The development and history of Lucerne have been influenced heavily by its geographical situation in Central Switzerland. Situated at the lower end of Lake Lucerne between the Alps with high mountains and pass roads and the Swiss midlands, the city of Lucerne was predestined to be a center of commerce (like Zurich and Geneva). Due to travelling merchants, foreign (especially Italian) influence was particularly strong. Excellent accessability of natural monuments in Central Switzerland made Lucerne an important touristic destination.

  

The origins of Lucerne are not very clear. Historians tend to think that the name is most probably derived from Luciaria, an old word for weir-basket. If this is true, Lucerne started as a fishermen's village. The latin word lucerna [oil-lamp] would then be an attempt of later generations to make forget the unspectacular origins and give the name a new, more shiny notion.

In 750 a monastery consecrated to St. Leodegar is founded near the original village of Lucerne (today Hofkirche). In the 9th century the monastery St. Leodegar becomes dependent of the abbey of Murbach (Alsace).

A bridge over river Reuss is first mentioned in 1168. It is unknown, whether there has been a bridge in town before. Lucerne as a marketplace is of local importance only, however, until the St. Gotthard trade route is opened in the 13th century.

In 1178 a priest at St. Peter's Chapel (the chapel giving the name to Chapel Bridge) is appointed to take care of the population of Lucerne.

Between 1230 and 1240 a new technique of suspending wooden catwalks in steep rocks allowes to overcome Schöllenen canyon and openes the way for the St. Gotthard pass route connecting the Lake of Lucerne region with Milan, Italy. The route has since been of major importance in commercial as well as military traffic between Germany and Italy. Goods can now be transported with mules over the pass and shipped with relatively big boats on Lake Lucerne. Lucerne, being the only city on the lake, becomes an important marketplace and provides storage capacity for goods. Trade over the new St. Gotthard pass route is growing fast and makes Lucerne an important market place in the 13th century.

First ramparts are built between 1230 and 1240 to protect the town and Franciscan friars settle in Lucerne by 1240. They act as a counter point to the conservative Benedictine Hof monastery.

The city gets its own seal in 1241. The political organization of the city is described in a document from 1252: There is a Schultheiss [mayor], an executive council consisting of 36 citizens and a grand council. In 1300 a first town hall is built.

 

lucerne.all-about-switzerland.info/lucerne-history.html

The black swan (Cygnus atratus) is a large waterbird, a species of swan which breeds mainly in the southeast and southwest regions of Australia. Within Australia, the black swan is nomadic, with erratic migration patterns dependent on climatic conditions. It is a large bird with black plumage and a red bill. It is a monogamous breeder, with both partners sharing incubation and cygnet-rearing duties.

 

The black swan was introduced to various countries as an ornamental bird in the 1800s, but has managed to escape and form stable populations. Described scientifically by English naturalist John Latham in 1790, the black swan was formerly placed into a monotypic genus, Chenopis. Black swans can be found singly, or in loose companies numbering into the hundreds or even thousands. It is a popular bird in zoological gardens and bird collections, and escapees are sometimes seen outside their natural range.

 

This bird is a regional symbol of both Western Australia, where it is native, and the English town of Dawlish, where it is an introduced species.

 

Description

Black swans are black-feathered birds, with white flight feathers. The bill is bright red, with a pale bar and tip; and legs and feet are greyish-black. Cobs (males) are slightly larger than pens (females), with a longer and straighter bill. Cygnets (immature birds) are a greyish-brown with pale-edged feathers.

 

Mature black swans measure between 110 and 142 centimetres (43 and 56 in) in length and weigh 3.7–9 kilograms (8.2–19.8 lb). Their wing span is between 1.6 and 2 metres (5.2 and 6.6 ft). The neck is long (relatively the longest neck among the swans) and curved in an "S"-shape.

 

The black swan utters a musical and far reaching bugle-like sound, called either on the water or in flight, as well as a range of softer crooning notes. It can also whistle, especially when disturbed while breeding and nesting.

 

When swimming, black swans hold their necks arched or erect and often carry their feathers or wings raised in an aggressive display. In flight, a wedge of black swans will form as a line or a V, with the individual birds flying strongly with undulating long necks, making whistling sounds with their wings and baying, bugling or trumpeting calls.

  

Black swan skeleton (Museum of Osteology)

The black swan is unlike any other Australian bird, although in poor light and at long range it may be confused with a magpie goose in flight. However, the black swan can be distinguished by its much longer neck and slower wing beat.

 

One captive population of black swans in Lakeland, Florida has produced a few individuals which are a light mottled grey colour instead of black. White black swans are also known to exist; these individuals, which are leucistic, are believed to occur rarely in the wild.

 

Distribution

The black swan is common in the wetlands of southwestern and eastern Australia and adjacent coastal islands. In the south west its range encompasses an area between North West Cape, Cape Leeuwin and Eucla; while in the east it covers a large region bounded by the Atherton Tableland, the Eyre Peninsula and Tasmania, with the Murray Darling Basin supporting very large populations of black swans. It is uncommon in central and northern Australia.

 

The black swan's preferred habitat extends across fresh, brackish and salt water lakes, swamps and rivers with underwater and emergent vegetation for food and nesting materials. It also favors permanent wetlands, including ornamental lakes, but can also be found in flooded pastures and tidal mudflats, and occasionally on the open sea near islands or the shore.

 

The black swan was once thought to be sedentary, but is now known to be highly nomadic. There is no set migratory pattern, but rather opportunistic responses to either rainfall or drought. In high rainfall years, emigration occurs from the south west and south east into the interior, with a reverse migration to these heartlands in drier years. When rain does fall in the arid central regions, black swans will migrate to these areas to nest and raise their young. However, should dry conditions return before the young have been raised, the adult birds will abandon the nests and their eggs or cygnets and return to wetter areas.

 

The black swan, like many other water fowl, loses all its flight feathers at once when it moults after breeding and is unable to fly for about a month. During this time it will usually settle on large, open waters for safety.

 

The species has a large range, with figures between 1 and 10 million km2 given as the extent of occurrence. The current global population is estimated to be up to 500,000 individuals. No threat of extinction or significant decline in population has been identified with this numerous and widespread bird.

 

Black swans were first seen by Europeans in 1697, when Willem de Vlamingh's expedition explored the Swan River, Western Australia.

 

Introduced populations

Before the arrival of the Māori in New Zealand, a related species of swan known as the New Zealand swan had developed there, but was apparently hunted to extinction. In 1864, the Australian black swan was introduced to New Zealand as an ornamental waterfowl and populations are now common on larger coastal or inland lakes, especially Rotorua Lakes, Lake Wairarapa, Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora, and the Chatham Islands. Black swans have also naturally flown to New Zealand, leading scientists to consider them a native rather than exotic species, although the present population appears to be largely descended from deliberate introductions.

 

United Kingdom

The black swan is also very popular as an ornamental waterbird in western Europe, especially Britain, and escapees are commonly reported. As yet, the population in Britain is not considered to be self-sustaining and so the species is not afforded admission to the official British List, but the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust have recorded a maximum of nine breeding pairs in the UK in 2001, with an estimate of 43 feral birds in 2003–2004. A small population of black swans exists on the River Thames at Marlow, on the brook running through the small town of Dawlish in Devon, near the River Itchen, Hampshire, and the River Tees near Stockton on Tees. The Dawlish population is so well associated with the town that the bird has been the town's emblem for forty years.

 

Japan

There are also wild populations in Japan, having originally been imported during 1950–1960.

 

United States

Black swans have been reported in Florida, but there is no evidence that they are breeding; persistent sightings may be due to continual releases or escapes. Orange County, California reported black swans in Lake Forest, Irvine and Newport Beach on October 5, 2020, and Santa Ana in December 2021 in the “Versailles on the Lake” apartment community. The "Lake Forest Keys” community bought the original swans about eight to ten years ago and since then there have been many births and gaggles from the original couple" according to a report in the Orange County Register. Black swans formerly resided in the vicinity of Lake Junaluska, a large lake in Waynesville, North Carolina.

 

Mainland China

Black swans can also be found in mainland China. In 2018, one group of swans was introduced to the Shenzhen University campus on an artificial lake in Guangdong Province.

 

Behaviour

Diet and feeding

The black swan is almost exclusively herbivorous, and while there is some regional and seasonal variation, the diet is generally dominated by aquatic and marshland plants. In New South Wales the leaf of reedmace (genus Typha) is the most important food of birds in wetlands, followed by submerged algae and aquatic plants such as Vallisneria. In Queensland, aquatic plants such as Potamogeton, stoneworts, and algae are the dominant foods. The exact composition varies with water level; in flood situations where normal foods are out of reach black swans will feed on pasture plants on shore. The black swan feeds in a similar manner to other swans. When feeding in shallow water it will dip its head and neck under the water and it is able to keep its head flat against the bottom while keeping its body horizontal. In deeper water the swan up-ends to reach lower. Black swans are also able to filter feed at the water's surface.

 

Nesting and reproduction

Like other swans, the black swan is largely monogamous, pairing for life (about 6% divorce rate). Recent studies have shown that around a third of all broods exhibit extra-pair paternity. An estimated one-quarter of all pairings are homosexual, mostly between males. They steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after she lays the eggs.

 

Generally, black swans in the Southern hemisphere nest in the wetter winter months (February to September), occasionally in large colonies. A black swan nest is essentially a large heap or mound of reeds, grasses and weeds between 1 and 1.5 metres (3–4+1⁄2 feet) in diameter and up to 1 metre high, in shallow water or on islands. A nest is reused every year, restored or rebuilt as needed. Both parents share the care of the nest. A typical clutch contains four to eight greenish-white eggs that are incubated for about 35–40 days. Incubation begins after the laying of the last egg, to synchronise the hatching of the chicks. Prior to the commencement of incubation the parent will sit over the eggs without actually warming them. Both sexes incubate the eggs, with the female incubating at night. The change over between incubation periods is marked by ritualised displays by both sexes. If eggs accidentally roll out of the nest both sexes will retrieve the egg using the neck (in other swan species only the female performs this feat). Like all swans, black swans will aggressively defend their nests with their wings and beaks. After hatching, the cygnets are tended by the parents for about nine months until fledging. Cygnets may ride on their parent's back for longer trips into deeper water, but black swans undertake this behaviour less frequently than mute and black-necked swans.

 

Conservation

The black swan is protected in New South Wales, Australia under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 (s.5). The Black Swan is fully protected in all states and territories of Australia and must not be shot. It is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

 

Australian culture

Main article: Black swan emblems and popular culture

The black swan was a literary or artistic image among Europeans even before their arrival in Australia. Cultural reference has been based on symbolic contrast and as a distinctive motif.

 

The black swan's role in Australian heraldry and culture extends to the first founding of the colonies in the eighteenth century. It has often been equated with antipodean identity, the contrast to the white swan of the northern hemisphere indicating 'Australianness'. The black swan is featured on the flag, and is both the state bird and state emblem of Western Australia; it also appears in the Coat of Arms and other iconography of the state's institutions. The Black Swan was the sole postage stamp design of Western Australia from 1854 to 1902.

 

Indigenous Australia

The Noongar People of the South-West of Australia call the black swan Kooldjak along the West and South-West coast, Gooldjak in the South East and it is sometimes referred to as maali in language schools.

The black swan (Cygnus atratus) is a large waterbird, a species of swan which breeds mainly in the southeast and southwest regions of Australia. Within Australia, the black swan is nomadic, with erratic migration patterns dependent on climatic conditions. It is a large bird with black plumage and a red bill. It is a monogamous breeder, with both partners sharing incubation and cygnet-rearing duties.

 

The black swan was introduced to various countries as an ornamental bird in the 1800s, but has managed to escape and form stable populations. Described scientifically by English naturalist John Latham in 1790, the black swan was formerly placed into a monotypic genus, Chenopis. Black swans can be found singly, or in loose companies numbering into the hundreds or even thousands. It is a popular bird in zoological gardens and bird collections, and escapees are sometimes seen outside their natural range.

 

This bird is a regional symbol of both Western Australia, where it is native, and the English town of Dawlish, where it is an introduced species.

 

Description

Black swans are black-feathered birds, with white flight feathers. The bill is bright red, with a pale bar and tip; and legs and feet are greyish-black. Cobs (males) are slightly larger than pens (females), with a longer and straighter bill. Cygnets (immature birds) are a greyish-brown with pale-edged feathers.

 

Mature black swans measure between 110 and 142 centimetres (43 and 56 in) in length and weigh 3.7–9 kilograms (8.2–19.8 lb). Their wing span is between 1.6 and 2 metres (5.2 and 6.6 ft). The neck is long (relatively the longest neck among the swans) and curved in an "S"-shape.

 

The black swan utters a musical and far reaching bugle-like sound, called either on the water or in flight, as well as a range of softer crooning notes. It can also whistle, especially when disturbed while breeding and nesting.

 

When swimming, black swans hold their necks arched or erect and often carry their feathers or wings raised in an aggressive display. In flight, a wedge of black swans will form as a line or a V, with the individual birds flying strongly with undulating long necks, making whistling sounds with their wings and baying, bugling or trumpeting calls.

  

Black swan skeleton (Museum of Osteology)

The black swan is unlike any other Australian bird, although in poor light and at long range it may be confused with a magpie goose in flight. However, the black swan can be distinguished by its much longer neck and slower wing beat.

 

One captive population of black swans in Lakeland, Florida has produced a few individuals which are a light mottled grey colour instead of black. White black swans are also known to exist; these individuals, which are leucistic, are believed to occur rarely in the wild.

 

Distribution

The black swan is common in the wetlands of southwestern and eastern Australia and adjacent coastal islands. In the south west its range encompasses an area between North West Cape, Cape Leeuwin and Eucla; while in the east it covers a large region bounded by the Atherton Tableland, the Eyre Peninsula and Tasmania, with the Murray Darling Basin supporting very large populations of black swans. It is uncommon in central and northern Australia.

 

The black swan's preferred habitat extends across fresh, brackish and salt water lakes, swamps and rivers with underwater and emergent vegetation for food and nesting materials. It also favors permanent wetlands, including ornamental lakes, but can also be found in flooded pastures and tidal mudflats, and occasionally on the open sea near islands or the shore.

 

The black swan was once thought to be sedentary, but is now known to be highly nomadic. There is no set migratory pattern, but rather opportunistic responses to either rainfall or drought. In high rainfall years, emigration occurs from the south west and south east into the interior, with a reverse migration to these heartlands in drier years. When rain does fall in the arid central regions, black swans will migrate to these areas to nest and raise their young. However, should dry conditions return before the young have been raised, the adult birds will abandon the nests and their eggs or cygnets and return to wetter areas.

 

The black swan, like many other water fowl, loses all its flight feathers at once when it moults after breeding and is unable to fly for about a month. During this time it will usually settle on large, open waters for safety.

 

The species has a large range, with figures between 1 and 10 million km2 given as the extent of occurrence. The current global population is estimated to be up to 500,000 individuals. No threat of extinction or significant decline in population has been identified with this numerous and widespread bird.

 

Black swans were first seen by Europeans in 1697, when Willem de Vlamingh's expedition explored the Swan River, Western Australia.

 

Introduced populations

Before the arrival of the Māori in New Zealand, a related species of swan known as the New Zealand swan had developed there, but was apparently hunted to extinction. In 1864, the Australian black swan was introduced to New Zealand as an ornamental waterfowl and populations are now common on larger coastal or inland lakes, especially Rotorua Lakes, Lake Wairarapa, Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora, and the Chatham Islands. Black swans have also naturally flown to New Zealand, leading scientists to consider them a native rather than exotic species, although the present population appears to be largely descended from deliberate introductions.

 

United Kingdom

The black swan is also very popular as an ornamental waterbird in western Europe, especially Britain, and escapees are commonly reported. As yet, the population in Britain is not considered to be self-sustaining and so the species is not afforded admission to the official British List, but the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust have recorded a maximum of nine breeding pairs in the UK in 2001, with an estimate of 43 feral birds in 2003–2004. A small population of black swans exists on the River Thames at Marlow, on the brook running through the small town of Dawlish in Devon, near the River Itchen, Hampshire, and the River Tees near Stockton on Tees. The Dawlish population is so well associated with the town that the bird has been the town's emblem for forty years.

 

Japan

There are also wild populations in Japan, having originally been imported during 1950–1960.

 

United States

Black swans have been reported in Florida, but there is no evidence that they are breeding; persistent sightings may be due to continual releases or escapes. Orange County, California reported black swans in Lake Forest, Irvine and Newport Beach on October 5, 2020, and Santa Ana in December 2021 in the “Versailles on the Lake” apartment community. The "Lake Forest Keys” community bought the original swans about eight to ten years ago and since then there have been many births and gaggles from the original couple" according to a report in the Orange County Register. Black swans formerly resided in the vicinity of Lake Junaluska, a large lake in Waynesville, North Carolina.

 

Mainland China

Black swans can also be found in mainland China. In 2018, one group of swans was introduced to the Shenzhen University campus on an artificial lake in Guangdong Province.

 

Behaviour

Diet and feeding

The black swan is almost exclusively herbivorous, and while there is some regional and seasonal variation, the diet is generally dominated by aquatic and marshland plants. In New South Wales the leaf of reedmace (genus Typha) is the most important food of birds in wetlands, followed by submerged algae and aquatic plants such as Vallisneria. In Queensland, aquatic plants such as Potamogeton, stoneworts, and algae are the dominant foods. The exact composition varies with water level; in flood situations where normal foods are out of reach black swans will feed on pasture plants on shore. The black swan feeds in a similar manner to other swans. When feeding in shallow water it will dip its head and neck under the water and it is able to keep its head flat against the bottom while keeping its body horizontal. In deeper water the swan up-ends to reach lower. Black swans are also able to filter feed at the water's surface.

 

Nesting and reproduction

Like other swans, the black swan is largely monogamous, pairing for life (about 6% divorce rate). Recent studies have shown that around a third of all broods exhibit extra-pair paternity. An estimated one-quarter of all pairings are homosexual, mostly between males. They steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after she lays the eggs.

 

Generally, black swans in the Southern hemisphere nest in the wetter winter months (February to September), occasionally in large colonies. A black swan nest is essentially a large heap or mound of reeds, grasses and weeds between 1 and 1.5 metres (3–4+1⁄2 feet) in diameter and up to 1 metre high, in shallow water or on islands. A nest is reused every year, restored or rebuilt as needed. Both parents share the care of the nest. A typical clutch contains four to eight greenish-white eggs that are incubated for about 35–40 days. Incubation begins after the laying of the last egg, to synchronise the hatching of the chicks. Prior to the commencement of incubation the parent will sit over the eggs without actually warming them. Both sexes incubate the eggs, with the female incubating at night. The change over between incubation periods is marked by ritualised displays by both sexes. If eggs accidentally roll out of the nest both sexes will retrieve the egg using the neck (in other swan species only the female performs this feat). Like all swans, black swans will aggressively defend their nests with their wings and beaks. After hatching, the cygnets are tended by the parents for about nine months until fledging. Cygnets may ride on their parent's back for longer trips into deeper water, but black swans undertake this behaviour less frequently than mute and black-necked swans.

 

Conservation

The black swan is protected in New South Wales, Australia under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 (s.5). The Black Swan is fully protected in all states and territories of Australia and must not be shot. It is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

 

Australian culture

Main article: Black swan emblems and popular culture

The black swan was a literary or artistic image among Europeans even before their arrival in Australia. Cultural reference has been based on symbolic contrast and as a distinctive motif.

 

The black swan's role in Australian heraldry and culture extends to the first founding of the colonies in the eighteenth century. It has often been equated with antipodean identity, the contrast to the white swan of the northern hemisphere indicating 'Australianness'. The black swan is featured on the flag, and is both the state bird and state emblem of Western Australia; it also appears in the Coat of Arms and other iconography of the state's institutions. The Black Swan was the sole postage stamp design of Western Australia from 1854 to 1902.

 

Indigenous Australia

The Noongar People of the South-West of Australia call the black swan Kooldjak along the West and South-West coast, Gooldjak in the South East and it is sometimes referred to as maali in language schools.

flickriver.com/photos/javier1949/popular-interesting/

  

Palacio de Exposiciones y Congresos Ciudad de Oviedo (Buenavista)

C/ Arturo Álvarez Buylla s/n Oviedo, Asturias

Arquitecto: Santiago Calatrava. Concurso de proyectos 2000, obras 2003-2011.

Diseñado por el premio Príncipe de Asturias de las Artes en 1999, el arquitecto Santiago Calatrava, por su tamaño, envergadura y situación es uno de los edificios más singulares y controvertidos de la ciudad de Oviedo. Popularmente se le conoce como “el Cangrejo”. Se levanta en Buenavista, en el lugar que ocupó el antiguo estadio de fútbol Carlos Tartiere.

Su polémica construcción se inicia en 2003 con el derribo del antiguo estadio de fútbol, en 2007 se inauguran las dependencias administrativas del Principado de Asturias, y en 2008 el centro comercial. En 2010 se retoman las obras después de una paralización de cerca de 2 años, y en 2011 se inaugura el Palacio de Congresos.

