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This is a shot during my dinner visit at the Hofbrauhaus, I thought it looked sorta like Mars and had to take the opportunity to snap a few.
Fine Art Ballet Photography: Nikon D810 Elliot McGucken Fine Art Ballerina Dancer Dancing Ballet in Pointe Shoes!
Fine Art Ballet Photography: Nikon D810 Elliot McGucken Fine Art Ballerina Dancer Dancing Ballet Spring Wildflowers! Black leotard!
Dancing for Dynamic Dimensions Theory dx4/dt=ic: The fourth dimension is expanding relative to the three spatial dimensions at the rate of c!
New ballet & landscape instagrams!
www.instagram.com/elliotmcgucken/
Nikon D810 Epic Fine Art Ballerina Goddess Dancing Ballet! Dr. Elliot McGucken Fine Art Ballet!
Marrying epic landscape, nature, and urban photography to ballet!
Nikon D810 with the Nikon MB-D12 Multi Battery Power Pack / Grip for D800 and D810 Digital Cameras allows one to shoot at a high to catch the action FPS! Ballerina Dance Goddess Photos! Pretty, Tall Ballet Swimsuit Bikini Model Goddess! Captured with the AF-S NIKKOR 70-200mm f/2.8G ED VR II from Nikon, and the Sigma 50mm f/1.4 DG HSM Art Lens for Nikon! Love them both!
www.facebook.com/45surfAchillesOdysseyMythology
A pretty goddess straight out of Homer's Iliad & Odyssey!
New Instagram! instagram.com/45surf
New facebook: www.facebook.com/45surfAchillesOdysseyMythology
Join my new fine art ballet facebook page! www.facebook.com/fineartballet/
The 45EPIC landscapes and goddesses are straight out of Homer's Iliad & Odyssey!
I'm currently updating a translation with the Greek names for the gods and goddesses--will publish soon! :)
"RAGE--Sing, O goddess, the anger of Achilles son of Peleus, that brought countless ills upon the Achaeans. Many a brave soul did it send hurrying down to Hades, and many a hero did it yield a prey to dogs and vultures, for so were the counsels of Zeus fulfilled from the day on which the son of Atreus, king of men, and great Achilles, first fell out with one another. " --Homer's Iliad capturing the rage of the 45EPIC landscapes and seascapes! :)
Ludwig van Beethoven: "Music/poetry/art should strike fire from the heart of man, and bring tears from the eyes of woman."
Follow my Fine Art Ballet instagram!
At 76 stories, New York by Gehry offers an exceptional variety of residences with views of New York City’s downtown and midtown skylines, rivers, bridges and landmarks.
The articulated façade of the building yields over 200 unique floor plans, which feature asymmetrical bay windows that expand into the apex of each curve. Stepping into these free form bays residents experience the city in a new perspective, and the sculptural qualities of the building itself become part of the view.
Gehry’s design extends beyond the exterior of the building and into the interiors themselves. Floor plans take advantage of the organic shape of the exterior, and, as a result, niches have been formed that offer the opportunity for reading, dining, or just reflecting on the spectacular view. Every window has been fitted with solar shades that filter light and offer privacy without obscuring views.
Interior finishes and fixtures have all been designed and selected by Gehry, beginning with brushed stainless steel entry door hardware designed by Gehry, inspired by the organic forms found in nature. Custom cabinetry in kitchens and baths is fabricated with vertical grain Douglas Fir, a material whose fine grain and amber coloring combine to create an effect that is both polished and warm. Tones of light and charcoal gray in brushed stainless steel appliances, chrome fixtures, porcelain tile flooring, and quartz countertops complement this warmth. All elements of the interiors combine to create an aesthetic that is comfortable, light and modern.
A comprehensive array of lifestyle and valet services is available to the residents, including move-in coordination, the development of custom furniture packages, weekly fresh flower delivery and expert housekeeping. In addition, the concierge can secure reservations at coveted restaurants, premier seating at live shows and performances, prepare custom travel arrangements, and oversee the planning of special events, including private parties held in New York by Gehry’s amenity spaces.
El edificio 8 Spruce Street (anteriormente conocido como la Torre Beekman, o simplemente El Beekman, y actualmente mencionado como Nueva York de Gehry, es un rascacielos de 76 pisos diseñado por el arquitecto Frank Gehry en la Ciudad de Nueva York, en el nº. 8 de la calle Spruce, en el barrio de Manhattan, justo al sur del City Hall Plaza y el Puente de Brooklyn.
Es uno de los edificios de viviendas más altos en el hemisferio occidental, y en cierto modo parecido en altura y forma al Aqua, el rascacielos de Chicago. Su estructura portante es de hormigón armado. El edificio fue desarrollado por Forest City Ratner y construido por Kreisler Borg Florman. Alberga una escuela primaria pública, propiedad del Departamento de Educación.
Fue inaugurado en febrero de 2011
365/2021 - Expanding Horizons ~ 176/365
Treasure Hunt #40 ~ Loaded
My relatively young blackcurrant bush is loaded with large plump berries this year. I'm looking forward to making blackcurrant jam with them.
Thank you to everyone who pauses long enough to look at my photo. All comments and Faves are very much appreciated
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Fine Art Ballet Photography: Nikon D810 Elliot McGucken Fine Art Beautiful Ballerina Dancer Dancing Ballet in Pointe Shoes!
Dancing for Dynamic Dimensions Theory dx4/dt=ic: The fourth dimension is expanding relative to the three spatial dimensions at the rate of c!
New ballet & landscape instagrams!
www.instagram.com/elliotmcgucken/
Nikon D810 Epic Fine Art Ballerina Goddess Dancing Ballet! Dr. Elliot McGucken Fine Art Ballet!
Marrying epic landscape, nature, and urban photography to ballet!
Nikon D810 with the Nikon MB-D12 Multi Battery Power Pack / Grip for D800 and D810 Digital Cameras allows one to shoot at a high to catch the action FPS! Ballerina Dance Goddess Photos! Pretty, Tall Ballet Swimsuit Bikini Model Goddess! Captured with the AF-S NIKKOR 70-200mm f/2.8G ED VR II from Nikon, and the Sigma 50mm f/1.4 DG HSM Art Lens for Nikon! Love them both!
www.facebook.com/45surfAchillesOdysseyMythology
A pretty goddess straight out of Homer's Iliad & Odyssey!
New Instagram! instagram.com/45surf
New facebook: www.facebook.com/45surfAchillesOdysseyMythology
Join my new fine art ballet facebook page! www.facebook.com/fineartballet/
The 45EPIC landscapes and goddesses are straight out of Homer's Iliad & Odyssey!
I'm currently updating a translation with the Greek names for the gods and goddesses--will publish soon! :)
"RAGE--Sing, O goddess, the anger of Achilles son of Peleus, that brought countless ills upon the Achaeans. Many a brave soul did it send hurrying down to Hades, and many a hero did it yield a prey to dogs and vultures, for so were the counsels of Zeus fulfilled from the day on which the son of Atreus, king of men, and great Achilles, first fell out with one another. " --Homer's Iliad capturing the rage of the 45EPIC landscapes and seascapes! :)
Ludwig van Beethoven: "Music/poetry/art should strike fire from the heart of man, and bring tears from the eyes of woman."
Follow my Fine Art Ballet instagram!
Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming
Best viewed in lightbox, i.e., click on the expand arrows at upper right.
From my first trip to the Northwest back in the spring of 2022. In retrospect, my time would have been better served had I remained in Grand Teton NP this day, rather than take this quick detour where most of my time was spent driving. I'm not knocking Yellowstone--far from it--but a trip here warrants much more time than a swift day trip. Instead, I could have further explored those magnificent mountains to the south. Be that as it may, it was unsurprisingly beautiful here. Basically, the only sights seen were the lower falls, Lewis Falls, and this glorious canyon. And speaking of the lower falls, you can glimpse them--upper center . . . at least, I think those are the lower falls. Funny, it wasn't until I was done processing the photo that I noticed them. I definitely did not see them when I took the picture.
Not long ago, I uploaded another photo of this canyon where I used it as a backdrop for a nude shoot (though the photo is rated "safe" and can be seen here: www.flickr.com/photos/80014607@N05/53957272928/in/datepos...). So, for those who prefer their landscapes nude free--this one's for you!
So, this is my first expanded photograph. I worked on this for 4 hours. then, spent 2 more trying to get it out of photoshop. (seriously, it just wouldn't export for the longest time.)
Today, I met David Talley and we went and shot together in that forest of his. It was seriously the most surreal feeling to meet someone from Flickr. He helped me out with my shoot and I got to help him out with his, which was really awesome. I seriously couldn't be any happier right now.
Expand your Pandoran options with eyes like those of the Metkayina clan! This eye pack mixes blues, greens and yellows in a way that one or two eye sets might really suit your tastes.
You can get them in-world at our main shop!
365/2021 - Expanding Horizons ~ 141/365
A very busy day looking after the grandchildren meant only a few moments to grab a photo for the day from a vase of flowers on their dining table!
Thank you to everyone who pauses long enough to look at my photo. All comments and Faves are very much appreciated
Tate Modern is a modern art gallery located in London. It is Britain's national gallery of international modern art and forms part of the Tate group (together with Tate Britain, Tate Liverpool, Tate St Ives and Tate Online). It is based in the former Bankside Power Station, in the Bankside area of the London Borough of Southwark.
The galleries are housed in the former Bankside Power Station, which was originally designed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott, the architect of Battersea Power Station, and built in two stages between 1947 and 1963. The power station closed in 1981. In 1992 The Tate Gallery at the British National Art Museum proposed a competition to build a new building for modern art. The purpose for the new building would help with the ever-expanding collection on modern and contemporary art. In 1995 itwas announced that Herzog & de Meuron had won the competition with their simple design. The architects decided to reinvent the current building instead of demolishing it. The Tate modern is an example of adaptive reuse, the process of finding new life in old buildings.
365/2021 - Expanding Horizons ~ 350/365
Treasure Hunt #64 ~ Tinsel
Flickr Lounge ~ Christmas Decorations
On our walk through a local park today we came across several memorial trees that had been dressed up for Christmas. What a great way to remember their loved ones at this time of year.
Thank you to everyone who pauses long enough to look at my photo. All comments and Faves are very much appreciated
Not a tsunami photo - it is of lava meeting the ocean and steaming newly formed lava land and black sand beach. The active lava flows have recently completely stopped happening.
Thank you to those who wrote to me concerned about my safety during the tsunami scare, I appreciated that ;)
Hawaii missed getting any serious tsunami from the Japan quake; we did have some damage from wave surge but nothing too serious.
All is back to normal now except all the lava has stopped flowing here on the Island of Hawaii. This stoppage comes after some major new eruptive fissures broke out last week. The cessation of flowing lava is a big concern for us here because it now can pop up anywhere along the east rift zone, including where my house sits... We are keeping a close watch out for new swarms of small earthquakes, which usually indicate where the next eruption event will take place.
Yesterday evening a new set of earthquake swarms started right where I have been filming the lava flowing along the south shores below Kilauea Volcano; in the Kalapana region. This is not a normal location for swarms.
Not only do I live on the #1 East Rift Zone of volcano activity, I also live in a tsunami evacuation zone but my house is inland a safe distance and is at the 65-foot elevation. But one of those earthquake swarms began last night on the coast near where I live. Here at my house at 11:00 PM last night, while I was watching the devastating Japan news reports, and while hearing the loud tsunami evacuation sirens blaring outside, my house began shaking from a local earthquake! One of 32 taking place a few miles from my house! Most were small but the one that shook the house was 4.6; a surreal moment.
Disturbing images and reports from the Japan area-- such incredible damage and loss of life-- largest earthquake ever for them.
Count your blessings
~~~ Leigh aka Sparks
(If you would like to see the kind of places I photograph out on the active molten lava fields you can do that by watching my latest 2-minute video news report on the flowing lava and its recent cessation, then go to this page Big Island Video News (March 10th) and my lava update begins at the 3-minute 10-second mark within the local 10-minute newscast.)
PLAZUELA DE SAN GINES
Es un rincón muy típico. El pasadizo sale de la calle del Arenal entre la iglesia de San Ginés y la discoteca Joy Eslava. A sus inicios se encuentran puestos de venta de libros usados, a los pies de la iglesia, donde es posible encontrar alguna antigua edición. A su izquierda se extiende la discoteca y al fondo se halla la famosa Churrería de San Ginés. A la plazuela se accede a través de un gran soportal y el ella encontramos la fachada posterior de la iglesia de San Ginés.
MADRID DE LOS AUSTRIAS
Por Madrid de los Austrias, también llamado barrio de los Austrias, se conoce una amplia zona de la capital española, sin entidad administrativa, correspondiente al primitivo trazado medieval de la ciudad y a la expansión urbanística iniciada por los monarcas de la Casa de Austria, a partir de los reinados de Carlos I y, especialmente, de Felipe II, que, en el año 1561, estableció la Corte en Madrid. A efectos turísticos, el nombre se emplea para promocionar los conjuntos monumentales de una gran parte de los barrios administrativos de Sol y Palacio, que representa aproximadamente una cuarta parte de la citada zona. Además de su acepción geográfica, el término Madrid de los Austrias también tiene una acepción histórica. Según esta perspectiva, la expresión se emplea para designar la evolución, preferentemente urbanística, de la ciudad entre los reinados de Carlos I (r. 1516–1556), el primero de los Austrias, y Carlos II (r. 1665–1700), con el que se extinguió la rama española de esta dinastía.
Los límites del Madrid de los Austrias difieren significativamente según el punto de vista adoptado, ya sea histórico o turístico.
Límites históricos
Durante el reinado de Carlos I, Madrid estaba integrado por dos núcleos principales: el recinto comprendido dentro de la muralla cristiana, de origen medieval, y los arrabales. El casco urbano se extendía, de oeste a este, desde el Palacio Real hasta la Puerta del Sol; y, de norte a sur, desde la plaza de Santo Domingo hasta la plaza de la Cebada.
A partir de 1561, con la capitalidad, la ciudad creció de forma vertiginosa, expandiéndose principalmente hacia el este. El plano de Madrid realizado por Pedro Teixeira en el año 1656, casi un siglo después del establecimiento de la Corte, da una idea precisa de las dimensiones del casco urbano, en tiempos de Felipe IV (r. 1621–1665).
La villa estaba rodeada por una cerca, mandada construir por el citado monarca en el año 1625, levantada, hacia el norte, sobre las actuales calles de Génova, Sagasta, Carranza y Alberto Aguilera (conocidas popularmente como los bulevares); hacia el sur, sobre las rondas de Toledo, Valencia y Embajadores; hacia el este, sobre los paseos del Prado y Recoletos; y hacia el oeste, sobre los terraplenes del valle del río Manzanares.
Extramuros, se situaban los jardines, parajes agrestes y recintos palaciegos del Buen Retiro, en la parte oriental de la ciudad; de la Casa de Campo, en la occidental; y del El Pardo, en la noroccidental.
La cerca de Felipe IV sustituyó a una anterior, promovida por Felipe II (r. 1556–1598) y que enseguida quedó obsoleta. Fue erigida para detener el crecimiento desordenado que estaba experimentando la ciudad y actuó como una auténtica barrera urbanística, que limitó la expansión de la urbe hasta el siglo XIX. Fue derribada en 1868.
A grandes rasgos, el espacio comprendido dentro de la cerca de Felipe IV se corresponde en la actualidad con el distrito Centro. Su superficie es de 523,73 hectáreas y comprende los barrios administrativos de Cortes, Embajadores, Justicia, Palacio, Sol y Universidad.
Límites turísticos
A diferencia de los límites históricos, perfectamente establecidos a través de la cerca de Felipe IV, la zona promocionada turísticamente como Madrid de los Austrias carece de una delimitación precisa. Se circunscribe a un ámbito sensiblemente menor, que comprende parcialmente los barrios administrativos de Sol y Palacio, pertenecientes al distrito Centro de la capital.
Se estaría hablando de las áreas de influencia de las calles Mayor, Arenal, Segovia, carrera de San Francisco, Bailén y Toledo y de las plazas de la Cebada, de la Paja, Mayor, Puerta del Sol y de Oriente, donde se hallan barrios y áreas sin entidad administrativa, como La Latina, Ópera o Las Vistillas.
Aquí se encuentran conjuntos monumentales construidos tanto en los siglos XVI y XVII, cuando reinó en España la dinastía Habsburgo, como en épocas anteriores y posteriores. Por lo general, todos ellos quedan incluidos en los itinerarios turísticos que utilizan la expresión Madrid de los Austrias. Es el caso de las iglesias medievales de san Nicolás de los Servitas y san Pedro el Viejo, de los siglos XII y XIV, respectivamente, y del Palacio Real, erigido en el siglo XVIII.
En orden inverso, existen monumentos promovidos por los Austrias no integrados en las citadas rutas, al situarse fuera de los barrios de Sol y Palacio. Algunos ejemplos son el Salón de Reinos y el Casón del Buen Retiro, que formaron parte del desaparecido Palacio del Buen Retiro, y los jardines homónimos.
También quedan excluidas de esta clasificación turística zonas de menor valor monumental, pero con un gran significado histórico en la época de los Austrias. Es el caso del barrio de las Letras, articulado alrededor de la calle de las Huertas, donde coincidieron algunos de los literatos más destacados del Siglo de Oro español, tales como Félix Lope de Vega, Miguel de Cervantes o Francisco de Quevedo; o de la Casa de Campo, concebida por Felipe II como una finca de recreo y reserva de caza. En la primera mitad del siglo XVI, antes de su designación como capital, Madrid era una villa de tamaño medio entre las urbes castellanas, con cierta relevancia social e influencia política. Tenía entre 10 000 y 20 000 habitantes y formaba parte del grupo de dieciocho ciudades que disfrutaban del privilegio de tener voz y voto en las Cortes de Castilla.
Había acogido en numerosas ocasiones las Cortes del Reino y, desde la época de los Trastámara, era frecuentada por la monarquía, atraída por su riqueza cinegética. Además, uno de sus templos religiosos, San Jerónimo el Real, fue elegido por la monarquía como escenario oficial del acto de jura de los príncipes de Asturias como herederos de la Corona. El primero en hacerlo fue Felipe II (18 de abril de 1528), que 33 años después fijaría la Corte en Madrid, y la última Isabel II (20 de junio de 1883).
Carlos I (r. 1516–1556), el primer monarca de la Casa de Austria, mostró un interés especial por la villa, tal vez con la intención de establecer de forma definitiva la Corte en Madrid. Así sostiene el cronista Luis Cabrera de Córdoba (1559–1623), en un escrito referido a Felipe II
El emperador impulsó diferentes obras arquitectónicas y urbanísticas en Madrid. A él se debe la conversión del primitivo castillo de El Pardo en palacio, situado en las afueras del casco urbano. Las obras, dirigidas por el arquitecto Luis de Vega, se iniciaron en 1547 y concluyeron en 1558, durante el reinado de Felipe II. De este proyecto sólo se conservan algunos elementos que, como el Patio de los Austrias, quedaron integrados en la estructura definitiva del Palacio Real de El Pardo, fruto de la reconstrucción llevada a cabo en el siglo XVIII, tras el incendio de 1604.
Otro de los edificios que el monarca ordenó reformar fue el Real Alcázar de Madrid, un castillo de origen medieval, que fue pasto de las llamas en 1734 y en cuyo solar se levanta en la actualidad el Palacio Real. Duplicó su superficie con diferentes añadidos, entre los que destacan el Patio y las Salas de la Reina y la llamada Torre de Carlos I, a partir de un diseño de Luis de Vega y Alonso de Covarrubias.
Entre los proyectos urbanísticos promovidos por Carlos I, figura la demolición de la Puerta de Guadalaxara, el acceso principal de la antigua muralla cristiana de Madrid, y su sustitución por una más monumental, con tres arcos. Fue levantada hacia 1535 a la altura del número 49 de la actual calle Mayor y el 2 de septiembre de 1582 desapareció en un incendio.
Durante su reinado, se inauguraron algunos templos religiosos, entre ellos el santuario de Nuestra Señora de Atocha, que data de 1523. Fue derribado en 1888, ante su mal estado, y reconstruido como basílica en el siglo XX.
En 1541, se dispuso la ampliación de la Iglesia de San Ginés, situada en la calle del Arenal, mediante un anejo parroquial en la calle de la Montera, que recibió el nombre de San Luis Obispo. Abrió sus puertas en 1689, en tiempos de Carlos II, y fue incendiado en 1935. Sólo se conserva su fachada principal, que fue trasladada e integrada en la estructura de la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora del Carmen, en la calle del Carmen.
El Convento de San Felipe el Real, de 1547, fue uno de los puntos de encuentro más importantes del Madrid de los Austrias. Su lonja recibió el sobrenombre de mentidero de la villa, por los rumores que allí se fraguaban. El edificio, destruido en 1838, poseía un relevante claustro renacentista, compuesto por 28 arcos en cada una de sus dos galerías.
Otro templo de la época es la Iglesia de San Sebastián (1554–1575), que tuvo que ser reconstruida tras ser alcanzada por una bomba durante la Guerra Civil.
La Capilla del Obispo es, sin duda, la construcción religiosa de mayor interés arquitectónico llevada a cabo en Madrid, en tiempos de Carlos I. Fue levantada entre 1520 y 1535, como un anejo de la iglesia medieval de San Andrés. Responde a una iniciativa de la familia de los Vargas, una de las más poderosas del Madrid medieval y renacentista. Debe su nombre a Gutierre de Vargas y Carvajal, obispo de Plasencia, su principal impulsor.
En el terreno social, el religioso Antón Martín creó en 1552 el Hospital de Nuestra Señora del Amor de Dios, que estuvo en la calle de Atocha, cerca de la plaza que lleva el nombre de su fundador.
En 1529, Carlos I ordenó que el Real Hospital de la Corte, de carácter itinerante ya que acompañaba a la Corte en sus desplazamientos, quedara establecido de forma fija en Madrid. Su edificio, conocido como Hospital del Buen Suceso, estaba integrado por un recinto hospitalario y una iglesia, que fueron concluidos en 1607. A mediados del siglo XIX, se procedió a su derribo dentro de las obras de ampliación de la Puerta del Sol, donde se encontraba.
En cuanto a las residencias palaciegas, cabe mencionar la de Alonso Gutiérrez de Madrid, tesorero del emperador, cuya estructura fue aprovechada, durante el reinado de Felipe II, para la fundación del Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales. Recientes intervenciones en este edificio han puesto al descubierto elementos originales del patio principal del citado palacio.
El Palacio de los condes de Paredes de Nava o Casa de San Isidro, donde tiene sus instalaciones el Museo de los Orígenes, se encuentra en la plaza de San Andrés. Fue construido en el solar de un antiguo edificio donde, según la tradición, vivió Iván de Vargas, quien, en el siglo XI, dio alojamiento y trabajo a san Isidro. Data de la primera mitad del siglo XVI.
Por su parte, la Casa de Cisneros data del año 1537 y está construida en estilo plateresco. Situada entre la calle del Sacramento y la plaza de la Villa, su primer propietario fue Benito Jiménez de Cisneros, sobrino del cardenal Cisneros (1436–1517), de quien toma su nombre.
Reinado de Felipe II
En 1561, Felipe II (r. 1556–1598) estableció la Corte en Madrid. Tal designación provocó un aumento de la población vertiginoso: de los 10 000 - 20 000 habitantes que podía haber en la villa antes de la capitalidad se pasó a 35 000 - 45 000 en el año 1575 y a más de 100 000 a finales del siglo XVI.
Para hacer frente a este crecimiento demográfico, el Concejo de Madrid, respaldado por la Corona, elaboró un proyecto de ordenación urbanística, consistente en la alineación y ensanchamiento de calles, el derribo de la antigua muralla medieval, la adecuación de la plaza del Arrabal (antecedente de la actual Plaza Mayor) y la construcción de edificios públicos como hospitales, hospicios, orfanatos, instalaciones de abastos y templos religiosos.
Felipe II puso al frente de este plan al arquitecto Juan Bautista de Toledo. Sin embargo, la falta de medios y lentitud burocrática del consistorio y el desinterés mostrado por la Corona en la aportación de recursos ralentizaron su desarrollo. La consecuencia fue un crecimiento urbano rápido y desordenado, que se realizó preferentemente hacia el este del centro histórico, dada la accidentada orografía de la parte occidental, orientada a los barrancos y terraplenes del valle del río Manzanares.
