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That “peace” sign originated as a symbol for nuclear disarmament back in the 1950s post-War II period. It is originally conceived as a semaphore signal to stop. The letter N and D are scripted into the circle to represent the words “Nuclear” and “Disarmament.” In the 60s it was co-opted to represent the American led war in Vietnam’s anti war movement.
A New York City Greenwich Village building decorated for the holidays.
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Peace Symbol
The symbol now known internationally as the "peace symbol" or "peace sign", was created in 1958 as a symbol for Britain's campaign for nuclear disarmament. It went on to be widely adopted in the American anti-war movement in the 1960s and was re-interpreted as generically representing world peace. It was also used by activists opposing nuclear power in the 1980s,[citation needed] although the Smiling Sun image () ["Nuclear power? No thanks!]" predominated.
Origin
The symbol was designed by Gerald Holtom (1914–1985), who presented it to Direct Action Committee on 21 February 1958. It was "immediately accepted" as a symbol for the movement and used for a march from Trafalgar Square, London, to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston in Berkshire on 4 April. Holtom's design was adapted by Eric Austen (1922–1999) to ceramic lapel badges. The original design is in the Peace Museum in Bradford, England.
The symbol is a super-imposition of the flag semaphore for the characters "N" and "D", taken to stand for "nuclear disarmament". This observation was made as early as 5 April 1958 in the Manchester Guardian. In addition to this primary genesis, Holtom additionally cited as inspiration Francisco
Goya's painting The Third of May 1808 :
I was in despair. Deep despair. I drew myself: the representative of an individual in despair, with hands palm outstretched outwards and downwards in the manner of Goya's peasant before the firing squad. I formalised the drawing into a line and put a circle round it.
Ken Kolsbun, a correspondent of Holtom's, says that the designer came to regret the symbolism of despair, as he felt that peace was something to be celebrated and wanted the symbol to be inverted. Eric Austen is said to have "discovered that the 'gesture of despair' motif had long been associated with 'the death of man', and the circle with 'the unborn child'".
The symbol became the badge of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, and wearing it became a sign of support for the campaign that argued for British unilateral nuclear disarmament. An account of CND's early history described the image as "a visual adhesive to bind the [Aldermaston] March and later the whole Campaign together ... probably the most powerful, memorable and adaptable image ever designed for a secular cause".
Source: Peace symbols | Wikipedia
The peace logo -- three simple lines within a circle -- turned 50 on 4 April 2008.
It was designed by Gerald Holtom as "The Nuclear Disarmament logo" for the first Aldermaston March, organized by the Direct Action Committee against Nuclear War, Easter 1958 (4-7 April).
The logo was not copyrighted, and was available for use by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, also founded in 1958; it later became known in the wider world as a general-purpose peace symbol.
The design was a combination of letters of the flag semaphore alphabet for "D" and "N", standing for nuclear disarmament.
~ Lake Wyola ~ Shutesbury MA
Ces deux enfants font le signe de la paix sans forcément connaître toute l’histoire derrière ce symbole. Créé en 1958 par Gerald Holtom pour la Campagne britannique pour le désarmement nucléaire, ce geste représente les lettres « N » et « D » en code sémaphore, enfermées dans un cercle symbolisant la Terre. Holtom, pacifiste convaincu, voulait transmettre un message d’espoir face à la menace nucléaire.
Aujourd’hui, les enfants portent ce signe avec innocence et joie, transmettant malgré tout une belle énergie positive …
°°°°°°°°°°°°°
These two children are making the peace sign without necessarily knowing the full history behind this symbol. Created in 1958 by Gerald Holtom for the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, this gesture represents the letters “N” and “D” in semaphore code, enclosed in a circle symbolizing the Earth. Holtom, a committed pacifist, wanted to convey a message of hope in the face of the nuclear threat.
Today, children wear this sign with innocence and joy, still spreading a beautiful positive energy …
The Soviet deployment of the SS-20 missile from 1975 caused major concern in the NATO alliance. NATO agreed to deploy in Europe from 1983 up to 464 USAF BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missiles or GLCMs.
The UK's share of this total was 160 missiles, 96 based at Greenham Common with four spares, and 64 at RAF Molesworth. When in June 1980 it was announced that RAF Greenham Common was to become the first site for cruise missiles, there was an outcry from the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. A massive new construction was undertaken as the GLCM Alert and Maintenance Area (GAMA) site was built in the southwest corner of the base. GAMA was a maximum security QRA (Quick Reaction Alert) area with 6 large above ground shelters in which fully operational cruise missiles were stored.
These shelters were specially designed and constructed to protect the GLCMs and crews against nuclear and conventional strikes. They were about 10 m high, with a reinforced 2 m thick concrete ceiling. Below was a massive titanium plate, 3 m of sand and a reinforced concrete plate. The shelters were completely covered with tons of clay. Each shelter was equipped with three hydraulic nuclear blast proof doors at both ends to assure a quick entry or exit. They were designed to withstand the blast of an air-bursting nuclear explosion above the base or a direct hit from a 2,500 lb (1,100 kg) conventional bomb.
Each shelter contained 2 LCC Launch Control Centres and 4 TEL transporter erector launchers. Units were mobile and, once deployed, would travel from the base in convoys to secret preset dispersal sites. This would happen within minutes of the alert being given; movement was via local roads through the surrounding villages.
The first squadron of the 501st Tactical Missile Wing received its weapons in November 1983; they were flown onto the base by Lockheed C-5 Galaxies.
The United States and the Soviet Union signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in 1987, which led to the removal of all nuclear missiles from the base. The last GLCMs at RAF Greenham Common were removed in March 1991, and the 501st TMW inactivated on 4 June 1991.
Fiori rosa fiori di pesco
c'eri tu
fiori nuovi 'stasera esco
ho un anno di piu'
stessa strada, stessa porta.
Scusa
se son venuto qui questa sera
da solo non riuscivo a dormire perche'
di notte ho ancor bisogno di te
fammi entrare per favore
solo
credevo di volare e non volo
credevo che l'azzurro di due occhi per me
fosse sempre cielo, non e'
fosse sempre cielo, non e'
posso stringerti le mani
come sono fredde tu tremi
no, non sto sbagliando mi ami
dimmi che e' vero
dimmi che e' vero
dimmi che e' vero
dimmi che e' vero
dimmi che noi non siamo stati mai lontani
dimmi che e' vero
ieri era oggi, oggi e' gia' domani
dimmi che e' vero
dimmi che e' ve...
Scusa credevo proprio tu fossi sola
credevo non ci fosse nessuno con te
oh scusami tanto se puoi
signore chiedo scusa anche a lei
ma io ero proprio fuori di me
io ero proprio fuori di me quando dicevo:
posso stringerti le mani
come sono fredde tu tremi
non, non sto sbagliando mi ami
dimmi che e' vero
dimmi che e' vero
dimmi che e' vero...
Il disarmo e l'impotenza.
Torino.
Aprile 2015.
(sempre Lui. Helios 40.)
