Ride Your Bike - The first real impression of Amsterdam is: There are lots of bikes. There are estimations that there are 600k Bikes in Amsterdam. And if they get near they pass :)

 

This is my last photo following our visit to Yorkshire Wildlife Park, sadly we missed many animals due in part to my scooter having a flat battery, maybe next time

 

Amur leopards are on the brink of extinction, with the most recent estimations of around 75 individuals left in the wild, therefore classifying them as Critically Endangered. Amur Leopards in zoos and wildlife parks worldwide (like YWP) are playing a vital role in assisting with the critical reintroduction efforts of this species

 

People usually think of leopards in the savannas of Africa but in the Russian Far East, a rare subspecies has adapted to life in the temperate forests that make up the northern-most part of the species’ range. Similar to other leopards, the Amur leopard can run at speeds of up to 37 miles per hour. This incredible animal has been reported to leap more than 19 feet horizontally and up to 10 feet vertically.

 

The Amur leopard is solitary. Nimble-footed and strong, it carries and hides unfinished kills so that they are not taken by other predators. It has been reported that some males stay with females after mating, and may even help with rearing the young. Several males sometimes follow and fight over a female. They live for 10-15 years, and in captivity up to 20 years. The Amur leopard is also known as the Far East leopard, the Manchurian leopard or the Korean leopard.

View Large On Black

 

The stairs to the 2nd floor / attic and the back door at the abandoned house in Poetry, Texas.

 

A somewhat startling event occured as I was preparing to make the first attempt at this shot. Upon arriving at the house, this was the first shot of the night, so while I had already been in the house previously on a different night of shooting and was familiar with the entire place, both upstairs and down, I leaned my head around the corner of the stairs here and looked up just to make sure nothing new was in the way there, since, once I opened the shutter for this shot, I would be climbing the stairs by feel, in pitch blackness.

 

This stairwell is tiny by the way. I can't step onto the first step without ducking, and once you get inside it, you have about two inches of clearance on either side of your shoulders. As you can see, it turns left at the very beginning, then it goes up, and it turns back right again at the very top...a strange and creepy little staircase if ever there was one.

 

So anyway, when I shined my flashlight up the stairs to check it out, all looked fine, so I killed the flashlight and opened the shutter. I then felt my way over to the stairs and started up, and as I reached the point near the top where the steps turn back right to the top landing, I began to hear an incredible loud racket coming from the floor just feet above me and away from me. It was SO loud and SO frantic, that I was convinced there was either a startled person or large animal of some kind up there, freaking out about someone sneaking up the stairs, and I imagined that if it was an animal, it would most likely bolt for the exit....the very stairs where I was standing!

 

Well, I raced down those stairs in total darkness faster than I could have done it even in daylight with less motivation. I got out of the way of the back door too, thinking that if an animal was right behind me, that'd be how he'd try to get out. I hurridly turned on a flashlight, but no noise followed me down the stairs, so I closed the shutter and waited to see if any more noise was forthcoming from the 2nd floor. After about 5 minutes of no further activity, I decided to check it out, so I crept up the stairs, flashlight on, to the top landing...and no noise, no animal...and no more panic!

 

I still have no idea for sure what was up there; it sounded HUGE, generating in my estimation far too much noise for it to have been a bird of prey of some sort, but there was an open window up there, and no animal to be found! I continued with my shoot, and two exposures later, produced this shot. Interestingly, an associate of mine recently experienced the exact same phenomena when he was night-shooting there as well.

 

UPDATE: Sadly, as of October 2009, this house has reportedly burned down, evidently a victim of arson.

 

Night, totally dark house, natural Maglite, natural strobe, and yellow-gelled strobe.

Book NOW available through www.arvobrothers.com

 

DESCRIPTION:

 

After a long time, we are glad to present our new book “Alien Project”.

 

Inspired by the works of geniuses H.R. Giger and Ron Cobb, this new project presented us with an opportunity to build one of the greatest icons of fantasy art. A journey from organic to geometric shapes, from dark to light, and the deep admiration that drives us to build all our creations as our only luggage. This book includes detailed, step-to-step instructions showing how to build the model, together with comments, pictures and diagrams that help the description and will contribute to your understanding of the entire process.

 

Build your own model. The technology gives us the opportunity. Now is the time.

 

Content:

 

220 pages divided into four chapters:

 

C1.- ESTIMATIONS

C2.- CONSTRUCTION OF THE MODEL (description of the building process)

C3.- INSTRUCTIONS (steps, building alternatives & catalogue)

C4.- GALLERY

 

Offset printing, hard cover.

 

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The remaining 98 Bricklink parts and 2 Big Ben Bricks wheels for James and Diesel 10 have been ordered, along with 36 parts for a why-didn't-I-think-of-it-earlier fix for my GM Aerotrain. The two Thomas characters will not look exactly like this, but it will be close! Total cost after shipping for everything is ~$50.

 

...I'm just praying the 2-6-0 wheel arrangement works on James. I'm not very used to using the Xtra Small wheels, so I hope my estimation of the sizing works.

Year 2016, Event Name this year is Desert Kaleidoscope, Airabelle the Special shapes that has been part of the Really big picture for many Years, I have film, VCR and digital moments, in a collection folder just dedicated, to this local Hot Air Balloon. as to my estimation this photographic moment is one of the Best. an impressive size, stated to be 120 foot long nose to tail and 85 foot tall from hoof to Horn tip tall. that size presents itself to be seen and recognized 10 miles away. We are on the count down to 2016 as six days from now to the opening ceremony, a must mention ""Wish You Were Here " Am looking forward to the stated sixteen or seventeen new to Albuquerque Hot Air Balloon event this Year.

Different forms of fluctuations of the terrestrial gravity field are observed by gravity experiments. For example, atmospheric pressure fluctuations generate a gravity-noise foreground in measurements with super-conducting gravimeters. Gravity changes caused by high-magnitude earthquakes have been detected with the satellite gravity experiment GRACE, and we expect high-frequency terrestrial gravity fluctuations produced by ambient seismic fields to limit the sensitivity of ground-based gravitational-wave (GW) detectors. Accordingly, terrestrial gravity fluctuations are considered noise and signal depending on the experiment. Here, we will focus on ground-based gravimetry. This field is rapidly progressing through the development of GW detectors. The technology is pushed to its current limits in the advanced generation of the LIGO and Virgo detectors, targeting gravity strain sensitivities better than 10−23 Hz−1/2 above a few tens of a Hz. Alternative designs for GW detectors evolving from traditional gravity gradiometers such as torsion bars, atom interferometers, and superconducting gradiometers are currently being developed to extend the detection band to frequencies below 1 Hz. The goal of this article is to provide the analytical framework to describe terrestrial gravity perturbations in these experiments. Models of terrestrial gravity perturbations related to seismic fields, atmospheric disturbances, and vibrating, rotating or moving objects, are derived and analyzed. The models are then used to evaluate passive and active gravity noise mitigation strategies in GW detectors, or alternatively, to describe their potential use in geophysics. The article reviews the current state of the field, and also presents new analyses especially with respect to the impact of seismic scattering on gravity perturbations, active gravity noise cancellation, and time-domain models of gravity perturbations from atmospheric and seismic point sources. Our understanding of terrestrial gravity fluctuations will have great impact on the future development of GW detectors and high-precision gravimetry in general, and many open questions need to be answered still as emphasized in this article.

 

Keywords: Terrestrial gravity, Newtonian noise, Wiener filter, Mitigation

Go to:

Introduction

In the coming years, we will see a transition in the field of high-precision gravimetry from observations of slow lasting changes of the gravity field to the experimental study of fast gravity fluctuations. The latter will be realized by the advanced generation of the US-based LIGO [1] and Europe-based Virgo [7] gravitational-wave (GW) detectors. Their goal is to directly observe for the first time GWs that are produced by astrophysical sources such as inspiraling and merging neutron-star or black-hole binaries. Feasibility of the laser-interferometric detector concept has been demonstrated successfully with the first generation of detectors, which, in addition to the initial LIGO and Virgo detectors, also includes the GEO600 [119] and TAMA300 [161] detectors, and several prototypes around the world. The impact of these projects onto the field is two-fold. First of all, the direct detection of GWs will be a milestone in science opening a new window to our universe, and marking the beginning of a new era in observational astronomy. Second, several groups around the world have already started to adapt the technology to novel interferometer concepts [60, 155], with potential applications not only in GW science, but also geophysics. The basic measurement scheme is always the same: the relative displacement of test masses is monitored by using ultra-stable lasers. Progress in this field is strongly dependent on how well the motion of the test masses can be shielded from the environment. Test masses are placed in vacuum and are either freely falling (e.g., atom clouds [137]), or suspended and seismically isolated (e.g., high-quality glass or crystal mirrors as used in all of the detectors listed above). The best seismic isolations realized so far are effective above a few Hz, which limits the frequency range of detectable gravity fluctuations. Nonetheless, low-frequency concepts are continuously improving, and it is conceivable that future detectors will be sufficiently sensitive to detect GWs well below a Hz [88].

 

Terrestrial gravity perturbations were identified as a potential noise source already in the first concept laid out for a laser-interferometric GW detector [171]. Today, this form of noise is known as “terrestrial gravitational noise”, “Newtonian noise”, or “gravity-gradient noise”. It has never been observed in GW detectors, but it is predicted to limit the sensitivity of the advanced GW detectors at low frequencies. The most important source of gravity noise comes from fluctuating seismic fields [151]. Gravity perturbations from atmospheric disturbances such as pressure and temperature fluctuations can become significant at lower frequencies [51]. Anthropogenic sources of gravity perturbations are easier to avoid, but could also be relevant at lower frequencies [163]. Today, we only have one example of a direct observation of gravity fluctuations, i.e., from pressure fluctuations of the atmosphere in high-precision gravimeters [128]. Therefore, almost our entire understanding of gravity fluctuations is based on models. Nonetheless, potential sensitivity limits of future large-scale GW detectors need to be identified and characterized well in advance, and so there is a need to continuously improve our understanding of terrestrial gravity noise. Based on our current understanding, the preferred option is to construct future GW detectors underground to avoid the most dominant Newtonian-noise contributions. This choice was made for the next-generation Japanese GW detector KAGRA, which is currently being constructed underground at the Kamioka site [17], and also as part of a design study for the Einstein Telescope in Europe [140, 139]. While the benefit from underground construction with respect to gravity noise is expected to be substantial in GW detectors sensitive above a few Hz [27], it can be argued that it is less effective at lower frequencies [88].

 

Alternative mitigation strategies includes coherent noise cancellation [42]. The idea is to monitor the sources of gravity perturbations using auxiliary sensors such as microphones and seismometers, and to use their data to generate a coherent prediction of gravity noise. This technique is successfully applied in gravimeters to reduce the foreground of atmospheric gravity noise using collocated pressure sensors [128]. It is also noteworthy that the models of the atmospheric gravity noise are consistent with observations. This should give us some confidence at least that coherent Newtonian-noise cancellation can also be achieved in GW detectors. It is evident though that a model-based prediction of the performance of coherent noise cancellation schemes is prone to systematic errors as long as the properties of the sources are not fully understood. Ongoing experiments at the Sanford Underground Research Facility with the goal to characterize seismic fields in three dimensions are expected to deliver first data from an underground seismometer array in 2015 (see [89] for results from an initial stage of the experiment). While most people would argue that constructing GW detectors underground is always advantageous, it is still necessary to estimate how much is gained and whether the science case strongly profits from it. This is a complicated problem that needs to be answered as part of a site selection process.

 

More recently, high-precision gravity strainmeters have been considered as monitors of geophysical signals [83]. Analytical models have been calculated, which allow us to predict gravity transients from seismic sources such as earthquakes. It was suggested to implement gravity strainmeters in existing earthquake-early warning systems to increase warning times. It is also conceivable that an alternative method to estimate source parameters using gravity signals will improve our understanding of seismic sources. Potential applications must still be investigated in greater detail, but the study already demonstrates that the idea to use GW technology to realize new geophysical sensors seems feasible. As explained in [49], gravitational forces start to dominate the dynamics of seismic phenomena below about 1 mHz (which coincides approximately with a similar transition in atmospheric dynamics where gravity waves start to dominate over other forms of oscillations [164]). Seismic isolation would be ineffective below 1 mHz since the gravitational acceleration of a test mass produced by seismic displacement becomes comparable to the seismic acceleration itself. Therefore, we claim that 10 mHz is about the lowest frequency at which ground-based gravity strainmeters will ever be able to detect GWs, and consequently, modelling terrestrial gravity perturbations in these detectors can focus on frequencies above 10 mHz.

 

This article is divided into six main sections. Section 2 serves as an introduction to gravity measurements focussing on the response mechanisms and basic properties of gravity sensors. Section 3 describes models of gravity perturbations from ambient seismic fields. The results can be used to estimate noise spectra at the surface and underground. A subsection is devoted to the problem of noise estimation in low-frequency GW detectors, which differs from high-frequency estimates mostly in that gravity perturbations are strongly correlated between different test masses. In the low-frequency regime, the gravity noise is best described as gravity-gradient noise. Section 4 is devoted to time domain models of transient gravity perturbations from seismic point sources. The formalism is applied to point forces and shear dislocations. The latter allows us to estimate gravity perturbations from earthquakes. Atmospheric models of gravity perturbations are presented in Section 5. This includes gravity perturbations from atmospheric temperature fields, infrasound fields, shock waves, and acoustic noise from turbulence. The solution for shock waves is calculated in time domain using the methods of Section 4. A theoretical framework to calculate gravity perturbations from objects is given in Section 6. Since many different types of objects can be potential sources of gravity perturbations, the discussion focusses on the development of a general method instead of summarizing all of the calculations that have been done in the past. Finally, Section 7 discusses possible passive and active noise mitigation strategies. Due to the complexity of the problem, most of the section is devoted to active noise cancellation providing the required analysis tools and showing limitations of this technique. Site selection is the main topic under passive mitigation, and is discussed in the context of reducing environmental noise and criteria relevant to active noise cancellation. Each of these sections ends with a summary and a discussion of open problems. While this article is meant to be a review of the current state of the field, it also presents new analyses especially with respect to the impact of seismic scattering on gravity perturbations (Sections 3.3.2 and 3.3.3), active gravity noise cancellation (Section 7.1.3), and timedomain models of gravity perturbations from atmospheric and seismic point sources (Sections 4.1, 4.5, and 5.3).

 

Even though evident to experts, it is worth emphasizing that all calculations carried out in this article have a common starting point, namely Newton’s universal law of gravitation. It states that the attractive gravitational force equation M1 between two point masses m1, m2 is given by

 

equation M21

where G = 6.672 × 10−11 N m2/kg2 is the gravitational constant. Eq. (1) gives rise to many complex phenomena on Earth such as inner-core oscillations [156], atmospheric gravity waves [157], ocean waves [94, 177], and co-seismic gravity changes [122]. Due to its importance, we will honor the eponym by referring to gravity noise as Newtonian noise in the following. It is thereby clarified that the gravity noise models considered in this article are non-relativistic, and propagation effects of gravity changes are neglected. While there could be interesting scenarios where this approximation is not fully justified (e.g., whenever a gravity perturbation can be sensed by several sensors and differences in arrival times can be resolved), it certainly holds in any of the problems discussed in this article. We now invite the reader to enjoy the rest of the article, and hope that it proves to be useful.

 

Go to:

Gravity Measurements

In this section, we describe the relevant mechanisms by which a gravity sensor can couple to gravity perturbations, and give an overview of the most widely used measurement schemes: the (relative) gravimeter [53, 181], the gravity gradiometer [125], and the gravity strainmeter. The last category includes the large-scale GW detectors Virgo [6], LIGO [91], GEO600 [119], KAGRA [17], and a new generation of torsion-bar antennas currently under development [13]. Also atom interferometers can potentially be used as gravity strainmeters in the future [62]. Strictly speaking, none of the sensors only responds to a single field quantity (such as changes in gravity acceleration or gravity strain), but there is always a dominant response mechanism in each case, which justifies to give the sensor a specific name. A clear distinction between gravity gradiometers and gravity strainmeters has never been made to our knowledge. Therefore the sections on these two measurement principles will introduce a definition, and it is by no means the only possible one. Later on in this article, we almost exclusively discuss gravity models relevant to gravity strainmeters since the focus lies on gravity fluctuations above 10 mHz. Today, the sensitivity near 10 mHz of gravimeters towards gravity fluctuations is still competitive to or exceeds the sensitivity of gravity strainmeters, but this is likely going to change in the future so that we can expect strainmeters to become the technology of choice for gravity observations above 10 mHz [88]. The following sections provide further details on this statement. Space-borne gravity experiments such as GRACE [167] will not be included in this overview. The measurement principle of GRACE is similar to that of gravity strainmeters, but only very slow changes of Earth gravity field can be observed, and for this reason it is beyond the scope of this article.

 

The different response mechanisms to terrestrial gravity perturbations are summarized in Section 2.1. While we will identify the tidal forces acting on the test masses as dominant coupling mechanism, other couplings may well be relevant depending on the experiment. The Shapiro time delay will be discussed as the only relativistic effect. Higher-order relativistic effects are neglected. All other coupling mechanisms can be calculated using Newtonian theory including tidal forces, coupling in static non-uniform gravity fields, and coupling through ground displacement induced by gravity fluctuations. In Sections 2.2 to 2.4, the different measurement schemes are explained including a brief summary of the sensitivity limitations (choosing one of a few possible experimental realizations in each case). As mentioned before, we will mostly develop gravity models relevant to gravity strainmeters in the remainder of the article. Therefore, the detailed discussion of alternative gravimetry concepts mostly serves to highlight important differences between these concepts, and to develop a deeper understanding of the instruments and their role in gravity measurements.

 

Gravity response mechanisms

 

Gravity acceleration and tidal forces We will start with the simplest mechanism of all, the acceleration of a test mass in the gravity field. Instruments that measure the acceleration are called gravimeters. A test mass inside a gravimeter can be freely falling such as atom clouds [181] or, as suggested as possible future development, even macroscopic objects [72]. Typically though, test masses are supported mechanically or magnetically constraining motion in some of its degrees of freedom. A test mass suspended from strings responds to changes in the horizontal gravity acceleration. A test mass attached at the end of a cantilever with horizontal equilibrium position responds to changes in vertical gravity acceleration. The support fulfills two purposes. First, it counteracts the static gravitational force in a way that the test mass can respond to changes in the gravity field along a chosen degree of freedom. Second, it isolates the test mass from vibrations. Response to signals and isolation performance depend on frequency. If the support is modelled as a linear, harmonic oscillator, then the test mass response to gravity changes extends over all frequencies, but the response is strongly suppressed below the oscillators resonance frequency. The response function between the gravity perturbation δg(ω) and induced test mass acceleration δa(ω) assumes the form

equation M32

where we have introduced a viscous damping parameter γ, and ω0 is the resonance frequency. Well below resonance, the response is proportional to ω2, while it is constant well above resonance. Above resonance, the supported test mass responds like a freely falling mass, at least with respect to “soft” directions of the support. The test-mass response to vibrations δα(ω) of the support is given by

 

equation M43

This applies for example to horizontal vibrations of the suspension points of strings that hold a test mass, or to vertical vibrations of the clamps of a horizontal cantilever with attached test mass. Well above resonance, vibrations are suppressed by ω−2, while no vibration isolation is provided below resonance. The situation is somewhat more complicated in realistic models of the support especially due to internal modes of the mechanical system (see for example [76]), or due to coupling of degrees of freedom [121]. Large mechanical support structures can feature internal resonances at relatively low frequencies, which can interfere to some extent with the desired performance of the mechanical support [173]. While Eqs. (2) and (3) summarize the properties of isolation and response relevant for this paper, details of the readout method can fundamentally impact an instrument’s response to gravity fluctuations and its susceptibility to seismic noise, as explained in Sections 2.2 to 2.4.

 

Next, we discuss the response to tidal forces. In Newtonian theory, tidal forces cause a relative acceleration δg12(ω) between two freely falling test masses according to

 

equation M54

where equation M6 is the Fourier amplitude of the gravity potential. The last equation holds if the distance r12 between the test masses is sufficiently small, which also depends on the frequency. The term equation M7 is called gravity-gradient tensor. In Newtonian approximation, the second time integral of this tensor corresponds to gravity strain equation M8, which is discussed in more detail in Section 2.4. Its trace needs to vanish in empty space since the gravity potential fulfills the Poisson equation. Tidal forces produce the dominant signals in gravity gradiometers and gravity strainmeters, which measure the differential acceleration or associated relative displacement between two test masses (see Sections 2.3 and 2.4). If the test masses used for a tidal measurement are supported, then typically the supports are designed to be as similar as possible, so that the response in Eq. (2) holds for both test masses approximately with the same parameter values for the resonance frequencies (and to a lesser extent also for the damping). For the purpose of response calibration, it is less important to know the parameter values exactly if the signal is meant to be observed well above the resonance frequency where the response is approximately equal to 1 independent of the resonance frequency and damping (here, “well above” resonance also depends on the damping parameter, and in realistic models, the signal frequency also needs to be “well below” internal resonances of the mechanical support).