El conjunto está constituido por un edificio central, de planta elíptica destinado a Palacio de Congresos y Exposiciones, otro perimetral en forma de U dedicado a hotel, oficinas y dependencias administrativas del Principado, y un basamento o plataforma subterránea dedicada a zona comercial que ocupa tres plantas, denominada Espacio Buenavista, con una superficie de 52.000 metros cuadrados, además de aparcamiento para más de 1.800 vehículos. Delante de la fachada principal se sitúa una zona verde con parque infantil.

El edificio central, dedicado al Palacio, se distribuye en tres niveles: en el inferior se encuentran el hall principal y el área expositiva, una sala de reuniones con un aforo para 217 personas y una sala multiusos; la planta intermedia da acceso al Auditorio que dispone de 2.144 butacas y está cubierto por una cúpula de acero blanco de 45 m de altura; finalmente en la tercera planta se organizan las 12 salas de reuniones, de las cuales 8 son modulares. Inicialmente cuenta con una cubierta móvil cuyos elementos pueden inclinarse permitiendo una mayor entrada de luz y modificando el aspecto exterior.

 

El edificio en "U", que rodea perimetralmente, por las fachadas laterales y trasera, el Palacio de Congresos, se destina a hotel, con 150 habitaciones, y a oficinas de las consejerías del Principado, con una superficie de 11.196 metros cuadrados. Se eleva unos 30 metros del suelo a partir de un complejo diseño de pórticos de acero que se construyen pieza a pieza, como un mecano, en forma de árbol, cada una compuesta a su vez por 6 subestructuras en voladizo, con los ascensores en el núcleo central.

AMPLIACION DEL AÑO 2004

 

Las obras del nuevo edificio del Congreso de los Diputados, iniciadas en marzo de 2002 terminaron a mediados a 2004, con un presupuesto de 31 millones de euros. La ampliación de la sede parlamentaria consiste en el acondicionamiento de dos edificios situados en los números 36 y 40 de la Carrera de San Jerónimo, con una superficie total de 26.000 metros cuadrados, los antiguos edificios de los bancos Exterior de España y de Crédito Local, ambos integrados en Argentaria, que fueron adquiridos por Patrimonio con tal fin.

 

Los nuevos edificios están dotados de las más modernas instalaciones en materia de seguridad y en ellos se ubicarán nuevas dependencias para el Gobierno, salas de comisión y de ponencia, un salón de actos y un Patio de Operaciones para exposiciones y eventos especiales, así como los despachos de los que disponen actualmente las direcciones de los grupos parlamentarios en el edificio próximo a la Plaza de las Cortes.

 

MADRID DE LOS AUSTRIAS

 

Por Madrid de los Austrias, también llamado barrio de los Austrias, se conoce una amplia zona de la capital española, sin entidad administrativa, correspondiente al primitivo trazado medieval de la ciudad y a la expansión urbanística iniciada por los monarcas de la Casa de Austria, a partir de los reinados de Carlos I y, especialmente, de Felipe II, que, en el año 1561, estableció la Corte en Madrid. A efectos turísticos, el nombre se emplea para promocionar los conjuntos monumentales de una gran parte de los barrios administrativos de Sol y Palacio, que representa aproximadamente una cuarta parte de la citada zona. Además de su acepción geográfica, el término Madrid de los Austrias también tiene una acepción histórica. Según esta perspectiva, la expresión se emplea para designar la evolución, preferentemente urbanística, de la ciudad entre los reinados de Carlos I (r. 1516–1556), el primero de los Austrias, y Carlos II (r. 1665–1700), con el que se extinguió la rama española de esta dinastía.

Los límites del Madrid de los Austrias difieren significativamente según el punto de vista adoptado, ya sea histórico o turístico.

 

Límites históricos

  

Durante el reinado de Carlos I, Madrid estaba integrado por dos núcleos principales: el recinto comprendido dentro de la muralla cristiana, de origen medieval, y los arrabales. El casco urbano se extendía, de oeste a este, desde el Palacio Real hasta la Puerta del Sol; y, de norte a sur, desde la plaza de Santo Domingo hasta la plaza de la Cebada.

 

A partir de 1561, con la capitalidad, la ciudad creció de forma vertiginosa, expandiéndose principalmente hacia el este. El plano de Madrid realizado por Pedro Teixeira en el año 1656, casi un siglo después del establecimiento de la Corte, da una idea precisa de las dimensiones del casco urbano, en tiempos de Felipe IV (r. 1621–1665).​

 

La villa estaba rodeada por una cerca, mandada construir por el citado monarca en el año 1625, levantada, hacia el norte, sobre las actuales calles de Génova, Sagasta, Carranza y Alberto Aguilera (conocidas popularmente como los bulevares); hacia el sur, sobre las rondas de Toledo, Valencia y Embajadores; hacia el este, sobre los paseos del Prado y Recoletos; y hacia el oeste, sobre los terraplenes del valle del río Manzanares.

 

Extramuros,​ se situaban los jardines, parajes agrestes y recintos palaciegos del Buen Retiro, en la parte oriental de la ciudad; de la Casa de Campo, en la occidental; y del El Pardo, en la noroccidental.

 

La cerca de Felipe IV sustituyó a una anterior, promovida por Felipe II (r. 1556–1598) y que enseguida quedó obsoleta. Fue erigida para detener el crecimiento desordenado que estaba experimentando la ciudad y actuó como una auténtica barrera urbanística, que limitó la expansión de la urbe hasta el siglo XIX. Fue derribada en 1868.

 

A grandes rasgos, el espacio comprendido dentro de la cerca de Felipe IV se corresponde en la actualidad con el distrito Centro. Su superficie es de 523,73 hectáreas y comprende los barrios administrativos de Cortes, Embajadores, Justicia, Palacio, Sol y Universidad.

 

Límites turísticos

 

A diferencia de los límites históricos, perfectamente establecidos a través de la cerca de Felipe IV, la zona promocionada turísticamente como Madrid de los Austrias carece de una delimitación precisa. Se circunscribe a un ámbito sensiblemente menor, que comprende parcialmente los barrios administrativos de Sol y Palacio, pertenecientes al distrito Centro de la capital.

 

Se estaría hablando de las áreas de influencia de las calles Mayor, Arenal, Segovia, carrera de San Francisco, Bailén y Toledo y de las plazas de la Cebada, de la Paja, Mayor, Puerta del Sol y de Oriente, donde se hallan barrios y áreas sin entidad administrativa, como La Latina, Ópera o Las Vistillas.

 

Aquí se encuentran conjuntos monumentales construidos tanto en los siglos XVI y XVII, cuando reinó en España la dinastía Habsburgo, como en épocas anteriores y posteriores. Por lo general, todos ellos quedan incluidos en los itinerarios turísticos que utilizan la expresión Madrid de los Austrias. Es el caso de las iglesias medievales de san Nicolás de los Servitas y san Pedro el Viejo, de los siglos XII y XIV, respectivamente, y del Palacio Real, erigido en el siglo XVIII.

 

En orden inverso, existen monumentos promovidos por los Austrias no integrados en las citadas rutas, al situarse fuera de los barrios de Sol y Palacio. Algunos ejemplos son el Salón de Reinos y el Casón del Buen Retiro, que formaron parte del desaparecido Palacio del Buen Retiro, y los jardines homónimos.

 

También quedan excluidas de esta clasificación turística zonas de menor valor monumental, pero con un gran significado histórico en la época de los Austrias. Es el caso del barrio de las Letras, articulado alrededor de la calle de las Huertas, donde coincidieron algunos de los literatos más destacados del Siglo de Oro español, tales como Félix Lope de Vega, Miguel de Cervantes o Francisco de Quevedo; o de la Casa de Campo, concebida por Felipe II como una finca de recreo y reserva de caza. En la primera mitad del siglo XVI, antes de su designación como capital, Madrid era una villa de tamaño medio entre las urbes castellanas, con cierta relevancia social e influencia política. Tenía entre 10 000 y 20 000 habitantes y formaba parte del grupo de dieciocho ciudades que disfrutaban del privilegio de tener voz y voto en las Cortes de Castilla.​

 

Había acogido en numerosas ocasiones las Cortes del Reino y, desde la época de los Trastámara, era frecuentada por la monarquía, atraída por su riqueza cinegética. Además, uno de sus templos religiosos, San Jerónimo el Real, fue elegido por la monarquía como escenario oficial del acto de jura de los príncipes de Asturias como herederos de la Corona.​ El primero en hacerlo fue Felipe II (18 de abril de 1528), que 33 años después fijaría la Corte en Madrid, y la última Isabel II (20 de junio de 1883).

Carlos I (r. 1516–1556), el primer monarca de la Casa de Austria, mostró un interés especial por la villa, tal vez con la intención de establecer de forma definitiva la Corte en Madrid. Así sostiene el cronista Luis Cabrera de Córdoba (1559–1623), en un escrito referido a Felipe II

El emperador impulsó diferentes obras arquitectónicas y urbanísticas en Madrid. A él se debe la conversión del primitivo castillo de El Pardo en palacio, situado en las afueras del casco urbano. Las obras, dirigidas por el arquitecto Luis de Vega, se iniciaron en 1547 y concluyeron en 1558, durante el reinado de Felipe II. De este proyecto sólo se conservan algunos elementos que, como el Patio de los Austrias, quedaron integrados en la estructura definitiva del Palacio Real de El Pardo, fruto de la reconstrucción llevada a cabo en el siglo XVIII, tras el incendio de 1604.

 

Otro de los edificios que el monarca ordenó reformar fue el Real Alcázar de Madrid, un castillo de origen medieval, que fue pasto de las llamas en 1734 y en cuyo solar se levanta en la actualidad el Palacio Real. Duplicó su superficie con diferentes añadidos, entre los que destacan el Patio y las Salas de la Reina y la llamada Torre de Carlos I, a partir de un diseño de Luis de Vega y Alonso de Covarrubias.

 

Entre los proyectos urbanísticos promovidos por Carlos I, figura la demolición de la Puerta de Guadalaxara, el acceso principal de la antigua muralla cristiana de Madrid, y su sustitución por una más monumental, con tres arcos. Fue levantada hacia 1535 a la altura del número 49 de la actual calle Mayor y el 2 de septiembre de 1582 desapareció en un incendio.​

 

Durante su reinado, se inauguraron algunos templos religiosos, entre ellos el santuario de Nuestra Señora de Atocha, que data de 1523. Fue derribado en 1888, ante su mal estado, y reconstruido como basílica en el siglo XX.

 

En 1541, se dispuso la ampliación de la Iglesia de San Ginés, situada en la calle del Arenal, mediante un anejo parroquial en la calle de la Montera, que recibió el nombre de San Luis Obispo. Abrió sus puertas en 1689, en tiempos de Carlos II, y fue incendiado en 1935. Sólo se conserva su fachada principal, que fue trasladada e integrada en la estructura de la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora del Carmen, en la calle del Carmen.

 

El Convento de San Felipe el Real, de 1547, fue uno de los puntos de encuentro más importantes del Madrid de los Austrias. Su lonja recibió el sobrenombre de mentidero de la villa, por los rumores que allí se fraguaban.​ El edificio, destruido en 1838, poseía un relevante claustro renacentista, compuesto por 28 arcos en cada una de sus dos galerías.

 

Otro templo de la época es la Iglesia de San Sebastián (1554–1575), que tuvo que ser reconstruida tras ser alcanzada por una bomba durante la Guerra Civil.

 

La Capilla del Obispo es, sin duda, la construcción religiosa de mayor interés arquitectónico llevada a cabo en Madrid, en tiempos de Carlos I.​ Fue levantada entre 1520 y 1535, como un anejo de la iglesia medieval de San Andrés. Responde a una iniciativa de la familia de los Vargas, una de las más poderosas del Madrid medieval y renacentista. Debe su nombre a Gutierre de Vargas y Carvajal, obispo de Plasencia, su principal impulsor.

 

En el terreno social, el religioso Antón Martín creó en 1552 el Hospital de Nuestra Señora del Amor de Dios, que estuvo en la calle de Atocha, cerca de la plaza que lleva el nombre de su fundador.

 

En 1529, Carlos I ordenó que el Real Hospital de la Corte, de carácter itinerante ya que acompañaba a la Corte en sus desplazamientos, quedara establecido de forma fija en Madrid. Su edificio, conocido como Hospital del Buen Suceso, estaba integrado por un recinto hospitalario y una iglesia, que fueron concluidos en 1607. A mediados del siglo XIX, se procedió a su derribo dentro de las obras de ampliación de la Puerta del Sol, donde se encontraba.

 

En cuanto a las residencias palaciegas, cabe mencionar la de Alonso Gutiérrez de Madrid, tesorero del emperador, cuya estructura fue aprovechada, durante el reinado de Felipe II, para la fundación del Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales. Recientes intervenciones en este edificio han puesto al descubierto elementos originales del patio principal del citado palacio.​

 

El Palacio de los condes de Paredes de Nava o Casa de San Isidro, donde tiene sus instalaciones el Museo de los Orígenes, se encuentra en la plaza de San Andrés. Fue construido en el solar de un antiguo edificio donde, según la tradición, vivió Iván de Vargas, quien, en el siglo XI, dio alojamiento y trabajo a san Isidro. Data de la primera mitad del siglo XVI.

 

Por su parte, la Casa de Cisneros data del año 1537 y está construida en estilo plateresco. Situada entre la calle del Sacramento y la plaza de la Villa, su primer propietario fue Benito Jiménez de Cisneros, sobrino del cardenal Cisneros (1436–1517), de quien toma su nombre.

 

Reinado de Felipe II

 

En 1561, Felipe II (r. 1556–1598) estableció la Corte en Madrid. Tal designación provocó un aumento de la población vertiginoso: de los 10 000 - 20 000 habitantes que podía haber en la villa antes de la capitalidad se pasó a 35 000 - 45 000 en el año 1575 y a más de 100 000 a finales del siglo XVI.

 

Para hacer frente a este crecimiento demográfico, el Concejo de Madrid, respaldado por la Corona, elaboró un proyecto de ordenación urbanística, consistente en la alineación y ensanchamiento de calles, el derribo de la antigua muralla medieval, la adecuación de la plaza del Arrabal (antecedente de la actual Plaza Mayor) y la construcción de edificios públicos como hospitales, hospicios, orfanatos, instalaciones de abastos y templos religiosos.

 

Felipe II puso al frente de este plan al arquitecto Juan Bautista de Toledo. Sin embargo, la falta de medios y lentitud burocrática del consistorio y el desinterés mostrado por la Corona en la aportación de recursos ralentizaron su desarrollo. La consecuencia fue un crecimiento urbano rápido y desordenado, que se realizó preferentemente hacia el este del centro histórico, dada la accidentada orografía de la parte occidental, orientada a los barrancos y terraplenes del valle del río Manzanares.

 

Los nuevos edificios se construyeron siguiendo la dirección de los caminos que partían de la villa y, a su alrededor, surgió un entramado de calles estrechas, aunque dispuestas hipodámicamente. El que conducía hasta Alcalá de Henares (hoy calle de Alcalá) vertebró el crecimiento urbano hacia el este, al igual que el camino que llevaba a San Jerónimo el Real, sobre el que se originó la carrera de San Jerónimo. Por el sudeste, la expansión tomó como eje principal el camino del santuario de Nuestra Señora de Atocha (actual calle de Atocha).

 

Hacia el sur, las nuevas casas se alinearon alrededor del camino de Toledo (calle de Toledo) y, por el norte, la referencia urbanística estuvo marcada por los caminos de Hortaleza y de Fuencarral (con sus respectivas calles homónimas), si bien hay que tener en cuenta que, en estos dos lados de la ciudad, el crecimiento fue más moderado.

 

Antes de la capitalidad, en 1535, la superficie de Madrid era de 72 hectáreas, cifra que aumentó hasta 134 en 1565, sólo cuatro años después de establecerse la Corte en la villa. A finales del reinado de Felipe II, el casco urbano ocupaba 282 hectáreas y tenía unos 7590 inmuebles, tres veces más que en 1563 (2250), al poco tiempo de la designación de Madrid como capital.

 

La intensa actividad inmobiliaria de este periodo no fue suficiente para satisfacer la demanda de viviendas, por parte de cortesanos y sirvientes de la Corona. Tal situación llevó al monarca a promulgar el edicto conocido como Regalía de Aposento, mediante el cual los propietarios de inmuebles de más de una planta estaban obligados a ceder una de ellas a una familia cortesana.

 

Este decreto favoreció el desarrollo de las llamadas casas a la malicia, un tipo de vivienda con el que sus propietarios intentaban evitar el cumplimiento de la norma, mediante diferentes soluciones (una única planta, compartimentación excesiva de los interiores, ocultación a la vía pública del piso superior...).

 

En 1590, la Corona y el Concejo crearon la Junta de Policía y Ornato, organismo presidido por el arquitecto Francisco de Mora, con el que se intentó poner fin a los desarreglos urbanísticos provocados por la rápida expansión de la ciudad. La correcta alineación de las calles, mediante la supresión de los recovecos existentes entre los inmuebles, fue uno de sus objetivos.

 

Felipe II promovió la realización de diferentes infraestructuras urbanas, caso del Puente de Segovia, la calle Real Nueva (actual calle de Segovia) y la Plaza Mayor. Los proyectos inicialmente previstos para estas tres obras no pudieron llevarse a cabo plenamente, adoptándose soluciones menos ambiciosas, ante las limitaciones presupuestarias.

 

Las dos primeras se enmarcaban dentro del mismo plan, consistente en la creación de una gran avenida, de aire monumental, que, salvando el río Manzanares por el oeste, conectase el antiguo camino de Segovia con el Real Alcázar. Finalmente, sólo pudo ejecutarse el puente (1582–1584), atribuido a Juan de Herrera, mientras que la avenida quedó reducida a unas nivelaciones del terreno sobre el barranco del arroyo de San Pedro y al derribo de varios edificios, que dieron origen a la calle de Segovia, terminada en 1577.

 

Con respecto a la Plaza Mayor, levantada sobre la antigua plaza del Arrabal, el centro comercial de la villa en aquel entonces, el monarca encargó su diseño a Juan de Herrera en el año 1580. Durante su reinado, se demolieron los edificios primitivos y dieron comienzo las obras de la Casa de la Panadería (1590), proyectada por Diego Sillero. Fue su sucesor, Felipe III, quien dio el impulso definitivo al recinto.

 

Felipe II continuó con las reformas y ampliaciones del Real Alcázar, iniciadas por su padre, con la edificación de la Torre Dorada, obra de Juan Bautista de Toledo, y la decoración de las distintas dependencias. También ordenó la construcción, en las inmediaciones del palacio, de la Casa del Tesoro, las Caballerizas Reales y la Armería Real. Todos estos conjuntos han desaparecido.

 

Pero tal vez su proyecto más personal fuese la Casa de Campo, paraje que convirtió en un recinto palaciego y ajardinado para su recreo. Se debe a un diseño de Juan Bautista de Toledo, que siguió el modelo de naturaleza urbanizada, acorde con el gusto renacentista de la época, a modo de conexión con el Monte de El Pardo.​ De este proyecto sólo se conservan partes del trazado de los jardines y algunos restos del palacete.

 

Asimismo, fueron levantados distintos edificios religiosos y civiles. El Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales fue fundado en 1559 por Juana de Austria, hermana del monarca, y en 1561 comenzaron las obras del Convento de la Victoria, que, como aquel, también estuvo muy vinculado con la Corona.

 

En 1583 abrió su puertas el corral de comedias del Teatro del Príncipe (en cuyo solar se levanta ahora el Teatro Español), institución clave en el Siglo de Oro español.15​ En 1590, fue inaugurado el Colegio de María de Córdoba y Aragón (actual Palacio del Senado), que toma su nombre de una dama de la reina Ana de Austria, principal impulsora del proyecto.

 

Entre los palacios nobiliarios, hay que destacar la Casa de las Siete Chimeneas (1574–1577), actual sede del Ministerio de Cultura, situada en la plaza del Rey. Su primer propietario fue Pedro de Ledesma, secretario de Antonio Pérez.

 

En la calle de Atocha se encontraban las casas de Antonio Pérez y en la plaza de la Paja se halla el Palacio de los Vargas, cuya fachada fue transformada en el siglo XX, adoptándose una solución historicista, a modo de continuación de la contigua Capilla del Obispo.

Reinado de Felipe III

En 1601, pocos años después de subir al trono Felipe III (r. 1598–1621), Madrid perdió la capitalidad a favor de Valladolid. Consiguió recuperarla cinco años después, tras el pago a la Corona de 250 000 ducados y el compromiso por parte del Concejo de abastecer de agua potable al Real Alcázar, entre otras infraestructuras.

 

Con tal fin, el consistorio realizó los denominados viajes de agua (conducciones desde manantiales cercanos a la villa), entre los cuales cabe destacar el de Amaniel (1614–1616). De ellos también se beneficiaron algunos conventos y palacios, además de los propios vecinos, a través de las fuentes públicas.​ En 1617 fue creada la llamada Junta de Fuentes, organismo encargado de su mantenimiento y conservación.

