house and used the Koki wood to build a temple on the hill to house the four Buddha statues, and a shrine for the Vishnu image slightly lower down. The temple became known as Wat Phnom Daun Penh, which is now known as Wat Phnom, a small hill 27 metres in height.

 

Phnom Penh's former official name is Krong Chaktomuk Serei Mongkol (Khmer: ក្រុងចតុមុខសិរីមង្គល, lit. 'City of the Brahma's Faces'), in its short form as Krong Chaktomuk (lit. "City of Four Faces"). Krong Chaktomuk is an abbreviation of the full name which was given by King Ponhea Yat, Krong Chaktomuk Mongkol Sakal Kampuchea Thipadei Serei Theakreak Bavar Intabat Borei Roat Reach Seima Moha Nokor (Khmer: ក្រុងចតុមុខមង្គលសកលកម្ពុជាធិបតី សិរីធរបវរ ឥន្ទបត្តបុរី រដ្ឋរាជសីមាមហានគរ, Khmer pronunciation: [ˌkɾoŋˌtɕaʔtoʔmuk̚ˌmŭəŋkŭəlˌsaʔkɒlˌkamputɕiəˌtʰɯp̚paʔdɤjˌseʔɾɤjˌtʰĕəʔɾĕəʔˌɓɒːʋɒːˌʔɤntĕəʔpat̚ˌɓoʔɾɤjˌɾŏət̚tʰaʔˌɾiəc̚ˌsɤjmaːˌmɔhaːˌnɔˈkɔː]). This loosely translates as "The place of four rivers that gives the happiness and success of Khmer Kingdom, the highest leader as well as impregnable city of the God Indra of the great kingdom".

 

HISTORY

The initial settlement of Phnom Penh is believed to have been established since the 5th century AD, according to the discovery of ancient kiln site in Choeung Ek commune of Dangkao district, southern part of central Phnom Penh in early 2000s. Choeung Ek archaeological site was one of the largest kiln pottery center in Cambodia and the earliest known kiln sites in Southeast Asia to produced the ceremonial vessels known as kendi from 5th to 13th century. Archaeologist stated that a large community is surrounded by a circular earthwork structure that is 740 metres in diameter and 4 metres high, built in the 11th century. In addition, there are remnants of other ancient village infrastructure, irrigation system, inscription, Shiva linga as well as an ancient brick temple foundation and its ornate remains which dated back to Funan era.

 

First recorded a century after it is said to have taken place, the legend of the founding of Phnom Penh tells of a local woman, Penh (commonly referred to as Daun Penh ("Grandmother Penh" or "Old Lady Penh") in Khmer), living at Chaktomuk, the future Phnom Penh. It was the late 14th century, and the Khmer capital was still at Angkor near Siem Reap 350 km to the north. Gathering firewood along the banks of the river, Lady Penh spied a floating koki tree in the river and fished it from the water. Inside the tree she found four Buddha statues and one of Vishnu.

 

The discovery was taken as a divine blessing, and to some a sign that the Khmer capital was to be brought to Phnom Penh from Angkor.[citation needed] To house the new-found sacred objects, Penh raised a small hill on the west bank of the Tonle Sap River and crowned it with a shrine, now known as Wat Phnom at the north end of central Phnom Penh. "Phnom" is Khmer for "hill" and Penh's hill took on the name of the founder, and the area around it became known after the hill.

 

Phnom Penh first became the capital of Cambodia after Ponhea Yat, king of the Khmer Empire, moved the capital from Angkor Thom after it was captured and destroyed by Siam a few years earlier. There is a stupa behind Wat Phnom that houses the remains of Ponhea Yat and the royal family as well as the remaining Buddhist statues from the Angkorean era. In the 17th century, Japanese immigrants also settled on the outskirts of present-day Phnom Penh.[16] A small Portuguese community survived in Phnom Penh until the 17th century, undertaking commercial and religious activity in the country.

 

Phnom Penh remained the royal capital for 73 years, from 1432 to 1505. It was abandoned for 360 years (from 1505 to 1865) by subsequent kings due to internal fighting between the royal pretenders. Later kings moved the capital several times and established their royal capitals at various locations in Tuol Basan (Srey Santhor), Pursat, Longvek, Lavear Em and Oudong.

 

It was not until 1866, under the reign of King Norodom I (1860–1904), the eldest son of King Ang Duong, who ruled on behalf of Siam, that Phnom Penh became the permanent seat of government and capital of Cambodia, and also where the current Royal Palace was built. Beginning in 1870, the French colonial authorities turned a riverside village into a city where they built hotels, schools, prisons, barracks, banks, public works offices, telegraph offices, law courts, and health services buildings. In 1872, the first glimpse of a modern city took shape when the colonial administration employed the services of French contractor Le Faucheur to construct the first 300 concrete houses for sale and rental to Chinese traders.

 

By the 1920s, Phnom Penh was known as the "Pearl of Asia", and over the next four decades, Phnom Penh continued to experience rapid growth with the building of railways to Sihanoukville and Pochentong International Airport (now Phnom Penh International Airport). Phnom Penh's infrastructure saw major modernisation under the rule of Sihanouk.

 

During the Vietnam War, Cambodia was used as a base by the People's Army of Vietnam and the Viet Cong, and thousands of refugees from across the country flooded the city to escape the fighting between their own government troops, the People's Army of Vietnam, the Viet Cong, the South Vietnamese and their allies, the Khmer Rouge, and American air strikes. By 1975, the population was 2–3 million, the bulk of whom were refugees from the fighting. The Khmer Rouge cut off supplies to the city for more than a year before it fell on April 17, 1975. Reports from journalists stated that the Khmer Rouge shelling "tortured the capital almost continuously", inflicting "random death and mutilation" on millions of trapped civilians. The Khmer Rouge forcibly evacuated the entire city after taking it, in what has been described as a death march: François Ponchaud wrote that "I shall never forget one cripple who had neither hands nor feet, writhing along the ground like a severed worm, or a weeping father carrying his ten-year old daughter wrapped in a sheet tied around his neck like a sling, or the man with his foot dangling at the end of a leg to which it was attached by nothing but skin"; Jon Swain recalled that the Khmer Rouge were "tipping out patients from the hospitals like garbage into the streets....In five years of war, this is the greatest caravan of human misery I have seen". All of its residents, including the wealthy and educated, were evacuated from the city and forced to do difficult labour on rural farms as "new people". Tuol Sleng High School was taken over by Pol Pot's forces and was turned into the S-21 prison camp, where people were detained and tortured. Pol Pot sought a return to an agrarian economy and therefore killed many people perceived as educated, "lazy" or political enemies. Many others starved to death as a result of failure of the agrarian society and the sale of Cambodia's rice to China in exchange for bullets and weaponry. The former high school is now the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, where Khmer Rouge torture devices and photos of their victims are displayed. Choeung Ek (The Killing Fields), 15 kilometersaway, where the Khmer Rouge marched prisoners from Tuol Sleng to be murdered and buried in shallow pits, is also now a memorial to those who were killed by the regime.

 

The Khmer Rouge were driven out of Phnom Penh by the People's Army of Vietnam in 1979, and people began to return to the city. Vietnam is historically a state with which Cambodia has had many conflicts, therefore this liberation was and is viewed with mixed emotions by the Cambodians. A period of reconstruction began, spurred by the continuing stability of government, attracting new foreign investment and aid by countries including France, Australia, and Japan. Loans were made from the Asian Development Bank and the World Bank to reinstate a clean water supply, roads and other infrastructure. The 1998 Census put Phnom Penh's population at 862,000; and the 2008 census was 1.3 million. By 2019, its population reached over 2.2 million, based on general population census.

 

GEOGRAPHICS

Phnom Penh is in the south-central region of Cambodia, and is fully surrounded by Kandal Province. The municipality is on the banks of the Tonlé Sap, Mekong, and Bassac Rivers. These rivers provide freshwater and other natural resources to the city. Phnom Penh and the surrounding areas consist of a typical flood plain area for Cambodia. Although Phnom Penh is at 11.89 metres above the river, monsoon season flooding is a problem, and the river sometimes overflows its banks.

 

The city, at 11.55°N 104.91667°E (11°33' North, 104°55' East), covers an area of 678.46 square kilometres, with some 11,401 hectares in the municipality and 26,106 ha of roads. The agricultural land in the municipality amounts to 34.685 km2 with some 1.476 km2 under irrigation.

 

CLIMATE

Phnom Penh has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). The climate is hot year-round with only minor variations. Temperatures typically range from 22 to 35 °C and weather is subject to the tropical monsoons. The southwest monsoon blows inland bringing moisture-laden winds from the Gulf of Thailand and Indian Ocean from May to November. The northeast monsoon ushers in the dry season, which lasts from December to April. The city experiences the heaviest precipitation from September to October with the driest period in January and February.

 

The city has two distinct seasons. The rainy season, which runs from May to November, sees high temperatures accompanied by high humidity. The dry season lasts from December to April; when overnight temperatures can drop to 22 °C.

 

ADMINISTRATION

Phnom Penh is a municipality of area 678.46 square kilometres with a government status equal to that of Cambodian provinces. The municipality is divided into 14 administrative divisions called khans (districts). The district s are subdivided into 105 sangkats (communes), and further subdivided into 953 phums (villages). All khans are under the governance of the Phnom Penh Municipality. Dangkao, Meanchey, Porsenchey, Sen Sok and Russei Keo are considered the outskirts of the city.

 

The municipality is governed by the governor who acts as the top executive of the city as well as overseeing the Municipal Military Police, Municipal Police, and Bureau of Urban Affairs. Below the governor is the first vice governor and five vice governors. The chief of cabinet, who holds the same status as the vice governors, heads the cabinet consisting of eight deputy chiefs of cabinet who in turn are in charge of the 27 administrative departments. Every khan (district) also has a chief.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2019, Phnom Penh had a population of 2,129,371 people, with a total population density of 3,136 inhabitants per square kilometre in a 679 square kilometres city area. The population growth rate of the city is 3.92%. The city area has grown fourfold since 1979, and the metro area will continue to expand in order to support the city's growing population and economy.

 

A survey by the National Institute of Statistics in 2017 showed that 95.3% of the population in Phnom Penh are Khmer, 4% Chams, and 0.7% others, predominantly Chinese, Vietnamese, and other small ethnic groups who are Thai, Budong, Mnong Preh, Kuy and Chong. The state religion is Theravada Buddhism. More than 90% of the people in Phnom Penh are Buddhists. Chams have been practicing Islam for hundreds of years. Since 1993, there has also been an increase in the practice of Christianity which was practically wiped out after 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took over. The official language is Khmer, but English and French are widely used in the city.

 

The number of slum-inhabitants at the end of 2012 was 105,771, compared with 85,807 at the start of 2012.

 

Note: As stated in the "History" paragraph (The 1998 Census put Phnom Penh's population at 862,000; and the 2008 census was 1.3 million.) the information collides with the information provided in the "Historical population" table. Needs editing.

 

POLITIC

Phnom Penh is allocated 12 seats in the National Assembly, making it the largest constituency.

 

ECONOMY

Phnom Penh is Cambodia's economic centre as it accounts for a large portion of the Cambodian economy. Double-digit economic growth rates in recent years have triggered an economic boom in Phnom Penh, with new hotels, restaurants, schools, bars, high rises and residential buildings springing up in the city.

 

The economy is based on commercial interests such as garments, trading, and small and medium enterprises. In the past few years the property business has been booming, with rapidly increasing real estate prices. Tourism is also a major contributor in the capital as more shopping and commercial centres open, making Phnom Penh one of the major tourist destinations in South East Asia along with Siem Reap and Sihanoukville. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, tourism made up 19.2 percent (US$2,053 million) of Cambodia's GDP in 2009 and accounts for 13.7 percent of total employment. One of the most popular areas in Phnom Penh for tourists is Sisowath Quay, alongside the Tonle Sap River. Sisowath Quay is a five kilometre strip of road that includes restaurants, bars, and hotels.

 

The US$2.6 billion new urban development, Camko City, is meant to bolster the city landscape. The Bureau of Urban Affairs of Phnom Penh Municipality has plans to expand and construct new infrastructure to accommodate the growing population and economy. High rise buildings will be constructed at the entrance of the city and near the lakes and riverbanks. Furthermore, new roads, canals, and a railway system will be used to connect Camko City and Phnom Penh.

 

Other projects include:

Grand Phnom Penh International City (under construction)

De Castle Royal Condominium (Completed)

Gold Tower 42 (On hold 32 floors construction begins again in the mid of 2018)

OCIC Tower (Completed)

Kokling super second floor house

Vattanac Capital Tower (completed)

The Bridge (Completed)

The Peak (under construction)

 

With booming economic growth seen since the 1990s, new shopping venues have opened, such as Sorya Center Point, Aeon Mall Phnom Penh, Aeon Mall Sen Sok City and Olympia Mall. Many international brands have opened such as Mango, Salvatore Ferragamo, Hugo Boss, Padini Concept Store, Lily, Timberland, Jimmy Choo, CC Double O, MO, Brands Outlet, Nike, Converse, Pony, Armani Exchange, and Super Dry.

 

The tallest skyscraper in Phnom Penh is Vattanac Capital Tower at a height of 188 metres, dominating Phnom Penh's skyline with its neighbour skyscraper Canadia Tower (OCIC Tower). The tower was completed in December 2014. Modern high rises have been constructed all around the city, not concentrated in any one particular area.

 

The Central Market Phsar Thmei is a tourist attraction. The four wings of the yellow colored market are teeming with numerous stalls selling gold and silver jewelry, antique coins, clothing, clocks, flowers, food, fabrics and shoes. Phsar Thmei is undergoing under a major renovation, along with the creation of newer stalls.

 

ADMINISTRATION

Phnom Penh is a municipality of area 678.46 square kilometres with a government status equal to that of Cambodian provinces. The municipality is divided into 14 administrative divisions called khans (districts). The district s are subdivided into 105 sangkats (communes), and further subdivided into 953 phums (villages). All khans are under the governance of the Phnom Penh Municipality. Dangkao, Meanchey, Porsenchey, Sen Sok and Russei Keo are considered the outskirts of the city.

 

The municipality is governed by the governor who acts as the top executive of the city as well as overseeing the Municipal Military Police, Municipal Police, and Bureau of Urban Affairs. Below the governor is the first vice governor and five vice governors. The chief of cabinet, who holds the same status as the vice governors, heads the cabinet consisting of eight deputy chiefs of cabinet who in turn are in charge of the 27 administrative departments. Every khan (district) also has a chief.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2019, Phnom Penh had a population of 2,129,371 people, with a total population density of 3,136 inhabitants per square kilometre in a 679 square kilometres city area. The population growth rate of the city is 3.92%. The city area has grown fourfold since 1979, and the metro area will continue to expand in order to support the city's growing population and economy.

 

A survey by the National Institute of Statistics in 2017 showed that 95.3% of the population in Phnom Penh are Khmer, 4% Chams, and 0.7% others, predominantly Chinese, Vietnamese, and other small ethnic groups who are Thai, Budong, Mnong Preh, Kuy and Chong. The state religion is Theravada Buddhism. More than 90% of the people in Phnom Penh are Buddhists. Chams have been practicing Islam for hundreds of years. Since 1993, there has also been an increase in the practice of Christianity which was practically wiped out after 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took over. The official language is Khmer, but English and French are widely used in the city.

 

The number of slum-inhabitants at the end of 2012 was 105,771, compared with 85,807 at the start of 2012.

 

Note: As stated in the "History" paragraph (The 1998 Census put Phnom Penh's population at 862,000; and the 2008 census was 1.3 million.) the information collides with the information provided in the "Historical population" table.

 

POLITIC

Phnom Penh is allocated 12 seats in the National Assembly, making it the largest constituency.

 

ECONOMY

Phnom Penh is Cambodia's economic centre as it accounts for a large portion of the Cambodian economy. Double-digit economic growth rates in recent years have triggered an economic boom in Phnom Penh, with new hotels, restaurants, schools, bars, high rises and residential buildings springing up in the city.

 

The economy is based on commercial interests such as garments, trading, and small and medium enterprises. In the past few years the property business has been booming, with rapidly increasing real estate prices. Tourism is also a major contributor in the capital as more shopping and commercial centres open, making Phnom Penh one of the major tourist destinations in South East Asia along with Siem Reap and Sihanoukville. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, tourism made up 19.2 percent (US$2,053 million) of Cambodia's GDP in 2009 and accounts for 13.7 percent of total employment. One of the most popular areas in Phnom Penh for tourists is Sisowath Quay, alongside the Tonle Sap River. Sisowath Quay is a five kilometre strip of road that includes restaurants, bars, and hotels.

 

The US$2.6 billion new urban development, Camko City, is meant to bolster the city landscape. The Bureau of Urban Affairs of Phnom Penh Municipality has plans to expand and construct new infrastructure to accommodate the growing population and economy. High rise buildings will be constructed at the entrance of the city and near the lakes and riverbanks. Furthermore, new roads, canals, and a railway system will be used to connect Camko City and Phnom Penh.

 

Other projects include:

Grand Phnom Penh International City (under construction)

De Castle Royal Condominium (Completed)

Gold Tower 42 (On hold 32 floors construction begins again in the mid of 2018)

 

OCIC Tower (Completed)

Kokling super second floor house

Vattanac Capital Tower (completed)

The Bridge (Completed)

The Peak (under construction)

 

With booming economic growth seen since the 1990s, new shopping venues have opened, such as Sorya Center Point, Aeon Mall Phnom Penh, Aeon Mall Sen Sok City and Olympia Mall. Many international brands have opened such as Mango, Salvatore Ferragamo, Hugo Boss, Padini Concept Store, Lily, Timberland, Jimmy Choo, CC Double O, MO, Brands Outlet, Nike, Converse, Pony, Armani Exchange, and Super Dry.

 

The tallest skyscraper in Phnom Penh is Vattanac Capital Tower at a height of 188 metres, dominating Phnom Penh's skyline with its neighbour skyscraper Canadia Tower (OCIC Tower). The tower was completed in December 2014. Modern high rises have been constructed all around the city, not concentrated in any one particular area.

 

The Central Market Phsar Thmei is a tourist attraction. The four wings of the yellow colored market are teeming with numerous stalls selling gold and silver jewelry, antique coins, clothing, clocks, flowers, food, fabrics and shoes. Phsar Thmei is undergoing under a major renovation, along with the creation of newer stalls.

 

CULTURE

Phnom Penh also has its own dialect of Khmer. Speakers of the Phnom Penh dialect often elide syllables, which has earned it a reputation for being lazy speech. Phnom Penh is also known for its influence on New Khmer Architecture. Phnom Penh is notable for Ka tieu Phnom Penh, its variation on rice noodle soup, a dish available in sit-down cafes as well as street cafes.

 

The city hosts a number of music events throughout the city. 'Indie' bands (those without corporate sponsors) have grown in number due also in part to the emergence of private music schools such as SoundsKool Music (also operating in the city of Siem Reap), and Music Arts School (registered as an NGO). The Cambodian fishing dance originated in Phnom Penh at the Royal University of Fine Arts in the 1960s.

 

The two most visited museums in the city are the National Museum, which is the country's leading historical and archaeological museum, and Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, a former Khmer Rouge prison. The National Museum hosts celebrations of Cambodian dance and music, including a popular classic Apsara dance show of traditional folk dances as well as original creations.

 

CAMBODIAN NEW YEAR

At this time, Phnom Penh celebrates Cambodian New Year, an occasion increasingly popular with tourists. During this typically hottest part of the year, water gets thrown around adding to the party atmosphere along with dancing and music. The precise date changes year-by-year but this holiday lasts, at least, three days. This festival marks the turn of the year based on the ancient Khmer calendar and also marks the end of the prior year harvest.

 

WATER FESTIVAL

The largest annual festival in Phnom Penh, this lively gathering celebrates the reversing of the flow of the Tonlé Sap River. The holiday lasts three days as people flood into the city to enjoy the fireworks, boat races, live concerts, eating and partying. The boat racing dates back to ancient times marking the strengths of the Khmer marine forces during the Khmer Empire.

 

On November 22, 2010, at least 348 people were crushed to death in a bridge stampede at the festival.

 

ANCESTORS DAY

Ancestors' Day, also called Pchum Ben, is a very important aspect of Cambodian culture. It may be translated as "gathering together" to make offerings and is a time of reunion, commemoration, express love and appreciation for one's ancestors. By offering food and good karma to those possibly trapped in the spirit world, living relatives help assuage their misery and guide them back into the cycle of reincarnation.

 

VISAK BOCHEA

Vesākha is an annual holiday observed traditionally by Buddhists in Cambodia. Sometimes informally called "Buddha's Birthday", it actually encompasses the birth, enlightenment (nirvāṇa), and passing away (Parinirvāna) of Gautama Buddha.

 

CITYSCAPE AND ARCHITECTURE

The oldest structure is Wat Phnom from the founding days of the city, constructed in 1373. The main tourist attractions are the Royal Palace with the Silver Pagoda, and the National Museum, constructed during the French colonial era in the late-19th century in the classical Khmer style and hosting a vast collection of Khmer antiquities. The Independence Monument (Khmer: Vimean Akareach), although from the 1950s, is also constructed in the ancient Khmer style.

 

The French, who were the colonial masters from the 19th century to the 1940s, also left their mark, with various colonial villas, French churches, boulevards, and the Art Deco market Phsar Thom Thmei. A notable landmark of the colonial era is the Hotel Le Royal.