 

Shapiro time delay Another possible gravity response is through the Shapiro time delay [19]. This effect is not universally present in all gravity sensors, and depends on the readout mechanism. Today, the best sensitivities are achieved by reflecting laser beams from test masses in interferometric configurations. If the test mass is displaced by gravity fluctuations, then it imprints a phase shift onto the reflected laser, which can be observed in laser interferometers, or using phasemeters. We will give further details on this in Section 2.4. In Newtonian gravity, the acceleration of test masses is the only predicted response to gravity fluctuations. However, from general relativity we know that gravity also affects the propagation of light. The leading-order term is the Shapiro time delay, which produces a phase shift of the laser beam with respect to a laser propagating in flat space. It can be calculated from the weak-field spacetime metric (see chapter 18 in [124]):

equation M95

Here, c is the speed of light, ds is the so-called line element of a path in spacetime, and equation M10. Additionally, for this metric to hold, motion of particles in the source of the gravity potential responsible for changes of the gravity potential need to be much slower than the speed of light, and also stresses inside the source must be much smaller than its mass energy density. All conditions are fulfilled in the case of Earth gravity field. Light follows null geodesics with ds2 = 0. For the spacetime metric in Eq. (5), we can immediately write

 

equation M116

As we will find out, this equation can directly be used to calculate the time delay as an integral along a straight line in terms of the coordinates equation M12, but this is not immediately clear since light bends in a gravity field. So one may wonder if integration along the proper light path instead of a straight line yields additional significant corrections. The so-called geodesic equation must be used to calculate the path. It is a set of four differential equations, one for each coordinate t, equation M13 in terms of a parameter λ. The weak-field geodesic equation is obtained from the metric in Eq. (5):

 

equation M147

where we have made use of Eq. (6) and the slow-motion condition equation M15. The coordinates equation M16 are to be understood as functions of λ. Since the deviation of a straight path is due to a weak gravity potential, we can solve these equations by perturbation theory introducing expansions equation M17 and t = t(0) +t(1) + …. The superscript indicates the order in ψ/c2. The unperturbed path has the simple parametrization

 

equation M188

We have chosen integration constants such that unperturbed time t(0) and parameter λ can be used interchangeably (apart from a shift by t0). Inserting these expressions into the right-hand side of Eq. (7), we obtain

 

equation M199

As we can see, up to linear order in equation M20, the deviation equation M21 is in orthogonal direction to the unperturbed path equation M22, which means that the deviation can be neglected in the calculation of the time delay. After some transformations, it is possible to derive Eq. (6) from Eq. (9), and this time we find explicitly that the right-hand-side of the equation only depends on the unperturbed coordinates1. In other words, we can integrate the time delay along a straight line as defined in Eq. (8), and so the total phase integrated over a travel distance L is given by

 

equation M2310

In static gravity fields, the phase shift doubles if the light is sent back since not only the direction of integration changes, but also the sign of the expression substituted for dt/dλ.

 

Gravity induced ground motion As we will learn in Section 3, seismic fields produce gravity perturbations either through density fluctuations of the ground, or by displacing interfaces between two materials of different density. It is also well-known in seismology that seismic fields can be affected significantly by self-gravity. Self-gravity means that the gravity perturbation produced by a seismic field acts back on the seismic field. The effect is most significant at low frequency where gravity induced acceleration competes against acceleration from elastic forces. In seismology, low-frequency seismic fields are best described in terms of Earth’s normal modes [55]. Normal modes exist as toroidal modes and spheroidal modes. Spheroidal modes are influenced by self-gravity, toroidal modes are not. For example, predictions of frequencies and shapes of spheroidal modes based on Earth models such as PREM (Preliminary Reference Earth Model) [68] are inaccurate if self-gravity effects are excluded. What this practically means is that in addition to displacement amplitudes, gravity becomes a dynamical variable in the elastodynamic equations that determine the normal-mode properties. Therefore, seismic displacement and gravity perturbation cannot be separated in normal-mode formalism (although self-gravity can be neglected in calculations of spheroidal modes at sufficiently high frequency).

In certain situations, it is necessary or at least more intuitive to separate gravity from seismic fields. An exotic example is Earth’s response to GWs [67, 49, 47, 30, 48]. Another example is the seismic response to gravity perturbations produced by strong seismic events at large distance to the source as described in Section 4. It is more challenging to analyze this scenario using normal-mode formalism. The sum over all normal modes excited by the seismic event (each of which describing a global displacement field) must lead to destructive interference of seismic displacement at large distances (where seismic waves have not yet arrived), but not of the gravity amplitudes since gravity is immediately perturbed everywhere. It can be easier to first calculate the gravity perturbation from the seismic perturbation, and then to calculate the response of the seismic field to the gravity perturbation at larger distance. This method will be adopted in this section. Gravity fields will be represented as arbitrary force or tidal fields (detailed models are presented in later sections), and we simply calculate the response of the seismic field. Normal-mode formalism can be avoided only at sufficiently high frequencies where the curvature of Earth does not significantly influence the response (i.e., well above 10 mHz). In this section, we will model the ground as homogeneous half space, but also more complex geologies can in principle be assumed.

 

Gravity can be introduced in two ways into the elastodynamic equations, as a conservative force −∇ψ [146, 169], or as tidal strain The latter method was described first by Dyson to calculate Earth’s response to GWs [67]. The approach also works for Newtonian gravity, with the difference that the tidal field produced by a GW is necessarily a quadrupole field with only two degrees of freedom (polarizations), while tidal fields produced by terrestrial sources are less constrained. Certainly, GWs can only be fully described in the framework of general relativity, which means that their representation as a Newtonian tidal field cannot be used to explain all possible observations [124]. Nonetheless, important here is that Dyson’s method can be extended to Newtonian tidal fields. Without gravity, the elastodynamic equations for small seismic displacement can be written as

 

equation M2411

where equation M25 is the seismic displacement field, and equation M26 is the stress tensor [9]. In the absence of other forces, the stress is determined by the seismic field. In the case of a homogeneous and isotropic medium, the stress tensor for small seismic displacement can be written as

 

equation M2712

The quantity equation M28 is known as seismic strain tensor, and λ, μ are the Lamé constants (see Section 3.1). Its trace is equal to the divergence of the displacement field. Dyson introduced the tidal field from first principles using Lagrangian mechanics, but we can follow a simpler approach. Eq. (12) means that a stress field builds up in response to a seismic strain field, and the divergence of the stress field acts as a force producing seismic displacement. The same happens in response to a tidal field, which we represent as gravity strain equation M29. A strain field changes the distance between two freely falling test masses separated by equation M30 by equation M312. For sufficiently small distances L, the strain field can be substituted by the second time integral of the gravity-gradient tensor equation M32. If the masses are not freely falling, then the strain field acts as an additional force. The corresponding contribution to the material’s stress tensor can be written

 

equation M3313

Since we assume that the gravity field is produced by a distant source, the local contribution to gravity perturbations is neglected, which means that the gravity potential obeys the Laplace equation, equation M34. Calculating the divergence of the stress tensor according to Eq. (11), we find that the gravity term vanishes! This means that a homogeneous and isotropic medium does not respond to gravity strain fields. However, we have to be more careful here. Our goal is to calculate the response of a half-space to gravity strain. Even if the half-space is homogeneous, the Lamé constants change discontinuously across the surface. Hence, at the surface, the divergence of the stress tensor reads

 

equation M3514

In other words, tidal fields produce a force onto an elastic medium via gradients in the shear modulus (second Lamé constant). The gradient of the shear modulus can be written in terms of a Dirac delta function, equation M36, for a flat surface at z = 0 with unit normal vector equation M37. The response to gravity strain fields is obtained applying the boundary condition of vanishing surface traction, equation M38:

 

equation M3915

Once the seismic strain field is calculated, it can be used to obtain the seismic stress, which determines the displacement field equation M40 according to Eq. (11). In this way, one can for example calculate that a seismometer or gravimeter can observe GWs by monitoring surface displacement as was first calculated by Dyson [67].

 

Coupling in non-uniform, static gravity fields If the gravity field is static, but non-uniform, then displacement equation M41 of the test mass in this field due to a non-gravitational fluctuating force is associated with a changing gravity acceleration according to

equation M4216

We introduce a characteristic length λ, over which gravity acceleration varies significantly. Hence, we can rewrite the last equation in terms of the associated test-mass displacement ζ

 

equation M4317

where we have neglected directional dependence and numerical factors. The acceleration change from motion in static, inhomogeneous fields is generally more significant at low frequencies. Let us consider the specific case of a suspended test mass. It responds to fluctuations in horizontal gravity acceleration. The test mass follows the motion of the suspension point in vertical direction (i.e., no seismic isolation), while seismic noise in horizontal direction is suppressed according to Eq. (3). Accordingly, it is possible that the unsuppressed vertical (z-axis) seismic noise ξz(t) coupling into the horizontal (x-axis) motion of the test mass through the term ∂xgz = ∂zgx dominates over the gravity response term in Eq. (2). Due to additional coupling mechanisms between vertical and horizontal motion in real seismic-isolation systems, test masses especially in GW detectors are also isolated in vertical direction, but without achieving the same noise suppression as in horizontal direction. For example, the requirements on vertical test-mass displacement for Advanced LIGO are a factor 1000 less stringent than on the horizontal displacement [22]. Requirements can be set on the vertical isolation by estimating the coupling of vertical motion into horizontal motion, which needs to take the gravity-gradient coupling of Eq. (16) into account. Although, because of the frequency dependence, gravity-gradient effects are more significant in low-frequency detectors, such as the space-borne GW detector LISA [154].

 

Next, we calculate an estimate of gravity gradients in the vicinity of test masses in large-scale GW detectors, and see if the gravity-gradient coupling matters compared to mechanical vertical-to-horizontal coupling.

 

One contribution to gravity gradients will come from the vacuum chamber surrounding the test mass. We approximate the shape of the chamber as a hollow cylinder with open ends (open ends just to simplify the calculation). In our calculation, the test mass can be offset from the cylinder axis and be located at any distance to the cylinder ends (we refer to this coordinate as height). The gravity field can be expressed in terms of elliptic integrals, but the explicit solution is not of concern here. Instead, let us take a look at the results in Figure ​Figure1.1. Gravity gradients ∂zgx vanish if the test mass is located on the symmetry axis or at height L/2. There are also two additional ∂zgx = 0 contour lines starting at the symmetry axis at heights ∼ 0.24 and ∼0.76. Let us assume that the test mass is at height 0.3L, a distance 0.05L from the cylinder axis, the total mass of the cylinder is M = 5000 kg, and the cylinder height is L = 4 m. In this case, the gravity-gradient induced vertical-to-horizontal coupling factor at 20 Hz is

 

equation M4418

This means that gravity-gradient induced coupling is extremely weak, and lies well below estimates of mechanical coupling (of order 0.001 in Advanced LIGO3). Even though the vacuum chamber was modelled with a very simple shape, and additional asymmetries in the mass distribution around the test mass may increase gravity gradients, it still seems very unlikely that the coupling would be significant. As mentioned before, one certainly needs to pay more attention when calculating the coupling at lower frequencies. The best procedure is of course to have a 3D model of the near test-mass infrastructure available and to use it for a precise calculation of the gravity-gradient field.

 

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Figure 1

Gravity gradients inside hollow cylinder. The total height of the cylinder is L, and M is its total mass. The radius of the cylinder is 0.3L. The axes correspond to the distance of the test mass from the symmetry axis of the cylinder, and its height above one of the cylinders ends. The plot on the right is simply a zoom of the left plot into the intermediate heights.

Gravimeters

 

Gravimeters are instruments that measure the displacement of a test mass with respect to a non-inertial reference rigidly connected to the ground. The test mass is typically supported mechanically or magnetically (atom-interferometric gravimeters are an exception), which means that the test-mass response to gravity is altered with respect to a freely falling test mass. We will use Eq. (2) as a simplified response model. There are various possibilities to measure the displacement of a test mass. The most widespread displacement sensors are based on capacitive readout, as for example used in superconducting gravimeters (see Figure ​Figure22 and [96]). Sensitive displacement measurements are in principle also possible with optical readout systems; a method that is (necessarily) implemented in atom-interferometric gravimeters [137], and prototype seismometers [34] (we will explain the distinction between seismometers and gravimeters below). As will become clear in Section 2.4, optical readout is better suited for displacement measurements over long baselines, as required for the most sensitive gravity strain measurements, while the capacitive readout should be designed with the smallest possible distance between the test mass and the non-inertial reference [104].

 

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Figure 2

Sketch of a levitated sphere serving as test mass in a superconducting gravimeter. Dashed lines indicate magnetic field lines. Coils are used for levitation and precise positioning of the sphere. Image reproduced with permission from [96]; copyright by Elsevier.

Let us take a closer look at the basic measurement scheme of a superconducting gravimeter shown in Figure ​Figure2.2. The central part is formed by a spherical superconducting shell that is levitated by superconducting coils. Superconductivity provides stability of the measurement, and also avoids some forms of noise (see [96] for details). In this gravimeter design, the lower coil is responsible mostly to balance the mean gravitational force acting on the sphere, while the upper coil modifies the magnetic gradient such that a certain “spring constant” of the magnetic levitation is realized. In other words, the current in the upper coil determines the resonance frequency in Eq. (2).

 

Capacitor plates are distributed around the sphere. Whenever a force acts on the sphere, the small signal produced in the capacitive readout is used to immediately cancel this force by a feedback coil. In this way, the sphere is kept at a constant location with respect to the external frame. This illustrates a common concept in all gravimeters. The displacement sensors can only respond to relative displacement between a test mass and a surrounding structure. If small gravity fluctuations are to be measured, then it is not sufficient to realize low-noise readout systems, but also vibrations of the surrounding structure forming the reference frame must be as small as possible. In general, as we will further explore in the coming sections, gravity fluctuations are increasingly dominant with decreasing frequency. At about 1 mHz, gravity acceleration associated with fluctuating seismic fields become comparable to seismic acceleration, and also atmospheric gravity noise starts to be significant [53]. At higher frequencies, seismic acceleration is much stronger than typical gravity fluctuations, which means that the gravimeter effectively operates as a seismometer. In summary, at sufficiently low frequencies, the gravimeter senses gravity accelerations of the test mass with respect to a relatively quiet reference, while at higher frequencies, the gravimeter senses seismic accelerations of the reference with respect to a test mass subject to relatively small gravity fluctuations. In superconducting gravimeters, the third important contribution to the response is caused by vertical motion ξ(t) of a levitated sphere against a static gravity gradient (see Section 2.1.4). As explained above, feedback control suppresses relative motion between sphere and gravimeter frame, which causes the sphere to move as if attached to the frame or ground. In the presence of a static gravity gradient ∂zgz, the motion of the sphere against this gradient leads to a change in gravity, which alters the feedback force (and therefore the recorded signal). The full contribution from gravitational, δa(t), and seismic, equation M45, accelerations can therefore be written

 

equation M4619

It is easy to verify, using Eqs. (2) and (3), that the relative amplitude of gravity and seismic fluctuations from the first two terms is independent of the test-mass support. Therefore, vertical seismic displacement of the reference frame must be considered fundamental noise of gravimeters and can only be avoided by choosing a quiet measurement site. Obviously, Eq. (19) is based on a simplified support model. One of the important design goals of the mechanical support is to minimize additional noise due to non-linearities and cross-coupling. As is explained further in Section 2.3, it is also not possible to suppress seismic noise in gravimeters by subtracting the disturbance using data from a collocated seismometer. Doing so inevitably turns the gravimeter into a gravity gradiometer.

 

Gravimeters target signals that typically lie well below 1 mHz. Mechanical or magnetic supports of test masses have resonance frequencies at best slightly below 10 mHz along horizontal directions, and typically above 0.1 Hz in the vertical direction [23, 174]4. Well below resonance frequency, the response function can be approximated as equation M47. At first, it may look as if the gravimeter should not be sensitive to very low-frequency fluctuations since the response becomes very weak. However, the strength of gravity fluctuations also strongly increases with decreasing frequency, which compensates the small response. It is clear though that if the resonance frequency was sufficiently high, then the response would become so weak that the gravity signal would not stand out above other instrumental noise anymore. The test-mass support would be too stiff. The sensitivity of the gravimeter depends on the resonance frequency of the support and the intrinsic instrumental noise. With respect to seismic noise, the stiffness of the support has no influence as explained before (the test mass can also fall freely as in atom interferometers).

 

For superconducting gravimeters of the Global Geodynamics Project (GGP) [52], the median spectra are shown in Figure ​Figure3.3. Between 0.1 mHz and 1 mHz, atmospheric gravity perturbations typically dominate, while instrumental noise is the largest contribution between 1 mHz and 5 mHz [96]. The smallest signal amplitudes that have been measured by integrating long-duration signals is about 10−12 m/s2. A detailed study of noise in superconducting gravimeters over a larger frequency range can be found in [145]. Note that in some cases, it is not fit to categorize seismic and gravity fluctuations as noise and signal. For example, Earth’s spherical normal modes coherently excite seismic and gravity fluctuations, and the individual contributions in Eq. (19) have to be understood only to accurately translate data into normal-mode amplitudes [55].

 

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Figure 3

Median spectra of superconducting gravimeters of the GGP. Image reproduced with permission from [48]; copyright by APS.

Gravity gradiometers

 

It is not the purpose of this section to give a complete overview of the different gradiometer designs. Gradiometers find many practical applications, for example in navigation and resource exploration, often with the goal to measure static or slowly changing gravity gradients, which do not concern us here. For example, we will not discuss rotating gradiometers, and instead focus on gradiometers consisting of stationary test masses. While the former are ideally suited to measure static or slowly changing gravity gradients with high precision especially under noisy conditions, the latter design has advantages when measuring weak tidal fluctuations. In the following, we only refer to the stationary design. A gravity gradiometer measures the relative acceleration between two test masses each responding to fluctuations of the gravity field [102, 125]. The test masses have to be located close to each other so that the approximation in Eq. (4) holds. The proximity of the test masses is used here as the defining property of gradiometers. They are therefore a special type of gravity strainmeter (see Section 2.4), which denotes any type of instrument that measures relative gravitational acceleration (including the even more general concept of measuring space-time strain).

 

Gravity gradiometers can be realized in two versions. First, one can read out the position of two test masses with respect to the same rigid, non-inertial reference. The two channels, each of which can be considered a gravimeter, are subsequently subtracted. This scheme is for example realized in dual-sphere designs of superconducting gravity gradiometers [90] or in atom-interferometric gravity gradiometers [159].

 

It is schematically shown in Figure ​Figure4.4. Let us first consider the dual-sphere design of a superconducting gradiometer. If the reference is perfectly stiff, and if we assume as before that there are no cross-couplings between degrees of freedom and the response is linear, then the subtraction of the two gravity channels cancels all of the seismic noise, leaving only the instrumental noise and the differential gravity signal given by the second line of Eq. (4). Even in real setups, the reduction of seismic noise can be many orders of magnitude since the two spheres are close to each other, and the two readouts pick up (almost) the same seismic noise [125]. This does not mean though that gradiometers are necessarily more sensitive instruments to monitor gravity fields. A large part of the gravity signal (the common-mode part) is subtracted together with the seismic noise, and the challenge is now passed from finding a seismically quiet site to developing an instrument with lowest possible intrinsic noise.

 

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Figure 4

Basic scheme of a gravity gradiometer for measurements along the vertical direction. Two test masses are supported by horizontal cantilevers (superconducting magnets, …). Acceleration of both test masses is measured against the same non-inertial reference frame, which is connected to the ground. Each measurement constitutes one gravimeter. Subtraction of the two channels yields a gravity gradiometer.

The atom-interferometric gradiometer differs in some important details from the superconducting gradiometer. The test masses are realized by ultracold atom clouds, which are (nearly) freely falling provided that magnetic shielding of the atoms is sufficient, and interaction between atoms can be neglected. Interactions of a pair of atom clouds with a laser beam constitute the basic gravity gradiometer scheme. Even though the test masses are freely falling, the readout is not generally immune to seismic noise [80, 18]. The laser beam interacting with the atom clouds originates from a source subject to seismic disturbances, and interacts with optics that require seismic isolation. Schemes have been proposed that could lead to a large reduction of seismic noise [178, 77], but their effectiveness has not been tested in experiments yet. Since the differential position (or tidal) measurement is performed using a laser beam, the natural application of atom-interferometer technology is as gravity strainmeter (as explained before, laser beams are favorable for differential position measurements over long baselines). Nonetheless, the technology is currently insufficiently developed to realize large-baseline experiments, and we can therefore focus on its application in gradiometry. Let us take a closer look at the response of atom-interferometric gradiometers to seismic noise. In atom-interferometric detectors (excluding the new schemes proposed in [178, 77]), one can show that seismic acceleration δα(ω) of the optics or laser source limits the sensitivity of a tidal measurement according to

 

equation M4820

where L is the separation of the two atom clouds, and is the speed of light. It should be emphasized that the seismic noise remains, even if all optics and the laser source are all linked to the same infinitely stiff frame. In addition to this noise term, other coupling mechanisms may play a role, which can however be suppressed by engineering efforts. The noise-reduction factor ωL/c needs to be compared with the common-mode suppression of seismic noise in superconducting gravity gradiometers, which depends on the stiffness of the instrument frame, and on contamination from cross coupling of degrees-of-freedom. While the seismic noise in Eq. (20) is a fundamental noise contribution in (conventional) atom-interferometric gradiometers, the noise suppression in superconducting gradiometers depends more strongly on the engineering effort (at least, we venture to claim that common-mode suppression achieved in current instrument designs is well below what is fundamentally possible).