AFGHANISTAN : Time To Go demonstration and march, 20th Nov. 2010
Photos taken at this weekend's anti-Afghan War march in Central London. The march started at Speaker's Corner and finished in
Trafalgar Square where many guest speakers, journalists, politicians, military families and student organisations were well represented.
This first photo set covers the appearance of the march as it came into sight on Picadilly, heading towards Trafalgar Square. Part two of
this large photo set will be posted in a couple of days time and will cover the events in Trafalgar Square.
All photos ⓒ Pete Riches
Please do not use my photos without my prior agreement.
Please do not re-blog my photos without my agreement.
Email: peteriches@gmail.com
AFGHANISTAN : Time To Go demonstration and march, 20th Nov. 2010
This is Part 2 of the photos taken at last weekend's anti-Afghan War march in Central London. The march started at Speaker's Corner and finished in Trafalgar Square where many guest speakers, journalists, politicians, military families and student organisations were well represented.
This second photo set covers the speeches and many of the wonderful people who came along to demonstrate their support in Trafalgar Square.
All photos ⓒ Pete Riches
Please do not use my photos without my prior agreement.
Please do not re-blog my photos without my agreement.
Email: peteriches@gmail.com
" Anti War Ant "
"Macro Mondays" "Into The Woods"
This interesting macro image was captured recently in Keynsham Woods, near to Bristol, England.
The stinging nettle the ant is walking up looks a little like a CND sign! "Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament"
" Is this a magical sign from nature trying to tell up humans something? "
HMM everyone!
Thank you! to everyone who, viewed, commented or favoured my photograph! Cheers!
Peace to all !
by Sean Walsh.
(from left to right)
- unity and struggle of opposites
- extremist
- sentences
- petitions for the complete and unconditional disarmament of America
- chronicles of our victories
- state can
Банки:
- единства и борьбы противоположностей
- экстремиста
- приговоров
- подписей за полное и безоговорочное разоружение Америки
- летописи наших побед
- государственная банка
He writes: The Recollection of the Bon Voyage will Remain for ever as a green spot in my memory - in the heart of Atlantic - 11th March 1921 - (Warrior of Russo Japanese War) R. Wakatsuki - Was this - Reijirō Wakatsuki? he was a Japanese politician and the 25th and 28th Prime Minister of Japan. He was involved in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), where Japan emerged victorious, gaining control over parts of Manchuria and Korea. His political career included significant roles in the Rikken Minseitō, a right-wing political group, and he was known for his opposition to militarism and for advocating for disarmament treaties.
The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) was a military conflict between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. The war began on February 8, 1904, and ended on September 5, 1905, with Japan emerging victorious, marking the first time an Asian power defeated a European power in modern history. This conflict significantly altered the balance of power in East Asia and contributed to domestic unrest in Russia, leading to the Russian Revolution of 1905. The war's outcome established Japan as a major world power and forced Russia to reconsider its expansionist policies in the region.
August 6th, 2003
On the anniversary of the bombing of Hiroshima (August 6th), they hold a ceremony in which lanterns are sent floating along the Motoyasu-gawa River, in front of the A-bomb Dome. The lanterns used to float out to ocean. Nowadays they are caught down river for environmental reasons. This is done in remembrance of those whose lives were lost and in hopes that all nuclear weapons will be destroyed. I arrived in Hiroshima a bit late on the 6th so unfortunately I missed of the action around the Peace Park but there had been speeches and demonstrations. The floating of the lanterns lasted for 3 hours.
It was a somber evening and a beautiful expression in the struggle for the worldwide disarmament of nuclear weapons, if not world peace and a clear reminder of what the opposite can lead to.
The Peace Sign, a symbol of peace and hope, placed near a Cold War bunker, points to a peaceful future to send a message of peace and disarmament.
A wildlife sanctuary www.tierart.de around and in the bunker has helped create a sense of humanity in the bunker itself and togetherness has returned.
The living German-American-French friendship here in the Southwest Palatinate also shows that it is important to build bridges and find common interests in order to promote peace and stability.
In times when there are many conflicts, divisions and political tensions worldwide, the lived German-American-French friendship can serve as a model for a better future in which people, regardless of their origin and history, treat each other with respect and work for peace and peace use collaboration.
Le signe de la paix, symbole de paix et d'espoir, placé près d'un bunker de la guerre froide, indique un avenir pacifique pour envoyer un message de paix et de désarmement.
Une réserve faunique www.tierart.de autour et dans le bunker a contribué à créer un sentiment d'humanité dans le bunker lui-même et la solidarité est revenue.
L'amitié vivante germano-américaine-française ici dans le Palatinat du Sud-Ouest montre également qu'il est important de construire des ponts et de trouver des intérêts communs afin de promouvoir la paix et la stabilité.
À une époque où règnent de nombreux conflits, divisions et tensions politiques dans le monde, l'amitié vécue germano-américaine-française peut servir de modèle pour un avenir meilleur dans lequel les gens, quelles que soient leur origine et leur histoire, se traitent avec respect et travaillent pour la paix et la paix utilisent la collaboration.
Знак мира, символ мира и надежды, размещенный рядом с бункером времен холодной войны, указывает на мирное будущее, чтобы послать сигнал о мире и разоружении.
Заповедник дикой природы www.tierart.de вокруг и внутри бункера помог создать ощущение человечности в самом бункере. и единение вернулось.
Живая немецко-американо-французская дружба здесь, в Юго-Западном Пфальце, также показывает, что важно наводить мосты и находить общие интересы для укрепления мира и стабильности.
Во времена, когда в мире много конфликтов, разногласий и политической напряженности, живая немецко-американо-французская дружба может служить образцом для лучшего будущего, в котором люди, независимо от их происхождения и истории, относятся друг к другу с уважением и работают на благо. мир и мир используют сотрудничество.
Das Peace-Zeichen als Symbol des Friedens und der Hoffnung ,in der nähe einer Bunkeranlage des kalten Krieges, weist auf eine friedliche Zukunft , um eine Botschaft des Friedens und der Abrüstung zu senden.
Eine Wildtierauffangstation, www.tierart.de um und im Bunker hat dazu beigetragen, dass im Bunker selbst ein Gefühl der Menschlichkeit und des Miteinanders zurückgekehrt ist.
Die gelebte Deutsch-Amerikanische-Französische Freundschaft hier in der Südwestpfalz zeigt auch, dass es wichtig ist, Brücken zu bauen und gemeinsame Interessen zu finden, um Frieden und Stabilität zu fördern.
In Zeiten, in denen es weltweit viele Konflikte, Spaltungen und politische Spannungen gibt, kann die gelebte Deutsch-Amerikanische-Französische Freundschaft als Vorbild für eine bessere Zukunft dienen, in der Menschen unabhängig von ihrer Herkunft und Geschichte respektvoll miteinander umgehen und sich für Frieden und Zusammenarbeit einsetzen.
Select "All Sizes" to read an article or to see the image clearly.
I thought others might appreciate these tidbits of forgotten history of People of Color.