 

Bajo el reinado de Felipe III, se proyectaron numerosos edificios religiosos y civiles, algunos de los cuales fueron inaugurados en la época de Felipe IV. Es el caso de la Colegiata de San Isidro; de la nueva fachada del Real Alcázar (1610–1636), obra de Juan Gómez de Mora, que perduró hasta el incendio del palacio en 1734;​ y del Convento de los Padres Capuchinos, en El Pardo, fundado por el rey en 1612, cuyo edificio definitivo no pudo comenzarse hasta 1638.

 

Las nuevas edificaciones se construyeron con mayor calidad arquitectónica que en los periodos anteriores, al tiempo que se impuso un estilo propio, típicamente madrileño, de aire clasicista y de clara influencia herreriana,​ aunque también se observan rasgos prebarrocos.

 

Además, se establecieron arquetipos arquitectónicos, que, en relación con las casas palaciegas, quedaron definidos en un trazado de planta rectangular, dos o más alturas de órdenes, portadas manieristas, cubiertas abuhardilladas de pizarra y torres cuadrangulares, por lo general dos, con chapiteles rematados en punta, en la línea escurialense.

 

Este esquema, uno de los que mejor definen la arquitectura madrileña de los Austrias y de periodos posteriores, empezó a gestarse en tiempos de Felipe III, con ejemplos tan notables como las Casas de la Panadería y de la Carnicería, en la Plaza Mayor; el Palacio del marqués de Camarasa, ubicado en la calle Mayor y sede actual de diferentes dependencias municipales; el proyecto de reconstrucción del Palacio Real de El Pardo, incendiado el 13 de marzo de 1604; y la ya citada fachada del Real Alcázar. No obstante, fue con Felipe IV cuando alcanzó su máxima expresión.

 

Por su parte, el Palacio de los Consejos (también llamado del duque de Uceda) puede ser considerado un precedente en lo que respecta a la organización del espacio y fachadas, si bien carece de las torres de inspiración herreriana. Fue diseñado por Francisco de Mora, quien contó con la colaboración de Alonso de Trujillo, al frente las obras entre 1608 y 1613.

 

En cuanto a los templos religiosos, la mayoría de las construcciones utilizó como referencia el modelo jesuítico, de planta de cruz latina, que tiene su origen en la Iglesia del Gesú (Roma, Italia). La Colegiata de San Isidro, que, como se ha referido, fue diseñada en tiempos de Felipe III y terminada con Felipe IV, responde a esta pauta.

 

Mención especial merece el Real Monasterio de la Encarnación (1611–1616), fundado por Margarita de Austria, esposa del rey. Su fachada, obra de Juan Gómez de Mora (aunque posiblemente proyectada por su tío, Francisco de Mora), fue una de las más imitadas en la arquitectura castellana del siglo XVII y buena parte del XVIII.​

 

Un ejemplo es el Monasterio de la Inmaculada Concepción, en Loeches (Madrid), que, como aquel, presenta fachada rectangular con pórtico, pilastras a ambos lados y frontón en la parte superior.

 

La lista de edificios religiosos levantados durante el reinado de Felipe III es amplia. El Convento de San Ildefonso de las Trinitarias Descalzas (o, sencillamente, de las Trinitarias), del año 1609, se encuentra en el Barrio de las Letras y en él fue enterrado Miguel de Cervantes. Del Convento del Santísimo Sacramento, fundado en 1615 por Cristóbal Gómez de Sandoval y de la Cerda, valido del rey, sólo se conserva su iglesia (actual Catedral Arzobispal Castrense), levantada en tiempos de Carlos II.

 

El Monasterio del Corpus Christi o de las Carboneras y la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora del Carmen fueron empezados en 1607 y 1611, respectivamente, y ambos se deben a Miguel de Soria. La Iglesia de San Antonio de los Alemanes, de 1606, es una de las más singulares del primer tercio del siglo XVII, por su planta oval.21​ Su interior está decorado al fresco por Lucas Jordán, Juan Carreño de Miranda y Francisco Rizi.

 

Las iglesias de San Ildefonso (1619) y de Santos Justo y Pastor (hacia 1620) se encuentran entre las últimas fundaciones religiosas llevadas a cabo antes de la muerte del monarca en 1621. La primera, destruida completamente durante la Guerra Civil Española, fue reconstruida en la década de 1950.

 

Pero, sin duda, el proyecto urbanístico más importante llevado a cabo por el monarca fue la Plaza Mayor. En 1619, Felipe III finalizó las obras, que había iniciado su antecesor, con un nuevo diseño, firmado y desarrollado por Juan Gómez de Mora. Este arquitecto fue también responsable de la Casa de la Panadería, que preside el conjunto, si bien su aspecto actual corresponde a la reconstrucción realizada por Tomás Román, tras el incendio acaecido en 1672.

 

Además de este recinto, se procedió a adecuar otras plazas, como la de la Cebada y la desaparecida de Valnadú, esta última resultado de la demolición en el año 1567 de la puerta homónima, en la época de Felipe II. Otro de sus logros urbanísticos fue la reorganización del territorio en las riberas del río Manzanares y en el Real Camino de Valladolid, mediante la eliminación de las compartimentaciones internas y la estructuración de los plantíos.​

 

En el terreno de la escultura, destaca la estatua ecuestre del propio rey, traída desde Italia como obsequio del Gran Duque de Florencia. Realizada en bronce, fue comenzada por Juan de Bolonia y terminada por su discípulo, Pietro Tacca, en 1616.

 

Estuvo emplazada en la Casa de Campo, recinto que fue objeto de una especial atención por parte del monarca con la construcción de nuevas salas en el palacete (del Mosaico y de las Burlas) y la instalación de diferentes fuentes y adornos en los jardines. En 1848, la escultura fue trasladada al centro de la Plaza Mayor, donde actualmente se exhibe, por orden de Isabel II.

 

Reinado de Felipe IV

Felipe IV (r. 1621–1665) accedió al trono a la edad de dieciséis años, tras la inesperada muerte de su padre. Tradicionalmente ha sido considerado como un mecenas de las letras y de las artes, principalmente de la pintura.​ Durante su reinado, Madrid se convirtió en uno de los principales focos culturales de Europa y en el escenario donde se fraguaron muchas de las grandes creaciones del Siglo de Oro español. Además, la ciudad albergó la mayor parte de la colección pictórica del monarca, una de las más importantes de la historia del coleccionismo español

 

En el ámbito de la arquitectura, se levantaron numerosos edificios civiles y religiosos, al tiempo que se construyó una nueva residencia regia en el entorno del Prado de los Jerónimos, en el lado oriental del casco urbano. El Palacio del Buen Retiro desplazó hacia el este buena parte de la actividad política, social y cultural de la villa, que hasta entonces gravitaba únicamente sobre el Real Alcázar, situado en el extremo occidental.

En líneas generales, la arquitectura palaciega del reinado de Felipe IV siguió el modelo post-escurialense, de rasgos barrocos contenidos, que comenzó a forjarse con Felipe III. Este estándar aparecía en estado puro en el desaparecido Palacio del Buen Retiro, cuyo origen fue el llamado Cuarto Real, un anexo del Monasterio de los Jerónimos, que, desde tiempos de los Reyes Católicos, era frecuentado por la realeza para su descanso y retiro.

 

Siguiendo una iniciativa del Conde-Duque de Olivares,29​ en 1632 Felipe IV ordenó al arquitecto Alonso Carbonel la ampliación del recinto y su conversión en residencia veraniega. El palacio fue concebido como un lugar de recreo, función que quedó remarcada mediante una configuración articulada alrededor de dos grandes patios, diseñados a modo de plazas urbanas.30​ La Plaza Principal estaba reservada a la Familia Real, mientras que la Plaza Grande, de mayores dimensiones, era utilizada para la celebración de fiestas, actos lúdico-culturales y eventos taurinos.

 

La primera fase, correspondiente al núcleo central (Plaza Principal), se concluyó en 1633, sólo un año después de realizarse el encargo. Por su parte, las obras de la Plaza Grande, el Picadero, el Salón de Baile, el Coliseo y los jardines se prolongaron, a lo largo de diferentes etapas, hasta 1640.

 

El recinto palaciego sufrió graves desperfectos durante la Guerra de la Independencia y, finalmente, fue demolido en la época de Isabel II, ante la imposibilidad de recuperación. Sólo se conservan el Salón de Reinos y el Salón de Baile (o Casón del Buen Retiro), si bien con importantes transformaciones en relación con el diseño original.

 

En lo que respecta a los jardines, el Parque de El Retiro es heredero del trazado llevado a cabo en la época de Felipe IV, aunque su fisonomía actual responde a múltiples remodelaciones ejecutadas en periodos posteriores, principalmente en los siglos XVIII y XIX. Entre los elementos primitivos que aún se mantienen, cabe citar algunos complejos hidráulicos, como el Estanque Grande y la Ría Chica.

 

Además del Buen Retiro, el monarca mostró una especial predilección por el Real Sitio de El Pardo, donde mandó construir el Palacio de la Zarzuela, actual residencia de la Familia Real, y ampliar la Torre de la Parada, a partir de un diseño de Juan Gómez de Mora. Este último edificio fue erigido como pabellón de caza por Felipe II y resultó completamente destruido en el siglo XVIII.

 

La arquitectura civil tiene en el Palacio de Santa Cruz y en la Casa de la Villa, ambos proyectados por Juan Gómez de Mora en el año 1629, dos notables exponentes.

 

El primero albergó la Sala de Alcaldes de Casa y Corte y la Cárcel de Corte y, en la actualidad, acoge al Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. Se estructura alrededor de dos patios cuadrangulares simétricos, unidos mediante un eje central que sirve de distribuidor y acceso al edificio. La horizontalidad de su fachada principal, que da a la Plaza de la Provincia, queda rota por los torreones laterales de inspiración herreriana y la portada con dos niveles de triple vano. Fue terminado en 1636 y ha sido objeto de numerosas reformas en siglos posteriores.

 

Por su parte, la Casa de la Villa fue diseñada como sede del gobierno municipal y Cárcel de Villa. Sus obras comenzaron en 1644, quince años después de realizarse el proyecto, y finalizaron en 1696. Junto a Gómez de Mora, colaboraron José de Villarreal, a quien se debe el patio central, Teodoro Ardemans y José del Olmo.

 

Entre las residencias nobiliarias, figuran el Palacio del duque de Abrantes, construido por Juan Maza entre 1653 y 1655 y transformado sustancialmente en el siglo XIX, y el Palacio de la Moncloa. Este último fue erigido en el año 1642, a iniciativa de Melchor Antonio Portocarrero y Lasso de la Vega, conde de Monclova y virrey del Perú, su primer propietario. La estructura actual corresponde a la reconstrucción y ampliación llevadas a cabo en el siglo XX, tras los daños sufridos durante la Guerra Civil.

La arquitectura religiosa del reinado de Felipe IV presenta dos fases, coincidentes con los procesos evolutivos que se dieron en el arte barroco español a lo largo del siglo XVII.

 

En la primera mitad, se mantuvo la austeridad geométrica y espacial, arrastrada del estilo herreriano, con escasos y calculados motivos ornamentales, salvo en los interiores, que, en clara contraposición, aparecían profusamente decorados. En la segunda mitad del siglo, el gusto por las formas favoreció un progresivo alejamiento del clasicismo y la incorporación de motivos naturalistas en las fachadas.

 

Dentro de la primera corriente, que puede ser denominada como barroco clasicista, se encuentran la Colegiata de San Isidro, la Ermita de San Antonio de los Portugueses y el Convento de San Plácido.

 

La Colegiata de San Isidro (1622–1664) fue fundada como iglesia del antiguo Colegio Imperial,​ situado dentro del mismo complejo. El templo se debe a un proyecto del hermano jesuita Pedro Sánchez de hacia 1620, iniciándose su construcción en 1622. A su muerte, en 1633, se hará cargo de la obra el hermano Francisco Bautista junto con Melchor de Bueras. Es de planta de cruz latina y destaca por su fachada monumental, realizada en piedra de granito y flanqueada por dos torres en los lados. Fue la catedral provisional de Madrid desde 1885 hasta 1993.

 

La Ermita de San Antonio de los Portugueses estuvo ubicada en una isla artificial, en medio de un estanque lobulado, dentro de los Jardines del Buen Retiro. Fue edificada entre 1635 y 1637 por Alonso Carbonel y derribada en 1761, para levantar, sobre su solar, la Real Fábrica de Porcelana de la China, igualmente desaparecida. Su torre cuadrangular, rematada con chapitel herreriano, y su suntuosa portada, configurada por cuatro grandes columnas de mármol blanco y capiteles de mármol negro, eran sus elementos más notables.

 

El edificio actual del Convento de San Plácido, obra de Lorenzo de San Nicolás, data de 1641. La decoración interior es la parte más sobresaliente y en él se conserva un Cristo yacente de Gregorio Fernández.

 

Conforme fue avanzando el siglo XVII, los exteriores sobrios fueron perdiendo vigencia y se impuso un estilo plenamente barroco, sin apenas concesiones al clasicismo. Esta evolución puede apreciarse en la ya citada Casa de la Villa, que, dado su prolongado proceso de construcción (el diseño se hizo en 1629 y el edificio se terminó en 1696), fue incorporando diferentes elementos ornamentales en su fachada clasicista, acordes con las nuevas tendencias.

 

La Capilla de San Isidro ejemplifica el apogeo del barroco. Fue construida como un anejo de la iglesia de origen medieval de San Andrés para albergar los restos mortales de san Isidro. La primera piedra se puso en 1642, a partir de un proyecto de Pedro de la Torre. En 1657, José de Villarreal realizó un segundo proyecto, cuyas obras fueron inauguradas por Felipe IV y su esposa Mariana de Austria en un acto institucional. Fue terminada en 1699.

 

Junto a la basílica neoclásica de San Francisco el Grande (siglo XVIII), se halla la Capilla del santo Cristo de los Dolores para la Venerable Orden Tercera de San Francisco (1662–1668), realizada por el arquitecto Francisco Bautista. En su interior sobresale la decoración barroca, con especial mención al baldaquino, hecho en maderas, jaspes y mármoles, donde se guarda la talla del Cristo de los Dolores.

 

El Convento de Nuestra Señora de la Concepción o de las Góngoras es otro ejemplo del barroco madrileño. Debe su nombre a Juan Jiménez de Góngora, ministro del Consejo de Castilla, quien procedió a su creación, por encargo directo del rey, como ofrenda por el nacimiento de su hijo Carlos (a la postre Carlos II). Fue inaugurado en 1665 y ampliado en 1669, según un proyecto de Manuel del Olmo.

 

Dentro del capítulo de arquitectura religiosa, también hay que destacar la reconstrucción de la iglesia medieval de San Ginés, llevada a cabo, a partir de 1645, por el arquitecto Juan Ruiz. Es de planta de cruz latina, de tres naves, con crucero y cúpula.

 

Escultura

Las numerosas fundaciones religiosas llevadas a cabo con Felipe IV generaron una importante actividad escultórica, destinada a la realización de tallas y retablos. Hacia 1646 se estableció en la Corte Manuel Pereira, a quien se debe el retablo de la Iglesia de San Andrés, desaparecido durante la Guerra Civil, y la estatua de San Bruno, considerada una de sus obras maestras, que se conserva en la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando.

 

Fuera del ámbito religioso, la producción escultórica se desarrolló a través de dos vías: la ornamentación de calles y plazas, mediante la construcción de fuentes artísticas (es el caso de la Fuente de Orfeo, diseñada por Juan Gómez de Mora y terminada en 1629), y los encargos reales, entre los que sobresale la estatua ecuestre de Felipe IV (1634–1640).

 

Se trata de las primera escultura a caballo del mundo en la que éste se sostiene únicamente sobre sus patas traseras.34​ Es obra de Pietro Tacca, quien trabajó sobre unos bocetos hechos por Velázquez y, según la tradición, contó con el asesoramiento científico de Galileo Galilei. Conocida como el caballo de bronce, estuvo inialmente en el Palacio del Buen Retiro y, en tiempos de Isabel II, fue trasladada a la Plaza de Oriente, su actual ubicación.

En el terreno urbanístico, Felipe IV ordenó la construcción de una cerca alrededor del casco urbano, mediante la cual quedaron establecidos los nuevos límites de la villa, tras los procesos expansivos de los periodos anteriores. Desde la fundación de Madrid en el siglo IX, había sido costumbre cercar el caserío, bien con una finalidad defensiva (murallas musulmana y cristiana), bien para el control fiscal de los abastos e inmigración (cerca medieval de los arrabales y Cerca de Felipe II).

 

La Cerca de Felipe IV provocó varios efectos en el desarrollo urbano: por un lado, impidió la expansión horizontal de Madrid hasta bien entrado el siglo XIX, cuando fue demolida y pudieron acometerse los primeros ensanches; y, por otro, favoreció un cierto crecimiento vertical, dando lugar a las corralas, viviendas dispuestas en varias alturas y organizadas en corredera, alrededor de un gran patio común.

 

De la citada cerca, realizada en ladrillo y mampostería, aún se mantienen en pie algunos restos, como los situados en la Ronda de Segovia, en los alrededores de la Puerta de Toledo.

 

El Puente de Toledo es otro de los proyectos urbanísticos impulsados por el rey. Su función era enlazar directamente el casco urbano con el camino de Toledo, salvando el río Manzanares por la parte suroccidental de la ciudad. Fue construido por José de Villarreal entre 1649 y 1660, a partir de un proyecto de Juan Gómez de Mora.

 

El puente quedó destruido en una riada y en 1671, durante el reinado de Carlos II, se levantó uno nuevo, que también desapareció por los mismos motivos. La estructura definitiva que ha llegado a la actualidad corresponde al primer tercio del siglo XVIII y es obra de Pedro de Ribera.

Reinado de Carlos II

Con la llegada al trono de Carlos II (r. 1665–1700), se frenó el ritmo constructor del reinado anterior, sobre todo en lo que respecta a las edificaciones civiles. Entre éstas, tan sólo cabe mencionar la Puerta de Felipe IV (1680), que, pese a su nombre, fue erigida en honor de María Luisa de Orleáns, primera esposa de Carlos II. Trazada por Melchor Bueras, estuvo inicialmente emplazada en la Carrera de San Jerónimo, hasta su traslado, a mediados del siglo XIX, a la calle de Alfonso XII, donde sirve de acceso al Parque de El Retiro.

 

En cuanto a las fundaciones religiosas, se levantaron algunos templos de interés artístico, que abandonaron definitivamente el aspecto austero de la primera mitad del siglo XVII e incorporaron plenamente las tendencias barrocas.

 

Es el caso de la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de Montserrat, que forma parte del convento homónimo.​ Fue trazada en el año 1668 por el arquitecto Sebastián Herrera Barnuevo, si bien su proyecto fue transformado por Gaspar de la Peña, Juan de Torija, Pedro de la Torre, Francisco Aspur y Pedro de Ribera, que intervinieron, en diferentes fases, hasta la conclusión del conjunto en 1720. El edificio destaca por su exterior profusamente ornamentado, en especial la torre que flanquea uno de sus lados, con abundantes motivos naturalistas en su parte superior y alrededor de los vanos.

 

El gusto por las formas también está presente en la Iglesia de las Calatravas (1670–1678), situada en la calle de Alcalá. Se debe a un diseño de fray Lorenzo de San Nicolás, terminado por Isidro Martínez y Gregorio Garrote. Presenta planta de cruz latina y, en su crucero, se alza una cúpula con tambor de ocho vanos, cuatro abiertos y cuatro cegados. La capilla mayor está adornada con un retablo de José Benito de Churriguera, realizado en tiempos de Felipe V.

 

Del Monasterio del santísimo Sacramento, fundado por Cristóbal Gómez de Sandoval en la época de Felipe IV, sólo se conserva su iglesia, actual Catedral Arzobispal Castrense. El templo se construyó con Carlos II, entre 1671 y 1744, a partir de un proyecto firmado por Francisco Bautista, Manuel del Olmo y Bartolomé Hurtado García.

 

Su fachada, labrada en sillares de granito, se estructura en tres niveles horizontales y está rematada por un frontón circular. La decoración exterior consiste en diferentes molduras que recorren los vanos, con motivos naturales, y en un relieve dedicado a san Benito y san Bernardo, instalado en el nivel intermedio.

 

Pese a las corrientes barrocas del momento, el Convento de las Comendadoras de Santiago se aproxima más al arquetipo arquitectónico de la primera mitad del reinado de Felipe IV, caracterizado por su sobriedad. El edificio, que empezó a construirse en 1667, destaca por su iglesia, de planta de cruz griega, fachada inspirada en el modelo del Real Monasterio de la Encarnación y torres con chapiteles herrerianos en los lados.

  

Puri is a city and a Municipality of Odisha. It is the district headquarters of Puri district, Odisha, eastern India. It is situated on the Bay of Bengal, 60 kilometres south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as Jagannath Puri after the 12th-century Jagannath Temple located in the city. It is one of the original Char Dham pilgrimage sites for Indian Hindus.