 

To conclude this section, we discuss in more detail the connection between gravity gradiometers and seismically (actively or passively) isolated gravimeters. As we have explained in Section 2.2, the sensitivity limitation of gravimeters by seismic noise is independent of the mechanical support of the test mass (assuming an ideal, linear support). The main purpose of the mechanical support is to maximize the response of the test mass to gravity fluctuations, and thereby increase the signal with respect to instrumental noise other than seismic noise. Here we will explain that even a seismic isolation of the gravimeter cannot overcome this noise limitation, at least not without fundamentally changing its response to gravity fluctuations. Let us first consider the case of a passively seismically isolated gravimeter. For example, we can imagine that the gravimeter is suspended from the tip of a strong horizontal cantilever. The system can be modelled as two oscillators in a chain, with a light test mass m supported by a heavy mass M representing the gravimeter (reference) frame, which is itself supported from a point rigidly connected to Earth. The two supports are modelled as harmonic oscillators. As before, we neglect cross coupling between degrees of freedom. Linearizing the response of the gravimeter frame and test mass for small accelerations, and further neglecting terms proportional to m/M, one finds the gravimeter response to gravity fluctuations:

 

equation M4921

Here, ω1, γ1 are the resonance frequency and damping of the gravimeter support, while ω2, γ2 are the resonance frequency and damping of the test-mass support. The response and isolation functions R(·), S(·) are defined in Eqs. (2) and (3). Remember that Eq. (21) is obtained as a differential measurement of test-mass acceleration versus acceleration of the reference frame. Therefore, δg1(ω) denotes the gravity fluctuation at the center-of-mass of the gravimeter frame, and δg2(ω) at the test mass. An infinitely stiff gravimeter suspension, ω1 → ∞, yields R(ω; ω1, γ1) = 0, and the response turns into the form of the non-isolated gravimeter. The seismic isolation is determined by

 

equation M5022

We can summarize the last two equations as follows. At frequencies well above ω1, the seismically isolated gravimeter responds like a gravity gradiometer, and seismic noise is strongly suppressed. The deviation from the pure gradiometer response ∼ δg2(ω) − δg1(ω) is determined by the same function S(ω; ω1, γ1) that describes the seismic isolation. In other words, if the gravity gradient was negligible, then we ended up with the conventional gravimeter response, with signals suppressed by the seismic isolation function. Well below ω1, the seismically isolated gravimeter responds like a conventional gravimeter without seismic-noise reduction. If the centers of the masses m (test mass) and M (reference frame) coincide, and therefore δg1(ω) = δg2(ω), then the response is again like a conventional gravimeter, but this time suppressed by the isolation function S(ω; ω1, γ1).

 

Let us compare the passively isolated gravimeter with an actively isolated gravimeter. In active isolation, the idea is to place the gravimeter on a stiff platform whose orientation can be controlled by actuators. Without actuation, the platform simply follows local surface motion. There are two ways to realize an active isolation. One way is to place a seismometer next to the platform onto the ground, and use its data to subtract ground motion from the platform. The actuators cancel the seismic forces. This scheme is called feed-forward noise cancellation. Feed-forward cancellation of gravity noise is discussed at length in Section 7.1, which provides details on its implementation and limitations. The second possibility is to place the seismometer together with the gravimeter onto the platform, and to suppress seismic noise in a feedback configuration [4, 2]. In the following, we discuss the feed-forward technique as an example since it is easier to analyze (for example, feedback control can be unstable [4]). As before, we focus on gravity and seismic fluctuations. The seismometer’s intrinsic noise plays an important role in active isolation limiting its performance, but we are only interested in the modification of the gravimeter’s response. Since there is no fundamental difference in how a seismometer and a gravimeter respond to seismic and gravity fluctuations, we know from Section 2.2 that the seismometer output is proportional to δg1(ω) − δα(ω), i.e., using a single test mass for acceleration measurements, seismic and gravity perturbations contribute in the same way. A transfer function needs to be multiplied to the acceleration signals, which accounts for the mechanical support and possibly also electronic circuits involved in the seismometer readout. To cancel the seismic noise of the platform that carries the gravimeter, the effect of all transfer functions needs to be reversed by a matched feed-forward filter. The output of the filter is then equal to δg1(ω) − δα(ω) and is added to the motion of the platform using actuators cancelling the seismic noise and adding the seismometer’s gravity signal. In this case, the seismometer’s gravity signal takes the place of the seismic noise in Eq. (3). The complete gravity response of the actively isolated gravimeter then reads

 

equation M5123

The response is identical to a gravity gradiometer, where ω2, γ2 are the resonance frequency and damping of the gravimeter’s test-mass support. In reality, instrumental noise of the seismometer will limit the isolation performance and introduce additional noise into Eq. (23). Nonetheless, Eqs. (21) and (23) show that any form of seismic isolation turns a gravimeter into a gravity gradiometer at frequencies where seismic isolation is effective. For the passive seismic isolation, this means that the gravimeter responds like a gradiometer at frequencies well above the resonance frequency ω1 of the gravimeter support, while it behaves like a conventional gravimeter below ω1. From these results it is clear that the design of seismic isolations and the gravity response can in general not be treated independently. As we will see in Section 2.4 though, tidal measurements can profit strongly from seismic isolation especially when common-mode suppression of seismic noise like in gradiometers is insufficient or completely absent.

 

Gravity strainmeters

 

Gravity strain is an unusual concept in gravimetry that stems from our modern understanding of gravity in the framework of general relativity. From an observational point of view, it is not much different from elastic strain. Fluctuating gravity strain causes a change in distance between two freely falling test masses, while seismic or elastic strain causes a change in distance between two test masses bolted to an elastic medium. It should be emphasized though that we cannot always use this analogy to understand observations of gravity strain [106]. Fundamentally, gravity strain corresponds to a perturbation of the metric that determines the geometrical properties of spacetime [124]. We will briefly discuss GWs, before returning to a Newtonian description of gravity strain.

 

Gravitational waves are weak perturbations of spacetime propagating at the speed of light. Freely falling test masses change their distance in the field of a GW. When the length of the GW is much larger than the separation between the test masses, it is possible to interpret this change as if caused by a Newtonian force. We call this the long-wavelength regime. Since we are interested in the low-frequency response of gravity strainmeters throughout this article (i.e., frequencies well below 100 Hz), this condition is always fulfilled for Earth-bound experiments. The effect of a gravity-strain field equation M52 on a pair of test masses can then be represented as an equivalent Newtonian tidal field

 

equation M5324

Here, equation M54 is the relative acceleration between two freely falling test masses, L is the distance between them, and equation M55 is the unit vector pointing from one to the other test mass, and equation M56 its transpose. As can be seen, the gravity-strain field is represented by a 3 × 3 tensor. It contains the space-components of a 4-dimensional metric perturbation of spacetime, and determines all properties of GWs5. Note that the strain amplitude h in Eq. (24) needs to be multiplied by 2 to obtain the corresponding amplitude of the metric perturbation (e.g., the GW amplitude). Throughout this article, we define gravity strain as h = ΔL/L, while the effect of a GW with amplitude aGW on the separation of two test mass is determined by aGW = 2ΔL/L.

 

The strain field of a GW takes the form of a quadrupole oscillation with two possible polarizations commonly denoted × (cross)-polarization and +(plus)-polarization. The arrows in Figure ​Figure55 indicate the lines of the equivalent tidal field of Eq. (24).

 

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Figure 5

Polarizations of a gravitational wave.

Consequently, to (directly) observe GWs, one can follow two possible schemes: (1) the conventional method, which is a measurement of the relative displacement of suspended test masses typically carried out along two perpendicular baselines (arms); and (2) measurement of the relative rotation between two suspended bars. Figure ​Figure66 illustrates the two cases. In either case, the response of a gravity strainmeter is obtained by projecting the gravity strain tensor onto a combination of two unit vectors, equation M57 and equation M58, that characterize the orientation of the detector, such as the directions of two bars in a rotational gravity strain meter, or of two arms of a conventional gravity strain meter. This requires us to define two different gravity strain projections. The projection for the rotational strain measurement is given by

 

equation M5925

where the subscript × indicates that the detector responds to the ×-polarization assuming that the x, y-axes (see Figure ​Figure5)5) are oriented along two perpendicular bars. The vectors equation M60 and equation M61 are rotated counter-clockwise by 90° with respect to equation M62 and equation M63. In the case of perpendicular bars equation M64 and equation M65. The corresponding projection for the conventional gravity strain meter reads

 

equation M6626

The subscript + indicates that the detector responds to the +-polarization provided that the x, y-axes are oriented along two perpendicular baselines (arms) of the detector. The two schemes are shown in Figure ​Figure6.6. The most sensitive GW detectors are based on the conventional method, and distance between test masses is measured by means of laser interferometry. The LIGO and Virgo detectors have achieved strain sensitivities of better than 10−22 Hz−1/2 between about 50 Hz and 1000 Hz in past science runs and are currently being commissioned in their advanced configurations [91, 7]. The rotational scheme is realized in torsion-bar antennas, which are considered as possible technology for sub-Hz GW detection [155, 69]. However, with achieved strain sensitivity of about 10−8 Hz−1/2 near 0.1 Hz, the torsion-bar detectors are far from the sensitivity we expect to be necessary for GW detection [88].

 

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Figure 6

Sketches of the relative rotational and displacement measurement schemes.

Let us now return to the discussion of the previous sections on the role of seismic isolation and its impact on gravity response. Gravity strainmeters profit from seismic isolation more than gravimeters or gravity gradiometers. We have shown in Section 2.2 that seismically isolated gravimeters are effectively gravity gradiometers. So in this case, seismic isolation changes the response of the instrument in a fundamental way, and it does not make sense to talk of seismically isolated gravimeters. Seismic isolation could in principle be beneficial for gravity gradiometers (i.e., the acceleration of two test masses is measured with respect to a common rigid, seismically isolated reference frame), but the common-mode rejection of seismic noise (and gravity signals) due to the differential readout is typically so high that other instrumental noise becomes dominant. So it is possible that some gradiometers would profit from seismic isolation, but it is not generally true. Let us now consider the case of a gravity strainmeter. As explained in Section 2.3, we distinguish gradiometers and strainmeters by the distance of their test masses. For example, the distance of the LIGO or Virgo test masses is 4 km and 3 km respectively. Seismic noise and terrestrial gravity fluctuations are insignificantly correlated between the two test masses within the detectors’ most sensitive frequency band (above 10 Hz). Therefore, the approximation in Eq. (4) does not apply. Certainly, the distinction between gravity gradiometers and strainmeters remains somewhat arbitrary since at any frequency the approximation in Eq. (4) can hold for one type of gravity fluctuation, while it does not hold for another. Let us adopt a more practical definition at this point. Whenever the design of the instrument places the test masses as distant as possible from each other given current technology, then we call such an instrument strainmeter. In the following, we will discuss seismic isolation and gravity response for three strainmeter designs, the laser-interferometric, atom-interferometric, and superconducting strainmeters. It should be emphasized that the atom-interferometric and superconducting concepts are still in the beginning of their development and have not been realized yet with scientifically interesting sensitivities.

 

Laser-interferometric strainmeters The most sensitive gravity strainmeters, namely the large-scale GW detectors, use laser interferometry to read out the relative displacement between mirror pairs forming the test masses. Each test mass in these detectors is suspended from a seismically isolated platform, with the suspension itself providing additional seismic isolation. Section 2.1.1 introduced a simplified response and isolation model based on a harmonic oscillator characterized by a resonance frequency ω0 and viscous damping γ6. In a multi-stage isolation and suspension system as realized in GW detectors (see for example [37, 121]), coupling between multiple oscillators cannot be neglected, and is fundamental to the seismic isolation performance, but the basic features can still be explained with the simplified isolation and response model of Eqs. (2) and (3). The signal output of the interferometer is proportional to the relative displacement between test masses. Since seismic noise is approximately uncorrelated between two distant test masses, the differential measurement itself cannot reject seismic noise as in gravity gradiometers. Without seismic isolation, the dominant signal would be seismic strain, i.e., the distance change between test masses due to elastic deformation of the ground, with a value of about 10−15 Hz−1/2 at 50 Hz (assuming kilometer-scale arm lengths). At the same time, without seismically isolated test masses, the gravity signal can only come from the ground response to gravity fluctuations as described in Section 2.1.3, and from the Shapiro time delay as described in Section 2.1.2.

 

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5256008/

Each day NASA solar scientists produce overlays (in white lines) that show their estimation of how the magnetic field lines above the sun are configured (June16, 2016). In the video clip we show the sun in a wavelength of extreme ultraviolet light, then reveal the magnetic field line configuration in the same wavelength. Notice how the lines are tightly bundled near the lighter-toned active regions, which are magnetically intense regions. The magnetic lines from the darker areas, called coronal holes, open out into space and the extended lines show that. Our magnetically active sun is a dynamic body that changes all the time. Credit: Solar Dynamics Observatory, NASA.

View On White

 

1BRETHREN, IF any person is overtaken in misconduct or sin of any sort, you who are spiritual [who are responsive to and controlled by the Spirit] should set him right and restore and reinstate him, without any sense of superiority and with all gentleness, keeping an attentive eye on yourself, lest you should be tempted also.

2Bear (endure, carry) one another's burdens and [a]troublesome moral faults, and in this way fulfill and observe perfectly the law of Christ (the Messiah) and complete [b]what is lacking [in your obedience to it].

 

3For if any person thinks himself to be somebody [too important to condescend to shoulder another's load] when he is nobody [of superiority except in his own estimation], he deceives and deludes and cheats himself.

 

- Galatians 6:1-3 (Amplified Bible)

  

The Turkana inhabit the arid territories of northern Kenya, on the boundary with Sudan.

Nilotic-speaking people, they have for a long time stayed outside of the influence of the main foreign trends. Nomad shepherds adapted to a almost totally desert area, some also fish in the Turkana lake. They are divided in 28 clans. Each one of them is associated with a particular brand for its livestock, so that any Turkana can identify a relative in this way.

The majority of the Turkana still follow their traditional religion: they believe in a God called Kuj or Akuj, associated with the sky and creator of all things. He is thought to be omnipotent but rarely intervenes in the lives of people. Contact between God and the people is made though a diviner (emeron). Diviners have the power to interpret dreams, foresee the future, heal, and make rain. However, the Turkana doubt about those who say they have powers, but fail to prove it in the everyday life. Estimates are that about 15% of the Turkana are Christian. Evangelism has started among the Turkana since the 1970s. Various churches have had work for some decades and church buildings have been built. The most astonishing element one can notice in the villages, is that the only permanent structures are churches, with huts all around. Infact, in the late 1970s, feeding projects as well as literacy courses and other services have been provided by Baptist workers. This easily explains the importance acquired by the Church.

They don't have any physical initiations. They have only the asapan ceremony, transition from youth to adulthood, that all men must perform before marriage.Turkana marriage is polygynous. Homestead consists of a man, his wives and children, and often his mother and other dependent women. Each wife and her children build a sitting hut for daytime and, in the rainy season, a sleeping hut for nighttime. When a new wife comes, she stays at the hut of the mother or first wife until she has her first child. The high bride-wealth payment (30 to 50 cattle, 30 to 50 camels and 100 to 200 small stock) often means that a man cannot marry until he has inherited livestock from his dead father. It also implies that he collect livestock from relatives and friends, which strengthens social ties through the transfer of livestock. Resolution is found to conflicts through discussions between the men living in proximity to one another. Men of influence are particularly listened, and decisions are enforced by the younger men of the area. Each man belongs to alternating generation sets. If a man is a Leopard, his son will be a Stone, so that there are approximately equal numbers of each category. These groups are formed when there is a need to make large groups rapidly. The Turkana make finely crafted carved wooden implements used in daily life. During the rainy season, moonlight nights' songs have a particular place in the Turkana's life. They often refer to their cattle or land, but they are sometimes improvised and related to immediate events. The Turkana have a deep knowledge of plants and products they use as medicine. That is why the fat-tailed sheep is often called "the hospital for the Turkana".

  

Les Turkanas habitent les territoires arides du nord du Kenya, à la frontière avec le Soudan.Peuple de langue nilotique, ils sont pendant longtemps restés hors de l’influence des principaux courants étrangers. Pasteurs nomades adaptés à une zone presque totalement déserte, certains pêchent également dans le lac Turkana. Ils sont divisés en 28 clans. Chacun d’entre eux est associé à une marque particulière donné à son bétail, de telle façon que tout Turkana peut identifier un parent de cette manière.La majorité des Turkana suit encore leur religion traditionnelle : ils croient en un Dieu appelé Kuj ou Akuj, associé au ciel et créateur de toute chose. Les Turkana le voient comme omnipotent mais intervenant rarement dans la vie des gens. Le contact entre Dieu et les hommes se fait par l’intermédiaire d’un divin (emeron). Les devins ont le pouvoir d’interpréter les rêves, prédire l’avenir, soigner et faire pleuvoir. Toutefois, les Turkana doutent de ceux qui disent qu’ils ont des pouvoirs, mais échouent à le prouver dans la vie de tous les jours. Selon des estimations, environ 15% des Turkana sont chrétiens. L’évangélisme a commencé chez les Turkana depuis les années 1970. Diverses églises ont depuis été construites. L’élément le plus étonnbant que l’on peut noter dans les villages est que les seules structures en dur sont les églises, avec des huttes tout autour. En fait, à la fin des années 1970, des projets alimentaires ainsi que des cours d’alphabétisation et d’autres services ont été menés par des travailleurs baptistes. Cela explique facilement l’importance acquise par l’Eglise.Les Turkana n’ont aucune initiation physique. Ils ont seulement la cérémonie asapan, transition de la jeunesse à l’âge adulte, que chaque homme doit suivre avant le mariage. Les Turkana sont polygames. La propriété familiale est composée d’un homme, ses femmes et enfants, et souvent sa mère. Quand une nouvelle femme arrive, elle loge dans la hutte de la mère ou de la première femme jusqu’à ce qu’elle ait son premier enfant. Le paiement élevé pour la mariée (30 à 50 têtes de gros bétail, 30 à 50 dromadaires, et 100 à 200 têtes de petit bétail) signifie souvent qu’un homme ne peut se permettre de se marier jusqu’à ce qu’il ait hérité le bétail de son père décédé. Cela implique également qu’il collecte le bétail requis de parents et amis, ce qui renforce les liens sociaux entre eux. La résolution des conflits se fait par la discussion entre les hommes vivant à proximité.Les hommes d’influence sont particulièrement écoutés, et les décisions sont mises en application par les hommes plus jeunes de la zone. Chaque homme appartient à une classe d’âge spécifique. Si un homme est un Léopard, son fils deviendra une Pierre, de telle façon qu’il y a approximativement un même nombre de chaque catégorie. Les Turkana font des outils en bois finement taillés, utilisés dans la vie de tous les jours. Durant la saison des pluies, les chansons des nuits de pleine lune ont une place particulière dans la vie des Turkana. Elles font souvent référence à leur bétail et terres, mais sont parfois improvisées ou liées à des événements immédiats. Les Turkana ont une connaissance intime des plantes et des produits qu’ils utilisent comme médicaments. La queue grasse des moutons est souvent appelée « l’hôpital pour les Turkana ».

 

© Eric Lafforgue

www.ericlafforgue

Saw this excellent rainbow that came as a downpour fell upon (estimation) Northridge. Much needed rain here in Los Angeles with a hopeful sign of a wet El Niño to come.

This photo shows the West Chicago tower model board as it looked when I was working there. West Chicago had 3 interlocking plants:

 

"JA" - C&NW's Freeport Line crossing the EJ&E. Note: This was still interlocked, but the C&NW diamond was removed.

"JB" - C&NW's Geneva sub crossing the EJ&E. The only thing that was missing from this plant was crossover #15 between CNW #3 & #2.

"JC" - CB&Q's 12 mile Aurora Branch crossing the EJ&E. This plant was completely O/O/S, however, the signals for the Q were still in place and we could line them up from the tower.

(I know this because I did it one night to see if it actually would change the signal to green, and it did. Unfortunately for me, the timer for the signal had been removed and I had no way to restore the signal to stop, so I had to call a maintainer...lol oops)

 

Traffic here was thick. Luckily, about 5% of it was J traffic. I could write a book called "Bad Decisions By The EJ&E" on just stupid ideas they had for just this location. You were on the hot seat constantly here. When a westbound J train left Joliet, I was already planning on how I was going to get him through this endless stream of UP freights. Omaha wanted to see there shit lined up when it was 100 miles away, so sneaking anything by here was a nightmare. My estimation of trains here:

 

50-60 Metra trains daily

50-80 UP freights

6-8 J trains daily

 

EJ&E West Chicago Tower

October 3rd, 1999

3rd Shift

Le Fossa, animal presque mythique de Madagascar, est pratiquement invisible, présent sur toute la Grande Ile, l’endroit où on peut espérer le voir est le Parc de Kirindy … si on a de la chance !

Mix de civette, mangouste, chat, chien, puma, il est unique dans sa famille.

 

Classé VU par l’IUCN, sa population n’est qu’une estimation : 2 500 à 8 000 adultes, la déforestation et la démographie inflationniste de Madagascar perturbe tout l’écosystème : moins de forêts = moins de lémuriens (ses principales proies) = moins de Fossas !

 

Son régime est pour le moins varié : lémuriens, reptiles, insectes, oiseaux et quand il a compris qu’il y a de la nourriture près de l’homme, il s’attaque aux poules, chevreaux, porcs … et aux déchets …

 

Bien que considéré comme « fady », tabou on sait qu’il est pourchassé à proximité des villages et dans certaines régions il sert de viande de brousse !

 

L’individu vu à Kirindy a compris qu’il pouvait y avoir de la nourriture dans les poubelles et il visite les abords de l’entrée du parc … de temps en temps, vous pouvez passer plusieurs jours sans le voir, ou si vous avez de la chance, le voir traverser la piste …

 

www.iucnredlist.org/species/5760/45197189

fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossa_(animal)

  

Fosa, mythic animal of Madagascar, is virtually invisibe, found in the whole Great Island, the place where you have to be is Kirindy Park … if you have luck !

Mix of civet, mongoose, cat, dog, puma, he is unique in his family.

 

Classified VU by IUCN, his population is only a rough estimation / 2 500 to 8 000 adults, deforestation and inflationary human pressure in madagascar disrupt the whole ecosystem : less forests = less lemurs (his main preys) = less fosas !

 

His diet is, at the least, varied : lemurs (all species), reptiles, insects, birds and when he understood there is food near human, he can decide to directly take chicken, young goats, pigs … and garbage …

 

Although considered « fady », taboo we know he is chased near villages and in some areas he is used as bushmeat !