Please feel free to leave any comments or thoughts or impressions... I look forward to reading them!
A man in Hiroshima Memorial Peace park, framed by the memorial Cenotaph.
The smooth concrete and granite arch built in 1952 was designed by Kenzo Tange, a professor at the University of Tokyo, to resemble an ancient arch-shaped house, representing a shelter for the souls of the victims. The stone chest in the center holds the names of all of the people killed by the bomb, directly or indirectly. The registry comprises 108 volumes with 297684 names and one volume of many unidentified (August 2015).
The epitaph on the cenotaph can be translated as “please rest in peace, for [we/they] shall not repeat the error”. The sentence, written by the professor of English Literature at Hiroshima University, Tadayoshi Saika, takes advantage of the lexical ambiguity of polite Japanese speech, omitting the sentence’s subject, to memorialize the victims of Hiroshima without politicizing the issue.
The inscription on the statue goes on...
"Born 1, November 1888
Died 28, April 1988
Erected by the GLC
In honour of his
Untiring efforts
For peace and
Racial Equality
25, July 1985"
I worked in Red Lion Square (where this status is erected) from late 1985 until shortly after a tree knocked his arm off during the "Great Storm of 1987". Glad to see his arm had been restored by the time I got back to London some years later.
This gent is a sterling example of a life lived with dogged conviction which included imprisonment in the Tower of London for treason during WWI and founding The World Disarmament Campaign in the late 1970s (and so much more before, in between and following).
Something else from the archive – this time we’re in the 1960s and this is my late close friend Martin, standing in front of Stonehenge.
What’s interesting about this image is the crude daubing of the ‘Ban the Bomb’ CND logo on the standing stones – no wonder the authorities roped off the area in 1977 and banned the public from walking among the monoliths. Not just because of basic vandalism like this, but also because visitors would scramble all over the site and climb the stones... and some people actually took chisels, no less, to extract their bit of these 5,000-year-old structures.
Anyway, back to Martin, who was my closest friend from our schooldays, and who died far too young in 2000 from a particularly virulent strain of multiple sclerosis. This photograph was taken shortly before the disease set in and confined him to a wheelchair for the rest of his life. All these years later, he’s still much missed.
Disarmament instead of armaments.
Every Sunday a large flea market is held on the Boxhagener Platz. Located in the heart of the vibrant student quarter around Simon-Dach-Strasse in Friedrichshain, it is a wonderful place to stroll and rummage around. You can find everything here, from books and furniture to household equipment and fashion.
The central figure, in the middle of the first row, with glasses and handbag, is Rosa Manus, a Dutch feminist and peace activist, at the time secretary of the Peace and Disarmament Committee of the Women’s International Organizations, who received the British WILPF delegation in Geneva.
From WILPF/22/1
4/4
In memory of the victims of the Hiroshima bombing.
Kertafleyting á Reykjavíkurtjörn í minningu fórnalamba kjarnorkusprenginganna á Hiroshima 6. ágúst 1945 and nagasaki 9. ágúst 1945
Tirei essa foto hoje mesmo. Gostei muito de tudo nela. O foco, o bokeh, as cores, etc. Esse é um símbolo que gosto muito. Símbolo da paz, que, na verdade, significava uma campanha para o desarmamento nuclear. Um dia ainda farei uma tatuagem no meu pulso com esse desenho. Podem ter certeza! haha. Espero que gostem! :)
Fique sabendo mais sobre o símbolo:
CND (Code of Nuclear Disarmament) ou Símbolo da Paz;
Foi desenhado para servir de logo para o Comitê de Ação Direta Contra a Guerra Nuclear e para a campanha de Desarme Nuclear.
Foi desenhado por Gerald Holtom (integrante da inteligência durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial) a partir da linguagem de bandeiras, por tratar-se de um código universal adotado em toda comunicação marítim, o que, portanto, assinava sua legalidade.
A paz é a gente quem faz
13/03/10
Pedro Lacerda
Aspara Warrior. Sculpture by Ouk Chim Vichet. Cambodia. 2004.
I call it The Rifleman. It sounds fierce to be a warrior and this figure is all weaponry, but to me, it looks like a she’s knitting with iron. I’m attribute peaceful intentions to her. It looks like she’s knitting those weapons “into plowshares”, or something useful, which is a better occupation. That’s assuming we aren’t being attacked by anyone.
University of Michgian Museum of Art.
November 22, 2020.
IMG_7680 WM
The museum continues to work for the global movement of nuclear disarmament and a lasting world peace. The museum is divided into the East Building and the Main Building. In the museum, the history of Hiroshima before and after the bombing is exhibited with pictures, movies and displays. Also, there are some items that convey the devastation caused by the atomic bomb.
These 4 images are from paintings displayed in the museum from people who survived the attack and the scenes that were witnessed. It is recorded that when it rained the survivors drank it because they had no other water. They did not realise at the time that the "Black Rain" was radioactive.
“Unwittingly, he held the key to the world’s future at his fingertips, and dared for the sake of unborn generations to become the master of the world for a day!”
In one of London's outer suburbs lived a shabby, insignificant schoolteacher with a repulsive, drunken wife. Experimenting with his secret invention was his only escape - until his headmaster's pacifist daughter brought sex and idealism into his life.
Could the sexual awakening of this shy, retiring man have inspired him to create the chaos that now reigned throughout London? Was it possible that he was the "Peacemaker" - that curious lunatic who wrote to “The Times” threatening to spread confusion until there was total disarmament?
The museum continues to work for the global movement of nuclear disarmament and a lasting world peace. The museum is divided into the East Building and the Main Building. In the museum, the history of Hiroshima before and after the bombing is exhibited with pictures, movies and displays. Also, there are some items that convey the devastation caused by the atomic bomb.
These 4 images are from paintings displayed in the museum from people who survived the attack and the scenes that were witnessed. It is recorded that when it rained the survivors drank it because they had no other water. They did not realise at the time that the "Black Rain" was radioactive.
Velislava PETROVA, Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs of Bulgaria addresses the Conference on Disarmament's High-Level Segment 2022, Palais des Nations. 1 March 2022. UN Photo by Violaine Martin
August 6th, 2003
On the anniversary of the bombing of Hiroshima (August 6th), they hold a ceremony in which lanterns are sent floating along the Motoyasu-gawa River, in front of the A-bomb Dome. The lanterns used to float out to ocean. Nowadays they are caught down river for environmental reasons. This is done in remembrance of those whose lives were lost and in hopes that all nuclear weapons will be destroyed. I arrived in Hiroshima a bit late on the 6th so unfortunately I missed a bit of the action around the Peace Park but there had been speeches and demonstrations. The floating of the lanterns lasted for 3 hours.
It was a somber evening and a beautiful expression in the struggle for the worldwide disarmament of nuclear weapons, if not world peace and a clear reminder of what the opposite can lead to.
An ex-combatant holds up munitions in Attécoubé, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. He is one of several to have participated in a Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) operation conducted in the area by the UN mission, UNOCI.