 

Puri was known by several names from the ancient times to the present, and locally called as Badadeula. Puri and the Jagannath Temple were invaded 18 times by Hindu and Muslim rulers, starting from the 4th century to the start of the 19th century with the objective of looting the treasures of the temple. Odisha, including Puri and its temple, were under the British Raj from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947. Even though princely states do not exist in independent India, the heirs of the Gajapati Dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple. The temple town has many Hindu religious maths or monasteries.

 

The economy of Puri town is dependent on the religious importance of the Jagannath Temple to the extent of nearly 80%. The festivals which contribute to the economy are the 24 held every year in the temple complex, including 13 major festivals; Ratha Yatra and its related festivals are the most important which are attended by millions of people every year. Sand art and applique art are some of the important crafts of the city. Puri is one of the 12 heritage cities chosen by the Government of India for holistic development.

 

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

GEOGRAPHY

Puri, located on the east coast of India on the Bay of Bengal, is in the center of the district of the same name. It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the south east, the Mauza Sipaurubilla on the west, Mauz Gopinathpur in the north and Mauza Balukhand in the east. It is within the 67 kilometres coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between Chilika Lake and the south of Puri city. However, the administrative jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of 16.3268 square kilometres spread over 30 wards, which includes a shore line of 5 kilometres.

 

Puri is in the coastal delta of the Mahanadi River on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. In the ancient days it was near to Sisupalgarh (Ashokan Tosali) when the land was drained by a tributary of the River Bhargavi, a branch of the Mahanadi River, which underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the estuary, and formed many sand hills. These sand hills could not be "cut through" by the streams. Because of the sand hills, the Bhargavi River flowing to the south of Puri, moved away towards the Chilika Lake. This shift also resulted in the creation of two lagoons known as Sar and Samang on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively. Sar lagoon has a length of 8.0 km in an east-west direction and has a width of 3.2 km in north-south direction. The river estuary has a shallow depth of 1.5 m only and the process of siltation is continuing. According to a 15th-century chronicle the stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or Neelachal was used as the foundation or high plinth of the present temple which was then known as Purushottama, the Supreme Being. A 16th century chronicle attributes filling up of the bed of the river which flowed through the present Grand Road, during the reign of King Narasimha II (1278–1308).

 

CLIMATE

According to the Köppen and Geiger the climate of Puri is classified Aw. The city has moderate and tropical climate. Humidity is fairly high throughout the year. The temperature during summer touches a maximum of 36 °C and during winter it is 17 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1,337 millimetres and the average annual temperature is 26.9 °C.

 

HISTORY

NAMES IN HISTORY

Puri, the holy land of Lord Jaganath, also known popularly as Badadeula in local usage, has many ancient names in the Hindu scriptures such as the Rigveda, Matsya purana, Brahma Purana, Narada Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Kapila samhita and Niladrimahodaya. In the Rigveda, in particular, it is mentioned as a place called Purushamandama-grama meaning the place where the Creator deity of the world – Supreme Divinity deified on altar or mandapa was venerated near the coast and prayers offered with vedic hymns. Over time the name got changed to Purushottama Puri and further shortened to Puri and the Purusha became Jagannatha. Close to this place sages like Bhrigu, Atri and Markandeya had their hermitage. Its name is mentioned, conforming to the deity worshipped, as Srikshetra, Purusottama Dhāma, Purusottama Kshetra, Purusottama Puri and Jagannath Puri. Puri is however, a common usage now. It is also known the geographical features of its siting as Shankhakshetra (layout of the town is in the form of a conch shell.), Neelāchala ("blue mountain" a terminology used to name very large sand lagoon over which the temple was built but this name is not in vogue), Neelāchalakshetra, Neelādri, The word 'Puri' in Sanskrit means "town", or 'city' and is cognate with polis in Greek.

 

Another ancient name is Charita as identified by Cunningham which was later spelled as Che-li-ta-lo by Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang.When the present temple was built by the Ganga king Chodangadev in the 11th and 12th centuries it was called Purushottamkshetra. However, the Moghuls, the Marathas and early British rulers called it Purushottama-chhatar or just Chhatar. In Akbar's Ain-i-Akbari and subsequent Muslim historical records it was known as Purushottama. In the Sanskrit drama authored by Murari Mishra in the 8th century it is referred as Purushottama only. It was only after twelfth century Puri came to be known by the shortened form of Jagannatha Puri, named after the deity or in a short form as Puri. In some records pertaining to the British rule, the word 'Jagannath' was used for Puri. It is the only shrine in India, where Radha, along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga, Bhudevi, Sati, Parvati, and Shakti abodes with Krishna, also known as Jagannath.

 

ANCIENT PERIOD

According to the chronicle Madala Panji, in 318 the priests and servitors of the temple spirited away the idols to escape the wrath of the Rashtrakuta King Rakatavahu. The temple's ancient historical records also finds mention in the Brahma Purana and Skanda Purana as having been built by the king Indradyumna of Ujjayani.

 

According to W.J. Wilkinson, in Puri, Buddhism was once a well established practice but later Buddhists were persecuted and Brahmanism became the order of the religious practice in the town; the Buddha deity in now worshipped by the Hindus as Jagannatha. It is also said that some relics of Buddha were placed inside the idol of Jagannath which the Brahmins claimed were the bones of Krishna. Even during Ashoka’s reign in 240 BC Odisha was a Buddhist center and that a tribe known as Lohabahu (barbarians from outside Odisha) converted to Buddhism and built a temple with an idol of Buddha which is now worshipped as Jagannatha. It is also said that Lohabahu deposited some Buddha relics in the precincts of the temple.

 

Construction of the Jagannatha Temple started in 1136 and completed towards the later part of the 12th century. The King of the Ganga dynasty, Anangabhima dedicated his kingdom to the God, then known as the Purushottam-Jagannatha and resolved that from then on he and his descendants would rule under "divine order as Jagannatha's sons and vassals". Even though princely states do not exist in independent India, the heirs of the Gajapati dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple; the king formally sweeps the road in front of the chariots before the start of the Rathayatra.

 

MEDIEVAL AND EARLY MODERN PERIODS

History of the temple is the history of the town of Puri, which was invaded 18 times during its history to plunder the treasures of the Jagannath Puri temple. The first invasion was in the 8th century by Rastrakuta king Govinda-III (AD 798–814) and the last was in 1881 by the followers of Alekh Religion who did not recognize Jagannath worship. In between, from the 1205 onward there were many invasions of the city and its temple by Muslims of the Afghans and Moghuls descent, known as Yavanas or foreigners; they had mounted attacks to ransack the wealth of the temple rather than for religious reasons. In most of these invasions the idols were taken to safe places by the priests and the servitors of the temple. Destruction of the temple was prevented by timely resistance or surrender by the kings of the region. However, the treasures of the temple were repeatedly looted. Puri is the site of the Govardhana matha, one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankaracharya, when he visited Puri in 810 and since then it has become an important dham (divine centre) for the Hindus; the others being those at Sringeri, Dwaraka and Jyotirmath. The matha is headed by Jagatguru Shankarachrya. The significance of the four dhams is that the Lord Vishnu takes his dinner at Puri, has his bath at Rameshwaram, spends the night at Dwarka and does penance at Badrinath.

 

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Bengal who established the Bhakti movements of India in the sixteenth century, now known by the name the Hare Krishna movement, spent many years as a devotee of Jagannatha at Puri; he is said to have merged his "corporal self" with the deity. There is also a matha of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu here.

 

In the 17th century for the sailors sailing on the east coast of India, the landmark was the temple located in a plaza in the centre of the town which they called the "White Pagoda" while the Konark Sun Temple, 60 kilometres away to the east of Puri, was known as the "Black Pagoda".

 

The iconographic representation of the images in the Jagannath temple are believed to be the forms derived from the worship made by the tribal groups of Sabaras belonging to northern Odisha. These images are replaced at regular intervals as the wood deteriorates. This replacement is a special event carried out ritulistically by special group of carpenters.

 

The town has many Mathas (Monasteries of the various Hindu sects). Among the important mathas is the Emar Matha founded by the Tamil Vaishnav Saint Ramanujacharya in the 12th century AD. At present this matha is located in front of Simhadvara across the eastern corner of the Jagannath Temple is reported to have been built in the 16th century during the reign of Suryavamsi Gajapati. The matha was in the news recently for the large cache of 522 silver slabs unearthded from a closed room.

 

The British conquered Orissa in 1803 and recognizing the importance of the Jagannatha Temple in the life of the people of the state they initially placed an official to look after the temple's affairs and later declared it a district with the same name.

 

MODERN HISTORY

In 1906, Sri Yukteswar an exponent of Kriya Yoga, a resident of Puri, established an ashram in the sea-side town of Puri, naming it "Kararashram" as a spiritual training center. He died on 9 March 1936 and his body is buried in the garden of the ashram.

 

The city is the site of the former summer residence of British Raj built in 1913–14 during the era of governors, the Raj Bhavan.

 

For the people of Puri Lord Jagannath, visualized as Lord Krishna, is synonymous with their city. They believe that the Jagannatha looks after the welfare of the state. However, after the incident of the partial collapse of the Jagannatha Temple, the Amalaka part of the tower on 14 June 1990 people became apprehensive and thought it was not a good omen for the welfare of the State of Odisha. The replacement of the fallen stone by another of the same size and weight (seven tons) had to be done only in the an early morning hours after the gods had woken up after a good nights sleep which was done on 28 February 1991.

 

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of the Indian Government. It is one of 12 the heritage cities chosen with "focus on holistic development" to be implemented in 27 months by end of March 2017.

 

Non-Hindus are not permitted to enter the shrines but are allowed to view the temple and the proceedings from the roof of the Raghunandan library within the precincts of the temple for a small donation.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2001 India census, Puri city, an urban Agglomeration governed by Municipal Corporation in Orissa state, had a population of 157,610 which increased to 200,564 in 2011. Males, 104,086, females, 96,478, children under 6 years of age, 18,471. The sex ratio is 927 females to 1000 males. Puri has an average literacy rate of 88.03 percent (91.38 percent males and 84.43 percent females). Religion-wise data is not reported.

 

ECONOMY

The economy of Puri is dependent on tourism to the extent of about 80%. The temple is the focal point of the entire area of the town and provides major employment to the people of the town. Agricultural production of rice, ghee, vegetables and so forth of the region meets the huge requirements of the temple, with many settlements aroiund the town exclusively catering to the other religious paraphernalia of the temple. The temple administration employs 6,000 men to perform the rituals. The temple also provides economic sustenance to 20,000 people belonging to 36 orders and 97 classes. The kitchen of the temple which is said to be the largest in the world employs 400 cooks.

 

CITY MANAGEMENT AND GOVERNANCE

Puri Municipality, Puri Konark Development Authority, Public Health Engineering Organisastion, Orissa Water Supply Sewerage Board are some of the principal organizations that are devolved with the responsibility of providing for all the urban needs of civic amenities such as water supply, sewerage, waste management, street lighting, and infrastructure of roads. The major activity which puts maximum presuure on these organizations is the annual event of the Ratha Yatra held for 10 days during July when more than a million people attend the grand event. This event involves to a very large extent the development activities such as infrastructure and amenities to the pilgrims, apart from security to the pilgrims.

 

The civic administration of Puri is the responsibility of the Puri Municipality which came into existence in 1864 in the name of Puri Improvement Trust which got converted into Puri Municipality in 1881. After India's independence in 1947, Orissa Municipal Act-1950 was promulgated entrusting the administration of the city to the Puri Municipality. This body is represented by elected representative with a Chairperson and councilors representing the 30 wards within the municipal limits.

 

LANDMARKS

JAGANNATH TEMPLE AT PURI

The Temple of Jagannath at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples built in the Kalinga style of architecture, in respect of its plan, front view and structural detailing. It is one of the Pancharatha (Five chariots) type consisting of two anurathas, two konakas and one ratha with well-developed pagas. Vimana or Deula is the sanctum sanctorum where the triad (three) deities are deified on the ratnavedi (Throne of Pearls), and over which is the temple tower, known as the rekha deula; the latter is built over a rectangular base of the pidha temples as its roof is made up of pidhas that are sequentially arranged horizontal platforms built in descending order forming a pyramidal shape. The mandapa in front of the sanctum sanctorum is known as Jagamohana where devotees assemble to offer worship. The temple tower with a spire rises to a height of 58 m in height and a flag is unfurled above it fixed over a wheel (chakra). Within the temple complex is the Nata Mandir, a large hall where Garuda stamba (pillar). Chaitanya Mahaprabhu used to stand here and pray. In the interior of the Bhoga Mantap, adjoining the Nata mandir, there is profusion of decorations of sculptures and paintings which narrate the story of Lord Krishna. The temple is built on an elevated platform (of about 39,000 m2 area), 20 ft above the adjoining area. The temple rises to a height of 214 ft above the road level. The temple complex covers an area of 4,3 ha. There is double walled enclosure, rectangular in shape (rising to a height of 20 ft) surrounding the temple complex of which the outer wall is known as Meghanada Prachira, measuring 200 by 192 metres. The inner walled enclosure, known as Kurmabedha. measures 126m x 95m. There are four entry gates (in four cardinal directions to the temple located at the center of the walls in the four directions of the outer circle. These are: the eastern gate called Singhadwara (Lions Gate), the southern gate known as Ashwa Dwara (Horse Gate), the western gate called the Vyaghra Dwara (Tigers Gate) or the Khanja Gate, and the northern gate called the Hathi Dwara or (elephant gate). The four gates symbolize the four fundamental principles of Dharma (right conduct), Jnana (knowledge), Vairagya (renunciation) and Aishwarya (prosperity). The gates are crowned with pyramid shapes structures. There is stone pillar in front of the Singhadwara called the Aruna Stambha {Solar Pillar}, 11 metres in height with 16 faces, made of chlorite stone, at the top of which is mounted an elegant statue of Arun (Sun) in a prayer mode. This pillar was shifted from the Konarak Sun temple. All the gates are decorated with guardian statues in the form of lion, horse mounted men, tigers and elephants in the name and order of the gates. A pillar made of fossilized wood is used for placing lamps as offering. The Lion Gate (Singhadwara) is the main gate to the temple, which guarded by two guardian deities Jaya and Vijaya. The main gates is ascended through 22 steps known as Baisi Pahaca which are revered as it is said to possess "spiritual animation". Children are made to roll down these steps from top to bottom to bring them spiritual happiness. After entering the temple on the left hand side there is huge kitchen where food is prepared in hygienic conditions in huge quantities that it is termed as "the biggest hotel of the world".

 

The legend says that King Indradyumma was directed by Lord Jagannath in a dream to build a temple for him and he built it as directed. However, according to historical records the temple was started some time during the 12th century by King Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. It was however completed by his descendant, Anangabhima Deva, in the 12th century. The wooden images of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra were then deified here. The temple was under the control of the Hindu rulers up to 1558. Then, when Orissa was occupied by the Afghan Nawab of Bengal, it was brought under the control of the Afghan General Kalapahad. Following the defeat of the Afghan king by Raja Mansingh, the General of Mughal emperor Akbar, the temple became a part of the Mughal empire till 1751 AD. Subsequently it was under the control of the Marathas till 1803. Then, when British Raj took over Orissa, the Puri Raja was entrusted with its to management until 1947.

 

The triad of images in the temple are of Jagannatha, personifying Lord Krishna, Balabhadra, his older brother, and Subhadra his younger sister, which are made of wood (neem) in an unfinished form. The stumps of wood which form the images of the brothers have human arms and that of Subhadra does not have any arms. The heads are large and un-carved and are painted. The faces are made distinct with the large circular shaped eyes.

 

THE PANCHA TIRTHA OF PURI

Hindus consider it essential to bathe in the Pancha Tirtha or the five sacred bathing spots of Puri, India, to complete a pilgrimage to Puri. The five sacred water bodies are the Indradyumana Tank, the Rohini Kunda, the Markandeya Tank, Swetaganga Tank, and the The Sea also called the Mahodadhi is considered a sacred bathing spot in the Swargadwar area. These tanks have perennial sources of supply in the form of rain water and ground water.

 

GUNDICHA TEMPLE

Known as the Garden House of Jagannath, the Gundicha temple stands in the centre of a beautiful garden, surrounded by compound walls on all sides. It lies at a distance of about 3 kilometres to the north east of the Jagannath Temple. The two temples are located at the two ends of the Bada Danda (Grand Avenue) which is the pathway for the Rath Yatra. According to a legend, Gundicha was the wife of King Indradyumna who originally built the Jagannath temple.

 

The temple is built using light-grey sandstone and architecturally, it exemplifies typical Kalinga temple architecture in the Deula style. The complex comprises four components: vimana (tower structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), nata-mandapa (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings). There is also a kitchen connected by a small passage. The temple is set within a garden, and is known as "God's Summer Garden Retreat" or garden house of Jagannath. The entire complex, including garden, is surrounded by a wall which measures 131 m × 98 m with height of 6.1 m.

 

Except for the 9-day Rath Yatra when triad images are worshipped in Gundicha Temple, the rest of the year it remains unoccupied. Tourists can visit the temple after paying an entry fee. Foreigners (prohibited entry in the main temple) are allowed inside this temple during this period. The temple is under the Jagannath Temple Administration, Puri – the governing body of the main temple. A small band of servitors maintain the temple.

 

SWARGADWAR

Swargadwar is the name given to the cremation ground or burning ghat which is located on the shores of the sea were thousands of dead bodies of Hindus are brought from faraway places to cremate. It is a belief that the Chitanya Mahaparabhu disppaeread from this Swargadwar about 500 years back.

 

BEACH

The beach at Puri known as the "Ballighai beach} is 8 km away at the mouth of Nunai River from the town and is fringed by casurian trees. It has golden yellow sand and has pleasant sunshine. Sunrise and sunset are pleasant scenic attractions here. Waves break in at the beach which is long and wide.

 

DISTRICT MUSEUM

The Puri district museum is located on the station road where the exhibits are of different types of garments worn by Lord Jagannath, local sculptures, patachitra (traditional, cloth-based scroll painting) and ancient Palm-leaf manuscripts and local craft work.

 

RAGHUNANDANA LIBRARY

Raghunandana Library is located in the Emmra matha complex (opposite Simhadwara or Lion gate, the main entrance gate). The Jagannatha Aitihasika Gavesana Samiti (Jagannatha Historical Center) is also located here. The library contains ancient palm leaf manuscripts of Jagannatha, His cult and the history of the city. From the roof of the library one gets a picturesque view of the temple complex.

 

FESTIVALS OF PURI

Puri witnesses 24 festivals every year, of which 13 are major festivals. The most important of these is the Rath Yatra or the Car festival held in the month June–July which is attended by more than 1 million people.

 

RATH YATRA AT PURI

The Jagannath triad are usually worshiped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of Asadha (Rainy Season of Orissa, usually falling in month of June or July), they are brought out onto the Bada Danda (main street of Puri) and travel 3 kilometrer to the Shri Gundicha Temple, in huge chariots (ratha), allowing the public to have darśana (Holy view). This festival is known as Rath Yatra, meaning the journey (yatra) of the chariots (ratha). The yatra starts, according to Hindu calendar Asadha Sukla Dwitiya )the second day of bright fortnight of Asadha (June–July) every year.

 

Historically, the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Rath Yatra at the completion of the great temple around 1150 AD. This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early. In his own account of 1321, Odoric reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the King and Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.

 

The Rathas are huge wheeled wooden structures, which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees. The chariot for Jagannath is about 14 m high and 35 feet square and takes about 2 months to construct. Th chariot is mounted with 16 wheels, each of 2.1 m diameter. The carvings in the front of the chariot has four wooden horses drawn by Maruti. On its other three faces the wooden carvings are Rama, Surya and Vishnu. The chariot is known as Nandi Ghosha. The roof of the chariot is covered with yellow and golden coloured cloth. The next chariot is that of Balabhadra which is 13 m in height fitted with 14 wheels. The chariot is carved with Satyaki as the charioteer. The carvings on this chariot also include images of Narasimha and Rudra as Jagannath's companions. The next chariot in the order is that of Subhadra, which is 13 m in height supported on 12 wheels, roof covered in black and red colour cloth and the chariot is known as Darpa-Dalaan. The charioteer carved is Arjuna. Other images carved on the chariot are that of Vana Durga, Tara Devi and Chandi Devi. The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels, the wood-carved charioteer and horses, and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne. The huge chariots of Jagannath pulled during Rath Yatra is the etymological origin of the English word Juggernaut. The Ratha-Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra and Ghosha yatra

 

CHHERA PAHARA

The Chhera Pahara is a significant ritual associated with the Ratha-Yatra. During the festival, the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots in the Chera Pahara (sweeping with water) ritual. The Gajapati King cleanses the road before the chariots with a gold-handled broom and sprinkles sandalwood water and powder with utmost devotion. As per the custom, although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in the Kalingan kingdom, he still renders the menial service to Jagannath. This ritual signified that under the lordship of Jagannath, there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign Gajapati King and the most humble devotee.

 

CHADAN YATRA

In Akshaya Tritiya every year the Chandan Yatra festival marks the commencement of the construction of the Chariots of the Rath Yatra. It also marks the celebration of the Hindu new year.