 

Starting with independence from the French in the 1950s and lasting until the era of the Khmer Rouge in the 1970s, Phnom Penh underwent tremendous growth as the capital city of a newly independent country. King Sihanouk was eager to present a new style of architecture and thus invigorate the process of nation building. A new golden era of architecture took off, with various projects and young Khmer architects, often educated in France, given opportunities to design and construct. This new movement was called "New Khmer Architecture" and was often characterised by a fusion of Bauhaus, European post-modern architecture, and traditional elements from Angkor. The most prominent architect was Vann Molyvann, who was nominated chief national architect by the king himself in 1956. Molyvann created landmark buildings such as the Preah Suramarit National Theatre and the Council of Ministers building. Other architects helped construct the newly founded Royal Khmer University, the Institute of Foreign Languages, and the National Sports Centre. With the growth of the upper and entrepreneurial middle classes, new suburbs were built in the 1950s and 1960s. Although these buildings survived the Khmer Rouge era and the civil war, today they are under threat due to economic development and financial speculation. Villas and gardens from that era are being destroyed and redeveloped to make place for bigger structures. The landmark National Theatre by Molyvann was razed in 2008 A movement is rising in Cambodia to preserve this modernist heritage. Old villas are sometimes being converted into boutique hotels, such as the Knai Bang Chatt.

 

Monuments and memorials to the genocide of the Khmer Rouge era in the 1970s are the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum (a former high school used as a concentration camp) and, on the outskirts of the city, the Choeung Ek Genocide Center. The Cambodia-Vietnam Friendship Monument was commissioned by the Vietnamese communists as symbol of Khmer-Vietnamese friendship during the late-1970s following the liberation of Cambodia from the Khmer Rouge.

 

The population, foreign investment, and urban development in Phnom Penh grew dramatically during the 1990s and early-2000s. The rapid growth resulted in the city's infrastructure distinctly lacking (the drainage system is particularly notorious, and Phnom Penh frequently floods during the wet season), and a need for both residential and commercial spaces. The simultaneous demand for residential and commercial housing and the increase of international investment has led to the planning, if not construction, of several satellite cities. The largest of these cities are: Grand Phnom Penh International City, CamKo City, Diamond Island City, Boeung Kak Town, and Chruy Cangva City.

 

On the outskirts of the city, farmland has been developed into garment factories and housing for lower economic classes and those displaced by the new development in the city center.

 

2035 MASTER PLAN

Originally intended to be completed by 2020, the 2035 master plan is a French-funded project for the development of Phnom Penh. Although the plan was approved by the Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction in 2005, it has yet to be ratified by the Cabinet of Cambodia. The original plan details five edge-city projects connected to the historical city centre by waterways and tree-lined corridors.

 

SPORT

The martial arts of Bokator, Pradal Serey (Khmer kick boxing) and Khmer traditional wrestling have venues in Phnom Penh watched by dedicated spectators. Cambodia has increasingly become involved in modern sports over the last 30 years. As with the rest of the country, football and the martial arts are particularly popular. Ultimate fighting and freestyle boxing have also become more common in recent years.

 

The most prominent sporting venue in the city is the Phnom Penh National Olympic Stadium with a capacity of 50,000—although the country never hosted the Olympic Games due to disruption by the civil war and the Khmer Rouge in the 1970s. Built in 1964, it is home to the Cambodian national football team. On completion the stadium was one of the largest in Asia. Volleyball, basketball, and Tai-Kwon-Do games are often hosted at the stadium. The stadium closed in 2000, but was redeveloped and reopened.

 

In footballing ventures, Phnom Penh is formally represented by Phnom Penh Crown FC despite being home to numerous football teams who plays in the Cambodian League. Including Visakha, Nagaworld, Boeungket and the aforementioned Phnom Penh Crown, amongst many others.

 

The National Sports Centre of Cambodia hosts swimming, boxing, and volleyball competitions. Noted local football clubs include Phnom Penh Empire, Khemara Keila FC and Military Police. The city will host the 2023 Southeast Asian Games and the 2023 ASEAN Para Games, this will mark the first time that Cambodia has hosted a multi-sport event.

 

TRANSPORT

Phnom Penh International Airport is the largest and busiest airport in Cambodia. It is seven kilometres west of central Phnom Penh. The airport is connected to the city center by taxi, train, and shuttle bus.

 

Cambodia's national flag carrier, Cambodia Angkor Air, launched in 2009, is headquartered in Phnom Penh and has its main hub there, with an additional hub at the Angkor International Airport.

 

Air France used to serve Phnom Penh from Paris-Charles de Gaulle but this service has since stopped. Qatar Airways now flies to and from Phnom Penh, via Ho Chi Minh City.

 

Taxis, pick-ups, and minibuses leave the city for destinations all over the country, but are fast losing ground to cheaper and more comfortable buses. Phnom Penh also has a rail service.

 

There are numerous bus companies, including Phnom Penh Public Transport and GST Express, running services to most provincial capitals, including Sihanoukville, Kampong Chhnang, Oudong and Takéo. Phnom Penh Sorya Transport Co. offers bus service to several provincial destinations along the National Routes and to Ho Chi Minh City. Giant Ibis is another bus company based in Phnom Penh, which travels to Sihanoukville, Kampot, Siem Reap and Ho Chi Minh, and has free Wi-Fi, air conditioning and modest pricing.

 

The city is Cambodia's main freshwater port, a major port on the Mekong River. It is linked to the South China Sea, 290 kilometres distant, via a channel of the Mekong in Vietnam.

 

PUBLIC TRANSPORT

Phnom Penh is served by air conditioned public buses. Initial attempts by the Japanese government to develop a Phnom Penh bus service began in 2001. An update of the JICA urban transport master plan for Phnom Penh was completed and implemented in 2014. The city is now served by 17 bus lines, operated by the Phnom Penh municipal government. Private transportation within the city include the cycle rickshaw, known in Khmer as "cyclo", the motorcycle taxi known in Khmer as "moto", the auto rickshaw known locally as "tuk-tuk", the trailer attached to a motorcycle taxi known in Khmer as "remorque", and the standard automobile taxicab known in Khmer as "taxi". Private forms of transportation used by locals include bicycles, motorbikes, and cars.

 

WATER SUPPLY

Water supply in Phnom Penh has improved dramatically in terms of access, service quality, efficiency, cost recovery and governance between 1993 and 2006. The number of customers has increased ninefold, service quality has improved from intermittent to continuous supply, water losses have been cut dramatically and the city's water utility went from being bankrupt to making a modest profit. These achievements were recognized through international awards such as the 2006 Ramon Magsaysay Award and the 2010 Stockholm Industry Water Award. The city's water utility is the Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (PPWSA). Its main water sources are the Mekong River, the Tonle Sap river and the Tonle Bassac river.

 

WIKIPEDIA

PHNOM PENH

Phnom Penh (/pəˌnɒm ˈpɛn, ˌpnɒm -/; Khmer: ភ្នំពេញ, Phnum Pénh [pʰnumˈpɨɲ]; lit. "Penh's Hill") is the capital and most populous city of Cambodia. It has been the national capital since the French protectorate of Cambodia, and has grown to become the nation's economic, industrial, and cultural centre.

 

Phnom Penh was founded in 1434 to succeed Angkor Thom as the capital of the Khmer nation but was abandoned several times before being reestablished in 1865 by King Norodom. The city formerly functioned as a processing center, with textiles, pharmaceuticals, machine manufacturing, and rice milling. Its chief assets, however, were cultural. Institutions of higher learning included the Royal University of Phnom Penh (established in 1960 as Royal Khmer University), with schools of engineering, fine arts, technology, and agricultural sciences, the latter at Chamkar Daung, a suburb. Also located in Phnom Penh were the Royal University of Agronomic Sciences and the Agricultural School of Prek Leap.

 

Once known as the "Pearl of Asia", it was considered one of the loveliest French-built cities in Indochina in the 1920s. Phnom Penh, along with Siem Reap and Sihanoukville, are significant global and domestic tourist destinations for Cambodia. Founded in 1372, the city is noted for its historical architecture and attractions. It became the national capital in 1434 following the fall of Angkor, and remained so until 1497. It regained its capital status during the French colonial era in 1865. There are a number of surviving colonial-era buildings scattered along the grand boulevards.

 

On the banks of the Tonlé Sap, Mekong, and Bassac Rivers, Phnom Penh is home to more than 2 million people, approximately 14% of the Cambodian population. The Phnom Penh metropolitan area includes 5 districts of Kandal Province.

 

ETYMOLOGY

Phnom Penh (lit. 'Penh's Hill') takes its name from the present Wat Phnom (lit. 'Hill Temple') or from the former Funan Kingdom, an ancient kingdom that existed from 1st to 6th century AD in Southeast Asia and the forerunner of the current Cambodian monarchy. Legend has it that in 1372, a wealthy widow named Penh found a Koki tree floating down the Tonlé Sap river after a storm. Inside the tree were four bronze Buddha statues and a stone statue of Vishnu. Penh ordered villagers to raise the height of the hill northeast of her house and used the Koki wood to build a temple on the hill to house the four Buddha statues, and a shrine for the Vishnu image slightly lower down. The temple became known as Wat Phnom Daun Penh, which is now known as Wat Phnom, a small hill 27 metres in height.

 

Phnom Penh's former official name is Krong Chaktomuk Serei Mongkol (Khmer: ក្រុងចតុមុខសិរីមង្គល, lit. 'City of the Brahma's Faces'), in its short form as Krong Chaktomuk (lit. "City of Four Faces"). Krong Chaktomuk is an abbreviation of the full name which was given by King Ponhea Yat, Krong Chaktomuk Mongkol Sakal Kampuchea Thipadei Serei Theakreak Bavar Intabat Borei Roat Reach Seima Moha Nokor (Khmer: ក្រុងចតុមុខមង្គលសកលកម្ពុជាធិបតី សិរីធរបវរ ឥន្ទបត្តបុរី រដ្ឋរាជសីមាមហានគរ, Khmer pronunciation: [ˌkɾoŋˌtɕaʔtoʔmuk̚ˌmŭəŋkŭəlˌsaʔkɒlˌkamputɕiəˌtʰɯp̚paʔdɤjˌseʔɾɤjˌtʰĕəʔɾĕəʔˌɓɒːʋɒːˌʔɤntĕəʔpat̚ˌɓoʔɾɤjˌɾŏət̚tʰaʔˌɾiəc̚ˌsɤjmaːˌmɔhaːˌnɔˈkɔː]). This loosely translates as "The place of four rivers that gives the happiness and success of Khmer Kingdom, the highest leader as well as impregnable city of the God Indra of the great kingdom".

 

HISTORY

The initial settlement of Phnom Penh is believed to have been established since the 5th century AD, according to the discovery of ancient kiln site in Choeung Ek commune of Dangkao district, southern part of central Phnom Penh in early 2000s. Choeung Ek archaeological site was one of the largest kiln pottery center in Cambodia and the earliest known kiln sites in Southeast Asia to produced the ceremonial vessels known as kendi from 5th to 13th century. Archaeologist stated that a large community is surrounded by a circular earthwork structure that is 740 metres in diameter and 4 metres high, built in the 11th century. In addition, there are remnants of other ancient village infrastructure, irrigation system, inscription, Shiva linga as well as an ancient brick temple foundation and its ornate remains which dated back to Funan era.

 

First recorded a century after it is said to have taken place, the legend of the founding of Phnom Penh tells of a local woman, Penh (commonly referred to as Daun Penh ("Grandmother Penh" or "Old Lady Penh") in Khmer), living at Chaktomuk, the future Phnom Penh. It was the late 14th century, and the Khmer capital was still at Angkor near Siem Reap 350 km to the north. Gathering firewood along the banks of the river, Lady Penh spied a floating koki tree in the river and fished it from the water. Inside the tree she found four Buddha statues and one of Vishnu.

 

The discovery was taken as a divine blessing, and to some a sign that the Khmer capital was to be brought to Phnom Penh from Angkor.[citation needed] To house the new-found sacred objects, Penh raised a small hill on the west bank of the Tonle Sap River and crowned it with a shrine, now known as Wat Phnom at the north end of central Phnom Penh. "Phnom" is Khmer for "hill" and Penh's hill took on the name of the founder, and the area around it became known after the hill.

 

Phnom Penh first became the capital of Cambodia after Ponhea Yat, king of the Khmer Empire, moved the capital from Angkor Thom after it was captured and destroyed by Siam a few years earlier. There is a stupa behind Wat Phnom that houses the remains of Ponhea Yat and the royal family as well as the remaining Buddhist statues from the Angkorean era. In the 17th century, Japanese immigrants also settled on the outskirts of present-day Phnom Penh.[16] A small Portuguese community survived in Phnom Penh until the 17th century, undertaking commercial and religious activity in the country.

 

Phnom Penh remained the royal capital for 73 years, from 1432 to 1505. It was abandoned for 360 years (from 1505 to 1865) by subsequent kings due to internal fighting between the royal pretenders. Later kings moved the capital several times and established their royal capitals at various locations in Tuol Basan (Srey Santhor), Pursat, Longvek, Lavear Em and Oudong.

 

It was not until 1866, under the reign of King Norodom I (1860–1904), the eldest son of King Ang Duong, who ruled on behalf of Siam, that Phnom Penh became the permanent seat of government and capital of Cambodia, and also where the current Royal Palace was built. Beginning in 1870, the French colonial authorities turned a riverside village into a city where they built hotels, schools, prisons, barracks, banks, public works offices, telegraph offices, law courts, and health services buildings. In 1872, the first glimpse of a modern city took shape when the colonial administration employed the services of French contractor Le Faucheur to construct the first 300 concrete houses for sale and rental to Chinese traders.

 

By the 1920s, Phnom Penh was known as the "Pearl of Asia", and over the next four decades, Phnom Penh continued to experience rapid growth with the building of railways to Sihanoukville and Pochentong International Airport (now Phnom Penh International Airport). Phnom Penh's infrastructure saw major modernisation under the rule of Sihanouk.

 

During the Vietnam War, Cambodia was used as a base by the People's Army of Vietnam and the Viet Cong, and thousands of refugees from across the country flooded the city to escape the fighting between their own government troops, the People's Army of Vietnam, the Viet Cong, the South Vietnamese and their allies, the Khmer Rouge, and American air strikes. By 1975, the population was 2–3 million, the bulk of whom were refugees from the fighting. The Khmer Rouge cut off supplies to the city for more than a year before it fell on April 17, 1975. Reports from journalists stated that the Khmer Rouge shelling "tortured the capital almost continuously", inflicting "random death and mutilation" on millions of trapped civilians. The Khmer Rouge forcibly evacuated the entire city after taking it, in what has been described as a death march: François Ponchaud wrote that "I shall never forget one cripple who had neither hands nor feet, writhing along the ground like a severed worm, or a weeping father carrying his ten-year old daughter wrapped in a sheet tied around his neck like a sling, or the man with his foot dangling at the end of a leg to which it was attached by nothing but skin"; Jon Swain recalled that the Khmer Rouge were "tipping out patients from the hospitals like garbage into the streets....In five years of war, this is the greatest caravan of human misery I have seen". All of its residents, including the wealthy and educated, were evacuated from the city and forced to do difficult labour on rural farms as "new people". Tuol Sleng High School was taken over by Pol Pot's forces and was turned into the S-21 prison camp, where people were detained and tortured. Pol Pot sought a return to an agrarian economy and therefore killed many people perceived as educated, "lazy" or political enemies. Many others starved to death as a result of failure of the agrarian society and the sale of Cambodia's rice to China in exchange for bullets and weaponry. The former high school is now the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, where Khmer Rouge torture devices and photos of their victims are displayed. Choeung Ek (The Killing Fields), 15 kilometersaway, where the Khmer Rouge marched prisoners from Tuol Sleng to be murdered and buried in shallow pits, is also now a memorial to those who were killed by the regime.

 

The Khmer Rouge were driven out of Phnom Penh by the People's Army of Vietnam in 1979, and people began to return to the city. Vietnam is historically a state with which Cambodia has had many conflicts, therefore this liberation was and is viewed with mixed emotions by the Cambodians. A period of reconstruction began, spurred by the continuing stability of government, attracting new foreign investment and aid by countries including France, Australia, and Japan. Loans were made from the Asian Development Bank and the World Bank to reinstate a clean water supply, roads and other infrastructure. The 1998 Census put Phnom Penh's population at 862,000; and the 2008 census was 1.3 million. By 2019, its population reached over 2.2 million, based on general population census.

 

GEOGRAPHICS

Phnom Penh is in the south-central region of Cambodia, and is fully surrounded by Kandal Province. The municipality is on the banks of the Tonlé Sap, Mekong, and Bassac Rivers. These rivers provide freshwater and other natural resources to the city. Phnom Penh and the surrounding areas consist of a typical flood plain area for Cambodia. Although Phnom Penh is at 11.89 metres above the river, monsoon season flooding is a problem, and the river sometimes overflows its banks.

 

The city, at 11.55°N 104.91667°E (11°33' North, 104°55' East), covers an area of 678.46 square kilometres, with some 11,401 hectares in the municipality and 26,106 ha of roads. The agricultural land in the municipality amounts to 34.685 km2 with some 1.476 km2 under irrigation.

 

CLIMATE

Phnom Penh has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). The climate is hot year-round with only minor variations. Temperatures typically range from 22 to 35 °C and weather is subject to the tropical monsoons. The southwest monsoon blows inland bringing moisture-laden winds from the Gulf of Thailand and Indian Ocean from May to November. The northeast monsoon ushers in the dry season, which lasts from December to April. The city experiences the heaviest precipitation from September to October with the driest period in January and February.

 

The city has two distinct seasons. The rainy season, which runs from May to November, sees high temperatures accompanied by high humidity. The dry season lasts from December to April; when overnight temperatures can drop to 22 °C.

 

ADMINISTRATION

Phnom Penh is a municipality of area 678.46 square kilometres with a government status equal to that of Cambodian provinces. The municipality is divided into 14 administrative divisions called khans (districts). The district s are subdivided into 105 sangkats (communes), and further subdivided into 953 phums (villages). All khans are under the governance of the Phnom Penh Municipality. Dangkao, Meanchey, Porsenchey, Sen Sok and Russei Keo are considered the outskirts of the city.

 

The municipality is governed by the governor who acts as the top executive of the city as well as overseeing the Municipal Military Police, Municipal Police, and Bureau of Urban Affairs. Below the governor is the first vice governor and five vice governors. The chief of cabinet, who holds the same status as the vice governors, heads the cabinet consisting of eight deputy chiefs of cabinet who in turn are in charge of the 27 administrative departments. Every khan (district) also has a chief.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2019, Phnom Penh had a population of 2,129,371 people, with a total population density of 3,136 inhabitants per square kilometre in a 679 square kilometres city area. The population growth rate of the city is 3.92%. The city area has grown fourfold since 1979, and the metro area will continue to expand in order to support the city's growing population and economy.

 

A survey by the National Institute of Statistics in 2017 showed that 95.3% of the population in Phnom Penh are Khmer, 4% Chams, and 0.7% others, predominantly Chinese, Vietnamese, and other small ethnic groups who are Thai, Budong, Mnong Preh, Kuy and Chong. The state religion is Theravada Buddhism. More than 90% of the people in Phnom Penh are Buddhists. Chams have been practicing Islam for hundreds of years. Since 1993, there has also been an increase in the practice of Christianity which was practically wiped out after 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took over. The official language is Khmer, but English and French are widely used in the city.

 

The number of slum-inhabitants at the end of 2012 was 105,771, compared with 85,807 at the start of 2012.

 

Note: As stated in the "History" paragraph (The 1998 Census put Phnom Penh's population at 862,000; and the 2008 census was 1.3 million.) the information collides with the information provided in the "Historical population" table. Needs editing.

 

POLITIC

Phnom Penh is allocated 12 seats in the National Assembly, making it the largest constituency.

 

ECONOMY

Phnom Penh is Cambodia's economic centre as it accounts for a large portion of the Cambodian economy. Double-digit economic growth rates in recent years have triggered an economic boom in Phnom Penh, with new hotels, restaurants, schools, bars, high rises and residential buildings springing up in the city.

 

The economy is based on commercial interests such as garments, trading, and small and medium enterprises. In the past few years the property business has been booming, with rapidly increasing real estate prices. Tourism is also a major contributor in the capital as more shopping and commercial centres open, making Phnom Penh one of the major tourist destinations in South East Asia along with Siem Reap and Sihanoukville. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, tourism made up 19.2 percent (US$2,053 million) of Cambodia's GDP in 2009 and accounts for 13.7 percent of total employment. One of the most popular areas in Phnom Penh for tourists is Sisowath Quay, alongside the Tonle Sap River. Sisowath Quay is a five kilometre strip of road that includes restaurants, bars, and hotels.

 

The US$2.6 billion new urban development, Camko City, is meant to bolster the city landscape. The Bureau of Urban Affairs of Phnom Penh Municipality has plans to expand and construct new infrastructure to accommodate the growing population and economy. High rise buildings will be constructed at the entrance of the city and near the lakes and riverbanks. Furthermore, new roads, canals, and a railway system will be used to connect Camko City and Phnom Penh.