Los nuevos edificios se construyeron siguiendo la dirección de los caminos que partían de la villa y, a su alrededor, surgió un entramado de calles estrechas, aunque dispuestas hipodámicamente. El que conducía hasta Alcalá de Henares (hoy calle de Alcalá) vertebró el crecimiento urbano hacia el este, al igual que el camino que llevaba a San Jerónimo el Real, sobre el que se originó la carrera de San Jerónimo. Por el sudeste, la expansión tomó como eje principal el camino del santuario de Nuestra Señora de Atocha (actual calle de Atocha).
Hacia el sur, las nuevas casas se alinearon alrededor del camino de Toledo (calle de Toledo) y, por el norte, la referencia urbanística estuvo marcada por los caminos de Hortaleza y de Fuencarral (con sus respectivas calles homónimas), si bien hay que tener en cuenta que, en estos dos lados de la ciudad, el crecimiento fue más moderado.
Antes de la capitalidad, en 1535, la superficie de Madrid era de 72 hectáreas, cifra que aumentó hasta 134 en 1565, sólo cuatro años después de establecerse la Corte en la villa. A finales del reinado de Felipe II, el casco urbano ocupaba 282 hectáreas y tenía unos 7590 inmuebles, tres veces más que en 1563 (2250), al poco tiempo de la designación de Madrid como capital.
La intensa actividad inmobiliaria de este periodo no fue suficiente para satisfacer la demanda de viviendas, por parte de cortesanos y sirvientes de la Corona. Tal situación llevó al monarca a promulgar el edicto conocido como Regalía de Aposento, mediante el cual los propietarios de inmuebles de más de una planta estaban obligados a ceder una de ellas a una familia cortesana.
Este decreto favoreció el desarrollo de las llamadas casas a la malicia, un tipo de vivienda con el que sus propietarios intentaban evitar el cumplimiento de la norma, mediante diferentes soluciones (una única planta, compartimentación excesiva de los interiores, ocultación a la vía pública del piso superior...).
En 1590, la Corona y el Concejo crearon la Junta de Policía y Ornato, organismo presidido por el arquitecto Francisco de Mora, con el que se intentó poner fin a los desarreglos urbanísticos provocados por la rápida expansión de la ciudad. La correcta alineación de las calles, mediante la supresión de los recovecos existentes entre los inmuebles, fue uno de sus objetivos.
Felipe II promovió la realización de diferentes infraestructuras urbanas, caso del Puente de Segovia, la calle Real Nueva (actual calle de Segovia) y la Plaza Mayor. Los proyectos inicialmente previstos para estas tres obras no pudieron llevarse a cabo plenamente, adoptándose soluciones menos ambiciosas, ante las limitaciones presupuestarias.
Las dos primeras se enmarcaban dentro del mismo plan, consistente en la creación de una gran avenida, de aire monumental, que, salvando el río Manzanares por el oeste, conectase el antiguo camino de Segovia con el Real Alcázar. Finalmente, sólo pudo ejecutarse el puente (1582–1584), atribuido a Juan de Herrera, mientras que la avenida quedó reducida a unas nivelaciones del terreno sobre el barranco del arroyo de San Pedro y al derribo de varios edificios, que dieron origen a la calle de Segovia, terminada en 1577.
Con respecto a la Plaza Mayor, levantada sobre la antigua plaza del Arrabal, el centro comercial de la villa en aquel entonces, el monarca encargó su diseño a Juan de Herrera en el año 1580. Durante su reinado, se demolieron los edificios primitivos y dieron comienzo las obras de la Casa de la Panadería (1590), proyectada por Diego Sillero. Fue su sucesor, Felipe III, quien dio el impulso definitivo al recinto.
Felipe II continuó con las reformas y ampliaciones del Real Alcázar, iniciadas por su padre, con la edificación de la Torre Dorada, obra de Juan Bautista de Toledo, y la decoración de las distintas dependencias. También ordenó la construcción, en las inmediaciones del palacio, de la Casa del Tesoro, las Caballerizas Reales y la Armería Real. Todos estos conjuntos han desaparecido.
Pero tal vez su proyecto más personal fuese la Casa de Campo, paraje que convirtió en un recinto palaciego y ajardinado para su recreo. Se debe a un diseño de Juan Bautista de Toledo, que siguió el modelo de naturaleza urbanizada, acorde con el gusto renacentista de la época, a modo de conexión con el Monte de El Pardo. De este proyecto sólo se conservan partes del trazado de los jardines y algunos restos del palacete.
Asimismo, fueron levantados distintos edificios religiosos y civiles. El Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales fue fundado en 1559 por Juana de Austria, hermana del monarca, y en 1561 comenzaron las obras del Convento de la Victoria, que, como aquel, también estuvo muy vinculado con la Corona.
En 1583 abrió su puertas el corral de comedias del Teatro del Príncipe (en cuyo solar se levanta ahora el Teatro Español), institución clave en el Siglo de Oro español.15 En 1590, fue inaugurado el Colegio de María de Córdoba y Aragón (actual Palacio del Senado), que toma su nombre de una dama de la reina Ana de Austria, principal impulsora del proyecto.
Entre los palacios nobiliarios, hay que destacar la Casa de las Siete Chimeneas (1574–1577), actual sede del Ministerio de Cultura, situada en la plaza del Rey. Su primer propietario fue Pedro de Ledesma, secretario de Antonio Pérez.
En la calle de Atocha se encontraban las casas de Antonio Pérez y en la plaza de la Paja se halla el Palacio de los Vargas, cuya fachada fue transformada en el siglo XX, adoptándose una solución historicista, a modo de continuación de la contigua Capilla del Obispo.
Reinado de Felipe III
En 1601, pocos años después de subir al trono Felipe III (r. 1598–1621), Madrid perdió la capitalidad a favor de Valladolid. Consiguió recuperarla cinco años después, tras el pago a la Corona de 250 000 ducados y el compromiso por parte del Concejo de abastecer de agua potable al Real Alcázar, entre otras infraestructuras.
Con tal fin, el consistorio realizó los denominados viajes de agua (conducciones desde manantiales cercanos a la villa), entre los cuales cabe destacar el de Amaniel (1614–1616). De ellos también se beneficiaron algunos conventos y palacios, además de los propios vecinos, a través de las fuentes públicas. En 1617 fue creada la llamada Junta de Fuentes, organismo encargado de su mantenimiento y conservación.
Bajo el reinado de Felipe III, se proyectaron numerosos edificios religiosos y civiles, algunos de los cuales fueron inaugurados en la época de Felipe IV. Es el caso de la Colegiata de San Isidro; de la nueva fachada del Real Alcázar (1610–1636), obra de Juan Gómez de Mora, que perduró hasta el incendio del palacio en 1734; y del Convento de los Padres Capuchinos, en El Pardo, fundado por el rey en 1612, cuyo edificio definitivo no pudo comenzarse hasta 1638.
Las nuevas edificaciones se construyeron con mayor calidad arquitectónica que en los periodos anteriores, al tiempo que se impuso un estilo propio, típicamente madrileño, de aire clasicista y de clara influencia herreriana, aunque también se observan rasgos prebarrocos.
Además, se establecieron arquetipos arquitectónicos, que, en relación con las casas palaciegas, quedaron definidos en un trazado de planta rectangular, dos o más alturas de órdenes, portadas manieristas, cubiertas abuhardilladas de pizarra y torres cuadrangulares, por lo general dos, con chapiteles rematados en punta, en la línea escurialense.
Este esquema, uno de los que mejor definen la arquitectura madrileña de los Austrias y de periodos posteriores, empezó a gestarse en tiempos de Felipe III, con ejemplos tan notables como las Casas de la Panadería y de la Carnicería, en la Plaza Mayor; el Palacio del marqués de Camarasa, ubicado en la calle Mayor y sede actual de diferentes dependencias municipales; el proyecto de reconstrucción del Palacio Real de El Pardo, incendiado el 13 de marzo de 1604; y la ya citada fachada del Real Alcázar. No obstante, fue con Felipe IV cuando alcanzó su máxima expresión.
Por su parte, el Palacio de los Consejos (también llamado del duque de Uceda) puede ser considerado un precedente en lo que respecta a la organización del espacio y fachadas, si bien carece de las torres de inspiración herreriana. Fue diseñado por Francisco de Mora, quien contó con la colaboración de Alonso de Trujillo, al frente las obras entre 1608 y 1613.
En cuanto a los templos religiosos, la mayoría de las construcciones utilizó como referencia el modelo jesuítico, de planta de cruz latina, que tiene su origen en la Iglesia del Gesú (Roma, Italia). La Colegiata de San Isidro, que, como se ha referido, fue diseñada en tiempos de Felipe III y terminada con Felipe IV, responde a esta pauta.
Mención especial merece el Real Monasterio de la Encarnación (1611–1616), fundado por Margarita de Austria, esposa del rey. Su fachada, obra de Juan Gómez de Mora (aunque posiblemente proyectada por su tío, Francisco de Mora), fue una de las más imitadas en la arquitectura castellana del siglo XVII y buena parte del XVIII.
Un ejemplo es el Monasterio de la Inmaculada Concepción, en Loeches (Madrid), que, como aquel, presenta fachada rectangular con pórtico, pilastras a ambos lados y frontón en la parte superior.
La lista de edificios religiosos levantados durante el reinado de Felipe III es amplia. El Convento de San Ildefonso de las Trinitarias Descalzas (o, sencillamente, de las Trinitarias), del año 1609, se encuentra en el Barrio de las Letras y en él fue enterrado Miguel de Cervantes. Del Convento del Santísimo Sacramento, fundado en 1615 por Cristóbal Gómez de Sandoval y de la Cerda, valido del rey, sólo se conserva su iglesia (actual Catedral Arzobispal Castrense), levantada en tiempos de Carlos II.
El Monasterio del Corpus Christi o de las Carboneras y la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora del Carmen fueron empezados en 1607 y 1611, respectivamente, y ambos se deben a Miguel de Soria. La Iglesia de San Antonio de los Alemanes, de 1606, es una de las más singulares del primer tercio del siglo XVII, por su planta oval.21 Su interior está decorado al fresco por Lucas Jordán, Juan Carreño de Miranda y Francisco Rizi.
Las iglesias de San Ildefonso (1619) y de Santos Justo y Pastor (hacia 1620) se encuentran entre las últimas fundaciones religiosas llevadas a cabo antes de la muerte del monarca en 1621. La primera, destruida completamente durante la Guerra Civil Española, fue reconstruida en la década de 1950.
Pero, sin duda, el proyecto urbanístico más importante llevado a cabo por el monarca fue la Plaza Mayor. En 1619, Felipe III finalizó las obras, que había iniciado su antecesor, con un nuevo diseño, firmado y desarrollado por Juan Gómez de Mora. Este arquitecto fue también responsable de la Casa de la Panadería, que preside el conjunto, si bien su aspecto actual corresponde a la reconstrucción realizada por Tomás Román, tras el incendio acaecido en 1672.
Además de este recinto, se procedió a adecuar otras plazas, como la de la Cebada y la desaparecida de Valnadú, esta última resultado de la demolición en el año 1567 de la puerta homónima, en la época de Felipe II. Otro de sus logros urbanísticos fue la reorganización del territorio en las riberas del río Manzanares y en el Real Camino de Valladolid, mediante la eliminación de las compartimentaciones internas y la estructuración de los plantíos.
En el terreno de la escultura, destaca la estatua ecuestre del propio rey, traída desde Italia como obsequio del Gran Duque de Florencia. Realizada en bronce, fue comenzada por Juan de Bolonia y terminada por su discípulo, Pietro Tacca, en 1616.
Estuvo emplazada en la Casa de Campo, recinto que fue objeto de una especial atención por parte del monarca con la construcción de nuevas salas en el palacete (del Mosaico y de las Burlas) y la instalación de diferentes fuentes y adornos en los jardines. En 1848, la escultura fue trasladada al centro de la Plaza Mayor, donde actualmente se exhibe, por orden de Isabel II.
Reinado de Felipe IV
Felipe IV (r. 1621–1665) accedió al trono a la edad de dieciséis años, tras la inesperada muerte de su padre. Tradicionalmente ha sido considerado como un mecenas de las letras y de las artes, principalmente de la pintura. Durante su reinado, Madrid se convirtió en uno de los principales focos culturales de Europa y en el escenario donde se fraguaron muchas de las grandes creaciones del Siglo de Oro español. Además, la ciudad albergó la mayor parte de la colección pictórica del monarca, una de las más importantes de la historia del coleccionismo español
En el ámbito de la arquitectura, se levantaron numerosos edificios civiles y religiosos, al tiempo que se construyó una nueva residencia regia en el entorno del Prado de los Jerónimos, en el lado oriental del casco urbano. El Palacio del Buen Retiro desplazó hacia el este buena parte de la actividad política, social y cultural de la villa, que hasta entonces gravitaba únicamente sobre el Real Alcázar, situado en el extremo occidental.
En líneas generales, la arquitectura palaciega del reinado de Felipe IV siguió el modelo post-escurialense, de rasgos barrocos contenidos, que comenzó a forjarse con Felipe III. Este estándar aparecía en estado puro en el desaparecido Palacio del Buen Retiro, cuyo origen fue el llamado Cuarto Real, un anexo del Monasterio de los Jerónimos, que, desde tiempos de los Reyes Católicos, era frecuentado por la realeza para su descanso y retiro.
Siguiendo una iniciativa del Conde-Duque de Olivares,29 en 1632 Felipe IV ordenó al arquitecto Alonso Carbonel la ampliación del recinto y su conversión en residencia veraniega. El palacio fue concebido como un lugar de recreo, función que quedó remarcada mediante una configuración articulada alrededor de dos grandes patios, diseñados a modo de plazas urbanas.30 La Plaza Principal estaba reservada a la Familia Real, mientras que la Plaza Grande, de mayores dimensiones, era utilizada para la celebración de fiestas, actos lúdico-culturales y eventos taurinos.
La primera fase, correspondiente al núcleo central (Plaza Principal), se concluyó en 1633, sólo un año después de realizarse el encargo. Por su parte, las obras de la Plaza Grande, el Picadero, el Salón de Baile, el Coliseo y los jardines se prolongaron, a lo largo de diferentes etapas, hasta 1640.
El recinto palaciego sufrió graves desperfectos durante la Guerra de la Independencia y, finalmente, fue demolido en la época de Isabel II, ante la imposibilidad de recuperación. Sólo se conservan el Salón de Reinos y el Salón de Baile (o Casón del Buen Retiro), si bien con importantes transformaciones en relación con el diseño original.
En lo que respecta a los jardines, el Parque de El Retiro es heredero del trazado llevado a cabo en la época de Felipe IV, aunque su fisonomía actual responde a múltiples remodelaciones ejecutadas en periodos posteriores, principalmente en los siglos XVIII y XIX. Entre los elementos primitivos que aún se mantienen, cabe citar algunos complejos hidráulicos, como el Estanque Grande y la Ría Chica.
Además del Buen Retiro, el monarca mostró una especial predilección por el Real Sitio de El Pardo, donde mandó construir el Palacio de la Zarzuela, actual residencia de la Familia Real, y ampliar la Torre de la Parada, a partir de un diseño de Juan Gómez de Mora. Este último edificio fue erigido como pabellón de caza por Felipe II y resultó completamente destruido en el siglo XVIII.
La arquitectura civil tiene en el Palacio de Santa Cruz y en la Casa de la Villa, ambos proyectados por Juan Gómez de Mora en el año 1629, dos notables exponentes.
El primero albergó la Sala de Alcaldes de Casa y Corte y la Cárcel de Corte y, en la actualidad, acoge al Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. Se estructura alrededor de dos patios cuadrangulares simétricos, unidos mediante un eje central que sirve de distribuidor y acceso al edificio. La horizontalidad de su fachada principal, que da a la Plaza de la Provincia, queda rota por los torreones laterales de inspiración herreriana y la portada con dos niveles de triple vano. Fue terminado en 1636 y ha sido objeto de numerosas reformas en siglos posteriores.
Por su parte, la Casa de la Villa fue diseñada como sede del gobierno municipal y Cárcel de Villa. Sus obras comenzaron en 1644, quince años después de realizarse el proyecto, y finalizaron en 1696. Junto a Gómez de Mora, colaboraron José de Villarreal, a quien se debe el patio central, Teodoro Ardemans y José del Olmo.
Entre las residencias nobiliarias, figuran el Palacio del duque de Abrantes, construido por Juan Maza entre 1653 y 1655 y transformado sustancialmente en el siglo XIX, y el Palacio de la Moncloa. Este último fue erigido en el año 1642, a iniciativa de Melchor Antonio Portocarrero y Lasso de la Vega, conde de Monclova y virrey del Perú, su primer propietario. La estructura actual corresponde a la reconstrucción y ampliación llevadas a cabo en el siglo XX, tras los daños sufridos durante la Guerra Civil.
La arquitectura religiosa del reinado de Felipe IV presenta dos fases, coincidentes con los procesos evolutivos que se dieron en el arte barroco español a lo largo del siglo XVII.
En la primera mitad, se mantuvo la austeridad geométrica y espacial, arrastrada del estilo herreriano, con escasos y calculados motivos ornamentales, salvo en los interiores, que, en clara contraposición, aparecían profusamente decorados. En la segunda mitad del siglo, el gusto por las formas favoreció un progresivo alejamiento del clasicismo y la incorporación de motivos naturalistas en las fachadas.
Dentro de la primera corriente, que puede ser denominada como barroco clasicista, se encuentran la Colegiata de San Isidro, la Ermita de San Antonio de los Portugueses y el Convento de San Plácido.
La Colegiata de San Isidro (1622–1664) fue fundada como iglesia del antiguo Colegio Imperial, situado dentro del mismo complejo. El templo se debe a un proyecto del hermano jesuita Pedro Sánchez de hacia 1620, iniciándose su construcción en 1622. A su muerte, en 1633, se hará cargo de la obra el hermano Francisco Bautista junto con Melchor de Bueras. Es de planta de cruz latina y destaca por su fachada monumental, realizada en piedra de granito y flanqueada por dos torres en los lados. Fue la catedral provisional de Madrid desde 1885 hasta 1993.
La Ermita de San Antonio de los Portugueses estuvo ubicada en una isla artificial, en medio de un estanque lobulado, dentro de los Jardines del Buen Retiro. Fue edificada entre 1635 y 1637 por Alonso Carbonel y derribada en 1761, para levantar, sobre su solar, la Real Fábrica de Porcelana de la China, igualmente desaparecida. Su torre cuadrangular, rematada con chapitel herreriano, y su suntuosa portada, configurada por cuatro grandes columnas de mármol blanco y capiteles de mármol negro, eran sus elementos más notables.
El edificio actual del Convento de San Plácido, obra de Lorenzo de San Nicolás, data de 1641. La decoración interior es la parte más sobresaliente y en él se conserva un Cristo yacente de Gregorio Fernández.
Conforme fue avanzando el siglo XVII, los exteriores sobrios fueron perdiendo vigencia y se impuso un estilo plenamente barroco, sin apenas concesiones al clasicismo. Esta evolución puede apreciarse en la ya citada Casa de la Villa, que, dado su prolongado proceso de construcción (el diseño se hizo en 1629 y el edificio se terminó en 1696), fue incorporando diferentes elementos ornamentales en su fachada clasicista, acordes con las nuevas tendencias.
La Capilla de San Isidro ejemplifica el apogeo del barroco. Fue construida como un anejo de la iglesia de origen medieval de San Andrés para albergar los restos mortales de san Isidro. La primera piedra se puso en 1642, a partir de un proyecto de Pedro de la Torre. En 1657, José de Villarreal realizó un segundo proyecto, cuyas obras fueron inauguradas por Felipe IV y su esposa Mariana de Austria en un acto institucional. Fue terminada en 1699.
Junto a la basílica neoclásica de San Francisco el Grande (siglo XVIII), se halla la Capilla del santo Cristo de los Dolores para la Venerable Orden Tercera de San Francisco (1662–1668), realizada por el arquitecto Francisco Bautista. En su interior sobresale la decoración barroca, con especial mención al baldaquino, hecho en maderas, jaspes y mármoles, donde se guarda la talla del Cristo de los Dolores.
El Convento de Nuestra Señora de la Concepción o de las Góngoras es otro ejemplo del barroco madrileño. Debe su nombre a Juan Jiménez de Góngora, ministro del Consejo de Castilla, quien procedió a su creación, por encargo directo del rey, como ofrenda por el nacimiento de su hijo Carlos (a la postre Carlos II). Fue inaugurado en 1665 y ampliado en 1669, según un proyecto de Manuel del Olmo.
Dentro del capítulo de arquitectura religiosa, también hay que destacar la reconstrucción de la iglesia medieval de San Ginés, llevada a cabo, a partir de 1645, por el arquitecto Juan Ruiz. Es de planta de cruz latina, de tres naves, con crucero y cúpula.
Escultura
Las numerosas fundaciones religiosas llevadas a cabo con Felipe IV generaron una importante actividad escultórica, destinada a la realización de tallas y retablos. Hacia 1646 se estableció en la Corte Manuel Pereira, a quien se debe el retablo de la Iglesia de San Andrés, desaparecido durante la Guerra Civil, y la estatua de San Bruno, considerada una de sus obras maestras, que se conserva en la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando.
Fuera del ámbito religioso, la producción escultórica se desarrolló a través de dos vías: la ornamentación de calles y plazas, mediante la construcción de fuentes artísticas (es el caso de la Fuente de Orfeo, diseñada por Juan Gómez de Mora y terminada en 1629), y los encargos reales, entre los que sobresale la estatua ecuestre de Felipe IV (1634–1640).
Se trata de las primera escultura a caballo del mundo en la que éste se sostiene únicamente sobre sus patas traseras.34 Es obra de Pietro Tacca, quien trabajó sobre unos bocetos hechos por Velázquez y, según la tradición, contó con el asesoramiento científico de Galileo Galilei. Conocida como el caballo de bronce, estuvo inialmente en el Palacio del Buen Retiro y, en tiempos de Isabel II, fue trasladada a la Plaza de Oriente, su actual ubicación.
En el terreno urbanístico, Felipe IV ordenó la construcción de una cerca alrededor del casco urbano, mediante la cual quedaron establecidos los nuevos límites de la villa, tras los procesos expansivos de los periodos anteriores. Desde la fundación de Madrid en el siglo IX, había sido costumbre cercar el caserío, bien con una finalidad defensiva (murallas musulmana y cristiana), bien para el control fiscal de los abastos e inmigración (cerca medieval de los arrabales y Cerca de Felipe II).
La Cerca de Felipe IV provocó varios efectos en el desarrollo urbano: por un lado, impidió la expansión horizontal de Madrid hasta bien entrado el siglo XIX, cuando fue demolida y pudieron acometerse los primeros ensanches; y, por otro, favoreció un cierto crecimiento vertical, dando lugar a las corralas, viviendas dispuestas en varias alturas y organizadas en corredera, alrededor de un gran patio común.
De la citada cerca, realizada en ladrillo y mampostería, aún se mantienen en pie algunos restos, como los situados en la Ronda de Segovia, en los alrededores de la Puerta de Toledo.
El Puente de Toledo es otro de los proyectos urbanísticos impulsados por el rey. Su función era enlazar directamente el casco urbano con el camino de Toledo, salvando el río Manzanares por la parte suroccidental de la ciudad. Fue construido por José de Villarreal entre 1649 y 1660, a partir de un proyecto de Juan Gómez de Mora.
El puente quedó destruido en una riada y en 1671, durante el reinado de Carlos II, se levantó uno nuevo, que también desapareció por los mismos motivos. La estructura definitiva que ha llegado a la actualidad corresponde al primer tercio del siglo XVIII y es obra de Pedro de Ribera.
Reinado de Carlos II
Con la llegada al trono de Carlos II (r. 1665–1700), se frenó el ritmo constructor del reinado anterior, sobre todo en lo que respecta a las edificaciones civiles. Entre éstas, tan sólo cabe mencionar la Puerta de Felipe IV (1680), que, pese a su nombre, fue erigida en honor de María Luisa de Orleáns, primera esposa de Carlos II. Trazada por Melchor Bueras, estuvo inicialmente emplazada en la Carrera de San Jerónimo, hasta su traslado, a mediados del siglo XIX, a la calle de Alfonso XII, donde sirve de acceso al Parque de El Retiro.
