View allAll Photos Tagged Existence
A relook at the passed images.
We tend to see more of an image, not in the instance we depressed that shutter, but persistent meditation on the meaning of life, of existence and being. Inherent in the image is the message of birth, being and death. When meditating on the image, the meaning of an image reveals itself, in slow certainty, not in a flash, but it could come in a flash, a leap from normalcy, across the gap of invisible terrain.
Nights are always quiet, silence; days are a whole loaf of materialistic demands and bodily desires, that is the lure of the urban live. The night clears away those disturbances; we gain focus when darkness obliterated sight, reducing all existence to its essential. Only commanding a calm sense of ignorance, through sheer responsibility to the quest, silence could be found in daylight, with selfishness and irresponsibility required to overcome that momentous monster, social culture, a ‘they’ invisibly cajoling conformity, a slew of slogans of accepted goodness. Morality is borne from them, a form of coercion, to conform, to become, for the good of predictability and governance. Would we need morality when living in solitude and remoteness? Do we need morality when you are you. Or I am me. Would you think there is a need for morality in the social being of the ants and bees? Would you think that morality exists, or it is a mortal invention? And why all mortals think there is one, morality, and is it truth? What is creativity? Create, implies, new, leaping from the here and now to another landscape, non-conforming, difference, other than. And when creativity and morality collided, an immense nebular came into being, and when the nebular subsided, you rejoiced, like the nebular it too would subside.
With such monstrosity, with colorized lenses we could derive meaning and insight from behind each image we had taken. Exert values such as ‘to kill is to sin’ and we well up emotion of pity and a sense of injustice, from our righteous souls. ‘Wasp nibbling in mid-flight’ stirred the ocean of morality, jolted you. Imagine you were the spider. In that silence, death gripped you, you are as helpless as the spider, when face with the superior wasp, face with nature, face with fate, torn and tattered to the core, utterly helpless, if you are as omnipotent as god, you could right the wrong, but you, human, powerless, painful, is trapped, trapped within a body and an illusive heart. You need liberation. You need a way out of this unfairness. Why? Why some are borne to die a tragic death? All are borne to die. Why the privilege of one over the other? You see the pain and the painless. What if your death gives life and meaning to other souls? Indeed, a good deed in death, over a painless unworthy death, is preferred. Yet, it is still death. Death has to be worthy. Death has to be worthy. Death has to be worthy. It screamed in silence and determination. Death has to be worthy; life has to be worth living too. We latched on to its last defence, some are willing to die a worthy death, unwilling to believe otherwise, some see the futility of life, others see the futility of death, facing it squarely as the moment of returning to the source. All those thought are indeed a form of burden, death cannot be proven of its worthiness, all livings however they think and thought have to cease living at one moment or another when it come. Yes, nature’s fairness, the being of beings.
Calm down, take deep breath, long and slow.
Remove the veil of morality, remove questions, and return to the surface of the image. Draw towards the wasp, trace the wasp, from the eyes, amazing red, glittering, energy, radiant, vitality, the mouth, the thorax, the flapping wings, in unison, the legs, the constricted waist, the abdomen, the curve, the pointedness, the texture, the pattern, colour, the minuscule hairs. Complete beauty!!! Such wondrous miniature contains life, being and death. It is so small and yet so complete. Complete! Life in this being is.
The flapping of the wings in unison with the pull of the beaks, tearing the Cyclosa’s remaining cephalothorax away from its head, the Cyclosa in its death had offered itself up as nutrients to the wasp and its offspring. The cyclosa becomes the giver of live and sustenance so the wasp could live.
Facing death. a mangled piece, a head, an eye pops, the placid legs, red, torn, see it, go through every nuance of it. Fear and the urge to escape gripped us. Fix on it and see it as you would see the beauty of the wasp. In death we find liberation. Unite both within a single instance. Life, being and death. The being of the wasp is to feast on the spider. A completion, closure, calm and peaceful. Nature is. Is wonderful. Here we see a completion of nature’s work, again, in repetition -¬ birth, being and death.
Why is death liberating? Imagine you are the spider. Imagine that dying moment, as death grips you, it erases all that you had done, it erases your worthiness, it erases you. Fear, extreme fear, penetrates you deep, deep into your soul, and erases your soul, erases your being, to the point of total erasure. You scream. Scream out your soul. See it vanished. Your denial is futile. You feel that cold sweat and coldness shrivel up the spine.
In death, nothing else matter, desires, debt, hatred, anger, anxiety, joy, love and all emotions; all vanished. One is forgiven and one forgives. So imagine you are the spider, in that instance, liberated, one gave its life to another being, there is no foe, enemy, nor love, pure being, freeze in that moment, a singular moment. All is a pristine whiteness. Lost grips you, shaken, and arrive at a sense of immense liberation.
From that barren whiteness, a wasteland, life start a new, death nourishes beings and gives birth to another, more live flourish, another time, another day, another month, another year, in recurrence, in eternity. One sees its persistence and our futility of denial. It is an impossibility to phantom death, but we could phantom that death liberates. Life is a form of energy, transforming from one form into another.
The Cyclosa’s death, had also liberated those that could had been captured by the web that was spun by the Cyclosa. Now those smaller animals were given a chance to survive and mature; they have the wasp to thank. As one lay down their power, whether destructive or creative, it allows others to flourish and mature. Those that had risen would have to fall some days, the sage cautions, in high places, serve with humility and in low places, serve with pride. Did not Christ proclaimed he was your servant?
I have a serious addiction for pack dolls! I was tantalized by these two sets from the moment I learned of their existence. Sadly, I never really saw them in stores though, except a select few times when I ventured out to Target or Toys 'R' Us. My main attraction to these sets was the inclusion of Cameron! I was left speechless when I discovered that MGA was bringing him back for the 2015 relaunch. The anticipation of his release was very strong, and I actually had to resist the urge to buy the Cameron and Cloe pack the first time I saw it (when I was using a coupon to buy my separately sold Hello My Name Is Jade). Something I've learned from the past few years as an adult collector is that Bratz dolls go on the best sales. Since I am a self professed Bratz addict, I've negotiated with myself that if I want to buy a lot of Bratz dolls, I have to wait for them to go on sale (otherwise I'll go broke). Honestly, it's not that hard for me to wait around for stuff to get marked down, because I've had to wait years to find certain things at the flea market. But, the beautiful thing about the 2015 Bratz dolls is that they were marked down to clearance prices within a few months of being released! In fact, there were so many good sales, that I had to strategically plan out which dolls I would prioritize and buy first, since I simply couldn't afford to buy all the on sale dollies at one time. I purchased these two packs on the second occasion I ordered a huge haul of on sale goodies from the TRU website. The first time I placed a similar ginormous order, back in November 2015, these dolls were still really new, so I figured they'd certainly go on sale again. My initial hunch was correct, and I was able to get them for more than 50% off only a few months later!
I had great expectations for Cameron, since I most longed for him to be part of my Bratz collection. Being that I had only a few opportunities to look at these sets on store shelves, I honestly wasn't the least bit familiar with Yasmin or Sasha. Plus, I was so taken with Cameron, that I sort of blew Cloe off whenever I did happen to see their pack. It was actually really exciting opening these two sets for that reason. I felt like a little kid on Christmas opening up two unknown entities. As grateful as I am to have Cameron, I can't deny that Yasmin is most certainly my favorite one from the entire Metallic Madness line (including the separately sold ladies). She is so PRETTY!!! I'm thinking she's in the top five for most stunning Yasmin dolls ever made (the others being 2013 "Basic," 2002 Strut It!, 2003 Funk 'N' Glow, and 2006 Genie Magic Yasmin). It's hard to pay any of the other three dolls pictured above any attention when the ever so gorgeous Yasmin is next to them! I think if I had owned her when I was younger, I would have played with her all the time (poor 2002 Xpress It! Yasmin would have been totally shafted). There is just something so hypnotizing about Yasmin's long, chestnut colored hair, her crazy purple lips (which remind me of my one of my favorite dolls of all time--Jewel Girl Teresa), and her darling outfit which flatters her flawlessly.
Even though Yasmin steals the show, the other three dolls from the two packs are also amazing! Sasha is GORGEOUS...in fact, if she hadn't been sold with the goddess Yasmin, I'd probably be drooling over her more right now. I really love how her dark skin pops with the gold and red accents of her outfit. Cloe is as cute as a button--her platinum hair and freckles are to die for. Plus, she looks extra sweet in her bridal attire (I know she's supposed to be dressed for a dance, but let's face it, it looks like she's heading to a wedding chapel). Cameron is the same doll as his Hello My Name Is counterpart, but his outfit is SO much cooler! I like that it's super tacky--it really sets him apart from all the other Cameron dolls in my collection. Plus, his hat is the most amazing quality piece I've seen in a while (and I've seen so many great clothes and accessories from the 2015 lines).
I'm so glad that 2015 was a year of packs for Bratz. I mean there was the Hello My Name Is 5 Pack, the #BFFL packs, and these two Metallic Dance sets. I know that some collectors find packs frustrating, because it means that you have to adopt two or more dolls when perhaps you only really want one of them. Plus, even though each doll is generally speaking a little cheaper than a separately sold one, the overall prices of such packs can be a tad pricey (most are over $30). But for me, I think of packs as a sort of doll buffet. It's a great way to sample new dolls that maybe I otherwise would have ignored. I think it's exciting to let my collection shape itself and not to overthink which dolls are a part of it. It's fun to get dolls like the "bridal" Cloe pictured here, my eighth 2002 Strut It! Yasmin doll, Scaris Lagoona, or my Magic Snow Jaxson doll, who joined my doll family by chance because they were part of used lots or new packs. That's what I love the most about doll packs like these--they give me the chance to fall in love with someone totally unexpected, and oftentimes, I end up enjoying them as much, if not more than the doll I originally purchased the pack for!