 

The one we saw in Kirindy knew he could get some food in the waste bins and he could visit the park surroundings … from time to time, you can spend several days without seeing him, or if you are lucky, you will watch him crossing the trail …

From way back before the current die-offs associated with sea star wasting syndrome.

Montana de Oro State Park, San Luis Obispo Co., CA

21 July 2001 (from transparency)

 

The seaweed in the background is probably Iridescent Seaweed, Mazzaella splendens, which was changed years ago from the genus Iridaea, in my estimation a regretful change.

  

Book NOW available through www.arvobrothers.com

 

DESCRIPTION:

 

After a long time, we are glad to present our new book “Alien Project”.

 

Inspired by the works of geniuses H.R. Giger and Ron Cobb, this new project presented us with an opportunity to build one of the greatest icons of fantasy art. A journey from organic to geometric shapes, from dark to light, and the deep admiration that drives us to build all our creations as our only luggage. This book includes detailed, step-to-step instructions showing how to build the model, together with comments, pictures and diagrams that help the description and will contribute to your understanding of the entire process.

 

Build your own model. The technology gives us the opportunity. Now is the time.

 

Content:

 

220 pages divided into four chapters:

 

C1.- ESTIMATIONS

C2.- CONSTRUCTION OF THE MODEL (description of the building process)

C3.- INSTRUCTIONS (steps, building alternatives & catalogue)

C4.- GALLERY

 

Offset printing, hard cover.

 

--------------------------------------

 

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www.arvobrothers.com

 

Nostradamus was born in Saint Rémy de Provence, southern France, on December 14th of 1503, and he was a famous French physician, cabalist, and pharmacist, best known for his book Les Prophéties, its first edition published in 1555. Feel free to publish a summary of this article (in English or translated into another language) along with a link to the full piece www.yearly-horoscope.org/nostradamus-2021-predictions. Nostradamus’ prophecies are expressed in verses, called quatrains. Many of his predictions, such as the rise to power of Adolf Hitler, and the Second World War, turned out to be accurate. Feel free to publish a summary of this article (in English or translated into another language) along with a link to the full piece www.yearly-horoscope.org/nostradamus-2021-predictions

 

Nostradamus had written 6338 prophecies, many of them fulfilled. His prophecies cover a period reaching the year 3797. The secret of his predictions is not known. Nostradamus’ quatrains continue to fascinate the world, although they were written almost five centuries ago. Feel free to publish a summary of this article (in English or translated into another language) along with a link to the full piece www.yearly-horoscope.org/nostradamus-2021-predictions..

 

Here are some of Nostradamus’ predictions for 2021: 1. Zombie Apocalypse A Russian scientist will create a biological weapon and produce a virus that can turn humankind into zombies, and we will all be extinct in the near future. “Few young people: half−dead to give a start. Dead through spite, he will cause the others to shine, And in an exalted place some great evils to occur: Sad concepts will come to harm each one, Temporal dignified, the Mass to succeed. Fathers and mothers dead of infinite sorrows, Women in mourning, the pestilent she−monster: The Great One to be no more, all the world to end.” 2. A Famine of Biblical Proportions Nostradamus predicted that the first signs of the end of the world would be famine, earthquakes, different illnesses, and epidemics, which are already happening more frequently. The Coronavirus pandemic from 2020 represents the beginning of a series of unfavorable events, which will affect the world’s population. The famine that lurks is one the world had never faced before. A catastrophe of huge proportions will throw us back in history, and a great part of the world population will not be able to overcome this curse. “After great trouble for humanity, a greater one is prepared, The Great Mover renews the ages: Rain, blood, milk, famine, steel, and plague, Is the heavens fire seen, a long spark running.” Starting from 2020, after 248 years, Saturn in Capricorn united its forces with Pluto, which is also in Capricorn, in the remarkable conjunction that will change the fate of the world. Saturn in Capricorn is responsible for social hierarchies, state power, authority, functions, and status, and this is what the conjunction with Pluto, the planet of death, destruction, and reconstruction triggered. 3. Solar Storms 2021 will be quite a significant year in terms of major global events. Great solar storms will take place, which could cause some major damages to the earth. Nostradamus supposedly warned: „We shall see the water rising and the earth falling under it”. The harmful effects of the climatic changes will then lead to many wars and conflicts, as the world will fight over resources, and mass migration will follow. 4. A Comet will hit the Earth or it will come very close to Terra This event will cause earthquakes and other natural disasters, which can be concluded from the quatrain: “In the sky, one sees fire and a long trail of sparks”. Other interpretations of this quatrain assert that it refers to a great asteroid that will hit the Earth. Once it enters the Earth’s atmosphere, the asteroid will heat up, appearing in the sky like a great fire. NASA announced that a huge asteroid is likely to hit the Earth in the next years after the American agency emits alerts daily, only this time, it is something more serious. An asteroid called 2009 KF1 has chances to hit the Earth on May 6th of 2021, the NASA coming to this conclusion, following analyzes regarding its trajectory. NASA claims that this asteroid has the power to hit the Earth with the equivalent of 230 kilotons of TNT explosive force, which means 15 times more than the nuclear bomb detonated by Americans over Hiroshima in 1945. 5. A Devastating Earthquake Will Destroy California According to the interpretation of a quatrain written by Nostradamus, an extremely powerful seism will destroy California in 2021. Nostradamus predicts that a great earthquake will hit the New World (“the western lands”), and California is the logical place where it might happen. According to the astrologers, “Mercury in Sagittarius, Saturn fading”, the following date when the planets Mars and Saturn will be in this position on the sky will be on November 25th of 2021. Nostradamus’ quatrain: “The sloping park, great calamity, Through the Lands of the West and Lombardy The fire in the ship, plague, and captivity; Mercury in Sagittarius, Saturn fading.” 6. The American Soldiers Will Have Brain Chip Implants The American soldiers will be turned into a kind of cyborgs, at least at the brain level, to save the human race. This chip should offer us the necessary digital intelligence to progress beyond the limits of biological intelligence. This could mean that we will incorporate artificial intelligence into our bodies and brains. The newly made one will lead the army, Almost cut off up to near the bank: Help from the Milanais elite straining, The Duke deprived of his eyes in Milan in an iron cage.

 

Conclusions: “A prophet is properly speaking one, who sees distant things through a natural knowledge of all creatures. And it can happen that the prophet bringing about the perfect light of prophecy may make manifest things both human and divine.” (Nostradamus in a letter to his son, Cesar) Nostradamus’ quatrains include many disturbing predictions. Based both on the knowledge of Nostradamus as a human being, and the dangerous era he lived, the eight prophecies of 2021 reveal fragments of what the alchemist predicted for our world.

 

Feel free to publish a summary of this article (in English or translated into another language) along with a link to the full piece www.yearly-horoscope.org/nostradamus-2021-predictions/

 

By watching aspects such as climate changes, technological evolution, or inadequate governmental decisions, we might think that everything is against us, and humankind is on the verge of extinction. Here are just a few of Nostradamus’ predictions, outlining the idea of a terrifying future, far from what we would have imagined.

 

Feel free to publish a summary of this article (in English or translated into another language) along with a link to the full piece wisehoroscope.org/nostradamus-2021/.ficial Intelligence – The Robots will rule the world From 2021, artificial intelligence will be equal or will even surpass human intelligence, which could lead to an apocalyptic scenario like those we see in movies. “The Moon in the full of night over the high mountain, The new sage with a lone brain sees it: By his disciples invited to be immortal, Eyes to the south. Hands in bosoms, bodies in the fire.” Mechanization Most previsions indicate that until 2023, the labor market will crash. The automated machines will replace the people in the work process, since they don’t demand higher salaries, and they don’t need breaks or other benefits. When employers choose robots instead of humans, the whole social model will crush. Unemployment, social disorders, and misery are just a few of the consequences of mechanization. A War between Two Allied Countries Two allied countries will get into a classic and open military conflict, with naval fleet fully engaged against each other. Unfortunately, this will only be the beginning because this conflict between these two seemingly “friendly” countries will degenerate into a global war, which will involve the most powerful countries in the world. “In the city of God there will be a great thunder Two brothers torn apart by Chaos while the fortress endures The great leader will succumb The third big war will begin when the big city is burning”. The Economic Collapse of 2021 Hundreds of closed hedge funds will go bankrupt, and the international exchange market will need to close in a short time – maybe even for a week, to stop the panic of selling shares, that will slowly envelop the stock markets. Nostradamus also predicted the 2008 crisis, and in 2021, things are not great: the exchange markets are in free fall and have reached panic levels the end of the crisis is still out of sight the United States is facing an economic stagnation for several years the economic fundamentals are no longer applying today. Space Flight will be Accessible to Common People In 2021, it will start a new era of space tourism. Common people will fly into space, being able to admire spectacular views of the Earth. Sea Level Rise There is no doubt: the climate is constantly changing. Out of all the apocalyptic scenarios which might come true, the sea level rise is the most dramatic. Presently, 50% of the world population lives in coastal areas. A prediction of a possible disaster can be seen by following the example of Newton City from Alaska, which, in less than five years, will be swallowed up by rising waters. The small community of 400 people will not be the only one affected. The current estimations suggest that Venice will be uninhabitable by 2100, and Los Angeles and Amsterdam will be abandoned five years later. “Peace and plenty for a long time the place will praise: Throughout his realm the fleur-de-lis deserted: Bodies dead by water, land one will bring there, Vainly awaiting the good fortune to be buried there.” Solar Eruptions The solar activity has been and still is a subject of interest for experts and not only. Because the sun will reach, in 2021, the peak of an 11-years cycle, known as the maximum solar, different theoreticians rushed to speculate in this regard. It is a fact that when a maximum solar occurs, much more intense solar explosions take place than the previous ones, but this does not translate into total chaos or natural catastrophe. Solar eruptions don’t just happen from yesterday but occur at regular intervals, and the event taking place in 2021 could mostly announce satellite communication interruptions. “Condom and Auch and around Mirande, I see fire from the sky which encompasses them. Sun and Mars conjoined in Leo, then at Marmande, lightning, great hail, a wall falls into the Garonne.” How many predictions did Nostradamus get right? A part of Nostradamus’s prophecies, the famous French doctor and alchemist from the 16th century, have come true. Nostradamus predicted the beginning of the Second World War, Hitler’s ascension, the fall of communism, President J. F. Kennedy’s assassination, India’s independence and the occurrence of Israel State on the world map, events confirmed by the passing of time, but also occurrences that go further in time. Read also: Horoscope 2021 for every zodiac sign. Things You Might Not Know About Nostradamus Nostradamus is certainly one of the most illustrious personalities in history. This notoriety is due to his famous prophecies and predictions. Beyond astrology, Nostradamus was a talented doctor, but also a controversial character, specialized in occultism. Everyone has heard of Nostradamus. He was a medieval character, renowned for his capacity to predict, through scientific methods, the events that will happen in the distant future. Nostradamus predictions, written around 500 years ago, are still going around the world today, and the French man is one of the most important figures of occult art. Besides astrology and his predictions regarding the future, Nostradamus had an adventurous love life, marked by long journeys, extrasensory experiences, the run from Inquisition, but also by an exceptional, yet unjustly less-mentioned medical career. Nostradamus aroused admiration, but also envy. Moreover, he was a controversial character. Nostradamus confessed that his predictions have a scientific fundament. He claimed that he managed to predict the future by calculating the position of the stars and planets towards the earth and other astral bodies. How Nostradamus died Nostradamus even predicted his death: ‘Next to the bench and bed, I will be found dead’. After he announced, one evening, that he will not survive the night, he died of a gout episode and was found dead the following morning, next to his worktable

 

Feel free to publish a summary of this article (in English or translated into another language) along with a link to the full piece wisehoroscope.org/nostradamus-2021/

52 Weeks Project

 

In most cases, street art is only temporary. But sometimes you'd hope it was forever. The big answer and solution to this is re-activation...

Loaction: Amsterdam, Jordaan (exact location is hidden)

Coordinates: 52°22'40" N 4°52'56" E (rough estimation)

Reason: This space invader with ID AMS_04 has been deleted years ago. But in October 2015 a fan has re-activated this number 04 on exact the right location with exact the right type and color of mosaïc tiles. With the introduction of the online game application FlashInvaders some fans felt the urge to remake space invaders which have been removed from the walls. This is happening a lot in Paris (to date almost 50 space invaders have been 're-activated'), but also in Bastia, London, La Ciotat, Lyon, Basel, Bilbao, Rotterdam, San Diego and L.A.

Invasion of Amsterdam: Amsterdam was one of the first cities outside France which have been invaded. So far only one 'wave' (the one of 1999) with 26 space invaders and in total score of 360 points. As we speak 10 of them are visible including one 'reactivated', this AMS_04 (10 points).

FlashInvaders: At the moment: 7 490 Players / 234 588 Flashes / 8 413 570 Pts (23/02/2016 09h40)

All my photos of AMS_04:

AMS_04 (Wide shot, July 2005)

AMS_04 (Zoom in after re-activation, February 2016)

AMS_04 ("52-Weeks"-selfie, February 2016)

AMS_04 (Wide shot, King's Day April 2024)

Re-Activation of Amsterdam: Not all deleted space invaders are known by their location but still 11 of the deleted space invaders could be re-activated because data (location, shape, type and color of tiles used) is available. Could be an interesting job for 2016.

Weather: A clear and sunny but cold Winter morning, -2° C

Self-portrait technics: Joby portable gorillapod mounted on my bicycle with self-timer (10 seconds).

   

[Version française]

 

* Description. La nébuleuse de l'haltère (Dumbbell nebula). Je ne sais pas pourquoi je ne l'avais pas encore ciblée celle-là ! En fait c'est une cible assez facile, haute, lumineuse, assez grosse pour unNewton 150/750 ... Bref, voilà, c'est fait. Encore qu'à la première occasion, j'essaierai de rajouter beaucoup d'heures dessus pour mieux résoudre la dentelle extérieure.

 

La nébuleuse de l'haltère, Messier 27, qui se trouve dans la constellation du petit renard à 1250 AL de nous a été découverte par Charles Messier en 1764. Pour rappel, Charles Messier, comme beaucoup de ses confrères astronomes de l'époque, cherchait à répertorier les comètes. C'est John Herschel qui la nomma ainsi, lui même cherchant des comètes. M27 une nébuleuse planétaire, la première répertoriée en astronomie. Elle a une forme de 2 ellipses imbriquées pour sa partie brillante et est doublée à l'extérieur d'une corrole (la coque extérieure) qui apparaît sous la forme de fines dentelles rouges et bleues. A l'intérieur de la zone brillante, on voit des piliers rouge-orangés qui sont des régions de gaz fortement ionisés. Sa taille est d'environ 2.4 AL pour la partie brillante, 5.4 AL en intégrant la corrole extérieure. Elle a un age d'environ 15000 (estimations anciennes) à 25000 ans (dernière estimation).

Ca ne nous dit pas ce qu'est une nébuleuse planétaire ! Ce type d'objet n'a ... rien à voir avec les planètes ! Il s'agity en fait d'une nébuleuse en emission (c'est à dire dont les gaz emettent de la lumière sous l'effet d'une forte ionisation par une ou plusieurs étoiles environnantes) formée par une coquille de gaz en expension éjectée par une étoile en fin de vie en train de transiter de l'état de géante rouge à celui de naine blanche. C'est ce que fera notre propre soleil dans environ 5 milliards d'années. Ca a l'air calme vu d'ici mais c'est un environnement très violent ! Les gaz s'échappent en grande quantité à des vitesses de l'ordre de 30 km/s et est chauffé à mort par un rayonnement ultraviolet intense émis par une étoile dont la température atteint 100000°). L'étoile qui chauffe M27 est un peu plus lourde que notre soleil (1.491 masses solaires) et sa température de surface atteint les 136000°. On en la distingue pas sur la photo.

 

Je suis content d'avoir fait cette photo ; c'est beau une étoile qui pète !

 

* Matériel. Canon 1200D dp + Newton 150/750 + AZ-EQ5. Guidage Kepler 50/162 + Asi 120MM + RaspPi avec PhD2 Guiding

 

* EXIFS. 185 poses de 120s + DOF (45 darks / 30 offsets / 40 flats) à 1600 iso

 

* Traitement. Siril avec traitement HOO (incluant retrait de trame et de gradient linéaire sur la séquence), séparation starless/starmask, puis post-traitement sous GIMP

 

--------------------------------------------------------------------

 

[English version]

 

* Description. The Dumbbell Nebula (Messier 27). I don’t know why I hadn’t targeted this one yet! In fact, it’s quite an easy target: high, bright, and large enough for a 150/750 Newtonian telescope... Anyway, now I’ve done it. However, at the first opportunity, I’ll try to add more hours of exposure to better resolve the outer lace.

 

The Dumbbell Nebula, Messier 27, located in the constellation Vulpecula about 1,250 light years from us, was discovered by Charles Messier in 1764. As a reminder, Charles Messier, like many astronomers of his time, was focused on cataloging comets. John Herschel later named the nebula while also searching for comets. M27 is a planetary nebula, the first one recorded in astronomy. Its bright core has the shape of two overlapping ellipses, surrounded by an outer shell (the corolla) that appears as fine red and blue lace. Inside the bright area, reddish-orange pillars can be seen—regions of highly ionized gas. Its size is about 2.4 light years for the bright part, extending to 5.4 light years when including the outer corolla. Its age is estimated between 15,000 (older estimates) and 25,000 years (most recent estimate).

 

That doesn't explain what a planetary nebula is! This type of object has... nothing to do with planets! It’s actually an emission nebula (meaning the gas emits light due to intense ionization by one or more surrounding stars) formed by an expanding gas shell ejected by a star transitioning from the red giant phase to a white dwarf. This is what our own Sun will do in about 5 billion years. It may look calm from here, but it’s actually a very violent environment! Large amounts of gas are expelled at speeds around 30 km/s and are intensely heated by ultraviolet radiation emitted by a star whose temperature reaches 100,000°C. The star heating M27 is slightly heavier than our Sun (1.491 solar masses) and its surface temperature reaches 136,000°C. It’s not visible in the photo.

 

I’m happy I took this picture; it's beautiful when a star blows up!

 

* Equipment. Canon 1200D dslr + Newton 150/750 + AZ-EQ5. Guiding Kepler 50/162 + Asi 120MM + Raspberry Pi with PhD2 Guiding.

 

* EXIFs. 185 exposures of 120s + DOF (45 darks / 30 offsets / 40 flats) at 1600 ISO.

 

* Processing. Siril with HOO processing (including frame reduction and linear gradient removal on the sequence), starless/starmask separation, then post-processing in GIMP.

 

“The explorers are ready to leave Mars. The ship’s aft end is used as a launching platform for the escape to Earth.”

 

One of the many gorgeous Boeing/USAF depictions of Philip Bono’s vision for the exploration of Mars.

 

I believe the original printing of the photo to be circa 1960, which this may or may not be. The handwritten year on the verso may suggest it to be a “reissue”, possibly accounting for the less than crisp image. Or it may just represent the year it was (re?)released for press purposes. ¯\_(ツ)_/¯

 

There are several dulled blotches on the surface, fortunately only visible when viewed obliquely and at the appropriate angle with respect to the light source.

 

To me, the signature might be "Coffin". If so, maybe James L. Coffin? Per the ARCHIVES WEST website:

 

"James Coffin (1931-2007), came to Seattle to work for Boeing in 1962 after attending ArtCenter in Los Angeles and working as an art director in Washington, DC. In 1964, he started his own advertising business, later entering animation through title design. A self-taught character animator, he produced work for Weyerhauser, Boeing, AT&T, Farrell's, Pacific Northwest Bell, and Fred Meyer as well as interactive installations, educational films and rotoscoped chalk animation for the Seattle Opera’s 1972 premiere of “The Black Widow.” Coffin maintained an active studio through the 1970s, employing up to ten other artists at a time. Coffin also was noted for his course in 2-D animation offered to Seattle artists and filmmakers."

 

At:

 

archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:/80444/xv69714

 

Although the years of Boeing employment cited doesn't quite match up with my time estimation, it's still worthy of consideration.

 

Pertinent information & additional images, at David S. F. Portree’s superlative “No Shortage of Dreams” blog:

 

spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2015/09/the-martian-adven...

 

Finally:

 

I think all of the SDASM Bono/Boeing Mars glider images here on this image hosting service - of those that have their original photo ID visible - end with "R1". Likely/possibly being "Revision 1"?

Sure enough, when you compare my posted photos to the SDASM versions of the same, the markings on the wing of the glider are "USAF", along with the USAF roundel. The equivalent SDASM "R1" images bear the U. S. flag and "USA". It seems that the “R1” images were "demilitarized".

One of the earliest deities in recorded human culture was the goddess of fire and the hearth, Hestia. Fires were the focus of an emerging species on its way to planet-wide hegemony. We circled round them in the night as a way to protect ourselves, as much psychologically as well as physically from the vast, unknown all around us in the dark. From the inconceivable sky above to the utter darknesses of night.

 

Around them we created our relationships, learned to talk, and very importantly ... tell stories, create the mythologies that took larger principles than words could form and gave them discernible shapes in metaphors. Around fires, over the ages, we shared our days, laughed and kept our cultures going by oral transmission. Shamans used them to make medicines, go into visionary trances and get glimpses of the "other side".

 

In our time we still welcome the fire in our homes as locus for family bonding. I was lucky enough to grow up in a house that had a working fireplace. We also love them outdoors. Bonfires and campfires are still focal points around which we gather. They are fundamental, primordial and core events for our humanity. You often find people more likely to be honest, even revelatory, around fires. Some of the greatest learnings and communions with other people happen around them.

 

The last of this series, dedicated to my late friend and master of the campfire, Paul Thomson, celebrates the life of a truly great soul, brilliant beyond all estimation and a man who's taciturn nature nevertheless revealed a depth and care for any who could go beyond the barrage of common wordiness. We miss you, Paul. The great hole in our lives is filled with the plenum silence of which you were, indeed, a master. "How I wish, how I wish you were here".