En cuanto a las fundaciones religiosas, se levantaron algunos templos de interés artístico, que abandonaron definitivamente el aspecto austero de la primera mitad del siglo XVII e incorporaron plenamente las tendencias barrocas.
Es el caso de la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de Montserrat, que forma parte del convento homónimo. Fue trazada en el año 1668 por el arquitecto Sebastián Herrera Barnuevo, si bien su proyecto fue transformado por Gaspar de la Peña, Juan de Torija, Pedro de la Torre, Francisco Aspur y Pedro de Ribera, que intervinieron, en diferentes fases, hasta la conclusión del conjunto en 1720. El edificio destaca por su exterior profusamente ornamentado, en especial la torre que flanquea uno de sus lados, con abundantes motivos naturalistas en su parte superior y alrededor de los vanos.
El gusto por las formas también está presente en la Iglesia de las Calatravas (1670–1678), situada en la calle de Alcalá. Se debe a un diseño de fray Lorenzo de San Nicolás, terminado por Isidro Martínez y Gregorio Garrote. Presenta planta de cruz latina y, en su crucero, se alza una cúpula con tambor de ocho vanos, cuatro abiertos y cuatro cegados. La capilla mayor está adornada con un retablo de José Benito de Churriguera, realizado en tiempos de Felipe V.
Del Monasterio del santísimo Sacramento, fundado por Cristóbal Gómez de Sandoval en la época de Felipe IV, sólo se conserva su iglesia, actual Catedral Arzobispal Castrense. El templo se construyó con Carlos II, entre 1671 y 1744, a partir de un proyecto firmado por Francisco Bautista, Manuel del Olmo y Bartolomé Hurtado García.
Su fachada, labrada en sillares de granito, se estructura en tres niveles horizontales y está rematada por un frontón circular. La decoración exterior consiste en diferentes molduras que recorren los vanos, con motivos naturales, y en un relieve dedicado a san Benito y san Bernardo, instalado en el nivel intermedio.
Pese a las corrientes barrocas del momento, el Convento de las Comendadoras de Santiago se aproxima más al arquetipo arquitectónico de la primera mitad del reinado de Felipe IV, caracterizado por su sobriedad. El edificio, que empezó a construirse en 1667, destaca por su iglesia, de planta de cruz griega, fachada inspirada en el modelo del Real Monasterio de la Encarnación y torres con chapiteles herrerianos en los lados.
The Sisterhood of the Sightless is the fourth and final group inhabiting the Library. Their sisterhood pre-dates the establishment of the Library proper, inhabiting a small abbey that would go on to be expanded and fortified to the current structure. The Sisterhood maintains a secretive vault containing artefacts, writings, and even prisoners too powerful or valuable to be destroyed after the Academy has finished its work. To this end, they swear an oath of sightlessness, and wear ceramic masques that block their vision so that they may never know what they have placed within the vault except for the number and location listed in a braille catalogue they maintain.
Fig. 4 shows the Abbess and a sister preparing to enter the vault with the item. The Abbess carries the key that will allow the Gatekeeper to permit their entry, as well as a magical anti-lantern that obscures their movements to outside eyes and scrying magics. Also notable are the ornamented wrought iron golems that flank the halls in this area, who serve as both servants and guards to the sisters.
Quan Guan. I got 2 Speed Champions knockoffs from them, in order to try out the parts (they really expanded on the Speed Champions btw, lots of great cars already, better than most MOCs because of the available parts).
I was staying away from clone brands mostly because of color incompatibilities, but I found this grey pretty close, slightly more blue (but I have genuine Lego way more discolored).
This is a MOCer's dream, I mean the non-BS system (that clones have for ages). Non-BS brackets, wedge TILES, studs invertors, chainable slopes... I so wish LEGO had all this. Because yeah, if LEGO's quality is a 9, Quan Guan is a 7 at best (less good plastic, less good clutch, stains, few broken parts, and well the cars don't even roll).
But what caught me off-guard is the minifigs. Chinese minifigs are often hilariously bad, but this is what we would have today if LEGO had balls (but I can imagine them not willing to jeopardize their most emblematic asset). They look like on LEGO's promo pictures, properly articulated, while NOT looking off. When the limbs are straight, you just can't say it's not a real minifig, only from the back you see the joints. Funny that LEGO dual-molds the legs while these could really be 2 articulated parts.
Really, this works, I would love to see this made with quality.
So yeah, there's better than LEGO out there as for system & ideas (just not quality). A world in which functional parts don't mostly come from minifig accessories, and you don't have to cheat the system all the time.
Here we have a relative new addition to Summit Air's fleet, C-FRXJ, a Avro 146 Series RJ100 that is being used in partnership with First Air, coming into land at Yellowknife International Airport. "First Air 956" had left Edmonton approximately 90 minutes before touching down at CYZF. More on this can be found here: firstair.ca/2017/01/first-air-summit-air-working-partners...
++++ From WIKIPEDIA ++++++
Arles (/ɑːrl(z)/, also US: /ˈɑːrəl/,[3][4][5][6] French: [aʁl]; Provençal: Arle [ˈaʀle] in both classical and Mistralian norms; Classical Latin: Arelate) is a city and commune in the south of France, a subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, in the former province of Provence.
A large part of the Camargue, the largest wetlands in France, is located on the territory of the commune, making it the largest commune in Metropolitan France in terms of geographic territory. (Maripasoula, French Guiana, is much larger.) The city has a long history, and was of considerable importance in the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis. The Roman and Romanesque Monuments of Arles were listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1981.
Many artists have lived and worked in this area because of the southern light, including Pablo Picasso, Paul Gauguin, Jacques Réattu, and Peter Brown.[7] The Dutch post-Impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh lived in Arles from 1888 to 1889, and produced over 300 paintings and drawings during his time there. These are in internationally known museums and private collections around the world. An international photography festival has been held annually in the city since 1970.
Name
The settlement is attested as Arelate in the mid-1st century BC (Caesar), A̓reláte (Ἀρελάτε) in the early 1st c. AD (Strabo), Arlate civitas in 954, and Arle in the 13th century.[8] The toponym Arelate is a Latinized form of the Gaulish *Arelati, meaning 'by the marsh', or 'in front of the marsh'.[9]
Geography
The river Rhône forks into two branches just upstream of Arles, forming the Camargue delta. Because the Camargue is for a large part administratively part of Arles, the commune as a whole is the largest commune in Metropolitan France in terms of territory. But its population numbers only slightly more than 50,000. Its area is 758.93 km2 (293.02 sq mi), which is more than seven times the area of Paris.
History
Ancient era
Arles Amphitheatre, a Roman arena
Passageway in the Amphitheatre
Church of St. Trophime and its cloister
The Ligurians were in this area from about 800 BC. Later Celtic influences have also been discovered. The city became an important Phoenician trading port, before it was taken over by the Romans.
The Romans took the town in 123 BC and expanded it into an important city. They built a canal link to the Mediterranean Sea in 104 BC. Arles had to compete with Massalia (Marseille) further along the coast.
Arles' leaders sided with Julius Caesar against Pompey, providing military support. Massalia backed Pompey; when Caesar emerged victorious, Massalia was stripped of its possessions, which were transferred to Arelate as a reward. The town was formally established as a colony for veterans of the Roman legion Legio VI Ferrata, which had its base there. Its full title as a colony was Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensium Sextanorum, "the ancestral Julian colony of Arles of the soldiers of the Sixth."
Arelate was a city of considerable importance in the province of Gallia Narbonensis. It covered an area of some 40 hectares (99 acres) and possessed a number of monuments, including an amphitheatre, triumphal arch, Roman circus, theatre, and a full circuit of walls. Ancient Arles was closer to the sea than it is now and served as a major port. The river has carried centuries of silt that has filled in the former harbor. The city had (and still has) the southernmost bridge on the Rhône.
The Roman bridge was unique in that it was not fixed but consisted of a pontoon-style bridge of boats, with towers and drawbridges at each end. The boats were secured in place by anchors and were tethered to twin towers built just upstream of the bridge. This unusual design was a way of coping with the river's frequent violent floods, which would have made short work of a conventional bridge. Nothing remains of the Roman bridge, which has been replaced by a more modern bridge near the same spot.
The city reached a peak of influence during the 4th and 5th centuries, when Roman Emperors frequently used it as their headquarters during military campaigns in Europe. In 395, it became the seat of the Praetorian Prefecture of the Gauls, governing the western part of the Western Empire: Gaul proper plus Hispania (Spain) and Armorica (Brittany). At that time, the city was home to an estimated 75,000–100,000 people.[10][11][12][13]
It became a favorite city of Emperor Constantine I, who built baths there, substantial remains of which are still standing. His son, Constantine II, was born in Arles. Usurper Constantine III declared himself emperor in the West (407–411) and made Arles his capital in 408.
Arles became renowned as a cultural and religious centre during the late Roman Empire. It was the birthplace of Favorinus, known as the sceptical philosopher. It was also a key location for Roman Christianity and an important base for the Christianization of Gaul. The city's bishopric was held by a series of outstanding clerics, beginning with Saint Trophimus around 225 and continuing with Saint Honoratus, then Saint Hilarius in the first half of the 5th century. The political tension between the Catholic bishops of Arles and the Visigothic kings is epitomized in the career of the Frankish St. Caesarius, bishop of Arles 503–542. Suspected by the Arian Visigoth Alaric II of conspiring with the Burgundians to turn over the Arelate to Burgundy, he was exiled for a year to Bordeaux in Aquitaine. Political tensions were evident again in 512, when Arles held out against Theodoric the Great. Caesarius was imprisoned and sent to Ravenna to explain his actions before the Ostrogothic king.[14]
The friction between the Arian Christianity of the Visigoths and the Catholicism of the bishops sent out from Rome established deep roots for religious heterodoxy, even heresy, in Occitan culture. At Treves in 385, Priscillian achieved the distinction of becoming the first Christian executed for heresy (Manichaean in his case, see also Cathars, Camisards). Despite this tension and the city's decline in the face of barbarian invasions, Arles remained a great religious centre. It hosted church councils (see Council of Arles), the rival of Vienne, for hundreds of years.
Roman aqueduct and mill
Aqueduct of Arles at Barbegal
The Barbegal aqueduct and mill is a Roman watermill complex located on the territory of the commune of Fontvieille, a few kilometres from Arles. The complex has been referred to as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world".[15] The remains of the mill streams and buildings which housed the overshot water wheels are still visible at the site, and it is by far the best-preserved of ancient mills. There are two aqueducts which join just north of the mill complex, and a sluice which enabled the operators to control the water supply to the complex. The mill consisted of 16 waterwheels in two separate rows built into a steep hillside. There are substantial masonry remains of the water channels and foundations of the individual mills, together with a staircase rising up the hill upon which the mills are built. The mills apparently operated from the end of the 1st century until about the end of the 3rd century.[16] The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of flour per day, sufficient to supply enough bread for 6,000 of the 30,000–40,000 inhabitants of Arelate at that time.[17] A similar mill complex existed also on the Janiculum in Rome. Examination of the mill leat still just visible on one side of the hill shows a substantial accretion of lime in the channel, tending to confirm its long working life.
It is thought that the wheels were overshot water wheels with the outflow from the top driving the next one down and so on, to the base of the hill. Vertical water mills were well known to the Romans, being described by Vitruvius in his De Architectura of 25 BC, and mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia of 77 AD. There are also later references to floating water mills from Byzantium and to sawmills on the river Moselle by the poet Ausonius. The use of multiple stacked sequences of reverse overshot water-wheels was widespread in Roman mines.
Middle Ages
In 735, after raiding the Lower Rhône, Andalusian Saracens led by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri moved into the stronghold summoned by Count Maurontus, who feared Charles Martel's expansionist ambitions, though this may have been an excuse to further Moorish expansion beyond Iberia. The next year, Charles campaigned south to Septimania and Provence, attacking and capturing Arles after destroying Avignon. In 739. Charles definitely drove Maurontus to exile, and brought Provence to heel. In 855, it was made the capital of a Frankish Kingdom of Burgundy, which included Burgundy and part of Provence, but was frequently terrorised by Saracen and Viking raiders. In 888, Rudolph, Count of Auxerre (now in north-western Burgundy), founded the kingdom of Transjuran Burgundy (literally, beyond the Jura mountains), which included western Switzerland as far as the river Reuss, Valais, Geneva, Chablais and Bugey.
In 933, Hugh of Arles ("Hugues de Provence") gave his kingdom up to Rudolph II, who merged the two kingdoms into a new Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles. In 1032, King Rudolph III died, and the kingdom was inherited by Emperor Conrad II the Salic. Though his successors counted themselves kings of Arles, few went to be crowned in the cathedral. Most of the kingdom's territory was progressively incorporated into France. During these troubled times, the amphitheatre was converted into a fortress, with watchtowers built at each of the four quadrants and a minuscule walled town being constructed within. The population was by now only a fraction of what it had been in Roman times, with much of old Arles lying in ruins.
The town regained political and economic prominence in the 12th century, with the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa traveling there in 1178 for his coronation. In the 12th century, it became a free city governed by an elected podestat (chief magistrate; literally "power"), who appointed the consuls and other magistrates. It retained this status until the French Revolution of 1789.
Arles joined the countship of Provence in 1239, but, once more, its prominence was eclipsed by Marseilles. In 1378, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV made the Dauphin of France (later King Charles VI of France) vicar of the moribund Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles for his lifetime. The kingdom ceased to have any political existence soon afterwards.
Place de la République.
Cafe Terrace at Night by Vincent van Gogh (September 1888), depicts the warmth of a café in Arles
pen and ink drawing of a ploughman in a field near Arles, by Vincent Van Gogh
Ploughman in the Fields near Arles (1888) by Vincent Van Gogh, National Gallery of Art
Rue Ernest Renan in Arles
Modern era
Luma Arles building
Luma Arles building
Arles remained economically important for many years as a major port on the Rhône. In the 19th century, the arrival of the railway diminished river trade, leading to the town becoming something of a backwater.
This made it an attractive destination for the painter Vincent van Gogh, who arrived there on 21 February 1888. He was fascinated by the Provençal landscapes, producing over 300 paintings and drawings during his time in Arles. Many of his most famous paintings were completed there, including The Night Cafe, the Yellow Room, Starry Night Over the Rhone, and L'Arlésienne. Paul Gauguin visited van Gogh in Arles. However, van Gogh's mental health deteriorated and he became alarmingly eccentric, culminating in the well-known ear-severing incident in December 1888 which resulted in two stays in the Old Hospital of Arles. The concerned Arlesians circulated a petition the following February demanding that van Gogh be confined. In May 1889, he took the hint and left Arles for the Saint-Paul asylum at nearby Saint-Rémy-de-Provence.
Jewish history
Main article: History of the Jews in Arles
Arles had an important and prominent Jewish community between the Roman era and the end of the 15th century. A local legend describes the first Jews in Arles as exiles from Judaea after Jerusalem fell to the Romans. Nevertheless, the first documented evidence of Jews in Arles is not before the fifth century, when a distinguished community already existed in the town. Arles was an important Jewish crossroads, as a port city and close to Spain and the rest of Europe alike. It served a major role in the work of the Hachmei Provence group of famous Jewish scholars, translators and philosophers, who were most important to Judaism throughout the Middle Ages. In the eighth century, jurisdiction over the Jews of Arles was passed to the local Archbishop, making the Jewish taxes to the clergy somewhat of a shield for the community from mob attacks, most frequent during the Crusades. The community lived relatively peacefully until the last decade of the 15th century, when they were expelled out of the city never to return. Several Jews did live in the city in the centuries after, though no community was found ever after. Nowadays, Jewish archaeological findings and texts from Arles can be found in the local museum.[18]
Climate
Arles has a hot summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa)[19] with a mean annual temperature of 14.6 °C (1948–1999). The summers are warm and moderately dry, with seasonal averages between 22 °C and 24 °C, and mild winters with a mean temperature of about 7 °C. The city is constantly, but especially in the winter months, subject to the influence of the mistral, a cold wind which can cause sudden and severe frosts. Rainfall (636 mm per year) is fairly evenly distributed from September to May, with the summer drought being less marked than in other Mediterranean areas.[20]
Population
The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Arles proper, in its geography at the given years. The commune of Arles ceded part of its territory to the new commune of Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône in 1904, and to the new commune of Saint-Martin-de-Crau in 1925.[22]
Arles has important Roman remnants, most of which have been listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1981 within the Arles, Roman and Romanesque Monuments group. They include:
The Church of St. Trophime (Saint Trophimus), formerly a cathedral, is a major work of Romanesque architecture, and the representation of the Last Judgment on its portal is considered one of the finest examples of Romanesque sculpture, as are the columns in the adjacent cloister.
The town also has a museum of ancient history, the Musée de l'Arles et de la Provence antiques, with one of the best collections of Roman sarcophagi to be found anywhere outside Rome itself. Other museums include the Musée Réattu and the Museon Arlaten.
The courtyard of the Old Arles hospital, now named "Espace Van Gogh," is a center for Vincent van Gogh's works, several of which are masterpieces.[24] The garden, framed on all four sides by buildings of the complex, is approached through arcades on the first floor. A circulation gallery is located on the first and second floors.[25]
Archaeology
Main article: Arles portrait bust
In September–October 2007, divers led by Lucas Longas from the French Department of Subaquatic Archaeological Research, headed by Michel L'Hour, discovered a life-sized marble bust of an apparently important Roman person in the Rhône near Arles, together with smaller statues of Marsyas in Hellenistic style and of the god Neptune from the third century AD. The larger bust was tentatively dated to 46 BC. Since the bust displayed several characteristics of an ageing person with wrinkles, deep naso-labial creases and hollows in his face, and since the archaeologists believed that Julius Caesar had founded the colony Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelate Sextanorum in 46 BC, the scientists came to the preliminary conclusion that the bust depicted a life-portrait of the Roman dictator: France's Minister of Culture Christine Albanel reported on May 13, 2008, that the bust would be the oldest representation of Caesar known today.[26] The story was picked up by all larger media outlets.[27][28] The realism of the portrait was said to place it in the tradition of late Republican portrait and genre sculptures. The archaeologists further claimed that a bust of Julius Caesar might have been thrown away or discreetly disposed of, because Caesar's portraits could have been viewed as politically dangerous possessions after the dictator's assassination.
Historians and archaeologists not affiliated with the French administration, among them Paul Zanker, the renowned archaeologist and expert on Caesar and Augustus, were quick to question whether the bust is a portrait of Caesar.[29][30][31] Many noted the lack of resemblances to Caesar's likenesses issued on coins during the last years of the dictator's life, and to the Tusculum bust of Caesar,[32] which depicts Julius Caesar in his lifetime, either as a so-called zeitgesicht or as a direct portrait. After a further stylistic assessment, Zanker dated the Arles-bust to the Augustan period. Elkins argued for the third century AD as the terminus post quem for the deposition of the statues, refuting the claim that the bust was thrown away due to feared repercussions from Caesar's assassination in 44 BC.[33] The main argument by the French archaeologists that Caesar had founded the colony in 46 BC proved to be incorrect, as the colony was founded by Caesar's former quaestor Tiberius Claudius Nero on the dictator's orders in his absence.[34] Mary Beard has accused the persons involved in the find of having willfully invented their claims for publicity reasons. The French ministry of culture has not yet responded to the criticism and negative reviews.
Sport
AC Arles-Avignon was a professional French football team. They previously played in Championnat de France Amateur, the fourth division in French football, but were dissolved in 2016. They play at the Parc des Sports, which has a capacity of just over 17,000.
Culture
Arles is a cultural hotspot. A well known photography festival, Rencontres d'Arles, takes place in Arles every year, and the French national school of photography is located there.
The major French publishing house Actes Sud is also situated in Arles.
In the past years, several cultural organizations set up a presence in Arles, such as the LUMA Foundation, the Fondation Vincent van Gogh Arles, the Manuel Rivera-Ortiz Foundation or the Lee Ufan Foundation.[35] On top of that, there are countless galleries scattered throughout the city.
Bullfights are conducted in the amphitheatre, including Provençal-style bullfights (courses camarguaises) in which the bull is not killed, but rather a team of athletic men attempt to remove a tassle from the bull's horn without getting injured. Every Easter and on the first weekend of September, during the feria, Arles also holds Spanish-style corridas (in which the bulls are killed) with an encierro (bull-running in the streets) preceding each fight.
The parts of the films Ronin, At Eternity's Gate and Taxi 3 were filmed in Arles.
European Capital of Culture
Arles played a major role in Marseille-Provence 2013, the year-long series of cultural events held in the region after it was designated the European Capital of Culture for 2013. The city hosted a segment of the opening ceremony with a pyrotechnical performance by Groupe F on the banks of the Rhône. It also unveiled the new wing of the Musée Départemental Arles Antique as part of Marseille-Provence 2013.
Economy
Arles's open-air street market is a major market in the region. It occurs on Saturday and Wednesday mornings.
Transport
The Gare d'Arles railway station offers connections to Avignon, Nîmes, Marseille, Paris, Bordeaux and several regional destinations.
Arles does not have its own commercial airport, but is served by a number of airports in the region, most notably the major international airport of Marseille Provence approximately an hour's drive away.
The A54 autoroute toll motorway, which locally connects Salon-de-Provence with Nîmes and in a wider sense forms part of European route E80, passes by Arles.
The Rhône, which for navigation purposes is classified as a Class V waterway as far upstream as Lyon, is an historically important transport route connecting the inland Rhône-Alpes region with the Mediterranean Sea. The port of Arles and its adjacent rail and road connections provides a major transshipment node, which in 2013 handled approximately 450,000 tonnes of goods.[36]
Notable people
Kalonymus ben Kalonymus, famous Jewish scholar and philosopher, Arles born, active during the Middle Ages.
Jenny Berthelius (1923-2019), Swedish crime novelist and children's writer, lived in Arles[37]
Saint Caesarius of Arles, bishop who lived from the late 5th to the mid 6th century, known for prophecy and writings that would later be used by theologians such as St. Thomas Aquinas
Jeanne Calment (1875–1997), the oldest human being whose age is documented, was born, lived, died and buried at the age of 122 years and 164 days, in Arles
Djibril Cissé, footballer
Lucien Clergue, photographer
Anne-Marie David, singer (Eurovision winner in 1973)
The medieval writer Antoine de la Sale was probably born in Arles around 1386
Antoine de Seguiran, 18th-century encyclopédiste
Blessed Jean Marie du Lau, last Archbishop of Arles, killed by the revolutionary mob in Paris on September 2, 1792
Laure Favre-Kahn (born 1976), classical pianist
Home of the Gipsy Kings, a music group from Arles
Gaël Givet, footballer
Genesius of Arles, a notary martyred under Maximianus in 303 or 308
Luc Hoffmann, ornithologist, conservationist and philanthropist.
Maja Hoffmann, art patron
Samuel ibn Tibbon, famous Jewish translator and scholar during the Middle Ages.
Juan Bautista (real name Jean-Baptiste Jalabert), matador
Christian Lacroix, fashion designer
The Provençal poet Frédéric Mistral (1830–1914) was born near Arles
Lloyd Palun, footballer
Major-General Hugh Anthony Prince CBE, Indian Army and British Army officer
Mehdi Savalli, matador
Fanny Valette, actress
Vincent van Gogh, lived here from February 1888 until May 1889.
Fine Art Ballet Photography: Nikon D810 Elliot McGucken Fine Art Ballerina Dancer Dancing Ballet Spring Wildflowers! Black leotard!
Dancing for Dynamic Dimensions Theory dx4/dt=ic: The fourth dimension is expanding relative to the three spatial dimensions at the rate of c!
New ballet & landscape instagrams!
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Nikon D810 Epic Fine Art Ballerina Goddess Dancing Ballet! Dr. Elliot McGucken Fine Art Ballet!
Marrying epic landscape, nature, and urban photography to ballet!
Nikon D810 with the Nikon MB-D12 Multi Battery Power Pack / Grip for D800 and D810 Digital Cameras allows one to shoot at a high to catch the action FPS! Ballerina Dance Goddess Photos! Pretty, Tall Ballet Swimsuit Bikini Model Goddess! Captured with the AF-S NIKKOR 70-200mm f/2.8G ED VR II from Nikon, and the Sigma 50mm f/1.4 DG HSM Art Lens for Nikon! Love them both!
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A pretty goddess straight out of Homer's Iliad & Odyssey!