The continued existence of Auschwitz is an accident of history. Other Nazi murder camps, such as those at Treblinka, Belzec, or Sobibór, were deliberately dynamited by the SS before the war was over in order to conceal the incriminating evidence. They intended to do likewise at Auschwitz-Birkenau, but because of the speed of the advance of the Soviet army, the job was never finished. Much of the physical fabric of Auschwitz thus survived the war - not only the ruins of the gas chambers and the crematoria, but also the barracks, the watch-towers, the barbed-wire fences, the railway line that led nowhere except to the gas chambers.
North Farnham Church in Virginia's Northern Neck has had a long and rough existence. It is a colonial-era church, built about 1737, and the exterior walls remain as examples of -- in the words of one source -- "colonial masonry at its finest"; the interior and the roof have had to be recreated, because of the noted rough existence (see historical marker, previous photo). Like other colonial churches, which had been part of the Church of England, disestablishment after the American Revolution left the church vacant for some time. It was damaged by in a skirmish during the War of 1812, and during the American Civil War it was used by Union troops as a stable. Restored after the Civil War, the church was gutted by fire in 1887, and finally restored again in the 1920s (I've found dates of 1921, 1922, and 1924). It remains an active Episcopal Church, also like many of Virginia's colonial-era churches. The Flemish bond brickwork of the church's exterior looks amazingly good (next photo), but some of the ravages of time can be seen in the close-up of bricks in the water table of the lower portion of the walls shown here. North Farnham Church was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. According to Virginia Historic Landmarks (3rd ed., p. 396), in its early years, the congregation included members of two prominent Virginia families, the Carters and the Tayloes, residents of two other nearby historic properties, Sabine Hall and Mount Airy, respectively.
Chartres photos thanks to Allison. I visited pre-writing the 6-8pg paper that has now become the bane of my existence. However, the cathedral was incredible. Obviously.
Contemplating the vastness and beauty of our home galaxy.
11/26/11
Ocotillo Wells, CA
1x13 second exposure ISO 6400 f/3.5
Canon Rebel T3 DSLR
086/366
thebaffler.com/latest/laurie-penny-self-care
“The slow collapse of the social contract is the backdrop for a modern mania for clean eating, healthy living, personal productivity, and ‘radical self-love’—the insistence that, in spite of all evidence to the contrary, we can achieve a meaningful existence by maintaining a positive outlook, following our bliss, and doing a few hamstring stretches as the planet burns.” ―Laurie Penny
The donut is the symbol for infinite existence, without beginning, without ending... except maybe, when it's eaten...
When struggle ends
Failure starts,
But when person bows down
With the weight of struggle
What to do?
Who will help?
Poem by TADASHA TRIPATHY
I was driving through the misty rain
Yeah searchin' for a mystery train
Boppin' through the wild blue
Tryin' to make a connection with you
This is radio nowhere, is there anybody alive out there?
- The Boss
This was the earworm when I snapped this wreck of a hotel in Denver, Johannesburg this afternoon, maybe because its next to the railway line - must have been quite a posh place in another lifetime...
Skylanders, Amiibo, Disney Infinity – the toys-to-existence class received huge, fast, but most of the action in the place following Skylanders tended to be largely spinoff, devoid of truly pushing the class forward when it arrives to the breadth of out there systems. Lightseekers, a new cr...
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#electronics #technology #tech #electronic #device #gadget #gadgets #instatech #instagood #geek #techie #nerd #techy #photooftheday #computers #laptops #hack #screen
honestechs.com/2016/10/05/lightseekers-aims-to-evolve-toy...
Co-Existence's Michel tries to pump some life into Zora in their Ouellette Avenue performance in Windsor's 2005 Busker Festival.
If you like this shot, you should check out what my friends post in MiRea's Realm
And if you have time, check out our website!!!
The critically endangered Golden Coin Turtles (Cuora trifasciata) have their ancestral home in southern China and these turtles are as endangered as mainland China’s Giant Pandas, and the wild areas of Hong Kong represent its last chance for continued existence in the wild.
Andy Biersack of Black Veil Brides, live at the Best Buy Theater NYC 11.23.14
Check out the gallery on Music Existence: musicexistence.com/blog/2014/11/25/gallery-black-veil-bri...
How do you feel about the following statement: "The very existence of reality shows about teen pregnancy, in and of itself, glamorizes teen pregnancy."
Agree: 134, 27%
Disagree: 103, 21%
Neither agree nor disagree: 187, 37%
Strongly agree: 55, 11%
Strongly disagree: 21, 4%
Total: 500
The village of St. Nicholas-at-Wade earned part of its name, and possibly its existence, by being at a point where it was possible to wade across the Wantsum, the old channel that once made a true island of Thanet but which has since become little more than a drainage ditch at its northern end as a result of centuries of land reclamation on either side. The other part was almost certainly from its magnificent church of St. Nicholas, whose tall 14th century tower dominates the village and surrounding farmland.
Most of the church dates from the 12th to 14th centuries and consists of a clerestoried nave; chancel; north and south chapels; two-storeyed porch; and the broad west tower with a south-west stair-turret. Battlemented virtually all the way round, the use of local stones in the fabric gives the building a distinctively attractive aspect. The interior offers much of interest including a Jacobean pulpit, dating from 1615 - the earliest dated example in the county, and some very interesting ledger stones in the nave and tower floor, the oldest of which is dated 1582, and one, to a William Henaker (d.1609), has an inscription that is memorable in its understatement: (he) ‘lived to the age of 39 yeares or thereabouts and then died and was buried.’ Another reads thus: ‘Here lieth the body of Edward Hannis who departed this life 23 April 1750 aged 55 years. And also 9 of his children.’ Does this mean he had more?
The south chapel – dedicated to St.Thomas a Becket – is used as a vestry, but up until 1833 was the parish schoolroom and still has the fireplace intact. Next to the main door a very rickety ladder (which I climbed at the risk of life and limb) leads to a room above the porch. This is used as a storeroom, but, back in the 18th century, was rented as a workshop by the local plumber.
The north chapel contains several memorials to members of the Bridges family, one of which is to a former Poet Laureate – Robert Bridges (1844-1930). I suppose, from time to time, we are all reminded by certain events of our own mortality, but perhaps the verse found on a tomb chest to two young members of the family is as stark a reminder as any: ‘Stay reader, stand and lend a tear. Unto the dust that slumbers here; And when you read the state of me. Think on the glass that runs for thee.’ Enough said!
For the last year of their existence, Northern Coach Builders, is alleged to have poached a draughtsman from Eastern Coach Works and developed this all metal ECW pastiche of the highbridge body, normally fitted to the Bristol K.
Northern General had a batch of these fitted to Guy Arab 3 chassis, with the same predictable, under achieving Gardner 5LW engine.
One of these, probably on loan to Tynemouth, is seen arriving in Northumberland Square, North Shields. Going the other way is a 1957 Leyland PD2 Willowbrook. There was a batch of ten of these PD2's, one of the first manifestations, of a change in engineering policy from Guy to Leyland within the Northern General Group, following the retirement of Major Hayter, the erstwhile general manager. It was said that if you knew where to look all these Willowbrook bodies were different. But they all looked the same to me.
Other automotive goodies on site are a mid fifties Morris Oxford or Cowley, a similar vintage Bedford CA van and a Mk 2 Ford Consul.
Kilwinning like, Kilmarnock, Kilbride, Kilbirnie , are all, verbal evidence of the existence of ‘Kils’ or cells of the Culdee or Celtic Church.
That there existed a religious house at this place, in the early part of the seventh century, is a generally accepted truth; the holy father of the church being St Winin(also known as St Finnan) (who is reputed to have taught the young St Columba), after whom, in olden times, the town was called the name of Sagtoun/Segdoune (or Saint’s town). Kilwinning Abbey was a Tironensian Benedictine monastic community founded sometime between 1162 and 1188 with monks coming from Kelso. The patron is not known for certain, but it may have been Richard de Morville, Lord of Cunninghame and Great Constable of Scotland, perhaps with the backing and assistance of King William of Scotland. A connection exists with the founding of Arbroath Abbey in 1178, also a Tironensian abbey. Kilwinning Abbey took over 100 years to complete with 2 towers, there is only one today which was rebuilt (in 19th Century) tower which had been struck by lightning in 1805
Fry contemplates the meaning of his existence.
Actually this is from a frame of the fourth episode when he's trying to remember the time robots enslaved humanity (2:45) during his talk with the red haired woman at the bar.
He looks a little angier than I would have liked. I am pleased with his mouth, ear, nose, and eyebrow though. (I'm not even an ear-nose-and-throat doctor either) The subtle change of color doesn't stand out too much but you can still see it, making you look a little closer.
I avoided black outlines, straying away from the animator's style but I liked it better this way. This and the ship are the only ones that don't have outlines.