 

Music Link: David Gilmour, "Wish You Were Here" from his DVD, "David Gilmour In Concert" - live at the Albert Hall. Gilmour and friends do Pink Floyd's classic song of which he was co-writer. I bring the "Voice of Fire" series to a close with the one song, among the many that we loved so much and played more, perhaps, than any other. I've played and sang "WYWH" probably more than any other. Pink Floyd were our ultimate band. We would drive hundreds of miles to see them. The greatest concert of our lives was the now-legendary concert at the old Cleveland Stadium in June of 1977. No song better encapsulates and relays the history and depth of feeling behind this series. The second link is to the original Pink Floyd version.

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=3j8mr-gcgoI

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=217JOBWTolg

 

ToR Nov 3, 2013.

 

View Large on Black.

The Elbphilharmonie, the new concert hall in Hamburg, was suposed to open in 2010 with costs of approximate 70 Mio. Euros. Now it is 2013, the work on the building will still take a couple of years and the last estimation on the costs are about 700 Mio. Euros....

That's why these waves are really expensive!

 

© All rights reserved.

Don't use this picture without my permission.

You just need to imagine first what you want to shoot and then you need to place the required articles accordingly around the subject. For example in case of water droplets; broadly there would be three possibilities, drop just collapsed, about to touch the surface and de-bounce. It is bit difficult to predict these three conditions specifically when viewing through view finder and then result may be miss timed and blurred shots. To avoid this following procedure may be tried out:

 

1. Place a water pan on level of your camera which must me mounted on tripod.

2. Place a tiny steady object such as nail onto the place of your interest. May be center point of the water pan!

3. Set your camera with working distance allowed by macro lens.

4. Focus the nail as sharp as possible.

5. Set shutter speed faster around 1/200 to 1/300 to freeze the droplets.

6. Set aperture as large as possible, F/5 and 1.200 may give good results.

7. WB=Auto and ISO=100 may give desired results.

8. Once the object is well focused, replace it with a controlled water stream

9. Look this water stream through view finder and ensure whether is in focus or not.

10. Do slight adjustments in working distance if required to get the sharp picture.

11. Reduce down the speed of water stream up till one drop/seconds.

12. Wait and understand for the duration between two consecutive drops and once acclimatize with the frequency of dropping droplets, release the shutter with some estimation.

13. Just collapsed, about to touch the surface and de-bouncing drops can be frozen based upon synchronization of shutter release timing and some time estimation of drops.

 

Your setup is ready to produce some one of the fantastic shots. You may keep some colorful objects in the back ground to achieve diffused colorful DOF.

 

All the best.

 

Strong wind this morning forced the high tide up higher than predicted, around 3 feet higher in my estimation. Thus covering the road to the coal barn @ Thornham

Karivoro is the Silver Back of Kwitunda group (Virunga National Park in Rwanda).

This guy is 20 years old.

In a Gorilla group we can find : Babies under a year;

Juvenile 1 to 5; Sub-adult 6 to 8; 9 to 12 they are Black Back and after, they are Silver Back.

But males can stay in a group as secondary silver back even if they are non-dominant. Sex is only for the dominant one. Cruel law in the jungle !!!

 

The last estimation that happened in 2014 took an inventory of 880 Mountain Gorillas. About 350 in Rwanda side, 450 in Uganda and less than a hundred in Congo where they are always threatened.

But Uganda and Rwanda keepers are actually establishing a new inventory and as they had enough babies, they think that the number of Wild Mountain Gorillas is increased. So, it's a little spark of optimism in a stupid world.

9.10.2013 - 50 anni dalla tragedia

 

Speciale 50 anni - La Stampa

 

Vajont è il nome del torrente che scorre nella valle di Erto e Casso per confluire nel Piave, davanti a Longarone e a Castellavazzo, in provincia di Belluno (Italia).

 

La storia di queste comunità venne sconvolta dalla costruzione della diga del Vajont, che determinò la frana del monte Toc nel lago artificiale. La sera del 9 ottobre 1963 si elevò un immane ondata, che seminò ovunque morte e desolazione.

  

La stima più attendibile è, a tutt'oggi, di 1910 vittime.

 

Sono stati commessi tre fondamentali errori umani che hanno portato alla strage: l'aver costruito la diga in una valle non idonea sotto il profilo geologico; l'aver innalzato la quota del lago artificiale oltre i margini di sicurezza; il non aver dato l'allarme la sera del 9 ottobre per attivare l'evacuazione in massa delle popolazioni residenti nelle zone a rischio di inondazione.

  

Fu aperta un'inchiesta giudiziaria. Il processo venne celebrato nelle sue tre fasi dal 25 novembre 1968 al 25 marzo 1971 e si concluse con il riconoscimento di responsabilità penale per la previdibilità di inondazione e di frana e per gli omicidi colposi plurimi.

  

Ora Longarone ed i paesi colpiti sono stati ricostruiti.

 

La zona in cui si è verificato l'evento catastrofico continua a parlare alla coscienza di quanti la visitano attraverso la lezione, quanto mai attuale, che da esso si può apprendere.

 

(français)

 

Le Vajont est le torrent qui se coule dans la vallée de Erto et Casso pour confluer dans le fleuve Piave, face à Longarone et Castellavazzo, qui se trouvent en province de Belluno (en Italie).

 

L’histoire de cette communauté a été ravagée par la construction du barrage du Vajont qui a provoqué l’éboulement du Mont Toc dans le lac artificiel. Le soir du 9 Octobre 1963, s’éleva une énorme vague qui sema partout, mort et désolation. L’estimation la plus digne de foi est, dès nos jours, de 1910 victimes.

 

On a commis trois fautes humaines fondamentaux qui ont amené au carnage:

 

On a construit le barrage dans une vallée pas appropriée du point de vue géologique;

 

on a haussé le niveau de l’eau du lac artificiel au- delà de marges de sûreté ;

 

le soir du 9 Octobre, on n’a pas donné l’alerte afin de permettre l’évacuation des populations résidantes dans toutes les zones à risque d’inondation.

 

Une enquête judiciaire fût ouverte. Le procès fût instruit en trois phases, du 25 Novembre 1968 au 25 Mars 1971 et se conclût avec la reconnaissance de responsabilité pénale: l’inondation et l’éboulement étaient prévisibles donc on se trouve face à des homicides par imprudence pluraux.

 

Dès nos jours on a reconstruit Longarone et les autres villes frappées de nouveau.

 

Là où la catastrophe arriva tout témoigne encore, jour après jour, la leçon qu’on peut apprendre.

 

(www.vajont.net)

Year: 1999

Make: Infiniti

Model: G20

VIN: JNKCP11A4XT001925

Mileage: 343,053 km (CarFax calculated)

Other info: 2.0L 4Cyl

Last service 03/04/2016 (which explains the abdsurd mileage estimation)

The rumor of imminent demise for the C40’s of northern Minnesota has been the topic of conversation for over a year now with the arrival of the 3300 series DC to AC rebuilds. While many of he fleet have been retired and sent off for disposition many more still remain active, for how long is anyone’s guess but with winter coming on and the 3300’s finally beginning to receive their straight air components for ore service it’s a fair estimation that time is running low… On a seasonably mild December morning 2026 hauls ass south with an empty limestone train making every bit of the 50 per track speed. Catch ‘em while you can…

The day my cat was born today. 2 June 2000, came to the world. in fact we're so predictable. my cats have received from the street. When we brought the baby home. estimate as we believe was born in June 2. My cat is now 9 years old. and slow, even if the disease is going to think of the good. My cat breast cancer. Please pray. pray for my cat. My cat is the power of prayer. Happy birthday to you Tom. I love you so much.

 

Le jour où mon chat est né aujourd'hui. 2 Juin 2000, est venu au monde. en fait, nous sommes tellement prévisibles. mes chats ont reçu de la rue. Lorsque nous avons mis le bébé à domicile. estimation que nous croyons est née en Juin 2. Mon chat est maintenant âgé de 9 ans. et lente, même si la maladie est en cours de penser du bien. Mon chat le cancer du sein. S'il vous plaît, priez. prier pour mon chat. Mon chat est le pouvoir de la prière. Joyeux anniversaire à vous tom. je t'aime tant.

 

Il giorno in cui il mio gatto è nato oggi. 2 giugno 2000, è venuto al mondo. in realtà siamo così prevedibile. i miei gatti hanno ricevuto dalla strada. Quando abbiamo portato il bambino a casa. stima in quanto riteniamo che è nato nel giugno del 2. Il mio gatto è ora di 9 anni. e lento, anche se la malattia è in corso a pensare bene. Il mio gatto il cancro al seno. Si prega di pregare. pregare per il mio gatto. Il mio gatto è il potere della preghiera. Buon compleanno a voi tom. ti amo tanto.

 

The Day..! My Cat Was Born Today ©

 

www.myspace.com/yusufyusuf85

 

FACEBOOK GROUP

There were, by my estimation, seven thousand people at the local Climate Strike march here in St John's today. Most of the attendees were well under the age of twenty.

 

At one point we were asked to take out our cell phones and send an email to the provincial premier. And several thousand people did so. Thus this picture, looking back through the crowd behind me.

 

Yay for the Millennials and the Gen Z's.

A warrant of arrest has been issued against "Team Forge" Leader Maverick Brand after he brutalized a gang of villains and hijacked their base. According to our intel, he is planning to use the equipment inside the base to take control of part of the system. The scope of his resources is unknown.

 

His current location is the gas giant Hefeus, but the full extent of the threat his machinations impose could be more significant. Further estimations are required.

 

Maverick Brand is equipped with heat-resistant plate armor, a throwable bulletproof shield and a fire-imbued Flamberge sword. Armor-piercing ammunition and electricity-based weaponry may be viable strategies to take him down. Proceed with caution.

 

Great Kanohi Azuhi by Galva, Flamberge model edited by me

Now this took a long, long, long time, having to get every individual piece of the World Trade Center and the surrounding city, together with people, cars, boats, even the tiniest pebble!

 

But I feel it was worth the three-weeks of on/off effort!

 

Among the most iconic buildings in all of history, the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center stood for 28 years as symbols of many things, economic might, human innovation, American pride, and icons of New York. But their short period in existence was brought to an abrupt end on September 11th, 2001, where the two tallest buildings in the city of New York were left seething in peril, and reduced to smouldering rubble within two hours, on a day when evil truly showed its ugliest face, average citizens became heroes, and victims were made of us all.

 

Considerations for a 'World Trade Center' went back to the end of World War II in 1945, where it was intended to create a single centre for the major shipping companies of New York and the divisional offices of large foreign shipping firms to concentrate their activity to one place. However, the rise of the aviation industry and the decline of the traditional shipping companies in the face of rationalisation following developments such as the Shipping Container over the previous Box n' Crate system made it so that there were barely enough of these firms left to justify such a project. The idea wouldn't resurface again until the early 1960's, where after a decade of production and progress in the American economy, the larger number of firms required greater office space in New York's financial district in Lower Manhattan. Enter director of the Port Authority of New York & New Jersey, Austin J. Tobin, and newly elected New Jersey Governor Richard J. Hughes, who, together, were responsible for the final location of the World Trade Center.

 

Original plans from 1961 would have placed the World Trade Center on the former dockyards along the East River, what is today the historic South Street Dockyard. Tobin was convinced by Hughes to include the World Trade Center as part of a package deal to improve the services of the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad, an underground subway line that connected New Jersey to its terminus in Lower Manhattan. Built in 1909, the railroad was in a dire state of disrepair, and passenger numbers had dropped dramatically. Hughes felt that a major stimulus for the railroad's regrowth would be its direct connection to the new World Trade Center project, therefore solving two problems in one and being mutually beneficial to New York and New Jersey. Thus a 16 acre site of old low-rise buildings on the shores of the Hudson known as 'Radio Row' were chosen as the site of the new complex.

 

Design of the World Trade Center was handed to American-born Japanese architect, Minoru Yamasaki, who envisaged the World Trade Center as not just a simple collection of buildings, but a work of art. Taking design cues from the Piazza san Marco in Venice, he saw the WTC buildings surrounding a large plaza within which would be sculptures, artistic pieces and fountains, crowned by 'The Sphere', a Bronze sculpture stood in the middle of a large fountain at the centre of the Plaza that would depict World Trade and Peace. The commission was given to German sculptor Fritz Koenig, who designed and built it in his workshop in Germany before having it shipped to the WTC in 1971, where, upon its plinth, it would do a full rotation every 24 hours. The pièce de résistance however would be the two 1,360ft tall, 110 storey Twin Towers that would stand at a staggered angle to one another along the site's western side closest to the Hudson and the elevated West Side Highway. Yamasaki's original plan called for the towers to be 80 stories tall, but to meet the Port Authority's requirement for 10,000,000 square feet of office space, the buildings would each have to be 110 stories tall.

 

Yamasaki's design for the World Trade Center, unveiled to the public on January 18th, 1964, called for a square plan approximately 208ft in dimension on each side. The buildings were designed with narrow office windows 18in wide, which reflected Yamasaki's fear of heights as well as his desire to make building occupants feel secure. Yamasaki's design included building facades sheathed in aluminium-alloy. The result of this aluminium cladding was a translucent effect, with the two towers changing colours with the times of the day from a vibrant silver at midday, to a magnificent orange and pink in the evening or at sunrise.

 

Another problem the WTC faced were elevators, as with the greater height of the building, more elevators were required to serve it, taking up more floor space. The result was an ingenious new method involving 'Sky-Lobbies', a concept first put into practice on the John Hancock Center in Chicago. The idea was similar to that of trains on the New York Subway, with limited-stop express elevators running the entire length of the towers, whilst local elevators served individual floors or alternate floors. Sky-Lobbies were located on the 44th and 78th floors, and their implementation enabled the elevators to be used efficiently, increasing the amount of usable space on each floor from 62 to 75 percent by reducing the number of elevator shafts. Altogether, the World Trade Center had 95 express and local elevators.

 

The tower design consisted of a tube-frame, introduced by Fazlur Khan, and was a comparatively new one, done primarily to increase the amount of floor space when compared to the traditional design of evenly spaced steel columns in a stacked-box approach, as was implemented on the Empire State Building. The World Trade Center towers used high-strength, load-bearing perimeter steel columns called Vierendeel trusses that were spaced closely together to form a strong, rigid wall structure, supporting virtually all lateral loads such as wind loads, and sharing the gravity load with the core columns. The perimeter structure containing 59 columns per side was constructed with extensive use of prefabricated modular pieces, each consisting of three columns, three stories tall, connected by spandrel plates. The spandrel plates were welded to the columns to create the modular pieces off-site at fabrication shops, and were shipped to New York by train.

 

The core of the towers housed the elevator and utility shafts, restrooms, three stairwells, and other support spaces. The core of each tower had a rectangular area 87 by 135ft and contained 47 steel columns running from the bedrock to the top of the tower. The large, column-free space between the perimeter and core was bridged by prefabricated floor trusses. The floors supported their own weight as well as live loads, providing lateral stability to the exterior walls and distributing wind loads among the exterior walls. The floors consisted of 4in thick lightweight concrete slabs laid on a fluted steel deck. This rule was repeated for every floor with the exception of the 107th floor, which were fitted with Hat trusses to support a tall communications antenna. Both towers could have been fitted with antennas, but it was only ever implemented on the North Tower. The truss system consisted of six trusses along the long axis of the core and four along the short axis. This truss system allowed some load redistribution between the perimeter and core columns and supported the transmission tower.

 

Approval for the WTC was given in 1965, and properties on Radio Row were acquired by the Port Authority the same year. By 1966, Radio Row had been largely demolished and construction began on the World Trade Center towers. Before construction of the towers could begin though, the biggest issue that had to be confronted were the forces of nature, that being the Hudson only a few hundred feet away. Constructing the world's tallest buildings on a muddy marsh could have been likened to a silly man building his house upon the sand, it just couldn't work. As such, an innovative new concrete coffer dam was sunk along the West Side Highway and under the base of what would become the future Twin Towers in an oblong structure known as the Bathtub. Sunk to bedrock, the Bathtub held moisture in the surrounding soil and ground away from where the tower's foundations would be sunk, thus providing engineers with the equivalent of building a conventional skyscraper anywhere else into regular bedrock. With this problem sorted, construction began on the site.

 

The North Tower rose first between 1967 and 1970, followed closely by the South Tower between 1968 and 1971. The North Tower was topped out on December 23rd, 1970, proclaiming it officially as the tallest building in the world, toppling the Empire State Building from the title after its 37 year reign. The North Tower rose to 1,368ft, whilst the South Tower rose to 1,362ft, and would retain the title until the Sears Tower was topped out in 1973 at a height of 1,450ft. In addition to the Twin Towers, a set of smaller buildings surrounding the plaza were also constructed between 1970 and 1974, these being WTC 4, 5 and 6. WTC 4 and WTC 5 were 9-storeys tall, with WTC 4 being home to the largest Trading Floor in New York, whilst WTC 6 was 8-storeys tall and housed the U.S. Customhouse.

 

In addition to the WTC, the Hudson Railroad was given major modifications as well in the form of new trains and a refurbished 4-track station underneath the Plaza, accessible via WTC 5. The Hudson Railroad came under the ownership of the Port Authority, and was subsequently renamed the Port Authority Trans Hudson line, or PATH. Beneath the plaza too was an enormous shopping centre that stretched the entire complex and was, at the time, Manhattan's largest indoor shopping mall.

 

The official opening ceremony of the towers took place on April 4th, 1973, although the structures had yet to be completely finished, with tenants taking up occupancy on the lower, completed floors during the first year before final completion of the towers in 1975. 1975 saw the opening of the Top of the World Observatory, an observation deck located on the roof of the South Tower, which, until recently, held the title as the world's highest outdoor observation deck. This was joined by the opening of the North Tower's restaurant on the 106th and 107th floor, the Windows on the World and the Greatest Bar on Earth, which for years was one of the most exclusive and popular restaurants in the United States.

 

At first, the World Trade Center was not looked on favourably, with architectural criticism being made against the angular design of the Twin Towers and the 'Superblock' style of the WTC Plaza, with many of the original streets dating back as far as the mid-18th Century being truncated to make space for the site. The towers were also seen as huge 'White Elephants', primarily due to the stagnation of the economic market in the early 1970's which meant that barely any tenants initially moved into the site's 10,000,000 square feet of office space.

 

However, one person who looked on the towers favourably was Philippe Petit, a French high-wire artist who saw the Twin Towers in a similar fashion to two poles, just without a wire strung between them. Seeing them originally in a promotional pamphlet before their construction in the 1960's, he devised a scheme to sneak into the unfinished towers and string a wire between them so he could perform the greatest high-wire act in history. On the night of August 6th, 1974, he and several friends snuck into the towers disguised as construction workers, and spent the night setting up the next morning's act. Using a Bow & Arrow, they fired a line across the 200ft void between the Twin Towers, and after hours of securing and preparation, Petit stepped out onto the wire at around 7am as New Yorkers began their commute to work. Over the course of the next 45 minutes, Petit stunned the city and indeed the world as he balanced on a wire only a couple of inches across, 1,360ft above the ground, sitting and lying down on it, gesturing to the waiting policemen on either tower, and even stopping for a cigarette break. Upon returning to the roof of one of the towers, he was promptly arrested and sentenced to performing for children in Central Park for trespassing, and given a lifetime pass to the observation deck atop the South Tower by the Port Authority. Petit's act has been seen as making these looming towers seem much more human, and the later popularity of these buildings was due largely in part to his incredible feat.

 

Trouble struck however in 1975 when a fire caused by a faulty telephone switchboard ravaged the 11th floor of the North Tower for several hours, though no permanent damage was caused. But even before the Twin Towers had been finished they were quickly associated with fire, most prominently by the movie, and books it was based off, 'Towering Inferno', which depicted a hi-rise blaze in the fictional Glass Tower in San Francisco. In one of the books the movie was based off of, the Glass Inferno, the Glass Tower was situated adjacent to the World Trade Center, and a Breeches Buoy was suspended between the Glass Tower and the North Tower to rescue people from the disaster. All of these works were inspired by the construction of the World Trade Center, the first in a short spree of tall building construction, but with such a tragic and ironic end.

 

Nevertheless, the Twin Towers did live a charmed life throughout the remainder of the 1970's and 80's, and quickly became New York icons, appearing in movies, adverts, TV Shows, Music Videos and other forms of media. King Kong climbed them in the 1976 adaption of the legendary story, Kurt Russell lands his glider atop the North Tower in the 1981 dystopian future thriller Escape from New York, they were atomised in 1996’s Independence Day, yet, oddly enough, were the only things left standing, as they were in 1998’s Deep Impact, when they were swamped by a giant tidal wave following the impact of an asteroid. They were turned to Swiss Cheese in that eternal cheesefest known as 1998’s Armageddon, crashed into by a giant chunk of rock in another cheesefest trying to pass itself off as a good movie, Meteor, and provided the climactic ending to yet another notable cheesefest, Mazes and Monsters, where Tom Hanks attempts to fling himself from the roof of the South Tower thinking he'd ascend to some questionable plot device known as the 'Great Hall', although I'd like to have seen him get past the suicide fence between the observation deck and the edge of the building!

 

The WTC was also notable for many extreme events, including two climbs, the first in 1977 by George Willing, who scaled the South Tower, and the second by Dan Goodwin in 1983, who climbed the North Tower. In 1984, aspiring artist Joanna Gilman Hyde painted a 10,000 square foot painting known as the 'Self-Organizing Galaxy' on the roof of 5 World Trade Center, a piece that could only be seen and appreciated from the Twin Towers that loomed over it. The towers were also famous for Base Jumpers, who would manage to somehow sneak their way onto the roof of either building, usually the South Tower, and leap off with a parachute, huddling themselves into a waiting car in Battery Park before they could be arrested and hauled off by the NYPD for trespassing and reckless indulgence.