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The 45EPIC landscapes and goddesses are straight out of Homer's Iliad & Odyssey!
I'm currently updating a translation with the Greek names for the gods and goddesses--will publish soon! :)
"RAGE--Sing, O goddess, the anger of Achilles son of Peleus, that brought countless ills upon the Achaeans. Many a brave soul did it send hurrying down to Hades, and many a hero did it yield a prey to dogs and vultures, for so were the counsels of Zeus fulfilled from the day on which the son of Atreus, king of men, and great Achilles, first fell out with one another. " --Homer's Iliad capturing the rage of the 45EPIC landscapes and seascapes! :)
Ludwig van Beethoven: "Music/poetry/art should strike fire from the heart of man, and bring tears from the eyes of woman."
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iss047e061129 (4/16/2016) --- The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) was installed to the International Space Station on April 16, 2016 at 5:36 a.m. EDT. Following extraction from SpaceX's Dragon cargo craft using the Canadarm2 robotic arm, ground controllers installed the expandable module to the aft port of Tranquility. Astronauts will enter BEAM on an occasional basis to conduct tests to validate the module’s overall performance and the capability of expandable habitats.
NASA is investigating concepts for habitats that can keep astronauts healthy during space exploration. Expandable habitats are one such concept under consideration – they require less payload volume on the rocket than traditional rigid structures, and expand after being deployed in space to provide additional room for astronauts to live and work inside.
This castle owes it's current decor due to the work of one man who renovated and expanded the building during the 19th century.
The building can be traced back to the Roman periods. It is reported that in 780 Charlemagne could have passed by the place on his way back from Rome, where he went to have his son baptized by the Pope.
In the 1970’s from the 20th century the castle was transformed into a hotel, only to close its doors in the 1990’s. The castle remains unused to this day.
The castle is built in different styles; including Moorish and Indian. It has 365 rooms and every room has a different theme.
The man down Italian toll tour. Taking in some Italian delights on a 4 day explore.
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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southend_Pier
Southend Pier is a major landmark in Southend-on-Sea. Extending 2,158 metres (1.341 mi) into the Thames Estuary, it is the longest pleasure pier in the world. Sir John Betjeman once said that "the Pier is Southend, Southend is the Pier".[1] The pier is a Grade II listed building.[2]
Creation of the Pier
In the early 19th century, Southend was growing as a seaside holiday resort. At the time, it was thought that spending time by the sea was good for one's health, and since it was close to the capital, many Londoners would come to Southend for this reason. However the coast at Southend consists of large mudflats, so the sea is never very deep even at full tide (between four and six metres), and recedes over a mile from the beach at low tide. Large boats were unable to stop at Southend near to the beach and no boats at all were able to stop at low tide. This meant that many potential visitors would travel past Southend and go to Margate, or other resorts where docking facilities were better.
In order to counter this trend local dignitaries pushed for a pier to be built. This would allow boats to reach Southend at all tides. The campaign was led by former Lord Mayor of the City of London Sir William Heygate, a resident of Southend. In 1829, Parliament passed an act giving authorisation for the construction of a pier at Southend. When Sir William brought the news back from London he was mobbed by enthusiastic crowds.[
The wooden pier
Soon after authorisation was granted in 1829, the Lord Mayor of London laid the first foundations for the pier. By June 1830 a 600-foot (180 m) wooden pier was opened, based on oak piles. However this was still too short to be usable at low tide, so by 1833 it had been extended to three times its length and by 1848 was the longest pier in Europe at 7,000 feet (2,100 m). It was sold by the original owners for £17,000 in 1846 after getting into financial difficulties.
By the 1850s the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway had reached Southend, and with it a great influx of visitors from east London. The many visitors took their toll on the wooden pier and in 1873 it was sold to the local board (the local government in place at the time).
In 1877 the board decided to replace the pier with a new iron pier. Part of the wooden structure of the old pier was used in the construction of a new mayoral chair in 1892.
The Iron Pier
Pier Pavilion in 1923. Destroyed by fire in 1959, it was replaced in 1962 by a bowling alley. This was destroyed by a fire in 1995. The area is now (2008) open decking.
The pier was designed by James Brunlees, who had built the first iron pier at Southport in 1860. Work began in 1887 and the new pier opened to the public in the summer of the same year, though it was only completed in 1889. The cost was almost £70,000. It was an immediate success, so much so that demand outstripped the capabilities of the pier and a further extension was proposed. This extension was completed in November 1897 and formally opened the following January.
In 1892 Southend became a Municipal Borough and received an unofficial coat of arms. This depicted a three-masted ship on top of a shield showing an image of the pier, the church of St Mary the Virgin, a well in Prittlewell and the emblem of Essex county. The motto was 'forti nihil difficile', 'to the brave nothing is too difficult'. This coat of arms was replaced in 1915 after Southend was given County Borough status and an image of the pier is no longer included.[3]
An upper deck was added to the pierhead in 1907, and the pier was further extended in 1927 to accommodate larger steamboats. It was formally opened on 8 July 1929 by HRH Prince George, Duke of Kent. This part of the pier was named the Prince George Extension.
On 27 June 1931 the Pier was the scene of a tragic accident. Ernest Turner fell from and was run over by one of the electric trams on the railway, and was killed instantly. Turner, who was 38, was one of a party of over 500 workers and family members on the annual works outing from Ansell's brewery in Birmingham, where he worked as a brewer's drayman. The party had arrived at the pier having travelled down the River Thames from Tower Pier in London where they had arrived earlier that day. At the inquest, which was held two days later, the jury returned a verdict of accidental death.
The Pier's centenary was celebrated on 23 July 1935, rather than 1930, as this date reflects the date the Admiralty began to include Southend Pier on their navigation charts.
HMS Leigh
During World War II, Southend Pier was taken over by the Royal Navy and was renamed (along with the surrounding area) HMS Leigh. It was closed to the public from 9th September 1939.
Its purpose in the war was twofold. Firstly it served as a mustering point for convoys. Over the course of the war 3,367 convoys, comprising 84,297 vessels departed from HMS Leigh. Secondly, it was Naval Control for the Thames Estuary. Notable in its career was the accidental sinking of the Liberty ship SS Richard Montgomery which, still containing several thousand tons of explosives, is visible from the North Kent coast and Southend beach at low tide, and continues to pose a potential threat to navigation over 60 years later.
Post-war history
In 1945 the pier reopened for visitors. Visitor numbers exceeded their pre-war levels, peaking at 5.75 million in 1949-1950.[4] In the 1950s, more attractions on the pier opened including the Dolphin Cafe, Sun Deck Theatre, the Solarium Cafe and a Hall of Mirrors.
However the success was not to last. In 1959 a fire destroyed the pavilion located at the shore end of the pier. Over 500 people were trapped on the other side of the fire and had to be rescued by boat.
The pavilion was replaced by a ten-pin bowling alley in 1962, however by then British holidaymakers were turning to package holidays abroad. The use of the pier slowly began to decline and with it the structure began to deteriorate. In 1971, after a child was injured on the pier, a survey was undertaken and over the course of the next decade repairs had to be made including much of the replacement of the pier walkway.
In 1976 a fire destroyed much of the pier head. The massive blaze was battled by fire fighters working on the pier and from boats, and even using a crop-spraying light aircraft. The following year the bowling alley was damaged in another fire, and a year after that, the railway was deemed unsafe and had to be closed.
In 1980 the council announced that the pier was to close. Protests led the council to allow the pier to remain open until a solution could be found. This happened in 1983 when the Historic Buildings Committee gave a grant to allow repairs to be made. The work commenced in 1984 and was completed eighteen months later, when Princess Anne named the two new pier trains (commissioned to replace trains scrapped in 1982) after Sir John Betjeman and Sir William Heygate. The total cost of the repair including new buildings and pier trains was £1.3 million.
However on June 20 in that year, the MV Kingsabbey crashed into the pier, severing the new pier head from the rest of the pier, destroying the boathouse used by the lifeboat service and causing major structural damage due to the destruction of iron piles and supporting girders. This left a 70-foot gap in the pier. While this was temporarily bridged to restore access, full repairs were not completed until 1989.
On June 7, 1995, the bowling alley burnt down. Fortunately, the pier museum and railway station were not severely damaged and access to the pier was reinstated three weeks later, with all the debris cleared in time for the summer of 1996.
On October 9, 2005 a fire severely damaged much of the Old Pier Head including the railway station, pub, shell shop, snack bar and ice-cream shop.
Much of the wooden planking was destroyed, but the main iron structure was largely undamaged. Heat from the fire was so intense that the Pier Railway tracks buckled and trains can now only run to within approx. 15m of the old station.
The fire was thought to have started in the pub at around 10:45pm, but due to the extreme location and the damage (several buildings collapsed into the water), the cause has not yet been formally determined, although it is being treated as an accident. No one was injured, but fire-fighters encountered difficulties extinguishing the blaze as, due to the low tide, pumps installed on the pier were rendered ineffective. The Southend lifeboat crew were deployed to transport the first firefighters to the scene.
The pier reopened to the public on 1 December for the first time since the fire.
The pierhead station was destroyed in the blaze so a replacement with two platforms has been constructed to take the pier trains as close as possible to the area where the blaze took place.Access to the pierhead and RNLI gift shop and boathouse is now available walking past the temporary toilets and onto the area of restored pier after the earlier fire. The pleasure steamers Waverley and Kingswear Castle are able to take and drop off passengers once more from the pierhead and autumn 2006 saw the tall ship Kershones visit again.
Shortly after the fire, pieces of charred pier planking have turned up for sale on eBay with the proceeds apparently going to the RNLI. Sky News has some good pictures of the damaged section, as does the BBC.
In recent years Southend Council has invested in the pier to restore it as a visitor attraction. Funding for this has been coordinated by the "S-SHAPE" (Southend Seafront, High-street And Pier Enhancements) project with funding coming from European Objective 2 funding and National Government regeneration schemes.
The pier head was extensively redeveloped in 2000 creating a new sun deck and, in partnership with the RNLI, a new lifeboat station was built. The new station is constructed in glass to give a strikingly modern style. It also houses a museum and giftshop relating to the history of the RNLI and lifeboats.
In 2003 the shoreward end of the pier was redeveloped in a similar style to the pier head. The pier bridge was raised to enable taller vehicles to pass under it (a recurring problem had been double decker buses getting stuck under the bridge) and a visitor centre/tourist information centre was built. This connected with the new Cliff Lift and redevelopment of Pier Hill that was constructed the following year.
The original wooden pier built in 1830 employed a horse tramway to convey goods and visitors to the pier head[7]. In 1890, with the construction of the iron pier, Cromptons installed an electric tramway with a single toast rack carriage and 3⁄4 miles of 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) gauge single track. By 1891 the line ran the full 1 1⁄4 miles and carriages were in use. The system expanded, until eventually, by 1930, four trains, each made up of seven carriages, were running on a double track [7].
In 1949 the rolling stock was replaced with four new trains similar in design to the London Underground stock, built by AC Cars, of Thames Ditton, in Surrey. The stock was liveried in green and cream.
In 1978 the electric railway closed, due to deterioration and the cost of repairs. It reopened in 1986 after rebuilding to 3 ft (914 mm) gauge. Two new trains were used on a simplified single track with a passing loop. Each train consists of a diesel-hydraulic locomotive at the southern end, five trailer coaches and at the northern end, a driver control unit with passenger space. One is named Sir John Betjeman, and the other Sir William Heygate. Originally liveried in all-over burgundy with a white waist-band, the two trains were repainted to a two-tone blue in 2006, retaining the white waist band. They also carry a "Southend Borough Council" logo. Each station (Shore and Pier Head) has two platforms, Pier Head having had to be resited due to the fire in late 2005.
•Southend Pier featured in the end credits of the British television series Minder. The sequence showed unscrupulous businessman Arthur Daley and his bodyguard (or "minder") walking down the pier. When they reach the end Arthur realises he has left his lighter at the far end and they proceed to walk the return journey. The comic implication is that he is too mean to pay for the train ride.
•The pier is mentioned in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy; after Ford and Arthur were thrown off a Vogon Construction ship and were picked up by the Improbability drive, on the starship Heart of Gold, Arthur remarks that it looks like they're standing "on the seafront at Southend". In the 1981 BBC TV adaptation however, neither the set used for the pier nor the view of the buildings on the shore look anything like Southend.
A male Willughby's Leafcutter Bee just about to emerge from one of our garden bee-hotels. I'd assumed that it was just another of the species that I'm seeing a lot of in the garden (M. ligniseca possibly) but took a look anyway and saw the flattened and expanded front tarsi.
As I understand it, the males of M. circumcincta and maritima also have expanded front tarsi, but I suspect that it isn't one of those. Need to see the whole bee really to be sure! Don't know if eye colour helps in the differentiation. Definitely greenish here.
ISS047e143161 (06/07/2016) --- The entrance to the Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) is seen during sensor installation after successful expansion. NASA Astronaut Jeff Williams and the NASA and Bigelow Aerospace teams working at Mission Control Center at NASA's Johnson Space Center spent more than seven hours on operations to fill the BEAM with air to cause it to expand. BEAM is an example of NASA’s increased commitment to partnering with industry to enable the growth of the commercial use of space. The project is co-sponsored by NASA's Advanced Exploration Systems Division and Bigelow Aerospace.
Built in 1915, it served originally as a vaudeville house. It was expanded and reopened on February 5, 1917, as a movie theatre. It was rebuilt in 1938 to the plans of architect Roy Benjamin, reopening December 20, 1938, with Dick Foran in “Heart of the North”.
The Arcade Theatre was eventually converted with a wall dividing the stage to form two screening rooms. By 1989, the theatre had fallen into severe disrepair. In 1991, a benefit starring famed ballet and film star, Mikhail Baryishnikov, raised enough money to completely restore the theatre. It is now host to the Florida Repertory Theatre.
Credit for the data above is given to the following websites:
www.visitfortmyers.com/listing/florida-repertory-theatre/...
cinematreasures.org/theaters/10390
leepa.org/Display/DisplayParcel.aspx?FolioID=10162351&...
© All Rights Reserved - you may not use this image in any form without my prior permission.
Clydeside Scottlish expanded into other parts of Glasgow upon deregulation in 1986 not just to the north but into the south east as well. The 13 was a suburban service originally from South Nitshill to Castlemilk running via Pollok and Shawlands started in the autumn of 1986.
Leyland Leopard G601 is seen crossing over Croftfoot Road to make the climb up into Castelmilk in August 1987.
©eb2010
Do not use this image without my permission
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a church in the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem. According to traditions dating back to the 4th century, it contains the two holiest sites in Christianity: the site where Jesus was crucified, at a place known as Calvary or Golgotha, and Jesus's empty tomb, where he is believed by Christians to have been buried and resurrected. Each time the church was rebuilt, some of the antiquities from the preceding structure were used in the newer renovation. The tomb itself is enclosed by a 19th-century shrine called the Aedicule. The Status Quo, an understanding between religious communities dating to 1757, applies to the site.
Within the church proper are the last four stations of the Cross of the Via Dolorosa, representing the final episodes of the Passion of Jesus. The church has been a major Christian pilgrimage destination since its creation in the 4th century, as the traditional site of the resurrection of Christ, thus its original Greek name, Church of the Anastasis ('Resurrection').
Control of the church itself is shared, a simultaneum, among several Christian denominations and secular entities in complicated arrangements essentially unchanged for over 160 years, and some for much longer. The main denominations sharing property over parts of the church are the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic, and to a lesser degree the Coptic, Syriac, and Ethiopian Orthodox churches.
Following the siege of Jerusalem in AD 70 during the First Jewish–Roman War, Jerusalem had been reduced to ruins. In AD 130, the Roman emperor Hadrian began the building of a Roman colony, the new city of Aelia Capitolina, on the site. Circa AD 135, he ordered that a cave containing a rock-cut tomb be filled in to create a flat foundation for a temple dedicated to Jupiter or Venus. The temple remained until the early 4th century.
After allegedly seeing a vision of a cross in the sky in 312, Constantine the Great began to favor Christianity, signed the Edict of Milan legalising the religion, and sent his mother, Helena, to Jerusalem to look for Christ's tomb. With the help of Bishop of Caesarea Eusebius and Bishop of Jerusalem Macarius, three crosses were found near a tomb; one which allegedly cured people of death was presumed to be the True Cross Jesus was crucified on, leading the Romans to believe that they had found Calvary. Constantine ordered in about 326 that the temple to Jupiter/Venus be replaced by a church. After the temple was torn down and its ruins removed, the soil was removed from the cave, revealing a rock-cut tomb that Helena and Macarius identified as the burial site of Jesus. A shrine was built, enclosing the rock tomb walls within its own.
In 327, Constantine and Helena separately commissioned the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem to commemorate the birth of Jesus.
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, planned by the architect Zenobius, was built as separate constructs over the two holy sites: a rotunda called the Anastasis ("Resurrection"), where Helena and Macarius believed Jesus to have been buried, and across a courtyard to the east, the great basilica, an enclosed colonnaded atrium (the Triportico, sometimes called the Martyrium) with the traditional site of Calvary in one corner. The church was consecrated on 13 September 335. The Church Of The Holy Sepulchre site has been recognized since early in the 4th century as the place where Jesus was crucified, buried, and rose from the dead.
This building was destroyed by a fire in May of AD 614, when the Sassanid Empire, under Khosrau II, invaded Jerusalem and captured the True Cross. In 630, the Emperor Heraclius rebuilt the church after recapturing the city. After Jerusalem came under Islamic rule, it remained a Christian church, with the early Muslim rulers protecting the city's Christian sites, prohibiting their destruction or use as living quarters. A story reports that the caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab visited the church and stopped to pray on the balcony, but at the time of prayer, turned away from the church and prayed outside. He feared that future generations would misinterpret this gesture, taking it as a pretext to turn the church into a mosque. Eutychius of Alexandria adds that Umar wrote a decree saying that Muslims would not inhabit this location. The building suffered severe damage from an earthquake in 746.
Early in the 9th century, another earthquake damaged the dome of the Anastasis. The damage was repaired in 810 by Patriarch Thomas I. In 841, the church suffered a fire. In 935, the Christians prevented the construction of a Muslim mosque adjacent to the Church. In 938, a new fire damaged the inside of the basilica and came close to the rotunda. In 966, due to a defeat of Muslim armies in the region of Syria, a riot broke out, which was followed by reprisals. The basilica was burned again. The doors and roof were burnt, and Patriarch John VII was murdered.
On 18 October 1009, Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the complete destruction of the church as part of a more general campaign against Christian places of worship in Palestine and Egypt. The damage was extensive, with few parts of the early church remaining, and the roof of the rock-cut tomb damaged; the original shrine was destroyed. Some partial repairs followed. Christian Europe reacted with shock and expulsions of Jews, serving as an impetus to later Crusades.
In wide-ranging negotiations between the Fatimids and the Byzantine Empire in 1027–28, an agreement was reached whereby the new Caliph Ali az-Zahir (al-Hakim's son) agreed to allow the rebuilding and redecoration of the church. The rebuilding was finally completed during the tenures of Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos and Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople in 1048. As a concession, the mosque in Constantinople was reopened and the khutba sermons were to be pronounced in az-Zahir's name. Muslim sources say a by-product of the agreement was the renunciation of Islam by many Christians who had been forced to convert under al-Hakim's persecutions. In addition, the Byzantines, while releasing 5,000 Muslim prisoners, made demands for the restoration of other churches destroyed by al-Hakim and the reestablishment of a patriarch in Jerusalem. Contemporary sources credit the emperor with spending vast sums in an effort to restore the Church of the Holy Sepulchre after this agreement was made. Still, "a total replacement was far beyond available resources. The new construction was concentrated on the rotunda and its surrounding buildings: the great basilica remained in ruins."
The rebuilt church site consisted of "a court open to the sky, with five small chapels attached to it." The chapels were east of the court of resurrection (when reconstructed, the location of the tomb was under open sky), where the western wall of the great basilica had been. They commemorated scenes from the passion, such as the location of the prison of Christ and his flagellation, and presumably were so placed because of the difficulties of free movement among shrines in the city streets. The dedication of these chapels indicates the importance of the pilgrims' devotion to the suffering of Christ. They have been described as 'a sort of Via Dolorosa in miniature'... since little or no rebuilding took place on the site of the great basilica. Western pilgrims to Jerusalem during the 11th century found much of the sacred site in ruins." Control of Jerusalem, and thereby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, continued to change hands several times between the Fatimids and the Seljuk Turks (loyal to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad) until the Crusaders' arrival in 1099.
Many historians maintain that the main concern of Pope Urban II, when calling for the First Crusade, was the threat to Constantinople from the Turkish invasion of Asia Minor in response to the appeal of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. Historians agree that the fate of Jerusalem and thereby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was also of concern, if not the immediate goal of papal policy in 1095. The idea of taking Jerusalem gained more focus as the Crusade was underway. The rebuilt church site was taken from the Fatimids (who had recently taken it from the Abassids) by the knights of the First Crusade on 15 July 1099.
The First Crusade was envisioned as an armed pilgrimage, and no crusader could consider his journey complete unless he had prayed as a pilgrim at the Holy Sepulchre. The classical theory is that Crusader leader Godfrey of Bouillon, who became the first Latin ruler of Jerusalem, decided not to use the title "king" during his lifetime, and declared himself Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri ("Protector [or Defender] of the Holy Sepulchre"). By the Crusader period, a cistern under the former basilica was rumoured to have been where Helena had found the True Cross, and began to be venerated as such; the cistern later became the Chapel of the Invention of the Cross, but there is no evidence of the site's identification before the 11th century, and modern archaeological investigation has now dated the cistern to 11th-century repairs by Monomachos.
According to the German priest and pilgrim Ludolf von Sudheim, the keys of the Chapel of the Holy Sepulchre were in hands of the "ancient Georgians", and the food, alms, candles and oil for lamps were given to them by the pilgrims at the south door of the church.
Eight 11th- and 12th-century Crusader leaders (Godfrey, Baldwin I, Baldwin II, Fulk, Baldwin III, Amalric, Baldwin IV and Baldwin V — the first eight rulers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem) were buried in the south transept and inside the Chapel of Adam. The royal tombs were destroyed by the Greeks in 1809–1810. It is unclear if the remains of those men were exhumed; some researchers hypothesize that some of them may still be in unmarked pits under the church.
William of Tyre, chronicler of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, reports on the renovation of the Church in the mid-12th century. The Crusaders investigated the eastern ruins on the site, occasionally excavating through the rubble, and while attempting to reach the cistern, they discovered part of the original ground level of Hadrian's temple enclosure; they transformed this space into a chapel dedicated to Helena, widening their original excavation tunnel into a proper staircase. The Crusaders began to refurnish the church in Romanesque style and added a bell tower. These renovations unified the small chapels on the site and were completed during the reign of Queen Melisende in 1149, placing all the holy places under one roof for the first time. The church became the seat of the first Latin patriarchs and the site of the kingdom's scriptorium. It was lost to Saladin, along with the rest of the city, in 1187, although the treaty established after the Third Crusade allowed Christian pilgrims to visit the site. Emperor Frederick II (r. 1220–50) regained the city and the church by treaty in the 13th century while under a ban of excommunication, with the curious consequence that the holiest church in Christianity was laid under interdict. The church seems to have been largely in the hands of Greek Orthodox patriarch Athanasius II of Jerusalem (c. 1231–47) during the Latin control of Jerusalem. Both city and church were captured by the Khwarezmians in 1244.
There was certainly a recognisable Nestorian (Church of the East) presence at the Holy Sepulchre from the years 1348 through 1575, as contemporary Franciscan accounts indicate. The Franciscan friars renovated the church in 1555, as it had been neglected despite increased numbers of pilgrims. The Franciscans rebuilt the Aedicule, extending the structure to create an antechamber. A marble shrine commissioned by Friar Boniface of Ragusa was placed to envelop the remains of Christ's tomb, probably to prevent pilgrims from touching the original rock or taking small pieces as souvenirs. A marble slab was placed over the limestone burial bed where Jesus's body is believed to have lain.
After the renovation of 1555, control of the church oscillated between the Franciscans and the Orthodox, depending on which community could obtain a favorable firman from the "Sublime Porte" at a particular time, often through outright bribery. Violent clashes were not uncommon. There was no agreement about this question, although it was discussed at the negotiations to the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. During the Holy Week of 1757, Orthodox Christians reportedly took over some of the Franciscan-controlled church. This may have been the cause of the sultan's firman (decree) later developed into the Status Quo.