 

Other projects include:

Grand Phnom Penh International City (under construction)

De Castle Royal Condominium (Completed)

Gold Tower 42 (On hold 32 floors construction begins again in the mid of 2018)

OCIC Tower (Completed)

Kokling super second floor house

Vattanac Capital Tower (completed)

The Bridge (Completed)

The Peak (under construction)

 

With booming economic growth seen since the 1990s, new shopping venues have opened, such as Sorya Center Point, Aeon Mall Phnom Penh, Aeon Mall Sen Sok City and Olympia Mall. Many international brands have opened such as Mango, Salvatore Ferragamo, Hugo Boss, Padini Concept Store, Lily, Timberland, Jimmy Choo, CC Double O, MO, Brands Outlet, Nike, Converse, Pony, Armani Exchange, and Super Dry.

 

The tallest skyscraper in Phnom Penh is Vattanac Capital Tower at a height of 188 metres, dominating Phnom Penh's skyline with its neighbour skyscraper Canadia Tower (OCIC Tower). The tower was completed in December 2014. Modern high rises have been constructed all around the city, not concentrated in any one particular area.

 

The Central Market Phsar Thmei is a tourist attraction. The four wings of the yellow colored market are teeming with numerous stalls selling gold and silver jewelry, antique coins, clothing, clocks, flowers, food, fabrics and shoes. Phsar Thmei is undergoing under a major renovation, along with the creation of newer stalls.

 

ADMINISTRATION

Phnom Penh is a municipality of area 678.46 square kilometres with a government status equal to that of Cambodian provinces. The municipality is divided into 14 administrative divisions called khans (districts). The district s are subdivided into 105 sangkats (communes), and further subdivided into 953 phums (villages). All khans are under the governance of the Phnom Penh Municipality. Dangkao, Meanchey, Porsenchey, Sen Sok and Russei Keo are considered the outskirts of the city.

 

The municipality is governed by the governor who acts as the top executive of the city as well as overseeing the Municipal Military Police, Municipal Police, and Bureau of Urban Affairs. Below the governor is the first vice governor and five vice governors. The chief of cabinet, who holds the same status as the vice governors, heads the cabinet consisting of eight deputy chiefs of cabinet who in turn are in charge of the 27 administrative departments. Every khan (district) also has a chief.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2019, Phnom Penh had a population of 2,129,371 people, with a total population density of 3,136 inhabitants per square kilometre in a 679 square kilometres city area. The population growth rate of the city is 3.92%. The city area has grown fourfold since 1979, and the metro area will continue to expand in order to support the city's growing population and economy.

 

A survey by the National Institute of Statistics in 2017 showed that 95.3% of the population in Phnom Penh are Khmer, 4% Chams, and 0.7% others, predominantly Chinese, Vietnamese, and other small ethnic groups who are Thai, Budong, Mnong Preh, Kuy and Chong. The state religion is Theravada Buddhism. More than 90% of the people in Phnom Penh are Buddhists. Chams have been practicing Islam for hundreds of years. Since 1993, there has also been an increase in the practice of Christianity which was practically wiped out after 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took over. The official language is Khmer, but English and French are widely used in the city.

 

The number of slum-inhabitants at the end of 2012 was 105,771, compared with 85,807 at the start of 2012.

 

Note: As stated in the "History" paragraph (The 1998 Census put Phnom Penh's population at 862,000; and the 2008 census was 1.3 million.) the information collides with the information provided in the "Historical population" table.

 

POLITIC

Phnom Penh is allocated 12 seats in the National Assembly, making it the largest constituency.

 

ECONOMY

Phnom Penh is Cambodia's economic centre as it accounts for a large portion of the Cambodian economy. Double-digit economic growth rates in recent years have triggered an economic boom in Phnom Penh, with new hotels, restaurants, schools, bars, high rises and residential buildings springing up in the city.

 

The economy is based on commercial interests such as garments, trading, and small and medium enterprises. In the past few years the property business has been booming, with rapidly increasing real estate prices. Tourism is also a major contributor in the capital as more shopping and commercial centres open, making Phnom Penh one of the major tourist destinations in South East Asia along with Siem Reap and Sihanoukville. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, tourism made up 19.2 percent (US$2,053 million) of Cambodia's GDP in 2009 and accounts for 13.7 percent of total employment. One of the most popular areas in Phnom Penh for tourists is Sisowath Quay, alongside the Tonle Sap River. Sisowath Quay is a five kilometre strip of road that includes restaurants, bars, and hotels.

 

The US$2.6 billion new urban development, Camko City, is meant to bolster the city landscape. The Bureau of Urban Affairs of Phnom Penh Municipality has plans to expand and construct new infrastructure to accommodate the growing population and economy. High rise buildings will be constructed at the entrance of the city and near the lakes and riverbanks. Furthermore, new roads, canals, and a railway system will be used to connect Camko City and Phnom Penh.

 

Other projects include:

Grand Phnom Penh International City (under construction)

De Castle Royal Condominium (Completed)

Gold Tower 42 (On hold 32 floors construction begins again in the mid of 2018)

 

OCIC Tower (Completed)

Kokling super second floor house

Vattanac Capital Tower (completed)

The Bridge (Completed)

The Peak (under construction)

 

With booming economic growth seen since the 1990s, new shopping venues have opened, such as Sorya Center Point, Aeon Mall Phnom Penh, Aeon Mall Sen Sok City and Olympia Mall. Many international brands have opened such as Mango, Salvatore Ferragamo, Hugo Boss, Padini Concept Store, Lily, Timberland, Jimmy Choo, CC Double O, MO, Brands Outlet, Nike, Converse, Pony, Armani Exchange, and Super Dry.

 

The tallest skyscraper in Phnom Penh is Vattanac Capital Tower at a height of 188 metres, dominating Phnom Penh's skyline with its neighbour skyscraper Canadia Tower (OCIC Tower). The tower was completed in December 2014. Modern high rises have been constructed all around the city, not concentrated in any one particular area.

 

The Central Market Phsar Thmei is a tourist attraction. The four wings of the yellow colored market are teeming with numerous stalls selling gold and silver jewelry, antique coins, clothing, clocks, flowers, food, fabrics and shoes. Phsar Thmei is undergoing under a major renovation, along with the creation of newer stalls.

 

CULTURE

Phnom Penh also has its own dialect of Khmer. Speakers of the Phnom Penh dialect often elide syllables, which has earned it a reputation for being lazy speech. Phnom Penh is also known for its influence on New Khmer Architecture. Phnom Penh is notable for Ka tieu Phnom Penh, its variation on rice noodle soup, a dish available in sit-down cafes as well as street cafes.

 

The city hosts a number of music events throughout the city. 'Indie' bands (those without corporate sponsors) have grown in number due also in part to the emergence of private music schools such as SoundsKool Music (also operating in the city of Siem Reap), and Music Arts School (registered as an NGO). The Cambodian fishing dance originated in Phnom Penh at the Royal University of Fine Arts in the 1960s.

 

The two most visited museums in the city are the National Museum, which is the country's leading historical and archaeological museum, and Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, a former Khmer Rouge prison. The National Museum hosts celebrations of Cambodian dance and music, including a popular classic Apsara dance show of traditional folk dances as well as original creations.

 

CAMBODIAN NEW YEAR

At this time, Phnom Penh celebrates Cambodian New Year, an occasion increasingly popular with tourists. During this typically hottest part of the year, water gets thrown around adding to the party atmosphere along with dancing and music. The precise date changes year-by-year but this holiday lasts, at least, three days. This festival marks the turn of the year based on the ancient Khmer calendar and also marks the end of the prior year harvest.

 

WATER FESTIVAL

The largest annual festival in Phnom Penh, this lively gathering celebrates the reversing of the flow of the Tonlé Sap River. The holiday lasts three days as people flood into the city to enjoy the fireworks, boat races, live concerts, eating and partying. The boat racing dates back to ancient times marking the strengths of the Khmer marine forces during the Khmer Empire.

 

On November 22, 2010, at least 348 people were crushed to death in a bridge stampede at the festival.

 

ANCESTORS DAY

Ancestors' Day, also called Pchum Ben, is a very important aspect of Cambodian culture. It may be translated as "gathering together" to make offerings and is a time of reunion, commemoration, express love and appreciation for one's ancestors. By offering food and good karma to those possibly trapped in the spirit world, living relatives help assuage their misery and guide them back into the cycle of reincarnation.

 

VISAK BOCHEA

Vesākha is an annual holiday observed traditionally by Buddhists in Cambodia. Sometimes informally called "Buddha's Birthday", it actually encompasses the birth, enlightenment (nirvāṇa), and passing away (Parinirvāna) of Gautama Buddha.

 

CITYSCAPE AND ARCHITECTURE

The oldest structure is Wat Phnom from the founding days of the city, constructed in 1373. The main tourist attractions are the Royal Palace with the Silver Pagoda, and the National Museum, constructed during the French colonial era in the late-19th century in the classical Khmer style and hosting a vast collection of Khmer antiquities. The Independence Monument (Khmer: Vimean Akareach), although from the 1950s, is also constructed in the ancient Khmer style.

 

The French, who were the colonial masters from the 19th century to the 1940s, also left their mark, with various colonial villas, French churches, boulevards, and the Art Deco market Phsar Thom Thmei. A notable landmark of the colonial era is the Hotel Le Royal.

 

Starting with independence from the French in the 1950s and lasting until the era of the Khmer Rouge in the 1970s, Phnom Penh underwent tremendous growth as the capital city of a newly independent country. King Sihanouk was eager to present a new style of architecture and thus invigorate the process of nation building. A new golden era of architecture took off, with various projects and young Khmer architects, often educated in France, given opportunities to design and construct. This new movement was called "New Khmer Architecture" and was often characterised by a fusion of Bauhaus, European post-modern architecture, and traditional elements from Angkor. The most prominent architect was Vann Molyvann, who was nominated chief national architect by the king himself in 1956. Molyvann created landmark buildings such as the Preah Suramarit National Theatre and the Council of Ministers building. Other architects helped construct the newly founded Royal Khmer University, the Institute of Foreign Languages, and the National Sports Centre. With the growth of the upper and entrepreneurial middle classes, new suburbs were built in the 1950s and 1960s. Although these buildings survived the Khmer Rouge era and the civil war, today they are under threat due to economic development and financial speculation. Villas and gardens from that era are being destroyed and redeveloped to make place for bigger structures. The landmark National Theatre by Molyvann was razed in 2008 A movement is rising in Cambodia to preserve this modernist heritage. Old villas are sometimes being converted into boutique hotels, such as the Knai Bang Chatt.

 

Monuments and memorials to the genocide of the Khmer Rouge era in the 1970s are the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum (a former high school used as a concentration camp) and, on the outskirts of the city, the Choeung Ek Genocide Center. The Cambodia-Vietnam Friendship Monument was commissioned by the Vietnamese communists as symbol of Khmer-Vietnamese friendship during the late-1970s following the liberation of Cambodia from the Khmer Rouge.

 

The population, foreign investment, and urban development in Phnom Penh grew dramatically during the 1990s and early-2000s. The rapid growth resulted in the city's infrastructure distinctly lacking (the drainage system is particularly notorious, and Phnom Penh frequently floods during the wet season), and a need for both residential and commercial spaces. The simultaneous demand for residential and commercial housing and the increase of international investment has led to the planning, if not construction, of several satellite cities. The largest of these cities are: Grand Phnom Penh International City, CamKo City, Diamond Island City, Boeung Kak Town, and Chruy Cangva City.

 

On the outskirts of the city, farmland has been developed into garment factories and housing for lower economic classes and those displaced by the new development in the city center.

 

2035 MASTER PLAN

Originally intended to be completed by 2020, the 2035 master plan is a French-funded project for the development of Phnom Penh. Although the plan was approved by the Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction in 2005, it has yet to be ratified by the Cabinet of Cambodia. The original plan details five edge-city projects connected to the historical city centre by waterways and tree-lined corridors.

 

SPORT

The martial arts of Bokator, Pradal Serey (Khmer kick boxing) and Khmer traditional wrestling have venues in Phnom Penh watched by dedicated spectators. Cambodia has increasingly become involved in modern sports over the last 30 years. As with the rest of the country, football and the martial arts are particularly popular. Ultimate fighting and freestyle boxing have also become more common in recent years.

 

The most prominent sporting venue in the city is the Phnom Penh National Olympic Stadium with a capacity of 50,000—although the country never hosted the Olympic Games due to disruption by the civil war and the Khmer Rouge in the 1970s. Built in 1964, it is home to the Cambodian national football team. On completion the stadium was one of the largest in Asia. Volleyball, basketball, and Tai-Kwon-Do games are often hosted at the stadium. The stadium closed in 2000, but was redeveloped and reopened.

 

In footballing ventures, Phnom Penh is formally represented by Phnom Penh Crown FC despite being home to numerous football teams who plays in the Cambodian League. Including Visakha, Nagaworld, Boeungket and the aforementioned Phnom Penh Crown, amongst many others.

 

The National Sports Centre of Cambodia hosts swimming, boxing, and volleyball competitions. Noted local football clubs include Phnom Penh Empire, Khemara Keila FC and Military Police. The city will host the 2023 Southeast Asian Games and the 2023 ASEAN Para Games, this will mark the first time that Cambodia has hosted a multi-sport event.

 

TRANSPORT

Phnom Penh International Airport is the largest and busiest airport in Cambodia. It is seven kilometres west of central Phnom Penh. The airport is connected to the city center by taxi, train, and shuttle bus.

 

Cambodia's national flag carrier, Cambodia Angkor Air, launched in 2009, is headquartered in Phnom Penh and has its main hub there, with an additional hub at the Angkor International Airport.

 

Air France used to serve Phnom Penh from Paris-Charles de Gaulle but this service has since stopped. Qatar Airways now flies to and from Phnom Penh, via Ho Chi Minh City.

 

Taxis, pick-ups, and minibuses leave the city for destinations all over the country, but are fast losing ground to cheaper and more comfortable buses. Phnom Penh also has a rail service.

 

There are numerous bus companies, including Phnom Penh Public Transport and GST Express, running services to most provincial capitals, including Sihanoukville, Kampong Chhnang, Oudong and Takéo. Phnom Penh Sorya Transport Co. offers bus service to several provincial destinations along the National Routes and to Ho Chi Minh City. Giant Ibis is another bus company based in Phnom Penh, which travels to Sihanoukville, Kampot, Siem Reap and Ho Chi Minh, and has free Wi-Fi, air conditioning and modest pricing.

 

The city is Cambodia's main freshwater port, a major port on the Mekong River. It is linked to the South China Sea, 290 kilometres distant, via a channel of the Mekong in Vietnam.

 

PUBLIC TRANSPORT

Phnom Penh is served by air conditioned public buses. Initial attempts by the Japanese government to develop a Phnom Penh bus service began in 2001. An update of the JICA urban transport master plan for Phnom Penh was completed and implemented in 2014. The city is now served by 17 bus lines, operated by the Phnom Penh municipal government. Private transportation within the city include the cycle rickshaw, known in Khmer as "cyclo", the motorcycle taxi known in Khmer as "moto", the auto rickshaw known locally as "tuk-tuk", the trailer attached to a motorcycle taxi known in Khmer as "remorque", and the standard automobile taxicab known in Khmer as "taxi". Private forms of transportation used by locals include bicycles, motorbikes, and cars.

 

WATER SUPPLY

Water supply in Phnom Penh has improved dramatically in terms of access, service quality, efficiency, cost recovery and governance between 1993 and 2006. The number of customers has increased ninefold, service quality has improved from intermittent to continuous supply, water losses have been cut dramatically and the city's water utility went from being bankrupt to making a modest profit. These achievements were recognized through international awards such as the 2006 Ramon Magsaysay Award and the 2010 Stockholm Industry Water Award. The city's water utility is the Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (PPWSA). Its main water sources are the Mekong River, the Tonle Sap river and the Tonle Bassac river.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Belfast Lough en route to Birkenhead

 

The forerunner of the familiar bue plaques. This decorates the outside wall of a house in Hampstead.

Read about the unfortunate gentleman concerned: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Vane_the_Younger

 

VSTOL aircraft built in 1964 , the forerunner to the Harrier. One of nine aircraft built to be evaluated by RAF, French Air Force and USAF. Designated FGA.1 by RAF and marked XS690, transferred to USAF as XV-6A and marked 64-18264. In Pima Air & Space Museum in Tucson, AZ, USA 19. October 2017. On loan from National Museum of USAF.

Wightlink is a ferry company operating routes across The Solent between Hampshire and the Isle of Wight in the south of England. It operates car ferries between Lymington and Yarmouth, and Portsmouth and Fishbourne and a fast passenger-only catamaran between Portsmouth Harbour and Ryde Pier. The company is jointly owned by Basalt Infrastructure Partners based in the United Kingdom and Fiera Infrastructure[3] based in Canada.

 

History

Wightlink and its forerunners have provided ferry services to and from the Isle of Wight for more than 160 years.[4] In the early 19th century, ferries ran to the island from Lymington and Portsmouth. Later, steam ferries operated a circular route around Lymington, Yarmouth, Cowes, Ryde and Portsmouth. When the railway companies became involved they concentrated on two direct routes, Lymington to Yarmouth and Portsmouth to Ryde.[4] Ownership of the ferries eventually passed from the British Railways Board to Sealink.

 

In 1984 Sealink was sold to Sea Containers.[5] When Stena Line bought Sealink in 1990, the Isle of Wight ferries remained with Sea Containers, as Wightlink.[4] In June 1995 Wightlink was the subject of a management buyout.[6] In 2005 it was bought by the Macquarie European Infrastructure Fund.[4]

 

In 2005, a Wightlink car ferry featured briefly in the film Fragile starring Calista Flockhart. The ferry is shown very briefly in a wide-angle shot. Closer shots used Red Funnel's Red Osprey.[7]

 

In October 2006 Wightlink announced its intention to build two new ferries for the Yarmouth to Lymington route. These ships are slightly bigger than their predecessors, with extra vehicle space, but only accommodate 360 passengers compared to 500 on the older vessels. Wightlink later announced that a third new ferry would enter service in spring 2009. A dispute with some Lymington residents led to delay and threatened the viability of the route.[8][9] In November 2008, the service was reduced so only two ships were required, allowing for the delay in the introduction of the new vessels.[10] Sea trials were not complete by November 2008 and introduction became pressing with the expiry of safety certificates on the previous fleet. Wightlink proposed interim arrangements enabling them restricted use of the new ferries until the trials could be completed in full.[11]

  

The previous Wightlink logo, replaced at around the time the new ferries were arriving.

In March 2008 Wightlink revealed that an order had been placed with FBMA Marine to construct two new passenger catamarans for the Portsmouth to Ryde service, to replace the three craft currently employed. They entered service in 2009.

 

From May 2008 Wightlink introduced a fuel surcharge on all crossings, linked to the price of Brent Crude oil.[12] However, in November 2008 the surcharge dropped to zero following the sharp reduction in crude prices during the credit crunch and as of November 2009 was still at zero.

 

Wightlink planned to spend £17.5 million on improving its Portsmouth to Fishbourne route.[13] This involved remodelling the terminal facilities at both Fishbourne and Portsmouth. The flagship St Clare was to have its upper car deck adjusted so vehicles access it directly from on-shore ramps. Two of the older ferries were to be stretched in length by 12 metres, with upper car decks similar to St Clare's being added, replacing movable mezzanine decks. Of the remaining two ferries, St Catherine has been sold and St Helen was used mainly for freight until she too was sold.[14][15] As part of this investment project the reservations and ticketing system was replaced by CarRes from Carus.[16]

 

On 16 February 2015, Wightlink was sold by the Macquarie European Infrastructure Fund to Balfour Beatty Infrastructure Partners (BBIP).[17][18][19] On 15 May 2015, Wightlink announced a revised investment of £45 million to include the purchase a new ferry, upgrading St Clare and modifications to the terminals at both ends to facilitate double-deck loading.[20][21]

 

In July 2016, Balfour Beatty exited BBIP, which became Basalt Infrastructure Partners.[22][23]

 

In August 2017, Wightlink announced that a new vehicle ferry, Victoria of Wight, would be built for the Portsmouth to Fishbourne service. It entered service on 26 August 2018.[24] In May 2019, BBIP sold a 50% stake in the business to Fiera Infrastructure of Canada. Wikipedia

 

The Volkswagen Type 2, officially known as the Transporter or informally as Bus (US) or Camper (UK), was a panel van introduced in 1950 by German automaker Volkswagen as its second car model – following and initially deriving from Volkswagen's first model, the Type 1 (Beetle), it was given the factory designation Type 2.

As one of the forerunners of the modern cargo and passenger vans, the Type 2 gave rise to competitors in the United States and Europe, including the Ford Econoline, the Dodge A100, and the Corvair 95 Corvan, the latter adopting the Type 2's rear-engine configuration. European competition included the Renault Estafette and the Ford Transit. As of January 2010, updated versions of the Type 2 remain in production in international markets— as a passenger van, as a cargo van, and as a pickup truck.

Like the Beetle, the van has received numerous nicknames worldwide, including the "microbus", "minibus", "kombi" and, due to its popularity during the counterculture movement of the 1960s, "hippie van".

 

The concept for the Type 2 is credited to Dutch Volkswagen importer Ben Pon. (It has similarities in concept to the 1920s Rumpler Tropfenwagen and 1930s Dymaxion car by Buckminster Fuller, neither of which reached production.) Pon visited Wolfsburg in 1946, intending to purchase Type 1s for import to Holland, where he saw an improvised parts-mover and realized something better was possible using the stock Type 1 pan. He first sketched the van in a doodle dated April 23, 1947, proposing a payload of 690 kg (1,500 lb) and placing the driver at the very front. Production would have to wait, however, as the factory was at capacity producing the Type 1.