Photo ID 504398. 08/02/2012. Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. www.unmultimedia.org/photo/
Water is distributed in El Srief (North Darfur) where the nearest water point is 15 kilometres away. The activity fosters Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR). The outreach activity is organized by the African Union – United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) and supported by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the North Sudan DDR Commission and the local NGO Friends of Peace and Development Organization (FPDO).
Photo ID 480963. 25/07/2011. North Darfur, Sudan. UN Photo/Albert González Farran. www.unmultimedia.org/photo/
Water is distributed in El Srief (North Darfur) where the nearest water point is 15 kilometres away. The activity fosters Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR). The outreach activity is organized by the African Union – United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) and supported by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the North Sudan DDR Commission and the local NGO Friends of Peace and Development Organization (FPDO).
Photo ID 480966. 26/07/2011. El Srief, Sudan. UN Photo/Albert González Farran. www.unmultimedia.org/photo/
In the 1950s the "peace sign", as it is known today, was designed by Gerald Holtom as the logo for the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, a group at the forefront of the peace movement in the UK, and adopted by anti-war and counterculture activists in the US and elsewhere.
The logo commonly recognized as the “peace sign” since the late ‘50s supposedly began as the logo for the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND). According to the CND, it was designed in 1958 by an English professional artist/designer named Gerald Holtom, who had graduated from the Royal College of Arts. Holtom, a conscientious objector who had preferred working on a Norfolk farm during WWII instead of joining the conflict, incorporated the hand-held flag symbols (semaphores) for N and D into his logo, the N standing for “nuclear” and the D for “disarmament.” In semaphore, the letter N is formed by a person holding two flags in an upside-down V, and the letter D is formed by holding one flag pointed straight up and the other pointed straight down. By superimposing the flag orientation of these two letters, the bars of the peace sign were derived.
Holtom presented his design to officials in the Peace News office in London and to the Direct Action Committee Against Nuclear War. The Direct Action Committee was already planning its first major anti-nuclear march from London to Aldermaston, where British nuclear weapons were manufactured. Bertrand Russell, an organizer of this march, selected the symbol to be placed on buttons and banners for the march. The "peace sign" made its first public appearance in the U.K. on that march over the 1958 Easter weekend. Holtom originally had intended to use the cross symbol within a circle as the logo for the march but various clergy he consulted about the idea were obviously not enthusiastic about using the cross on a protest banner. Holtom described the use of the downward V to represent the despair that he felt due to nuclear proliferation. He later reportedly regretted his choice, rather preferring an upward V, which he felt would express the joy of peace. He requested that the upward V peace sign be placed on his tomb, but this request was not heeded.
The symbol was brought to the U.S. by Bayard Rustin, a U.S. civil rights protester, who had participated in the Aldermaston march. The peace sign was first used in the United States later in the same year when a pacifist protestor, Albert Bigelow, sailed his small boat near a scheduled U.S. nuclear test site displaying the CND banner. It was later used on civil rights marches and appeared at anti-Vietnam War demonstrations.
SWEDEN: Streetart Gothenburg – Kungssten – Röda Sten 1 – Goddess of Peace (Fredsgudinnan), Nuclear Disarmament – Bertil Gustafsson
The monument is made of an approximately 200-year-old log anchor, which roughly corresponds to the time Sweden was spared from war. The anti-nuclear weapons symbol that the goddess of peace lifts up has its origins in the 1950s fight against nuclear weapons and is used today as a symbol of peace around the world.
The sculpture was donated to Gothenburg’s peace-loving people by its creator Bertil Gustafsson. The monument was inaugurated on Hiroshima Day on 6 August 2018 and is managed by FREDSAM.
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vagabundler.com/sweden/streetart-map-gothenburg/roeda-ste...
Disarmament conferences amount to fire prevention exercises by pyromaniacs!
JOHN OSBORNE
Les conférences sur le désarmement se résument à des exercices contre le feu faits par des pyromanes!
Le conferenze per il disarmo sono le esercitazioni antincendio dei piromani!
Las conferencias de desarme son los ejercicios contra incendios de los pirómanos!
裁军会议就是纵火狂的防火演习
Ontwapeningskonferensies is soos brandvoorkomingsoefeninge deur kompulsiewe brandstigters!
As conferências de desarmamento são os exercícios contra incêndios dos piromaníacos!
съвещанията по разоръжаване са противопожарни упражнения на пироманите
Odzbrojovací konference jsou jako protipožární cvičení pro pyromany!
Nedrustningskonferencer kan sammenlignes med pyromaner, der holder øvelse i brandsikkerhed!
Ontwapeningsconferenties zijn vergelijkbaar met brandpreventieoefeningen voor pyromanen!
Desarmeerimiskonverents võrdub tuleohutusõppustega püromaanidele!
A leszerelési tárgyalások a piromániások tûzoltási gyakorlatai!
군축 회담들은 방화광들에 의한, 방어 훈련에 대한 사격에 지나지 않는다.
Konferencje rozbrojeniowe są ćwiczeniami przeciwpożarowymi piromanów!
As conferências para o desarmamento são exercícios contra incêndios dos pirómanos!
Conferinţele de dezarmare se rezumă la manevre anti-incendiu ale piromanilor!
конференције посвећене разоружању своде се на вежбе из пожарне заштите које изводе пиромани
Nedrustningskonferenser syftar egentligen till detsamma som brandskyddsövningar för pyromaner!
τα συνέδρια για τον αφοπλισμό είναι ουσιαστικά πυροσβεστικές ασκήσεις από πυρομανείς
The United Nations Office at Geneva in Geneva, Switzerland, is one of the four major offices of the United Nations where numerous different UN agencies have a joint presence. The main UNOG administrative offices are located inside the Palais des Nations complex, which was originally constructed for the League of Nations between 1929 and 1938.
Besides United Nations administration, the Palais des Nations also hosts the offices for a number of programmes and funds such as the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE).
The United Nations and its specialized agencies, programmes and funds may have other offices or functions hosted outside the Palais des Nations, normally in office spaces provided by the Swiss Government.
UN specialised agencies and other UN entities with offices in Geneva hold bi-weekly briefings at the Palais des Nations, organized by the United Nations Information Service at Geneva.
UNOG produces an annual report where it lists all major events and activities that happened through a year.
Headquartered at Geneva:
Conference on Disarmament
International Bureau of Education
International Computing Centre
International Labour Organization
International Organization for Migration
International Trade Centre
International Telecommunication Union
Joint Inspection Unit
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
United Nations Chief Executives Board for Coordination
United Nations Compensation Commission
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
United Nations Human Rights Council (see also United Nations Commission on Human Rights)
United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research
United Nations Institute for Training and Research
United Nations Non-Governmental Liaison Service
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
United Nations Office on Sport for Development and Peace
United Nations Research Institute For Social Development
World Health Organization
World Intellectual Property Organization
World Meteorological Organization
World Trade Organization
Presence at Geneva
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations - FAO (headquarters in Rome)
International Atomic Energy Agency (headquarters are in Vienna)
United Nations Environment Programme (headquarters are in Nairobi)
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (headquarters are in Paris)
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (headquarters are in Vienna)
World Food Programme (headquarters are in Rome)
United Nations World Tourism Organization (headquarters in Madrid)
Directors-general
Tatiana Valovaya, Russia, Director-General since 2019.