A fire severely damaged the structure again in 1808, causing the dome of the Rotunda to collapse and smashing the Aedicule's exterior decoration. The Rotunda and the Aedicule's exterior were rebuilt in 1809–10 by architect Nikolaos Ch. Komnenos of Mytilene in the contemporary Ottoman Baroque style.[citation needed] The interior of the antechamber, now known as the Chapel of the Angel, was partly rebuilt to a square ground plan in place of the previously semicircular western end.
Another decree in 1853 from the sultan solidified the existing territorial division among the communities and solidified the Status Quo for arrangements to "remain in their present state", requiring consensus to make even minor changes.
The dome was restored by Catholics, Greeks and Turks in 1868, being made of iron ever since.
By the time of the British Mandate for Palestine following the end of World War I, the cladding of red marble applied to the Aedicule by Komnenos had deteriorated badly and was detaching from the underlying structure; from 1947 until restoration work in 2016–17, it was held in place with an exterior scaffolding of iron girders installed by the British authorities.
In 1948, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan and the Old City with the church were made part of Jordan. In 1967, Israeli forces captured East Jerusalem in the Six Day War, and that area has remained under Israeli control ever since. Under Israeli rule, legal arrangements relating to the churches of East Jerusalem were maintained in coordination with the Jordanian government. The dome at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was restored again in 1994–97 as part of extensive modern renovations that have been ongoing since 1959. During the 1970–78 restoration works and excavations inside the building, and under the nearby Muristan bazaar, it was found that the area was originally a quarry, from which white meleke limestone was struck.
East of the Chapel of Saint Helena, the excavators discovered a void containing a second-century[dubious – discuss] drawing of a Roman pilgrim ship, two low walls supporting the platform of Hadrian's second-century temple, and a higher fourth-century wall built to support Constantine's basilica. After the excavations of the early 1970s, the Armenian authorities converted this archaeological space into the Chapel of Saint Vartan, and created an artificial walkway over the quarry on the north of the chapel, so that the new chapel could be accessed (by permission) from the Chapel of Saint Helena.
After seven decades of being held together by steel girders, the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) declared the visibly deteriorating Aedicule structure unsafe. A restoration of the Aedicule was agreed upon and executed from May 2016 to March 2017. Much of the $4 million project was funded by the World Monuments Fund, as well as $1.3 million from Mica Ertegun and a significant sum from King Abdullah II of Jordan. The existence of the original limestone cave walls within the Aedicule was confirmed, and a window was created to view this from the inside. The presence of moisture led to the discovery of an underground shaft resembling an escape tunnel carved into the bedrock, seeming to lead from the tomb. For the first time since at least 1555, on 26 October 2016, marble cladding that protects the supposed burial bed of Jesus was removed. Members of the National Technical University of Athens were present. Initially, only a layer of debris was visible. This was cleared in the next day, and a partially broken marble slab with a Crusader-style cross carved was revealed. By the night of 28 October, the original limestone burial bed was shown to be intact. The tomb was resealed shortly thereafter. Mortar from just above the burial bed was later dated to the mid-fourth century.
On 25 March 2020, Israeli health officials ordered the site closed to the public due to the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the keeper of the keys, it was the first such closure since 1349, during the Black Death. Clerics continued regular prayers inside the building, and it reopened to visitors two months later, on 24 May.
During church renovations in 2022, a stone slab covered in modern graffiti was moved from a wall, revealing Cosmatesque-style decoration on one face. According to an IAA archaeologist, the decoration was once inlaid with pieces of glass and fine marble; it indicates that the relic was the front of the church's high altar from the Crusader era (c. 1149), which was later used by the Greek Orthodox until being damaged in the 1808 fire.
The courtyard facing the entrance to the church is known as the parvis. Two streets open into the parvis: St Helena Road (west) and Suq ed-Dabbagha (east). Around the parvis are a few smaller structures.
South of the parvis, opposite the church:
Broken columns—once forming part of an arcade—stand opposite the church, at the top of a short descending staircase stretching over the entire breadth of the parvis. In the 13th century, the tops of the columns were removed and sent to Mecca by the Khwarezmids.
The Gethsemane Metochion, a small Greek Orthodox monastery (metochion).
On the eastern side of the parvis, south to north:
The Monastery of St Abraham (Greek Orthodox), next to the Suq ed-Dabbagha entrance to the parvis.
The Chapel of St John the Evangelist (Armenian Orthodox)
The Chapel of St Michael and the Chapel of the Four Living Creatures (both are disputed between the Copts and Ethiopians), giving access to Deir es-Sultan (also disputed), a rooftop monastery surrounding the dome of the Chapel of St Helena.
North of the parvis, in front of the church façade or against it:
Chapel of the Franks (Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows): a blue-domed Roman Catholic Crusader chapel dedicated to Our Lady of Sorrows, which once provided exclusive access to Calvary. The chapel marks the 10th Station of the Cross (the stripping of Jesus's garments).
Oratory of St. Mary of Egypt: a Greek Orthodox oratory and chapel, directly beneath the Chapel of the Franks, dedicated to St. Mary of Egypt.
The tomb (including a ledgerstone) of Philip d'Aubigny aka Philip Daubeney (died 1236), a knight, tutor, and royal councilor to Henry III of England and signer of the Magna Carta—is placed in front of, and between, the church's two original entrance doors, of which the eastern one is walled up. It is one of the few tombs of crusaders and other Europeans not removed from the Church after the Khwarizmian capture of Jerusalem in 1244. In the 1900s, during a fight between the Greeks and Latins, some monks damaged the tomb by throwing stones from the roof. A stone marker[clarification needed] was placed on his tomb in 1925, sheltered by a wooden trapdoor that hides it from view.[citation needed]
A group of three chapels borders the parvis on its west side. They originally formed the baptistery complex of the Constantinian church. The southernmost chapel was the vestibule, the middle chapel the baptistery, and the north chapel the chamber in which the patriarch chrismated the newly baptized before leading them into the rotunda north of this complex. Now they are dedicated as (from south to north)
The Chapel of St. James the Just (Greek Orthodox),
The Chapel of St. John the Baptist (Greek Orthodox),
The Chapel of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste (Greek Orthodox; at the base of the bell tower).
The 12th-century Crusader bell tower is just south of the Rotunda, to the left of the entrance. Its upper level was lost in a 1545 collapse. In 1719, another two storeys were lost.
The wooden doors that compose the main entrance are the original, highly carved arched doors. Today, only the left-hand entrance is currently accessible, as the right doorway has long since been bricked up. The entrance to the church leads to the south transept, through the crusader façade in the parvis of a larger courtyard. This is found past a group of streets winding through the outer Via Dolorosa by way of a souq in the Muristan. This narrow way of access to such a large structure has proven to be hazardous at times. For example, when a fire broke out in 1840, dozens of pilgrims were trampled to death.
According to their own family lore, the Muslim Nuseibeh family has been responsible for opening the door as an impartial party to the church's denominations already since the seventh century. However, they themselves admit that the documents held by various Christian denominations only mention their role since the 12th century, in the time of Saladin, which is the date more generally accepted. After retaking Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187, Saladin entrusted the Joudeh family with the key to the church, which is made of iron and 30 centimetres (12 in) long; the Nuseibehs either became or remained its doorkeepers.
The 'immovable ladder' stands beneath a window on the façade.
Just inside the church entrance is a stairway leading up to Calvary (Golgotha), traditionally regarded as the site of Jesus's crucifixion and the most lavishly decorated part of the church. The exit is via another stairway opposite the first, leading down to the ambulatory. Golgotha and its chapels are just south of the main altar of the catholicon.
Calvary is split into two chapels: one Greek Orthodox and one Catholic, each with its own altar. On the left (north) side, the Greek Orthodox chapel's altar is placed over the supposed rock of Calvary (the 12th Station of the Cross), which can be touched through a hole in the floor beneath the altar. The rock can be seen under protective glass on both sides of the altar. The softer surrounding stone was removed when the church was built. The Roman Catholic (Franciscan) Chapel of the Nailing of the Cross (the 11th Station of the Cross) stretches to the south. Between the Catholic Altar of the Nailing to the Cross and the Orthodox altar is the Catholic Altar of the Stabat Mater, which has a statue of Mary with an 18th-century bust; this middle altar marks the 13th Station of the Cross.
On the ground floor, just underneath the Golgotha chapel, is the Chapel of Adam. According to tradition, Jesus was crucified over the place where Adam's skull was buried. According to some, the blood of Christ ran down the cross and through the rocks to fill Adam's skull. Through a window at the back of the 11th-century apse, the rock of Calvary can be seen with a crack traditionally held to be caused by the earthquake that followed Jesus's death;[78] some scholars claim it is the result of quarrying against a natural flaw in the rock.
Behind the Chapel of Adam is the Greek Treasury (Treasury of the Greek Patriarch). Some of its relics, such as a 12th-century crystal mitre, were transferred to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate Museum (the Patriarchal Museum) on Greek Orthodox Patriarchate Street.
Just inside the entrance to the church is the Stone of Anointing (also Stone of the Anointing or Stone of Unction), which tradition holds to be where Jesus's body was prepared for burial by Joseph of Arimathea, though this tradition is only attested since the crusader era (notably by the Italian Dominican pilgrim Riccoldo da Monte di Croce in 1288), and the present stone was only added in the 1810 reconstruction.
The wall behind the stone is defined by its striking blue balconies and taphos symbol-bearing red banners (depicting the insignia of the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre), and is decorated with lamps. The modern mosaic along the wall depicts the anointing of Jesus's body, preceded on the right by the Descent from the Cross, and succeeded on the left by the Burial of Jesus.
The wall was a temporary addition to support the arch above it, which had been weakened after the damage in the 1808 fire; it blocks the view of the rotunda, separates the entrance from the catholicon, sits on top of four of the now empty and desecrated Crusader graves and is no longer structurally necessary. Opinions differ as to whether it is to be seen as the 13th Station of the Cross, which others identify as the lowering of Jesus from the cross and located between the 11th and 12th stations on Calvary.
The lamps that hang over the Stone of Unction, adorned with cross-bearing chain links, are contributed by Armenians, Copts, Greeks and Latins.
Immediately inside and to the left of the entrance is a bench (formerly a divan) that has traditionally been used by the church's Muslim doorkeepers, along with some Christian clergy, as well as electrical wiring. To the right of the entrance is a wall along the ambulatory containing the staircase leading to Golgotha. Further along the same wall is the entrance to the Chapel of Adam.
The rotunda is the building of the larger dome located on the far west side. In the centre of the rotunda is a small chapel called the Aedicule in English, from the Latin aedicula, in reference to a small shrine. The Aedicule has two rooms: the first holds a relic called the Angel's Stone, which is believed to be a fragment of the large stone that sealed the tomb; the second, smaller room contains the tomb of Jesus. Possibly to prevent pilgrims from removing bits of the original rock as souvenirs, by 1555, a surface of marble cladding was placed on the tomb to prevent further damage to the tomb. In October 2016, the top slab was pulled back to reveal an older, partially broken marble slab with a Crusader-style cross carved in it. Beneath it, the limestone burial bed was revealed to be intact.
Under the Status Quo, the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Armenian Apostolic Churches all have rights to the interior of the tomb, and all three communities celebrate the Divine Liturgy or Holy Mass there daily. It is also used for other ceremonies on special occasions, such as the Holy Saturday ceremony of the Holy Fire led by the Greek Orthodox patriarch (with the participation of the Coptic and Armenian patriarchs). To its rear, in the Coptic Chapel, constructed of iron latticework, lies the altar used by the Coptic Orthodox. Historically, the Georgians also retained the key to the Aedicule.
To the right of the sepulchre on the northwestern edge of the Rotunda is the Chapel of the Apparition, which is reserved for Roman Catholic use.
In the central nave of the Crusader-era church, just east of the larger rotunda, is the Crusader structure housing the main altar of the Church, today the Greek Orthodox catholicon. Its dome is 19.8 metres (65 ft) in diameter, and is set directly over the centre of the transept crossing of the choir where the compas is situated, an omphalos ("navel") stone once thought to be the center of the world and still venerated as such by Orthodox Christians (associated with the site of the Crucifixion and the Resurrection).
Since 1996 this dome is topped by the monumental Golgotha Crucifix, which the Greek Patriarch Diodoros I of Jerusalem consecrated. It was at the initiative of Israeli professor Gustav Kühnel to erect a new crucifix at the church that would not only be worthy of the singularity of the site, but that would also become a symbol of the efforts of unity in the community of Christian faith.
The catholicon's iconostasis demarcates the Orthodox sanctuary behind it, to its east. The iconostasis is flanked to the front by two episcopal thrones: the southern seat (cathedra) is the patriarchal throne of the Greek Orthodox patriarch of Jerusalem, and the northern seat is for an archbishop or bishop. (There is also a popular claim that both are patriarchal thrones, with the northern one being for the patriarch of Antioch — which has been described as a misstatement, however.)
South of the Aedicule is the "Place of the Three Marys", marked by a stone canopy (the Station of the Holy Women) and a large modern wall mosaic. From here one can enter the Armenian monastery, which stretches over the ground and first upper floor of the church's southeastern part.
West of the Aedicule, to the rear of the Rotunda, is the Syriac Chapel with the Tomb of Joseph of Arimathea, located in a Constantinian apse and containing an opening to an ancient Jewish rock-cut tomb. This chapel is where the Syriac Orthodox celebrate their Liturgy on Sundays.
The Syriac Orthodox Chapel of Saint Joseph of Arimathea and Saint Nicodemus. On Sundays and feast days it is furnished for the celebration of Mass. It is accessed from the Rotunda, by a door west of the Aedicule.
On the far side of the chapel is the low entrance to an almost complete first-century Jewish tomb, initially holding six kokh-type funeral shafts radiating from a central chamber, two of which are still exposed. Although this space was discovered relatively recently and contains no identifying marks, some believe that Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus were buried here. Since Jews always buried their dead outside the city, the presence of this tomb seems to prove that the Holy Sepulchre site was outside the city walls at the time of the crucifixion.
The Franciscan Chapel of St. Mary Magdalene – The chapel, an open area, indicates the place where Mary Magdalene met Jesus after his resurrection.
The Franciscan Chapel of the Apparition (Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament), directly north of the above – in memory of Jesus's meeting with his mother after the Resurrection, a non-scriptural tradition. Here stands a piece of an ancient column, allegedly part of the one Jesus was tied to during his scourging.
The Arches of the Virgin are seven arches (an arcade) at the northern end of the north transept, which is to the catholicon's north. Disputed by the Orthodox and the Latin, the area is used to store ladders.
In the northeast side of the complex, there is the Prison of Christ, alleged to be where Jesus was held. The Greek Orthodox are showing pilgrims yet another place where Jesus was allegedly held, the similarly named Prison of Christ in their Monastery of the Praetorium, located near the Church of Ecce Homo, between the Second and Third Stations of the Via Dolorosa. The Armenians regard a recess in the Monastery of the Flagellation at the Second Station of the Via Dolorosa as the Prison of Christ. A cistern among the ruins beneath the Church of St. Peter in Gallicantu on Mount Zion is also alleged to have been the Prison of Christ. To reconcile the traditions, some allege that Jesus was held in the Mount Zion cell in connection with his trial by the Jewish high priest, at the Praetorium in connection with his trial by the Roman governor Pilate, and near the Golgotha before crucifixion.
The chapels in the ambulatory are, from north to south: the Greek Chapel of Saint Longinus (named after Longinus), the Armenian Chapel of the Division of Robes, the entrance to the Chapel of Saint Helena, and the Greek Chapel of the Derision.
Chapel of Saint Helena – between the Chapel of the Division of Robes and the Greek Chapel of the Derision are stairs descending to the Chapel of Saint Helena. The Armenians, who own it, call it the Chapel of St. Gregory the Illuminator, after the saint who brought Christianity to the Armenians.
Chapel of St Vartan (or Vardan) Mamikonian – on the north side of the Chapel of Saint Helena is an ornate wrought iron door, beyond which a raised artificial platform affords views of the quarry, and which leads to the Chapel of Saint Vartan. The latter chapel contains archaeological remains from Hadrian's temple and Constantine's basilica. These areas are open only on request.
Chapel of the Invention of the Cross (named for the Invention (Finding) of the Holy Cross) – another set of 22 stairs from the Chapel of Saint Helena leads down to the Roman Catholic Chapel of the Invention of the Holy Cross, believed to be the place where the True Cross was found.
An Ottoman decree of 1757 helped establish a status quo upholding the state of affairs for various Holy Land sites. The status quo was upheld in Sultan Abdülmecid I's firman (decree) of 1852/3, which pinned down the now-permanent statutes of property and the regulations concerning the roles of the different denominations and other custodians.
The primary custodians are the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic churches. The Greek Orthodox act through the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate as well as through the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre. Roman Catholics act through the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land. In the 19th century, the Coptic Orthodox, the Ethiopian Orthodox and the Syriac Orthodox also acquired lesser responsibilities, which include shrines and other structures in and around the building.
None of these controls the main entrance. In 1192, Saladin assigned door-keeping responsibilities to the Muslim Nusaybah family. The wooden doors that compose the main entrance are the original, highly carved doors. The Joudeh al-Goudia (al-Ghodayya) family were entrusted as custodian to the keys of the Holy Sepulchre by Saladin in 1187. Despite occasional disagreements, religious services take place in the Church with regularity and coexistence is generally peaceful. An example of concord between the Church custodians is the full restoration of the Aedicule from 2016 to 2017.
The establishment of the modern Status Quo in 1853 did not halt controversy and occasional violence. In 1902, 18 friars were hospitalized and some monks were jailed after the Franciscans and Greeks disagreed over who could clean the lowest step of the Chapel of the Franks. In the aftermath, the Greek patriarch, Franciscan custos, Ottoman governor and French consul general signed a convention that both denominations could sweep it. On a hot summer day in 2002, a Coptic monk moved his chair from its agreed spot into the shade. This was interpreted as a hostile move by the Ethiopians and eleven were hospitalized after the resulting fight. In another incident in 2004, during Orthodox celebrations of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, a door to the Franciscan chapel was left open. This was taken as a sign of disrespect by the Orthodox and a fistfight broke out. Some people were arrested, but no one was seriously injured.
On Palm Sunday, in April 2008, a brawl broke out when a Greek monk was ejected from the building by a rival faction. Police were called to the scene but were also attacked by the enraged brawlers. On Sunday, 9 November 2008, a clash erupted between Armenian and Greek monks during celebrations for the Feast of the Cross.
In February 2018, the church was closed following a tax dispute over 152 million euros of uncollected taxes on church properties. The city hall stressed that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and all other churches are exempt from the taxes, with the changes only affecting establishments like "hotels, halls and businesses" owned by the churches. NPR had reported that the Greek Orthodox Church calls itself the second-largest landowner in Israel, after the Israeli government.
There was a lock-in protest against an Israeli legislative proposal which would expropriate church lands that had been sold to private companies since 2010, a measure which church leaders assert constitutes a serious violation of their property rights and the Status Quo. In a joint official statement the church authorities protested what they considered to be the peak of a systematic campaign in:
a discriminatory and racist bill that targets solely the properties of the Christian community in the Holy Land ... This reminds us all of laws of a similar nature which were enacted against the Jews during dark periods in Europe.
The 2018 taxation affair does not cover any church buildings or religious related facilities (because they are exempt by law), but commercial facilities such as the Notre Dame Hotel which was not paying the municipal property tax, and any land which is owned and used as a commercial land. The church holds the rights to land where private homes have been constructed, and some of the disagreement had been raised after the Knesset had proposed a bill that will make it harder for a private company not to extend a lease for land used by homeowners. The church leaders have said that such a bill will make it harder for them to sell church-owned lands. According to The Jerusalem Post:
The stated aim of the bill is to protect homeowners against the possibility that private companies will not extend their leases of land on which their houses or apartments stand.
In June 2019, a number of Christian denominations in Jerusalem raised their voice against the Supreme Court's decision to uphold the sale of three properties by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate to Ateret Cohanim – an organization that seeks to increase the number of Jews living in the Old City and East Jerusalem. The church leaders warned that if the organization gets to control the sites, Christians could lose access to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In June 2022, the Supreme Court upheld the sale and ended the legal battle.
The site of the church had been a temple to Jupiter or Venus built by Hadrian before Constantine's edifice was built. Hadrian's temple had been located there because it was the junction of the main north–south road with one of the two main east–west roads and directly adjacent to the forum (now the location of the Muristan, which is smaller than the former forum). The forum itself had been placed, as is traditional in Roman towns, at the junction of the main north–south road with the other main east–west road (which is now El-Bazar/David Street). The temple and forum together took up the entire space between the two main east–west roads (a few above-ground remains of the east end of the temple precinct still survive in the Alexander Nevsky Church complex of the Russian Mission in Exile).
From the archaeological excavations in the 1970s, it is clear that construction took over most of the site of the earlier temple enclosure and that the Triportico and Rotunda roughly overlapped with the temple building itself; the excavations indicate that the temple extended at least as far back as the Aedicule, and the temple enclosure would have reached back slightly further. Virgilio Canio Corbo, a Franciscan priest and archaeologist, who was present at the excavations, estimated from the archaeological evidence that the western retaining wall of the temple itself would have passed extremely close to the east side of the supposed tomb; if the wall had been any further west any tomb would have been crushed under the weight of the wall (which would be immediately above it) if it had not already been destroyed when foundations for the wall were made.
Other archaeologists have criticized Corbo's reconstructions. Dan Bahat, the former city archaeologist of Jerusalem, regards them as unsatisfactory, as there is no known temple of Aphrodite (Venus) matching Corbo's design, and no archaeological evidence for Corbo's suggestion that the temple building was on a platform raised high enough to avoid including anything sited where the Aedicule is now; indeed Bahat notes that many temples to Aphrodite have a rotunda-like design, and argues that there is no archaeological reason to assume that the present rotunda was not based on a rotunda in the temple previously on the site.
The New Testament describes Jesus's tomb as being outside the city wall,[l] as was normal for burials across the ancient world, which were regarded as unclean. Today, the site of the Church is within the current walls of the old city of Jerusalem. It has been well documented by archaeologists that in the time of Jesus, the walled city was smaller and the wall then was to the east of the current site of the Church. In other words, the city had been much narrower in Jesus's time, with the site then having been outside the walls; since Herod Agrippa (41–44) is recorded by history as extending the city to the north (beyond the present northern walls), the required repositioning of the western wall is traditionally attributed to him as well.
The area immediately to the south and east of the sepulchre was a quarry and outside the city during the early first century as excavations under the Lutheran Church of the Redeemer across the street demonstrated.[citation needed]
The church is a part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Old City of Jerusalem.
The Christian Quarter and the (also Christian) Armenian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem are both located in the northwestern and western part of the Old City, due to the fact that the Holy Sepulchre is located close to the northwestern corner of the walled city. The adjacent neighbourhood within the Christian Quarter is called the Muristan, a term derived from the Persian word for hospital – Christian pilgrim hospices have been maintained in this area near the Holy Sepulchre since at least the time of Charlemagne.
From the ninth century onward, the construction of churches inspired by the Anastasis was extended across Europe. One example is Santo Stefano in Bologna, Italy, an agglomeration of seven churches recreating shrines of Jerusalem.
Several churches and monasteries in Europe, for instance, in Germany and Russia, and at least one church in the United States have been wholly or partially modeled on the Church of the Resurrection, some even reproducing other holy places for the benefit of pilgrims who could not travel to the Holy Land. They include the Heiliges Grab ("Holy Tomb") of Görlitz, constructed between 1481 and 1504, the New Jerusalem Monastery in Moscow Oblast, constructed by Patriarch Nikon between 1656 and 1666, and Mount St. Sepulchre Franciscan Monastery built by the Franciscans in Washington, DC in 1898.
Author Andrew Holt writes that the church is the most important in all Christendom.
Jerusalem is an ancient city in West Asia, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the oldest cities in the world, and is considered holy to the three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Both Israel and Palestine claim Jerusalem as their capital; Israel maintains its primary governmental institutions there, and the State of Palestine ultimately foresees it as its seat of power. Neither claim, however, is widely recognized internationally.