When capacity freed up a prototype known internally as the Type 29 was produced in a short three months. The stock Type 1 pan proved to be too weak so the prototype used a ladder chassis with unit body construction. Coincidentally the wheelbase was the same as the Type 1's. Engineers reused the reduction gear from the Type 81, enabling the 1.5 ton van to use a 25 hp (19 kW) flat four engine.

Although the aerodynamics of the first prototypes were poor (with an initial drag coefficient of 0.75), engineers used the wind tunnel at the Technical University of Braunschweig to optimize the design. Simple changes such as splitting the windshield and roofline into a "vee" helped the production Type 2 achieve a drag coefficient of 0.44, exceeding the Type 1's 0.48. Volkswagen's new chief executive officer Heinz Nordhoff (appointed 1 January 1948) approved the van for production on 19 May 1949 and the first production model, now designated Type 2, rolled off the assembly line to debut 12 November. Only two models were offered: the Kombi (with two side windows and middle and rear seats that were easily removable by one person), and the Commercial. The Microbus was added in May 1950, joined by the Deluxe Microbus in June 1951. In all 9,541 Type 2s were produced in their first year of production.

An ambulance model was added in December 1951 which repositioned the fuel tank in front of the transaxle, put the spare tire behind the front seat, and added a "tailgate"-style rear door. These features became standard on the Type 2 from 1955 to 1967. 11,805 Type 2s were built in the 1951 model year. These were joined by a single-cab pickup in August 1952, and it changed the least of the Type 2s until all were heavily modified in 1968.

Unlike other rear engine Volkswagens, which evolved constantly over time but never saw the introduction of all-new models, the Transporter not only evolved, but was completely revised periodically with variations retrospectively referred to as versions "T1" to "T5" (a nomenclature only invented after the introduction of the front-drive T4 which repaced the T25) However only generations T1 to T3 (or T25 as it is still called in Ireland and Great Britain) can be seen as directly related to the Beetle (see below for details).

The Type 2, along with the 1947 Citroën H Van, are among the first 'forward control' vans in which the driver was placed above the front roadwheels. They started a trend in Europe, where the 1952 GM Bedford CA, 1959 Renault Estafette, 1960 BMC Morris J4, and 1960 Commer FC also used the concept. In the United States, the Corvair-based Chevrolet Corvan cargo van and Greenbrier passenger van went so far as to copy the Type 2's rear-engine layout, using the Corvair's horizontally-opposed, air-cooled engine for power. Except for the Greenbrier and various 1950s–70s Fiat minivans, the Type 2 remained unique in being rear-engined. This was a disadvantage for the early "barndoor" Panel Vans, which couldn't easily be loaded from the rear due to the engine cover intruding on interior space, but generally advantageous in traction and interior noise.

 

The Type 2 was available as a:

Panel van, a delivery van without side windows or rear seats.

Nippen Tucket, available in six colours, with or without doors.

Walk-Through Panel Van, a delivery van without side windows or rear seats and cargo doors on both sides.

High Roof Panel Van (German: Hochdach), a delivery van with raised roof.

Kombi, from German: Kombinationskraftwagen (combination motor vehicle), with side windows and removable rear seats, both a passenger and a cargo vehicle combined.

Bus, also called a Volkswagen Caravelle, a van with more comfortable interior reminiscent of passenger cars since the third generation.

Samba-Bus, a van with skylight windows and cloth sunroof, first generation only, also known as a Deluxe Microbus. They were marketed for touring the Alps,

Flatbed pickup truck, or Single Cab, also available with wider load bed.

Crew cab pick-up, a flatbed truck with extended cab and two rows of seats, also called a Doka, from German: Doppelkabine.

Westfalia camping van, "Westy", with Westfalia roof and interior.

Adventurewagen camping van, with high roof and camping units from Adventurewagen.

Semi-camping van that can also still be used as a passenger car and transporter, sacrificing some camping comforts. "Multivan" or "Weekender", available from the third generation on.

Apart from these factory variants, there were a multitude of third-party conversions available, some of which were offered through Volkswagen dealers. They included, but were not limited to, refrigerated vans, hearses, ambulances, police vans, fire engines and ladder trucks, and camping van conversions by companies other than Westfalia. There were even 30 Klv 20 rail-going draisines built for Deutsche Bundesbahn in 1955.

 

The first generation of the Volkswagen Type 2 with the split windshield, informally called the Microbus, Splitscreen, or Splittie among modern fans, was produced from 8 March 1950 through the end of the 1967 model year. From 1950–1956, the T1 was built in Wolfsburg; from 1956, it was built at the completely new Transporter factory in Hanover. Like the Beetle, the first Transporters used the 1100 Volkswagen air cooled engine, an 1,131 cc (69.0 cu in), DIN-rated 18 kW (24 PS; 24 bhp), air-cooled flat-four cylinder 'boxer' engine mounted in the rear. This was upgraded to the 1200 – an 1,192 cc (72.7 cu in) 22 kW (30 PS; 30 bhp) in 1953. A higher compression ratio became standard in 1955; while an unusual early version of the 30 kW (41 PS; 40 bhp) engine debuted exclusively on the Type 2 in 1959. This engine proved to be so uncharacteristically troublesome that Volkswagen recalled all 1959 Transporters and replaced the engines with an updated version of the 30 kW engine. Any 1959 models that retain that early engine today are true survivors. Since the engine was totally discontinued at the outset, no parts were ever made available.

The early versions of the T1 until 1955 were often called the "Barndoor" (retrospectively called T1a since the 1990s), owing to the enormous rear engine cover, while the later versions with a slightly modified body (the roofline above the windshield is extended), smaller engine bay, and 15" roadwheels instead of the original 16" ones are nowadays called the T1b (again, only called this since the 1990s, based on VW's restrospective T1,2,3,4 etc. naming system.). From the 1964 model year, when the rear door was made wider (same as on the bay-window or T2), the vehicle could be referred to as the T1c. 1964 also saw the introduction of an optional sliding door for the passenger/cargo area instead of the outwardly hinged doors typical of cargo vans. This change arguably makes the 1964 Volkswagen the first true minivan, although the term wouldn't be coined for another two decades.

In 1962, a heavy-duty Transporter was introduced as a factory option. It featured a cargo capacity of 1,000 kg (2,205 lb) instead of the previous 750 kg (1,653 lb), smaller but wider 14" roadwheels, and a 1.5 Le, 31 kW (42 PS; 42 bhp) DIN engine. This was so successful that only a year later, the 750 kg, 1.2 L Transporter was discontinued. The 1963 model year introduced the 1500 engine – 1,493 cc (91.1 cu in) as standard equipment to the US market at 38 kW (52 PS; 51 bhp) DIN with an 83 mm (3.27 in) bore, 69 mm (2.72 in) stroke, and 7.8:1 compression ratio. When the Beetle received the 1.5 L engine for the 1967 model year, its power was increased to 40 kW (54 PS; 54 bhp) DIN.

  

1966 Volkswagen Kombi (North America)

German production stopped after the 1967 model year; however, the T1 still was made in Brazil until 1975, when it was modified with a 1968–79 T2-style front end, and big 1972-vintage taillights into the so-called "T1.5" and produced until 1996. The Brazilian T1s were not identical to the last German models (the T1.5 was locally produced in Brazil using the 1950s and 1960s-era stamping dies to cut down on retooling, alongside the Beetle/Fusca, where the pre-1965 body style was retained), though they sported some characteristic features of the T1a, such as the cargo doors and five-stud 205 mm (8.1 in) PCD) rims.

  

VW Bus Type 2 (T1), hippie colors

Among American enthusiasts, it is common to refer to the different models by the number of their windows. The basic Kombi or Bus is the 11-window (a.k.a. three-window bus because of three side windows) with a split windshield, two front cabin door windows, six rear side windows, and one rear window. The DeLuxe model featured eight rear side windows and two rear corner windows, making it the 15-window (not available in Europe). Meanwhile, the sunroof DeLuxe with its additional eight small skylight windows is, accordingly, the 23-window. From the 1964 model year, with its wider rear door, the rear corner windows were discontinued, making the latter two the 13-window and 21-window respectively. The 23- and later 21-window variants each carry the nickname 'Samba', or in Australia, officially 'Alpine'.

 

Certain models of the Volkswagen Type 2 played a role in an historic episode during the early 1960s, known as the Chicken War. France and West Germany had placed tariffs on imports of U.S. chicken. Diplomacy failed, and in January 1964, two months after taking office, President Johnson imposed a 25% tax (almost 10 times the average U.S. tariff) on potato starch, dextrin, brandy, and light trucks. Officially, the tax targeted items imported from Europe as approximating the value of lost American chicken sales to Europe.

In retrospect, audio tapes from the Johnson White House, revealed a quid pro quo unrelated to chicken. In January 1964, President Johnson attempted to convince United Auto Workers' president Walter Reuther not to initiate a strike just prior to the 1964 election, and to support the president's civil rights platform. Reuther, in turn, wanted Johnson to respond to Volkswagen's increased shipments to the United States.

The Chicken Tax directly curtailed importation of German-built Type 2s in configurations that qualified them as light trucks – that is, commercial vans (panel vans) and pickups. In 1964, U.S. imports of automobile trucks from West Germany declined to a value of $5.7 million – about one-third the value imported in the previous year. After 1971, Volkswagen cargo vans and pickup trucks, the intended targets, "practically disappeared from the U.S. market". While post-1971 Type 2 commercial vans and single-cab and double-cab pickups can be found in the United States today, they are exceedingly rare. As of 2009, the Chicken tax remains in effect.

(Source Wikipedia)

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the model, the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

Shortly after the end of World War II, the South Korean Air Construction Association was founded on August 10, 1946, to publicize the importance of air power. Despite the then-scanty status of Korean armed forces, the first air unit was formed on May 5, 1948, under the direction of Dong Wi-bu, the forerunner to the modern South Korean Ministry of National Defense. On September 13, 1949, the United States contributed 10 L-4 Grasshopper observation aircraft to the South Korean air unit. An Army Air Academy was founded in January 1949, and the ROKAF was officially founded in October 1949.

 

The 1950s were a critical time for the ROKAF as it expanded tremendously during the Korean War. At the outbreak of the war, the ROKAF consisted of 1,800 personnel but was equipped with only 20 trainers and liaison aircraft, including 10 North American T-6 Texan advanced trainers purchased from Canada. The North Korean air force had acquired a considerable number of Yak-9 and La-7 fighters from the Soviet Union, dwarfing the ROKAF in terms of size and strength. However, in the course of the war the ROKAF acquired 110 aircraft from the USA which equipped three fighter squadrons and one fighter wing. The first combat aircraft received were North American F-51D Mustangs, along with a contingent of US Air Force instructor pilots, as part of Bout One Project.

 

From the start of the Korean War, the Mustang proved useful. A "substantial number" of stored or in-service F-51Ds were shipped, via aircraft carriers, to the combat zone, and were used by the USAF, the South African Air Force, and the ROKAF. The F-51 was used for ground attack, fitted with rockets and bombs, and photo reconnaissance, rather than as interceptors or "pure" fighters. However, the losses of the rather fragile Mustang due to AA fire and even through small caliber weapons were high – especially the ventral radiator for the liquid-cooled engine turned out to be highly vulnerable.

After the first North Korean invasion, USAF units were forced to fly from bases in Japan and the F-51Ds, with their long range and endurance, could attack targets in Korea that short-ranged F-80 jets could not. Due to its lighter structure and a shortage of spare parts, the newer, faster F-51H was not used in Korea, and the F-47 Thunderbolt, which would have been better suited for most typical missions over the Korean peninsula, was not available in sufficient numbers to employ them overseas.

 

Nevertheless, the ROKAF participated with its F-51s in bombing operations and flew independent sorties. The only other suitable piston engine aircraft at hand and available in sufficient numbers was the Vought F4U Corsair. As ROKAF F-51 losses rose, a handful of F4U-4s were transferred in 1952 to fill these operational gaps. These were revamped USN and USMC aircraft from local field workshops that had been damaged and grounded through enemy fire or accidents, replaced in American service with new machines from overseas.

The F4U-4 was the last Corsair variant that had been introduced during WWII, but it only saw action during the final weeks of the conflict. At the outbreak of the Korean War, it was the USN and USMC’s most common carrier-borne aircraft. It had a 2,100 hp (1,600 kW) dual-stage-supercharged -18W engine, and when the cylinders were injected with the water/alcohol mixture, power was boosted to 2,450 hp (1,830 kW). The aircraft required an air scoop under the nose and the unarmored wing fuel tanks of 62 US gal (230 L) capacities were removed for better maneuverability at the expense of maximum range. The partly fabric-covered outer wings from the former Corsair versions were retained. To better cope with the additional power, the propeller was changed to a four-blade type. Maximum speed was increased to 448 miles per hour (721 km/h) and climb rate to over 4,500 feet per minute (1,400 m/min) as opposed to the 2,900 feet per minute (880 m/min) of the F4U-1A. Other detail improvements were introduced with the F4U-4, too: The windscreen was now flat bullet-resistant glass to avoid optical distortion, a change from the curved Plexiglas windscreens with the internal plate glass of the earlier Corsairs. The cockpit hood was furthermore without bracing and slightly bulged, similar to the P-51B/Cs’ Malcolm hood, to give the pilot a better field of view, esp. backwards.

 

The "4-Hog" retained the original armament of six 0.5” machine guns and had all the external load (i.e., drop tanks, bombs) capabilities of the F4U-1D. A major sub-type, the F4U-4B, was the same but featured an alternate gun armament of four 20 millimeters (0.79 in) AN/M3 cannon, 300 were built. The F4U-4P was a rare photo reconnaissance variant (only eleven were built) with an additional camera compartment in the rear fuselage, but fully combat-capable. The F4U-4 was the oldest active Corsair variant during the Korean War, and new post-WWII variants like the AU-1 for the USMC, optimized for ground attacks and low-level operations, or the F4U-5 and its F4U-5N night fighter sub-variant with onboard radar, were exclusively used by American forces.

 

The ROKAF Corsairs were constantly and heavily used. They operated primarily as fighter bombers because of the type’s ability to absorb a lot of damage and to carry up to 4,000 lb of ordnance on centerline and underwing pylon racks. The machines, all standard F4U-4s with six machine guns to maintain ammunition commonality with the F-51Ds, were allocated to ROKAF 1 Squadron. They equipped a dedicated attack wing within the unit and were flown by both South Korean and American pilots. To differentiate them from American machines, the first Korean F4U-4s were stripped off of their characteristic allover dark blue paint, received large ROKAF roundels on fuselage and wings and colorful ID-markings. These included a yellow band around the fuselage, a large “K” on the fin, and a red ring around the cowling as a unit identifier. Some machines featured additional individual highlights, like colored fin tips and tail sections, some had the canopy frame painted in individual colors, too, or had taglines (in Hangul writing) added on the flanks.

Major maintenance and repairs were, however, still carried out by American personnel at USMC workshops, so that transfer flights were common practice and limited the number of operational machines to only about half a dozen at a time. As battle damage and losses were frequent, repairs with cannibalized parts from American aircraft and full replacements with revamped or operational American F4U-4s were common – resulting in a large variety of liveries within the unit, as some machine retained the American all-blue paint scheme or received blue replacement parts to speed up repairs.

Due to this practice the exact number of ROKAF Corsairs until the end of hostilities in mid-1953 remains uncertain. However, less than 25 documented complete airframes were supplied in total, and no more than 15 machines were active at any time.

 

Together with Mustangs, the Corsairs continued flying with USAF, USN, USMC and other ROKAF fighter-bomber units on close support and interdiction missions in Korea until July 1953, when the fighting ended and the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed. By then, most piston engine fighter bombers had been largely replaced by USAF F-84s and by United States Navy (USN) Grumman F9F Panthers. After the war, the ROKAF quickly switched to F-86 Sabre fighters and all ROKAF F4Us were scrapped by late 1953 as they were regarded as outdated and disposable.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: One

Length: 33 ft 8 in (10.26 m)

Wingspan: 41 ft 0 in (12.50 m)

Height: 14 ft 9 in (4.50 m)

Wing area: 314 sq ft (29.17 m²)

Empty weight: 9,205 lb (4,238 kg)

Gross weight: 14,670 lb (6,654 kg)

Max takeoff weight: 14,533 lb (6,592 kg)

 

Powerplant:

1× Pratt & Whitney R-2800-18W radial engine with 2,100 hp (1,600 kW),

temporary 2,450 hp (1,830 kW) output when boosted with water/alcohol injection,

driving a 4-bladed propeller

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 446 mph (717 km/h, 385 kn) at sea level

Cruise speed: 215 mph (346 km/h, 187 kn) at sea level

Stall speed: 89 mph (143 km/h, 77 kn)

Range with internal fuel, clean: 1,005 mi (1,617 km, 873 nmi)

Combat range with max. ordnance: 328 mi (528 km, 285 nmi)

Service ceiling: 41,500 ft (12,600 m)

Rate of climb: 4,360 ft/min (22.1 m/s)

 

Armament:

6× 0.5 in (12,7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns in the outer wings, 400 RPG

11× hardpoints under the wings and the fuselage for a total ordnance of 4,000 pounds,

including drop tanks, up to 8× 5 in (12.7 cm) high velocity aircraft rockets and/or bombs or

napalm tanks of up to 1.000 lb (454 kg) caliber

  

The kit and its assembly:

This what-if model was spawned from a leftover decal sheet from an Academy F-51D kit, which features markings for South Korean aircraft from the Korean War. This made me wonder if there could have been another type supplied to the South Korean forces beyond the Mustang? A fighter bomber would have made sense, and the P/F-47 was an immediate favorite. However, this was quickly discarded since maintenance and supplies for another type in the theatre would have been very complicated, and the potential, small number would also make no sense. So, I looked for alternatives and eventually settled upon the F4U from American sources. The F4U-4 was chosen because it was the oldest type in service at the time, and from there the model unspun almost naturally.

 

Another selling point for the F4U-4 was that I had a respective Hobby Boss kit in store without a proper plan yet. Since I did not want to change much about the aircraft to represent a former USN/USMC aircraft, I built the simple Hobby Boss kit almost OOB. Purists will certainly look down upon the toylike Hobby Boss offering – and you must not take a close look, esp. at the interior details. But when you only want a “canvas”, the kit is not too bad. You get fine recessed panels, a clear canopy (over a rudimentary cockpit without leg room but with separate gunsight!) in two pieces and a closed single-piece alternative, and the kit’s construction with good fit leaves almost no seam to sand or fill. The fabric-covered outer wing panels are there, but they are IMHO exaggerated and very deep, as if they had been made from corrugated sheet metal?

 

The weakest point is the kit’s HVAR armament: It comes with eight unguided missiles that are molded onto their launch rails (with separate tail fins, though), and the gap between the two small pylons that hold the rail under the wing in real life are molded into a single massive and deep piece. These pylons are to be mounted into 2mm wide and just as deep “slots” in the lower wing surface – a very crude and toylike solution. Even though I’d have liked to use the HVARs on the model (after all, it’s supposed to be a fighter bomber), I omitted them altogether and filled up the slots. To keep the attack profile visible, I cut the small pylons off from the OOB drop tanks and replaced them with American 750 lb (340 kg) M117 bombs from the spares bin – they look modern, but they were actually introduced during the Korea War.

  

Painting and markings:

Well, F4Us handed over from American to Korean units would certainly have left them in their typical all-blue paint scheme, with the “Stars and Bars” simply replaced by the South Korean “yin-yang” symbol and former tactical markings painted over. The ex-American F-51s were handled in a similar fashion, just that they came from overstock in bare metal finish.

To provide the ROKAF F4U with an individual touch I decided to strip the original Navy paint off and give it an NMF with colorful markings similar to the Mustangs. And for a weirdo touch the outer foldable wings would become blue donor parts from an American Corsair, together with a single rudder on the stabilizer.

 

The bare metal fuselage was painted with Revell 99 (Aluminum), post-shaded with Humbrol 27001 (Matt Aluminum MetalCote); the dark blue sections, including the landing gear, were painted with FS 35042 (Modelmaster 1718), the fabric-covered rudders on the tail with Humbrol 56 (Aluminum Dope). The landing gear wells and the cockpit were painted with Humbrol 80 (Grass Green) to simulate Zinc Chromate primer. To hide the lack of space inside of the cowling its interior walls were painted in a darker shade of green, with a dark grey engine block.

An olive drab anti-glare panel was added in front of the windscreen, the red unit markings on cowling, fin and tail tip were painted with Humbrol 19. The yellow ID fuselage band was created with decal sheet.

The ROKAF roundels came from the aforementioned Academy Mustang kit – and, yes, some ROKAF machines had national markings in six places instead of the US-style four. The tagline on the cowling comes from the same sheet, and it might read “I fly with confidence!” (uncertain, though). The tactical codes were created with single USAF 45° numbers from Superscale aftermarket sheets.

 

Graphite was used to create soot stains around the gun and the exhaust areas, and Tamiya “Smoke” was used to mimic oil spills from the engine around the forward fuselage. Finally, the kit was sealed with acrylic varnish; the bare metal sections became semi-gloss, the blue areas and the fabric-covered tail sections a slightly more matt finish.