 

SNANA YATRA

On the Purnima day in the month of Jyestha (June) the triad images of the Jagannath temple are ceremonially bathed and decorated every year on the occasion of Snana Yatra. Water for the bath is taken in 108 pots from the Suna kuan (meaning: "golden well") located near the northern gate of the temple. Water is drawn from this well only once in a year for the sole purpose of this religious bath of the deities. After the bath the triad images are dressed in the fashion of the elephant god, Ganesha. Later during the night the original triad images are taken out in a procession back to the main temple but kept at a place known as Anasara pindi. After this the Jhulana Yatra is when proxy images of the deities are taken out in a grand procession for 21 days, cruised over boats in the Narmada tank.

 

ANAVASARA OR ANASARA

Anasara literally means vacation. Every year, the triad images without the Sudarshan after the holy Snana Yatra are taken to a secret altar named Anavasara Ghar Palso known as "Anasara pindi} where they remain for the next dark fortnight (Krishna paksha). Hence devotees are not allowed to view them. Instead of this devotees go to nearby place Brahmagiri to see their beloved lord in the form of four handed form Alarnath a form of Vishnu. Then people get the first glimpse of lord on the day before Rath Yatra, which is called Navayouvana. It is said that the gods suffer from fever after taking ritual detailed bath and they are treated by the special servants named, Daitapatis for 15 days. Daitapatis perform special niti (rite) known as Netrotchhaba (a rite of painting the eyes of the triad). During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.

 

NAVA KALEVARA

One of the most grandiloquent events associated with the Lord Jagannath, Naba Kalabera takes place when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another lunar month of Aashadha, called Adhika Masa (extra month). This can take place in 8, 12 or even 18 years. Literally meaning the "New Body" (Nava = New, Kalevar = Body), the festival is witnessed by as millions of people and the budget for this event exceeds $500,000. The event involves installation of new images in the temple and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha. The idols that were worshipped in the temple, installed in the year 1996, were replaced by specially made new images made of neem wood during Nabakalebara 2015 ceremony held during July 2015. More than 3 million devotees were expected to visit the temple during the Nabakalebara 2015 held in July.

 

SUNA BESHA

Suna Bhesha also known as Raja or Rajadhiraja bhesha or Raja Bhesha, is an event when the triad images of the Jagannath Temple are adorned with gold jewelry. This event is observed 5 times during a year. It is commonly observed on Magha Purnima (January), Bahuda Ekadashi also known as Asadha Ekadashi (July), Dashahara (Vijyadashami) (October), Karthik Purnima (November), and Pousa Purnima (December). While one such Suna Bhesha event is observed on Bahuda Ekadashi during the Rath Yatra on the chariots placed at the lion's gate or the Singhdwar; the other four Bheshas' are observed inside the temple on the Ratna Singhasana (gem studded altar). On this occasion gold plates are decorated over the hands and feet of Jagannath and Balabhadra; Jagannath is also adorned with a Chakra (disc) made of gold on the right hand while a silver conch adorns the left hand. However, Balabhadra is decorated with a plough made of gold on the left hand while a golden mace adorns his right hand.

 

NILADRI BIJE

Celebrated on Asadha Trayodashi. It marks the end of the 12 days Ratha yatra. The large wooden images of the triad of gods are moved from the chariots and then carried to the sanctum sanctorum, swaying rhythmically, a ritual which is known as pahandi.

 

SAHI YATRA

Considered the world's biggest open-air theatre, the Sahi yatra is an 11 day long traditional cultural theatre festival or folk drama which begins on Ram Navami and ending in Rama avishke (Sanskrit:anointing) every year. The festival includes plays depicting various scenes from the Ramayan. The residents of various localities or Sahis are entrusted the task of performing the drama at the street corners.

  

TRANSPORT

Earlier when roads did not exist people walked or travelled by animal drawn vehicles or carriages along beaten tracks. Up to Calcutta travel was by riverine craft along the Ganges and then by foot or carriages to Puri. It was only during the Maratha rule that the popular Jagannath Sadak (Road) was built around 1790. The East India Company laid the rail track from Calcutta to Puri which became operational in 1898. Puri is now well connected by rail, road and air services. A broad gauge railway line of the South Eastern Railways connects with Puri and Khurda is an important Railway junction. By rail it is about 499 kilometres away from Calcutta and 468 kilometres from Vishakhapatnam. Road network includes NH 203 that links the town with Bhubaneswar, the capital of Odisha which is about 60 kilometres away. NH 203 B connects the town with Satapada via Brahmagiri. Marine drive which is part of NH 203 A connects Puri with Konark. The nearest airport is at Bhubaneswar, about 60 kilometres away from Puri. Puri railway station is among the top hundred booking stations of Indian Railways.

 

ARTS AND CRAFTS

SAND ART

Sand art is a special art form that is created on the beaches of the sea coast of Puri. The art form is attributed to Balaram Das, a poet who lived in the 14th century. He started crafting the sand art forms of the triad deities of the Jagannath Temple at the Puri beach. Now sculptures in sand of various gods and famous people are created by amateur artists which are temporal in nature as they get washed away by waves. This is an art form which has gained international fame in recent years. One of the well known sand artist is Sudarshan Patnaik. He has established the Golden Sand Art Institute in 1995 at the beach to provide training to students interested in this art form.

 

APPLIQUE ART

Applique art work, which is a stitching based craft, unlike embroidery, which was pioneered by the Hatta Maharana of Pipili is widely used in Puri, both for decoration of the deities but also for sale. His family members are employed as darjis or tailors or sebaks by the Maharaja of Puri who prepare articles for decorating the deities in the temple for various festivals and religious ceremonies. These applique works are brightly coloured and patterned fabric in the form of canopies, umbrellas, drapery, carry bags, flags, coberings of dummy horses and cows, and other household textiles which are marketed in Puri. The cloth used are in dark colours of red, black, yellow, green, blue and turquoise blue.

 

CULTURE

Cultural activities, apart from religiuos festivals, held annually are: The Puri Beach Festival held between 5 and 9 November and the Shreeksherta Utsav held from 20 December to 2 January where cultural programmes include unique sand art, display of local and traditional handicrafts and food festival. In addition cultural programmes are held every Saturday for two hours on in second Saturday of the moth at the district Collector's Conference Hall near Sea Beach Polic Station. Apart from Odissi dance, Odiya music, folk dances, and cultural programmes are part of this event. Odishi dance is the cultural heritage of Puri. This dance form originated in Puri in the dances performed Devadasis (Maharis) attached to the Jagannath temple who performed dances in the Natamantapa of the temple to please the deities. Though the devadadsi practice has been discontinued, the dance form has become modern and classical and is widely popular, and many of the Odishi virtuoso artists and gurus (teachers) are from Puri.

 

EDUCATION

SOME OF THE EDUCATIONNAL INSTITUTIONS IN PURI

- Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management

- Gangadhar Mohapatra Law College, established in 1981[84]

- Extension Unit of Regional Research Institute of Homoeopathy; Puri under Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH), New Delhi established in March 2006

- Sri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, established in July 1981

- The Industrial Training Institute, a Premier Technical Institution to provide education in skilled, committed & talented technicians, established in 1966 of the Government of India

 

PURI PEOPLE

Gopabandhu Das

Acharya Harihar

Nilakantha Das

Kelucharan Mohapatra

Pankaj Charan Das

Manasi Pradhan

Raghunath Mohapatra

Sudarshan Patnaik

Biswanath Sahinayak

Rituraj Mohanty

 

WIKIPEDIA

A baby mountain gorilla is dependent on its mother for at least three years after birth. The bond between the mother and the young is very strong. The young ones were jumping up and down the adults while the adults tried to snooze. It is documented that the gorillas use at least 25 vocal sounds such as grunts and growls to communicate. Males become fully grown adults at the age of ten. Their back turns to silver at that time, and are referred to as Silverbacks. It is said that there is a 98% match of genes between the humans and the gorillas. Both belong to the same primate family. The others who belong to the primate family are the chimpanzee and the orangutan. Looking at the thumb and the index finger in this picture I can well believe that we belong to the same family.

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The bamboos (Bambusoideae) are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae.

 

Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. In bamboos, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering.

 

Bamboos are some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 88.9 Centimeters within a 24-hour period, at a rate of 3 cm/h (a growth of approximately 1 millimeter every 2 minutes). Bamboos are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel.

 

The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Malay.

 

SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

The bamboos have long been considered the most primitive grasses, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmas. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives).

 

The bamboos contains three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions, representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae) and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, there are more than 1,400 species in 115 genera.

 

Tribe Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos)

Tribe Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos)

Tribe Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bamboo species are found in diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the mid-Atlantic states south to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost point at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo.

 

Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso).

 

ECOLOGY

Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates of 250 cm in 24 hours. However, the growth rate is dependent on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 3–10 centimetre per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 15–20 cm in diameter. However, the size range for mature bamboo is species dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.6–12 metres, depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide.

 

Unlike all trees, individual bamboo stems, or culms, emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During these several months, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboos have a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species will produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms will be produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter.

 

Many tropical bamboo species will die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier or so-called temperate bamboos can survive temperatures as low as −29 °C. Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in places as cold as USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–6, although they typically will defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes will survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA Zone 8 and above, some hardy bamboo may remain fully leafed out year-round.

 

MASS FLOWERING

Most bamboo species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular cohort flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

 

One hypothesis to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis which argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit, so, even if predators eat their fill, seeds will still be left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

 

Another, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire. Because bamboos can be aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

 

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation hypothesis does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[20] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolutionary progress.

 

More recently, a mathematical explanation for the extreme length of the flowering cycles has been offered, involving both the stabilizing selection implied by the predator satiation hypothesis and others, and the fact that plants that flower at longer intervals tend to release more seeds. The hypothesis claims that bamboo flowering intervals grew by integer multiplication. A mutant bamboo plant flowering at a non-integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds alone, and would not enjoy the benefits of collective flowering (such as protection from predators). On the other hand, a mutant bamboo plant flowering at an integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds only during collective flowering events, and would release more seeds than the average plant in the population. It could therefore take over the population, establishing a flowering interval that is an integer multiple of the previous flowering interval. The hypothesis predicts that observed bamboo flowering intervals should factorize into small prime numbers.

 

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 Nova documentary "Rat Attack".

 

In any case, flowering produces masses of seeds, typically suspended from the ends of the branches. These seeds will give rise to a new generation of plants that may be identical in appearance to those that preceded the flowering, or they may produce new cultivars with different characteristics, such as the presence or absence of striping or other changes in coloration of the culms.

 

Several bamboo species are never known to set seed even when sporadically flowering has been reported. Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus stocksii are common examples of such bamboo.

 

AS ANIMAL DIET

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.

 

The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan Province, China, feeds off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.

 

CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL TIMBER

Timber is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as "timber bamboos".

 

HARVESTING

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

 

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles:

 

1) Life cycle of the culm: As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.

 

2) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence, harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season.

 

3) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon.

 

LEACHING

Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis.

 

EXEMPLES OF THIS PRACTICE INCLUDE:

Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant.

A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap.

Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks.

Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment).

 

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

 

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.

 

ORNAMENTAL BAMBOOS

The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping" (sympodial) and "running" (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. "Running" bamboos, on the other hand, need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

 

Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, collectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

 

Regular observations will indicate major growth directions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature, and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the removed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo.

 

Bamboo growth is also controlled by surrounding the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60– to 90-cm-deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) If the containment area is small, this method can be detrimental to ornamental bamboo, as the bamboo within can become rootbound and start to display the signs of any unhealthy containerized plant. In addition, rhizomes can escape over the top, or beneath the barrier if it is not deep enough. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers, so care must be taken. In small areas, regular maintenance may be the best method for controlling the running bamboos. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos, although these may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

 

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as "lucky bamboo" is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of feng shui and images of the plant widely available on the Web are often used to depict bamboo. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mistaken for a bamboo, but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species. Phyllostachys species of bamboo are also considered invasive and illegal to sell or propagate in some areas of the US.

 

USES

CULINARY

Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.

 

The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called khorisa. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (alu tama (आलु तामा) in Nepali).

 

In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called gulai rebung. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely.

 

Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots.

 

The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.

 

Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali:तामा tama) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy food in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurant around the world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winter months. Baby shoots (Nepali: tusa) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in Hilly regions.

 

In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as hendua. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves.

 

In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (kirlu) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare 'kirla sukke'.

 

The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.

 

In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.

 

MEDICINE

Bamboo is used in Chinese medicine for treating infections and healing. In northern Indian state of Assam, the fermented bamboo paste known as khorisa is known locally as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, infertility, and menstrual pains.

 

CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.

 

In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance.

 

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber.

 

Various structural shapes may be made by training the bamboo to assume them as it grows. Squared sections of bamboo are created by compressing the growing stalk within a square form. Arches may similarly be created by forcing the bamboo's growth into the desired form, costing much less than it would to obtain the same shape with regular wood timber. More traditional forming methods, such as the application of heat and pressure, may also be used to curve or flatten the cut stalks.

 

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks. This process involves cutting stalks into thin strips, planing them flat, and boiling and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed and finished. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West during the mid-1990s; products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture and even decorations, are currently surging in popularity, transitioning from the boutique market to mainstream providers such as Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which also includes small goods, fabric, etc.) is expected to be worth $25 billion by 2012. The quality of bamboo laminate varies among manufacturers and varies according to the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years being considered the optimum); the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood while others may be softer than standard hardwood.

 

Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric acid. Another process involves boiling cut bamboo to remove the starches that attract insects.

 

Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful, though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject. Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.

 

Several institutes, businesses, and universities are researching the use of bamboo as an ecological construction material. In the United States and France, it is possible to get houses made entirely of bamboo,[citation needed] which are earthquake- and cyclone-resistant and internationally certified. In Bali, Indonesia, an international K-12 school, the Green School, is constructed entirely of bamboo, for its beauty and advantages as a sustainable resource. There are three ISO standards for bamboo as a construction material.

 

In parts of India, bamboo is used for drying clothes indoors, both as a rod high up near the ceiling to hang clothes on, and as a stick wielded with acquired expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the clothes when dry. It is also commonly used to make ladders, which apart from their normal function, are also used for carrying bodies in funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name velu for bamboo is most likely from Sanskrit, while vana means forest.

 

Furthermore, bamboo is also used to create flagpoles for saffron-coloured, Hindu religious flags, which can be seen fluttering across India, especially in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Guyana and Suriname in South America.

 

Bamboo was used for the structural members of the India pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, about 34 m in diameter, with bamboo beams/members overlaid with a ferro-concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar PV panels, a small windmill, and live plants. A total of 30 km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported on 18-m-long steel piles and a series of steel ring beams. The bamboo was treated with borax and boric acid as a fire retardant and insecticide and bent in the required shape. The bamboo sections were joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to achieve the necessary lengths.

 

TEXTILES

Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet; however, the Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo".

 

AS A WRITING SURFACE

Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. However, references in earlier texts surviving on other media make it clear that some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was in use as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC).

 

Bamboo or wooden strips were the standard writing material during the Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production.

 

Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities.

 

Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. The most common bamboo species used for paper are Dendrocalamus asper and Bamboo bluemanea. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production.[

 

WEAPONS

Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts.

 

A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of silambam, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo".

Staves used in the Indian martial art of gatka are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight.

A bamboo sword called a shinai is used in the Japanese martial art of kendo.

Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called yumi, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art kyudo.

Bamboo is sometimes used to craft the limbs of the longbow and recurve bow used in traditional archery, and to make superior weapons for bowhunting and target archery.

The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo.

Bamboo was apparently used in East and South Asia as a means of torture.

 

OTHER USES

Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jomon period (2000–1000 BC).

 

Bamboo has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition.

 

Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.

 

Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a meriam buluh or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.

 

Food is cooked in East Timor in bamboo in fire. This is called Tukir.

 

Many minority groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 metres long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 metre. Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chop sticks, trays, and tea scoops.

 

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change.

 

SYMBOLISM AND CULTURE

Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness, while in India it is a symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Bamboo is said to bloom in this manner only about every 50 years (see 28–60 year examples in FAO: 'gregarious' species table).

 

In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.

 

The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.

 

BAMBOO, NOBLE AND USEFUL

Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and hollow heart, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. According to laws, an ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (sǔn筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called "Sǔn Pǔ筍譜" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden.

 

In Japan, a bamboo forest sometimes surrounds a Shinto shrine as part of a sacred barrier against evil. Many Buddhist temples also have bamboo groves.

 

Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): cương nhu phối triển (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear", the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (lũy tre).

 

IN MYTHOLOGY

Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.

 

In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man, Malakás ("Strong"), and the first woman, Maganda ("Beautiful"), each emerged from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. The Japanese folktale "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" (Taketori Monogatari) tells of a princess from the Moon emerging from a shining bamboo section. Hawaiian bamboo ('ohe) is a kinolau or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne.

 

A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo.

 

In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. Later, Shun drowned in the Xiang River. The tears his two bereaved wives let fall upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The bamboos (Bambusoideae) are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae.

 

Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. In bamboos, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering.

 

Bamboos are some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 88.9 Centimeters within a 24-hour period, at a rate of 3 cm/h (a growth of approximately 1 millimeter every 2 minutes). Bamboos are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel.

 

The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Malay.

 

SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

The bamboos have long been considered the most primitive grasses, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmas. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives).

 

The bamboos contains three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions, representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae) and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, there are more than 1,400 species in 115 genera.

 

Tribe Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos)

Tribe Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos)

Tribe Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bamboo species are found in diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the mid-Atlantic states south to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost point at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo.

 

Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso).

 

ECOLOGY

Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates of 250 cm in 24 hours. However, the growth rate is dependent on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 3–10 centimetre per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 15–20 cm in diameter. However, the size range for mature bamboo is species dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.6–12 metres, depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide.

 

Unlike all trees, individual bamboo stems, or culms, emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During these several months, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboos have a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species will produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms will be produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter.

 

Many tropical bamboo species will die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier or so-called temperate bamboos can survive temperatures as low as −29 °C. Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in places as cold as USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–6, although they typically will defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes will survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA Zone 8 and above, some hardy bamboo may remain fully leafed out year-round.

 

MASS FLOWERING

Most bamboo species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular cohort flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

 

One hypothesis to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis which argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit, so, even if predators eat their fill, seeds will still be left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

 

Another, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire. Because bamboos can be aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

 

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation hypothesis does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[20] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolutionary progress.

 

More recently, a mathematical explanation for the extreme length of the flowering cycles has been offered, involving both the stabilizing selection implied by the predator satiation hypothesis and others, and the fact that plants that flower at longer intervals tend to release more seeds. The hypothesis claims that bamboo flowering intervals grew by integer multiplication. A mutant bamboo plant flowering at a non-integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds alone, and would not enjoy the benefits of collective flowering (such as protection from predators). On the other hand, a mutant bamboo plant flowering at an integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds only during collective flowering events, and would release more seeds than the average plant in the population. It could therefore take over the population, establishing a flowering interval that is an integer multiple of the previous flowering interval. The hypothesis predicts that observed bamboo flowering intervals should factorize into small prime numbers.

 

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 Nova documentary "Rat Attack".

 

In any case, flowering produces masses of seeds, typically suspended from the ends of the branches. These seeds will give rise to a new generation of plants that may be identical in appearance to those that preceded the flowering, or they may produce new cultivars with different characteristics, such as the presence or absence of striping or other changes in coloration of the culms.

 

Several bamboo species are never known to set seed even when sporadically flowering has been reported. Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus stocksii are common examples of such bamboo.

 

AS ANIMAL DIET

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.

 

The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan Province, China, feeds off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.

 

CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL TIMBER

Timber is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as "timber bamboos".

 

HARVESTING

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

 

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles:

 

1) Life cycle of the culm: As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.

 

2) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence, harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season.

 

3) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon.

 

LEACHING

Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis.

 

EXEMPLES OF THIS PRACTICE INCLUDE:

Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant.

A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap.

Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks.

Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment).

 

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

 

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.

 

ORNAMENTAL BAMBOOS

The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping" (sympodial) and "running" (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. "Running" bamboos, on the other hand, need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

 

Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, collectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

 

Regular observations will indicate major growth directions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature, and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the removed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo.

 

Bamboo growth is also controlled by surrounding the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60– to 90-cm-deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) If the containment area is small, this method can be detrimental to ornamental bamboo, as the bamboo within can become rootbound and start to display the signs of any unhealthy containerized plant. In addition, rhizomes can escape over the top, or beneath the barrier if it is not deep enough. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers, so care must be taken. In small areas, regular maintenance may be the best method for controlling the running bamboos. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos, although these may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

 

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as "lucky bamboo" is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of feng shui and images of the plant widely available on the Web are often used to depict bamboo. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mistaken for a bamboo, but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species. Phyllostachys species of bamboo are also considered invasive and illegal to sell or propagate in some areas of the US.

 

USES

CULINARY

Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.

 

The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called khorisa. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (alu tama (आलु तामा) in Nepali).

 

In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called gulai rebung. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely.

 

Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots.

 

The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.