Throughout its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, captured and recaptured 44 times, and attacked 52 times. The part of Jerusalem called the City of David shows first signs of settlement in the 4th millennium BCE, in the shape of encampments of nomadic shepherds. During the Canaanite period (14th century BCE), Jerusalem was named as Urusalim on ancient Egyptian tablets, probably meaning "City of Shalem" after a Canaanite deity. During the Israelite period, significant construction activity in Jerusalem began in the 10th century BCE (Iron Age II), and by the 9th century BCE, the city had developed into the religious and administrative centre of the Kingdom of Judah. In 1538, the city walls were rebuilt for a last time around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire. Today those walls define the Old City, which since the 19th century has been divided into four quarters – the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger. Since 1860, Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old City's boundaries. In 2022, Jerusalem had a population of some 971,800 residents, of which almost 60% were Jews and almost 40% Palestinians. In 2020, the population was 951,100, of which Jews comprised 570,100 (59.9%), Muslims 353,800 (37.2%), Christians 16,300 (1.7%), and 10,800 unclassified (1.1%).
According to the Hebrew Bible, King David conquered the city from the Jebusites and established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son, King Solomon, commissioned the building of the First Temple. Modern scholars argue that Jews branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatrous—and later monotheistic—religion centred on El/Yahweh. These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, assumed central symbolic importance for the Jewish people. The sobriquet of holy city (Hebrew: עיר הקודש, romanized: 'Ir ha-Qodesh) was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, which Christians adopted as their own "Old Testament", was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection there. In Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina. The city was the first qibla, the standard direction for Muslim prayers (salah), and in Islamic tradition, Muhammad made his Night Journey there in 621, ascending to heaven where he speaks to God, according to the Quran. As a result, despite having an area of only 0.9 km2 (3⁄8 sq mi), the Old City is home to many sites of seminal religious importance, among them the Temple Mount with its Western Wall, Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the core issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the areas captured and later annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was captured and later annexed by Jordan. Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently effectively annexed it into Jerusalem, together with additional surrounding territory.[note 6] One of Israel's Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the country's undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset (Israel's parliament), the residences of the Prime Minister (Beit Aghion) and President (Beit HaNassi), and the Supreme Court. The international community rejects the annexation as illegal and regards East Jerusalem as Palestinian territory occupied by Israel.
Etymology
The name "Jerusalem" is variously etymologized to mean "foundation (Semitic yry' 'to found, to lay a cornerstone') of the pagan god Shalem"; the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city.
Shalim or Shalem was the name of the god of dusk in the Canaanite religion, whose name is based on the same root S-L-M from which the Hebrew word for "peace" is derived (Shalom in Hebrew, cognate with Arabic Salam). The name thus offered itself to etymologizations such as "The City of Peace", "Abode of Peace", "Dwelling of Peace" ("founded in safety"), or "Vision of Peace" in some Christian authors.
The ending -ayim indicates the dual, thus leading to the suggestion that the name Yerushalayim refers to the fact that the city initially sat on two hills.
Ancient Egyptian sources
The Execration Texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 19th century BCE), which refer to a city called rwšꜣlmm or ꜣwšꜣmm, variously transcribed as Rušalimum, or Urušalimum, may indicate Jerusalem. Alternatively, the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba (1330s BCE), which reference an Úrušalim, may be the earliest mention of the city.
Hebrew Bible and Jewish sources
The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua. According to a Midrash, the name is a combination of two names united by God, Yireh ("the abiding place", the name given by Abraham to the place where he planned to sacrifice his son) and Shalem ("Place of Peace", the name given by high priest Shem).
Oldest written mention of Jerusalem
One of the earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states: "I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem", or as other scholars suggest: "Yahweh is the God of the whole earth. The mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem". An older example on papyrus is known from the previous century.
In extra-biblical inscriptions, the earliest known example of the -ayim ending was discovered on a column about 3 km west of ancient Jerusalem, dated to the first century BCE.
Jebus, Zion, City of David
An ancient settlement of Jerusalem, founded as early as the Bronze Age on the hill above the Gihon Spring, was, according to the Bible, named Jebus. Called the "Fortress of Zion" (metsudat Zion), it was renamed as the "City of David", and was known by this name in antiquity. Another name, "Zion", initially referred to a distinct part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole, and afterwards to represent the whole biblical Land of Israel.
Greek, Roman and Byzantine names
In Greek and Latin, the city's name was transliterated Hierosolyma (Greek: Ἱεροσόλυμα; in Greek hieròs, ἱερός, means holy), although the city was renamed Aelia Capitolina for part of the Roman period of its history.
Salem
The Aramaic Apocryphon of Genesis of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QapGen 22:13) equates Jerusalem with the earlier "Salem" (שלם), said to be the kingdom of Melchizedek in Genesis 14. Other early Hebrew sources, early Christian renderings of the verse and targumim, however, put Salem in Northern Israel near Shechem (Sichem), now Nablus, a city of some importance in early sacred Hebrew writing. Possibly the redactor of the Apocryphon of Genesis wanted to dissociate Melchizedek from the area of Shechem, which at the time was in possession of the Samaritans. However that may be, later Rabbinic sources also equate Salem with Jerusalem, mainly to link Melchizedek to later Temple traditions.
Arabic names
In Arabic, Jerusalem is most commonly known as القُدس, transliterated as al-Quds and meaning "the holy" or "the holy sanctuary", cognate with Hebrew: הקדש, romanized: ha-qodesh. The name is possibly a shortened form of مدينة القُدس Madīnat al-Quds "city of the holy sanctuary" after the Hebrew nickname with the same meaning, Ir ha-Qodesh (עיר הקדש). The ق (Q) is pronounced either with a voiceless uvular plosive (/q/), as in Classical Arabic, or with a glottal stop (ʔ) as in Levantine Arabic. Official Israeli government policy mandates that أُورُشَلِيمَ, transliterated as Ūrušalīm, which is the name frequently used in Christian translations of the Bible into Arabic, be used as the Arabic language name for the city in conjunction with القُدس, giving أُورُشَلِيمَ-القُدس, Ūrušalīm-al-Quds. Palestinian Arab families who hail from this city are often called "Qudsi" (قُدسي) or "Maqdasi" (مقدسي), while Palestinian Muslim Jerusalemites may use these terms as a demonym.
Given the city's central position in both Jewish nationalism (Zionism) and Palestinian nationalism, the selectivity required to summarize some 5,000 years of inhabited history is often influenced by ideological bias or background. Israeli or Jewish nationalists claim a right to the city based on Jewish indigeneity to the land, particularly their origins in and descent from the Israelites, for whom Jerusalem is their capital, and their yearning for return. In contrast, Palestinian nationalists claim the right to the city based on modern Palestinians' longstanding presence and descent from many different peoples who have settled or lived in the region over the centuries. Both sides claim the history of the city has been politicized by the other in order to strengthen their relative claims to the city, and that this is borne out by the different focuses the different writers place on the various events and eras in the city's history.
Prehistory
The first archaeological evidence of human presence in the area comes in the form of flints dated to between 6000 and 7000 years ago, with ceramic remains appearing during the Chalcolithic period, and the first signs of permanent settlement appearing in the Early Bronze Age in 3000–2800 BCE.
Bronze and Iron Ages
The earliest evidence of city fortifications appear in the Mid to Late Bronze Age and could date to around the 18th century BCE. By around 1550–1200 BCE, Jerusalem was the capital of an Egyptian vassal city-state, a modest settlement governing a few outlying villages and pastoral areas, with a small Egyptian garrison and ruled by appointees such as king Abdi-Heba. At the time of Seti I (r. 1290–1279 BCE) and Ramesses II (r. 1279–1213 BCE), major construction took place as prosperity increased. The city's inhabitants at this time were Canaanites, who are believed by scholars to have evolved into the Israelites via the development of a distinct Yahweh-centric monotheistic belief system.
Archaeological remains from the ancient Israelite period include the Siloam Tunnel, an aqueduct built by Judahite king Hezekiah and once containing an ancient Hebrew inscription, known as the Siloam Inscription; the so-called Broad Wall, a defensive fortification built in the 8th century BCE, also by Hezekiah; the Silwan necropolis (9th–7th c. BCE) with the Monolith of Silwan and the Tomb of the Royal Steward, which were decorated with monumental Hebrew inscriptions; and the so-called Israelite Tower, remnants of ancient fortifications, built from large, sturdy rocks with carved cornerstones. A huge water reservoir dating from this period was discovered in 2012 near Robinson's Arch, indicating the existence of a densely built-up quarter across the area west of the Temple Mount during the Kingdom of Judah.
When the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. When Hezekiah ruled, Jerusalem had no fewer than 25,000 inhabitants and covered 25 acres (10 hectares).
In 587–586 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered Jerusalem after a prolonged siege, and then systematically destroyed the city, including Solomon's Temple. The Kingdom of Judah was abolished and many were exiled to Babylon. These events mark the end of the First Temple period.
Biblical account
This period, when Canaan formed part of the Egyptian empire, corresponds in biblical accounts to Joshua's invasion, but almost all scholars agree that the Book of Joshua holds little historical value for early Israel.
In the Bible, Jerusalem is defined as lying within territory allocated to the tribe of Benjamin though still inhabited by Jebusites. David is said to have conquered these in the siege of Jebus, and transferred his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem which then became the capital of a United Kingdom of Israel, and one of its several religious centres. The choice was perhaps dictated by the fact that Jerusalem did not form part of Israel's tribal system, and was thus suited to serve as the centre of its confederation. Opinion is divided over whether the so-called Large Stone Structure and the nearby Stepped Stone Structure may be identified with King David's palace, or dates to a later period.
According to the Bible, King David reigned for 40 years and was succeeded by his son Solomon, who built the Holy Temple on Mount Moriah. Solomon's Temple (later known as the First Temple), went on to play a pivotal role in Jewish religion as the repository of the Ark of the Covenant. On Solomon's death, ten of the northern tribes of Israel broke with the United Monarchy to form their own nation, with its kings, prophets, priests, traditions relating to religion, capitals and temples in northern Israel. The southern tribes, together with the Aaronid priesthood, remained in Jerusalem, with the city becoming the capital of the Kingdom of Judah.
Classical antiquity
In 538 BCE, the Achaemenid King Cyrus the Great invited the Jews of Babylon to return to Judah to rebuild the Temple. Construction of the Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE, during the reign of Darius the Great, 70 years after the destruction of the First Temple.
Sometime soon after 485 BCE Jerusalem was besieged, conquered and largely destroyed by a coalition of neighbouring states. In about 445 BCE, King Artaxerxes I of Persia issued a decree allowing the city (including its walls) to be rebuilt. Jerusalem resumed its role as capital of Judah and centre of Jewish worship.
Many Jewish tombs from the Second Temple period have been unearthed in Jerusalem. One example, discovered north of the Old City, contains human remains in a 1st-century CE ossuary decorated with the Aramaic inscription "Simon the Temple Builder". The Tomb of Abba, also located north of the Old City, bears an Aramaic inscription with Paleo-Hebrew letters reading: "I, Abba, son of the priest Eleaz(ar), son of Aaron the high (priest), Abba, the oppressed and the persecuted, who was born in Jerusalem, and went into exile into Babylonia and brought (back to Jerusalem) Mattathi(ah), son of Jud(ah), and buried him in a cave which I bought by deed." The Tomb of Benei Hezir located in Kidron Valley is decorated by monumental Doric columns and Hebrew inscription, identifying it as the burial site of Second Temple priests. The Tombs of the Sanhedrin, an underground complex of 63 rock-cut tombs, is located in a public park in the northern Jerusalem neighbourhood of Sanhedria. These tombs, probably reserved for members of the Sanhedrin and inscribed by ancient Hebrew and Aramaic writings, are dated to between 100 BCE and 100 CE.
When Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire, Jerusalem and Judea came under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the Ptolemaic dynasty under Ptolemy I. In 198 BCE, Ptolemy V Epiphanes lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus III. The Seleucid attempt to recast Jerusalem as a Hellenized city-state came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful Maccabean revolt of Mattathias and his five sons against Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and their establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in 152 BCE with Jerusalem as its capital.
In 63 BCE, Pompey the Great intervened in a struggle for the Hasmonean throne and captured Jerusalem, extending the influence of the Roman Republic over Judea. Following a short invasion by Parthians, backing the rival Hasmonean rulers, Judea became a scene of struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian forces, eventually leading to the emergence of an Edomite named Herod. As Rome became stronger, it installed Herod as a client king of the Jews. Herod the Great, as he was known, devoted himself to developing and beautifying the city. He built walls, towers and palaces, and expanded the Temple Mount, buttressing the courtyard with blocks of stone weighing up to 100 tons. Under Herod, the area of the Temple Mount doubled in size. Shortly after Herod's death, in 6 CE Judea came under direct Roman rule as the Iudaea Province, although the Herodian dynasty through Agrippa II remained client kings of neighbouring territories until 96 CE.
Roman rule over Jerusalem and Judea was challenged in the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), which ended with a Roman victory. Early on, the city was devastated by a brutal civil war between several Jewish factions fighting for control of the city. In 70 CE, the Romans destroyed Jerusalem and the Second Temple. The contemporary Jewish historian Josephus wrote that the city "was so thoroughly razed to the ground by those that demolished it to its foundations, that nothing was left that could ever persuade visitors that it had once been a place of habitation." Of the 600,000 (Tacitus) or 1,000,000 (Josephus) Jews of Jerusalem, all of them either died of starvation, were killed or were sold into slavery. Roman rule was again challenged during the Bar Kokhba revolt, beginning in 132 CE and suppressed by the Romans in 135 CE. More recent research indicates that the Romans had founded Aelia Capitolina before the outbreak of the revolt, and found no evidence for Bar Kokhba ever managing to hold the city.
Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population at the end of the Second Temple Period, when the city covered two km2 (3⁄4 sq mi) and had a population of 200,000.
Late Antiquity
Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Emperor Hadrian combined Iudaea Province with neighbouring provinces under the new name of Syria Palaestina, replacing the name of Judea. The city was renamed Aelia Capitolina, and rebuilt it in the style of a typical Roman town. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death, except for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha B'Av. Taken together, these measures (which also affected Jewish Christians) essentially "secularized" the city. Historical sources and archaeological evidence indicate that the rebuilt city was now inhabited by veterans of the Roman military and immigrants from the western parts of the empire.
The ban against Jews was maintained until the 7th century, though Christians would soon be granted an exemption: during the 4th century, the Roman emperor Constantine I ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians.
Jerusalem.
In the 5th century, the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire, ruled from the recently renamed Constantinople, maintained control of the city. Within the span of a few decades, Jerusalem shifted from Byzantine to Persian rule, then back to Roman-Byzantine dominion. Following Sassanid Khosrau II's early 7th century push through Syria, his generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin attacked Jerusalem (Persian: Dej Houdkh) aided by the Jews of Palaestina Prima, who had risen up against the Byzantines.
In the Siege of Jerusalem of 614, after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured. Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sassanids and Jews slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the Mamilla Pool, and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This episode has been the subject of much debate between historians. The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine emperor Heraclius reconquered it in 629.
Middle Ages
After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, Byzantine Jerusalem was taken by Umar ibn al-Khattab in 638 CE. Among the first Muslims, it was referred to as Madinat bayt al-Maqdis ("City of the Temple"), a name restricted to the Temple Mount. The rest of the city "was called Iliya, reflecting the Roman name given the city following the destruction of 70 CE: Aelia Capitolina". Later the Temple Mount became known as al-Haram al-Sharif, "The Noble Sanctuary", while the city around it became known as Bayt al-Maqdis, and later still, al-Quds al-Sharif "The Holy, Noble". The Islamization of Jerusalem began in the first year A.H. (623 CE), when Muslims were instructed to face the city while performing their daily prostrations and, according to Muslim religious tradition, Muhammad's night journey and ascension to heaven took place. After 13 years, the direction of prayer was changed to Mecca. In 638 CE the Islamic Caliphate extended its dominion to Jerusalem. With the Muslim conquest, Jews were allowed back into the city. The Rashidun caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab signed a treaty with Christian Patriarch of Jerusalem Sophronius, assuring him that Jerusalem's Christian holy places and population would be protected under Muslim rule. Christian-Arab tradition records that, when led to pray at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, one of the holiest sites for Christians, the caliph Umar refused to pray in the church so that Muslims would not request conversion of the church to a mosque. He prayed outside the church, where the Mosque of Umar (Omar) stands to this day, opposite the entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. According to the Gaullic bishop Arculf, who lived in Jerusalem from 679 to 688, the Mosque of Umar was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodate 3,000 worshipers.
When the Arab armies under Umar went to Bayt Al-Maq
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All art is but imitation of nature.-- Seneca (Letters from a Stoic - Letter LXV: On the First Cause)
The universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul. --Chrysippus (Quoted by Cicero in De Natura Deorum)
Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness
Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun
Conspiring with him how to load and bless
With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run;
To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees,
And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;
To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells
With a sweet kernel; to set budding more,
And still more, later flowers for the bees,
Until they think warm days will never cease,
For Summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells. --To Autumn. by John Keats
Trangie. Population 800.
The first white graziers arrived in the 1840s but when Cornish and Walker took up lands in 1866 they used a local Aboriginal word “Trangie” meaning quick for their leasehold lands. The town was created when the Dubbo to Nyngan (and later Bourke) railway came through the Macquarie River valley in 1882. However, the railway station was only built in 1909. The town was slow to develop although the Trangie Hotel and a general store began opening in 1883. The Post Office, a major sign of town development only opened in 1904 but a postal service began in 1883. The second hotel in town the Imperial was built in 1910. A fine School of Arts opened in 1929 and is now a chemist. After the First World War and fine Soldiers Memorial Hall was erected. After the construction of the Burrendong Dam in 1967 agriculture expanded and the district is now known for its cattle, cotton and corn. The Goan Waterhole in the town centre is good for bird life and the park has the “Big Billy Can” which is disappointing in design and scale, but the Wungunja Aboriginal Heritage Centre is interesting. Its excellent collection includes two marked trees known as taphoglyphs and they were burial trees to mark graves. Both came from the Trangie district and are typical of burial trees of both the Wiradjuri and the Kamilaroi peoples of the west of NSW. Just along the street from the cultural centre is the Trangie Catholic Church (1884) and in Harris Street is the 1902 built Presbyterian Church. Although the district depends on the Macquarie River for irrigation is it about 10 kms away from the town.
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Brown, peaty water flowing down our normally quiet little river after a night of heavy rainfall on the moors.
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iss047e061100 (4/16/2016) --- The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) was installed to the International Space Station on April 16, 2016 at 5:36 a.m. EDT. Following extraction from SpaceX's Dragon cargo craft using the Canadarm2 robotic arm, ground controllers installed the expandable module to the aft port of Tranquility. Astronauts will enter BEAM on an occasional basis to conduct tests to validate the module’s overall performance and the capability of expandable habitats.
NASA is investigating concepts for habitats that can keep astronauts healthy during space exploration. Expandable habitats are one such concept under consideration – they require less payload volume on the rocket than traditional rigid structures, and expand after being deployed in space to provide additional room for astronauts to live and work inside.
Odda is a town and administrative center in Ullensvang municipality in Vestland county in Norway. The town is located deep in the Sørfjorden in Hardanger , and has 4,764 inhabitants as of 1 January 2023 . Odda was the administrative center of Odda municipality , which on 1 January 2020 was merged with Jondal and Ullensvang to form the new Ullensvang municipality.
In 2009 , the industrial heritage in Odda-Tyssedal was listed on Norway's tentative list for UNESCO's World Heritage List , together with the Rjukan–Notodden industrial heritage .
Public services
Odda hospital is a local hospital for the municipalities of Eidfjord, Jondal, Odda and Ullensvang.
Odda secondary school offers both vocational and study specialist educations.
Business
Odda is known as an industrial location, with companies such as Odda Smelteverk , Boliden Odda (formerly Norzink ) and Tinfos Titan & Iron (TTI).
History
Tourism and hotel management
Before industrial activity in Odda began around 1910, Odda was a popular tourist destination which, among other things, attracted many foreigners who wanted to experience the scenic area with glaciers, fjords and waterfalls. This laid the foundation for several people to start hotel operations on the site.
Some of the most popular destinations for tourists visiting Odda were Låtefossen and Espelandsfossen .
Shuttle station, steamship wharf and steamship expedition
Baard Jakobsen Aga (1812–1895) received a merchant license in Odda in 1861, and in 1864 took over the shuttle station that was in operation in Odda. Then he secured a new plot of land where he built a hotel which was called alternately Prestegårds Hotel and Agas Hotel. In 1868 he became a post opener and steamship dispatcher, and he then had a steamship wharf and dispatch house built at Almerket. He had previously expanded the hotel business, but in 1888 he inaugurated a new hotel building, the "new Agas Hotel". In the 20th century, the large hotel building was used for other purposes, including Rita's bakery, which led to the building being called "Ritagården" colloquially. Agas Hotel/Ritagården was demolished in 1978.
From guest house to Hotel Hardanger
The start of hotel operations at Odda occurred around 1845, when a man named Monsen started an inn on the site. Monsen went bankrupt in the 1860s, and the inn was bought by a man named Wetshus. He continued to run the hotel business. After Wetshus had died, the two brothers Sven and Mikal Tollefsen became his successors in the early 1880s, with financial support from a rich Englishman. The Tollefsen brothers carried out a major renovation of the former guest house. When Sven Tollefsen died, Mikal Tollefsen became the hotel's sole owner.
Tollefsen also bought Agas Hotel, which Baard Jakobsen Aga had started.
On 9 August 1895, the then Hotel Hardanger was completely damaged in a fire. The fire started in Hotel Hardanger, but 7–8 neighboring buildings also caught fire. It was said that the fire was caused by the maid of an English hotel guest having left a candle or a kerosene lamp by an open window, and that the curtain had caught fire - as it was very hot most of the windows in the hotel were open, and this caused the fire to spread with great speed. The fire started at 12 o'clock in the morning.
The commander and crew of the steamship "Vega" - which happened to be docked in Odda when the fire started - managed to put out the fire(s) within three hours using fire-fighting equipment from the ship. Among other things, they managed to save the post office, while the telegraph building was lost. The competing Jordals Hotel, which was run by Jacob Jordal, was also saved.
Hotel Hardanger was insured, and Bergens Tidende wrote that the insurance sum was NOK 90,000, but also published an anonymous source's assessment that the hotel complex was worth NOK 200,000–250,000, and that the owner - Mikal Tollefsen - had probably suffered a significant financial loss due to underinsurance. No people were injured in the fire.
Shortly after the fire in 1895, Tollefsen started building a new and larger hotel on the site of the fire. The new hotel was completed on 24 June 1896, and had 170 hotel beds in 110 guest rooms. Architecturally, it was a mixture of Swiss style and dragon style, with towers and projections.
Hardanger Hotel is mentioned, among other things, in a French travelogue published in 1897.
In 1913, the owner of Hotel Hardanger filed a claim for damages against the two factories - a cyanamide factory and a carbide factory - which had started up in Odda a few years earlier, because the factory operation caused such great pollution and bad odors that it affected the hotel operation. The provisions of the Neighborhood Act were the legal basis for the lawsuit. The court agreed with the plaintiff that the two factories were obliged to pay compensation for inconvenience and losses that the hotel had suffered after 2 August 1911, but not because Odda had become less idyllic and thus attractive to tourists. The compensation sum was to be determined after an appraisal had been carried out , and the result of the appraisal was not available until 1922. By then both factories had gone bankrupt, and hotel owner Mikal Tollefsen had died.
Hotel Hardanger becomes a town hall
In 1917, the municipality bought the Hotel Hardanger, to convert the building into a town hall . The hotel had then been almost empty all year round, because the industrial activity on the site had meant that the tourists did not show up. [9]
The hotel's so-called "Kongerom" was converted into a chairman's office and lord's boardroom. Eventually, the new town hall also accommodated a number of other businesses, such as a cinema, police station, doctor's office and bank. The old hotel was in use as Odda Town Hall until a new building was inaugurated in 1957; from then on, the former Hotel Hardanger was referred to as Odda old town hall . This building was demolished in 1976.
Jordals Hotel becomes Hardanger Hotel
In 1917, Jordals Hotel was bought by the Melkeraaen family, who continued to run the hotel for 68 years. Along the way, they changed the name of the hotel to Hardanger Hotel.
The Hardanger Hotel, which was a wooden Swiss-style building, was demolished in 1962, and a new five-story hotel building was inaugurated on 1 July 1963.