Wladimir Moderow, Poland, 1946–1951
Adriaan Pelt, Netherlands, 1952–1957
Pier Pasquale Spinelli, Italy, 1957–1968
Vittorio Winspeare-Guicciardi, Italy, 1968–1978
Luigi Cottafavi, Italy, 1978–1983
Eric Suy, Belgium, 1983–1987
Jan Mårtenson, Sweden, 1987–1992
Antoine Blanca, France, 1992–1993
Vladimir Petrovsky, Russia, 1993–2002
Sergei Ordzhonikidze, Russia, 2002–2011
Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, Kazakhstan, 2011–2013
Michael Møller, Denmark, 2013–2019
Tatiana Valovaya, Russia, 2019–present
Administrative history
United Nations Geneva Office, from beginning, Aug 1946 – Apr 1947, (IC/Geneva/1)
European Office of the UN, 11 Apr 1947 – 10 Aug 1948, (IC/Geneva/49)
United Nations Office at Geneva, 10 Aug 1948 – 9 Aug 1949, (IC/Geneva/152)
European Office of the UN, 9 Aug 1949 – 8 Dec 1957, (SGB/82/Rev.1)
United Nations Office at Geneva, 8 December 1957 – present, (SGB/82/Rev.2)
Geneva is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and the most populous of the French-speaking Romandy. Situated in the southwest of the country, where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the capital of the Republic and Canton of Geneva, and a centre for international diplomacy. Geneva hosts the highest number of international organizations in the world.
The city of Geneva (ville de Genève) had a population of 203,951 in January 2020 within its municipal territory of 16 km2 (6 sq mi), but the larger Canton of Geneva had a population of 504,128 over 246 km2 (95 sq mi). The Geneva metropolitan area as officially defined by Eurostat, including suburbs and exurbs in Vaud and the French departments of Ain and Haute-Savoie, extends over 2,292 km2 (885 sq mi) and had a population of 1,044,766 at the time.
Since 2013, the Canton of Geneva, the Nyon District (in the canton of Vaud), and the Pôle métropolitain du Genevois français (lit. 'Metropolitan hub of the French Genevan territory', a federation of eight French intercommunal councils), have formed Grand Genève ("Greater Geneva"), a Local Grouping of Transnational Cooperation (GLCT in French, a public entity under Swiss law) in charge of organizing cooperation within the cross-border metropolitan area of Geneva (in particular metropolitan transports). The Grand Genève GLCT extends over 1,996 km2 (771 sq mi) and had a population of 1,037,407 in Jan. 2020 (Swiss estimates and French census), 58.4% of them living on Swiss territory, and 41.6% on French territory.
Geneva is a global city, a financial centre, and a worldwide centre for diplomacy due to the presence of numerous international organizations, including the headquarters of many agencies of the United Nations and the ICRC and IFRC of the Red Cross. In the aftermath of World War I, it hosted the League of Nations. It was where the Geneva Conventions on humanitarian treatment in war were signed. It shares a unique distinction with municipalities such as New York City (global headquarters of the UN), Basel (Bank for International Settlements), and Strasbourg (Council of Europe) as a city which serves as the headquarters of at least one critical international organization without being the capital of a country.
The city has been referred to as the world's most compact metropolis and the "Peace Capital". In 2023, Geneva was ranked as the world's tenth most important financial centre by the Global Financial Centres Index, second in Europe behind London. In 2019, Geneva was ranked among the ten most liveable cities in the world by Mercer, alongside Zürich and Basel, as well as the thirteenth most expensive city in the world. In a UBS ranking of global cities in 2018, Geneva was ranked first for gross earnings, second most expensive, and fourth in purchasing power.
The history of Geneva dates from before the Roman occupation in the second century BC. Now the principal French-speaking city of Switzerland, Geneva was an independent city state from the Middle Ages until the end of the 18th century. John Calvin was the Protestant leader of the city in the 16th century.
Geneva first appears in history as an Allobrogian border town, fortified against the Celtic Helvetii tribe, which the Romans took in 121 BC.
In 58 BC, Caesar, Roman governor of Gaul, destroyed the Rhône bridge at Geneva and built a 19-mile earthwork from Lake Geneva to the Jura Mountains in order to block the migration of the Helvetii, who "attempted, sometimes by day, more often by night, to break through, either by joining boats together and making a number of rafts (ratis), or by fording the Rhône where the depth of the stream was least" (De Bello Gallico, I, 8). Then he helped establish Geneva as a Roman city (vicus and then civitas) by setting up camp there and significantly increasing its size.
In 443, Geneva was taken by Burgundy, and with the latter fell to the Franks in 534. In 888 the town was part of the new Kingdom of Burgundy, and with it was taken over in 1033 by the German Emperor.
In 563, according to the writings of Gregory of Tours and Marius Aventicensis, a tsunami swept along Lake Geneva, destroying many settlements, and causing numerous deaths in Geneva. Simulations indicate that this Tauredunum event was most likely caused by a massive landslide near where the Rhone flows into the lake, which caused a wave eight meters high to reach Geneva within 70 minutes.
Geneva became an episcopal seat in the 4th century.
According to legendary accounts found in the works of Gregorio Leti ("Historia Genevrena", Amsterdam, 1686) and Besson ("Memoires pour l'histoire ecclésiastique des diocèses de Genève, Tarantaise, Aoste et Maurienne", Nancy, 1739; new ed. Moutiers, 1871), Geneva was Christianised by Dionysius Areopagita and Paracodus, two of the 72 disciples, in the time of Domitian. Dionysius went thence to Paris and Paracodus became the first Bishop of Geneva – but the legend is based on an error, as is that which makes St. Lazarus the first Bishop of Geneva, arising out of the similarity between the Latin names Genava (Geneva) and Genua (Genoa, in northern Italy). The so-called "Catalogue de St. Pierre", which names St. Diogenus (Diogenes) as the first Bishop of Geneva, is unreliable.
A letter of St. Eucherius to Salvius makes it almost certain that the name of the first bishop (c. 400) was Isaac. In 440, Salonius appears as Bishop of Geneva; he was a son of Eucherius, to whom the latter dedicated his Instructiones'; he took part in the Council of Orange (441), Vaison (442) and Arles (about 455), and is supposed to be the author of two small commentaries, In parabolas Salomonis and on Ecclesisastis. Little is known about the following bishops:
Dormitianus (before 500), under whom the Burgundian Princess Sedeleuba, a sister of Queen Clotilde, had the remains of the martyr and St. Victor of Soleure transferred to Geneva, where she built a basilica in his honour.