 

Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali:तामा tama) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy food in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurant around the world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winter months. Baby shoots (Nepali: tusa) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in Hilly regions.

 

In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as hendua. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves.

 

In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (kirlu) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare 'kirla sukke'.

 

The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.

 

In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.

 

MEDICINE

Bamboo is used in Chinese medicine for treating infections and healing. In northern Indian state of Assam, the fermented bamboo paste known as khorisa is known locally as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, infertility, and menstrual pains.

 

CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.

 

In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance.

 

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber.

 

Various structural shapes may be made by training the bamboo to assume them as it grows. Squared sections of bamboo are created by compressing the growing stalk within a square form. Arches may similarly be created by forcing the bamboo's growth into the desired form, costing much less than it would to obtain the same shape with regular wood timber. More traditional forming methods, such as the application of heat and pressure, may also be used to curve or flatten the cut stalks.

 

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks. This process involves cutting stalks into thin strips, planing them flat, and boiling and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed and finished. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West during the mid-1990s; products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture and even decorations, are currently surging in popularity, transitioning from the boutique market to mainstream providers such as Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which also includes small goods, fabric, etc.) is expected to be worth $25 billion by 2012. The quality of bamboo laminate varies among manufacturers and varies according to the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years being considered the optimum); the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood while others may be softer than standard hardwood.

 

Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric acid. Another process involves boiling cut bamboo to remove the starches that attract insects.

 

Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful, though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject. Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.

 

Several institutes, businesses, and universities are researching the use of bamboo as an ecological construction material. In the United States and France, it is possible to get houses made entirely of bamboo,[citation needed] which are earthquake- and cyclone-resistant and internationally certified. In Bali, Indonesia, an international K-12 school, the Green School, is constructed entirely of bamboo, for its beauty and advantages as a sustainable resource. There are three ISO standards for bamboo as a construction material.

 

In parts of India, bamboo is used for drying clothes indoors, both as a rod high up near the ceiling to hang clothes on, and as a stick wielded with acquired expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the clothes when dry. It is also commonly used to make ladders, which apart from their normal function, are also used for carrying bodies in funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name velu for bamboo is most likely from Sanskrit, while vana means forest.

 

Furthermore, bamboo is also used to create flagpoles for saffron-coloured, Hindu religious flags, which can be seen fluttering across India, especially in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Guyana and Suriname in South America.

 

Bamboo was used for the structural members of the India pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, about 34 m in diameter, with bamboo beams/members overlaid with a ferro-concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar PV panels, a small windmill, and live plants. A total of 30 km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported on 18-m-long steel piles and a series of steel ring beams. The bamboo was treated with borax and boric acid as a fire retardant and insecticide and bent in the required shape. The bamboo sections were joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to achieve the necessary lengths.

 

TEXTILES

Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet; however, the Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo".

 

AS A WRITING SURFACE

Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. However, references in earlier texts surviving on other media make it clear that some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was in use as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC).

 

Bamboo or wooden strips were the standard writing material during the Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production.

 

Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities.

 

Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. The most common bamboo species used for paper are Dendrocalamus asper and Bamboo bluemanea. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production.[

 

WEAPONS

Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts.

 

A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of silambam, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo".

Staves used in the Indian martial art of gatka are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight.

A bamboo sword called a shinai is used in the Japanese martial art of kendo.

Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called yumi, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art kyudo.

Bamboo is sometimes used to craft the limbs of the longbow and recurve bow used in traditional archery, and to make superior weapons for bowhunting and target archery.

The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo.

Bamboo was apparently used in East and South Asia as a means of torture.

 

OTHER USES

Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jomon period (2000–1000 BC).

 

Bamboo has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition.

 

Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.

 

Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a meriam buluh or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.

 

Food is cooked in East Timor in bamboo in fire. This is called Tukir.

 

Many minority groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 metres long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 metre. Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chop sticks, trays, and tea scoops.

 

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change.

 

SYMBOLISM AND CULTURE

Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness, while in India it is a symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Bamboo is said to bloom in this manner only about every 50 years (see 28–60 year examples in FAO: 'gregarious' species table).

 

In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.

 

The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.

 

BAMBOO, NOBLE AND USEFUL

Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and hollow heart, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. According to laws, an ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (sǔn筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called "Sǔn Pǔ筍譜" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden.

 

In Japan, a bamboo forest sometimes surrounds a Shinto shrine as part of a sacred barrier against evil. Many Buddhist temples also have bamboo groves.

 

Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): cương nhu phối triển (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear", the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (lũy tre).

 

IN MYTHOLOGY

Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.

 

In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man, Malakás ("Strong"), and the first woman, Maganda ("Beautiful"), each emerged from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. The Japanese folktale "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" (Taketori Monogatari) tells of a princess from the Moon emerging from a shining bamboo section. Hawaiian bamboo ('ohe) is a kinolau or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne.

 

A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo.

 

In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. Later, Shun drowned in the Xiang River. The tears his two bereaved wives let fall upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The black swan (Cygnus atratus) is a large waterbird, a species of swan which breeds mainly in the southeast and southwest regions of Australia. Within Australia, the black swan is nomadic, with erratic migration patterns dependent on climatic conditions. It is a large bird with black plumage and a red bill. It is a monogamous breeder, with both partners sharing incubation and cygnet-rearing duties.

 

The black swan was introduced to various countries as an ornamental bird in the 1800s, but has managed to escape and form stable populations. Described scientifically by English naturalist John Latham in 1790, the black swan was formerly placed into a monotypic genus, Chenopis. Black swans can be found singly, or in loose companies numbering into the hundreds or even thousands. It is a popular bird in zoological gardens and bird collections, and escapees are sometimes seen outside their natural range.

 

This bird is a regional symbol of both Western Australia, where it is native, and the English town of Dawlish, where it is an introduced species.

 

Description

Black swans are black-feathered birds, with white flight feathers. The bill is bright red, with a pale bar and tip; and legs and feet are greyish-black. Cobs (males) are slightly larger than pens (females), with a longer and straighter bill. Cygnets (immature birds) are a greyish-brown with pale-edged feathers.

 

Mature black swans measure between 110 and 142 centimetres (43 and 56 in) in length and weigh 3.7–9 kilograms (8.2–19.8 lb). Their wing span is between 1.6 and 2 metres (5.2 and 6.6 ft). The neck is long (relatively the longest neck among the swans) and curved in an "S"-shape.

 

The black swan utters a musical and far reaching bugle-like sound, called either on the water or in flight, as well as a range of softer crooning notes. It can also whistle, especially when disturbed while breeding and nesting.

 

When swimming, black swans hold their necks arched or erect and often carry their feathers or wings raised in an aggressive display. In flight, a wedge of black swans will form as a line or a V, with the individual birds flying strongly with undulating long necks, making whistling sounds with their wings and baying, bugling or trumpeting calls.

  

Black swan skeleton (Museum of Osteology)

The black swan is unlike any other Australian bird, although in poor light and at long range it may be confused with a magpie goose in flight. However, the black swan can be distinguished by its much longer neck and slower wing beat.

 

One captive population of black swans in Lakeland, Florida has produced a few individuals which are a light mottled grey colour instead of black. White black swans are also known to exist; these individuals, which are leucistic, are believed to occur rarely in the wild.

 

Distribution

The black swan is common in the wetlands of southwestern and eastern Australia and adjacent coastal islands. In the south west its range encompasses an area between North West Cape, Cape Leeuwin and Eucla; while in the east it covers a large region bounded by the Atherton Tableland, the Eyre Peninsula and Tasmania, with the Murray Darling Basin supporting very large populations of black swans. It is uncommon in central and northern Australia.

 

The black swan's preferred habitat extends across fresh, brackish and salt water lakes, swamps and rivers with underwater and emergent vegetation for food and nesting materials. It also favors permanent wetlands, including ornamental lakes, but can also be found in flooded pastures and tidal mudflats, and occasionally on the open sea near islands or the shore.

 

The black swan was once thought to be sedentary, but is now known to be highly nomadic. There is no set migratory pattern, but rather opportunistic responses to either rainfall or drought. In high rainfall years, emigration occurs from the south west and south east into the interior, with a reverse migration to these heartlands in drier years. When rain does fall in the arid central regions, black swans will migrate to these areas to nest and raise their young. However, should dry conditions return before the young have been raised, the adult birds will abandon the nests and their eggs or cygnets and return to wetter areas.

 

The black swan, like many other water fowl, loses all its flight feathers at once when it moults after breeding and is unable to fly for about a month. During this time it will usually settle on large, open waters for safety.

 

The species has a large range, with figures between 1 and 10 million km2 given as the extent of occurrence. The current global population is estimated to be up to 500,000 individuals. No threat of extinction or significant decline in population has been identified with this numerous and widespread bird.

 

Black swans were first seen by Europeans in 1697, when Willem de Vlamingh's expedition explored the Swan River, Western Australia.

 

Introduced populations

Before the arrival of the Māori in New Zealand, a related species of swan known as the New Zealand swan had developed there, but was apparently hunted to extinction. In 1864, the Australian black swan was introduced to New Zealand as an ornamental waterfowl and populations are now common on larger coastal or inland lakes, especially Rotorua Lakes, Lake Wairarapa, Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora, and the Chatham Islands. Black swans have also naturally flown to New Zealand, leading scientists to consider them a native rather than exotic species, although the present population appears to be largely descended from deliberate introductions.

 

United Kingdom

The black swan is also very popular as an ornamental waterbird in western Europe, especially Britain, and escapees are commonly reported. As yet, the population in Britain is not considered to be self-sustaining and so the species is not afforded admission to the official British List, but the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust have recorded a maximum of nine breeding pairs in the UK in 2001, with an estimate of 43 feral birds in 2003–2004. A small population of black swans exists on the River Thames at Marlow, on the brook running through the small town of Dawlish in Devon, near the River Itchen, Hampshire, and the River Tees near Stockton on Tees. The Dawlish population is so well associated with the town that the bird has been the town's emblem for forty years.

 

Japan

There are also wild populations in Japan, having originally been imported during 1950–1960.

 

United States

Black swans have been reported in Florida, but there is no evidence that they are breeding; persistent sightings may be due to continual releases or escapes. Orange County, California reported black swans in Lake Forest, Irvine and Newport Beach on October 5, 2020, and Santa Ana in December 2021 in the “Versailles on the Lake” apartment community. The "Lake Forest Keys” community bought the original swans about eight to ten years ago and since then there have been many births and gaggles from the original couple" according to a report in the Orange County Register. Black swans formerly resided in the vicinity of Lake Junaluska, a large lake in Waynesville, North Carolina.

 

Mainland China

Black swans can also be found in mainland China. In 2018, one group of swans was introduced to the Shenzhen University campus on an artificial lake in Guangdong Province.

 

Behaviour

Diet and feeding

The black swan is almost exclusively herbivorous, and while there is some regional and seasonal variation, the diet is generally dominated by aquatic and marshland plants. In New South Wales the leaf of reedmace (genus Typha) is the most important food of birds in wetlands, followed by submerged algae and aquatic plants such as Vallisneria. In Queensland, aquatic plants such as Potamogeton, stoneworts, and algae are the dominant foods. The exact composition varies with water level; in flood situations where normal foods are out of reach black swans will feed on pasture plants on shore. The black swan feeds in a similar manner to other swans. When feeding in shallow water it will dip its head and neck under the water and it is able to keep its head flat against the bottom while keeping its body horizontal. In deeper water the swan up-ends to reach lower. Black swans are also able to filter feed at the water's surface.

 

Nesting and reproduction

Like other swans, the black swan is largely monogamous, pairing for life (about 6% divorce rate). Recent studies have shown that around a third of all broods exhibit extra-pair paternity. An estimated one-quarter of all pairings are homosexual, mostly between males. They steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after she lays the eggs.

 

Generally, black swans in the Southern hemisphere nest in the wetter winter months (February to September), occasionally in large colonies. A black swan nest is essentially a large heap or mound of reeds, grasses and weeds between 1 and 1.5 metres (3–4+1⁄2 feet) in diameter and up to 1 metre high, in shallow water or on islands. A nest is reused every year, restored or rebuilt as needed. Both parents share the care of the nest. A typical clutch contains four to eight greenish-white eggs that are incubated for about 35–40 days. Incubation begins after the laying of the last egg, to synchronise the hatching of the chicks. Prior to the commencement of incubation the parent will sit over the eggs without actually warming them. Both sexes incubate the eggs, with the female incubating at night. The change over between incubation periods is marked by ritualised displays by both sexes. If eggs accidentally roll out of the nest both sexes will retrieve the egg using the neck (in other swan species only the female performs this feat). Like all swans, black swans will aggressively defend their nests with their wings and beaks. After hatching, the cygnets are tended by the parents for about nine months until fledging. Cygnets may ride on their parent's back for longer trips into deeper water, but black swans undertake this behaviour less frequently than mute and black-necked swans.

 

Conservation

The black swan is protected in New South Wales, Australia under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 (s.5). The Black Swan is fully protected in all states and territories of Australia and must not be shot. It is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

 

Australian culture

Main article: Black swan emblems and popular culture

The black swan was a literary or artistic image among Europeans even before their arrival in Australia. Cultural reference has been based on symbolic contrast and as a distinctive motif.

 

The black swan's role in Australian heraldry and culture extends to the first founding of the colonies in the eighteenth century. It has often been equated with antipodean identity, the contrast to the white swan of the northern hemisphere indicating 'Australianness'. The black swan is featured on the flag, and is both the state bird and state emblem of Western Australia; it also appears in the Coat of Arms and other iconography of the state's institutions. The Black Swan was the sole postage stamp design of Western Australia from 1854 to 1902.

 

Indigenous Australia

The Noongar People of the South-West of Australia call the black swan Kooldjak along the West and South-West coast, Gooldjak in the South East and it is sometimes referred to as maali in language schools.

Mumma , Please come soon...We are Hungary .Its a Mother's Day tribute!

 

to day is a great day for our fostering mother

to day is Mothers Day

on this day i was lucky to shoot a series of photos of three kids of parakeets ,who were waiting for food they are fully dependent on their mother for food,shelter, protection ,

we respect all life giving mothers to day

to submit our all well wishes by virtue of this we all are here

god bless every mother of every species

Rakesh Sharma

 

Please see this live video on the rose ring necked parakeets and fostering to their offspring by crop milk and idle parental care exhibition behavior to-above photo series in my you tube account named as desertsanddunes

the link is given below

www.youtube.com/watch?v=tNEtohJC1yA

flickriver.com/photos/javier1949/popular-interesting/

  

Palacio de Exposiciones y Congresos Ciudad de Oviedo (Buenavista)

C/ Arturo Álvarez Buylla s/n Oviedo, Asturias

Arquitecto: Santiago Calatrava. Concurso de proyectos 2000, obras 2003-2011.

Diseñado por el premio Príncipe de Asturias de las Artes en 1999, el arquitecto Santiago Calatrava, por su tamaño, envergadura y situación es uno de los edificios más singulares y controvertidos de la ciudad de Oviedo. Popularmente se le conoce como “el Cangrejo”. Se levanta en Buenavista, en el lugar que ocupó el antiguo estadio de fútbol Carlos Tartiere.

Su polémica construcción se inicia en 2003 con el derribo del antiguo estadio de fútbol, en 2007 se inauguran las dependencias administrativas del Principado de Asturias, y en 2008 el centro comercial. En 2010 se retoman las obras después de una paralización de cerca de 2 años, y en 2011 se inaugura el Palacio de Congresos.

El conjunto está constituido por un edificio central, de planta elíptica destinado a Palacio de Congresos y Exposiciones, otro perimetral en forma de U dedicado a hotel, oficinas y dependencias administrativas del Principado, y un basamento o plataforma subterránea dedicada a zona comercial que ocupa tres plantas, denominada Espacio Buenavista, con una superficie de 52.000 metros cuadrados, además de aparcamiento para más de 1.800 vehículos. Delante de la fachada principal se sitúa una zona verde con parque infantil.

El edificio central, dedicado al Palacio, se distribuye en tres niveles: en el inferior se encuentran el hall principal y el área expositiva, una sala de reuniones con un aforo para 217 personas y una sala multiusos; la planta intermedia da acceso al Auditorio que dispone de 2.144 butacas y está cubierto por una cúpula de acero blanco de 45 m de altura; finalmente en la tercera planta se organizan las 12 salas de reuniones, de las cuales 8 son modulares. Inicialmente cuenta con una cubierta móvil cuyos elementos pueden inclinarse permitiendo una mayor entrada de luz y modificando el aspecto exterior.

 

El edificio en "U", que rodea perimetralmente, por las fachadas laterales y trasera, el Palacio de Congresos, se destina a hotel, con 150 habitaciones, y a oficinas de las consejerías del Principado, con una superficie de 11.196 metros cuadrados. Se eleva unos 30 metros del suelo a partir de un complejo diseño de pórticos de acero que se construyen pieza a pieza, como un mecano, en forma de árbol, cada una compuesta a su vez por 6 subestructuras en voladizo, con los ascensores en el núcleo central.

The black swan (Cygnus atratus) is a large waterbird, a species of swan which breeds mainly in the southeast and southwest regions of Australia. Within Australia, the black swan is nomadic, with erratic migration patterns dependent on climatic conditions. It is a large bird with black plumage and a red bill. It is a monogamous breeder, with both partners sharing incubation and cygnet-rearing duties.

 

The black swan was introduced to various countries as an ornamental bird in the 1800s, but has managed to escape and form stable populations. Described scientifically by English naturalist John Latham in 1790, the black swan was formerly placed into a monotypic genus, Chenopis. Black swans can be found singly, or in loose companies numbering into the hundreds or even thousands. It is a popular bird in zoological gardens and bird collections, and escapees are sometimes seen outside their natural range.

 

This bird is a regional symbol of both Western Australia, where it is native, and the English town of Dawlish, where it is an introduced species.

 

Description

Black swans are black-feathered birds, with white flight feathers. The bill is bright red, with a pale bar and tip; and legs and feet are greyish-black. Cobs (males) are slightly larger than pens (females), with a longer and straighter bill. Cygnets (immature birds) are a greyish-brown with pale-edged feathers.

 

Mature black swans measure between 110 and 142 centimetres (43 and 56 in) in length and weigh 3.7–9 kilograms (8.2–19.8 lb). Their wing span is between 1.6 and 2 metres (5.2 and 6.6 ft). The neck is long (relatively the longest neck among the swans) and curved in an "S"-shape.

 

The black swan utters a musical and far reaching bugle-like sound, called either on the water or in flight, as well as a range of softer crooning notes. It can also whistle, especially when disturbed while breeding and nesting.

 

When swimming, black swans hold their necks arched or erect and often carry their feathers or wings raised in an aggressive display. In flight, a wedge of black swans will form as a line or a V, with the individual birds flying strongly with undulating long necks, making whistling sounds with their wings and baying, bugling or trumpeting calls.

  

Black swan skeleton (Museum of Osteology)

The black swan is unlike any other Australian bird, although in poor light and at long range it may be confused with a magpie goose in flight. However, the black swan can be distinguished by its much longer neck and slower wing beat.

 

One captive population of black swans in Lakeland, Florida has produced a few individuals which are a light mottled grey colour instead of black. White black swans are also known to exist; these individuals, which are leucistic, are believed to occur rarely in the wild.

 

Distribution

The black swan is common in the wetlands of southwestern and eastern Australia and adjacent coastal islands. In the south west its range encompasses an area between North West Cape, Cape Leeuwin and Eucla; while in the east it covers a large region bounded by the Atherton Tableland, the Eyre Peninsula and Tasmania, with the Murray Darling Basin supporting very large populations of black swans. It is uncommon in central and northern Australia.

 

The black swan's preferred habitat extends across fresh, brackish and salt water lakes, swamps and rivers with underwater and emergent vegetation for food and nesting materials. It also favors permanent wetlands, including ornamental lakes, but can also be found in flooded pastures and tidal mudflats, and occasionally on the open sea near islands or the shore.

 

The black swan was once thought to be sedentary, but is now known to be highly nomadic. There is no set migratory pattern, but rather opportunistic responses to either rainfall or drought. In high rainfall years, emigration occurs from the south west and south east into the interior, with a reverse migration to these heartlands in drier years. When rain does fall in the arid central regions, black swans will migrate to these areas to nest and raise their young. However, should dry conditions return before the young have been raised, the adult birds will abandon the nests and their eggs or cygnets and return to wetter areas.

 

The black swan, like many other water fowl, loses all its flight feathers at once when it moults after breeding and is unable to fly for about a month. During this time it will usually settle on large, open waters for safety.

 

The species has a large range, with figures between 1 and 10 million km2 given as the extent of occurrence. The current global population is estimated to be up to 500,000 individuals. No threat of extinction or significant decline in population has been identified with this numerous and widespread bird.

 

Black swans were first seen by Europeans in 1697, when Willem de Vlamingh's expedition explored the Swan River, Western Australia.

 

Introduced populations

Before the arrival of the Māori in New Zealand, a related species of swan known as the New Zealand swan had developed there, but was apparently hunted to extinction. In 1864, the Australian black swan was introduced to New Zealand as an ornamental waterfowl and populations are now common on larger coastal or inland lakes, especially Rotorua Lakes, Lake Wairarapa, Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora, and the Chatham Islands. Black swans have also naturally flown to New Zealand, leading scientists to consider them a native rather than exotic species, although the present population appears to be largely descended from deliberate introductions.