  

An interesting result – an F4U in NMF looks pretty odd, and with the red and blue sections the Corsair somehow looks like a Reno Racer or a Red Bull heritage aircraft? But the ROKAF Corsair appears pretty plausible in its role and in the Korean War’s time frame: a whif nicely shoehorned into a historic framework. The simple Hobby Boss kit is certainly not the best model of the Corsair, but for a simple “livery variant” it was an O.K. basis, and the result is quite presentable. Just do not look into the cockpit or the landing gear wells.

In a ceremony in Strasbourg’s hemicycle, MEPs marked the creation of the Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952, the EP’s forerunner

EP President Roberta Metsola opened the ceremony and stressed how, in the 70 years since the first meeting of the Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952, the “Assembly grew from strength to strength”. She said: “The European Parliament has become the only directly elected, multilingual, multi-party transnational parliament in the world. Its 705 directly elected members are the expression of European public opinion (...). Today more than ever – this House stands for upholding the democratic voice of citizens and the democratic European values."

 

Her speech was followed by contributions from the prime ministers of the three countries hosting Parliament’s seat.

 

Belgium’s Prime Minister Alexander de Croo said “today’s European political project is mainly driven forward by visionary citizens, the people of Europe” who demand an EU response to crises such as migration, COVID-19 and energy. The EP is, he said, “one of the most powerful legislators in the world. Today Europeans can be proud of the road we travelled together.” He concluded: “This house represents the catharsis of a long history of violence among European countries, it represents the best in us, Europeans.”

 

Luxembourg’s Prime Minister Xavier Bettel said: “Seven years after World War II, it was decided to create something together. In those days, people did not have the right to live because they were different; today we live in a territory where citizens are free. He concluded: “I would not have had the right myself to be free during the Second World War: I am liberal, have Jewish heritage and am married to a man. And here I am today, a head of government. This is the European project. You may be different, but that is where our richness lies: in this diversity”.

 

France’s Prime Minister Élisabeth Borne stressed the role of France in building the European Union, and the symbolic importance of Strasbourg as one of its official places of work. Additionally, she emphasized the commitment of France to a common European future: “Strasbourg is the idea of Europe – Europe that has its past but that also has its common future,” she said. “And we must not lose track of what Europe is, where it has come from and where it is going to.”

 

Read more: www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20221118IPR5570...

 

This photo is free to use under Creative Commons license CC-BY-4.0 and must be credited: "CC-BY-4.0: © European Union 2022– Source: EP". (creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) No model release form if applicable. For bigger HR files please contact: webcom-flickr(AT)europarl.europa.eu

PHNOM PENH

Phnom Penh (/pəˌnɒm ˈpɛn, ˌpnɒm -/; Khmer: ភ្នំពេញ, Phnum Pénh [pʰnumˈpɨɲ]; lit. "Penh's Hill") is the capital and most populous city of Cambodia. It has been the national capital since the French protectorate of Cambodia, and has grown to become the nation's economic, industrial, and cultural centre.

 

Phnom Penh was founded in 1434 to succeed Angkor Thom as the capital of the Khmer nation but was abandoned several times before being reestablished in 1865 by King Norodom. The city formerly functioned as a processing center, with textiles, pharmaceuticals, machine manufacturing, and rice milling. Its chief assets, however, were cultural. Institutions of higher learning included the Royal University of Phnom Penh (established in 1960 as Royal Khmer University), with schools of engineering, fine arts, technology, and agricultural sciences, the latter at Chamkar Daung, a suburb. Also located in Phnom Penh were the Royal University of Agronomic Sciences and the Agricultural School of Prek Leap.

 

Once known as the "Pearl of Asia", it was considered one of the loveliest French-built cities in Indochina in the 1920s. Phnom Penh, along with Siem Reap and Sihanoukville, are significant global and domestic tourist destinations for Cambodia. Founded in 1372, the city is noted for its historical architecture and attractions. It became the national capital in 1434 following the fall of Angkor, and remained so until 1497. It regained its capital status during the French colonial era in 1865. There are a number of surviving colonial-era buildings scattered along the grand boulevards.

 

On the banks of the Tonlé Sap, Mekong, and Bassac Rivers, Phnom Penh is home to more than 2 million people, approximately 14% of the Cambodian population. The Phnom Penh metropolitan area includes 5 districts of Kandal Province.

 

ETYMOLOGY

Phnom Penh (lit. 'Penh's Hill') takes its name from the present Wat Phnom (lit. 'Hill Temple') or from the former Funan Kingdom, an ancient kingdom that existed from 1st to 6th century AD in Southeast Asia and the forerunner of the current Cambodian monarchy. Legend has it that in 1372, a wealthy widow named Penh found a Koki tree floating down the Tonlé Sap river after a storm. Inside the tree were four bronze Buddha statues and a stone statue of Vishnu. Penh ordered villagers to raise the height of the hill northeast of her house and used the Koki wood to build a temple on the hill to house the four Buddha statues, and a shrine for the Vishnu image slightly lower down. The temple became known as Wat Phnom Daun Penh, which is now known as Wat Phnom, a small hill 27 metres in height.

 

Phnom Penh's former official name is Krong Chaktomuk Serei Mongkol (Khmer: ក្រុងចតុមុខសិរីមង្គល, lit. 'City of the Brahma's Faces'), in its short form as Krong Chaktomuk (lit. "City of Four Faces"). Krong Chaktomuk is an abbreviation of the full name which was given by King Ponhea Yat, Krong Chaktomuk Mongkol Sakal Kampuchea Thipadei Serei Theakreak Bavar Intabat Borei Roat Reach Seima Moha Nokor (Khmer: ក្រុងចតុមុខមង្គលសកលកម្ពុជាធិបតី សិរីធរបវរ ឥន្ទបត្តបុរី រដ្ឋរាជសីមាមហានគរ, Khmer pronunciation: [ˌkɾoŋˌtɕaʔtoʔmuk̚ˌmŭəŋkŭəlˌsaʔkɒlˌkamputɕiəˌtʰɯp̚paʔdɤjˌseʔɾɤjˌtʰĕəʔɾĕəʔˌɓɒːʋɒːˌʔɤntĕəʔpat̚ˌɓoʔɾɤjˌɾŏət̚tʰaʔˌɾiəc̚ˌsɤjmaːˌmɔhaːˌnɔˈkɔː]). This loosely translates as "The place of four rivers that gives the happiness and success of Khmer Kingdom, the highest leader as well as impregnable city of the God Indra of the great kingdom".

 

HISTORY

The initial settlement of Phnom Penh is believed to have been established since the 5th century AD, according to the discovery of ancient kiln site in Choeung Ek commune of Dangkao district, southern part of central Phnom Penh in early 2000s. Choeung Ek archaeological site was one of the largest kiln pottery center in Cambodia and the earliest known kiln sites in Southeast Asia to produced the ceremonial vessels known as kendi from 5th to 13th century. Archaeologist stated that a large community is surrounded by a circular earthwork structure that is 740 metres in diameter and 4 metres high, built in the 11th century. In addition, there are remnants of other ancient village infrastructure, irrigation system, inscription, Shiva linga as well as an ancient brick temple foundation and its ornate remains which dated back to Funan era.

 

First recorded a century after it is said to have taken place, the legend of the founding of Phnom Penh tells of a local woman, Penh (commonly referred to as Daun Penh ("Grandmother Penh" or "Old Lady Penh") in Khmer), living at Chaktomuk, the future Phnom Penh. It was the late 14th century, and the Khmer capital was still at Angkor near Siem Reap 350 km to the north. Gathering firewood along the banks of the river, Lady Penh spied a floating koki tree in the river and fished it from the water. Inside the tree she found four Buddha statues and one of Vishnu.

 

The discovery was taken as a divine blessing, and to some a sign that the Khmer capital was to be brought to Phnom Penh from Angkor.[citation needed] To house the new-found sacred objects, Penh raised a small hill on the west bank of the Tonle Sap River and crowned it with a shrine, now known as Wat Phnom at the north end of central Phnom Penh. "Phnom" is Khmer for "hill" and Penh's hill took on the name of the founder, and the area around it became known after the hill.

 

Phnom Penh first became the capital of Cambodia after Ponhea Yat, king of the Khmer Empire, moved the capital from Angkor Thom after it was captured and destroyed by Siam a few years earlier. There is a stupa behind Wat Phnom that houses the remains of Ponhea Yat and the royal family as well as the remaining Buddhist statues from the Angkorean era. In the 17th century, Japanese immigrants also settled on the outskirts of present-day Phnom Penh.[16] A small Portuguese community survived in Phnom Penh until the 17th century, undertaking commercial and religious activity in the country.

 

Phnom Penh remained the royal capital for 73 years, from 1432 to 1505. It was abandoned for 360 years (from 1505 to 1865) by subsequent kings due to internal fighting between the royal pretenders. Later kings moved the capital several times and established their royal capitals at various locations in Tuol Basan (Srey Santhor), Pursat, Longvek, Lavear Em and Oudong.

 

It was not until 1866, under the reign of King Norodom I (1860–1904), the eldest son of King Ang Duong, who ruled on behalf of Siam, that Phnom Penh became the permanent seat of government and capital of Cambodia, and also where the current Royal Palace was built. Beginning in 1870, the French colonial authorities turned a riverside village into a city where they built hotels, schools, prisons, barracks, banks, public works offices, telegraph offices, law courts, and health services buildings. In 1872, the first glimpse of a modern city took shape when the colonial administration employed the services of French contractor Le Faucheur to construct the first 300 concrete houses for sale and rental to Chinese traders.

 

By the 1920s, Phnom Penh was known as the "Pearl of Asia", and over the next four decades, Phnom Penh continued to experience rapid growth with the building of railways to Sihanoukville and Pochentong International Airport (now Phnom Penh International Airport). Phnom Penh's infrastructure saw major modernisation under the rule of Sihanouk.

 

During the Vietnam War, Cambodia was used as a base by the People's Army of Vietnam and the Viet Cong, and thousands of refugees from across the country flooded the city to escape the fighting between their own government troops, the People's Army of Vietnam, the Viet Cong, the South Vietnamese and their allies, the Khmer Rouge, and American air strikes. By 1975, the population was 2–3 million, the bulk of whom were refugees from the fighting. The Khmer Rouge cut off supplies to the city for more than a year before it fell on April 17, 1975. Reports from journalists stated that the Khmer Rouge shelling "tortured the capital almost continuously", inflicting "random death and mutilation" on millions of trapped civilians. The Khmer Rouge forcibly evacuated the entire city after taking it, in what has been described as a death march: François Ponchaud wrote that "I shall never forget one cripple who had neither hands nor feet, writhing along the ground like a severed worm, or a weeping father carrying his ten-year old daughter wrapped in a sheet tied around his neck like a sling, or the man with his foot dangling at the end of a leg to which it was attached by nothing but skin"; Jon Swain recalled that the Khmer Rouge were "tipping out patients from the hospitals like garbage into the streets....In five years of war, this is the greatest caravan of human misery I have seen". All of its residents, including the wealthy and educated, were evacuated from the city and forced to do difficult labour on rural farms as "new people". Tuol Sleng High School was taken over by Pol Pot's forces and was turned into the S-21 prison camp, where people were detained and tortured. Pol Pot sought a return to an agrarian economy and therefore killed many people perceived as educated, "lazy" or political enemies. Many others starved to death as a result of failure of the agrarian society and the sale of Cambodia's rice to China in exchange for bullets and weaponry. The former high school is now the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, where Khmer Rouge torture devices and photos of their victims are displayed. Choeung Ek (The Killing Fields), 15 kilometersaway, where the Khmer Rouge marched prisoners from Tuol Sleng to be murdered and buried in shallow pits, is also now a memorial to those who were killed by the regime.

 

The Khmer Rouge were driven out of Phnom Penh by the People's Army of Vietnam in 1979, and people began to return to the city. Vietnam is historically a state with which Cambodia has had many conflicts, therefore this liberation was and is viewed with mixed emotions by the Cambodians. A period of reconstruction began, spurred by the continuing stability of government, attracting new foreign investment and aid by countries including France, Australia, and Japan. Loans were made from the Asian Development Bank and the World Bank to reinstate a clean water supply, roads and other infrastructure. The 1998 Census put Phnom Penh's population at 862,000; and the 2008 census was 1.3 million. By 2019, its population reached over 2.2 million, based on general population census.

 

GEOGRAPHICS

Phnom Penh is in the south-central region of Cambodia, and is fully surrounded by Kandal Province. The municipality is on the banks of the Tonlé Sap, Mekong, and Bassac Rivers. These rivers provide freshwater and other natural resources to the city. Phnom Penh and the surrounding areas consist of a typical flood plain area for Cambodia. Although Phnom Penh is at 11.89 metres above the river, monsoon season flooding is a problem, and the river sometimes overflows its banks.

 

The city, at 11.55°N 104.91667°E (11°33' North, 104°55' East), covers an area of 678.46 square kilometres, with some 11,401 hectares in the municipality and 26,106 ha of roads. The agricultural land in the municipality amounts to 34.685 km2 with some 1.476 km2 under irrigation.

 

CLIMATE

Phnom Penh has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). The climate is hot year-round with only minor variations. Temperatures typically range from 22 to 35 °C and weather is subject to the tropical monsoons. The southwest monsoon blows inland bringing moisture-laden winds from the Gulf of Thailand and Indian Ocean from May to November. The northeast monsoon ushers in the dry season, which lasts from December to April. The city experiences the heaviest precipitation from September to October with the driest period in January and February.

 

The city has two distinct seasons. The rainy season, which runs from May to November, sees high temperatures accompanied by high humidity. The dry season lasts from December to April; when overnight temperatures can drop to 22 °C.

 

ADMINISTRATION

Phnom Penh is a municipality of area 678.46 square kilometres with a government status equal to that of Cambodian provinces. The municipality is divided into 14 administrative divisions called khans (districts). The district s are subdivided into 105 sangkats (communes), and further subdivided into 953 phums (villages). All khans are under the governance of the Phnom Penh Municipality. Dangkao, Meanchey, Porsenchey, Sen Sok and Russei Keo are considered the outskirts of the city.

 

The municipality is governed by the governor who acts as the top executive of the city as well as overseeing the Municipal Military Police, Municipal Police, and Bureau of Urban Affairs. Below the governor is the first vice governor and five vice governors. The chief of cabinet, who holds the same status as the vice governors, heads the cabinet consisting of eight deputy chiefs of cabinet who in turn are in charge of the 27 administrative departments. Every khan (district) also has a chief.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2019, Phnom Penh had a population of 2,129,371 people, with a total population density of 3,136 inhabitants per square kilometre in a 679 square kilometres city area. The population growth rate of the city is 3.92%. The city area has grown fourfold since 1979, and the metro area will continue to expand in order to support the city's growing population and economy.

 

A survey by the National Institute of Statistics in 2017 showed that 95.3% of the population in Phnom Penh are Khmer, 4% Chams, and 0.7% others, predominantly Chinese, Vietnamese, and other small ethnic groups who are Thai, Budong, Mnong Preh, Kuy and Chong. The state religion is Theravada Buddhism. More than 90% of the people in Phnom Penh are Buddhists. Chams have been practicing Islam for hundreds of years. Since 1993, there has also been an increase in the practice of Christianity which was practically wiped out after 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took over. The official language is Khmer, but English and French are widely used in the city.

 

The number of slum-inhabitants at the end of 2012 was 105,771, compared with 85,807 at the start of 2012.

 

Note: As stated in the "History" paragraph (The 1998 Census put Phnom Penh's population at 862,000; and the 2008 census was 1.3 million.) the information collides with the information provided in the "Historical population" table. Needs editing.

 

POLITIC

Phnom Penh is allocated 12 seats in the National Assembly, making it the largest constituency.

 

ECONOMY

Phnom Penh is Cambodia's economic centre as it accounts for a large portion of the Cambodian economy. Double-digit economic growth rates in recent years have triggered an economic boom in Phnom Penh, with new hotels, restaurants, schools, bars, high rises and residential buildings springing up in the city.

 

The economy is based on commercial interests such as garments, trading, and small and medium enterprises. In the past few years the property business has been booming, with rapidly increasing real estate prices. Tourism is also a major contributor in the capital as more shopping and commercial centres open, making Phnom Penh one of the major tourist destinations in South East Asia along with Siem Reap and Sihanoukville. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, tourism made up 19.2 percent (US$2,053 million) of Cambodia's GDP in 2009 and accounts for 13.7 percent of total employment. One of the most popular areas in Phnom Penh for tourists is Sisowath Quay, alongside the Tonle Sap River. Sisowath Quay is a five kilometre strip of road that includes restaurants, bars, and hotels.

 

The US$2.6 billion new urban development, Camko City, is meant to bolster the city landscape. The Bureau of Urban Affairs of Phnom Penh Municipality has plans to expand and construct new infrastructure to accommodate the growing population and economy. High rise buildings will be constructed at the entrance of the city and near the lakes and riverbanks. Furthermore, new roads, canals, and a railway system will be used to connect Camko City and Phnom Penh.

 

Other projects include:

Grand Phnom Penh International City (under construction)

De Castle Royal Condominium (Completed)

Gold Tower 42 (On hold 32 floors construction begins again in the mid of 2018)

OCIC Tower (Completed)

Kokling super second floor house

Vattanac Capital Tower (completed)

The Bridge (Completed)

The Peak (under construction)

 

With booming economic growth seen since the 1990s, new shopping venues have opened, such as Sorya Center Point, Aeon Mall Phnom Penh, Aeon Mall Sen Sok City and Olympia Mall. Many international brands have opened such as Mango, Salvatore Ferragamo, Hugo Boss, Padini Concept Store, Lily, Timberland, Jimmy Choo, CC Double O, MO, Brands Outlet, Nike, Converse, Pony, Armani Exchange, and Super Dry.

 

The tallest skyscraper in Phnom Penh is Vattanac Capital Tower at a height of 188 metres, dominating Phnom Penh's skyline with its neighbour skyscraper Canadia Tower (OCIC Tower). The tower was completed in December 2014. Modern high rises have been constructed all around the city, not concentrated in any one particular area.

 

The Central Market Phsar Thmei is a tourist attraction. The four wings of the yellow colored market are teeming with numerous stalls selling gold and silver jewelry, antique coins, clothing, clocks, flowers, food, fabrics and shoes. Phsar Thmei is undergoing under a major renovation, along with the creation of newer stalls.

 

ADMINISTRATION

Phnom Penh is a municipality of area 678.46 square kilometres with a government status equal to that of Cambodian provinces. The municipality is divided into 14 administrative divisions called khans (districts). The district s are subdivided into 105 sangkats (communes), and further subdivided into 953 phums (villages). All khans are under the governance of the Phnom Penh Municipality. Dangkao, Meanchey, Porsenchey, Sen Sok and Russei Keo are considered the outskirts of the city.

 

The municipality is governed by the governor who acts as the top executive of the city as well as overseeing the Municipal Military Police, Municipal Police, and Bureau of Urban Affairs. Below the governor is the first vice governor and five vice governors. The chief of cabinet, who holds the same status as the vice governors, heads the cabinet consisting of eight deputy chiefs of cabinet who in turn are in charge of the 27 administrative departments. Every khan (district) also has a chief.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2019, Phnom Penh had a population of 2,129,371 people, with a total population density of 3,136 inhabitants per square kilometre in a 679 square kilometres city area. The population growth rate of the city is 3.92%. The city area has grown fourfold since 1979, and the metro area will continue to expand in order to support the city's growing population and economy.

 

A survey by the National Institute of Statistics in 2017 showed that 95.3% of the population in Phnom Penh are Khmer, 4% Chams, and 0.7% others, predominantly Chinese, Vietnamese, and other small ethnic groups who are Thai, Budong, Mnong Preh, Kuy and Chong. The state religion is Theravada Buddhism. More than 90% of the people in Phnom Penh are Buddhists. Chams have been practicing Islam for hundreds of years. Since 1993, there has also been an increase in the practice of Christianity which was practically wiped out after 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took over. The official language is Khmer, but English and French are widely used in the city.

 

The number of slum-inhabitants at the end of 2012 was 105,771, compared with 85,807 at the start of 2012.

 

Note: As stated in the "History" paragraph (The 1998 Census put Phnom Penh's population at 862,000; and the 2008 census was 1.3 million.) the information collides with the information provided in the "Historical population" table.

 

POLITIC

Phnom Penh is allocated 12 seats in the National Assembly, making it the largest constituency.

 

ECONOMY

Phnom Penh is Cambodia's economic centre as it accounts for a large portion of the Cambodian economy. Double-digit economic growth rates in recent years have triggered an economic boom in Phnom Penh, with new hotels, restaurants, schools, bars, high rises and residential buildings springing up in the city.

 

The economy is based on commercial interests such as garments, trading, and small and medium enterprises. In the past few years the property business has been booming, with rapidly increasing real estate prices. Tourism is also a major contributor in the capital as more shopping and commercial centres open, making Phnom Penh one of the major tourist destinations in South East Asia along with Siem Reap and Sihanoukville. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, tourism made up 19.2 percent (US$2,053 million) of Cambodia's GDP in 2009 and accounts for 13.7 percent of total employment. One of the most popular areas in Phnom Penh for tourists is Sisowath Quay, alongside the Tonle Sap River. Sisowath Quay is a five kilometre strip of road that includes restaurants, bars, and hotels.

 

The US$2.6 billion new urban development, Camko City, is meant to bolster the city landscape. The Bureau of Urban Affairs of Phnom Penh Municipality has plans to expand and construct new infrastructure to accommodate the growing population and economy. High rise buildings will be constructed at the entrance of the city and near the lakes and riverbanks. Furthermore, new roads, canals, and a railway system will be used to connect Camko City and Phnom Penh.