HOW-TO PARAGRAPH: I struggled for 15 minutes getting his hair and face lined up with each other. Of course, I was forgetting my own knowledge and I deleted all the points on the face shape at the top near the hairline and just went SCREW IT and made a big arc covering up the hairline with the face color. The only actual lining up is the eyebrow, which resides on the edge of the eyes and face. I darkened the color his skin is and made a really skinny hook shape. This is easier if you're zoomed into 1600%. Same technique with his ear and mouth. For the background color I didn't bother making a huge square, I just filled it in with the paint bucket. Don't worry that it's not a vector shape, it will scale exactly the same as if it was one.
Google pages large version here.
History of Kraków
First indications of the existence of Krakow approximately stem from the 7th century. In the next following centuries the tribe of Vistulans (Wislanie) populated Krakow, after they centuries ago in the as "Lesser Poland" or Malopolska known region had settled down. From the year 965 stems the first document from Krakow, as Abraham ben Jacob of Cordova, a Jewish merchant, in his book referred to the trading center of Krakow.
In 1000, the Diocese of Krakow was founded and in 1038 declared capital of the Piast dynasty. The Wawel castle and several churches were built in the 11th century and thus the town rapidly grew. 1241 the Mongols invaded the city and burned down Krakow without exception. 1138 Krakow became the seat of the senior prince. 1257 Kraków was awarded its town charter and a city map was drawn up, which remained until today. This one included the arrangement of the checkerboard street configuration with a centrally located market. On the market following the seat of the city government was built. From the historical trading functions until today only the Cloth Halls remained. But on the market not only trade agreements were closed but also courtly and urban festivities celebrated. Furthermore, the urban center served for executions. The defensive walls were built, which surrounded the city and linked it to the Wawel. In the south of Wawel Castle in 1335 the city of Kazimierz was created. By Royal command it was surrounded by defense walls and the churches of St. Catherine, of Corpus Christi and the "Na Skalce" were built. End of the 15th century, Jews settled the later Cracow district. 1364 the Cracow Academy of King Kazimierz Wielki was founded, the famous Polish Jagellonen-University.
With the last king of Jagellonian dynasty, Krakow flourished. The Wawel castle was rebuilt in Renaissance style, the well known Zygmunt chapel was built and the Cloth Halls as well as the patrician houses have been restored. During the reign of King Sigismund III. Vasa the baroque style received introduction in Krakow. The Baroque University Church of St. Anne and the Church of Saints Peter and Paul were built in this period. In 1607 Warsaw was declared headquarters of the King, but Krakow retained its title of the Royal capital. Furthermore, it remained the place of coronations and funerals. Middle of the 17th century, the city was devastated by the Swedes, what at the beginning of the 18th century was produced again.
After the first partition of Poland, Krakow became a frontier town. Austria declared the settlement Podgorze separated city. After the second division in 1794, began the Polish national uprising. After its decline and the third partition of Poland the town fell to the Austrians, which on Wawel Hill caused numerous devastations and adapted buildings to the wishes and needs of the Army. 1809 Cracow was affiliated to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. After the defeat of Napoleon, Krakow in the Vienna Convention of 1815 was declared Free City of Kraków. Then the remains of folk hero Tadeusz Kosciuszko and of Prince Jozef Poniatowski were brought back to the city. 1820-1823 on the rise of St. Bronislava a hill in honor of the leader of the popular uprising was built. Instead of the city walls, which were largely destroyed, they laid out supporting beams. 1846 Krakow lost its independence and the Austrians erected again on the Wawel barracks and they surrounded the Wawel with fortification complexes. However, Austria but has proved less tyrannical and so the city enjoyed a certain degree of growing cultural and political freedom. 1918 Krakow became the independence back.
Before the outbreak of the Second World War, in Krakow lived about 260,000 inhabitants, of which 65,000 belonged to the Jewish religion. During the war, also Krakow became witness of German war crimes. The for the greater part Jewish district of Kazimierz was eradicated. The Jews from now on lived in ghettos where they either were deported from there to Auschwitz or immediately shot. In spite of the plundering of the Nazis, Krakow became no scene for military combat operations and thus the only large Polish town escaping this fate. Therefore, its old architecture still almost completely is intact.
After the surrender of Germany and the Polish liberation, hastened the Communist government to inspire the traditional life and the city with a large steel plant in Nowa Huta. But the intensive rebuilding of the economy and industry rather promoted an ecological disaster. Buildings that had survived the war undamaged were now devoured and destroyed by acid rain and toxic gases. Carbon dioxide emissions grew so powerful that this has remained a serious and grave problem of the city. After the fall of the Communists and the fall of the Iron Curtain Krakow has benefited greatly from tourism and has adapted itself to a large extent to the Western culture.
"I pray one prayer, I repeat it till my tongue stiffens.... may you not rest as long as I am living. You said I killed you--haunt me then. The murdered do haunt their murderers. I believe--I know that ghosts have wandered the earth. Be with me always--take any form--drive me mad. Only do not leave me in this abyss, where I cannot find you! Oh, God! It is unutterable! I cannot live without my life! I cannot live without my soul!”
Heathcliff of Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights is one hero who's more a villain. He embodies the enigma of existence.
Strobe info: Oloong 1/64, 50mm, ISO 500 shot with an umbrella reflector placed on the left of the model.
ODC: heroes & villains
*BOOM*
The new Existence.
Home of BOOM, SMP, fable, Modd.G, Bodyline (soon), Miseria and Minettes. Main locations of Skream and Muse & Amuse.
"Snow and pine tree" expresses a sense of evanescent intensity, of the still quiet of a snow blanketed scene broken by the hawk's sudden awareness and the quiver of snow showering off of the pine.
Welcome to existence
Everyone's here
Everybody's watching you now
Everybody waits for you now
What happens next?
-Switchfoot, "Dare you to Move"
[baby kitten, probably just a few weeks old
that's the kitty's real eye colour]
life is a gift, so use it well
are you going to help people or betray them?
USS OLYMPIA
Resting aside Becuna, a WWII sub.
This is a wonderful and majestic piece of history
now docked in Philadelphia to be experienced if you can.
However, it's future existence and location
is very much in question so
please take advantage and get to see it.
Here are a few interesting links/references to review
www.phillyseaport.org/ships_olympia.shtml
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Olympia_(C-6)
www.theolympian.com/2011/01/27/1521428/sink-the-uss-olymp...
www.google.com/#q=uss+olympia&hl=en&rlz=1W1ADRA_e...
It is the oldest steel hulled warship afloat today.
It is the oldest half sail/ half steam ship remaining.
It is the first naval vessel to use refrigeration, a big step.
It was the flagship at the famous battle of Manila Bay
commanded by Commodore George Dewey.
Name: USS Olympia
Namesake: Olympia, Washington
Ordered: 7 September 1888
Builder: Union Iron Works
San Francisco, California
Laid down: 17 June 1891
Launched: 5 November 1892
Sponsored by: Miss Ann B. Dickie
Commissioned: 5 February 1895
Decommissioned: 9 December 1922
Reclassified: CA-15, 17 July 1921
CL-15, 8 August 1921
IX-40, 30 June 1931
Fate: Museum Ship. Future disposition is uncertain.
General characteristics
Displacement: 5,586 tons
Length: 344 ft 1 in (104.88 m)
Beam: 53 ft 0.625 in (16.17028 m)
Draft: 21 ft 6 in (6.55 m)
Propulsion: vertical triple-expansion steam engine
2 × screw propellers
Speed: 20 kn (23 mph; 37 km/h)
Range: 13,000 nmi (15,000 mi; 24,000 km)
Complement: 33 officers and 395 enlisted men
Armament: 4 × 8 in (200 mm)/35 cal Mark 4 guns (2x2),
10 × 5 in (130 mm)/40 cal guns (later replaced with 5 in (130 mm)/51 cal guns) (10x1),
14 × 6-pounders (57 mm (2.2 in)) (14x1),
6 × 1-pounders (37 mm (1.5 in)) (6x1),
4 × Gatling guns (4x1),
6 × 18 in (460 mm) above-surface torpedo tubes, firing Whitehead Mark 1 torpedoes
Armor: Deck: 4.75 in (121 mm) on slopes; 2 in (51 mm) flat
The Maine Coon is a breed of domestic cat well known for its distinctive physical appearance. It is one of the oldest natural breeds in North America, specifically native to the state of Maine, where it is the official State Cat.
Although the Maine Coon’s exact origins and date of introduction to the United States are unknown, many theories have been proposed. The breed was popular in cat shows in the late 1800s, but its existence became threatened when long-haired breeds from overseas were introduced in the early 20th century. The Maine Coon has since made a comeback and is now the second most popular cat breed in North America, according to the Cat Fanciers’ Association (CFA).
The Maine Coon is generally noted for its large bone structure, its rectangular body shape, and a long, flowing coat. The breed can be seen in a variety of colors and are known for their intelligence and gentle personalities. Health problems, such as feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and hip dysplasia, are seen in the breed, but testing is available to detect the genes responsible for causing these abnormalities
Origin
The ancestral origins of the Maine Coon are unknown. There are only theories and folktales. One such folktale involves Marie Antoinette, the Queen of France, who was executed in 1793. Before her death, Antoinette attempted to escape France with the help of Captain Samuel Clough. She loaded Clough’s ship with her most prized possessions, including six of her favorite long-haired cats. Although Antoinette did not make it to the United States, her pets safely reached the shores of Wiscasset, Maine, where they mated with short-haired breeds and evolved into the modern breed of the Maine Coon.