 

United Kingdom

The black swan is also very popular as an ornamental waterbird in western Europe, especially Britain, and escapees are commonly reported. As yet, the population in Britain is not considered to be self-sustaining and so the species is not afforded admission to the official British List, but the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust have recorded a maximum of nine breeding pairs in the UK in 2001, with an estimate of 43 feral birds in 2003–2004. A small population of black swans exists on the River Thames at Marlow, on the brook running through the small town of Dawlish in Devon, near the River Itchen, Hampshire, and the River Tees near Stockton on Tees. The Dawlish population is so well associated with the town that the bird has been the town's emblem for forty years.

 

Japan

There are also wild populations in Japan, having originally been imported during 1950–1960.

 

United States

Black swans have been reported in Florida, but there is no evidence that they are breeding; persistent sightings may be due to continual releases or escapes. Orange County, California reported black swans in Lake Forest, Irvine and Newport Beach on October 5, 2020, and Santa Ana in December 2021 in the “Versailles on the Lake” apartment community. The "Lake Forest Keys” community bought the original swans about eight to ten years ago and since then there have been many births and gaggles from the original couple" according to a report in the Orange County Register. Black swans formerly resided in the vicinity of Lake Junaluska, a large lake in Waynesville, North Carolina.

 

Mainland China

Black swans can also be found in mainland China. In 2018, one group of swans was introduced to the Shenzhen University campus on an artificial lake in Guangdong Province.

 

Behaviour

Diet and feeding

The black swan is almost exclusively herbivorous, and while there is some regional and seasonal variation, the diet is generally dominated by aquatic and marshland plants. In New South Wales the leaf of reedmace (genus Typha) is the most important food of birds in wetlands, followed by submerged algae and aquatic plants such as Vallisneria. In Queensland, aquatic plants such as Potamogeton, stoneworts, and algae are the dominant foods. The exact composition varies with water level; in flood situations where normal foods are out of reach black swans will feed on pasture plants on shore. The black swan feeds in a similar manner to other swans. When feeding in shallow water it will dip its head and neck under the water and it is able to keep its head flat against the bottom while keeping its body horizontal. In deeper water the swan up-ends to reach lower. Black swans are also able to filter feed at the water's surface.

 

Nesting and reproduction

Like other swans, the black swan is largely monogamous, pairing for life (about 6% divorce rate). Recent studies have shown that around a third of all broods exhibit extra-pair paternity. An estimated one-quarter of all pairings are homosexual, mostly between males. They steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after she lays the eggs.

 

Generally, black swans in the Southern hemisphere nest in the wetter winter months (February to September), occasionally in large colonies. A black swan nest is essentially a large heap or mound of reeds, grasses and weeds between 1 and 1.5 metres (3–4+1⁄2 feet) in diameter and up to 1 metre high, in shallow water or on islands. A nest is reused every year, restored or rebuilt as needed. Both parents share the care of the nest. A typical clutch contains four to eight greenish-white eggs that are incubated for about 35–40 days. Incubation begins after the laying of the last egg, to synchronise the hatching of the chicks. Prior to the commencement of incubation the parent will sit over the eggs without actually warming them. Both sexes incubate the eggs, with the female incubating at night. The change over between incubation periods is marked by ritualised displays by both sexes. If eggs accidentally roll out of the nest both sexes will retrieve the egg using the neck (in other swan species only the female performs this feat). Like all swans, black swans will aggressively defend their nests with their wings and beaks. After hatching, the cygnets are tended by the parents for about nine months until fledging. Cygnets may ride on their parent's back for longer trips into deeper water, but black swans undertake this behaviour less frequently than mute and black-necked swans.

 

Conservation

The black swan is protected in New South Wales, Australia under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 (s.5). The Black Swan is fully protected in all states and territories of Australia and must not be shot. It is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

 

Australian culture

Main article: Black swan emblems and popular culture

The black swan was a literary or artistic image among Europeans even before their arrival in Australia. Cultural reference has been based on symbolic contrast and as a distinctive motif.

 

The black swan's role in Australian heraldry and culture extends to the first founding of the colonies in the eighteenth century. It has often been equated with antipodean identity, the contrast to the white swan of the northern hemisphere indicating 'Australianness'. The black swan is featured on the flag, and is both the state bird and state emblem of Western Australia; it also appears in the Coat of Arms and other iconography of the state's institutions. The Black Swan was the sole postage stamp design of Western Australia from 1854 to 1902.

 

Indigenous Australia

The Noongar People of the South-West of Australia call the black swan Kooldjak along the West and South-West coast, Gooldjak in the South East and it is sometimes referred to as maali in language schools.

#2896 - 2015 Day 339: One psychological concept that interests me with relation to photography is mood dependency of memory and of seeing.

 

When a memory is encoded, emotions are stored with it and the strength of that emotion can affect the strength of the memory and our ability and willingness to retrieve it. The memories we most easily retrieve are often those that match our current mood state - mood dependent memory.

 

Mood also influences what we see and the meanings we attach, such as the words and their mood-associations we might notice in a Stroop test. For example we might see more 'negative' words when we are unhappy.

 

I noticed this icon on a wall (I think we know the purpose of the icon). I thought it (he) looked depressed, by way of slumped shoulders. Would I have thought that had I not been in the middle of a dreadful December shopping experience? Probably not ...

 

When commenters here ask whether we are OK when we post a "depressing" image, there is certainly something, both in the photographer and the viewer ...

Puri is a city and a Municipality of Odisha. It is the district headquarters of Puri district, Odisha, eastern India. It is situated on the Bay of Bengal, 60 kilometres south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as Jagannath Puri after the 12th-century Jagannath Temple located in the city. It is one of the original Char Dham pilgrimage sites for Indian Hindus.

 

Puri was known by several names from the ancient times to the present, and locally called as Badadeula. Puri and the Jagannath Temple were invaded 18 times by Hindu and Muslim rulers, starting from the 4th century to the start of the 19th century with the objective of looting the treasures of the temple. Odisha, including Puri and its temple, were under the British Raj from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947. Even though princely states do not exist in independent India, the heirs of the Gajapati Dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple. The temple town has many Hindu religious maths or monasteries.

 

The economy of Puri town is dependent on the religious importance of the Jagannath Temple to the extent of nearly 80%. The festivals which contribute to the economy are the 24 held every year in the temple complex, including 13 major festivals; Ratha Yatra and its related festivals are the most important which are attended by millions of people every year. Sand art and applique art are some of the important crafts of the city. Puri is one of the 12 heritage cities chosen by the Government of India for holistic development.

 

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

GEOGRAPHY

Puri, located on the east coast of India on the Bay of Bengal, is in the center of the district of the same name. It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the south east, the Mauza Sipaurubilla on the west, Mauz Gopinathpur in the north and Mauza Balukhand in the east. It is within the 67 kilometres coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between Chilika Lake and the south of Puri city. However, the administrative jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of 16.3268 square kilometres spread over 30 wards, which includes a shore line of 5 kilometres.

 

Puri is in the coastal delta of the Mahanadi River on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. In the ancient days it was near to Sisupalgarh (Ashokan Tosali) when the land was drained by a tributary of the River Bhargavi, a branch of the Mahanadi River, which underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the estuary, and formed many sand hills. These sand hills could not be "cut through" by the streams. Because of the sand hills, the Bhargavi River flowing to the south of Puri, moved away towards the Chilika Lake. This shift also resulted in the creation of two lagoons known as Sar and Samang on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively. Sar lagoon has a length of 8.0 km in an east-west direction and has a width of 3.2 km in north-south direction. The river estuary has a shallow depth of 1.5 m only and the process of siltation is continuing. According to a 15th-century chronicle the stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or Neelachal was used as the foundation or high plinth of the present temple which was then known as Purushottama, the Supreme Being. A 16th century chronicle attributes filling up of the bed of the river which flowed through the present Grand Road, during the reign of King Narasimha II (1278–1308).

 

CLIMATE

According to the Köppen and Geiger the climate of Puri is classified Aw. The city has moderate and tropical climate. Humidity is fairly high throughout the year. The temperature during summer touches a maximum of 36 °C and during winter it is 17 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1,337 millimetres and the average annual temperature is 26.9 °C.

 

HISTORY

NAMES IN HISTORY

Puri, the holy land of Lord Jaganath, also known popularly as Badadeula in local usage, has many ancient names in the Hindu scriptures such as the Rigveda, Matsya purana, Brahma Purana, Narada Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Kapila samhita and Niladrimahodaya. In the Rigveda, in particular, it is mentioned as a place called Purushamandama-grama meaning the place where the Creator deity of the world – Supreme Divinity deified on altar or mandapa was venerated near the coast and prayers offered with vedic hymns. Over time the name got changed to Purushottama Puri and further shortened to Puri and the Purusha became Jagannatha. Close to this place sages like Bhrigu, Atri and Markandeya had their hermitage. Its name is mentioned, conforming to the deity worshipped, as Srikshetra, Purusottama Dhāma, Purusottama Kshetra, Purusottama Puri and Jagannath Puri. Puri is however, a common usage now. It is also known the geographical features of its siting as Shankhakshetra (layout of the town is in the form of a conch shell.), Neelāchala ("blue mountain" a terminology used to name very large sand lagoon over which the temple was built but this name is not in vogue), Neelāchalakshetra, Neelādri, The word 'Puri' in Sanskrit means "town", or 'city' and is cognate with polis in Greek.

 

Another ancient name is Charita as identified by Cunningham which was later spelled as Che-li-ta-lo by Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang.When the present temple was built by the Ganga king Chodangadev in the 11th and 12th centuries it was called Purushottamkshetra. However, the Moghuls, the Marathas and early British rulers called it Purushottama-chhatar or just Chhatar. In Akbar's Ain-i-Akbari and subsequent Muslim historical records it was known as Purushottama. In the Sanskrit drama authored by Murari Mishra in the 8th century it is referred as Purushottama only. It was only after twelfth century Puri came to be known by the shortened form of Jagannatha Puri, named after the deity or in a short form as Puri. In some records pertaining to the British rule, the word 'Jagannath' was used for Puri. It is the only shrine in India, where Radha, along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga, Bhudevi, Sati, Parvati, and Shakti abodes with Krishna, also known as Jagannath.

 

ANCIENT PERIOD

According to the chronicle Madala Panji, in 318 the priests and servitors of the temple spirited away the idols to escape the wrath of the Rashtrakuta King Rakatavahu. The temple's ancient historical records also finds mention in the Brahma Purana and Skanda Purana as having been built by the king Indradyumna of Ujjayani.

 

According to W.J. Wilkinson, in Puri, Buddhism was once a well established practice but later Buddhists were persecuted and Brahmanism became the order of the religious practice in the town; the Buddha deity in now worshipped by the Hindus as Jagannatha. It is also said that some relics of Buddha were placed inside the idol of Jagannath which the Brahmins claimed were the bones of Krishna. Even during Ashoka’s reign in 240 BC Odisha was a Buddhist center and that a tribe known as Lohabahu (barbarians from outside Odisha) converted to Buddhism and built a temple with an idol of Buddha which is now worshipped as Jagannatha. It is also said that Lohabahu deposited some Buddha relics in the precincts of the temple.

 

Construction of the Jagannatha Temple started in 1136 and completed towards the later part of the 12th century. The King of the Ganga dynasty, Anangabhima dedicated his kingdom to the God, then known as the Purushottam-Jagannatha and resolved that from then on he and his descendants would rule under "divine order as Jagannatha's sons and vassals". Even though princely states do not exist in independent India, the heirs of the Gajapati dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple; the king formally sweeps the road in front of the chariots before the start of the Rathayatra.

 

MEDIEVAL AND EARLY MODERN PERIODS

History of the temple is the history of the town of Puri, which was invaded 18 times during its history to plunder the treasures of the Jagannath Puri temple. The first invasion was in the 8th century by Rastrakuta king Govinda-III (AD 798–814) and the last was in 1881 by the followers of Alekh Religion who did not recognize Jagannath worship. In between, from the 1205 onward there were many invasions of the city and its temple by Muslims of the Afghans and Moghuls descent, known as Yavanas or foreigners; they had mounted attacks to ransack the wealth of the temple rather than for religious reasons. In most of these invasions the idols were taken to safe places by the priests and the servitors of the temple. Destruction of the temple was prevented by timely resistance or surrender by the kings of the region. However, the treasures of the temple were repeatedly looted. Puri is the site of the Govardhana matha, one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankaracharya, when he visited Puri in 810 and since then it has become an important dham (divine centre) for the Hindus; the others being those at Sringeri, Dwaraka and Jyotirmath. The matha is headed by Jagatguru Shankarachrya. The significance of the four dhams is that the Lord Vishnu takes his dinner at Puri, has his bath at Rameshwaram, spends the night at Dwarka and does penance at Badrinath.

 

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Bengal who established the Bhakti movements of India in the sixteenth century, now known by the name the Hare Krishna movement, spent many years as a devotee of Jagannatha at Puri; he is said to have merged his "corporal self" with the deity. There is also a matha of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu here.

 

In the 17th century for the sailors sailing on the east coast of India, the landmark was the temple located in a plaza in the centre of the town which they called the "White Pagoda" while the Konark Sun Temple, 60 kilometres away to the east of Puri, was known as the "Black Pagoda".

 

The iconographic representation of the images in the Jagannath temple are believed to be the forms derived from the worship made by the tribal groups of Sabaras belonging to northern Odisha. These images are replaced at regular intervals as the wood deteriorates. This replacement is a special event carried out ritulistically by special group of carpenters.

 

The town has many Mathas (Monasteries of the various Hindu sects). Among the important mathas is the Emar Matha founded by the Tamil Vaishnav Saint Ramanujacharya in the 12th century AD. At present this matha is located in front of Simhadvara across the eastern corner of the Jagannath Temple is reported to have been built in the 16th century during the reign of Suryavamsi Gajapati. The matha was in the news recently for the large cache of 522 silver slabs unearthded from a closed room.

 

The British conquered Orissa in 1803 and recognizing the importance of the Jagannatha Temple in the life of the people of the state they initially placed an official to look after the temple's affairs and later declared it a district with the same name.

 

MODERN HISTORY

In 1906, Sri Yukteswar an exponent of Kriya Yoga, a resident of Puri, established an ashram in the sea-side town of Puri, naming it "Kararashram" as a spiritual training center. He died on 9 March 1936 and his body is buried in the garden of the ashram.

 

The city is the site of the former summer residence of British Raj built in 1913–14 during the era of governors, the Raj Bhavan.

 

For the people of Puri Lord Jagannath, visualized as Lord Krishna, is synonymous with their city. They believe that the Jagannatha looks after the welfare of the state. However, after the incident of the partial collapse of the Jagannatha Temple, the Amalaka part of the tower on 14 June 1990 people became apprehensive and thought it was not a good omen for the welfare of the State of Odisha. The replacement of the fallen stone by another of the same size and weight (seven tons) had to be done only in the an early morning hours after the gods had woken up after a good nights sleep which was done on 28 February 1991.

 

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of the Indian Government. It is one of 12 the heritage cities chosen with "focus on holistic development" to be implemented in 27 months by end of March 2017.

 

Non-Hindus are not permitted to enter the shrines but are allowed to view the temple and the proceedings from the roof of the Raghunandan library within the precincts of the temple for a small donation.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2001 India census, Puri city, an urban Agglomeration governed by Municipal Corporation in Orissa state, had a population of 157,610 which increased to 200,564 in 2011. Males, 104,086, females, 96,478, children under 6 years of age, 18,471. The sex ratio is 927 females to 1000 males. Puri has an average literacy rate of 88.03 percent (91.38 percent males and 84.43 percent females). Religion-wise data is not reported.

 

ECONOMY

The economy of Puri is dependent on tourism to the extent of about 80%. The temple is the focal point of the entire area of the town and provides major employment to the people of the town. Agricultural production of rice, ghee, vegetables and so forth of the region meets the huge requirements of the temple, with many settlements aroiund the town exclusively catering to the other religious paraphernalia of the temple. The temple administration employs 6,000 men to perform the rituals. The temple also provides economic sustenance to 20,000 people belonging to 36 orders and 97 classes. The kitchen of the temple which is said to be the largest in the world employs 400 cooks.

 

CITY MANAGEMENT AND GOVERNANCE

Puri Municipality, Puri Konark Development Authority, Public Health Engineering Organisastion, Orissa Water Supply Sewerage Board are some of the principal organizations that are devolved with the responsibility of providing for all the urban needs of civic amenities such as water supply, sewerage, waste management, street lighting, and infrastructure of roads. The major activity which puts maximum presuure on these organizations is the annual event of the Ratha Yatra held for 10 days during July when more than a million people attend the grand event. This event involves to a very large extent the development activities such as infrastructure and amenities to the pilgrims, apart from security to the pilgrims.

 

The civic administration of Puri is the responsibility of the Puri Municipality which came into existence in 1864 in the name of Puri Improvement Trust which got converted into Puri Municipality in 1881. After India's independence in 1947, Orissa Municipal Act-1950 was promulgated entrusting the administration of the city to the Puri Municipality. This body is represented by elected representative with a Chairperson and councilors representing the 30 wards within the municipal limits.

 

LANDMARKS

JAGANNATH TEMPLE AT PURI

The Temple of Jagannath at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples built in the Kalinga style of architecture, in respect of its plan, front view and structural detailing. It is one of the Pancharatha (Five chariots) type consisting of two anurathas, two konakas and one ratha with well-developed pagas. Vimana or Deula is the sanctum sanctorum where the triad (three) deities are deified on the ratnavedi (Throne of Pearls), and over which is the temple tower, known as the rekha deula; the latter is built over a rectangular base of the pidha temples as its roof is made up of pidhas that are sequentially arranged horizontal platforms built in descending order forming a pyramidal shape. The mandapa in front of the sanctum sanctorum is known as Jagamohana where devotees assemble to offer worship. The temple tower with a spire rises to a height of 58 m in height and a flag is unfurled above it fixed over a wheel (chakra). Within the temple complex is the Nata Mandir, a large hall where Garuda stamba (pillar). Chaitanya Mahaprabhu used to stand here and pray. In the interior of the Bhoga Mantap, adjoining the Nata mandir, there is profusion of decorations of sculptures and paintings which narrate the story of Lord Krishna. The temple is built on an elevated platform (of about 39,000 m2 area), 20 ft above the adjoining area. The temple rises to a height of 214 ft above the road level. The temple complex covers an area of 4,3 ha. There is double walled enclosure, rectangular in shape (rising to a height of 20 ft) surrounding the temple complex of which the outer wall is known as Meghanada Prachira, measuring 200 by 192 metres. The inner walled enclosure, known as Kurmabedha. measures 126m x 95m. There are four entry gates (in four cardinal directions to the temple located at the center of the walls in the four directions of the outer circle. These are: the eastern gate called Singhadwara (Lions Gate), the southern gate known as Ashwa Dwara (Horse Gate), the western gate called the Vyaghra Dwara (Tigers Gate) or the Khanja Gate, and the northern gate called the Hathi Dwara or (elephant gate). The four gates symbolize the four fundamental principles of Dharma (right conduct), Jnana (knowledge), Vairagya (renunciation) and Aishwarya (prosperity). The gates are crowned with pyramid shapes structures. There is stone pillar in front of the Singhadwara called the Aruna Stambha {Solar Pillar}, 11 metres in height with 16 faces, made of chlorite stone, at the top of which is mounted an elegant statue of Arun (Sun) in a prayer mode. This pillar was shifted from the Konarak Sun temple. All the gates are decorated with guardian statues in the form of lion, horse mounted men, tigers and elephants in the name and order of the gates. A pillar made of fossilized wood is used for placing lamps as offering. The Lion Gate (Singhadwara) is the main gate to the temple, which guarded by two guardian deities Jaya and Vijaya. The main gates is ascended through 22 steps known as Baisi Pahaca which are revered as it is said to possess "spiritual animation". Children are made to roll down these steps from top to bottom to bring them spiritual happiness. After entering the temple on the left hand side there is huge kitchen where food is prepared in hygienic conditions in huge quantities that it is termed as "the biggest hotel of the world".

 

The legend says that King Indradyumma was directed by Lord Jagannath in a dream to build a temple for him and he built it as directed. However, according to historical records the temple was started some time during the 12th century by King Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. It was however completed by his descendant, Anangabhima Deva, in the 12th century. The wooden images of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra were then deified here. The temple was under the control of the Hindu rulers up to 1558. Then, when Orissa was occupied by the Afghan Nawab of Bengal, it was brought under the control of the Afghan General Kalapahad. Following the defeat of the Afghan king by Raja Mansingh, the General of Mughal emperor Akbar, the temple became a part of the Mughal empire till 1751 AD. Subsequently it was under the control of the Marathas till 1803. Then, when British Raj took over Orissa, the Puri Raja was entrusted with its to management until 1947.