 

Other projects include:

Grand Phnom Penh International City (under construction)

De Castle Royal Condominium (Completed)

Gold Tower 42 (On hold 32 floors construction begins again in the mid of 2018)

 

OCIC Tower (Completed)

Kokling super second floor house

Vattanac Capital Tower (completed)

The Bridge (Completed)

The Peak (under construction)

 

With booming economic growth seen since the 1990s, new shopping venues have opened, such as Sorya Center Point, Aeon Mall Phnom Penh, Aeon Mall Sen Sok City and Olympia Mall. Many international brands have opened such as Mango, Salvatore Ferragamo, Hugo Boss, Padini Concept Store, Lily, Timberland, Jimmy Choo, CC Double O, MO, Brands Outlet, Nike, Converse, Pony, Armani Exchange, and Super Dry.

 

The tallest skyscraper in Phnom Penh is Vattanac Capital Tower at a height of 188 metres, dominating Phnom Penh's skyline with its neighbour skyscraper Canadia Tower (OCIC Tower). The tower was completed in December 2014. Modern high rises have been constructed all around the city, not concentrated in any one particular area.

 

The Central Market Phsar Thmei is a tourist attraction. The four wings of the yellow colored market are teeming with numerous stalls selling gold and silver jewelry, antique coins, clothing, clocks, flowers, food, fabrics and shoes. Phsar Thmei is undergoing under a major renovation, along with the creation of newer stalls.

 

CULTURE

Phnom Penh also has its own dialect of Khmer. Speakers of the Phnom Penh dialect often elide syllables, which has earned it a reputation for being lazy speech. Phnom Penh is also known for its influence on New Khmer Architecture. Phnom Penh is notable for Ka tieu Phnom Penh, its variation on rice noodle soup, a dish available in sit-down cafes as well as street cafes.

 

The city hosts a number of music events throughout the city. 'Indie' bands (those without corporate sponsors) have grown in number due also in part to the emergence of private music schools such as SoundsKool Music (also operating in the city of Siem Reap), and Music Arts School (registered as an NGO). The Cambodian fishing dance originated in Phnom Penh at the Royal University of Fine Arts in the 1960s.

 

The two most visited museums in the city are the National Museum, which is the country's leading historical and archaeological museum, and Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, a former Khmer Rouge prison. The National Museum hosts celebrations of Cambodian dance and music, including a popular classic Apsara dance show of traditional folk dances as well as original creations.

 

CAMBODIAN NEW YEAR

At this time, Phnom Penh celebrates Cambodian New Year, an occasion increasingly popular with tourists. During this typically hottest part of the year, water gets thrown around adding to the party atmosphere along with dancing and music. The precise date changes year-by-year but this holiday lasts, at least, three days. This festival marks the turn of the year based on the ancient Khmer calendar and also marks the end of the prior year harvest.

 

WATER FESTIVAL

The largest annual festival in Phnom Penh, this lively gathering celebrates the reversing of the flow of the Tonlé Sap River. The holiday lasts three days as people flood into the city to enjoy the fireworks, boat races, live concerts, eating and partying. The boat racing dates back to ancient times marking the strengths of the Khmer marine forces during the Khmer Empire.

 

On November 22, 2010, at least 348 people were crushed to death in a bridge stampede at the festival.

 

ANCESTORS DAY

Ancestors' Day, also called Pchum Ben, is a very important aspect of Cambodian culture. It may be translated as "gathering together" to make offerings and is a time of reunion, commemoration, express love and appreciation for one's ancestors. By offering food and good karma to those possibly trapped in the spirit world, living relatives help assuage their misery and guide them back into the cycle of reincarnation.

 

VISAK BOCHEA

Vesākha is an annual holiday observed traditionally by Buddhists in Cambodia. Sometimes informally called "Buddha's Birthday", it actually encompasses the birth, enlightenment (nirvāṇa), and passing away (Parinirvāna) of Gautama Buddha.

 

CITYSCAPE AND ARCHITECTURE

The oldest structure is Wat Phnom from the founding days of the city, constructed in 1373. The main tourist attractions are the Royal Palace with the Silver Pagoda, and the National Museum, constructed during the French colonial era in the late-19th century in the classical Khmer style and hosting a vast collection of Khmer antiquities. The Independence Monument (Khmer: Vimean Akareach), although from the 1950s, is also constructed in the ancient Khmer style.

 

The French, who were the colonial masters from the 19th century to the 1940s, also left their mark, with various colonial villas, French churches, boulevards, and the Art Deco market Phsar Thom Thmei. A notable landmark of the colonial era is the Hotel Le Royal.

 

Starting with independence from the French in the 1950s and lasting until the era of the Khmer Rouge in the 1970s, Phnom Penh underwent tremendous growth as the capital city of a newly independent country. King Sihanouk was eager to present a new style of architecture and thus invigorate the process of nation building. A new golden era of architecture took off, with various projects and young Khmer architects, often educated in France, given opportunities to design and construct. This new movement was called "New Khmer Architecture" and was often characterised by a fusion of Bauhaus, European post-modern architecture, and traditional elements from Angkor. The most prominent architect was Vann Molyvann, who was nominated chief national architect by the king himself in 1956. Molyvann created landmark buildings such as the Preah Suramarit National Theatre and the Council of Ministers building. Other architects helped construct the newly founded Royal Khmer University, the Institute of Foreign Languages, and the National Sports Centre. With the growth of the upper and entrepreneurial middle classes, new suburbs were built in the 1950s and 1960s. Although these buildings survived the Khmer Rouge era and the civil war, today they are under threat due to economic development and financial speculation. Villas and gardens from that era are being destroyed and redeveloped to make place for bigger structures. The landmark National Theatre by Molyvann was razed in 2008 A movement is rising in Cambodia to preserve this modernist heritage. Old villas are sometimes being converted into boutique hotels, such as the Knai Bang Chatt.

 

Monuments and memorials to the genocide of the Khmer Rouge era in the 1970s are the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum (a former high school used as a concentration camp) and, on the outskirts of the city, the Choeung Ek Genocide Center. The Cambodia-Vietnam Friendship Monument was commissioned by the Vietnamese communists as symbol of Khmer-Vietnamese friendship during the late-1970s following the liberation of Cambodia from the Khmer Rouge.

 

The population, foreign investment, and urban development in Phnom Penh grew dramatically during the 1990s and early-2000s. The rapid growth resulted in the city's infrastructure distinctly lacking (the drainage system is particularly notorious, and Phnom Penh frequently floods during the wet season), and a need for both residential and commercial spaces. The simultaneous demand for residential and commercial housing and the increase of international investment has led to the planning, if not construction, of several satellite cities. The largest of these cities are: Grand Phnom Penh International City, CamKo City, Diamond Island City, Boeung Kak Town, and Chruy Cangva City.

 

On the outskirts of the city, farmland has been developed into garment factories and housing for lower economic classes and those displaced by the new development in the city center.

 

2035 MASTER PLAN

Originally intended to be completed by 2020, the 2035 master plan is a French-funded project for the development of Phnom Penh. Although the plan was approved by the Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction in 2005, it has yet to be ratified by the Cabinet of Cambodia. The original plan details five edge-city projects connected to the historical city centre by waterways and tree-lined corridors.

 

SPORT

The martial arts of Bokator, Pradal Serey (Khmer kick boxing) and Khmer traditional wrestling have venues in Phnom Penh watched by dedicated spectators. Cambodia has increasingly become involved in modern sports over the last 30 years. As with the rest of the country, football and the martial arts are particularly popular. Ultimate fighting and freestyle boxing have also become more common in recent years.

 

The most prominent sporting venue in the city is the Phnom Penh National Olympic Stadium with a capacity of 50,000—although the country never hosted the Olympic Games due to disruption by the civil war and the Khmer Rouge in the 1970s. Built in 1964, it is home to the Cambodian national football team. On completion the stadium was one of the largest in Asia. Volleyball, basketball, and Tai-Kwon-Do games are often hosted at the stadium. The stadium closed in 2000, but was redeveloped and reopened.

 

In footballing ventures, Phnom Penh is formally represented by Phnom Penh Crown FC despite being home to numerous football teams who plays in the Cambodian League. Including Visakha, Nagaworld, Boeungket and the aforementioned Phnom Penh Crown, amongst many others.

 

The National Sports Centre of Cambodia hosts swimming, boxing, and volleyball competitions. Noted local football clubs include Phnom Penh Empire, Khemara Keila FC and Military Police. The city will host the 2023 Southeast Asian Games and the 2023 ASEAN Para Games, this will mark the first time that Cambodia has hosted a multi-sport event.

 

TRANSPORT

Phnom Penh International Airport is the largest and busiest airport in Cambodia. It is seven kilometres west of central Phnom Penh. The airport is connected to the city center by taxi, train, and shuttle bus.

 

Cambodia's national flag carrier, Cambodia Angkor Air, launched in 2009, is headquartered in Phnom Penh and has its main hub there, with an additional hub at the Angkor International Airport.

 

Air France used to serve Phnom Penh from Paris-Charles de Gaulle but this service has since stopped. Qatar Airways now flies to and from Phnom Penh, via Ho Chi Minh City.

 

Taxis, pick-ups, and minibuses leave the city for destinations all over the country, but are fast losing ground to cheaper and more comfortable buses. Phnom Penh also has a rail service.

 

There are numerous bus companies, including Phnom Penh Public Transport and GST Express, running services to most provincial capitals, including Sihanoukville, Kampong Chhnang, Oudong and Takéo. Phnom Penh Sorya Transport Co. offers bus service to several provincial destinations along the National Routes and to Ho Chi Minh City. Giant Ibis is another bus company based in Phnom Penh, which travels to Sihanoukville, Kampot, Siem Reap and Ho Chi Minh, and has free Wi-Fi, air conditioning and modest pricing.

 

The city is Cambodia's main freshwater port, a major port on the Mekong River. It is linked to the South China Sea, 290 kilometres distant, via a channel of the Mekong in Vietnam.

 

PUBLIC TRANSPORT

Phnom Penh is served by air conditioned public buses. Initial attempts by the Japanese government to develop a Phnom Penh bus service began in 2001. An update of the JICA urban transport master plan for Phnom Penh was completed and implemented in 2014. The city is now served by 17 bus lines, operated by the Phnom Penh municipal government. Private transportation within the city include the cycle rickshaw, known in Khmer as "cyclo", the motorcycle taxi known in Khmer as "moto", the auto rickshaw known locally as "tuk-tuk", the trailer attached to a motorcycle taxi known in Khmer as "remorque", and the standard automobile taxicab known in Khmer as "taxi". Private forms of transportation used by locals include bicycles, motorbikes, and cars.

 

WATER SUPPLY

Water supply in Phnom Penh has improved dramatically in terms of access, service quality, efficiency, cost recovery and governance between 1993 and 2006. The number of customers has increased ninefold, service quality has improved from intermittent to continuous supply, water losses have been cut dramatically and the city's water utility went from being bankrupt to making a modest profit. These achievements were recognized through international awards such as the 2006 Ramon Magsaysay Award and the 2010 Stockholm Industry Water Award. The city's water utility is the Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (PPWSA). Its main water sources are the Mekong River, the Tonle Sap river and the Tonle Bassac river.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Shifting from Ship Repair Quay to VT2 this afternoon.

UK made. Forerunner of the battery powered Hazelcar (1953).

Electric cars did not have the impact in the UK that they had in the gas-starved countries in Europe during and after WWII.

B&w photo found on www.autopuzzles.com colorized.

 

In a ceremony in Strasbourg’s hemicycle, MEPs marked the creation of the Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952, the EP’s forerunner

EP President Roberta Metsola opened the ceremony and stressed how, in the 70 years since the first meeting of the Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952, the “Assembly grew from strength to strength”. She said: “The European Parliament has become the only directly elected, multilingual, multi-party transnational parliament in the world. Its 705 directly elected members are the expression of European public opinion (...). Today more than ever – this House stands for upholding the democratic voice of citizens and the democratic European values."

 

Her speech was followed by contributions from the prime ministers of the three countries hosting Parliament’s seat.

 

Belgium’s Prime Minister Alexander de Croo said “today’s European political project is mainly driven forward by visionary citizens, the people of Europe” who demand an EU response to crises such as migration, COVID-19 and energy. The EP is, he said, “one of the most powerful legislators in the world. Today Europeans can be proud of the road we travelled together.” He concluded: “This house represents the catharsis of a long history of violence among European countries, it represents the best in us, Europeans.”

 

Luxembourg’s Prime Minister Xavier Bettel said: “Seven years after World War II, it was decided to create something together. In those days, people did not have the right to live because they were different; today we live in a territory where citizens are free. He concluded: “I would not have had the right myself to be free during the Second World War: I am liberal, have Jewish heritage and am married to a man. And here I am today, a head of government. This is the European project. You may be different, but that is where our richness lies: in this diversity”.

 

France’s Prime Minister Élisabeth Borne stressed the role of France in building the European Union, and the symbolic importance of Strasbourg as one of its official places of work. Additionally, she emphasized the commitment of France to a common European future: “Strasbourg is the idea of Europe – Europe that has its past but that also has its common future,” she said. “And we must not lose track of what Europe is, where it has come from and where it is going to.”

 

Read more: www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20221118IPR5570...

 

This photo is free to use under Creative Commons license CC-BY-4.0 and must be credited: "CC-BY-4.0: © European Union 2022– Source: EP". (creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) No model release form if applicable. For bigger HR files please contact: webcom-flickr(AT)europarl.europa.eu

New to the Liverpool (Birkenhead)-Belfast route in August, Ro-Ro cargo ferry Stena Forerunner dwarfs the Mersey ferry Snowdrop at Twelve Quays, Birkenhead on 29 September 2018.

3,000 views on 21st September 2012

 

2,000 views on 5th March 2012

 

1,000 views on 8th January 2011

 

At the request of the Chief Constables (Scotland) Association - forerunner of ACPOS - this badge was designed in 1928 by Mr Cairns, Art Teacher at Dumfries Academy.

 

There had been a number of mergers of police forces, each of which had tgheir own distinctive cap badge and/or helemt plate, and of course each amalgamation thus necessitated a completely new badge. This expense could well be done without, and it was envisaged that mergers would continue - as indeed they have done.

 

There was also a clear need for a corporate identity, which the Scottish Police Service of course now has, since all police officers in Scotland receive their basic training at the Scottish Police College at Tulliallan Castle, Kincardine-on Forth, Fife.

 

The badge, as originally designed by Mr Cairns, consists of a Scottish Thistle flanked by thistle leaves, topped by an Imperial Crown (or "Tudor Crown", or King's Crown as it is more commonly called since it is associated with the reign of every King since 1901 when Queen Victoria died).

 

The whole sits upon a scroll bearing the Latin phrase "Semper Vigilo" - ALWAYS ALERT - which has become known as the Scottish Police motto.

 

The badge (known as the "bottle top" as it is a pressing of metal) was originally produced in white metal, but later appeared in chrome-plated finish.

 

While many forces adopted it immediately as their cap badge, and the City of Dundee Police actually wore it as their helmet badge, other forces were more reluctant to give up their distinctive badges, although it was generally used on official police notepaper and on police buildings the length and breadth of the country.

 

The City of Glasgow Police used it as the Centrepiece to their helmet plate to replace the City crest, and a number of forces also used the design as a door decal on their marked vehicles.

 

Officers of Inspector rank and above wore the same design but embroidered in coloured wire-thread.

 

Although the last King died in 1952, and another crown (the St Edward or "Queen's Crown") was introduced in 1953, this badge with the Imperial Crown continued in use in Scotland until 1975.

A forerunner of the book and movie UNBROKEN... from TRUE ACTION, January 1966. Written by Mark Sufrin. Art by James Bama. Featured in Part 3 of my interview with Bama, online here -> www.menspulpmags.com/2014/07/an-interview-with-artist-jam...

s/n 1039GT

 

250 bhp at 7,000 rpm, 2,953 cc SOHC alloy block-and-head V-12 engine, triple Weber carburettors, four-speed manual gearbox, independent front suspension with A-arms and coil springs, live rear axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs, and four-wheel hydraulic drum brakes. Wheelbase: 2,600 mm

 

• One of the most desirable competition-bred Ferraris extant

• Alloy coachwork and V-12 power

• Desirable covered headlamps; one of 36 “single-louver” examples

• Ferrari Classiche-certified and matching numbers

• Restoration by marque specialists in Italy

 

The Ferrari 250 GT Berlinetta not only has breathtaking looks, it remains arguably the greatest and most important Ferrari road/racing car ever built. Its forerunner was the 250 MM, so-named after the famous Mille Miglia race, which hard-charging Italian hillclimb champion Giovanni Bracco won for Ferrari in 1952. That achievement, plus Ferrari’s first World Driver’s Championship win with Alberto Ascari driving the Type 500 and the company’s first collaboration with Pinin Farina (the 212 Inter cabriolet) combined to make the year 1952 a particularly significant one in the marque’s history.

 

THE 250 GT LWB BERLINETTA

 

The last 250 MMs had been built by 1954, and work began on what would become the 250 GT Berlinetta Tour de France. A new strengthened 2,600-mm tubular chassis was equipped with a modern wishbone/coil-spring suspension and the Colombo Tipo 112 “short-block” V-12 engine. Subsequently, this engine was developed further and re-designated Tipo 128B, C and D. Three more 250 GTs similar to the 250 MM followed the prototype Pinin Farina-bodied Berlinetta, 0369 GT, between April and July 1955.

 

That October, another car was shown at the Paris Salon and was the first design with many side louvers set within the rear sail-panels. Pinin Farina made two more prototypes, one of which was owned by the Marquis de Portago from Spain. At Nassau in December 1955, he scored the first victory for the car, a record that would reach epic proportions by the end of the decade. The Le Mans tragedy of 1955, where Peter Levegh’s Mercedes flew into a crowd of spectators, killing 80 and injuring another 200, prompted the creation of a new Gran Turismo category with an engine capacity of 3.0 litres, which would play directly into Ferrari’s hands in 1956.

 

Not to be outdone by Pinin Farina, Scaglietti appeared at the 1956 Geneva Motor Show with their own 250 GT prototype, which became known as the limited production, Series I, “14-louvre” 250 GT Berlinetta. The first production car was built in November 1956, and production was now the responsibility of Scaglietti in Modena.

 

There were five series of 250 GT Berlinettas in all. From mid-1957, the Series II cars were introduced, with three louvers and covered headlights. Just 15 were produced. Series III numbered 36 cars; these retained the covered headlights but had just a single vent louver. In 1959, eight single-louver cars were built with open headlights, a new Italian requirement. Zagato also made five superlight cars.

 

The real start of the 250 GT Berlinetta’s competition career began in 1956, and the car went on to win more races than either of its legendary successors, the 250 GT SWB and the GTO. Olivier Gendebien won the GT class in the Tour of Sicily at the beginning of 1956, but that year’s Tour de France was 250 GT Berlinetta’s most important race and propelled the car into the annals of motorsport history.

 

The Tour de France took five or six days and covered almost 5,000 gruelling kilometres around France, sometimes venturing into Italy, Belgium or Germany. The race consisted of up to six circuit races, two hillclimbs and a sprint. In 1956, in de Portago’s first attempt, with Edmund Nelson as co-driver in his Ferrari, he took the victory with Stirling Moss in a Mercedes 300SL second and Gendebien third in the first Pinin Farina ex-works development car, 0357 GT. With this win, ‘Fon’ de Portago earned the Ferrari 250 GT Berlinetta its enduring sobriquet, the Tour de France. In the hands of Olivier Gendebien, the 250 GT Tour de France was victorious for the next three straight years in the race whose name the car had now unofficially taken, and the car and its enviable competition record remain the stuff of legends today.

 

CHASSIS 1039 GT

 

The example offered here, 1039 GT, was supplied new via US Ferrari Importer Luigi Chinetti Motors of Greenwich, Connecticut to its first owner Hastings Harcourt of Santa Barbara, California on 26 November, 1958. Mr. Harcourt was the heir and owner of Harcourt Brace, the well known book publisher. Of particular note, 1039 GT is one of the 39 competition 250 GT LWB Berlinettas originally produced by Ferrari with all-alloy bodywork, the single vent and the desirable covered-headlamp configuration.

 

1039 GT remained in America for most of its life, and during this phase, it changed hands amongst a number of American collectors, as documented by Ferrari historian Marcel Massini. Early in its life in the United States, Ford units replaced the original engine and gearbox. The original 250 series V-12 engine was later reunited with the TdF, as confirmed by the Ferrari Classiche certification. In 1974, Charles W. Betz and Fred Peters of Orange, California acquired 1039 GT and re-united the TdF with its original Ferrari 250 series V-12 engine and gearbox.

 

The rare Ferrari remained in America for many years thereafter and was successfully campaigned a number of times at the world-famous Monterey Historic Automobile Races in Laguna Seca during the 1980s. In the early 1990s, 1039 GT was sold to Switzerland, and there, it joined an important Swiss-based private automobile collection. The prominent owner used the car sparingly in Switzerland and abroad, when it was driven on the Tour Auto in 1997 and in 1999. He retained 1039 GT for many years, and in 2005, it was certified by the Ferrari Classiche program, which confirms that the car retains its engine and all of its main components the way it was built by the factory, and therefore, it is indeed a true matching-numbers example.