 

In 1978, the North Tower was fitted with a 598ft Television Antenna, which quickly became a home for a majority of New York's TV and Radio stations with its unobstructed line of sight to pretty much everywhere in the surrounding Tri-State area. In 1981 and 1987, the WTC was joined by two other buildings. The first was World Trade Center 3, also known as the Vista Hotel, a 22-storey structure built between the Twin Towers and the West Side Highway. The first hotel to open in Lower Manhattan since 1897, the Vista was one of the most luxury hotels in the city, providing guests with a myriad of restaurants, a top-floor Gym with views of the Hudson, direct access to the World Trade Center and later World Financial Center, as well as its proximity to Wall Street and the banks of Lower Manhattan. WTC 3 was the last building of the original proposal to be built, but had been modified from its original 9-storey design to increase capacity. The final addition to the World Trade Center was WTC 7, a 47-storey structure built between 1984 and 1987 to the north of the complex above a ConEd Substation. The tower was largely home to Salomon Brothers, which resulted in the building being affectionately dubbed the Salomon Brothers building.

 

However, disaster struck on February 26th, 1993, when a truck bomb planted by Islamic extremist, Ramsi Yousif, exploded in the underground parking lot beneath the North Tower. Yousif's intention was to destroy the supporting foundations of the tower so as to cause it to fall onto its twin. Thankfully this didn't occur, but 6 people were killed in the blast and over 1,000 injured, and it proved to the United States that it was now vulnerable to international terrorism. The Twin Towers were reopened in 20 days, but the Vista Hotel, later bought by Marriott, wouldn't reopen until 1994 after extensive renovation and a new front entrance. At the same time, evacuation and safety features in the towers were updated heavily. A major setback of the 1993 attack was the poorly implemented safety measures and evacuation procedures, with many unsure of where to go or what to do as they huddled into the tightly packed, smoke filled stairwells, some eventually being rescued by helicopter from the roof, whilst others had to endure hours in the dark of the powerless towers before they were led down by firefighters.

 

In 1999, the Plaza of the World Trade Center was rebuilt and repaved after years of wear and tear, and to rectify a common complaint about the wind that would rush across the open space, making it undesirable to be stood right in the centre. The floor was, as mentioned, repaved, benches were added as well as a small garden around the central fountain, and much greater use was made of the Plaza, including market stalls, outdoor rock concerts, charity events and other community events that gave the WTC a greater human feel. Other plans included an upgrade to the PATH station that would be completed by 2003, and a renovation of the Observation Deck for the 2002 Summer Season.

 

All this however was brought to an abrupt and tragic end on September 11th, 2001, when American Airlines Flight 11, a Boeing 767 hijacked by terrorists, was flown deliberately into the North Tower at 8:46am between the 93rd and 99th floors. 17 minutes later, United Airlines Flight 175, another Boeing 767, was flown into the South Tower between the 78th and 81st floors, with thousands trapped in both towers above the impact zones.

 

Confusion reigned as the towers burned, with people inside not knowing what had happened a few floors above or below them as the rest of the world watched in horror. In the North Tower, all stairwells through the impact zone had been destroyed, and for the estimated 1,300 people above, every last one of them would die, either through effects of the smoke, fire, the eventual collapse of the tower, or a tragic final option, where an estimated 200 people jumped the half-mile drop to their deaths on the street below, their last few moments immortalised in videos and pictures. The desperation of their situation was relayed through the final phone calls and emails from those trapped above. In the South Tower, although PA systems stated that workers should not evacuate prior to the impact of Flight 175, many had left the building by the time it did, although an estimated 630 remained above the flames after the crash. Unlike the North Tower, one stairwell remained accessible, but only 18 people were able to escape past this point from above. Many sought passage to the roof of either tower hoping for rescue by helicopter, but the doors to the roof were locked. In any case, the NYPD Aviation Units circling the stricken towers would not have been able to rescue people, the sea of antennas on the North Tower roof inhibiting landing, whilst the South Tower's roof was engulfed in smoke from its Twin.

 

At 9:59am, the unthinkable happened when after burning for 56 minutes, the South Tower of the World Trade Center collapsed. Although many reasons for such a catastrophic failure have circulated, and with many conspiracy theorists declaring that the collapse was done by way of controlled demolition, the generally accepted reason is that a mixture of the damage sustained, together with heavy fire and extreme heat, resulted in the floor trusses separating from the core and perimeter walls, resulting in the weight of the floors above no longer being sustained and the tower falling into itself. The top 35 floors of the structure above the crash site toppled towards the East River before crashing downwards into the rest of the building, killing hundreds both inside and outside. The North Tower followed suit at 10:28am, sinking straight downwards into itself, killing hundreds more in the chaos that ensued.

 

The results of both the crashes and the collapse of the towers was beyond estimation. 2,753 people died at the World Trade Center that day, together with 125 at the Pentagon in Washington, and 265 aboard the four planes hijacked, a total of 2,996. The remainder of the World Trade Center was destroyed or extensively damaged by the collapse of the Twin Towers. The Marriott WTC was split in half by the South Tower before its remains were crushed by the North Tower. WTC 4 was almost completely crushed, and WTC 6 had a hole burrowed into the basement. WTC 7 suffered heavy damage to its southern face, and after burning for hours it collapsed later that day at 5:20pm. The only WTC building to escape largely intact was WTC 5, furthest from the Twin Towers, with books in the Borders bookshop on the ground floor still sat on their shelves. The office floors above however were gutted by fire and damaged beyond repair. Only 18 people were dragged alive from the rubble of the Twin Towers, and after a majority of the bodies had been retrieved from the site, the remaining buildings were levelled in 2002.

 

A victory though from September 11th is that of the 17,000 people working in the towers at the time of the attacks, the best part of 14,000 were evacuated before they collapsed, thanks to the incredibly bravery of the rescue workers from the FDNY, the Port Authority and the NYPD who valiantly laid down their lives to save others. In total, 343 Firefighters, 71 law enforcement officers including 23 members of the New York City Police Department (NYPD), 37 members of the Port Authority Police Department (PAPD), five members of the New York State Office of Tax Enforcement (OTE), three officers of the New York State Office of Court Administration (OCA), one Fire Marshall of the New York City Fire Department (FDNY) who have sworn law enforcement powers (and was also among the 343 FDNY members killed), one member of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and one member of the United States Secret Service (USSS), were killed, many of whom were in the North Tower, and didn't receive the evacuation order after the collapse of the South Tower due to radio problems.

 

But it wasn't just members of the emergency services who became heroes, as ordinary people plunged into disaster brought forward their strength and courage to save as many as they could themselves. These included Frank de Martini, from his office on the 88th floor of the North Tower, worked his way up to the impact zone of Flight 11 to rescue people trapped on the floors immediately below. Eventually, he was able to save over 70 people before he tragically lost his life in the collapse of the tower, his last reported location being on the 78th floor helping someone escape an elevator. Another was Rick Rescorla, originally from Hayle in Cornwall and a hero of the Vietnam War, who, aside from predicting both attacks on the World Trade Center, was able to safely evacuate 2,700 employees from the South Tower, motivating them and maintaining their morale by singing old British songs such as 'Men of Harlech', before he too was killed in the collapse of the South Tower, he being last reported on the 10th floor climbing back up to rescue others. But their tales were just some of many instances where humble office workers became true heroes, putting caution aside to save those in desperate need. Even a pair of Guide Dogs became heroes, rescuing their blind owners by leading them down hundreds of flights of stairs to safety.

 

There were also tales of survival that seemed to defy belief. George Sleigh, a British manager of technical consistency at the American Bureau of Shipping on the 91st floor of the North Tower, was only 25ft below where Flight 11 struck, and would be one of only a handful of people to climb down almost the entire height of the building and survive. Venessa Lawrence, a British artist, had quite literally stepped from an elevator on the 91st floor as Flight 11 struck, the car she had exited tumbling down into the dark void as explosions and fire ravaged the floors above. Stanley Praimnath is quite possibly the luckiest, his office on the 81st floor of the South Tower taking a direct hit by United Airlines Flight 175, the wing of which was lodged in his door on the other side of his office. He would eventually be rescued by Brian Clark from the 84th floor, and the pair would escape the South Tower with minutes to spare. Of course there was also the last survivor to be pulled free from the rubble of the World Trade Center, that being Genelle Guzman-McMillan, who was pinned under smouldering concrete and steel debris for 27 hours before being rescued, the last of 18 people.

 

For years the World Trade Center sat in a state of limbo, an empty lot of concrete foundations with no clear goal in mind. An opinion poll in 2002 among New Yorkers came to a vote of 82% in favour of rebuilding the Twin Towers as they were. Instead, developers came to the conclusion that the new World Trade Center would consist of several towers, topped by what was formerly known as the Freedom Tower at 1,776ft.

 

Even with the Twin Towers gone and with no sign of them ever returning, we can still look back upon them warmly, knowing that for 28 years they did grace the skyline of Manhattan and left imprints on the hearts of so many. Although most recognize their image with their destruction, and indeed one must never forget the tragedy that befell the Towers, the City and the World that day, myself and many others prefer to remember their lives before that dreadful day in 2001. I've never drawn a picture of the World Trade Center on fire or collapsing because, as my brother once exceptionally put it, it shows the towers in pain, suffering at the hands of evil people who see nothing but destruction in everything they do, people who can't make things, only break things, and it's up to us as the people who make things to make things right!

 

Sorry for the lengthy description, but summing up the history of these mighty buildings sadly can't be done in one sentence!

I got ONE chance today.

 

The LONG version: Camera and tripod are probably 10 feet from the bottom of the escalator. I realize that to take this photo, I'll have to take the escalator up, turn around, wait for a "clear" escalator (the mall was busier than I expected for a Thursday early afternoon) and then slowly ride down. By my own estimations, this left my camera (and two additional lens') unmanned for over 90 seconds. This was a really scary idea.

So I'm standing there trying to get up the nerve to walk away from the most valuable thing I own in a VERY open, VERY populated place when a security guard approaches me and tells me I can't take a photo in the mall. I explain that we don't have a problem then because I haven't taken one... yet. He repeats himself and continues to just stand there, arms folded, face all smirky.

I have a problem with authority. I have since I was little. So I'm not going to pack up my equipment with some stranger standing over me flexing his "authority". So the game of chicken begins. We're both just standing there. He's looking at me, I'm looking at the escalator. He's occasionally repeating himself. (This goes on for at least 3, maybe 4 minutes).

Finally I ask him if he'll guard my stuff while I run up the down escalator and take a photo.

 

He agrees.

 

People. I'll never ever understand them.

photo rights reserved by B℮n

 

Uthai Thani is a province in the northwest of Thailand. It is a region known for its natural beauty, historical sites and cultural heritage. One of the notable features of Uthai Thani is the presence of several national parks that protect the beautiful flora and fauna of the region. Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary: This is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the largest protected areas in Thailand. It is home to a diverse flora and fauna, including rare and endangered species such as the Indochinese tiger, Asian elephant and Malayan bear. Tum Chang Cave National Park is a national park known for its impressive limestone caves and formations. These national parks in Uthai Thani offer a range of activities including trekking, bird watching and admiring Thailand's natural beauty. An impressive and majestic tree, which is native especially to this part of Thailand, is Tualang tree, scientifically known as Koompassia excelsa. The Tualang tree is known for its exceptionally tall height. The Tualang tree often plays a crucial role in the ecosystem, as it provides an important source of food and shelter for various animals, including honey bees. Beekeepers sometimes place beehives high in the branches of the Tualang tree to promote the production of Tualang honey, which is considered one of the most unique and high-quality honeys. The conservation and protection of such trees is often of great importance for maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance in the region.

 

There is a giant Tualang tree (Koompassia excelsa) found east of Ban Rai in Uthai Thani province. This impressive Tualang is located on private property in the middle of a forest, but the owner is happy to welcome visitors. On one side of the tree are claw marks from a bear that tried to knock down a honey bee nest. The local population, descendants of Laotian settlers brought here two hundred years ago during conflicts with Burma, inhabit this area. The circumference of the tree is approximately 97 meters, including the buttress roots that reach from branches to the ground to support the tree. The age of the tree is estimated at 400 years, and its height exceeds 50 meters. This majestic tree sprang up around the year 1621. Visitors are encouraged to touch and feel the ancient tree. The skin of the tree still feels very healthy and vibrant. Let's hope this giant tree continues to thrive forever. It is truly a wonderful spectacle.

 

Uthai Thani is een provincie in het noordwesten van Thailand. Eén van de opmerkelijke kenmerken van Uthai Thani is de aanwezigheid van diverse nationale parken die de prachtige flora en fauna van de regio beschermen. Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary: Dit is een UNESCO-werelderfgoed en één van de grootste beschermde gebieden in Thailand. Het herbergt een diverse flora en fauna, waaronder zeldzame en bedreigde diersoorten zoals de Indochinese tijger, Aziatische olifant en Maleise beer. Een indrukwekkende en majestueuze boom, die inheems is met name in dit deel van Thailand, is Tualang-boom. Deze boom staat bekend om zijn buitengewoon grote hoogte. De Tualang-boom speelt vaak een cruciale rol in het ecosysteem, omdat het een belangrijke bron van voedsel en onderdak biedt aan verschillende dieren, waaronder honingbijen. Het behoud en de bescherming van dergelijke bomen zijn vaak van groot belang voor het behoud van biodiversiteit en ecologisch evenwicht in de regio. Er is een gigantische Tualang-boom te vinden ten oosten van Ban Rai in de provincie Uthai Thani. Deze indrukwekkende Tualang bevindt zich op privéterrein midden in een bos, maar de eigenaar verwelkomt graag bezoekers. Aan de ene kant van de boom zijn klauwafdrukken te zien van een beer die probeerde een honingbijennest omver te werpen. Bijenhouders plaatsen soms bijenkorven hoog in de takken van de Tualang-boom om de productie van Tualang-honing te bevorderen, die wordt beschouwd als één van de meest unieke en hoogwaardige honingsoorten. De omtrek van de boom is ongeveer 97 meter, inclusief de steunwortels die van takken tot aan de grond reiken om de boom te ondersteunen. De leeftijd van de boom wordt geschat op 400 jaar, en de hoogte overschrijdt de 50 meter. Deze majestueuze boom ontsproot rond het jaar 1621. Bezoekers worden aangemoedigd de oude boom aan te raken en te voelen. De huid van de boom voelt nog steeds erg gezond en levendig aan. Laten we hopen dat deze gigantische boom voor altijd zal blijven gedijen. Het is werkelijk een wonderbaarlijk schouwspel.

This is a common view on MDH. There is supposed to be around 155 curves between Ouray and Silverton. I have never counted them, but I have to believe that is close, or a little low. If you ever drive the road, I think you will also to the same conclusion I have.

 

Million Dollar Highway is one of best drives in the country, in my estimation the best. Especially since it goes through the most beautiful mountains, the San Juans.

photo rights reserved by B℮n

 

Uthai Thani is a province in the northwest of Thailand. It is a region known for its natural beauty, historical sites and cultural heritage. One of the notable features of Uthai Thani is the presence of several national parks that protect the beautiful flora and fauna of the region. Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary: This is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the largest protected areas in Thailand. It is home to a diverse flora and fauna, including rare and endangered species such as the Indochinese tiger, Asian elephant and Malayan bear. Tum Chang Cave National Park is a national park known for its impressive limestone caves and formations. These national parks in Uthai Thani offer a range of activities including trekking, bird watching and admiring Thailand's natural beauty. An impressive and majestic tree, which is native especially to this part of Thailand, is Tualang tree, scientifically known as Koompassia excelsa. The Tualang tree is known for its exceptionally tall height. The Tualang tree often plays a crucial role in the ecosystem, as it provides an important source of food and shelter for various animals, including honey bees. Beekeepers sometimes place beehives high in the branches of the Tualang tree to promote the production of Tualang honey, which is considered one of the most unique and high-quality honeys. The conservation and protection of such trees is often of great importance for maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance in the region.

 

There is a giant Tualang tree (Koompassia excelsa) found east of Ban Rai in Uthai Thani province. This impressive Tualang is located on private property in the middle of a forest, but the owner is happy to welcome visitors. On one side of the tree are claw marks from a bear that tried to knock down a honey bee nest. The local population, descendants of Laotian settlers brought here two hundred years ago during conflicts with Burma, inhabit this area. The circumference of the tree is approximately 97 meters, including the buttress roots that reach from branches to the ground to support the tree. The age of the tree is estimated at 400 years, and its height exceeds 50 meters. This majestic tree sprang up around the year 1621. Visitors are encouraged to touch and feel the ancient tree. The skin of the tree still feels very healthy and vibrant. Let's hope this giant tree continues to thrive forever. It is truly a wonderful spectacle.

 

Uthai Thani is een provincie in het noordwesten van Thailand. Eén van de opmerkelijke kenmerken van Uthai Thani is de aanwezigheid van diverse nationale parken die de prachtige flora en fauna van de regio beschermen. Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary: Dit is een UNESCO-werelderfgoed en één van de grootste beschermde gebieden in Thailand. Het herbergt een diverse flora en fauna, waaronder zeldzame en bedreigde diersoorten zoals de Indochinese tijger, Aziatische olifant en Maleise beer. Een indrukwekkende en majestueuze boom, die inheems is met name in dit deel van Thailand, is Tualang-boom. Deze boom staat bekend om zijn buitengewoon grote hoogte. De Tualang-boom speelt vaak een cruciale rol in het ecosysteem, omdat het een belangrijke bron van voedsel en onderdak biedt aan verschillende dieren, waaronder honingbijen. Het behoud en de bescherming van dergelijke bomen zijn vaak van groot belang voor het behoud van biodiversiteit en ecologisch evenwicht in de regio. Er is een gigantische Tualang-boom te vinden ten oosten van Ban Rai in de provincie Uthai Thani. Deze indrukwekkende Tualang bevindt zich op privéterrein midden in een bos, maar de eigenaar verwelkomt graag bezoekers. Aan de ene kant van de boom zijn klauwafdrukken te zien van een beer die probeerde een honingbijennest omver te werpen. De lokale bevolking, afstammelingen van Laotiaanse kolonisten die hier tweehonderd jaar geleden werden gebracht tijdens conflicten met Birma, bewoont dit gebied. De omtrek van de boom is ongeveer 97 meter, inclusief de steunwortels die van takken tot aan de grond reiken om de boom te ondersteunen. De leeftijd van de boom wordt geschat op 400 jaar, en de hoogte overschrijdt de 50 meter. Deze majestueuze boom ontsproot rond het jaar 1621. Bezoekers worden aangemoedigd de oude boom aan te raken en te voelen. De huid van de boom voelt nog steeds erg gezond en levendig aan. Laten we hopen dat deze gigantische boom voor altijd zal blijven gedijen. Het is werkelijk een wonderbaarlijk schouwspel.

That would be Paris, France as opposed to Paris, Texas.

I think this is the photograph that Art Nahpro has called forth, otherwise known as "Ravishing Actress." mrwaterslide certainly is ravished. Sarony in America, and Nadar in Paris may be more famous, but Reutlinger, for Pure D Photographing of Voluptuous Female Beauty (Fully-Clothed Division) is Tops (in mrwaterslide's estimation). Part of his mastery is in his fantastic use of light and dark forms, of which this photo is one example. mrwaterslide recently passed on an even better example of Reutlinger's Olympian use of Light & Dark (Reutlinger's aren't cheap, though I would venture a guess that they are under-priced.)

This photo no doubt is not a unique example. Reutlinger photographed his damsels to sell to the masses, kind of like baseball cards, I guess. If you want to get yourself a 1955 Mickey Mantle Topps baseball card of Feminine Pulchritude, get a Reutlinger.

So anyway, here she is. Who she is, I know not---she may have been an actress, or an opera star. Reutlinger was big on opera stars. She may have just been another run-of-the-mill (joke alert, joke alert) Parisian courtesan. You be the judge.

Here's a link to some more Reutlinger images, in an exhibition curated by Paul Frecker, a London dealer in vintage photographs who has a particularly affinity for Reutlinger. Only a few of the images in the exhibition on Luminous-Lint come up to the very best of Reutlinger, but go to the last one and look at it---it's nice. Here's the llink: luminous-lint.com/__sw.php?action=ACT_VEX&p1=_PHOTOGR...

If you want to see all the images in the exhibition as thumbnails, and then click on the ones that interest you, click on "Lightbox."

To a nature loving optimistic photographer like myself, I often go to extremes to get that 'one-shot' that has a certain story, flair or is otherwise interesting, at least for myself. My goal is first to please myself with the adventure of obtaining a fun image, perhaps even a composition that would be enjoyed by others. And occasionally there turns out to be a few bumps along the way, and an interesting story to go along with the photo.

 

Such was the case this last Saturday at the wooded Harrison Hills Park near the border of four counties in Western Pennsylvania. Every Saturday morning I often hike along a scenic trail which lies at the top of a very steep ridge along the Allegheny River. At the base of the ridge are railroad tracks. I don't often see trains along there, but on this occasion, there was a train stopped right below me.

 

In winter the view is spectacular; off in the distance one can see the town of Freeport, and there are snow covered hills and trees as far as the eye can see if one looks up the valley. The river itself is often teaming with various forms of ducks and geese often heard, and with binoculars seen down in the distance.

 

On this particular day I spied a bird's nest, by my estimation most likely the nest of a Red-eyed Vireo based on the size and location in the branch of a small wild Black-Cherry tree. I decide that I'd try to get a photo of this durable nest, even though it was situated down about 15 feet from my position. The embankment there is quite steep, and against my better judgment I began to descend a little bit over the edge. There was a nice foot hold for my right leg which I decided was the best place to make pictures. I dared not go any further. I took a few photos, but my zoom was only 3x, and decided I need to get just a few inches further.