From tourism to industrial site
Factories and smelters
At the beginning of the 20th century, two factories were started in Odda. On one, cyanamide was produced, and on the other, carbide was produced .
In 1908, the operation of the first factory that was to be part of Odda Smelteverk , a carbide factory owned by a British company, began. In 1909, another British company started production of calcium cyanamide in the same area as the first factory. The reason why Odda was interesting for the foreign companies was the access to large amounts of hydropower and ice-free ports.
Both factories went bankrupt in 1921 , in connection with the worldwide economic crisis that occurred in the early 1920s. The bankruptcies led to thousands of people becoming unemployed. Both factories started up again in 1924, with Odda Smelteverk A/S as the new owner. This operating company was established by the power company Tyssefaldene and the Hafslund/Meraker group.
The cyanamide factory was built on in the 1930s.
At the smelter, the so-called Odda process was developed by chief chemist Erling Johnson in 1927–1928; it is a chemical process based on nitric acid for the industrial production of three-sided artificial fertilizer with the sub-components nitrogen , phosphorus and potassium .
Preservation decision and dispute over conservation value
In 2011 , the National Archives decided to protect several of the smelter's buildings and facilities, and to include the smelter in the Norwegian application to UNESCO for world heritage status for Norwegian industrial monuments. In 2013, however, the Ministry of the Environment decided that the series nomination should be split into two phases, 1. application for Rjukan/Notodden to be submitted to UNESCO in January 2014, and phase 2, that work be continued on expanding the nomination to include Odda/ Tyssedal with eventual submission to UNESCO in January 2016.
The owners of the smelter site objected to the conservation decision made in 2011, but the decision was upheld in 2012. The conservation included the cyanamide factory, the cable car, the Linde house (named after the German inventor Carl von Linde ) and the limestone silo on the import quay. Over the years, there has been much controversy in Odda about whether the smelter's buildings and facilities should be preserved or removed.
Cultural life
Music and theater
Tyssedalkoret and Odda Songlag are two choirs that come from Odda municipality. The water power and industrial history of the area here was documented in the performance and the DVD ``Arven'', performed by Tyssedalkoret with band and soloists in autumn 2004 and released on DVD in Christmas 2005. In addition these two choirs have the bands Odda Musikklag , Odda Skolekorps and Røldal Skolemusiklag. The blues team Lokst Utøve has 272 members. The Blueslaget received the culture award for 2009 for their great work as concert/festival organisers, volunteer workers and inspirers for bands and soloists. In 2011, Erlend Garatun Huus published the book Rock og Røyk , which is about the history of rock in Odda.
At the closed smelter (2001), the old "Lindehuset" has been used for theater and concert activities. The theater play Bikebubesong , based on the Oddingen Frode Grytten's novel Bikubesong , was performed in this venue in 2003 with great success. The play's performance in Oslo has been the most watched contemporary drama in Norwegian history.
A key cultural player in Odda is the company Oddakonsertene, led by Gunn Gravdal Elton. In April 2019, the Odda concerts staged the musical Albert og Leonie , a story about how Odda arose as an industrial community. The musical was a huge success with sold-out houses. 2,600 people queued to see and hear the story. The director was Martine Bakken Lundberg. The main roles were played by André Søfteland and Lene Kokai Flage. Over 60 amateurs were on stage. Albert and Leonie was planned to be staged again in 2020 and 2021, but had to be canceled due to the corona pandemic .
The odd concerts started in 2005 and as of 2019 have staged more than 60 concerts. All have been sold out. The most popular concerts are the annual Christmas concerts, which gather over 1,000 listeners. The traditional Christmas concert in Odda church with a large ensemble and two to three concerts in a row officially ended in 2019, but a simplified version was arranged in 2020, with concerts in Skare and Odda churches.
The Literature Symposium
From 2005, a festival called the Literature Symposium in Odda has been organized every autumn . The Linden house at the defunct Smelteverket, Odda cinema, Sentralbadet, Odda church are some of the venues at the symposium. Previously, there was every year "Bikubegang" with Frode Grytten , where he told about the story behind the book "Bikubesong", while he wandered around Odda. The literary symposium also has concerts, often in connection with an author/musician or individual artists. During the Literary Symposium 2011, the Sentralbadet Litteraturhus opened in the old bathroom at the closed Smelteverket, and this has become headquarters for the symposium, as well as a permanent house for literary events all year round.
As of 2010, a major rehabilitation/remodeling of Lindehuset was planned, so that the building would be better suited for events such as concerts and theater performances.
The National Antiquities' "Value creation project"
Odda is one of the pilot projects in the Value Creation Project for the National Archives.
TV shows
The actions in the TV series RIP Henry and Ragnarok have been added to Odda, and are recorded there. In Ragnarok, on the other hand, the city goes by the name Edda .
Known oddities
Samson Isberg (1795–1873), sharpshooter
Knud Knudsen (photographer) (1832–1915)
Gro Holm , born Prestgarden (1878–1949), writer
Alfred Hagn (1882–1958), painter, writer and spy.
Claes Gill (1910–1973), writer, actor and theater manager
Torbjørn Mork (1928–1992), doctor, politician ( Ap ), director of health 1972–1992
Walther Aas (1928–1990), artist
Roger Albertsen , (1957–2003), footballer
Anne B. Ragde (born 1957), writer, (raised in Trondheim)
Arne Borgstrøm (born 1959), elite long-distance swimmer
Frode Grytten (born 1960), author
Lars Ove Seljestad (born 1961), author
Bjørn Ingvaldsen (born 1962), author, leader of Norwegian Children's and Young People's Book Writers
Hallgeir Opedal (born 1965), writer and journalist
Børge Brende (born 1965), politician ( H ), former secretary general of the Norwegian Red Cross , minister of foreign affairs
Ida Melbo Øystese (born 1968), chief of police in Oslo from 2023.
Knut Olav Åmås (born 1968), author, editor, director of the foundation Fritt Ord
Leif Einar Lothe (born 1969), entrepreneur, singer, TV profile
Marit Eikemo (born 1971), writer
Tore Aurstad (born 1972), author
Ingvill Måkestad Bovim (born 1981), athlete
Håkon Opdal (born 1982), footballer
Ingvild Skare Thygesen (born 1993), TV profile
The Sognefjord is Norway's longest and deepest fjord with its 205 km and 1303 m at its deepest (SNL states 1308), including Sognesjøen which is at the far end towards the North Sea. The Sognefjord has the deepest point on Norway's coast. The fjord is 176–180 km from the innermost Lusterfjorden ( Skjolden ) to Sognefest , and 206 km to the outermost reef (then Lake Sognesjøen is also included). The width varies from around 1 to 2 km in Lusterfjorden to 4–5 km from Leikanger and beyond. Measured from the threshold to Skjolden, the fjord is 174 km. The middle part of the fjord is surrounded by mountains of around 1000 meters and in the inner part the height difference between the bottom of the fjord and the mountain tops is 3500 metres. The highest peak right by the fjord is Bleia at 1,721 metres, which gives a 2,850 meter height difference. Around the inner part of the fjord, the landscape is alpine with pointed mountain peaks, steep mountain sides and glaciers. As an extension of the fjord arms, long and deep valleys extend in all directions, including Jostedalen , Lærdalen and Årdal with Utladalen . The Sognefjord is the world's longest open (ice-free) fjord. The Sognefjord is the world's third longest fjord.
It is located in the middle of Vestland county (formerly Sogn og Fjordane county to which it helped give its name) and stretches from Solund on the coast in the west to Skjolden at the foot of Jotunheimen in the east (northeast), where the fjord arm is called Lustrafjorden . The fjord and the land around it make up the Sogn region, often divided into Outer, Midtre and Indre Sogn. The length from Rutletangen to Skjolden is 186 km . Sogn makes up almost 60% of the area in Sogn and Fjordane, or around 11,000 km 2 . The twelve municipalities in Sogn have a total area of 10,671.55 km² and 37,063 inhabitants (1 January 2014). The land around the inner part of the fjord is called Indre Sogn and includes the long fjord arms. From Leikanger onwards, the country is called Ytre Sogn . The outer part of the fjord has few and small fjord arms. The fjord arms are like hanging valleys under water in that the bottom in the side fjords is often much shallower than the main fjord with a height difference of over 1,000 meters in some cases. The main fjord has a threshold at its mouth to the sea, while several of the side fjords have thresholds at the mouth of the main fjord.
The Sognefjord cuts so deeply into the country that it is only 15 km from the innermost arm at Skjolden to mountain peaks such as Store Skagastølstind in Jotunheimen. The water flow usually exits the fjord. The rivers create sandbanks where they run into the fjord, for example at Gudvangen, in Lærdal and in Gaupne. These sandbars are constantly expanding and changing shape.
The Sognefjord, especially the inner part, is surrounded by mountain massifs which are alpine in the inner part and more rounded in the outer part. The innermost arms of the fjord continue as deep and sometimes long valleys, including Lærdal , Årdal with Utladalen , Nærøydalen , Sogndalsdalen , Fjærland , Fortunsdalen , Aurlandsdalen and Jostedalen . The transition between the fjord and these valleys is determined by sea level, and the boundary has moved outwards at the uplift. Some of the side valleys, such as Vik and Fresvik, would have been hanging valleys in the same way as the Feigedalen if the Sognefjord was drained.
Name
Amund Helland writes " The Sognefjord's real name is Sogn , while Sogn is now used only for the surrounding landscape, and was thus already used in the Middle Ages. As a landscape name, the name is a masculine word and has undoubtedly been so as a fjord name as well." The name is connected to the word "suction", which probably refers to the suction or the difficult current conditions that are created when the water flows through the fjord mouth and over the threshold.
Geography
Large parts of the fjord are surrounded by steep mountains. Kvamsøy at Balestrand is a small island separated from the mainland by a short, shallow strait. Outside Balestrand there are small fjord arms and at Veganes ( Dragsvik ferry quay ) there is a significant branching with the Fjærlandsfjorden .
Municipalities
Municipalities with shoreline to the fjord, counted from west to east:
Solund
Hyllestad (north side)
Gulen (south side)
Høyanger (on both sides of the main fjord)
Vik (south side)
Sogndal (north side)
Aurland (south side, around the Aurlandsfjord)
Lærdal (south side)
Luster (north side, around Lustrafjorden)
Årdal (around the Årdalsfjord)
Depths
The Sognefjord has only one threshold which is at the mouth and the threshold is around 165 meters deep. The area beyond the threshold is called Sognesjøen , which is sheltered by islands to the north and south; there is no threshold outside Sognesjøen that has free circulation towards the ocean.
From the inner parts at Årdal or Skjolden, the fjord gradually deepens outwards (westwards). Between Fodnes-Mannheller and Rutledal-Rysjedalsvika, the bottom is at least 800 metres. The deepest part is approximately at Åkrestrand and Vadheim. The outer part of the fjord (at Losna and Sula ) has a marked threshold with depths of 100 to 200 metres, where the fjord bed rises abruptly from a depth of 1,200 meters to around 100 meters over a stretch of 5 km at Rutledal. In Lake Sognesjøen there are several small troughs (with depths down to 400-500 metres) with thresholds between them. Across the fjord, the bottom is partly completely flat with less than 1 meter variation in depth over a 2 km cross-section. The bottom is covered by fine material (clay) which at Vangsnes is up to 300 meters thick. Seismic shows that the greatest depth to the bedrock is approximately 1,600 m, but loose masses with a thickness of 200–400 m mean that the fjord bottom is nevertheless flat. Seismic surveys at Vangsnes have revealed a 300 meter thick layer of clay at the bottom.
Between 50 and 180 km from the mouth, the fjord bed is relatively flat. Almost all side fjords form hanging valleys to the main fjord. For example, the mouth of the Fjærlandsfjord is well over 400 meters deep, while the main fjord is close to 1,200 meters deep just outside the mouth. Vadheimfjord's mouth is 400 meters deep, here the greatest depth is over 1300 m. Ikjefjord's mouth is only 50 meters deep close to where the main fjord is at its deepest. In large parts of the fjord, it is "abruptly deep" in that the steep mountain sides continue just as steeply underwater.
In contrast to a number of other fjords, not every single part of the Sognefjord has its own name. Only the outermost part has its own name - Sognesjøen . However, there are many fjord arms. From west to east these are:
Sognesjøen
Straumsfjorden
Bjørnefjorden
Nessefjord
The Sognefjord
Lifjorden
Bøfjorden
The Risnefjord
The Ikjefjord
Vadheimsfjorden
Fuglsetfjorden
Høyangsfjorden
Lånefjorden
The Finnafjord
The Arnafjord
The Inner Fjord
Framfjorden
Vikbukti
The Esefjord
Fjærlandsfjorden
The Vetlefjord
Sværefjorden
The Norafjord
Sogndalsfjorden
Barsnes Fjord
The Eidsfjord
Aurlandsfjorden
The Nærøyfjord
Amla Bay
Lærdalsfjorden
Årdalsfjorden
The Lustrafjord
The Gaupnefjord
Climate and fresh water
The fjord colored by meltwater from the glacier.
Terrain formations and distance to the sea lead to great variations in climate along the fjord. The outer part has a mild and humid coastal climate, while the innermost part has an inland climate with cold and dry winters.
The amount of precipitation decreases strongly inwards into the fjord. Lærdal lies in the rain shadow and has very little rainfall, while west-facing slopes further out have a lot of rainfall and there the rainfall often increases with altitude. Brekke and Takle in Ytre Parish are among the places in Norway with the most rainfall. North of the Sognefjord lies the Jostedalsbreen, Norway's largest glacier, and parts of the meltwater drain into the Sognefjord. Wind conditions are strongly influenced by terrain formations. In winter, the dominant wind direction is out the fjord or out the side valleys in the form of so-called downwinds . Fall winds can be very strong and have a major impact on cooling and icing. The slopes and valleys along the inner parts of the fjord have a partially mild climate and are fertile, which makes the area suitable for growing fruit and berries, among other things. The slopes along the fjord partly have large conifer forests, including in the roadless area of Frønningen .
The fjord receives fresh water mainly from the rivers and very little precipitation directly on the fjord's water surface. In the inner part of the Sognefjord, the total supply of fresh water during one year corresponds to a depth of 33 meters if it were distributed over the entire area of the fjord. In spring and partly in autumn, the top 2-3 meters of the fjord are brackish water , especially in the side fjords. The salt content in the surface is lowest in summer and autumn. In June 1954, for example, 5 ‰ salt was measured in the uppermost meters of the Lustrafjord, while at great depths it was 34.5 ‰. Regulation of the waterways for power production has led to a larger proportion of fresh water flowing into the fjord in the winter. The most extensive regulation is in Aurland, Lærdal, Årdal and Jostedal. Regulations affect temperature in the surface layer and icing. In the inner part of the fjord, the rivers are fed by high mountains and glaciers.
The rivers Lærdalselvi , Aurlandselvi , Flåmselvi , Mørkridselvi , Henjaelvi , Grindselvi , Hamreelvi , Njøsaelvi , Kvinnafossen , Sogndalselvi and Jostedøla flow into the Sognefjord and normally have spring floods in June. [3] Lærdalselva has the largest catchment, followed by Jostedøla and Aurlandselva, and these three have roughly the same water flow (around 40 m 3 /second). The Årdalsvatnet drains to the Sognefjord through the short Åreidselva or Hæreidselvi through the Årdalstangen . The Eidsvatnet in Luster drains into the Sognefjord just by Mørkridselvi in Skjolden . Regulation of the waterways for hydropower has resulted in a more steady supply of fresh water throughout the year. Without regulation, 92% of the fresh water would have been supplied in the summer half-year from May to October. Several of the large rivers flow into fjord arms.
Geology
The bedrock along the outer and middle part of the fjord consists mostly of Precambrian gneiss with orientation east-west and northeast-southwest. The islands of Solund consist mostly of Devonian sandstone and conglomerates , while the interior (eastern part) consists mostly of Caledonian gabbro , anorthosite , granite and phyllite .
Jostedøla's material transport (in the form of sludge) involves sedimentation in the Gaupnefjord of 10 to 20 cm/year near the river basin, and 1 cm/year 2 km from the river basin. The river transports 50,000 to 100,000 tonnes of silt annually. The sludge concentration from Jostedøla is at most 1 g/litre. It is particularly at Gaupne that the meltwater from the glaciers is marked by the color of the water.
Icing
According to Helland, it was common for the ice to settle on several of the fjord arms every winter, including on Aurlandsfjorden, Nærøyfjorden and Årdalsfjorden. In the winter of 1888–1889, Lusterfjorden was iced over for six months straight. In the deepest parts of the Sognefjord, there is a year-round temperature of around 6.5 °C, according to Helland. Outer parts are almost never iced over, not even the side fjords. The inner parts can be frozen for several weeks at a stretch. Among other things, inner parts of the Aurlandsfjorden and the Nærøyfjorden freeze easily. Lærdalsfjorden is usually ice-free except for the very innermost part, while it has happened that Årdalsfjorden has been iced up to Ofredal and has been an obstacle to ship traffic. Historically, Lustrafjorden has often been iced over as far as Urnes. The Barsnesfjorden has often been covered with ice. In the Nærøyfjord it happened (among other things in the 1920s and in 1962) that the liner was unable to enter the fjord due to ice and had to dispatch at the ice edge.
Streams
In the Sognefjord, incoming current is hardly noticeable and is most noticeable in strong westerly winds. Outgoing current dominates and is particularly strong in spring and summer. At strong tides, the tidal flow can reach over 1 m/s (2 knots ) around the pier and headland. The Sognefjord is covered by a layer or stream of brackish water of up to 10 meters (varying with the seasons and supply from the rivers). Beneath the brackish water, a current or intermediate layer at a depth of 150 meters goes in and out of the fjord and below this lies the main basin, which has some connection with the ocean beyond the threshold. Together, these three currents contribute to the fact that the water in the fjord is replaced on average within 8-10 years, so that the fjord has life right down to the bottom. The brackish water layer has less density and therefore does not mix easily with the deeper layers. The brackish water that flows out of the fjord slowly mixes with the layer below so that the salt content increases at the same time as the brackish water layer increases up to 10 times the amount of fresh water supplied. The brackish water that flows towards the mouth must be replaced and sets up an incoming current in a slightly deeper layer.
Fish
The Sognefjord has herring and good sprat fishing . In the outer parts of the fjord, salmon has traditionally been fished with wedge nets . Salmon warp or "sitjenet" is a traditional method of salmon fishing and skilled players could catch a lot of fish with this method. Hook nets and drift nets have dominated in modern times and do not require the same active fishing as warp . The salmon's migration in the fjord is controlled by currents on the surface and the warps are placed where there are favorable current conditions where, due to the current, the salmon are driven close to land on their way into the fjord. In Leikanger and Balestrand there are many good places for sitejnot with Suppham being by far the best. Good salmon rivers such as Lærdalselva, Aurlandselva and Årøyelva flow into the Sognefjorden.
In the outer part of the fjord (Gulen and Solund) there is some fish farming. Several of the waterways are known for good salmon and sea trout fishing , and five of the rivers have been designated as national salmon rivers. Lærdalselva has a salmon-carrying stretch and has had by far the largest population. Aurlandselva has historically had a good catch of sea trout. The Sognefjord is among the most important in Norway for anadromous fish species. Norwegian spring-spawning herring are fished in the fjord, especially in the outer parts, as well as some coastal sprat.
In the Sognefjord there are plankton algae which in other Norwegian waters and the occurrence follows the seasons. In general, there is little occurrence in winter due to low light, diatoms bloom in March-April and are dependent on the supply of nutrient salts, in May-June diatoms and flagellates bloom in connection with the spring flood, in summer there is a varying population, new blooms in the autumn in connection with, among other things, floods, and married species can occur all year round.
Tourism
The Sognefjord was established as a tourist destination in the 19th century, among other things, with the establishment of Fylkesbåtane. One of the targets was Gudvangen, which in 1889 received 79 large tourist ships with a total of over 10,000 passengers. In 1889, 4,500 travelers came with the county boats. The German Emperor Wilhelm visited the Sognefjord and Balestrand for the first time in 1890. The emperor subsequently visited the Sognefjord 25 times. The fjord itself and the surrounding area with Jotunheimen, Jostedalsbreen and several stave churches have made the Sognefjord one of Norway's most prominent tourist destinations. Balestrand, Vangsnes, Aurland and Fjærland were among the early destinations for English tourists in the 19th century.
History
It has been the Guest of Death
It has sailed on a Torden
It is christened in Rædsler vorden
that has plowed the Sognefjord
from Forthun to Sognefæst.
If you have forgotten your Lord's Prayer,
do you remember a prayer to pray:
learn it from the wrath of God!
imagine, Sinder, then present
in a Bath on Sognefjord!
Henrik Wergeland
The Sognefjord has been an important transport artery since ancient times. The gulation was probably held near the mouth of the Sognefjord and probably because it was practical to hold the meeting where the ship lay along the coast met the great fjord. From the innermost arms of the fjord it is a relatively short distance to the inland villages of Eastern Norway, particularly through Lærdal to Valdres over the moderate mountain pass Filefjell . Lærdalsøyri was from the 17th century an important market and meeting place. There, farmers from Valdres, Hallingdal and Gudbrandsdalen sold slaughter, tar and other products from the interior and bought fish, salt, hemp and iron from the fjords and from Bergen. Around 1300, the authorities established a shuttle station at Maristova at the entrance to Filefjell. The first drivable road between east and west was built over Filefjell in 1792. From 1843 the paddle steamer "Constitutionen" plyed the route between Bergen and Lærdal, the county boats took over the route in 1857. The road over the Sognefjellet was built as a carriageway in 1938. The Flåmsbana connected the Sognefjord to the railway network in 1940. Stalheimskleivi , between Voss and Sogn, was built in 1850 and turned into a road in 1937. It has made it possible to transport agricultural products , fruit , berries and fish between the villages in Sogn and Bergen .
From 1785, the Trondhjem postal route crossed the Sognefjord by boat between Rutledal and Leirvik in Hyllestad . In 1647, a postal route was established between Bergen and Christiania. The post then took 7-8 days via Gudvangen, Lærdal and Valdres.
It was difficult to get to the Sognefjord by sailboat and the yachts could lie for many days or several weeks at the mouth waiting for favorable wind conditions. East wind was favorable out of the fjord, while south to Bergen, wind from the north or north-west was needed. To enter the fjord, a wind from the west was necessary. The steam and motor boats revolutionized transport on the fjord and these had completely taken over in the early 20th century The county boats were established in 1858 with boat routes on the Sognefjord and to Bergen as an important activity.
In 1934, a ferry route was established along the fjord from Vadheim to Lærdal. From 1939 until the Lærdal tunnel opened, there was a car ferry between Gudvangen and Lærdal - first the ferry went to Lærdalsøyri itself, from 1966 to Revsnes when a road was built there to shorten the ferry route. In the 1990s, the ferry connection Revsnes-Kaupanger was replaced by Mannheller-Fodnes , and after this Kaupanger has only been used by the tourist route Gudvangen-Kaupanger-Lærdal. The road system between Sogndal and Jølster on national highway 5 , including the Fjærlands tunnel , created a ferry-free road connection on the north side of the fjord.
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway , is a Nordic , European country and an independent state in the west of the Scandinavian Peninsula . Geographically speaking, the country is long and narrow, and on the elongated coast towards the North Atlantic are Norway's well-known fjords . The Kingdom of Norway includes the main country (the mainland with adjacent islands within the baseline ), Jan Mayen and Svalbard . With these two Arctic areas, Norway covers a land area of 385,000 km² and has a population of approximately 5.5 million (2023). Mainland Norway borders Sweden in the east , Finland and Russia in the northeast .
Norway is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy , where Harald V has been king and head of state since 1991 , and Jonas Gahr Støre ( Ap ) has been prime minister since 2021 . Norway is a unitary state , with two administrative levels below the state: counties and municipalities . The Sami part of the population has, through the Sami Parliament and the Finnmark Act , to a certain extent self-government and influence over traditionally Sami areas. Although Norway has rejected membership of the European Union through two referendums , through the EEA Agreement Norway has close ties with the Union, and through NATO with the United States . Norway is a significant contributor to the United Nations (UN), and has participated with soldiers in several foreign operations mandated by the UN. Norway is among the states that have participated from the founding of the UN , NATO , the Council of Europe , the OSCE and the Nordic Council , and in addition to these is a member of the EEA , the World Trade Organization , the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and is part of the Schengen area .