St. Maximus (about 512-41), a friend of Avitus, Archbishop of Vienne and Cyprian of Toulon, with whom he was in correspondence.
Bishop Pappulus sent the priest Thoribiusas his substitute to the Synod of Orléans (541).
Bishop Salonius II is only known from the signatures of the Synods of Lyon (570) and Paris (573) and Bishop Cariatto, installed by King Guntram in 584, was present at the two Synods of Valence and Macon in 585.
From the beginning, the bishopric of Geneva operated as a suffragan of the Archbishopric of Vienne. The bishops of Geneva had the status of prince of the Holy Roman Empire from 1154, but had to maintain a long struggle for their independence against the guardians (advocati) of the see, the counts of Geneva and later the counts of the House of Savoy. It is some time around 1219 that the Counts of Geneva completely quit the city and moved their capital to Annecy.
In 1290, the latter obtained the right of installing the vice-dominus of the diocese, the title of "Vidame of Geneva" was granted by Amadeus V, Count of Savoy in the name of the Holy See (by the Foreign relations of the Holy See) to the counts of the House of Candia under count François de Candie of Chambéry-Le-Vieux a Chatellaine of the Savoy, this official exercised minor jurisdiction in the town in the bishop's absence.
In 1387, Bishop Adhémar Fabry granted the town its great charter, the basis of its communal self-government, which every bishop on his accession was expected to confirm. The line of the counts of Geneva ended in 1394, and the House of Savoy came into possession of their territory, assuming after 1416 the title of Duke. The new dynasty sought to bring the city of Geneva under their power, particularly by elevating members of their own family to the episcopal see. In 1447 Antipope Felix V, who was also Duke of Savoy, appointed himself as bishop of Geneva, and the Savoy dynasty ruled the episcopal see until 1490, when popular pressure compelled the dynasty to renounce the title of bishop.
In 1457 a major government organ was established in Geneva, known as the Grand Council, which first consisted of 50 deputies and later their number was raised to 200. The members of the Grand Council were elected every year in early February. The Grand Council represented the citizens of Geneva and decided on political matters and also elected the bishops of Geneva after that position was renounced by the Savoy dynasty in 1490. This same council gradually became estranged from the Duke of Savoy.
A new cause of friction between the Grand Council and the Duke of Savoy evolved in 1513, when Charles III decided to appoint his cousin John of Savoy as bishop and even secured Papal endorsement. Despite being bishop of Geneva, the new Savoy bishop resided most of the time in Pignerol in Piedmont, another factor enhancing the alienation between the people in Geneva and the Savoy dynasty.
In 1519, the Grand Council of Geneva attempted to forge an alliance with Fribourg, but the Duke of Savoy responded with invasion of the republic, which led to the execution of Philibert Berthelier and suspension of the Grand Council's powers. However, after that date the power of Savoy over Geneva gradually declined. In 1521 Jean of Savoy died, and the Grand Council appealed to Pope Leo X to appoint the next bishop, who then appointed Pierre de la Baume. In addition, the Duke of Savoy also tried to reconcile his political ambitions with local Genevan patriotism, and in 1523 marched into Geneva in a ceremony designated to appease its population, and tried to gain the support of the Geneva merchants by promising them a share in the trade with the Kingdom of Portugal (his wife's country of origin) and its territories in Brazil. However, the independence faction in Geneva did not accept these gestures. Another political crisis occurred in 1524, when the treasurer of Geneva, Bernard Boulet, a supporter of Savoy rule, was accused by the Grand Council of embezzlement. He reacted to the accusations by appealing to Charles III to curtail the powers of the council once more, to which the Duke responded by confiscating assets held by council members in other territories under Savoy rule.
In January 1525 the council appealed to the Pope to excommunicate Charles III. The deputies' attempt to enlist the support of the bishop Pierre de la Baume for their cause failed, and the Pope rejected their request. However, Charles III feared another rebellion, and in September 1525 made another proposal of power-sharing to the Grand Council of Geneva, which the council endorsed by 53–42. However, Charles III was not satisfied with this and started a new invasion of Geneva in order to destroy the pro-independence faction. The pro-independence faction fled to Fribourg, and in December 1525 the Grand Council acknowledged Charles III as the true sovereign of Geneva (a session known as the "Assembly of Halberds"). However, members of the pro-independence faction began their own clandestine campaign to enlist support for their cause, and in February 1526 gained the support of bishop Pierre de la Baume. Elections to the Grand Council took place the same month and led to a pro-independence majority that voted to break away from Savoy rule. Eventually the Grand Council succeeded in protecting the liberty of its citizens by establishing union with the Old Swiss Confederacy (Alte Eidgenossenschaft), by concluding on February 20, 1526 a treaty of alliance with Bern and Fribourg. On March 12, representatives of the other Swiss cantons appeared before the Grand Council in Geneva and swore to protect that republic as part of their confederation.
Geneva, home of Calvinism, was one of the great centres of the Protestant Reformation. While Bern favoured the introduction of the new teaching and demanded liberty of preaching for the Reformers Guillaume Farel and Antoine Froment, Catholic Fribourg renounced in 1533 its allegiance with Geneva.
In 1523, the first Protestants, refugees from France, arrived in Geneva. The new theology soon became very popular. The power of the Catholic Church in Geneva was further weakened following an abortive rebellion in 1526 by the priests in protest of the alliance with Bern and Fribourg. In July 1527, all Catholic priests of noble descent were expelled from Geneva due to their pro-Savoy sentiments. The bishop fled from Geneva to Gex in August 1527, in order to save himself from capture or assassination by Charles III's agents, but still remained officially the bishop of Geneva. The bishop supported for a while the independence of Geneva, but later colluded with Charles III to use his influence to bring about the annulment of the 1526 treaty of alliance. As a result, the Grand Council decided in January 1528 to adhere to the Lutheran faith, and the Pope responded by excommunicating the people of Geneva. Even though Geneva was still under the nominal jurisdiction of a Catholic bishop, the Grand Council took advantage of his absence and initiated a gradual reform in worship along Lutheran lines.
Following the 1526 alliance treaty, Charles III of Savoy was not willing to concede defeat in Geneva, and constantly plotted to take over that city again. The fear of Swiss intervention kept him at bay, but he encouraged sporadic acts of violence against Geneva such as acts of robbery and destruction of goods intended for Geneva. The bishop of Geneva, no longer residing within that city, participated in plans to overthrow its independence. Some of the knights who were interested in capturing Geneva for Charles III organized in an unofficial organization termed the Order of the Spoon.[8] The knights of that group attempted an abortive invasion of Geneva by climbing on the city wall with ladders on March 25, 1529, an event to be known as "day of the ladders". In addition, the Duke of Savoy sought to convince the other Swiss republics to abrogate their alliance with Geneva, and to that end managed to enlist the support of Francis I of France and of Emperor Charles V. The Emperor Charles V tried to convince the Grand Council of Geneva to return to the Catholic Church, and on July 16, 1529 even wrote a letter to that effect in his own handwriting, but the council of Geneva rejected the plea and Charles V became determined to act with force. The Swiss Federation was alarmed by these developments, and in May 1530 a joint delegation from Bern, Fribourg, Zurich, Basel and Solothurn suggested to the Grand Council the abrogation of the 1526 alliance treaty in exchange for looser cooperation. The Grand Council rejected the offer and decided to oppose any attempt to restore Geneva to Savoy rule.