 

Suddenly I slipped onto my back, but yet did not slide down the ridge. My cool head told me to put the camera away, which I did, luckily, I even managed to get my glove back on my right hand. But how would I get out of this predicament? A moment later I began to slide, and slid on my back halfway down the steep ridge. Luckily, a log loomed large and I grabbed it, otherwise who knows how much further I would have gone, and to what peril.

 

I was able to gain my feet, inspect for damage, to which there was none, and traverse along the ridge to a place where trees with many hand holds afforded a chance for me to ascend back out of the ridge back to the path. I went back to where I had fallen and marveled at my luck. I then proceeded to place a few well laid foot prints so that anyone else coming upon the scene wouldn't worry that someone had fallen over the cliff because the tracks would have appeared to go one way only: down. I didn't want anyone to institute a search.

 

Perhaps some day, another photographer, in a similar situation, will think of my story, and err on the side of caution. Maybe my foolhardy escapade will have not been for naught.

57 London Road was originally in civilian occupation and named ‘Fairlawns’. The property was requisitioned in 1939 as a new headquarters for No.1 Group of the Royal Observer Corps, who had previously been stationed in rooms above Maidstone Post Office. An operations room was built in the house using the ground floor and basement. Fairlawns was in use throughout the war until stand down. In the 1950s Fairlawns was relegated to being a training centre for the group control at Beckenham (19 Group). In 1961 a new semi-sunk control was built to the rear of Fairlawns with administration located in the house. Beckenham was then relegated to being training centre for 1 Group at Maidstone. The former 19 Group HQ at Dura Den, Park Place, Beckenham was absorbed into No. 1 Group in 1953 but was retained for as a secondary training centre until 1968 In 1976 Fairlawns was renamed Ashmore House in memory of the Corps’ founder Major Ashmore. On closure Ashmore House and the bunker behind was sold to a local solicitors.

 

Maidstone is similar in construction to other semi-sunken group controls, consisting of three levels. The upper level is a surface concrete blockhouse often referred to as an ‘Aztec Temple’. The middle level is partly below ground, mounded over with soil and grassed, the bottom level is completely below grown. Externally the bunker is in excellent condition and well maintained. The grass on top of the mound is regularly mown and the surface blockhouse is painted white. The telescopic aerial mast is still in place alongside the entrance steps and unusually the aerial is also still there on top of the mast. Two other UHF aerials are also still in place on top of an adjacent pole. On top of the mound the FSM and BPI pipes are in the middle and close to them is a metal cover over what might be part of the AWDREY (Atomic Weapon Detection Recognition and Estimation of Yield) equipment consisting of a white metal box mounted at an angle on a square concrete plinth. Several pipes protrude from the mound alongside. At the east end of the mound is the original emergency exit consisting of an ROC post hatch on a raised concrete plinth with a rail around it. The later emergency exit door is at the back of the mound.

 

The surface blockhouse still has its external ladder giving access to the roof. Here the GZI mounting is to be found on top of one of the ventilation stacks.

 

At the top of the entrance stairs is a steel blast door giving access to the upper level corridor. There are two rooms on the left, the decontamination room and dressing room; both still contain sinks and water tanks. There are two rooms on the right, the first has a gas tight door and houses a small fan for cooling the plant in the room below, the adjacent room contains a bank of filters. Beyond these rooms is another gas tight wooden door which, together with the entrance door, forms an air lock. Beyond this door stairs to the left lead down to the middle floor and ahead was the winch room. The winch has been removed as has the floor. There are railings just inside the entrance door to stop anyone falling. A hole has been cut into the right hand side wall of the winch room to give access to a large water tank.

 

At the bottom of the stairs is a dog leg into the main east - west spine corridor. The first room on the right is the ventilation and filtration plant room which is in immaculate condition with all the brass still polished and gleaming. All the plant remains in place including two chiller pumps, the main ventilation fan, two smaller fans, two compressors and the floor standing electrical control cabinet. There is a filing cabinet full of wiring diagrams, instruction books, maintenance logs etc. Although unused for ten years the plant is almost certainly fully operational with the chiller system still charged.

 

In one corner of the plant room is a separate filter room with it’s own gas tight door. The bank of filters are still in place. At the back of the room two wooden door open into the generator room which is noticeably narrower then the same room in other semi-sunken group controls. The generator and its control equipment is also in excellent condition with 1518 hours on the clock.

 

The next room on the right is the canteen, accessed along a short corridor. On the right hand side of the corridor is the kitchen which is largely intact with a Creda industrial cooker, Creda grill, hot food heater, stainless steel sink and draining board and stainless steel covered units. There is a sliding glass hatch for serving food. The canteen is now used for storage of old files and retains nothing original apart from wall cabinets at the back with electrical switchgear.

 

Next door to the canteen is the BT equipment room, again this is now used for the storage of old files but there are two BT wall cabinets on the end wall and the remains of two racks with some wiring looms. Beyond the BT room is an empty store room and stairs down to the lower level. The final two doors on the right lead onto the balcony looking down onto the control room. Nothing is left in the room at all although in the triangulation alcove it still says ‘Triangulation’ on the wall and there is a small shelf with a slot for an FSM and in the ceiling the bottom of the FSM pipe.

 

There is a gas tight door in the corridor between the two doors onto the balcony with another gas tight door beyond giving access to the emergency exit. These two doors form a second airlock. There is a ladder on the wall up to a short landing and then a second ladder up to the emergency escape hatch. This was replaced in the 1970’s by a stairway with a door on the south side of the mound.

 

Back in the spine corridor the first door on the left is the sewage ejection room with two compressors and a compressed air receiver just inside the door and two pumps in the sump underneath a metal grille. This plant also looks immaculate. The next two rooms are the male and female toilets which are complete although no longer connected to the mains water supply. The female toilet has a hot water tank, two hand basins, two WC cubicles and a shower. The male toilet is similar with one of the WC cubicles replaced by a urinal. The next two rooms are the male and female dormitories, these are used for the storage of confidential client files and we had no access. The final room on the left is the small officers room which is empty apart from a Tanoy loudspeaker on the wall.

 

On the bottom level the control room at the bottom of the stairs to the left has been fitted out with Dexion racking and is the main storage area for old files. Nothing from ROC days remains apart from one floor standing display board. The adjacent communications centre is empty. The walls are covered with acoustic tiles and the original tables and chairs are still in place. There are three windows looking into the control room one with a small message hatch beneath one.

 

The radio room was to the right of the stairs, this has been divided into two rooms, both of which are empty. There is a small store room under the stairs which is also empty.

 

During the 1990’s numerous ROC items including maps and signs were sold to the Kelvedon Hatch cold war museum. The only remaining signs are fire prevention notices which are screwed to the wall in various rooms.

 

The owners have no plans to remove any of the remaining equipment and will continue to use the bunker for the storage of redundant files. It is clean and dry throughout and the lighting works in all the rooms.

Romanian postcard by Casa Filmului Acin, no. 554, no. 7. John Wayne and Barbra Streisand during the Oscars ceremony 1970. Streisand presented the Best Actor award to Wayne on the 42nd Academy Awards show. Wayne won the Oscar for his performance in True Grit (Henry Hathaway, 1969).

 

American actor John Wayne (1907-1979) was one of the most popular film stars of the 20th century. He received his first leading film role in The Big Trail (1930). Working with John Ford, he got his next big break in Stagecoach (1939). His career as an actor took another leap forward when he worked with director Howard Hawks in Red River (1948). Wayne won his first Academy Award in 1969. He starred in 142 films altogether and remains a popular American icon to this day.

 

John Wayne was born Marion Robert Morrison in 1907, in Winterset, Iowa. Some sources also list him as Marion Michael Morrison and Marion Mitchell Morrison. He was already a sizable presence when he was born, weighing around 13 pounds. The oldest of two children born to Clyde and Mary 'Molly' Morrison, Wayne moved to Lancester, California, around the age of seven. The family moved again a few years later after Clyde failed in his attempt to become a farmer. Settling in Glendale, California, Wayne received his distinctive nickname 'Duke' while living there. He had a dog by that name, and he spent so much time with his pet that the pair became known as 'Little Duke' and 'Big Duke', according to the official John Wayne website. In high school, Wayne excelled in his classes and in many different activities, including student government and football. He also participated in numerous student theatrical productions. Winning a football scholarship to the University of Southern California (USC), Wayne started college in the fall of 1925. Unfortunately, after two years, an injury, a result of a bodysurfing accident, took him off the football field and ended his scholarship. While in college, Wayne had done some work as a film extra, appearing as a football player in Brown of Harvard (Jack Conway, 1926) with William Haines, and Drop Kick (Millard Webb, 1927), starring Richard Barthelmess. Out of school, Wayne worked as an extra and a prop man in the film industry. He first met director John Ford while working as an extra on Mother Machree (John Ford, 1928). With the early widescreen film epic The Big Trail (Raoul Walsh, 1930), Wayne received his first leading role, thanks to director Walsh. Raoul Walsh is often credited with helping him create his now legendary screen name, John Wayne. Unfortunately, the Western was a box office failure. For nearly a decade, Wayne toiled in numerous B-films. He played the lead, with his name over the title, in many low-budget Poverty Row Westerns, mostly at Monogram Pictures and serials for Mascot Pictures Corporation. By Wayne's own estimation, he appeared in about 80 of these horse operas from 1930 to 1939. In Riders of Destiny (Robert N. Bradbury, 1933), he became one of the first singing cowboys of film, named Sandy Saunders, although via dubbing. During this period, Wayne started developing his man-of-action persona, which would serve as the basis of many popular characters later on.

 

Working with John Ford, John Wayne got his next big break in Stagecoach (John Ford, 1939). Because of Wayne's B-film status and track record in low-budget Westerns throughout the 1930s, Ford had difficulty getting financing for what was to be an A-budget film. After rejection by all the major studios, Ford struck a deal with independent producer Walter Wanger in which Claire Trevor, who was a much bigger star at the time, received top billing. Wayne portrayed the Ringo Kid, an escaped outlaw, who joins an unusual assortment of characters on a dangerous journey through frontier lands. During the trip, the Kid falls for a dance hall prostitute named Dallas (Claire Trevor). The film was well received by filmgoers and critics alike and earned seven Academy Award nominations, including one for Ford's direction. In the end, it took home the awards for Music and for Actor in a Supporting Role for Thomas Mitchell. Wayne became a mainstream star. Reunited with Ford and Mitchell, Wayne stepped away from his usual Western roles to become a Swedish seaman in The Long Voyage Home (John Ford, 1940). The film was adapted from a play by Eugene O'Neill and follows the crew of a steamer ship as they move a shipment of explosives. Along with many positive reviews, the film earned several Academy Award nominations. Around this time, Wayne made the first of several films with German star Marlene Dietrich. The two appeared together in Seven Sinners (Tay Garnett, 1940) with Wayne playing a naval officer and Dietrich as a woman who sets out to seduce him. Off-screen, they became romantically involved, though Wayne was married at the time. There had been rumours about Wayne having other affairs, but nothing as substantial as his connection to Dietrich. Even after their physical relationship ended, the pair remained good friends and co-starred in two more films, Pittsburgh (Lewis Seiler, 1942) and The Spoilers (Ray Enright, 1942). Wayne's first colour film was Shepherd of the Hills (Henry Hathaway, 1941), in which he co-starred with his longtime friend Harry Carey. The following year, he appeared in his only film directed by Cecil B. DeMille, the Technicolor epic Reap the Wild Wind (1942), in which he co-starred with Ray Milland and Paulette Goddard; it was one of the rare times he played a character with questionable values. Wayne started working behind the scenes as a producer in the late 1940s. The first film he produced was Angel and the Badman (James Edward Grant, 1947) with Gail Russell. Over the years, he operated several different production companies, including John Wayne Productions, Wayne-Fellows Productions and Batjac Productions.

 

John Wayne's career as an actor took another leap forward when he worked with director Howard Hawks in Red River (1948). The Western drama provided Wayne with an opportunity to show his talents as an actor, not just an action hero. Playing the conflicted cattleman Tom Dunson, he took on a darker sort of character. He deftly handled his character's slow collapse and difficult relationship with his adopted son played by Montgomery Clift. Also around this time, Wayne also received praise for his work in John Ford's Fort Apache (1948) with Henry Fonda and Shirley Temple. Taking on a war drama, Wayne gave a strong performance in Sands of Iwo Jima (Allan Dwan, 1949), which garnered him his first Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. He also appeared in more two Westerns by Ford now considered classics: She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (John Ford, 1949) and Rio Grande (John Ford, 1950) with Maureen O'Hara. Wayne worked with O'Hara on several films, perhaps most notably The Quiet Man (John Ford, 1952). Playing an American boxer with a bad reputation, his character moved to Ireland where he fell in love with a local woman (Maureen O'Hara). This film is considered Wayne's most convincing leading romantic role by many critics. A well-known conservative and anticommunist, Wayne merged his personal beliefs and his professional life with Big Jim McLain (Edward Ludwig, 1952). He played an investigator working for the U.S. House Un-American Activities Committee, which worked to root out communists in all aspects of public life. Off-screen, Wayne played a leading role in the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals and even served as its president for a time. The organisation was a group of conservatives who wanted to stop communists from working in the film industry, and other members included Gary Cooper and Ronald Reagan. In 1956, Wayne starred in another Ford Western, The Searchers (John Ford, 1956). He played Civil War veteran Ethan Edwards whose niece is abducted by a tribe of Comanches and he again showed some dramatic range as the morally questionable veteran. He soon after reteamed with Howard Hawks for Rio Bravo (1959). Playing a local sheriff, Wayne's character must face off against a powerful rancher and his henchmen who want to free his jailed brother. The unusual cast included Dean Martin and Angie Dickinson.

 

John Wayne made his directorial debut with The Alamo (John Wayne, 1960). Starring in the film as Davy Crockett, he received decidedly mixed reviews for both his on- and off-screen efforts. Wayne received a much warmer reception for The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (John Ford, 1962) in which he played a troubled rancher competing with a lawyer (James Stewart) for a woman's hand in marriage. Some other notable films from this period include The Longest Day (Ken Annakin, Andrew Marton, Bernhard Wicki, 1962) and How the West Was Won (John Ford, Henry Hathaway, George Marshall, 1962). Continuing to work steadily, Wayne refused to even let illness slow him down. He successfully battled lung cancer in 1964. To defeat the disease, Wayne had to have a lung and several ribs removed. In the later part of the 1960s, Wayne had some great successes and failures. He co-starred with Robert Mitchum in El Dorado (Howard Hawks, 1967), which was well received. The next year, Wayne again mixed the professional and the political with the pro-Vietnam War film The Green Berets (Ray Kellogg, John Wayne, 1968). He directed and produced as well as starred in the film, which was derided by critics for being heavy-handed and clichéd. Viewed by many as a piece of propaganda, the film still did well at the box office. Around this time, Wayne continued to espouse his conservative political views. He supported his friend Ronald Reagan in his 1966 bid for governor of California as well as his 1970 re-election effort. In 1976, Wayne recorded radio advertisements for Reagan's first attempt to become the Republican presidential candidate. Wayne won his first Academy Award for Best Actor for True Grit (Henry Hathaway, 1969). He played Rooster Cogburn, a one-eyed marshal and drunkard, who helps a young woman named Mattie (Kim Darby) track down her father's killer. A young Glen Campbell joined the pair on their mission. Rounding out the cast, Robert Duvall and Dennis Hopper were among the bad guys the trio had to defeat. A later sequel with Katherine Hepburn, Rooster Cogburn (Stuart Millar, 1975), failed to attract critical acclaim or much of an audience. Wayne portrayed an ageing gunfighter dying of cancer in his final film, The Shootist (Don Siegel, 1976), with James Stewart and Lauren Bacall. His character, John Bernard Books, hoped to spend his final days peacefully but got involved in one last gunfight. In 1978, life imitated art with Wayne being diagnosed with stomach cancer. John Wayne died in 1979, in Los Angeles, California. He was survived by his seven children from two of his three marriages. During his marriage to Josephine Saenz from 1933 to 1945, the couple had four children, two daughters Antonia and Melinda and two sons Michael and Patrick. Both Michael and Patrick followed in their father's footsteps Michael as a producer and Patrick as an actor. With his third wife, Pilar Palette, he had three more children, Ethan, Aissa, and Marisa. Ethan has worked as an actor over the years.

 

Sources: Biography.com, Wikipedia and IMDb.

 

And, please check out our blog European Film Star Postcards.

Did Tyrannosaurus Rex use red toothpaste?

 

The head of existing T. Rex skeletons are almost my height. Lucky for us it went extinct in one of the mass extinction cataclysms suffered by our planet Earth.

 

The teeth of Tyrannosaurus rex displayed marked heterodonty (differences in shape).[13][23] The premaxillary teeth at the front of the upper jaw were closely packed, D-shaped in cross-section, had reinforcing ridges on the rear surface, were incisiform (their tips were chisel-like blades), and curved backward. The D-shaped cross-section, reinforcing ridges, and backward curve reduced the risk that the teeth would snap when Tyrannosaurus bit and pulled. The remaining teeth were robust, like "lethal bananas" rather than daggers; more widely spaced and also had reinforcing ridges.[24] Those in the upper jaw were larger than those in all but the rear of the lower jaw. The largest found so far is estimated to have been 30 centimeters (12 in) long including the root when the animal was alive, making it the largest tooth of any carnivorous dinosaur yet found.[3]

  

Tyrannosaurus rex was one of the largest land carnivores of all time; the largest complete specimen, FMNH PR2081 ("Sue"), measured 12.8 metres (42 ft) long and was 4.0 metres (13.1 ft) tall at the hips.[3] Mass estimates have varied widely over the years, from more than 7.2 metric tons (7.9 short tons),[2] to less than 4.5 metric tons (5.0 short tons),[5][6] with most modern estimates ranging between 5.4 and 6.8 metric tons (6.0 and 7.5 short tons).[4][7][8][9] Packard et al. (2009) tested dinosaur mass estimation procedures on elephants and concluded that dinosaur estimations are flawed and produce over-estimations; thus, the weight of Tyrannosaurus could be much less than usually estimated.[10]

 

Although Tyrannosaurus rex was larger than the well known Jurassic theropod Allosaurus, it was slightly smaller than some other Cretaceous carnivores, such as Spinosaurus and Giganotosaurus.[11][12]

 

The neck of Tyrannosaurus rex formed a natural S-shaped curve like that of other theropods, but was short and muscular to support the massive head. The forelimbs had only two clawed fingers,[13] along with an additional small metacarpal representing the remnant of a third digit.[14] In contrast, the hind limbs were among the longest in proportion to body size of any theropod. The tail was heavy and long, sometimes containing over forty vertebrae, in order to balance the massive head and torso. To compensate for the immense bulk of the animal, many bones throughout the skeleton were hollow, reducing its weight without significant loss of strength.[13]

  

The largest known Tyrannosaurus rex skulls measure up to 5 feet (1.5 m) in length.[15] Large fenestrae (openings) in the skull reduced weight and provided areas for muscle attachment, as in all carnivorous theropods. But in other respects, Tyrannosaurus’ skull was significantly different from those of large non-tyrannosauroid theropods. It was extremely wide at the rear but had a narrow snout, allowing unusually good binocular vision.[16][17] The skull bones were massive and the nasals and some other bones were fused, preventing movement between them; but many were pneumatized (contained a "honeycomb" of tiny air spaces) which may have made the bones more flexible as well as lighter. These and other skull-strengthening features are part of the tyrannosaurid trend towards an increasingly powerful bite, which easily surpassed that of all non-tyrannosaurids.[18][19][20] The tip of the upper jaw was U-shaped (most non-tyrannosauroid carnivores had V-shaped upper jaws), which increased the amount of tissue and bone a tyrannosaur could rip out with one bite, although it also increased the stresses on the front teeth.

  

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrannosaurus

 

T.Rex was not the largest Therapod:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Largesttheropods.png

 

IMG_0368

Here, for your listening pleasure, is a blast from the past, two songs from this album:

 

Mojo Workout. Anyone expecting a psychedelic romp will be disappointed. This cut is pure rhythm and blues, more Soul Train than Filmore West.

www.youtube.com/watch?v=zNq-J1GQUfA

 

Rinky Dink

Tame or lame? You decide. Let's just say that this cut would not offend the sensibilities of any adults supervising a junior high school dance circa 1966.

www.youtube.com/watch?v=eZ82tkRDDJ-U

----------------------------------------------------------------------------

I was about 10 when Paul Revere and the Raiders had their first 15 minutes of fame in the mid-1960s.

 

While I can remember their faux-British Invasion finery, none of their music comes to mind. In fact, I never owned this record back in the day, and I don't remember seeing it in the record collections of any of my friends.

 

While the band's music isn't memorable, at least in my estimation, this album cover still evokes the spirit of the times, most specifically the scene in San Francisco during and right after 1967's Summer of Love.

 

That's why I was very surprised to learn that the album Paul Revere & the Raiders was released in 1963. One look at the cover art will tell anyone familiar with the rapidly evolving styles of the 1960s that it just isn't so. So I was relieved when I found an image of the 1963 record because it looked nothing like this:https://rateyourmusic.com/release/album/paul-revere-and-the-raiders/paul-revere-and-the-raiders/

 

I think the album was re-released in 1969 with a new cover to keep up with the changing tastes of youth culture.

 

What follows is the best appraisal of the group's output that I have found:

----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Originally known as the Downbeats, Paul Revere & the Raiders came out of the Northwest's frat boy club scene, a group of young white guys trying desperately to sound black, producing a kind of garage R&B in the process, helped by the band's fun stage show and sax player turned lead singer Mark Lindsay's soulful voice and amazing ability at mimicry.