Norway is rich in many natural resources such as oil , gas , minerals , timber , seafood , fresh water and hydropower . Since the beginning of the 20th century, these natural conditions have given the country the opportunity for an increase in wealth that few other countries can now enjoy, and Norwegians have the second highest average income in the world, measured in GDP per capita, as of 2022. The petroleum industry accounts for around 14% of Norway's gross domestic product as of 2018. Norway is the world's largest producer of oil and gas per capita outside the Middle East. However, the number of employees linked to this industry fell from approx. 232,000 in 2013 to 207,000 in 2015.
In Norway, these natural resources have been managed for socially beneficial purposes. The country maintains a welfare model in line with the other Nordic countries. Important service areas such as health and higher education are state-funded, and the country has an extensive welfare system for its citizens. Public expenditure in 2018 is approx. 50% of GDP, and the majority of these expenses are related to education, healthcare, social security and welfare. Since 2001 and until 2021, when the country took second place, the UN has ranked Norway as the world's best country to live in . From 2010, Norway is also ranked at the top of the EIU's democracy index . Norway ranks third on the UN's World Happiness Report for the years 2016–2018, behind Finland and Denmark , a report published in March 2019.
The majority of the population is Nordic. In the last couple of years, immigration has accounted for more than half of population growth. The five largest minority groups are Norwegian-Poles , Lithuanians , Norwegian-Swedes , Norwegian-Syrians including Syrian Kurds and Norwegian-Pakistani .
Norway's national day is 17 May, on this day in 1814 the Norwegian Constitution was dated and signed by the presidency of the National Assembly at Eidsvoll . It is stipulated in the law of 26 April 1947 that 17 May are national public holidays. The Sami national day is 6 February. "Yes, we love this country" is Norway's national anthem, the song was written in 1859 by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson (1832–1910).
Norway's history of human settlement goes back at least 10,000 years, to the Late Paleolithic , the first period of the Stone Age . Archaeological finds of settlements along the entire Norwegian coast have so far been dated back to 10,400 before present (BP), the oldest find is today considered to be a settlement at Pauler in Brunlanes , Vestfold .
For a period these settlements were considered to be the remains of settlers from Doggerland , an area which today lies beneath the North Sea , but which was once a land bridge connecting today's British Isles with Danish Jutland . But the archaeologists who study the initial phase of the settlement in what is today Norway reckon that the first people who came here followed the coast along what is today Bohuslân. That they arrived in some form of boat is absolutely certain, and there is much evidence that they could easily move over large distances.
Since the last Ice Age, there has been continuous settlement in Norway. It cannot be ruled out that people lived in Norway during the interglacial period , but no trace of such a population or settlement has been found.
The Stone Age lasted a long time; half of the time that our country has been populated. There are no written accounts of what life was like back then. The knowledge we have has been painstakingly collected through investigations of places where people have stayed and left behind objects that we can understand have been processed by human hands. This field of knowledge is called archaeology . The archaeologists interpret their findings and the history of the surrounding landscape. In our country, the uplift after the Ice Age is fundamental. The history of the settlements at Pauler is no more than fifteen years old.
The Fosna culture settled parts of Norway sometime between 10,000–8,000 BC. (see Stone Age in Norway ). The dating of rock carvings is set to Neolithic times (in Norway between 4000 BC to 1700 BC) and show activities typical of hunters and gatherers .
Agriculture with livestock and arable farming was introduced in the Neolithic. Swad farming where the farmers move when the field does not produce the expected yield.
More permanent and persistent farm settlements developed in the Bronze Age (1700 BC to 500 BC) and the Iron Age . The earliest runes have been found on an arrowhead dated to around 200 BC. Many more inscriptions are dated to around 800, and a number of petty kingdoms developed during these centuries. In prehistoric times, there were no fixed national borders in the Nordic countries and Norway did not exist as a state. The population in Norway probably fell to year 0.
Events in this time period, the centuries before the year 1000, are glimpsed in written sources. Although the sagas were written down in the 13th century, many hundreds of years later, they provide a glimpse into what was already a distant past. The story of the fimbul winter gives us a historical picture of something that happened and which in our time, with the help of dendrochronology , can be interpreted as a natural disaster in the year 536, created by a volcanic eruption in El Salvador .
In the period between 800 and 1066 there was a significant expansion and it is referred to as the Viking Age . During this period, Norwegians, as Swedes and Danes also did, traveled abroad in longships with sails as explorers, traders, settlers and as Vikings (raiders and pirates ). By the middle of the 11th century, the Norwegian kingship had been firmly established, building its right as descendants of Harald Hårfagre and then as heirs of Olav the Holy . The Norwegian kings, and their subjects, now professed Christianity . In the time around Håkon Håkonsson , in the time after the civil war , there was a small renaissance in Norway with extensive literary activity and diplomatic activity with Europe. The black dew came to Norway in 1349 and killed around half of the population. The entire state apparatus and Norway then entered a period of decline.
Between 1396 and 1536, Norway was part of the Kalmar Union , and from 1536 until 1814 Norway had been reduced to a tributary part of Denmark , named as the Personal Union of Denmark-Norway . This staff union entered into an alliance with Napoléon Bonaparte with a war that brought bad times and famine in 1812 . In 1814, Denmark-Norway lost the Anglophone Wars , part of the Napoleonic Wars , and the Danish king was forced to cede Norway to the king of Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel on 14 January of that year. After a Norwegian attempt at independence, Norway was forced into a loose union with Sweden, but where Norway was allowed to create its own constitution, the Constitution of 1814 . In this period, Norwegian, romantic national feeling flourished, and the Norwegians tried to develop and establish their own national self-worth. The union with Sweden was broken in 1905 after it had been threatened with war, and Norway became an independent kingdom with its own monarch, Haakon VII .
Norway remained neutral during the First World War , and at the outbreak of the Second World War, Norway again declared itself neutral, but was invaded by National Socialist Germany on 9 April 1940 .
Norway became a member of the Western defense alliance NATO in 1949 . Two attempts to join the EU were voted down in referendums by small margins in 1972 and 1994 . Norway has been a close ally of the United States in the post-war period. Large discoveries of oil and natural gas in the North Sea at the end of the 1960s led to tremendous economic growth in the country, which is still ongoing. Traditional industries such as fishing are also part of Norway's economy.
Stone Age (before 1700 BC)
When most of the ice disappeared, vegetation spread over the landscape and due to a warm climate around 2000-3000 BC. the forest grew much taller than in modern times. Land uplift after the ice age led to a number of fjords becoming lakes and dry land. The first people probably came from the south along the coast of the Kattegat and overland into Finnmark from the east. The first people probably lived by gathering, hunting and trapping. A good number of Stone Age settlements have been found which show that such hunting and trapping people stayed for a long time in the same place or returned to the same place regularly. Large amounts of gnawed bones show that they lived on, among other things, reindeer, elk, small game and fish.
Flintstone was imported from Denmark and apart from small natural deposits along the southern coast, all flintstone in Norway is transported by people. At Espevær, greenstone was quarried for tools in the Stone Age, and greenstone tools from Espevær have been found over large parts of Western Norway. Around 2000-3000 BC the usual farm animals such as cows and sheep were introduced to Norway. Livestock probably meant a fundamental change in society in that part of the people had to be permanent residents or live a semi-nomadic life. Livestock farming may also have led to conflict with hunters.
The oldest traces of people in what is today Norway have been found at Pauler , a farm in Brunlanes in Larvik municipality in Vestfold . In 2007 and 2008, the farm has given its name to a number of Stone Age settlements that have been excavated and examined by archaeologists from the Cultural History Museum at UiO. The investigations have been carried out in connection with the new route for the E18 motorway west of Farris. The oldest settlement, located more than 127 m above sea level, is dated to be about 10,400 years old (uncalibrated, more than 11,000 years in real calendar years). From here, the ice sheet was perhaps visible when people settled here. This locality has been named Pauler I, and is today considered to be the oldest confirmed human traces in Norway to date. The place is in the mountains above the Pauler tunnel on the E18 between Larvik and Porsgrunn . The pioneer settlement is a term archaeologists have adopted for the oldest settlement. The archaeologists have speculated about where they came from, the first people in what is today Norway. It has been suggested that they could come by boat or perhaps across the ice from Doggerland or the North Sea, but there is now a large consensus that they came north along what is today the Bohuslän coast. The Fosna culture , the Komsa culture and the Nøstvet culture are the traditional terms for hunting cultures from the Stone Age. One thing is certain - getting to the water was something they mastered, the first people in our country. Therefore, within a short time they were able to use our entire long coast.
In the New Stone Age (4000 BC–1700 BC) there is a theory that a new people immigrated to the country, the so-called Stone Ax People . Rock carvings from this period show motifs from hunting and fishing , which were still important industries. From this period, a megalithic tomb has been found in Østfold .
It is uncertain whether there were organized societies or state-like associations in the Stone Age in Norway. Findings from settlements indicate that many lived together and that this was probably more than one family so that it was a slightly larger, organized herd.
Finnmark
In prehistoric times, animal husbandry and agriculture were of little economic importance in Finnmark. Livelihoods in Finnmark were mainly based on fish, gathering, hunting and trapping, and eventually domestic reindeer herding became widespread in the Middle Ages. Archaeological finds from the Stone Age have been referred to as the Komsa culture and comprise around 5,000 years of settlement. Finnmark probably got its first settlement around 8000 BC. It is believed that the coastal areas became ice-free 11,000 years BC and the fjord areas around 9,000 years BC. after which willows, grass, heather, birch and pine came into being. Finnmarksvidda was covered by pine forest around 6000 BC. After the Ice Age, the land rose around 80 meters in the inner fjord areas (Alta, Tana, Varanger). Due to ice melting in the polar region, the sea rose in the period 6400–3800 BC. and in areas with little land elevation, some settlements from the first part of the Stone Age were flooded. On Sørøya, the net sea level rise was 12 to 14 meters and many residential areas were flooded.
According to Bjørnar Olsen , there are many indications of a connection between the oldest settlement in Western Norway (the " Fosnakulturen ") and that in Finnmark, but it is uncertain in which direction the settlement took place. In the earliest part of the Stone Age, settlement in Finnmark was probably concentrated in the coastal areas, and these only reflected a lifestyle with great mobility and no permanent dwellings. The inner regions, such as Pasvik, were probably used seasonally. The archaeologically proven settlements from the Stone Age in inner Finnmark and Troms are linked to lakes and large watercourses. The oldest petroglyphs in Alta are usually dated to 4200 BC, that is, the Neolithic . Bjørnar Olsen believes that the oldest can be up to 2,000 years older than this.
From around 4000 BC a slow deforestation of Finnmark began and around 1800 BC the vegetation distribution was roughly the same as in modern times. The change in vegetation may have increased the distance between the reindeer's summer and winter grazing. The uplift continued slowly from around 4000 BC. at the same time as sea level rise stopped.
According to Gutorm Gjessing, the settlement in Finnmark and large parts of northern Norway in the Neolithic was semi-nomadic with movement between four seasonal settlements (following the pattern of life in Sami siida in historical times): On the outer coast in summer (fishing and seal catching) and inland in winter (hunting for reindeer, elk and bear). Povl Simonsen believed instead that the winter residence was in the inner fjord area in a village-like sod house settlement. Bjørnar Olsen believes that at the end of the Stone Age there was a relatively settled population along the coast, while inland there was less settlement and a more mobile lifestyle.
Bronze Age (1700 BC–500 BC)
Bronze was used for tools in Norway from around 1500 BC. Bronze is a mixture of tin and copper , and these metals were introduced because they were not mined in the country at the time. Bronze is believed to have been a relatively expensive material. The Bronze Age in Norway can be divided into two phases:
Early Bronze Age (1700–1100 BC)
Younger Bronze Age (1100–500 BC)
For the prehistoric (unwritten) era, there is limited knowledge about social conditions and possible state formations. From the Bronze Age, there are large burial mounds of stone piles along the coast of Vestfold and Agder, among others. It is likely that only chieftains or other great men could erect such grave monuments and there was probably some form of organized society linked to these. In the Bronze Age, society was more organized and stratified than in the Stone Age. Then a rich class of chieftains emerged who had close connections with southern Scandinavia. The settlements became more permanent and people adopted horses and ard . They acquired bronze status symbols, lived in longhouses and people were buried in large burial mounds . Petroglyphs from the Bronze Age indicate that humans practiced solar cultivation.
Finnmark
In the last millennium BC the climate became cooler and the pine forest disappears from the coast; pine forests, for example, were only found in the innermost part of the Altafjord, while the outer coast was almost treeless. Around the year 0, the limit for birch forest was south of Kirkenes. Animals with forest habitats (elk, bear and beaver) disappeared and the reindeer probably established their annual migration routes sometime at that time. In the period 1800–900 BC there were significantly more settlements in and utilization of the hinterland was particularly noticeable on Finnmarksvidda. From around 1800 BC until year 0 there was a significant increase in contact between Finnmark and areas in the east including Karelia (where metals were produced including copper) and central and eastern Russia. The youngest petroglyphs in Alta show far more boats than the earlier phases and the boats are reminiscent of types depicted in petroglyphs in southern Scandinavia. It is unclear what influence southern Scandinavian societies had as far north as Alta before the year 0. Many of the cultural features that are considered typical Sami in modern times were created or consolidated in the last millennium BC, this applies, among other things, to the custom of burying in brick chambers in stone urns. The Mortensnes burial ground may have been used for 2000 years until around 1600 AD.
Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 1050 AD)
The Einangsteinen is one of the oldest Norwegian runestones; it is from the 4th century
Simultaneous production of Vikings
Around 500 years BC the researchers reckon that the Bronze Age will be replaced by the Iron Age as iron takes over as the most important material for weapons and tools. Bronze, wood and stone were still used. Iron was cheaper than bronze, easier to work than flint , and could be used for many purposes; iron probably became common property. Iron could, among other things, be used to make solid and sharp axes which made it much easier to fell trees. In the Iron Age, gold and silver were also used partly for decoration and partly as means of payment. It is unknown which language was used in Norway before our era. From around the year 0 until around the year 800, everyone in Scandinavia (except the Sami) spoke Old Norse , a North Germanic language. Subsequently, several different languages developed in this area that were only partially mutually intelligible. The Iron Age is divided into several periods:
Early Iron Age
Pre-Roman Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 0)
Roman Iron Age (c. 0–c. AD 400)
Migration period (approx. 400–600). In the migration period (approx. 400–600), new peoples came to Norway, and ruins of fortress buildings etc. are interpreted as signs that there has been talk of a violent invasion.
Younger Iron Age
Merovingian period (500–800)
The Viking Age (793–1066)
Norwegian Vikings go on plundering expeditions and trade voyages around the coastal countries of Western Europe . Large groups of Norwegians emigrate to the British Isles , Iceland and Greenland . Harald Hårfagre starts a unification process of Norway late in the 8th century , which was completed by Harald Hardråde in the 1060s . The country was Christianized under the kings Olav Tryggvason , fell in the battle of Svolder ( 1000 ) and Olav Haraldsson (the saint), fell in the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 .
Sources of prehistoric times
Shrinking glaciers in the high mountains, including in Jotunheimen and Breheimen , have from around the year 2000 uncovered objects from the Viking Age and earlier. These are objects of organic material that have been preserved by the ice and that elsewhere in nature are broken down in a few months. The finds are getting older as the melting makes the archaeologists go deeper into the ice. About half of all archaeological discoveries on glaciers in the world are made in Oppland . In 2013, a 3,400-year-old shoe and a robe from the year 300 were found. Finds at Lomseggen in Lom published in 2020 revealed, among other things, well-preserved horseshoes used on a mountain pass. Many hundreds of items include preserved clothing, knives, whisks, mittens, leather shoes, wooden chests and horse equipment. A piece of cloth dated to the year 1000 has preserved its original colour. In 2014, a wooden ski from around the year 700 was found in Reinheimen . The ski is 172 cm long and 14 cm wide, with preserved binding of leather and wicker.
Pytheas from Massalia is the oldest known account of what was probably the coast of Norway, perhaps somewhere on the coast of Møre. Pytheas visited Britannia around 325 BC. and traveled further north to a country by the "Ice Sea". Pytheas described the short summer night and the midnight sun farther north. He wrote, among other things, that people there made a drink from grain and honey. Caesar wrote in his work about the Gallic campaign about the Germanic tribe Haruders. Other Roman sources around the year 0 mention the land of the Cimbri (Jutland) and the Cimbri headlands ( Skagen ) and that the sources stated that Cimbri and Charyds lived in this area. Some of these peoples may have immigrated to Norway and there become known as hordes (as in Hordaland). Sources from the Mediterranean area referred to the islands of Scandia, Scandinavia and Thule ("the outermost of all islands"). The Roman historian Tacitus wrote around the year 100 a work about Germania and mentioned the people of Scandia, the Sviones. Ptolemy wrote around the year 150 that the Kharudes (Hordes) lived further north than all the Cimbri, in the north lived the Finnoi (Finns or Sami) and in the south the Gutai (Goths). The Nordic countries and Norway were outside the Roman Empire , which dominated Europe at the time. The Gothic-born historian Jordanes wrote in the 5th century about 13 tribes or people groups in Norway, including raumaricii (probably Romerike ), ragnaricii ( Ranrike ) and finni or skretefinni (skrid finner or ski finner, i.e. Sami) as well as a number of unclear groups. Prokopios wrote at the same time about Thule north of the land of the Danes and Slavs, Thule was ten times as big as Britannia and the largest of all the islands. In Thule, the sun was up 40 days straight in the summer. After the migration period , southern Europeans' accounts of northern Europe became fuller and more reliable.
Settlement in prehistoric times
Norway has around 50,000 farms with their own names. Farm names have persisted for a long time, over 1000 years, perhaps as much as 2000 years. The name researchers have arranged different types of farm names chronologically, which provides a basis for determining when the place was used by people or received a permanent settlement. Uncompounded landscape names such as Haug, Eid, Vik and Berg are believed to be the oldest. Archaeological traces indicate that some areas have been inhabited earlier than assumed from the farm name. Burial mounds also indicate permanent settlement. For example, the burial ground at Svartelva in Løten was used from around the year 0 to the year 1000 when Christianity took over. The first farmers probably used large areas for inland and outland, and new farms were probably established based on some "mother farms". Names such as By (or Bø) show that it is an old place of residence. From the older Iron Age, names with -heim (a common Germanic word meaning place of residence) and -stad tell of settlement, while -vin and -land tell of the use of the place. Farm names in -heim are often found as -um , -eim or -em as in Lerum and Seim, there are often large farms in the center of the village. New farm names with -city and -country were also established in the Viking Age . The first farmers probably used the best areas. The largest burial grounds, the oldest archaeological finds and the oldest farm names are found where the arable land is richest and most spacious.
It is unclear whether the settlement expansion in Roman times, migrations and the Iron Age is due to immigration or internal development and population growth. Among other things, it is difficult to demonstrate where in Europe the immigrants have come from. The permanent residents had both fields (where grain was grown) and livestock that grazed in the open fields, but it is uncertain which of these was more important. Population growth from around the year 200 led to more utilization of open land, for example in the form of settlements in the mountains. During the migration period, it also seems that in parts of the country it became common to have cluster gardens or a form of village settlement.
Norwegian expansion northwards
From around the year 200, there was a certain migration by sea from Rogaland and Hordaland to Nordland and Sør-Troms. Those who moved settled down as a settled Iron Age population and became dominant over the original population which may have been Sami . The immigrant Norwegians, Bumen , farmed with livestock that were fed inside in the winter as well as some grain cultivation and fishing. The northern border of the Norwegians' settlement was originally at the Toppsundet near Harstad and around the year 500 there was a Norwegian settlement to Malangsgapet. That was as far north as it was possible to grow grain at the time. Malangen was considered the border between Hålogaland and Finnmork until around 1400 . Further into the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, there was immigration and settlement of Norwegian speakers along the coast north of Malangen. Around the year 800, Norwegians lived along the entire outer coast to Vannøy . The Norwegians partly copied Sami livelihoods such as whaling, fur hunting and reindeer husbandry. It was probably this area between Malangen and Vannøy that was Ottar from the Hålogaland area. In the Viking Age, there were also some Norwegian settlements further north and east. East of the North Cape are the scattered archaeological finds of Norwegian settlement in the Viking Age. There are Norwegian names for fjords and islands from the Viking Age, including fjord names with "-anger". Around the year 1050, there were Norwegian settlements on the outer coast of Western Finnmark. Traders and tax collectors traveled even further.
North of Malangen there were Norse farming settlements in the Iron Age. Malangen was considered Finnmark's western border until 1300. There are some archaeological traces of Norse activity around the coast from Tromsø to Kirkenes in the Viking Age. Around Tromsø, the research indicates a Norse/Sami mixed culture on the coast.
From the year 1100 and the next 200–300 years, there are no traces of Norwegian settlement north and east of Tromsø. It is uncertain whether this is due to depopulation, whether it is because the Norwegians further north were not Christianized or because there were no churches north of Lenvik or Tromsø . Norwegian settlement in the far north appears from sources from the 14th century. In the Hanseatic period , the settlement was developed into large areas specialized in commercial fishing, while earlier (in the Viking Age) there had been farms with a combination of fishing and agriculture. In 1307 , a fortress and the first church east of Tromsø were built in Vardø . Vardø became a small Norwegian town, while Vadsø remained Sami. Norwegian settlements and churches appeared along the outermost coast in the Middle Ages. After the Reformation, perhaps as a result of a decline in fish stocks or fish prices, there were Norwegian settlements in the inner fjord areas such as Lebesby in Laksefjord. Some fishing villages at the far end of the coast were abandoned for good. In the interior of Finnmark, there was no national border for a long time and Kautokeino and Karasjok were joint Norwegian-Swedish areas with strong Swedish influence. The border with Finland was established in 1751 and with Russia in 1826.
On a Swedish map from 1626, Norway's border is indicated at Malangen, while Sweden with this map showed a desire to control the Sami area which had been a common area.
The term Northern Norway only came into use at the end of the 19th century and administratively the area was referred to as Tromsø Diocese when Tromsø became a bishopric in 1840. There had been different designations previously: Hålogaland originally included only Helgeland and when Norse settlement spread north in the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, Hålogaland was used for the area north approximately to Malangen , while Finnmark or "Finnmarken", "the land of the Sami", lay outside. The term Northern Norway was coined at a cafe table in Kristiania in 1884 by members of the Nordlændingernes Forening and was first commonly used in the interwar period as it eventually supplanted "Hålogaland".
State formation
The battle in Hafrsfjord in the year 872 has long been regarded as the day when Norway became a kingdom. The year of the battle is uncertain (may have been 10-20 years later). The whole of Norway was not united in that battle: the process had begun earlier and continued a couple of hundred years later. This means that the geographical area became subject to a political authority and became a political unit. The geographical area was perceived as an area as it is known, among other things, from Ottar from Hålogaland's account for King Alfred of Wessex around the year 880. Ottar described "the land of the Norwegians" as very long and narrow, and it was narrowest in the far north. East of the wasteland in the south lay Sveoland and in the north lay Kvenaland in the east. When Ottar sailed south along the land from his home ( Malangen ) to Skiringssal, he always had Norway ("Nordveg") on his port side and the British Isles on his starboard side. The journey took a good month. Ottar perceived "Nordveg" as a geographical unit, but did not imply that it was a political unit. Ottar separated Norwegians from Swedes and Danes. It is unclear why Ottar perceived the population spread over such a large area as a whole. It is unclear whether Norway as a geographical term or Norwegians as the name of a ethnic group is the oldest. The Norwegians had a common language which in the centuries before Ottar did not differ much from the language of Denmark and Sweden.
According to Sverre Steen, it is unlikely that Harald Hårfagre was able to control this entire area as one kingdom. The saga of Harald was written 300 years later and at his death Norway was several smaller kingdoms. Harald probably controlled a larger area than anyone before him and at most Harald's kingdom probably included the coast from Trøndelag to Agder and Vestfold as well as parts of Viken . There were probably several smaller kingdoms of varying extent before Harald and some of these are reflected in traditional landscape names such as Ranrike and Ringerike . Landscape names of "-land" (Rogaland) and "-mark" (Hedmark) as well as names such as Agder and Sogn may have been political units before Harald.
According to Sverre Steen