The face of a Maine Coon
Another folktale involves Captain Charles Coon, an English seafarer who kept long-haired cats aboard his ships. Whenever Coon’s ship would anchor in the New England ports, the felines would exit the ship and mate with the local feral cat population. When long-haired kittens began appearing in the litters of the local cat population, they were referred to as one of “Coon’s cats”.
A theory which is biologically-based, though genetically impossible, is the idea that the modern Maine Coon descended from ancestors of semi-feral domestic cats and raccoons. This could have possibly explained the most common color of the breed (brown tabby) and the bushy tail, which is a characteristic trait. Another idea is that the Maine Coon originated between the matings of domestic cats and wild bobcats, which could explain the tufts of hairs that are so commonly seen on the tips of the ears. There have been reports of domestic cats breeding with bobcats.
The generally-accepted theory among breeders is that the Maine Coon is descended from the pairings of local short-haired domestic cats and long-haired breeds brought overseas by English seafarers (possibly by Captain Charles Coon) or 11th-century Vikings. The connection to the Vikings is seen in the strong resemblance of the Maine Coon to the Norwegian Forest Cat, another breed that is said to be a descendant of cats that traveled with the Vikings.
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Mi Maine Coon
Es la primera raza que se desarrolló en Estados Unidos. El nombre proviene de la creencia de los colonizadores de que era el resultado del cruce de un mapache y un gato, cosa imposible.
Su pelaje es tupido, lanoso, resistente a los rigores climáticos, con la piel cubierta por un lustroso pelaje exterior más abundante, con el que soporta el invierno. Generalmente se cuida solo.
Esta raza posee una disposición afable y se lo reconoce en una amplia gama de colores y patrones. El color de los ojos no tiene que hacer juego con el pelaje. También se caracteriza por ser de gran longitud. Se cree que era una mezcla de los gatos de la realeza francesa.
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Il mio Maine Coon
Il Maine Coon è una delle più antiche razze naturali del Nord America, tanto da essere considerato generalmente come nativo dello stato del Maine, di cui è il gatto ufficiale. Il suo nome deriva da Maine, lo stato della Nuova Inghilterra in cui veniva avvistato, e da Raccoon, orsetto lavatore in inglese, per via della sua coda molto simile a quella di un procione. Molteplici sono le leggende che circondano l’origine di questo particolare gatto. La più diffusa all’inizio del secolo narrava che per le grandi e pelose orecchie provviste di ciuffi e la coda grossa e inanellata, il Maine Coon fosse il risultato di un incrocio tra una lince e un orsetto lavatore. L’ipotesi, ovviamente assurda, ha comunque contribuito ad alimentare le numerose storie che si tramandano su questa razza. C’è anche chi a tutti i costi ha voluto conferire un’aura regale a questo gatto “rustico”, facendolo addirittura discendere da sei gatti d’Angora che la regina Maria Antonietta, durante la Rivoluzione Francese, avrebbe messo in salvo inviandoli a Wiscasset, nello Stato Americano del Maine. Le origini del Maine Coon hanno creato così tantissime leggende e congetture, nessuna delle quali può essere provata. La teoria più probabile, anche se la meno pittoresca, indicherebbe il Maine Coon come il risultato di un incrocio tra gatti selvatici a pelo corto del continente nordamericano e gatti a pelo lungo d’oltremare. Secondo alcuni infatti, il Maine Coon avrebbe antenati tra i gatti nordici, i progenitori del Norvegese delle Foreste, arrivati in America del Nord nell’anno mille in seguito agli sbarchi dei Vichinghi sulle Isole di Terranova. Secondo altri invece, l’origine del Maine Coon risalirebbe al periodo della colonizzazione quando le navi dei coloni provenienti da tutto il mondo attraccavano sulle coste americane del Nord-est portando al seguito dei gatti per far strage di topi. Erano gatti d’ogni risma, che i marinai dell’epoca apprezzavano più o meno a seconda della loro maggiore o minore capacità di cacciare topi piuttosto che per la loro maggiore o minore bellezza. È però assai probabile che, fra quei “gatti”, tutti uguali e tutti diversi, ci fosse anche qualche antenato degli attuali gatti d’America. La prima segnalazione ufficiale di un Maine Coon, risale al 1861 con una menzione da parte della signora Pierce di un gatto bianco e nero chiamato “Captain Jenks of the Horse Marines”. In Italia il Maine Coon compare solo nel 1986 su un mensile del settore, da allora la diffusione della razza è in continua espansione e i Maine Coon sono ormai protagonisti di successo nelle esposizioni feline.
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Mi Maine Coon
Deuxième race féline des États-Unis, et dont la popularité ne cesse de croître à travers le monde, le maine coon est un chat robuste et rustique, façonné par le dur climat de l’État du Maine, sur la côte est des États-Unis. Il est probablement l’une des plus anciennes races naturelles nord-américaine,.
Plusieurs légendes décrivent les origines de la race. La plus répandue raconte que le maine coon est le fruit d’un croisement entre des chats et des ratons laveurs (raccoon en anglais), ce qui expliquerait leur couleur (la plus répandue est le brown tabby) et leur queue très touffue. Bien sûr, il est génétiquement impossible de réaliser un tel croisement mais la race gardera de cette légende son nom. La deuxième avance que ce sont des descendants des six chats angoras envoyés par Marie-Antoinette d’Autriche alors qu’elle préparait une fuite pour échapper à la révolution française. Ces angoras auraient été amenés sur le bateau le Sally du capitaine Samuel Clough de Wiscasset avec les autres effets personnels de la reine. Les angoras se seraient ensuite mêlés aux chats de ferme locaux pour donner naissance au maine coon.
Une autre théorie, un peu moins extravagante celle-ci, avance que la race s’est développée à partir de croisements entre des chats de ferme locaux et d’autres chats à poils longs ou mi-longs importés d’abord par les Vikings aux alentours de l’an 1000. Le maine Coon descendrait alors du chat des forêts norvégiennes, ce qui expliquerait leur ressemblance. Cette hypothèse est appuyée par la ressemblance entre turc de van, sibériens, norvégiens et enfin maine coons dont les origines géographiques correspondent aux déplacements des vikings. Cette ressemblance avec le norvégien peut aussi s’expliquer par le fait que le climat hivernal de la Nouvelle-Angleterre et de la Norvège sont identiques et auraient donc conduits à développer les mêmes spécificités.
Cosey, la première maine coon vainqueur en 1885 à New York
C’est en tout cas ce qu’affirmait Mme Pierce, une des premières propriétaires de maine coon qui avait à l’époque effectué des recherches approfondies sur les origines de la race. Elle avait effectivement trouvé que ces chats étaient arrivés sur les côtes du Maine par la mer, mais pas grâce aux Vikings. Ce serait plutôt par les riches familles du Maine qui possédaient alors de luxueux bateaux et voyageaient beaucoup. Ils auraient ramenés de leurs expéditions de nombreux animaux de compagnie exotiques, notamment pour amuser les enfants. La deuxième hypothèse de Mme Pierce était que des chats angoras furent embarqués à bord des bateaux marchands pour chasser les rats. Dans les deux cas, ils auraient débarqués sur la Côte Est et se seraient mélangés aux chats locaux à poils courts et le brassage aurait donnés le chat à poils mi-long que nous connaissons.
Une autre possibilité est qu’ils aient été importés par les immigrants européens et aient su s’adapter aux conditions de vie et au climat difficile de la région.
En 1860, les fermiers du Maine, très fiers de leurs chats organisaient leurs propres expositions pour élire le champion. Le premier maine coon cité dans la littérature est un mâle noir et blanc nommé Captain Jencks qui appartenait à Mme Pierce. Cela remonte à 1861. Un peu plus tard, en 1895, ce chat de grande taille fit sensation au Madison Square Garden. C’est d’ailleurs une femelle maine coon nommée Cosey qui remporta le concours. En 1897, c’était une douzaine de maine coons qui participaient à une exposition à Boston. Au début du XXe siècle, la popularité de la race dépasse la Côte Est et atteint la Côte Ouest des États-Unis. Puis peu à peu, elle tombe dans l’oubli puisque jusqu’en 1950 la mode est aux persans et aux siamois, laissant de côté le géant américain. A la fin des années 40, on le déclare même un peu vite disparu. Pour que le maine coon retrouve sa popularité, deux éleveurs fondent le Central maine coon cat club en 1953. Trois ans plus tard, ce club écrit également le premier standard de la race. Les efforts paient puisqu’en 1960, la race a retrouvé sa popularité d’antan.
Jeune maine coon brun mackerel tabby et blanc
La race est officiellement reconnue depuis 1967 par l’American Cat Fanciers Association et la Canadian cat association. La CFA tarde à reconnaître la race qu’elle refuse à plusieurs reprises entre 1969 et 1972. Il aura fallut attendre 1973 pour que la fédération reconnaisse la race de façon provisoire et 1976 pour une reconnaissance définitive. Entre temps, en 1972, les différents standards existants sont harmonisés au niveau national.
L’importation du maine coon en France date de 1981 mais la race ne prend son essor qu’au début des années 90 et c’est également à cette époque que l’Allemagne la découvre. La FIFé reconnaît la race en 1983 et le GCCF anglais en 1986.