On June 24, 1530, the Grand Council arrested a public prosecutor named Mandolia, who was a supporter of duke Charles III, and this irritated bishop Baume, who retaliated by arresting Genevan merchants in Gex, where he now resided. He also made a pact with the Knights of the Spoon, and on August 20, issued an episcopal decree ordering them to wage war in order to restore Geneva to its rightful rulers. On September 30, the attack began, as the Knights of the Spoon were joined by the forces of Charles III, reaching up to 800 soldiers total. The Genevan army was only about 600 men strong, but on October 10 reinforcements of about 10,000 men strong arrived from Bern and Fribourg.[9] In addition, Emperor Charles V, even though a supporter of Savoy interests, refused to participate in that war, and the invading army was forced to withdraw. Following the Savoyard withdrawal, a peace treaty was concluded between Geneva and bishop Baume, by which the Grand Council in Geneva released Mandolia from prison and the bishop released the Genevans arrested at Gex.
During the Second War of Kappel in October 1531, Geneva was politically divided, as the government of Bern requested military aid for the Protestants of Zurich, while Fribourg requested that for the Catholic party. The Grand Council of Geneva was torn between the two parties, but decided to split its forces and assist both simultaneously. Following the defeat of Zurich in the war, Fribourg renounced its alliance with Geneva. As a result, Charles III of Savoy renewed his plans of capturing Geneva. This alarmed the governments of Bern and Fribourg to the point of suggesting to Geneva to renounce the alliance treaty of 1526 and accept Savoy rule, which the council of Geneva rejected.
In June 1532, street skirmishes between Catholics and Protestants broke out, and the government of Fribourg threatened to tear up its alliance with Geneva if Protestant practices were permitted. The government of Bern, however, pressured the Grand Council of Geneva to allow Protestant preaching. The authority of the Catholic bishop was no longer recognized by the people and institutions of Geneva, but at first they refused to commit their city to the Protestant cause, for fear of antagonizing the Catholic rulers of adjacent kingdoms as well as the Catholic priests within Geneva.
Compromise between Catholics and Protestants
The Catholic priests and monks in Geneva remained a significant social force to reckon with, and used their influence in order to bring about the expulsion of the Protestant preachers, and on March 28, 1533 even tried to incite the Catholic masses to massacre the Protestants - a scheme that failed due to emotions of city solidarity and Grand Council efforts to restore the peace. The Grand Council was cautious in its policies, and attempted a middle course between the two factions. As part of that middle course, it yielded to Protestant demands by approving in March 1533 the publication of the Bible in French, but only a conservative translation that did not appeal to Protestant sentiments and was acceptable to the Catholics in the republic. The Grand Council also had to take into consideration the need to remain in alliance with both Catholic and Protestant cantons. In February 1533, Fribourg openly revoked the alliance treaty of 1526, and later even made plans to invade Geneva.
In order to keep the peace between Catholics and Protestants as well as a policy of neutrality between the Catholic and Protestant powers, the Grand Council of Geneva on March 30, 1533 passed a statute of compromise which permitted every Genevan to choose his religious affiliation, while prohibiting open attacks on Catholic doctrines and practices and all religious preaching in open places for both parties. Eating meat on Fridays was prohibited for both parties. However, neither had the intention of abiding by the statute, and street riots broke out from time to time.
Even after the ousting of bishop la Baume from Geneva, the triumph of Protestantism was not assured, as the Catholic faction within that city conspired with Fribourg to act for the return of the Catholic bishop to Geneva. La Baume himself was reluctant at first, but Pope Clement VII pressured him to accept. On July 3, 1533 - with military aid from Fribourg - the bishop once again entered Geneva in a procession. The Grand Council demanded from the bishop to honor the traditional freedoms of the republic, which he promised to uphold. However, soon the bishop started arresting conspicuous Protestants in Geneva, and there were rumors that he intended to remove the prisoners to Fribourg and placed beyond the Grand Council's reach. On July 12 riots broke out, and the bishop yielded to popular clamor and delivered the prisoners to the Council's custody. Fearing for his life, the bishop decided to flee the city, which he did on July 14, this time never to return, while moving his headquarters to Arbois and later to Chambery. However, de la Baume officially remained the bishop of Geneva and Catholic priests and monks still remained a strong faction within the city. The bishop still tried to exercise his jurisdiction over Geneva and on October 24, 1533 wrote a letter to the council, demanding it to stop Protestant preaching in Geneva, which the council refused to do.
Following the bishop's flight, the influence of Protestant preachers in Geneva increased, and this was achieved to the chagrin of the local Catholic priests due to pressure from Bern, which threatened to revoke the 1526 alliance treaty unless freedom was granted to Protestants. In addition, the exiled bishop was gradually losing popularity also with the Catholic sections of Genevan society due to numerous attempts to meddle by proxy with the republic's judicial affairs, which the Genevans viewed as attacks on the liberties of their city. As a result of that, the Grand Council agreed in January 1534 to allow the trials of clergyman by secular authorities. The Catholic influence within Geneva was further diminished following the flight on July 30, 1534 of part of its Catholic population due to the rising tensions between Catholics and Protestants, and at the February 1535 election to the Grand Council, a Protestant majority was secured. Bishop de la Baume, seeing that Geneva was becoming Protestant, issued a decree on June 13, 1535 prohibiting trade with Geneva on pain of excommunication. The Grand Council, even though consisted of a Protestant majority, still refrained from proclaiming the city as Protestant, for fear of reprisals from Catholic neighboring kingdoms. In order to compel the council to make that move, Protestant leaders such as Guillaume Farel began agitating the crowds to demolish icons and throw the wafers of the eucharist to the ground in Catholic churches. As a measure of compromise between the two groups, the Grand Council resolved on August 10, 1535, to prohibit the breaking of icons on one hand and to prohibit the celebration of Mass on the other. This move increased further the flight of Catholics from the city into Savoy territories. Following another unsuccessful invasion of Geneva by Savoy forces in October 1535, which ended in a Savoy defeat at Gingins, the Grand Council decided on February 3, 1536 on the destruction of all castles around Geneva in order not to allow any princes another pretext for invading their city.
On May 21, 1536, the Genevans declared themselves Protestant by taking a public oath of allegiance to the Lutheran faith where all residents took part, and proclaimed their city a republic. This move was in the making for a long time, but was delayed for fears of Savoy invasion. However, the French invasion of Savoy territories earlier that year had removed that obstacle.