 

The car was restored in Italy by some of the finest recognised Ferrari specialists in the Modena area, the birthplace of Ferrari. The engine was entrusted to Diena, who performed a full rebuild, Bacchelli & Villa handled the coachwork, and the interior was entrusted to the respected Selleria Luppi. Upon completion of the restoration, the car was tested and featured in Octane in January 2006, marking a thoroughly enjoyable and particularly satisfying drive for the magazine’s testers.

 

From Switzerland, the car was sold to its next and current English owner in late 2005, who is himself a fastidious collector. Upon acquisition of the car, he enrolled and was accepted to participate in that year’s edition of the Mille Miglia. Demanding perfection of all of the cars within his collection, the current owner recently commissioned UK-based Ferrari specialists GTO Engineering to perform a full, no-expense-spared service on 1039 GT at a cost of over GBP 10,000. Any mechanical part that was at all worn was changed, and as offered now, the 1039 GT runs beautifully and stands ready to be enjoyed. Of course, with its legendary pedigree, it will surely be welcomed at most any event the new owner chooses to enter.

 

RM Auctions has recently inspected the car, and we can confirm that 1039 GT presents very well. Some of the world’s premier Ferrari experts carried out its restoration, and it still shows today. The bodywork is straight, and the doors display proper fit. The paintwork is near-perfect, and the correctly trimmed tan leather upholstery presents beautifully, a true mark of Luppi’s workmanship, with the crackle-finished dash giving 1039 GT a true competition feel when you slip behind the wheel. The outside fuel filler, covered headlamps and single louver give the car an undeniable competition-bred presence, and as offered today, 1039 GT is correct in every way—a fact confirmed not only by marque specialists but also by the all-important Ferrari Classiche certification binder that accompanies it. Truly rare, purposefully beautiful and capable of performance that remains very impressive even today, this 250 GT Tour de France Berlinetta is steeped in Ferrari’s rich competition legacy and very capably represents one of the most highly coveted Ferrari models ever built.

 

[Text from RM Auctions]

 

www.rmauctions.com/lots/lot.cfm?lot_id=851162

 

This Lego miniland-scale Ferrari 250 GT LWB Berlinetta 'Tour de France' (1958 - Scaglietti), has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 89th Build Challenge, - "Over a Million, Under a Thousand", - a challenge to build vehicles valued over one million (US) dollars, or under one thousand (US) dollars.

 

This particular vehicle was auctioned by the RM Auction house on Wednesday, October 26, 2012, where it sold for 2,240,000 British Pounds (US$3.342,080).

 

 

In the 1930s, Beck’s was the forerunner of one of the biggest names in waterfront seafood dining for most of the twentieth century, Hogate’s. Watson Birdsalle Rulon (1904–1984) first went into the seafood business with a small seafood stand in Ocean City, New Jersey, in 1928. Meanwhile, in 1935, the family doctor, John Hogate Whiticar (1887–1969), purchased a former iron foundry building at Ninth Street and Maine Avenue SW on the waterfront and leased it as a restaurant called Beck’s. Beck’s had been an Ocean City, New Jersey seafood eatery, and this became its Washington branch. But Beck’s didn’t last long; in 1938, Whiticar convinced Watson Rulon to take over the restaurant, which Rulon renamed Hogate’s.

Belfast Lough en route to Birkenhead

 

about 1423-1424. Egg tempera on wood. 31,9 x 63,5 cm. National Gallery, London. NG663.3. Obra exposada: Galeria F.

On 30 March 1913, Faisanterie Buitenlust, the forerunner of today's modern animal park Burgers' Zoo, opened its doors to the public for the first time. Since its establishment by Johan Burgers, the first owner and namesake of the Arnhem Zoo, the park has always remained a true family business. Right from the early years, the zoo caused a stir with its bold innovations, naturally designed animal enclosures and the creation of visitor experiences. Burgers' Zoo has a colourful history that has shaped the zoo as you find it today in the wooded area north of Arnhem.

 

The ecodisplays recreate unique natural areas as naturally and accurately as possible, with animals often living in great freedom amid hundreds of plant species. In the Burgers' Zoo ecodisplays, visitors walk in pieces of reconstructed natural landscapes. While walking, you discover numerous animal and plant species that are optimally adapted to the natural environment

 

Info on the ICA Tropica (forerunner of the Zeiss Ikon Tropica) from a German 1913 catalogue - thanks to Manfred Mornhinweg who provided me with this copy.

 

This is the first published info I could find on the ICA Tropica. Different from the later - published - catalogues, this catalogue still mentions prizes.

 

The year 1913 is - according to what is written in this catalogue - the first year in which the Tropica 10 x 15 came to the market: the 9 x 12 and 13 x 18 were the earlier models. Further there are a few details from which this model can be distinguished as an early type: at the wooden sides it has two bigger and one small screw that fastens the slides in which both the struts are held whereas the later models have four smaller screws.

Further the earliest models can be distinguished by their serial number which is preceded by the letter 'B'. If the camera still caries its original lens/shutter combo, these models had the Compound shutter installed - but since these were interchangeable, one can find samples which have a Compur shutter installed.

 

As with the 1922 catalogue, this early catalogue mentions the wrong weight for the camera since the 10 x 15 model weighs more than 2350 gr. And as in all the later catalogues, the pictures shows the wrong camera, i.e. the one for 9 x 12cm plates.

The Volkswagen Type 2, officially known as the Transporter or informally as Bus (US) or Camper (UK), was a panel van introduced in 1950 by German automaker Volkswagen as its second car model – following and initially deriving from Volkswagen's first model, the Type 1 (Beetle), it was given the factory designation Type 2.

As one of the forerunners of the modern cargo and passenger vans, the Type 2 gave rise to competitors in the United States and Europe, including the Ford Econoline, the Dodge A100, and the Corvair 95 Corvan, the latter adopting the Type 2's rear-engine configuration. European competition included the Renault Estafette and the Ford Transit. As of January 2010, updated versions of the Type 2 remain in production in international markets— as a passenger van, as a cargo van, and as a pickup truck.

Like the Beetle, the van has received numerous nicknames worldwide, including the "microbus", "minibus", "kombi" and, due to its popularity during the counterculture movement of the 1960s, "hippie van".

 

The concept for the Type 2 is credited to Dutch Volkswagen importer Ben Pon. (It has similarities in concept to the 1920s Rumpler Tropfenwagen and 1930s Dymaxion car by Buckminster Fuller, neither of which reached production.) Pon visited Wolfsburg in 1946, intending to purchase Type 1s for import to Holland, where he saw an improvised parts-mover and realized something better was possible using the stock Type 1 pan. He first sketched the van in a doodle dated April 23, 1947, proposing a payload of 690 kg (1,500 lb) and placing the driver at the very front. Production would have to wait, however, as the factory was at capacity producing the Type 1.

When capacity freed up a prototype known internally as the Type 29 was produced in a short three months. The stock Type 1 pan proved to be too weak so the prototype used a ladder chassis with unit body construction. Coincidentally the wheelbase was the same as the Type 1's. Engineers reused the reduction gear from the Type 81, enabling the 1.5 ton van to use a 25 hp (19 kW) flat four engine.

Although the aerodynamics of the first prototypes were poor (with an initial drag coefficient of 0.75), engineers used the wind tunnel at the Technical University of Braunschweig to optimize the design. Simple changes such as splitting the windshield and roofline into a "vee" helped the production Type 2 achieve a drag coefficient of 0.44, exceeding the Type 1's 0.48. Volkswagen's new chief executive officer Heinz Nordhoff (appointed 1 January 1948) approved the van for production on 19 May 1949 and the first production model, now designated Type 2, rolled off the assembly line to debut 12 November. Only two models were offered: the Kombi (with two side windows and middle and rear seats that were easily removable by one person), and the Commercial. The Microbus was added in May 1950, joined by the Deluxe Microbus in June 1951. In all 9,541 Type 2s were produced in their first year of production.

An ambulance model was added in December 1951 which repositioned the fuel tank in front of the transaxle, put the spare tire behind the front seat, and added a "tailgate"-style rear door. These features became standard on the Type 2 from 1955 to 1967. 11,805 Type 2s were built in the 1951 model year. These were joined by a single-cab pickup in August 1952, and it changed the least of the Type 2s until all were heavily modified in 1968.

Unlike other rear engine Volkswagens, which evolved constantly over time but never saw the introduction of all-new models, the Transporter not only evolved, but was completely revised periodically with variations retrospectively referred to as versions "T1" to "T5" (a nomenclature only invented after the introduction of the front-drive T4 which repaced the T25) However only generations T1 to T3 (or T25 as it is still called in Ireland and Great Britain) can be seen as directly related to the Beetle (see below for details).

The Type 2, along with the 1947 Citroën H Van, are among the first 'forward control' vans in which the driver was placed above the front roadwheels. They started a trend in Europe, where the 1952 GM Bedford CA, 1959 Renault Estafette, 1960 BMC Morris J4, and 1960 Commer FC also used the concept. In the United States, the Corvair-based Chevrolet Corvan cargo van and Greenbrier passenger van went so far as to copy the Type 2's rear-engine layout, using the Corvair's horizontally-opposed, air-cooled engine for power. Except for the Greenbrier and various 1950s–70s Fiat minivans, the Type 2 remained unique in being rear-engined. This was a disadvantage for the early "barndoor" Panel Vans, which couldn't easily be loaded from the rear due to the engine cover intruding on interior space, but generally advantageous in traction and interior noise.

 

The Type 2 was available as a:

Panel van, a delivery van without side windows or rear seats.

Nippen Tucket, available in six colours, with or without doors.

Walk-Through Panel Van, a delivery van without side windows or rear seats and cargo doors on both sides.

High Roof Panel Van (German: Hochdach), a delivery van with raised roof.

Kombi, from German: Kombinationskraftwagen (combination motor vehicle), with side windows and removable rear seats, both a passenger and a cargo vehicle combined.

Bus, also called a Volkswagen Caravelle, a van with more comfortable interior reminiscent of passenger cars since the third generation.

Samba-Bus, a van with skylight windows and cloth sunroof, first generation only, also known as a Deluxe Microbus. They were marketed for touring the Alps,

Flatbed pickup truck, or Single Cab, also available with wider load bed.

Crew cab pick-up, a flatbed truck with extended cab and two rows of seats, also called a Doka, from German: Doppelkabine.

Westfalia camping van, "Westy", with Westfalia roof and interior.

Adventurewagen camping van, with high roof and camping units from Adventurewagen.

Semi-camping van that can also still be used as a passenger car and transporter, sacrificing some camping comforts. "Multivan" or "Weekender", available from the third generation on.

Apart from these factory variants, there were a multitude of third-party conversions available, some of which were offered through Volkswagen dealers. They included, but were not limited to, refrigerated vans, hearses, ambulances, police vans, fire engines and ladder trucks, and camping van conversions by companies other than Westfalia. There were even 30 Klv 20 rail-going draisines built for Deutsche Bundesbahn in 1955.

 

The first generation of the Volkswagen Type 2 with the split windshield, informally called the Microbus, Splitscreen, or Splittie among modern fans, was produced from 8 March 1950 through the end of the 1967 model year. From 1950–1956, the T1 was built in Wolfsburg; from 1956, it was built at the completely new Transporter factory in Hanover. Like the Beetle, the first Transporters used the 1100 Volkswagen air cooled engine, an 1,131 cc (69.0 cu in), DIN-rated 18 kW (24 PS; 24 bhp), air-cooled flat-four cylinder 'boxer' engine mounted in the rear. This was upgraded to the 1200 – an 1,192 cc (72.7 cu in) 22 kW (30 PS; 30 bhp) in 1953. A higher compression ratio became standard in 1955; while an unusual early version of the 30 kW (41 PS; 40 bhp) engine debuted exclusively on the Type 2 in 1959. This engine proved to be so uncharacteristically troublesome that Volkswagen recalled all 1959 Transporters and replaced the engines with an updated version of the 30 kW engine. Any 1959 models that retain that early engine today are true survivors. Since the engine was totally discontinued at the outset, no parts were ever made available.

The early versions of the T1 until 1955 were often called the "Barndoor" (retrospectively called T1a since the 1990s), owing to the enormous rear engine cover, while the later versions with a slightly modified body (the roofline above the windshield is extended), smaller engine bay, and 15" roadwheels instead of the original 16" ones are nowadays called the T1b (again, only called this since the 1990s, based on VW's restrospective T1,2,3,4 etc. naming system.). From the 1964 model year, when the rear door was made wider (same as on the bay-window or T2), the vehicle could be referred to as the T1c. 1964 also saw the introduction of an optional sliding door for the passenger/cargo area instead of the outwardly hinged doors typical of cargo vans. This change arguably makes the 1964 Volkswagen the first true minivan, although the term wouldn't be coined for another two decades.

In 1962, a heavy-duty Transporter was introduced as a factory option. It featured a cargo capacity of 1,000 kg (2,205 lb) instead of the previous 750 kg (1,653 lb), smaller but wider 14" roadwheels, and a 1.5 Le, 31 kW (42 PS; 42 bhp) DIN engine. This was so successful that only a year later, the 750 kg, 1.2 L Transporter was discontinued. The 1963 model year introduced the 1500 engine – 1,493 cc (91.1 cu in) as standard equipment to the US market at 38 kW (52 PS; 51 bhp) DIN with an 83 mm (3.27 in) bore, 69 mm (2.72 in) stroke, and 7.8:1 compression ratio. When the Beetle received the 1.5 L engine for the 1967 model year, its power was increased to 40 kW (54 PS; 54 bhp) DIN.

  

1966 Volkswagen Kombi (North America)

German production stopped after the 1967 model year; however, the T1 still was made in Brazil until 1975, when it was modified with a 1968–79 T2-style front end, and big 1972-vintage taillights into the so-called "T1.5" and produced until 1996. The Brazilian T1s were not identical to the last German models (the T1.5 was locally produced in Brazil using the 1950s and 1960s-era stamping dies to cut down on retooling, alongside the Beetle/Fusca, where the pre-1965 body style was retained), though they sported some characteristic features of the T1a, such as the cargo doors and five-stud 205 mm (8.1 in) PCD) rims.

  

VW Bus Type 2 (T1), hippie colors

Among American enthusiasts, it is common to refer to the different models by the number of their windows. The basic Kombi or Bus is the 11-window (a.k.a. three-window bus because of three side windows) with a split windshield, two front cabin door windows, six rear side windows, and one rear window. The DeLuxe model featured eight rear side windows and two rear corner windows, making it the 15-window (not available in Europe). Meanwhile, the sunroof DeLuxe with its additional eight small skylight windows is, accordingly, the 23-window. From the 1964 model year, with its wider rear door, the rear corner windows were discontinued, making the latter two the 13-window and 21-window respectively. The 23- and later 21-window variants each carry the nickname 'Samba', or in Australia, officially 'Alpine'.

 

Certain models of the Volkswagen Type 2 played a role in an historic episode during the early 1960s, known as the Chicken War. France and West Germany had placed tariffs on imports of U.S. chicken. Diplomacy failed, and in January 1964, two months after taking office, President Johnson imposed a 25% tax (almost 10 times the average U.S. tariff) on potato starch, dextrin, brandy, and light trucks. Officially, the tax targeted items imported from Europe as approximating the value of lost American chicken sales to Europe.

In retrospect, audio tapes from the Johnson White House, revealed a quid pro quo unrelated to chicken. In January 1964, President Johnson attempted to convince United Auto Workers' president Walter Reuther not to initiate a strike just prior to the 1964 election, and to support the president's civil rights platform. Reuther, in turn, wanted Johnson to respond to Volkswagen's increased shipments to the United States.

The Chicken Tax directly curtailed importation of German-built Type 2s in configurations that qualified them as light trucks – that is, commercial vans (panel vans) and pickups. In 1964, U.S. imports of automobile trucks from West Germany declined to a value of $5.7 million – about one-third the value imported in the previous year. After 1971, Volkswagen cargo vans and pickup trucks, the intended targets, "practically disappeared from the U.S. market". While post-1971 Type 2 commercial vans and single-cab and double-cab pickups can be found in the United States today, they are exceedingly rare. As of 2009, the Chicken tax remains in effect.

(Source Wikipedia)

The forerunner of the Alpha Fodens.

Tasman Empire Airways Limited, the forerunner to Air New Zealand, was registered as a limited liability company on 26 April 1940.

 

TEAL had been established in 1939, when the New Zealand, United Kingdom and Australian governments agreed to form a new airline company. The British government withdrew from TEAL in October 1953, leaving New Zealand and Australia as joint owners. New Zealand assumed full ownership in April 1961. Four years later, TEAL was renamed Air New Zealand Limited.

 

TEAL's first scheduled service was flown on 30 April 1940, between Auckland and Sydney, using Short S.30 Empire-class flying boats. The flight carried 10 passengers and took 10 hours.

 

This undated Railways Studios artwork was transferred to Archives New Zealand from the Lower Hutt office of the New Zealand Railways Corporation. Established in 1920, Railways Studios was New Zealand's first outdoor advertising agency. Archives New Zealand holds hundreds of Railways Studios posters and original artworks.

 

Archives reference: ABIN W3806 24/folder 82 (R18183144)

collections.archives.govt.nz/web/arena/search#/?q=18183144

 

For updates on our On This Day series and news from Archives New Zealand, follow us on Twitter twitter.com/ArchivesNZ

 

To enquire about this record please email Research.Archives@dia.govt.nz

 

Material from Archives New Zealand

The Volkswagen Type 2, officially known as the Transporter or informally as Bus (US) or Camper (UK), was a panel van introduced in 1950 by German automaker Volkswagen as its second car model – following and initially deriving from Volkswagen's first model, the Type 1 (Beetle), it was given the factory designation Type 2.

As one of the forerunners of the modern cargo and passenger vans, the Type 2 gave rise to competitors in the United States and Europe, including the Ford Econoline, the Dodge A100, and the Corvair 95 Corvan, the latter adopting the Type 2's rear-engine configuration. European competition included the Renault Estafette and the Ford Transit. As of January 2010, updated versions of the Type 2 remain in production in international markets— as a passenger van, as a cargo van, and as a pickup truck.

Like the Beetle, the van has received numerous nicknames worldwide, including the "microbus", "minibus", "kombi" and, due to its popularity during the counterculture movement of the 1960s, "hippie van".

 

The concept for the Type 2 is credited to Dutch Volkswagen importer Ben Pon. (It has similarities in concept to the 1920s Rumpler Tropfenwagen and 1930s Dymaxion car by Buckminster Fuller, neither of which reached production.) Pon visited Wolfsburg in 1946, intending to purchase Type 1s for import to Holland, where he saw an improvised parts-mover and realized something better was possible using the stock Type 1 pan. He first sketched the van in a doodle dated April 23, 1947, proposing a payload of 690 kg (1,500 lb) and placing the driver at the very front. Production would have to wait, however, as the factory was at capacity producing the Type 1.

When capacity freed up a prototype known internally as the Type 29 was produced in a short three months. The stock Type 1 pan proved to be too weak so the prototype used a ladder chassis with unit body construction. Coincidentally the wheelbase was the same as the Type 1's. Engineers reused the reduction gear from the Type 81, enabling the 1.5 ton van to use a 25 hp (19 kW) flat four engine.

Although the aerodynamics of the first prototypes were poor (with an initial drag coefficient of 0.75), engineers used the wind tunnel at the Technical University of Braunschweig to optimize the design. Simple changes such as splitting the windshield and roofline into a "vee" helped the production Type 2 achieve a drag coefficient of 0.44, exceeding the Type 1's 0.48. Volkswagen's new chief executive officer Heinz Nordhoff (appointed 1 January 1948) approved the van for production on 19 May 1949 and the first production model, now designated Type 2, rolled off the assembly line to debut 12 November. Only two models were offered: the Kombi (with two side windows and middle and rear seats that were easily removable by one person), and the Commercial. The Microbus was added in May 1950, joined by the Deluxe Microbus in June 1951. In all 9,541 Type 2s were produced in their first year of production.

An ambulance model was added in December 1951 which repositioned the fuel tank in front of the transaxle, put the spare tire behind the front seat, and added a "tailgate"-style rear door. These features became standard on the Type 2 from 1955 to 1967. 11,805 Type 2s were built in the 1951 model year. These were joined by a single-cab pickup in August 1952, and it changed the least of the Type 2s until all were heavily modified in 1968.

Unlike other rear engine Volkswagens, which evolved constantly over time but never saw the introduction of all-new models, the Transporter not only evolved, but was completely revised periodically with variations retrospectively referred to as versions "T1" to "T5" (a nomenclature only invented after the introduction of the front-drive T4 which repaced the T25) However only generations T1 to T3 (or T25 as it is still called in Ireland and Great Britain) can be seen as directly related to the Beetle (see below for details).

The Type 2, along with the 1947 Citroën H Van, are among the first 'forward control' vans in which the driver was placed above the front roadwheels. They started a trend in Europe, where the 1952 GM Bedford CA, 1959 Renault Estafette, 1960 BMC Morris J4, and 1960 Commer FC also used the concept. In the United States, the Corvair-based Chevrolet Corvan cargo van and Greenbrier passenger van went so far as to copy the Type 2's rear-engine layout, using the Corvair's horizontally-opposed, air-cooled engine for power. Except for the Greenbrier and various 1950s–70s Fiat minivans, the Type 2 remained unique in being rear-engined. This was a disadvantage for the early "barndoor" Panel Vans, which couldn't easily be loaded from the rear due to the engine cover intruding on interior space, but generally advantageous in traction and interior noise.