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chimsky macro face taormina mazzeo letojani sicilia italy italia europe europa eu nature street light landscape contact author michael castielli free license creative commons high resolution copyright patent wallpaper graphical design disegno water acqua agua arte art home beach sea mare spiaggia playa plaja city città ciudad ville new sky travel viaje viaggio trip vacation vacanze vacaciones holiday site fountain web
In my opinion, the definitive benchmark location proving the existence of Atlantis of the Plato fame is the Temple of Poseidon, with the team of horses pulling a golden chariot.
But there are problems. How could there be a golden chariot 10,000 years ago, when the agreed upon domestication of the horse was only 3,500 years ago.
And the chariot? This is agreed to have been invented or introduced in the 1800 BC time frame.
And then there is the naming convention, wherein Solon was told that the Atlantean names were different and changed into Greek recognizable names.
Now, in my opinion, as ocean floor habitats were lost to rising waters and sediment, Atlantis as a capitol city was probably moved.
Likewise, I have found where a previous name of Poseidon may have been Cocotekas, or Te-chau Ka Ko, much like Titicaca, Texcoco, and Chicago.
Anyways, I am firmly believing that the Dacia Seamount with its concentric circle and surrounding multiple pairs of volcanic cone shapes, along with the Agadir-Gadeira naming similarities, and the Seine-Essaouira Seamounts, all strongly suggest that I have found the home of the Titans and the Atlanteans.
So where is the Temple of Te-chau-Ka-Ko, aka Poseidon? I am purely guessing here, but there is one strategic location, visible for thousands of square miles surrounding it, at a major "sentry-observation point" which could relay messages to all locations around the area, and that is a small hilltop in the virtual middle of the expansive valley. It is also at the convergence of what appears to be two major criss-cross highways or canals. If it is not Poseidon, it is a major strategic temple structure of some type, it may be 10 to 20,000 years old, and it may have been a pyramid as opposed to an upright-roofed Temple, at least in the pre-Greek version.
I am only an amateur, non-academic, and this is a non-scientific tabling of my observations for smarter persons than myself to review.
States of Existence developed during the winter & spring terms by the 2015 Choreography Workshop students, includes both solo and group work that focus on the idea of the individual in relation to 'other.' The following question is presented: How is individual identity created? To see more about Knox's Dance program: www.knox.edu/academics/majors-and-minors/dance
Shot at Salkumar'23 this photo shows the existence and survival of life with trees and plants and how those two are related.
In monotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith.[3] The concept of God as described by most theologians includes the attributes of omniscience (infinite knowledge), omnipotence (unlimited power), omnipresence (present everywhere), divine simplicity, and as having an eternal and necessary existence. Many theologians also describe God as being omnibenevolent (perfectly good), and all loving.
God is most often held to be non-corporeal,[3] and to be without any human biological sex,[4][5] yet the concept of God actively creating the universe (as opposed to passively)[6] has caused many religions to describe God using masculine terminology, using such terms as "Him" or "Father". Furthermore, some religions (such as Judaism) attribute only a purely grammatical "gender" to God.[7]
In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the creator, but not the sustainer, of the universe. In pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of agnosticism. God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the "greatest conceivable existent".[3] Many notable philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God.[8]
There are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about God's identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism, possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten,[9] premised on being the one "true" Supreme Being and Creator of the Universe.[10] In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, "He Who Is", "I Am that I Am", and the tetragrammaton YHWH (Hebrew: יהוה, which means: "I am who I am"; "He Who Exists") are used as names of God, while Yahweh and Jehovah are sometimes used in Christianity as vocalizations of YHWH. In the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, the latter of which is believed by some scholars to descend from the Egyptian Aten.[11][12][13][14][15] In Islam, the name Allah, "Al-El", or "Al-Elah" ("the God") is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a monistic deity.[16] Other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Bahá'í Faith,[17] Waheguru in Sikhism,[18] and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism.[19]
The many different conceptions of God, and competing claims as to God's characteristics, aims, and actions, have led to the development of ideas of omnitheism, pandeism,[20][21] or a perennial philosophy, which postulates that there is one underlying theological truth, of which all religions express a partial understanding, and as to which "the devout in the various great world religions are in fact worshipping that one God, but through different, overlapping concepts or mental images of Him."[22]
Contents [hide]
1Etymology and usage
2General conceptions
2.1Oneness
2.2Theism, deism and pantheism
2.3Other concepts
3Non-theistic views
3.1Agnosticism and atheism
3.2Anthropomorphism
4Existence
5Specific attributes
5.1Names
5.2Gender
5.3Relationship with creation
6Depiction
6.1Zoroastrianism
6.2Islam
6.3Judaism
6.4Christianity
7Theological approaches
8Distribution of belief
9See also
9.1In specific religions
10References
11Further reading
12External links
Etymology and usage
The Mesha Stele bears the earliest known reference (840 BCE) to the Israelite God Yahweh.
Main article: God (word)
The earliest written form of the Germanic word God (always, in this usage, capitalized[23]) comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus. The English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ǵhau(ə)-, which meant either "to call" or "to invoke".[24] The Germanic words for God were originally neuter—applying to both genders—but during the process of the Christianization of the Germanic peoples from their indigenous Germanic paganism, the words became a masculine syntactic form.[25]
The word 'Allah' in Arabic calligraphy
In the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic "God" and "gods" in polytheism.[26][27] The English word God and its counterparts in other languages are normally used for any and all conceptions and, in spite of significant differences between religions, the term remains an English translation common to all. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, the tetragrammaton YHWH, in origin possibly the name of an Edomite or Midianite deity, Yahweh. In many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton.[28]
Allāh (Arabic: الله) is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning "The God" (with a capital G), while "ʾilāh" (Arabic: إله) is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[29][30][31] God may also be given a proper name in monotheistic currents of Hinduism which emphasize the personal nature of God, with early references to his name as Krishna-Vasudeva in Bhagavata or later Vishnu and Hari.[32]
Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrianism. "Mazda", or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå, reflects Proto-Iranian *Mazdāh (female). It is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means "intelligence" or "wisdom". Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning "placing (dʰeh1) one's mind (*mn̩-s)", hence "wise".[33]
Waheguru (Punjabi: vāhigurū) is a term most often used in Sikhism to refer to God. It means "Wonderful Teacher" in the Punjabi language. Vāhi (a Middle Persian borrowing) means "wonderful" and guru (Sanskrit: guru) is a term denoting "teacher". Waheguru is also described by some as an experience of ecstasy which is beyond all descriptions. The most common usage of the word "Waheguru" is in the greeting Sikhs use with each other:
Waheguru Ji Ka Khalsa, Waheguru Ji Ki Fateh
Wonderful Lord's Khalsa, Victory is to the Wonderful Lord.
Baha, the "greatest" name for God in the Baha'i faith, is Arabic for "All-Glorious".
General conceptions
Main article: Conceptions of God
There is no clear consensus on the nature or even the existence of God.[34] The Abrahamic conceptions of God include the monotheistic definition of God in Judaism, the trinitarian view of Christians, and the Islamic concept of God. The dharmic religions differ in their view of the divine: views of God in Hinduism vary by region, sect, and caste, ranging from monotheistic to polytheistic. Divinity was recognized by the historical Buddha, particularly Śakra and Brahma. However, other sentient beings, including gods, can at best only play a supportive role in one's personal path to salvation. Conceptions of God in the latter developments of the Mahayana tradition give a more prominent place to notions of the divine.[citation needed]
Oneness
Main articles: Monotheism and Henotheism
The Trinity is the belief that God is composed of The Father, The Son (embodied metaphysically in the physical realm by Jesus), and The Holy Spirit.
Monotheists hold that there is only one god, and may claim that the one true god is worshiped in different religions under different names. The view that all theists actually worship the same god, whether they know it or not, is especially emphasized in Hinduism[35] and Sikhism.[36] In Christianity, the doctrine of the Trinity describes God as one God in three persons. The Trinity comprises The Father, The Son (embodied metaphysically by Jesus), and The Holy Spirit.[37] Islam's most fundamental concept is tawhid (meaning "oneness" or "uniqueness"). God is described in the Quran as: "Say: He is Allah, the One and Only; Allah, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."[38][39] Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension or equal and does not resemble any of his creations in any way. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules, and are not expected to visualize God.[40]
Henotheism is the belief and worship of a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other deities.[41]
Theism, deism and pantheism
Main articles: Theism, Deism, and Pantheism
Theism generally holds that God exists realistically, objectively, and independently of human thought; that God created and sustains everything; that God is omnipotent and eternal; and that God is personal and interacting with the universe through, for example, religious experience and the prayers of humans.[42] Theism holds that God is both transcendent and immanent; thus, God is simultaneously infinite and in some way present in the affairs of the world.[43] Not all theists subscribe to all of these propositions, but each usually subscribes to some of them (see, by way of comparison, family resemblance).[42] Catholic theology holds that God is infinitely simple and is not involuntarily subject to time. Most theists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil and suffering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or benevolence. Open Theism, by contrast, asserts that, due to the nature of time, God's omniscience does not mean the deity can predict the future. Theism is sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.[44][45]
"God blessing the seventh day", a watercolor painting depicting God, by William Blake (1757 – 1827)
Deism holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what was necessary to create it.[43] In this view, God is not anthropomorphic, and neither answers prayers nor produces miracles. Common in Deism is a belief that God has no interest in humanity and may not even be aware of humanity. Pandeism and Panendeism, respectively, combine Deism with the Pantheistic or Panentheistic beliefs.[21][46][47] Pandeism is proposed to explain as to Deism why God would create a universe and then abandon it,[48] and as to Pantheism, the origin and purpose of the universe.[48][49]
Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe is God, whereas Panentheism holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe.[50] It is also the view of the Liberal Catholic Church; Theosophy; some views of Hinduism except Vaishnavism, which believes in panentheism; Sikhism; some divisions of Neopaganism and Taoism, along with many varying denominations and individuals within denominations. Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, paints a pantheistic/panentheistic view of God—which has wide acceptance in Hasidic Judaism, particularly from their founder The Baal Shem Tov—but only as an addition to the Jewish view of a personal god, not in the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits persona to God.[citation needed]
Other concepts
Dystheism, which is related to theodicy, is a form of theism which holds that God is either not wholly good or is fully malevolent as a consequence of the problem of evil. One such example comes from Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov, in which Ivan Karamazov rejects God on the grounds that he allows children to suffer.[51]
In modern times, some more abstract concepts have been developed, such as process theology and open theism. The contemporaneous French philosopher Michel Henry has however proposed a phenomenological approach and definition of God as phenomenological essence of Life.[52]
God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the "greatest conceivable existent".[3] These attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim theologian philosophers, including Maimonides,[53] Augustine of Hippo,[53] and Al-Ghazali,[8] respectively.