 

By the time they became entrenched as the house band on Dick Clark's Where the Action Is television series in the mid-'60s, the band began to walk a delicate line between being teen idols and being a tough, sneering garage band, half cartoon and half substance on hit singles like "Kicks," "Hungry," "Good Times," and "Just Like Me," finally ending up as Columbia Records' best-selling rock group as 1967 dawned, with three gold record albums to their name.

 

But the Beatles had released Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band and the times they were definitely changing in the pop music world, and the Raiders scrambled to find their place.

 

Released in 1968, Goin' to Memphis was a straight shot of Stax-like R&B, and while it worked as much as it didn't, it didn't generate a hit or big sales.

 

Something Happening, released later that same year, was a phased-out psychedelic and Lindsay-produced muddle, although it did contain at least one hidden pop gem, the this-should-have-been-a-hit "Don't Take It So Hard."

 

Issued in 1969, Hard 'n' Heavy (With Marshmallow) had less production excesses and again had a couple minor gems, most notably "Time After Time" and the odd Freddy Weller-penned "Hard and Heavy 5 String Soul Banjo."

 

But the Raiders' image didn't fit the emerging rock culture of the day, and the band took to blind submitting songs to radio under the fake name Pink Puzz, all of which were collected to make the Alias Pink Puzz album that appeared later in 1969. This double-disc set collects all three of these transitional albums in one package, adding select bonus tracks, including a couple from the band's ill-fated and bizarre 1967 Christmas album Christmas Present...and Past.

 

It shows a talented band capable of doing anything from teen love ballads to hard-crunching, R&B-fueled rock stomps trying desperately to keep up with the mercurial changes of the pop world.

www.allmusic.com/album/something-has-happened%21-1967-196...

--------------------------------------------------------------------------

   

Sign Says: 'Well Rotted Horse Manure £1 A Bag'

 

Guessed the focal distance incorrectly. Was greater than 10ft away. More 14ft. I still like it though.

 

Kodak Portra 160

120 format

 

1955 Foitzik Trier

6x6 Folding Camera

Foinar 1:4.5

75mm

Made In Germany

 

No Crop, No Filter, No Post Production.

 

f4.5 1/200 (Should of lowered the shutter speed and stopped down the aperture too).

 

Evening 1 hour just before sunset.

 

Parallax viewfinder. Completely Manual (guessing) Focus by estimation of distance in feet from camera lens. As in you don't know if you estimated (more guessed!) correctly until you've developed the negatives. It's all a game to me haha.

 

Metering via Sunny 16 rule

 

Developed in Bellini C41 Kit.

Not long after I got my first real job and could afford to do it, I went into a local shoe store to buy a pair of new boots, to finally bury the old ones. There was an old skinny man who worked there, six feet tall and weighing little, a very witty man, with a dry sense of humour. I told him what I wanted and he nodded sagely. He said to me slowly and sorta understatedly, "Yes, sir: those old ones don't owe you anything anymore."

 

And so, this morning, my wife and I agreed this tea strainer -- now succeeded by a new one ordered from across the world -- owed us nothing anymore.

 

Well, thought I, it owed nothing except a nice picture to remember it by.

 

It is in the garbage now.

 

A friend asked me how many cups of tea went through it so I did some rough estimations and arithmetic. A conservatively estimated average number of cups a day in the earlier years is probably fifteen or even twenty. But in more recent years it would be somewhat lower than that. Let's say on average a dozen cups a day -- that would make about four thousand a year, for forty years. (I think the strainer is that old. Maybe we've had it even longer than that.)

 

Those rough numbers suggest about 160,000 cups. No wonder it's pock-marked around the edges.

You just need to imagine first what you want to shoot and then you need to place the required articles accordingly around the subject. For example in case of water droplets; broadly there would be three possibilities, drop just collapsed, about to touch the surface and de-bounce. It is bit difficult to predict these three conditions specifically when viewing through view finder and then result may be miss timed and blurred shots. To avoid this following procedure may be tried out:

 

1. Place a water pan on level of your camera which must me mounted on tripod.

2. Place a tiny steady object such as nail onto the place of your interest. May be center point of the water pan!

3. Set your camera with working distance allowed by macro lens.

4. Focus the nail as sharp as possible.

5. Set shutter speed faster around 1/200 to 1/300 to freeze the droplets.

6. Set aperture as large as possible, F/5 and 1.200 may give good results.

7. WB=Auto and ISO=100 may give desired results.

8. Once the object is well focused, replace it with a controlled water stream

9. Look this water stream through view finder and ensure whether is in focus or not.

10. Do slight adjustments in working distance if required to get the sharp picture.

11. Reduce down the speed of water stream up till one drop/seconds.

12. Wait and understand for the duration between two consecutive drops and once acclimatize with the frequency of dropping droplets, release the shutter with some estimation.

13. Just collapsed, about to touch the surface and de-bouncing drops can be frozen based upon synchronization of shutter release timing and some time estimation of drops.

 

Your setup is ready to produce some one of the fantastic shots. You may keep some colorful objects in the back ground to achieve diffused colorful DOF.

 

All the best.

 

British postcard in the Film Partners Series, London, no. P 289. Photo: Walter Wanger. John Wayne and Claire Trevor in Stagecoach (John Ford, 1939).

 

American actor John Wayne (1907-1979) was one of the most popular film stars of the 20th century. He received his first leading film role in The Big Trail (1930). Working with John Ford, he got his next big break in Stagecoach (1939). His career as an actor took another leap forward when he worked with director Howard Hawks in Red River (1948). Wayne won his first Academy Award in 1969. He He starred in 142 films altogether and remains a popular American icon to this day.

 

John Wayne was born Marion Robert Morrison in 1907, in Winterset, Iowa. Some sources also list him as Marion Michael Morrison and Marion Mitchell Morrison. He was already a sizable presence when he was born, weighing around 13 pounds. The oldest of two children born to Clyde and Mary 'Molly' Morrison, Wayne moved to Lancester, California, around the age of seven. The family moved again a few years later after Clyde failed in his attempt to become a farmer. Settling in Glendale, California, Wayne received his distinctive nickname 'Duke' while living there. He had a dog by that name, and he spent so much time with his pet that the pair became known as 'Little Duke' and 'Big Duke', according to the official John Wayne website. In high school, Wayne excelled in his classes and in many different activities, including student government and football. He also participated in numerous student theatrical productions. Winning a football scholarship to University of Southern California (USC), Wayne started college in the fall of 1925. Unfortunately, after two years, an injury, a result of a bodysurfing accident, took him off the football field and ended his scholarship. While in college, Wayne had done some work as a film extra, appearing as a football player in Brown of Harvard (Jack Conway, 1926) with William Haines, and Drop Kick (Millard Webb, 1927), starring Richard Barthelmess. Out of school, Wayne worked as an extra and a prop man in the film industry. He first met director John Ford while working as an extra on Mother Machree (John Ford, 1928). With the early widescreen film epic The Big Trail (Raoul Walsh, 1930), Wayne received his first leading role, thanks to director Walsh. Raoul Walsh is often credited with helping him create his now legendary screen name, John Wayne. Unfortunately, the Western was a box office failure. For nearly a decade, Wayne toiled in numerous B-films. He played the lead, with his name over the title, in many low-budget Poverty Row Westerns, mostly at Monogram Pictures and serials for Mascot Pictures Corporation. By Wayne's own estimation, he appeared in about 80 of these horse operas from 1930 to 1939. In Riders of Destiny (Robert N. Bradbury, 1933), he became one of the first singing cowboys of film, named Sandy Saunders, although via dubbing. During this period, Wayne started developing his man of action persona, which would serve as the basis of many popular characters later on.

 

Working with John Ford, John Wayne got his next big break in Stagecoach (John Ford, 1939). Because of Wayne's B-film status and track record in low-budget Westerns throughout the 1930s, Ford had difficulty getting financing for what was to be an A-budget film. After rejection by all the major studios, Ford struck a deal with independent producer Walter Wanger in which Claire Trevor, who was a much bigger star at the time, received top billing. Wayne portrayed the Ringo Kid, an escaped outlaw, who joins an unusual assortment of characters on a dangerous journey through frontier lands. During the trip, the Kid falls for a dance hall prostitute named Dallas (Claire Trevor). The film was well received by filmgoers and critics alike and earned seven Academy Award nominations, including one for Ford's direction. In the end, it took home the awards for Music and for Actor in a Supporting Role for Thomas Mitchell. Wayne became a mainstream star. Reunited with Ford and Mitchell, Wayne stepped away from his usual Western roles to become a Swedish seaman in The Long Voyage Home (John Ford, 1940). The film was adapted from a play by Eugene O'Neill and follows the crew of a steamer ship as they move a shipment of explosives. Along with many positive reviews, the film earned several Academy Award nominations. Around this time, Wayne made the first of several films with German star Marlene Dietrich. The two appeared together in Seven Sinners (Tay Garnett, 1940) with Wayne playing a naval officer and Dietrich as a woman who sets out to seduce him. Off-screen, they became romantically involved, though Wayne was married at the time. There had been rumours about Wayne having other affairs, but nothing as substantial as his connection to Dietrich. Even after their physical relationship ended, the pair remained good friends and co-starred in two more films, Pittsburgh (Lewis Seiler, 1942) and The Spoilers (Ray Enright, 1942). Wayne's first color film was Shepherd of the Hills (Henry Hathaway, 1941), in which he co-starred with his longtime friend Harry Carey. The following year, he appeared in his only film directed by Cecil B. DeMille, the Technicolor epic Reap the Wild Wind (1942), in which he co-starred with Ray Milland and Paulette Goddard; it was one of the rare times he played a character with questionable values. Wayne started working behind the scenes as a producer in the late 1940s. The first film he produced was Angel and the Badman (James Edward Grant, 1947) with Gail Russell. Over the years, he operated several different production companies, including John Wayne Productions, Wayne-Fellows Productions and Batjac Productions.

 

John Wayne's career as an actor took another leap forward when he worked with director Howard Hawks in Red River (1948). The Western drama provided Wayne with an opportunity to show his talents as an actor, not just an action hero. Playing the conflicted cattleman Tom Dunson, he took on a darker sort of character. He deftly handled his character's slow collapse and difficult relationship with his adopted son played by Montgomery Clift. Also around this time, Wayne also received praise for his work in John Ford's Fort Apache (1948) with Henry Fonda and Shirley Temple. Taking on a war drama, Wayne gave a strong performance in Sands of Iwo Jima (Allan Dwan, 1949), which garnered him his first Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. He also appeared in more two Westerns by Ford now considered classics: She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (John Ford, 1949) and Rio Grande (John Ford, 1950) with Maureen O'Hara. Wayne worked with O'Hara on several films, perhaps most notably The Quiet Man (John Ford, 1952). Playing an American boxer with a bad reputation, his character moved to Ireland where he fell in love with a local woman (Maureen O'Hara). This film is considered Wayne's most convincing leading romantic role by many critics. A well-known conservative and anticommunist, Wayne merged his personal beliefs and his professional life in Big Jim McLain (Edward Ludwig, 1952). He played an investigator working for the U.S. House Un-American Activities Committee, which worked to root out communists in all aspects of public life. Off screen, Wayne played a leading role in the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals and even served as its president for a time. The organisation was a group of conservatives who wanted to stop communists from working in the film industry, and other members included Gary Cooper and Ronald Reagan. In 1956, Wayne starred in another Ford Western, The Searchers (John Ford, 1956). He played Civil War veteran Ethan Edwards whose niece is abducted by a tribe of Comanches and he again showed some dramatic range as the morally questionable veteran. He soon after reteamed with Howard Hawks for Rio Bravo (1959). Playing a local sheriff, Wayne's character must face off against a powerful rancher and his henchmen who want to free his jailed brother. The unusual cast included Dean Martin and Angie Dickinson.

 

John Wayne made his directorial debut with The Alamo (John Wayne, 1960). Starring in the film as Davy Crockett, he received decidedly mixed reviews for both his on- and off-screen efforts. Wayne received a much warmer reception for The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (John Ford, 1962) in which he played a troubled rancher competing with a lawyer (James Stewart) for a woman's hand in marriage. Some other notable films from this period include The Longest Day (Ken Annakin, Andrew Marton, Bernhard Wicki, 1962) and How the West Was Won (John Ford, Henry Hathaway, George Marshall, 1962). Continuing to work steadily, Wayne refused to even let illness slow him down. He successfully battled lung cancer in 1964. To defeat the disease, Wayne had to have a lung and several ribs removed. In the later part of the 1960s, Wayne had some great successes and failures. He co-starred with Robert Mitchum in El Dorado (Howard Hawks, 1967), which was well received. The next year, Wayne again mixed the professional and the political with the pro-Vietnam War film The Green Berets (Ray Kellogg, John Wayne, 1968). He directed and produced as well as starred in the film, which was derided by critics for being heavy handed and clichéd. Viewed by many as a piece of propaganda, the film still did well at the box office. Around this time, Wayne continued to espouse his conservative political views. He support friend Ronald Reagan in his 1966 bid for governor of California as well as his 1970 re-election effort. In 1976, Wayne recorded radio advertisements for Reagan's first attempt to become the Republican presidential candidate. Wayne won his first Academy Award for Best Actor for True Grit (Henry Hathaway, 1969). He played Rooster Cogburn, an one-eyed marshal and drunkard, who helps a young woman named Mattie (Kim Darby) track down her father's killer. A young Glen Campbell joined the pair on their mission. Rounding out the cast, Robert Duvall and Dennis Hopper were among the bad guys the trio had to defeat. A later sequel with Katherine Hepburn, Rooster Cogburn (Stuart Millar, 1975), failed to attract critical acclaim or much of an audience. Wayne portrayed an aging gunfighter dying of cancer in his final film, The Shootist (Don Siegel, 1976), with James Stewart and Lauren Bacall. His character, John Bernard Books, hoped to spend his final days peacefully, but got involved one last gunfight. In 1978, life imitated art with Wayne being diagnosed with stomach cancer. John Wayne died in 1979, in Los Angeles, California. He was survived by his seven children from two of his three marriages. During his marriage to Josephine Saenz from 1933 to 1945, the couple had four children, two daughters Antonia and Melinda and two sons Michael and Patrick. Both Michael and Patrick followed in their father's footsteps Michael as a producer and Patrick as an actor. With his third wife, Pilar Palette, he had three more children, Ethan, Aissa, and Marisa. Ethan has worked as an actor over the years.

 

Sources: Biography.com, Wikipedia and IMDb.

 

And, please check out our blog European Film Star Postcards.

Thanks to Playingwithbrushes for the use of this texture! A gorgeous set of amazing work! www.flickr.com/photos/playingwithpsp/sets/72157604052440248/

Sorry I can't figure out a fancy link - but check her work out!

 

Hope everyone is well this morning. Another experimentation with texture! It is so hard not to over do it! The texture alone could stand as art in my estimation. The test for me is how to incorporate my image with another's! This process has altered the way I photograph, the vision that I have for my work. Each little step is riveting for me! Let me know what you think. Best wishes my friends - for a glorious sun filled day! e

 

Best when View On Black

 

In my poor estimation, you simply can't have too many photos of this natural wonder.

 

Bizarrely, in spite of the fact that you can walk behind the falls, I failed to do so. Why? I must simply have not gotten around to it. Not a good explanation, but the only one I can muster. It's confounding, considering the fact that as soon as I drove up to the place, I fell madly in love with it--so why not go up and meet it? Why be content to view it from afar? The dandruff is falling all over my keyboard as I scratch my head in bewilderment.

 

Anyway, this is the second photo I've uploaded of this waterfall, the first being: www.flickr.com/photos/80014607@N05/35252659800/ . It's right smack dab in between Hella and Vik on the Ring Road, about a 90 minute drive from Reykjavik, and a stop on all the tours that tackle all or at least the southern section of the Ring Road.

PA_1458 [30 points]

A duo space invader on a greenish background in the 9ème arrondissement of Paris. In line with the pharmacie and balconies full of plants at this corner.

Onscreen FlashInvaders message: BAZINGA!

 

All my photos of PA_1458:

PA_1458 (Close-up, September 2021)

PA_1458 (Wide shot, September 2021)

 

Date of invasion: 24/02/2021 (estimation)

 

[ Visited PA_1458 within 7 months after invasion ]

What looks to be a casualty evacuation exercise, possibly/probably involving Chamber B in the Space Environment Simulation Laboratory (SESL), Building 32, at the Manned Spacecraft Center. The “casualty” is wearing a (I believe) final Apollo A7L pressure suit, hence my date estimation of 1967 – 1972.

The gentleman on the left looks very familiar…I’m sure I’ve seen him in other photos. Also note the partially obscured gentleman holding what looks like a wristwatch, possibly timing the activity.

I wonder what the bumper/guard-like fixtures affixed to the top of the helmets are?

 

8.5" x 11". A size that normally suggests a contractor-originated photo...usually McDonnell...so ¯\_(ツ)_/¯.

 

At the 10:35 mark of the following interesting footage, I believe the gentleman is wearing the same uniform, with a somewhat similar helmet, obviously also in a first-responder capacity. He also appears to be wearing the face-piece of his oxygen mask…which I think can be seen in the photo dangling from the left-hand side of both of the gentleman’s helmets:

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=CDN0S4eJWYY

Credit: user ‘The Space Archive’/YouTube

 

Also in the SESL, with the caption “Apollo 14 backup Commander Cernan preparing for a vacuum chamber test in the SESL”:

 

www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/styles/full_width/public...

 

Although…the photo might be associated with the Crew Systems Laboratory (CSL), Building 7. Having never been to either, and with little contextual imagery available to conclusively determine, it’s possible, although (I think) less probable.

However, primarily or my own edification:

 

“The Crew Systems Laboratory (CSL) was constructed between December 1962, and March 1964, by the joint venture team of C.H. Leavell and Company of El Paso, the Morrison-Knudsen Company, Inc. of Boise, Idaho, and Paul Hardeman, Inc. of Stanton, California for a cost of approximately $1.549 million. Building 7 is one of the eleven original buildings constructed at the JSC. A 55,000 square foot addition (Building 7A) was made to the original 109,026 square foot building in 1966, at a cost of $1.494 million. In 1970, the addition of Building 7B increased the overall size of the facility by 2926 square feet. Smaller additions to Building 7 were made in 1967 (1272 square foot) and 1969 (546 square foot). The most recent major modification, in 1995, was the 3886-square foot addition to the Equipment Receiving Area.

 

The Wing E High Bay (Room 1000) of Building 7, known as the Environmental Test Area, contains the historically significant facilities which support the Space Shuttle program, including the 8’, 11’, and 18’ vacuum chambers and their ancillaries. Only the 18’ chamber was built specifically for the SSP. The 2’, 10’, and 20’ chambers, also located within Room 1000, lack noteworthy historical associations with the Space Shuttle program. Collectively, the 8’ and the 20’ chambers, originally used for Project Gemini, are the oldest.

 

The human-rated 8’ Vacuum Chamber, also known as the System/Component Vacuum Test Facility, arrived in Houston in May 1962, from Air Force surplus. It was modified three months later by the addition of an 8’-diameter loading door and explosion-proof interior lights. Following a complete overhaul and upgrading in Hangar 135 at Ellington Field during February 1964, the chamber was installed in Building 7 in July 1964. Portable Life Support System (PLSS) checkout consoles were installed in the adjacent control room in October 1965. The 8’chamber was active during Project Gemini and the Apollo Program, and was upgraded in 1973, to support the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP). Two years later, in November 1975, the equipment that supported the ASTP was removed. Subsequently, the 8’ chamber was used to support the design verification and flight qualification testing of the Shuttle Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) PLSS backpack.

 

[A nice article on the aforementioned PLSS testing capability, at:

 

www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-certifying-apollo-space...

 

Specifically, with the caption/description “Astronaut James Irwin testing the Apollo A-6L suit in the Crew Systems Division’s 8-foot altitude chamber”:

 

www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/styles/side_image/public...]

 

The 11’ Vacuum Chamber was first used in November 1966, for off-site manned tests. It was moved to JSC in May 1968, and used during the Apollo Program for evaluative tests of the Lunar Module environmental control PLSS, pressure suits, and EVA components. Two treadmills, used for metabolic determination, were installed in 1970 and 1971. Modifications to support the Space Shuttle program included removal of the Lunar Module cabin wall heater/cooler in 1977. In 1978, funding was approved for expanding the existing 11’ chamber vacuum system to incorporate the Shuttle Flash Evaporator System in the Shuttle Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) boilerplate (including airlock hardware). To enable extended systems evaluation and crew training tests, modifications included installing a vacuum line from the 11’ chamber to a new vacuum cylinder boilerplate (18’ vacuum chamber) sized to simulate the flight airlock; constructing a platform with stairway and an enclosure to surround the airlock boilerplate; extending the existing fire suppression and alarm system to the new airlock and entry room type enclosure; and installing repressurization valves, altitude limiting valves, and cable trays. Plumbing, electrical utilities, and high pressure GO2 and GN2 systems also were installed to allow reduced chamber pressure.”

 

Above at/from:

 

ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20110002110/downloads/2011000...

Here is my first model of 2022! This is a GE 30 Ton steeple cab. According to my research, only two of these were built, and were for the Hutchinson & Northern (Numbered #1 and #2). #1 still exists to this day, and occasionally operates at the Orange Empire railroad museum in Perris California.

 

This model is powered by a circuit cubes system, with the Bluetooth battery cube in the cab (which can be seen in this photo) and a cubit motor in each truck driving the outermost axles. This model has been in progress for a while now, and I recently got that spark of inspiration to go and finish it.

 

As for most of my models, I don't have an estimation of when it will be built in physical bricks, but since it has a fairly low part count, and is easily R40 compatible, I could easily start and complete the build process quickly, and have it running on my layout.

 

Prototype photos: www.rrpicturearchives.net/locopicture.aspx?id=147184