 

The Type 2 was available as a:

Panel van, a delivery van without side windows or rear seats.

Nippen Tucket, available in six colours, with or without doors.

Walk-Through Panel Van, a delivery van without side windows or rear seats and cargo doors on both sides.

High Roof Panel Van (German: Hochdach), a delivery van with raised roof.

Kombi, from German: Kombinationskraftwagen (combination motor vehicle), with side windows and removable rear seats, both a passenger and a cargo vehicle combined.

Bus, also called a Volkswagen Caravelle, a van with more comfortable interior reminiscent of passenger cars since the third generation.

Samba-Bus, a van with skylight windows and cloth sunroof, first generation only, also known as a Deluxe Microbus. They were marketed for touring the Alps,

Flatbed pickup truck, or Single Cab, also available with wider load bed.

Crew cab pick-up, a flatbed truck with extended cab and two rows of seats, also called a Doka, from German: Doppelkabine.

Westfalia camping van, "Westy", with Westfalia roof and interior.

Adventurewagen camping van, with high roof and camping units from Adventurewagen.

Semi-camping van that can also still be used as a passenger car and transporter, sacrificing some camping comforts. "Multivan" or "Weekender", available from the third generation on.

Apart from these factory variants, there were a multitude of third-party conversions available, some of which were offered through Volkswagen dealers. They included, but were not limited to, refrigerated vans, hearses, ambulances, police vans, fire engines and ladder trucks, and camping van conversions by companies other than Westfalia. There were even 30 Klv 20 rail-going draisines built for Deutsche Bundesbahn in 1955.

 

The first generation of the Volkswagen Type 2 with the split windshield, informally called the Microbus, Splitscreen, or Splittie among modern fans, was produced from 8 March 1950 through the end of the 1967 model year. From 1950–1956, the T1 was built in Wolfsburg; from 1956, it was built at the completely new Transporter factory in Hanover. Like the Beetle, the first Transporters used the 1100 Volkswagen air cooled engine, an 1,131 cc (69.0 cu in), DIN-rated 18 kW (24 PS; 24 bhp), air-cooled flat-four cylinder 'boxer' engine mounted in the rear. This was upgraded to the 1200 – an 1,192 cc (72.7 cu in) 22 kW (30 PS; 30 bhp) in 1953. A higher compression ratio became standard in 1955; while an unusual early version of the 30 kW (41 PS; 40 bhp) engine debuted exclusively on the Type 2 in 1959. This engine proved to be so uncharacteristically troublesome that Volkswagen recalled all 1959 Transporters and replaced the engines with an updated version of the 30 kW engine. Any 1959 models that retain that early engine today are true survivors. Since the engine was totally discontinued at the outset, no parts were ever made available.

The early versions of the T1 until 1955 were often called the "Barndoor" (retrospectively called T1a since the 1990s), owing to the enormous rear engine cover, while the later versions with a slightly modified body (the roofline above the windshield is extended), smaller engine bay, and 15" roadwheels instead of the original 16" ones are nowadays called the T1b (again, only called this since the 1990s, based on VW's restrospective T1,2,3,4 etc. naming system.). From the 1964 model year, when the rear door was made wider (same as on the bay-window or T2), the vehicle could be referred to as the T1c. 1964 also saw the introduction of an optional sliding door for the passenger/cargo area instead of the outwardly hinged doors typical of cargo vans. This change arguably makes the 1964 Volkswagen the first true minivan, although the term wouldn't be coined for another two decades.

In 1962, a heavy-duty Transporter was introduced as a factory option. It featured a cargo capacity of 1,000 kg (2,205 lb) instead of the previous 750 kg (1,653 lb), smaller but wider 14" roadwheels, and a 1.5 Le, 31 kW (42 PS; 42 bhp) DIN engine. This was so successful that only a year later, the 750 kg, 1.2 L Transporter was discontinued. The 1963 model year introduced the 1500 engine – 1,493 cc (91.1 cu in) as standard equipment to the US market at 38 kW (52 PS; 51 bhp) DIN with an 83 mm (3.27 in) bore, 69 mm (2.72 in) stroke, and 7.8:1 compression ratio. When the Beetle received the 1.5 L engine for the 1967 model year, its power was increased to 40 kW (54 PS; 54 bhp) DIN.

  

1966 Volkswagen Kombi (North America)

German production stopped after the 1967 model year; however, the T1 still was made in Brazil until 1975, when it was modified with a 1968–79 T2-style front end, and big 1972-vintage taillights into the so-called "T1.5" and produced until 1996. The Brazilian T1s were not identical to the last German models (the T1.5 was locally produced in Brazil using the 1950s and 1960s-era stamping dies to cut down on retooling, alongside the Beetle/Fusca, where the pre-1965 body style was retained), though they sported some characteristic features of the T1a, such as the cargo doors and five-stud 205 mm (8.1 in) PCD) rims.

  

VW Bus Type 2 (T1), hippie colors

Among American enthusiasts, it is common to refer to the different models by the number of their windows. The basic Kombi or Bus is the 11-window (a.k.a. three-window bus because of three side windows) with a split windshield, two front cabin door windows, six rear side windows, and one rear window. The DeLuxe model featured eight rear side windows and two rear corner windows, making it the 15-window (not available in Europe). Meanwhile, the sunroof DeLuxe with its additional eight small skylight windows is, accordingly, the 23-window. From the 1964 model year, with its wider rear door, the rear corner windows were discontinued, making the latter two the 13-window and 21-window respectively. The 23- and later 21-window variants each carry the nickname 'Samba', or in Australia, officially 'Alpine'.

 

Certain models of the Volkswagen Type 2 played a role in an historic episode during the early 1960s, known as the Chicken War. France and West Germany had placed tariffs on imports of U.S. chicken. Diplomacy failed, and in January 1964, two months after taking office, President Johnson imposed a 25% tax (almost 10 times the average U.S. tariff) on potato starch, dextrin, brandy, and light trucks. Officially, the tax targeted items imported from Europe as approximating the value of lost American chicken sales to Europe.

In retrospect, audio tapes from the Johnson White House, revealed a quid pro quo unrelated to chicken. In January 1964, President Johnson attempted to convince United Auto Workers' president Walter Reuther not to initiate a strike just prior to the 1964 election, and to support the president's civil rights platform. Reuther, in turn, wanted Johnson to respond to Volkswagen's increased shipments to the United States.

The Chicken Tax directly curtailed importation of German-built Type 2s in configurations that qualified them as light trucks – that is, commercial vans (panel vans) and pickups. In 1964, U.S. imports of automobile trucks from West Germany declined to a value of $5.7 million – about one-third the value imported in the previous year. After 1971, Volkswagen cargo vans and pickup trucks, the intended targets, "practically disappeared from the U.S. market". While post-1971 Type 2 commercial vans and single-cab and double-cab pickups can be found in the United States today, they are exceedingly rare. As of 2009, the Chicken tax remains in effect.

(Source Wikipedia)

The EFE Rail pacer has had a few modifications and is now performing very well.

 

It turns out that it is quite a fine model. I missed out on the original Railtrack version, so I cannot compare to its forerunner but it is a nice thing. I'd read many stories about poor running and as a result I was a little uneasy until I got to grips with it. Here's what I have done to this little model.

 

First off I have fitted a LokPilot V5 Micro decoder - The lighting options fitted as standard in the circuitry from EFE are actually very good. This saved some head scratching as I like my multiple units to be able to switch out lights when running coupled. I normally set one car to F0 for head and tail lights and the other car to F1 to operate directionally but EFE have taken care of this already. The lighting as fitted is intended for the last style lights installed on the prototype, but I needed to back date them to new condition. This meant a dab of black paint over the driver's side white LED on the circuit board. The painted marker light were then toned down with a wash of transparent orange paint - a compromise, but reasonably effective. The markers do not stand out too much when trailing with the red lights lit, but show just enough to indicate they are working when leading with the second man's headlight illuminated.

 

The running was a bit lumpy to start, but the LokPilot allows quite a lot of flexibility, so it was actually quite easy to sort out the slow speed running and match the performance to the rest of the DMU fleet. This is important as when running in multi there should be no speed variability between units and certainly no 'snatching'. The CV's to look at are below for those interested with my final values shown.

 

CV 51 = 31

CV 52 = 13

CV 53 = 70

CV 54 = 5

CV 55 = 18

 

Of course, you should not adjust anything you are not comfortable with, and my numbers are not definitive - just there for a guide.

 

Next up, I have changed the destination blinds to read Sheffield at one end and Leeds at the other. The blinds are easy to pop off and modify, and I used home decal paper to make new labels cut to fit over the light box before replacing.

I have also fitted a driver figure to each cab. I use Noch figures and cut off their legs and re-position their arms before I give them a BR uniform and stick them in the cab.

Forerunner of the postwar Gatford and Gatso sportscar. Two-seater, with luxurious red Connolly leather interior. Detachable fabric top. Bodywork custom-built to Maurice Gatsonides' requirements by Schutter & Van Bakel, Amsterdam.

Built on the first Ford Mercury chassis imported into Holland, and therefore featured the enlarged, 3.9 litre 95 b.h.p. V8 engine fitted with high-compression aluminium cylinderheads and two double barrel carburettors.

The engine was exclusive to the Mercury line, rather than the regular 3.6 litre 85 b.h.p. Ford V8.

With only the "Kwik" (the Dutch word for "mercury") legend on the body being visible here it is the typical Ford-pattern road wheels which give a clue to the car's mechanical specification.

 

Making its debut in the Prize of Zandvoort 1939 with number 38, a cylinderhead-gasket problem and engine damage from the resultant overheating caused Gatsonides to pull out of the race before the end.

 

Contested the Liège-Rome- Liège Rally in 1939 with number 28. Team : Maurice Gatsonides - Lex Beels. Finished in 14th place.

 

Early 1940 Kwik collided with a truck and a streetcar (tram) in the Dutch village of Lisse.

Repaired, it was sold soon afterwards, and has subsequently disappeared......

 

At the end of 2003 Tom Gatsonides, the son of Maurice, became the new proud owner of "Kwik".

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The Temco Model 63 "Buckskin" trainer was designed by Texas Engineering & Manufacturing Company (TEMCO) as a private venture to replace the US Navy's piston-engine, land-based Beech Model B45 'Mentor' primary trainers in the mid 1960ies, but with better performance and more likeliness to modern jet fighters.

The Model 63’s forerunner, the Temco Model 51, had been initially proposed to the US Air Force in response to an Air Force competition for a jet-powered primary trainer, which was eventually won by the Cessna T-37 Tweet. A small number of the Model 51 were built and put into service, powered by a Continental Motors J69-T-9 (a license-built Turbomeca Marboré) jet engine and officially designated TT-1 ‘Pinto, but only saw a limited career.

 

Like the Pinto, the Model 63 was a mid-wing, tricycle landing gear trainer with an enclosed cockpit. What made the Model 63 unusual was a pull/push tandem engine arrangement, similar to the Cessna 336/337 that was under development at the same time. The Temco Model 63 was driven by two small Turbomeca Bastan IV turboprop engines, each developing 650 shp (485 kW).

 

The rationale behind this layout were the compact dimensions, actually, the aircraft was not bigger than the single engine TT-1. Studies undertaken during the early design stages had shown that a classic layout with wing-mounted engines would have necessitated a considerably higher wing span and a longer fuselage, too. Another benefit was the improved safety of two engines, esp. during envisioned long navigation flights over the open sea, and the Bastan engines gave the Model 63 the ability to fly safely even with one of the engines shut down.

 

Compared with the TT-1’s small jet engine, the propellers gave the Model 63 a better responsiveness to pilot input and the turboprop engines offered a very good fuel economy, while enabling almost the same performance as the single jet precursor. Furthermore, the two engines gave instructors the option to simulate different flight regimes, while the tandem arrangement helped avoid torque and asymmetrical thrust issues. Besides, the T2T was equipped with many of the same features found in contemporary operational jets, including ejection seats, liquid oxygen equipment, speed brakes, along with typical flight controls and instrument panels.

 

Anyway, the unusual layout came at a price: it necessitated a totally different tail section with twin tail booms and a single, high stabilizer connecting them at the tips of the fins. Despite familiar outlines, only parts of the TT's outer wings and the cockpit could be used on the Model 63 - the rest had to be re-designed and/or strengthened, so that the aircraft's overall weight became markedly higher than the TT's. Despite this drawback, officials became interested enough in the turboprop trainer program to procure a pre-series for trials and direct comparison with jet- and piston-engine alternatives.

 

The aircraft received the official designation T2T. Like the Pinto, the T2T was intended as a primary trainer, so it carried no internal armament but could be outfitted with wing tip tanks and had two underwing hardpoints for 500 lb each, placed outside of the strengthened landing gear. These hardpoints were reserved for auxiliary tanks, cargo boxes, smoke generators or camera pods.

 

The first XT2T maiden flight took place in summer 1959. Flight characteristics were considered good, and, compared with the earlier TT-1, the machine was not as underpowered (which was a problem during landing abortions and touch-and-go manoeuvers). After initial tests with two more prototypes in summer 1960, a batch of five YT2T-1 pre-production aircraft, which were updated to the intended serial production standard and incorporated some minor modifications, was ordered and directly sent to the Naval Air Test Center (NATC) Patuxent River.

 

Results were generally positive, so that a further batch of 24 aircraft were produced as T2T-1s between 1962 and 1963. These aircraft served in the Air Training Command at Pensacola, Florida and used in a training program demonstration testing the feasibility of using jet- and turboprop-powered trainer for primary flight training.

 

The tests were not conclusive, though, and no further T2Ts ordered. The 'Buckskin', how the aircraft was christened unofficially, was pleasant to fly and offered very good performance. But the aircraft was – esp. for its limited role – complex. Maintenance costs were high, and the authorities were never really happy about the French engines on board of the home-grown trainer type.

 

The US Navy liked the turboprop engine, though, but wanted a less complex aircraft. This eventually materialized in the early Seventies with the T-34C Turbo-Mentor. After a production hiatus of almost 15 years, the Beech Model 45 returned, powered by a Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-25 turboprop engine. Mentor production restarted in 1975 for deliveries of T-34Cs to the USN and of the T-34C-1 armed version for export customers in 1977, this version featuring four underwing hardpoints. Since the late 1970s, T-34Cs have been used by the Naval Air Training Command to train numerous Naval Aviators and Naval Flight Officers for the U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Coast Guard, and numerous NATO and Allied nations - and the small T2T fleet was phased out by 1979.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: two

Length: 32 ft 7 in (9.93 m)

Wingspan (incl. tip tanks): 29 ft 10 in (9.09 m)

Height: 8 ft 1 1/2 in (2.48 m)

Wing area: 150 sq ft (13.9 m2)

Empty weight: 2,848 lb (1,292 kg)

Loaded weight: 5,400 lb (2,448 kg)

 

Powerplant:

2× Turbomeca Bastan IV turboprop engines, rated at 650 shp (485 kW) each

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 345 mph (300 knots, 556 km/h) at 15,000 ft (4,600 m)

Never exceed speed: 518 mph (450 knots, 834 km/h)

Cruise speed: 247 mph (215 knots, 398 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,600 m)

Stall speed: 69 mph (60 knots, 111 km/hr)

Endurance: 2.5 hr

Service ceiling: 30,000 ft (9,145 m)

Rate of climb: 1,900 ft/min (9.7 m/s)

 

Armament:

2x underwing hardpoints for a total load of up to 1.000 lb (454 kg)

2x optional wing tip tanks

  

The kit and its assembly:

The final entry for the 2016 "In the Navy" Group Build at whatifmodelers.com, and a close call since I started work on this conversion only 5 days before the GB's deadline!

 

The original inspiration was the photoshopped picture of a private TT-1 in all-blue USN markings, created by artist "Stéphane Beaumort" in 2010 (check this illustration originally posted at AviaDesign: aviadesign.online.fr/images/temco-buckskin2.jpg).

 

A slightly bizarre aircraft with the tandem propellers and the twin tail booms, and IMHO with some fishy details in the CG rendition, e.g. including the idea of driving both propellers with a single engine through shafts and gearboxes. But the concept looked overall feasible and Special Hobby offers a very nice TT-1 Pinto kit, which I was able to procure from Poland an short notice. As a bonus, this kit comes with markings for this specific, blue aircraft (“13/S”), actually a re-constructed, privately owned machine.

 

The Special Hobby kit became the basis for my personal interpretation of the T2T, and it underwent some conversions, being outfitted with a variety of donation parts:

- The front engine once was a cut-away Merlin from a Hobby Boss Hawker Hurricane

- The tail booms and fins come from a Revell Focke Wulf Flitzer

- The stabilizer was created from two Hobby Boss He 162 tail elements

- Propellers come from a vintage, box scale Revell Convair Tradewind

- In order to attach them, styrene tubes were implanted and the props mounted on metal axis’

- The front wheel also belongs to a Hobby Boss He 162, longer than the OOB parts

- The main wheels are bigger, from a Matchbox Folland Gnat

 

Work started with the central fuselage, the added front engine and conversions for the rear pusher engine. Once the wings were in place and the propeller diameter clear, attachment points for the tail booms were scratched from styrene tube and added to the wings' upper sides (leaving the lower surface free, so that the OOB landing gear could be used). Then the tail booms and the tailored stabilizer were mounted, as well as the wing tip tanks.

 

The landing gear came next; the main struts and covers were used, but slightly bigger wheels chosen from the scrap box. For the front wheel well, a "hole" had to be dug out of the massive new nose section (consisting of 2C putty and lead beads) - the OOB covers were used, though, and a longer and more massive front wheel was mounted.

 

Sounds simple and conclusive, but things evolved gradually and the job involved a lot of body work - under dire time pressure. The fact that the kit fell from my workbench after day #2 and hit the floor in a nasty angle, so that the tails suffered severely and needed repair, did not help either...

Another issue became the canopy. I am not certain where the problem lies, but the canopy turned out to be 2mm too short for the fuselage? Could be the result of the massive rhinoplasty with the added front engine, but I am also a bit worried about the position of the cockpit tubs – when I mounted them, the appeared to be in the correct position, but once the fuselage was closed both seat positions appear to be too far to the back – even though the dashboards seem to be correct?

  

Painting and markings:

I used the CG drawing as benchmark, also because the Special Hobby kit came with the right decal set for an all-blue USN livery, which historically was about to be changed in the late Fifties to brighter schemes.

 

The interior surfaces, both cockpit and the landing gear, were painted in a very light gray (FS 36495, Humbrol 147), just as on the real world TT-1. All outside surfaces became Sea Blue FS 35042 (ModelMaster). Very simple, and some panel shading with was done for a more dramatic look on the otherwise uniform airframe.

 

The silver leading edges on wings and stabilizer, as well as the yellow canopy framing, were created from decal strips. The propeller spinners became, as a small highlight, bright red, and some of the OOB sheet’s red trim for “13/S” were used, too. No more weathering was done, and, finally, everything sealed under a coat of gloss acrylic varnish, except for the propeller blades and the black anti-glare panel, which became matt.

  

An odd creation, and taking into account the four and a half days time frame from sprues to beauty pics (including background research and text), as well as the body work involved in the building process with the new front engine and the tail booms, I am quite happy with the result. Could have been better, sure, but it was finished in time, just as planned/hoped for. ;)

 

Anyway, the T2T looks interesting; my build slightly differs from the benchmark CG renditions, but remains true to Stéphane Beaumort’s basic idea. Cheers!

Slalom course, Middlebury Snow Bowl

This ship is the forerunner for all of the other Lego space ships: in 1969, this crucial piece of history launched from LegoLand Space Port for a mission to the moon. This was very soon after the failed 1965 launch of 801 series Space Rocket ( brickset.com/sets/801-3/Space-Rocket ), which killed the the brave crew of Kat Aclysm: female rocket science genius and designer of the experimental ship, and Abraham "Abe" Normal, the best test pilot in the academy. Their deaths at the Samsonite launch pad were not in vain though, as the newly founded LegoLand Aero-Space Authority (renamed Classic Space Command in 1978) rebuilt their reputation as the premier brick-built space agency by launching the "Innovator", also known as LL002 which in early August 1969 made history as the first mini figure - built object on the moon! This rocket and it's crew (Bill Fold, Penny Wise, and S1L-V3R the robot) made history with their two days on the moon's surface, providing the foundations for the Classic Space Moon-base series of missions.

 

(The above story line is 100% fiction.)

This icon has been loving painted and donated to our church. It has travelled from Bulgaria to England. We are ever so grateful and blessed to have such amazing friends. Thank you and much love.

 

A very windy day, glad to be ashore.

Translift Airways was the forerunner of Trans Aer. Shame that the lighting tower on the right got in the way...

 

Built as a Douglas DC-8-61, this aircraft was delivered to United Airlines as N8091U in Sep-69. It was converted to DC-8-71 standard in Mar-83. It was sold to the GPA Group Ltd in Dec-90 and leased back to United Airlines until it was returned to the lessor in Feb-91 and stored. The aircraft was leased to Translift Airways in Apr-92 and returned to the lessor as N8091U in Mar-94. It was converted to full freighter configuration with a main deck cargo door in Dec-94 and leased to Emery Worldwide Airlines in Feb-95. The aircraft was withdrawn from service and stored at Roswell, NM, USA in Sep-01. Although it was stored, Emery Worldwide bought it in Jan-02. It was sold to Fossco Inc in Jan-06 and broken up at Roswell later that year.