Non-theistic views
See also: Evolutionary origin of religions and Evolutionary psychology of religion
Non-theist views about God also vary. Some non-theists avoid the concept of God, whilst accepting that it is significant to many; other non-theists understand God as a symbol of human values and aspirations. The nineteenth-century English atheist Charles Bradlaugh declared that he refused to say "There is no God", because "the word 'God' is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation";[54] he said more specifically that he disbelieved in the Christian god. Stephen Jay Gould proposed an approach dividing the world of philosophy into what he called "non-overlapping magisteria" (NOMA). In this view, questions of the supernatural, such as those relating to the existence and nature of God, are non-empirical and are the proper domain of theology. The methods of science should then be used to answer any empirical question about the natural world, and theology should be used to answer questions about ultimate meaning and moral value. In this view, the perceived lack of any empirical footprint from the magisterium of the supernatural onto natural events makes science the sole player in the natural world.[55]
Another view, advanced by Richard Dawkins, is that the existence of God is an empirical question, on the grounds that "a universe with a god would be a completely different kind of universe from one without, and it would be a scientific difference."[56] Carl Sagan argued that the doctrine of a Creator of the Universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could disprove the existence of a Creator (not necessarily a God) would be the discovery that the universe is infinitely old.[57]
Stephen Hawking and co-author Leonard Mlodinow state in their book, The Grand Design, that it is reasonable to ask who or what created the universe, but if the answer is God, then the question has merely been deflected to that of who created God. Both authors claim however, that it is possible to answer these questions purely within the realm of science, and without invoking any divine beings.[58] Neuroscientist Michael Nikoletseas has proposed that questions of the existence of God are no different from questions of natural sciences. Following a biological comparative approach, he concludes that it is highly probable that God exists, and, although not visible, it is possible that we know some of his attributes.[59]
Agnosticism and atheism
Agnosticism is the view that, the truth values of certain claims – especially metaphysical and religious claims such as whether God, the divine or the supernatural exist – are unknown and perhaps unknowable.[60][61][62]
Atheism is, in a broad sense, the rejection of belief in the existence of deities, or a God.[63][64] In a narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities.[65]
Anthropomorphism
Main article: Anthropomorphism
Pascal Boyer argues that while there is a wide array of supernatural concepts found around the world, in general, supernatural beings tend to behave much like people. The construction of gods and spirits like persons is one of the best known traits of religion. He cites examples from Greek mythology, which is, in his opinion, more like a modern soap opera than other religious systems.[66] Bertrand du Castel and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate through formalization that Boyer's explanatory model matches physics' epistemology in positing not directly observable entities as intermediaries.[67] Anthropologist Stewart Guthrie contends that people project human features onto non-human aspects of the world because it makes those aspects more familiar. Sigmund Freud also suggested that god concepts are projections of one's father.[68]
Likewise, Émile Durkheim was one of the earliest to suggest that gods represent an extension of human social life to include supernatural beings. In line with this reasoning, psychologist Matt Rossano contends that when humans began living in larger groups, they may have created gods as a means of enforcing morality. In small groups, morality can be enforced by social forces such as gossip or reputation. However, it is much harder to enforce morality using social forces in much larger groups. Rossano indicates that by including ever-watchful gods and spirits, humans discovered an effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups.[69]
Existence
Main article: Existence of God
St. Thomas Aquinas summed up five main arguments as proofs for God's existence.
Isaac Newton saw the existence of a Creator necessary in the movement of astronomical objects.
Arguments about the existence of God typically include empirical, deductive, and inductive types. Different views include that: "God does not exist" (strong atheism); "God almost certainly does not exist" (de facto atheism); "no one knows whether God exists" (agnosticism[70]);"God exists, but this cannot be proven or disproven" (de facto theism); and that "God exists and this can be proven" (strong theism).[55]
Countless arguments have been proposed to prove the existence of God.[71] Some of the most notable arguments are the Five Ways of Aquinas, the Argument from Desire proposed by C.S. Lewis, and the Ontological Argument formulated both by St. Anselm and René Descartes.[72]
St. Anselm's approach was to define God as, "that than which nothing greater can be conceived". Famed pantheist philosopher Baruch Spinoza would later carry this idea to its extreme: "By God I understand a being absolutely infinite, i.e., a substance consisting of infinite attributes, of which each one expresses an eternal and infinite essence." For Spinoza, the whole of the natural universe is made of one substance, God, or its equivalent, Nature.[73] His proof for the existence of God was a variation of the Ontological argument.[74]
Scientist Isaac Newton saw God as the masterful creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation.[75] Nevertheless, he rejected polymath Leibniz' thesis that God would necessarily make a perfect world which requires no intervention from the creator. In Query 31 of the Opticks, Newton simultaneously made an argument from design and for the necessity of intervention:
For while comets move in very eccentric orbs in all manner of positions, blind fate could never make all the planets move one and the same way in orbs concentric, some inconsiderable irregularities excepted which may have arisen from the mutual actions of comets and planets on one another, and which will be apt to increase, till this system wants a reformation.[76]
St. Thomas believed that the existence of God is self-evident in itself, but not to us. "Therefore I say that this proposition, "God exists", of itself is self-evident, for the predicate is the same as the subject.... Now because we do not know the essence of God, the proposition is not self-evident to us; but needs to be demonstrated by things that are more known to us, though less known in their nature—namely, by effects."[77] St. Thomas believed that the existence of God can be demonstrated. Briefly in the Summa theologiae and more extensively in the Summa contra Gentiles, he considered in great detail five arguments for the existence of God, widely known as the quinque viae (Five Ways).
For the original text of the five proofs, see quinque viae
Motion: Some things undoubtedly move, though cannot cause their own motion. Since there can be no infinite chain of causes of motion, there must be a First Mover not moved by anything else, and this is what everyone understands by God.
Causation: As in the case of motion, nothing can cause itself, and an infinite chain of causation is impossible, so there must be a First Cause, called God.
Existence of necessary and the unnecessary: Our experience includes things certainly existing but apparently unnecessary. Not everything can be unnecessary, for then once there was nothing and there would still be nothing. Therefore, we are compelled to suppose something that exists necessarily, having this necessity only from itself; in fact itself the cause for other things to exist.
Gradation: If we can notice a gradation in things in the sense that some things are more hot, good, etc., there must be a superlative that is the truest and noblest thing, and so most fully existing. This then, we call God (Note: Thomas does not ascribe actual qualities to God Himself).
Ordered tendencies of nature: A direction of actions to an end is noticed in all bodies following natural laws. Anything without awareness tends to a goal under the guidance of one who is aware. This we call God (Note that even when we guide objects, in Thomas's view, the source of all our knowledge comes from God as well).[78]
Alister McGrath, a formerly atheistic scientist and theologian who has been highly critical of Richard Dawkins' version of atheism
Some theologians, such as the scientist and theologian A.E. McGrath, argue that the existence of God is not a question that can be answered using the scientific method.[79][80] Agnostic Stephen Jay Gould argues that science and religion are not in conflict and do not overlap.[81]
Some findings in the fields of cosmology, evolutionary biology and neuroscience are interpreted by some atheists (including Lawrence M. Krauss and Sam Harris) as evidence that God is an imaginary entity only, with no basis in reality.[82][83][84] These atheists claim that a single, omniscient God who is imagined to have created the universe and is particularly attentive to the lives of humans has been imagined, embellished and promulgated in a trans-generational manner.[85] Richard Dawkins interprets such findings not only as a lack of evidence for the material existence of such a God, but as extensive evidence to the contrary.[55] However, his views are opposed by some theologians and scientists including Alister McGrath, who argues that existence of God is compatible with science.[86]
Neuroscientist Michael Nikoletseas has proposed that questions of the existence of God are no different from questions of natural sciences. Following a biological comparative approach, he concludes that it is highly probable that God exists, and, although not visible, it is possible that we know some of his attributes.[59]
Specific attributes
Different religious traditions assign differing (though often similar) attributes and characteristics to God, including expansive powers and abilities, psychological characteristics, gender characteristics, and preferred nomenclature. The assignment of these attributes often differs according to the conceptions of God in the culture from which they arise. For example, attributes of God in Christianity, attributes of God in Islam, and the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy in Judaism share certain similarities arising from their common roots.