The Protestant leader John Calvin was based in Geneva from 1536 to his death in 1564 (save for an exile from 1538 to 1541) and became the spiritual leader of the city, a position created by the Grand Council as the city turned Protestant. Geneva became a center of Protestant activity, producing works such as the Genevan Psalter, though there were often tensions between Calvin and the city's civil authorities. Calvin also supported the admission into Geneva of Protestant refugees, which some circles strongly opposed.
Though the city proper remained a Protestant stronghold, a large part of the historic diocese returned to Catholicism in the early seventeenth century under St. Francis de Sales. Geneva has played a historical role in the spread of Protestantism. In addition to becoming a Protestant state, Geneva in the 16th century also became a kind of welfare state, as a general state hospital was established in 1535 by the wealthy Protestant Claude Salomon. A centralized education system was established with the cooperation of John Calvin.
In 1584, Geneva strengthened its ties to the Swiss Confederacy with a separate "eternal treaty" with the Protestant city cantons of Bern and Zürich. But the five Catholic cantons blocked any suggestions of full accession of Geneva to the Confederacy.
In the 1580s, the conflict with Savoy intensified once again after the accession of Charles Emmanuel I. In the event known as L'Escalade of the night of 11 December 1602 (Old Style), the Savoiards attempted to take the city by stealth, climbing over the walls using black ladders. They were discovered and repelled.
The city became increasingly aristocratic during the 17th century, to the point where it became almost impossible for outsiders to acquire citizenship. The common assembly (Conseil général) became almost powerless, to the benefit of the lesser council (Petit Conseil) and the council of the two-hundred (Conseil des Deux-Cents), which were filled with members of the powerful families in nepotistic appointments. Society was divided between the Citoyens, who were either members of the old patriciate or offsprings of Bourgeois born in Geneva, and had full citizenship, the Bourgeois, who were either naturalized citizens or offsprings of Bourgeois not born in the city, the Natifs, Geneva-born descendants of residents without citizenship, and the mere Habitants, non-citizens permitted residence in exchange for a fee. Finally, Sujets were the population of a number of nearby villages controlled by the city.
Throughout this century, Geneva was plagued by strife between the Francophone oligarchy and radical populist opponents. The elite dominated the councils of the republic, and used their position to raise indirect taxes which hurt the poor more than the rich. They were accused of being pro-French libertine rentiers, committed neither to the republic nor to Calvinism, whereas the opposition subscribed to strict Calvinism and populist republicanism.
Conflict between these factions led to rioting in 1734–1737, which was settled after the diplomatic intervention of France and Geneva's two Swiss allies, Bern and Zurich. In the 1750s the opposition, led by watchmaker Jacques François Deluc (1698–1780), began to call themselves the représentants (representatives). They wanted the General Council (AKA the Grand Council, Geneva's legislature) to more truly represent the people and to re-assert its power over the aristocratic ministers on the Council of Twenty-Five (the executive council). This did not happen, but further unrest in 1767 led to another French-brokered agreement between elitists and populists.
Meanwhile, a quarrel between French-speaking intellectuals whipped up the unrest still further. A piece written by Jean le Rond d'Alembert appeared in 1757 in volume 7 of the Encyclopédie criticising the puritanism of Geneva's Calvinist pastors and advocating the adoption of the enlightened arts as in France. Jean Jacques Rousseau fell out with him and other philosophes such as Denis Diderot and Voltaire over this, advocating stricter morals and siding with the radicals, although not going so far as to advocate democracy.
Finally, in the abortive Geneva Revolution of 1782, revolutionary ideologues and working-class activists demanding a broader franchise seized the state. Popular representatives were elected to an executive committee which proceeded to enact wide-ranging reforms. However France, Bern and Savoy sent a military force to Geneva, causing the leading revolutionaries to flee to nearby Neuchâtel (then under Prussia), saying they would refound Geneva elsewhere along with industrious fellow-citizens. The invaders imposed a new constitution on Geneva entrenching the aristocracy. This caused many Genevans to emigrate and try to build a new Geneva at, for example, Waterford, Cologne or Brussels. Many radical émigrés went on to do great things, such as participating in the French Revolution (1789–1799).
During the French Revolution period, aristocratic and democratic factions again contended for control of Geneva. In 1798, however, France, then under the Directory, annexed Geneva and its surrounding territory.
In 1802, the diocese was united with that of Chambéry. The defeat of Napoleonic armies and liberation of Geneva in 1813 by the Austrian general Ferdinand von Bubna und Littitz restored its independence. At the Congress of Vienna of 1814–15, the territory of Geneva was extended to cover 15 Savoyard and six French parishes, with more than 16,000 Catholics; at the same time it was admitted to the Swiss Confederation. The Congress expressly provided—and the same proviso was included in the Treaty of Turin (16 March 1816)—that in these territories transferred to Geneva the Catholic religion was to be protected, and that no changes were to be made in existing conditions without the approval of the Holy See. The city's neutrality was guaranteed by the Congress. Pius VII in 1819 united the city of Geneva and 20 parishes with the Diocese of Lausanne, while the rest of the ancient Diocese of Geneva (outside of Switzerland) was reconstituted, in 1822, as the French Diocese of Annecy.
The Great Council of Geneva (cantonal council) afterwards ignored the responsibilities thus undertaken; in imitation of Napoleon's "Organic Articles", it insisted upon the Placet, or previous approval of publication, for all papal documents. Catholic indignation ran high at the civil measures taken against Marilley, the parish priest of Geneva and later bishop of the see, and at the Kulturkampf, which obliged them to contribute to the budget of the Protestant Church and to that of the Old Catholic Church, without providing any public aid for Catholicism.
On 30 June 1907, aided by strong Catholic support, Geneva adopted a separation of church and state. The Protestant faith received a one-time compensatory sum of 800,000 Swiss francs, while other faiths received nothing. Since then the Canton of Geneva has given aid to no creed from either state or municipal revenues.
The international status of the city was highlighted after World War I when Geneva became the seat of the League of Nations in 1919—notably through the work of the Federal Council member Gustav Ador and of Swiss diplomat William Rappard, who was one of the founders of the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Europe's oldest graduate school of international and development studies. Furthermore, the International School of Geneva, the oldest currently operating International School in the world, was founded in 1924 by senior members of the League of Nations and the International Labor Office.
In the wake of the war, a class struggle in Switzerland grew and culminated in a general strike throughout the country—beginning on Armistice Day, 11 November 1918, and directed from the German-speaking part of the nation. However the prevailing friendliness toward France in Geneva moderated its effect upon that city.
On 9 November 1932, several small Fascist-inspired political parties, such as the National Union, attacked Socialist leaders, which action led to a later demonstration of the Left against the Fascists. On that occasion, young recruits in the Swiss Army fired without warning into a crowd, leaving thirteen dead and 63 wounded. As a result, a new general strike was called several days later in protest.
After World War II, the European headquarters of the United Nations and the seats of dozens of international organizations were installed in Geneva, resulting in the development of tourism and of business.
In the 1960s, Geneva became one of the first parts of Switzerland in which the rights movements achieved a certain measure of success. It was the third canton to grant women's suffrage on the cantonal and communal levels.