Names
Main article: Names of God
99 names of Allah, in Chinese Sini (script)
The word God is "one of the most complex and difficult in the English language." In the Judeo-Christian tradition, "the Bible has been the principal source of the conceptions of God". That the Bible "includes many different images, concepts, and ways of thinking about" God has resulted in perpetual "disagreements about how God is to be conceived and understood".[87]
Throughout the Hebrew and Christian Bibles there are many names for God. One of them is Elohim. Another one is El Shaddai, meaning "God Almighty".[88] A third notable name is El Elyon, which means "The Most High God".[89]
God is described and referred in the Quran and hadith by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahman, meaning "Most Compassionate" and Al-Rahim, meaning "Most Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).[90]
Supreme soul
The Brahma Kumaris use the term "Supreme Soul" to refer to God. They see God as incorporeal and eternal, and regard him as a point of living light like human souls, but without a physical body, as he does not enter the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. God is seen as the perfect and constant embodiment of all virtues, powers and values and that He is the unconditionally loving Father of all souls, irrespective of their religion, gender, or culture.[91]
Vaishnavism, a tradition in Hinduism, has list of titles and names of Krishna.
Gender
Main article: Gender of God
The gender of God may be viewed as either a literal or an allegorical aspect of a deity who, in classical western philosophy, transcends bodily form.[92][93] Polytheistic religions commonly attribute to each of the gods a gender, allowing each to interact with any of the others, and perhaps with humans, sexually. In most monotheistic religions, God has no counterpart with which to relate sexually. Thus, in classical western philosophy the gender of this one-and-only deity is most likely to be an analogical statement of how humans and God address, and relate to, each other. Namely, God is seen as begetter of the world and revelation which corresponds to the active (as opposed to the receptive) role in sexual intercourse.[6]
Biblical sources usually refer to God using male words, except Genesis 1:26-27,[94][95] Psalm 123:2-3, and Luke 15:8-10 (female); Hosea 11:3-4, Deuteronomy 32:18, Isaiah 66:13, Isaiah 49:15, Isaiah 42:14, Psalm 131:2 (a mother); Deuteronomy 32:11-12 (a mother eagle); and Matthew 23:37 and Luke 13:34 (a mother hen).
Relationship with creation
See also: Creator deity, Prayer, and Worship
And Elohim Created Adam by William Blake, c.1795
Prayer plays a significant role among many believers. Muslims believe that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[96][97] He is viewed as a personal God and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Prayer often also includes supplication and asking forgiveness. God is often believed to be forgiving. For example, a hadith states God would replace a sinless people with one who sinned but still asked repentance.[98] Christian theologian Alister McGrath writes that there are good reasons to suggest that a "personal god" is integral to the Christian outlook, but that one has to understand it is an analogy. "To say that God is like a person is to affirm the divine ability and willingness to relate to others. This does not imply that God is human, or located at a specific point in the universe."[99]
Adherents of different religions generally disagree as to how to best worship God and what is God's plan for mankind, if there is one. There are different approaches to reconciling the contradictory claims of monotheistic religions. One view is taken by exclusivists, who believe they are the chosen people or have exclusive access to absolute truth, generally through revelation or encounter with the Divine, which adherents of other religions do not. Another view is religious pluralism. A pluralist typically believes that his religion is the right one, but does not deny the partial truth of other religions. An example of a pluralist view in Christianity is supersessionism, i.e., the belief that one's religion is the fulfillment of previous religions. A third approach is relativistic inclusivism, where everybody is seen as equally right; an example being universalism: the doctrine that salvation is eventually available for everyone. A fourth approach is syncretism, mixing different elements from different religions. An example of syncretism is the New Age movement.
Jews and Christians believe that humans are created in the likeness of God, and are the center, crown and key to God's creation, stewards for God, supreme over everything else God had made (Gen 1:26); for this reason, humans are in Christianity called the "Children of God".[100]
Depiction
God is defined as incorporeal,[3] and invisible from direct sight, and thus cannot be portrayed in a literal visual image.
The respective principles of religions may or may not permit them to use images (which are entirely symbolic) to represent God in art or in worship .
Zoroastrianism
Ahura Mazda (depiction is on the right, with high crown) presents Ardashir I (left) with the ring of kingship. (Relief at Naqsh-e Rustam, 3rd century CE)
During the early Parthian Empire, Ahura Mazda was visually represented for worship. This practice ended during the beginning of the Sassanid empire. Zoroastrian iconoclasm, which can be traced to the end of the Parthian period and the beginning of the Sassanid, eventually put an end to the use of all images of Ahura Mazda in worship. However, Ahura Mazda continued to be symbolized by a dignified male figure, standing or on horseback which is found in Sassanian investiture.[101]
Islam
Further information: God in Islam
Muslims believe that God (Allah) is beyond all comprehension or equal and does not resemble any of His creations in any way. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules, are not expected to visualize God.[40]
Judaism
At least some Jews do not use any image for God, since God is the unimageable Being who cannot be represented in material forms.[102] In some samples of Jewish Art, however, sometimes God, or at least His Intervention, is indicated by a Hand Of God symbol, which represents the bath Kol (literally "daughter of a voice") or Voice of God;[103] this use of the Hand Of God is carried over to Christian Art.
Christianity
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Early Christians believed that the words of the Gospel of John 1:18: "No man has seen God at any time" and numerous other statements were meant to apply not only to God, but to all attempts at the depiction of God.[104]
Use of the symbolic Hand of God in the Ascension from the Drogo Sacramentary, c. 850
However, later on the Hand of God symbol is found several times in the only ancient synagogue with a large surviving decorative scheme, the Dura Europos Synagogue of the mid-3rd century, and was probably adopted into Early Christian art from Jewish art. It was common in Late Antique art in both East and West, and remained the main way of symbolizing the actions or approval of God the Father in the West until about the end of the Romanesque period. It also represents the bath Kol (literally "daughter of a voice") or voice of God,[103] just like in Jewish Art.
In situations, such as the Baptism of Christ, where a specific representation of God the Father was indicated, the Hand of God was used, with increasing freedom from the Carolingian period until the end of the Romanesque. This motif now, since the discovery of the 3rd century Dura Europos synagogue, seems to have been borrowed from Jewish art, and is found in Christian art almost from its beginnings.
The use of religious images in general continued to increase up to the end of the 7th century, to the point that in 695, upon assuming the throne, Byzantine emperor Justinian II put an image of Christ on the obverse side of his gold coins, resulting in a rift which ended the use of Byzantine coin types in the Islamic world.[105] However, the increase in religious imagery did not include depictions of God the Father. For instance, while the eighty second canon of the Council of Trullo in 692 did not specifically condemn images of The Father, it suggested that icons of Christ were preferred over Old Testament shadows and figures.[106]
The beginning of the 8th century witnessed the suppression and destruction of religious icons as the period of Byzantine iconoclasm (literally image-breaking) started. Emperor Leo III (717–741), suppressed the use of icons by imperial edict of the Byzantine Empire, presumably due to a military loss which he attributed to the undue veneration of icons.[107] The edict (which was issued without consulting the Church) forbade the veneration of religious images but did not apply to other forms of art, including the image of the emperor, or religious symbols such as the cross.[108] Theological arguments against icons then began to appear with iconoclasts arguing that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of Jesus at the same time. In this atmosphere, no public depictions of God the Father were even attempted and such depictions only began to appear two centuries later.
The Second Council of Nicaea in 787 effectively ended the first period of Byzantine iconoclasm and restored the honouring of icons and holy images in general.[109] However, this did not immediately translate into large scale depictions of God the Father. Even supporters of the use of icons in the 8th century, such as Saint John of Damascus, drew a distinction between images of God the Father and those of Christ.
In his treatise On the Divine Images John of Damascus wrote: "In former times, God who is without form or body, could never be depicted. But now when God is seen in the flesh conversing with men, I make an image of the God whom I see".[110] The implication here is that insofar as God the Father or the Spirit did not become man, visible and tangible, images and portrait icons can not be depicted. So what was true for the whole Trinity before Christ remains true for the Father and the Spirit but not for the Word. John of Damascus wrote:[111]
"If we attempt to make an image of the invisible God, this would be sinful indeed. It is impossible to portray one who is without body:invisible, uncircumscribed and without form."
Around 790 Charlemagne ordered a set of four books that became known as the Libri Carolini (i.e. "Charles' books") to refute what his court mistakenly understood to be the iconoclast decrees of the Byzantine Second Council of Nicaea regarding sacred images. Although not well known during the Middle Ages, these books describe the key elements of the Catholic theological position on sacred images. To the Western Church, images were just objects made by craftsmen, to be utilized for stimulating the senses of the faithful, and to be respected for the sake of the subject represented, not in themselves. The Council of Constantinople (869) (considered ecumenical by the Western Church, but not the Eastern Church) reaffirmed the decisions of the Second Council of Nicaea and helped stamp out any remaining coals of iconoclasm. Specifically, its third canon required the image of Christ to have veneration equal with that of a Gospel book:[112]
We decree that the sacred image of our Lord Jesus Christ, the liberator and Savior of all people, must be venerated with the same honor as is given the book of the holy Gospels. For as through the language of the words contained in this book all can reach salvation, so, due to the action which these images exercise by their colors, all wise and simple alike, can derive profit from them.
But images of God the Father were not directly addressed in Constantinople in 869. A list of permitted icons was enumerated at this Council, but symbols of God the Father were not among them.[113] However, the general acceptance of icons and holy images began to create an atmosphere in which God the Father could be symbolized.
Prior to the 10th century no attempt was made to use a human to symbolize God the Father in Western art.[104] Yet, Western art eventually required some way to illustrate the presence of the Father, so through successive representations a set of artistic styles for symbolizing the Father using a man gradually emerged around the 10th century AD. A rationale for the use of a human is the belief that God created the soul of Man in the image of His own (thus allowing Human to transcend the other animals).
It appears that when early artists designed to represent God the Father, fear and awe restrained them from a usage of the whole human figure. Typically only a small part would be used as the image, usually the hand, or sometimes the face, but rarely a whole human. In many images, the figure of the Son supplants the Father, so a smaller portion of the person of the Father is depicted.[114]
By the 12th century depictions of God the Father had started to appear in French illuminated manuscripts, which as a less public form could often be more adventurous in their iconography, and in stained glass church windows in England. Initially the head or bust was usually shown in some form of frame of clouds in the top of the picture space, where the Hand of God had formerly appeared; the Baptism of Christ on the famous baptismal font in Liège of Rainer of Huy is an example from 1118 (a Hand of God is used in another scene). Gradually the amount of the human symbol shown can increase to a half-length figure, then a full-length, usually enthroned, as in Giotto's fresco of c. 1305 in Padua.[115] In the 14th century the Naples Bible carried a depiction of God the Father in the Burning bush. By the early 15th century, the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry has a considerable number of symbols, including an elderly but tall and elegant full-length figure walking in the Garden of Eden, which show a considerable diversity of apparent ages and dress. The "Gates of Paradise" of the Florence Baptistry by Lorenzo Ghiberti, begun in 1425 use a similar tall full-length symbol for the Father. The Rohan Book of Hours of about 1430 also included depictions of God the Father in half-length human form, which were now becoming standard, and the Hand of God becoming rarer. At the same period other works, like the large Genesis altarpiece by the Hamburg painter Meister Bertram, continued to use the old depiction of Christ as Logos in Genesis scenes. In the 15th century there was a brief fashion for depicting all three persons of the Trinity as similar or identical figures with the usual appearance of Christ.
In an early Venetian school Coronation of the Virgin by Giovanni d'Alemagna and Antonio Vivarini, (c. 1443) The Father is depicted using the symbol consistently used by other artists later, namely a patriarch, with benign, yet powerful countenance and with long white hair and a beard, a depiction largely derived from, and justified by, the near-physical, but still figurative, description of the Ancient of Days.[116]
. ...the Ancient of Days did sit, whose garment was white as snow, and the hair of his head like the pure wool: his throne was like the fiery flame, and his wheels as burning fire. (Daniel 7:9)
Usage of two Hands of God"(relatively unusual) and the Holy Spirit as a dove in Baptism of Christ, by Verrocchio, 1472
In the Annunciation by Benvenuto di Giovanni in 1470, God the Father is portrayed in the red robe and a hat that resembles that of a Cardinal. However, even in the later part of the 15th century, the symbolic representation of the Father and the Holy Spirit as "hands and dove" continued, e.g. in Verrocchio's Baptism of Christ in 1472.[117]
God the Father with His Right Hand Raised in Blessing, with a triangular halo representing the Trinity, Girolamo dai Libri c. 1555
In Renaissance paintings of the adoration of the Trinity, God may be depicted in two ways, either with emphasis on The Father, or the three elements of the Trinity. The most usual depiction of the Trinity in Renaissance art depicts God the Father using an old man, usually with a long beard and patriarchal in appearance, sometimes with a triangular halo (as a reference to the Trinity), or with a papal crown, specially in Northern Renaissance painting. In these depictions The Father may hold a globe or book (to symbolize God's knowledge and as a reference to how knowledge is deemed divine). He is behind and above Christ on the Cross in the Throne of Mercy iconography. A dove, the symbol of the Holy Spirit may hover above. Various people from different classes of society, e.g. kings, popes or martyrs may be present in the picture. In a Trinitarian Pietà, God the Father is often symbolized using a man wearing a papal dress and a papal crown, supporting the dead Christ in his arms. They are depicted as floating in heaven with angels who carry the instruments of the Passion.[118]
Representations of God the Father and the Trinity were attacked both by Protestants and within Catholicism, by the Jansenist and Baianist movements as well as more orthodox theologians. As with other attacks on Catholic imagery, this had the effect both of reducing Church support for the less central depictions, and strengthening it for the core ones. In the Western Church, the pressure to restrain religious imagery resulted in the highly influential decrees of the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563. The Council of Trent decrees confirmed the traditional Catholic doctrine that images only represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person, not the image.[119]
Artistic depictions of God the Father were uncontroversial in Catholic art thereafter, but less common depictions of the Trinity were condemned. In 1745 Pope Benedict XIV explicitly supported the Throne of Mercy depiction, referring to the "Ancient of Days", but in 1786 it was still necessary for Pope Pius VI to issue a papal bull condemning the decision of an Italian church council to remove all images of the Trinity from churches.[120]
The famous The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo, c.1512
God the Father is symbolized in several Genesis scenes in Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling, most famously The Creation of Adam (whose image of near touching hands of God and Adam is iconic of humanity, being a reminder that Man is created in the Image and Likeness of God (Gen 1:26)).God the Father is depicted as a powerful figure, floating in the clouds in Titian's Assumption of the Virgin in the Frari of Venice, long admired as a masterpiece of High Renaissance art.[121] The Church of the Gesù in Rome includes a number of 16th century depictions of God the Father. In some of these paintings the Trinity is still alluded to in terms of three angels, but Giovanni Battista Fiammeri also depicted God the Father as a man riding on a cloud, above the scenes.[122]
In both the Last Judgment and the Coronation of the Virgin paintings by Rubens he depicted God the Father using the image that by then had become widely accepted, a bearded patriarchal figure above the fray. In the 17th century, the two Spanish artists Velázquez (whose father-in-law Francisco Pacheco was in charge of the approval of new images for the Inquisition) and Murillo both depicted God the Father using a patriarchal figure with a white beard in a purple robe.
The Ancient of Days (1794) Watercolor etching by William Blake
While representations of God the Father were growing in Italy, Spain, Germany and the Low Countries, there was resistance elsewhere in Europe, even during the 17th century. In 1632 most members of the Star Chamber court in England (except the Archbishop of York) condemned the use of the images of the Trinity in church windows, and some considered them illegal.[123] Later in the 17th century Sir Thomas Browne wrote that he considered the representation of God the Father using an old man "a dangerous act" that might lead to Egyptian symbolism.[124] In 1847, Charles Winston was still critical of such images as a "Romish trend" (a term used to refer to Roman Catholics) that he considered best avoided in England.[125]
In 1667 the 43rd chapter of the Great Moscow Council specifically included a ban on a number of symbolic depictions of God the Father and the Holy Spirit, which then also resulted in a whole range of other icons being placed on the forbidden list,[126][127] mostly affecting Western-style depictions which had been gaining ground in Orthodox icons. The Council also declared that the person of the Trinity who was the "Ancient of Days" was Christ, as Logos, not God the Father. However some icons continued to be produced in Russia, as well as Greece, Romania, and other Orthodox countries.
Theological approaches
Theologians and philosophers have attributed to God such characteristics as omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, perfect goodness, divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary existence. God has been described as incorporeal, a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable being existent.[3] These attributes were all claimed to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars, including Maimonides,[53] St Augustine,[53] and Al-Ghazali.[128]
Many philosophers developed arguments for the existence of God,[8] while attempting to comprehend the precise implications of God's attributes. Reconciling some of those attributes generated important philosophical problems and debates. For example, God's omniscience may seem to imply that God knows how free agents will choose to act. If God does know this, their ostensible free will might be illusory, or foreknowledge does not imply predestination, and if God does not know it, God may not be omniscient.[129]
However, if by its essential nature, free will is not predetermined, then the effect of its will can never be perfectly predicted by anyone, regardless of intelligence and knowledge. Although knowledge of the options presented to that will, combined with perfectly infinite intelligence, could be said to provide God with omniscience if omniscience is defined as knowledge or understanding of all that is.
The last centuries of philosophy have seen vigorous questions regarding the arguments for God's existence raised by such philosophers as Immanuel Kant, David Hume and Antony Flew, although Kant held that the argument from morality was valid. The theist response has been either to contend, as does Alvin Plantinga, that faith is "properly basic", or to take, as does Richard Swinburne, the evidentialist position.[130] Some theists agree that only some of the arguments for God's existence are compelling, but argue that faith is not a product of reason, but requires risk. There would be no risk, they say, if the arguments for God's existence were as solid as the laws of logic, a position summed up by Pascal as "the heart has reasons of which reason does not know."[131] A recent theory using concepts from physics and neurophysiology proposes that God can be conceptualized within the theory of integrative level.[132]
Many religious believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful spiritual beings such as angels, saints, jinn, demons, and devas.[133][134][135][136][137]