 

The triad of images in the temple are of Jagannatha, personifying Lord Krishna, Balabhadra, his older brother, and Subhadra his younger sister, which are made of wood (neem) in an unfinished form. The stumps of wood which form the images of the brothers have human arms and that of Subhadra does not have any arms. The heads are large and un-carved and are painted. The faces are made distinct with the large circular shaped eyes.

 

THE PANCHA TIRTHA OF PURI

Hindus consider it essential to bathe in the Pancha Tirtha or the five sacred bathing spots of Puri, India, to complete a pilgrimage to Puri. The five sacred water bodies are the Indradyumana Tank, the Rohini Kunda, the Markandeya Tank, Swetaganga Tank, and the The Sea also called the Mahodadhi is considered a sacred bathing spot in the Swargadwar area. These tanks have perennial sources of supply in the form of rain water and ground water.

 

GUNDICHA TEMPLE

Known as the Garden House of Jagannath, the Gundicha temple stands in the centre of a beautiful garden, surrounded by compound walls on all sides. It lies at a distance of about 3 kilometres to the north east of the Jagannath Temple. The two temples are located at the two ends of the Bada Danda (Grand Avenue) which is the pathway for the Rath Yatra. According to a legend, Gundicha was the wife of King Indradyumna who originally built the Jagannath temple.

 

The temple is built using light-grey sandstone and architecturally, it exemplifies typical Kalinga temple architecture in the Deula style. The complex comprises four components: vimana (tower structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), nata-mandapa (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings). There is also a kitchen connected by a small passage. The temple is set within a garden, and is known as "God's Summer Garden Retreat" or garden house of Jagannath. The entire complex, including garden, is surrounded by a wall which measures 131 m × 98 m with height of 6.1 m.

 

Except for the 9-day Rath Yatra when triad images are worshipped in Gundicha Temple, the rest of the year it remains unoccupied. Tourists can visit the temple after paying an entry fee. Foreigners (prohibited entry in the main temple) are allowed inside this temple during this period. The temple is under the Jagannath Temple Administration, Puri – the governing body of the main temple. A small band of servitors maintain the temple.

 

SWARGADWAR

Swargadwar is the name given to the cremation ground or burning ghat which is located on the shores of the sea were thousands of dead bodies of Hindus are brought from faraway places to cremate. It is a belief that the Chitanya Mahaparabhu disppaeread from this Swargadwar about 500 years back.

 

BEACH

The beach at Puri known as the "Ballighai beach} is 8 km away at the mouth of Nunai River from the town and is fringed by casurian trees. It has golden yellow sand and has pleasant sunshine. Sunrise and sunset are pleasant scenic attractions here. Waves break in at the beach which is long and wide.

 

DISTRICT MUSEUM

The Puri district museum is located on the station road where the exhibits are of different types of garments worn by Lord Jagannath, local sculptures, patachitra (traditional, cloth-based scroll painting) and ancient Palm-leaf manuscripts and local craft work.

 

RAGHUNANDANA LIBRARY

Raghunandana Library is located in the Emmra matha complex (opposite Simhadwara or Lion gate, the main entrance gate). The Jagannatha Aitihasika Gavesana Samiti (Jagannatha Historical Center) is also located here. The library contains ancient palm leaf manuscripts of Jagannatha, His cult and the history of the city. From the roof of the library one gets a picturesque view of the temple complex.

 

FESTIVALS OF PURI

Puri witnesses 24 festivals every year, of which 13 are major festivals. The most important of these is the Rath Yatra or the Car festival held in the month June–July which is attended by more than 1 million people.

 

RATH YATRA AT PURI

The Jagannath triad are usually worshiped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of Asadha (Rainy Season of Orissa, usually falling in month of June or July), they are brought out onto the Bada Danda (main street of Puri) and travel 3 kilometrer to the Shri Gundicha Temple, in huge chariots (ratha), allowing the public to have darśana (Holy view). This festival is known as Rath Yatra, meaning the journey (yatra) of the chariots (ratha). The yatra starts, according to Hindu calendar Asadha Sukla Dwitiya )the second day of bright fortnight of Asadha (June–July) every year.

 

Historically, the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Rath Yatra at the completion of the great temple around 1150 AD. This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early. In his own account of 1321, Odoric reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the King and Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.

 

The Rathas are huge wheeled wooden structures, which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees. The chariot for Jagannath is about 14 m high and 35 feet square and takes about 2 months to construct. Th chariot is mounted with 16 wheels, each of 2.1 m diameter. The carvings in the front of the chariot has four wooden horses drawn by Maruti. On its other three faces the wooden carvings are Rama, Surya and Vishnu. The chariot is known as Nandi Ghosha. The roof of the chariot is covered with yellow and golden coloured cloth. The next chariot is that of Balabhadra which is 13 m in height fitted with 14 wheels. The chariot is carved with Satyaki as the charioteer. The carvings on this chariot also include images of Narasimha and Rudra as Jagannath's companions. The next chariot in the order is that of Subhadra, which is 13 m in height supported on 12 wheels, roof covered in black and red colour cloth and the chariot is known as Darpa-Dalaan. The charioteer carved is Arjuna. Other images carved on the chariot are that of Vana Durga, Tara Devi and Chandi Devi. The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels, the wood-carved charioteer and horses, and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne. The huge chariots of Jagannath pulled during Rath Yatra is the etymological origin of the English word Juggernaut. The Ratha-Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra and Ghosha yatra

 

CHHERA PAHARA

The Chhera Pahara is a significant ritual associated with the Ratha-Yatra. During the festival, the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots in the Chera Pahara (sweeping with water) ritual. The Gajapati King cleanses the road before the chariots with a gold-handled broom and sprinkles sandalwood water and powder with utmost devotion. As per the custom, although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in the Kalingan kingdom, he still renders the menial service to Jagannath. This ritual signified that under the lordship of Jagannath, there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign Gajapati King and the most humble devotee.

 

CHADAN YATRA

In Akshaya Tritiya every year the Chandan Yatra festival marks the commencement of the construction of the Chariots of the Rath Yatra. It also marks the celebration of the Hindu new year.

 

SNANA YATRA

On the Purnima day in the month of Jyestha (June) the triad images of the Jagannath temple are ceremonially bathed and decorated every year on the occasion of Snana Yatra. Water for the bath is taken in 108 pots from the Suna kuan (meaning: "golden well") located near the northern gate of the temple. Water is drawn from this well only once in a year for the sole purpose of this religious bath of the deities. After the bath the triad images are dressed in the fashion of the elephant god, Ganesha. Later during the night the original triad images are taken out in a procession back to the main temple but kept at a place known as Anasara pindi. After this the Jhulana Yatra is when proxy images of the deities are taken out in a grand procession for 21 days, cruised over boats in the Narmada tank.

 

ANAVASARA OR ANASARA

Anasara literally means vacation. Every year, the triad images without the Sudarshan after the holy Snana Yatra are taken to a secret altar named Anavasara Ghar Palso known as "Anasara pindi} where they remain for the next dark fortnight (Krishna paksha). Hence devotees are not allowed to view them. Instead of this devotees go to nearby place Brahmagiri to see their beloved lord in the form of four handed form Alarnath a form of Vishnu. Then people get the first glimpse of lord on the day before Rath Yatra, which is called Navayouvana. It is said that the gods suffer from fever after taking ritual detailed bath and they are treated by the special servants named, Daitapatis for 15 days. Daitapatis perform special niti (rite) known as Netrotchhaba (a rite of painting the eyes of the triad). During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.

 

NAVA KALEVARA

One of the most grandiloquent events associated with the Lord Jagannath, Naba Kalabera takes place when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another lunar month of Aashadha, called Adhika Masa (extra month). This can take place in 8, 12 or even 18 years. Literally meaning the "New Body" (Nava = New, Kalevar = Body), the festival is witnessed by as millions of people and the budget for this event exceeds $500,000. The event involves installation of new images in the temple and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha. The idols that were worshipped in the temple, installed in the year 1996, were replaced by specially made new images made of neem wood during Nabakalebara 2015 ceremony held during July 2015. More than 3 million devotees were expected to visit the temple during the Nabakalebara 2015 held in July.

 

SUNA BESHA

Suna Bhesha also known as Raja or Rajadhiraja bhesha or Raja Bhesha, is an event when the triad images of the Jagannath Temple are adorned with gold jewelry. This event is observed 5 times during a year. It is commonly observed on Magha Purnima (January), Bahuda Ekadashi also known as Asadha Ekadashi (July), Dashahara (Vijyadashami) (October), Karthik Purnima (November), and Pousa Purnima (December). While one such Suna Bhesha event is observed on Bahuda Ekadashi during the Rath Yatra on the chariots placed at the lion's gate or the Singhdwar; the other four Bheshas' are observed inside the temple on the Ratna Singhasana (gem studded altar). On this occasion gold plates are decorated over the hands and feet of Jagannath and Balabhadra; Jagannath is also adorned with a Chakra (disc) made of gold on the right hand while a silver conch adorns the left hand. However, Balabhadra is decorated with a plough made of gold on the left hand while a golden mace adorns his right hand.

 

NILADRI BIJE

Celebrated on Asadha Trayodashi. It marks the end of the 12 days Ratha yatra. The large wooden images of the triad of gods are moved from the chariots and then carried to the sanctum sanctorum, swaying rhythmically, a ritual which is known as pahandi.

 

SAHI YATRA

Considered the world's biggest open-air theatre, the Sahi yatra is an 11 day long traditional cultural theatre festival or folk drama which begins on Ram Navami and ending in Rama avishke (Sanskrit:anointing) every year. The festival includes plays depicting various scenes from the Ramayan. The residents of various localities or Sahis are entrusted the task of performing the drama at the street corners.

  

TRANSPORT

Earlier when roads did not exist people walked or travelled by animal drawn vehicles or carriages along beaten tracks. Up to Calcutta travel was by riverine craft along the Ganges and then by foot or carriages to Puri. It was only during the Maratha rule that the popular Jagannath Sadak (Road) was built around 1790. The East India Company laid the rail track from Calcutta to Puri which became operational in 1898. Puri is now well connected by rail, road and air services. A broad gauge railway line of the South Eastern Railways connects with Puri and Khurda is an important Railway junction. By rail it is about 499 kilometres away from Calcutta and 468 kilometres from Vishakhapatnam. Road network includes NH 203 that links the town with Bhubaneswar, the capital of Odisha which is about 60 kilometres away. NH 203 B connects the town with Satapada via Brahmagiri. Marine drive which is part of NH 203 A connects Puri with Konark. The nearest airport is at Bhubaneswar, about 60 kilometres away from Puri. Puri railway station is among the top hundred booking stations of Indian Railways.

 

ARTS AND CRAFTS

SAND ART

Sand art is a special art form that is created on the beaches of the sea coast of Puri. The art form is attributed to Balaram Das, a poet who lived in the 14th century. He started crafting the sand art forms of the triad deities of the Jagannath Temple at the Puri beach. Now sculptures in sand of various gods and famous people are created by amateur artists which are temporal in nature as they get washed away by waves. This is an art form which has gained international fame in recent years. One of the well known sand artist is Sudarshan Patnaik. He has established the Golden Sand Art Institute in 1995 at the beach to provide training to students interested in this art form.

 

APPLIQUE ART

Applique art work, which is a stitching based craft, unlike embroidery, which was pioneered by the Hatta Maharana of Pipili is widely used in Puri, both for decoration of the deities but also for sale. His family members are employed as darjis or tailors or sebaks by the Maharaja of Puri who prepare articles for decorating the deities in the temple for various festivals and religious ceremonies. These applique works are brightly coloured and patterned fabric in the form of canopies, umbrellas, drapery, carry bags, flags, coberings of dummy horses and cows, and other household textiles which are marketed in Puri. The cloth used are in dark colours of red, black, yellow, green, blue and turquoise blue.

 

CULTURE

Cultural activities, apart from religiuos festivals, held annually are: The Puri Beach Festival held between 5 and 9 November and the Shreeksherta Utsav held from 20 December to 2 January where cultural programmes include unique sand art, display of local and traditional handicrafts and food festival. In addition cultural programmes are held every Saturday for two hours on in second Saturday of the moth at the district Collector's Conference Hall near Sea Beach Polic Station. Apart from Odissi dance, Odiya music, folk dances, and cultural programmes are part of this event. Odishi dance is the cultural heritage of Puri. This dance form originated in Puri in the dances performed Devadasis (Maharis) attached to the Jagannath temple who performed dances in the Natamantapa of the temple to please the deities. Though the devadadsi practice has been discontinued, the dance form has become modern and classical and is widely popular, and many of the Odishi virtuoso artists and gurus (teachers) are from Puri.

 

EDUCATION

SOME OF THE EDUCATIONNAL INSTITUTIONS IN PURI

- Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management

- Gangadhar Mohapatra Law College, established in 1981[84]

- Extension Unit of Regional Research Institute of Homoeopathy; Puri under Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH), New Delhi established in March 2006

- Sri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, established in July 1981

- The Industrial Training Institute, a Premier Technical Institution to provide education in skilled, committed & talented technicians, established in 1966 of the Government of India

 

PURI PEOPLE

Gopabandhu Das

Acharya Harihar

Nilakantha Das

Kelucharan Mohapatra

Pankaj Charan Das

Manasi Pradhan

Raghunath Mohapatra

Sudarshan Patnaik

Biswanath Sahinayak

Rituraj Mohanty

 

WIKIPEDIA

Seagull chicks are dependent on their parents for the first 3 months. By then, the fledglings would be able to feed themselves, although parents may continue to care for fledglings till they are 6 months old. If you live near a beach (or an urbanized area), you will be familiar with the call of a baby seagull, a whiny long sounds that carries far. That sound is sometimes so pitiful and needy, even I feel a desire to feed the baby! To make their parents feed them, they would tap on the red part of the parent’s beak. The parent would then regurgitate a meal for them.Photo taken at the Isle of May, Scotland

  

De Wikipedia:

   

Monasterio de El Escorial

 

El Monasterio de San Lorenzo de El Escorial es un complejo que incluye un palacio real, una basílica, un panteón, una biblioteca y un monasterio. Se encuentra en la localidad de San Lorenzo de El Escorial, en la Comunidad de Madrid, España, y fue construido entre 1563 y 1584.

  

El palacio fue residencia de la Familia Real Española, la basílica es lugar de sepultura de los reyes de España y el monasterio -fundado por monjes jerónimos- está ocupado actualmente por frailes de la Orden de San Agustín. Es una de las más singulares arquitecturas renacentistas de España y de Europa. Situado en San Lorenzo de El Escorial, ocupa una superficie de 33.327 m², sobre la ladera meridional del monte Abantos, a 1028 m. de altitud, en la Sierra de Guadarrama. Está gestionado por Patrimonio Nacional.

Conocido también como Monasterio de San Lorenzo El Real, o, sencillamente, El Escorial, fue ideado en la segunda mitad del siglo XVI por el rey Felipe II y su arquitecto Juan Bautista de Toledo, aunque posteriormente intervinieron Juan de Herrera, Juan de Minjares, Giovanni Battista Castello El Bergamasco y Francisco de Mora. El rey concibió un gran complejo multifuncional, monacal y palaciego que, plasmado por Juan Bautista de Toledo según el paradigma de la Traza Universal, dio origen al estilo herreriano.

  

Fue considerado, desde finales del siglo XVI, la Octava Maravilla del Mundo, tanto por su tamaño y complejidad funcional como por su enorme valor simbólico. Su arquitectura marcó el paso del plateresco renacentista al clasicismo desornamentado. Obra ingente, de gran monumentalidad, es también un receptáculo de las demás artes.

  

Sus pinturas, esculturas, cantorales, pergaminos, ornamentos litúrgicos y demás objetos suntuarios, sacros y áulicos hacen que El Escorial sea también un museo. Su compleja iconografía e iconología ha merecido las más variadas interpretaciones de historiadores, admiradores y críticos. El Escorial es la cristalización de las ideas y de la voluntad de su creador, el rey Felipe II, un príncipe renacentista.

  

Juan de Herrera según una medalla de Jacome da Trezzo, 1578.

1557. Victoria sobre los franceses en la batalla de San Quintín.

1558. El emperador Carlos V muere en Yuste, cambiando en su testamento su deseo de ser enterrado en Granada por la petición a su hijo de crear un edificio ex novo para su tumba, en un lugar diferente a sus padres y abuelos. Felipe II designó una comisión multidisciplinar (médicos, arquitectos, canteros, etc.) para buscar el emplazamiento más idóneo en la Sierra de Guadarrama, el centro geográfico de la Península Ibérica.

1559. El 15 de julio el rey nombró arquitecto real a Juan Bautista de Toledo desde Gante y le encomendó la dirección de todas las obras de la Corona.

1560. La comisión busca alternativas para el emplazamiento del monasterio, barajando entre otras localizaciones Guisando, Aranjuez, Manzanares y la Alberquilla y la Fresneda, en las cercanías de El Escorial. En noviembre se elige el emplazamiento actual, a apenas 50 kilómetros de Madrid, en las inmediaciones de la Fuente de Blasco Sancho, próxima a El Escorial —entonces una pequeña aldea de la Comunidad de Villa y Tierra de Segovia— para construir el edificio. El paraje disponía de abundante caza y leña, aire y aguas de buena calidad y canteras de granito y pizarra en las proximidades.

1561. Este año fue clave para la historia de El Escorial:

El monarca trasladó la capital de España desde Toledo a Madrid.

Encomendó el Monasterio de El Escorial a los monjes jerónimos. Tradicionalmente, la monarquía hispánica había estado muy vinculada a esta Orden religiosa.

Juan Bautista de Toledo empieza el diseño general del Monasterio: la conocida como la «Traza Universal».

1562. Felipe II comenzó a adquirir los terrenos colindantes para hacer del entorno del Monasterio un híbrido de territorio de realengo y abadengo, donde se pudieran compatibilizar los usos recreativos, agropecuarios y cinegéticos.

1563. En febrero se sumaron al proyecto, en calidad de adjuntos, Juan de Herrera y Juan de Valencia. El 23 de abril, festividad de San Jorge, se colocó la primera piedra del Monasterio, en los cimientos del refectorio del convento, bajo la silla del Prior, en la fachada meridional.

1567. Felipe II firmó el 22 de abril la Carta de Fundación y Dotación del Monasterio de San Lorenzo de El Escorial. Pocos días después, el 19 de mayo, tras la finalización de la fachada del Jardín de los Frailes, gran parte de las dependencias del Monasterio y el Patio de los Evangelistas, moría Juan Bautista de Toledo.

Entre 1567 y 1569, la dirección del proyecto palaciego y monacal quedaba en manos de Giovanni Battista Castello El Bergamasco, autor de la escalera principal.

1572. Juan de Herrera, con un protagonismo cada vez más creciente, asumió la reorganización del proyecto.

1575. El maestro cantero cántabro Juan de Nates colaboró junto a Diego de Sisniega y Francisco del Río en las obras.

1576. Herrera fue designado aposentador real, trazador principal, matemático e ingeniero de las obras de la Corona, incluidas las del Monasterio. A partir de la Traza Universal diseñada por Juan Bautista de Toledo, planteó soluciones que, como explicó en 1966 el arquitecto Fernando Chueca Goitia, tendían hacia la simplificación y geometrización del edificio. Las principales variaciones sobre la solución original fueron la construcción de una planta más en la fachada principal, que regularizaba la primera solución escalonada, la reducción del número de torres de sus fachadas y el cierre del Patio de Reyes con la "doble fachada" de la iglesia, donde se situó la Biblioteca Real.

1584. Se colocan en la portada de la Basílica las estatuas de David y Salomón. El 13 de septiembre se dieron por finalizadas oficialmente las obras, bajo la dirección de Francisco de Mora, a pesar de no estar concluida la Real Basílica. Ésta se culminó en 1586 después de once años de construcción.

1814. Superados los avatares de la Guerra de la Independencia, que supuso para el Monasterio el saqueo y la exclaustración, regresan los monjes de la Orden Jerónima. Con el restablecimiento de la Constitución de 1812 y el arranque del Trienio Liberal, vuelven a abandonar el Monasterio la mayoría de los monjes entre 1820 y 1824. El 1 de diciembre de 1837 parten los 150 monjes jerónimos tras entrar en vigor las leyes desamortizadoras de los bienes eclesiásticos. Posteriormente, tras un fallido intento de restauración, se crea un patronato de capellanes seculares.

1885. Luego de dos intervalos en que lo ocuparon los Padres Escolapios (desde 1869 el Colegio, y entre 1872 y 1875 la custodia completa del Monasterio) y otra vez los capellanes seculares, el rey Alfonso XII hace entrega del Monasterio a la Orden de San Agustín. Los Agustinos viven en el Monasterio hasta la actualidad.

  

Las causas fundacionales

 

"...nadie ve El Escorial sin llenarse de gloria, de orgullo nacional (...), él recuerda el poder, la riqueza, la civilización, los vastos conocimientos e influjo de esta gran nación en el siglo XVI (..), él excita la admiración y aun la envidia de las Naciones extranjeras."

(José Quevedo).

 

El Monasterio de San Lorenzo de El Escorial fue promovido por Felipe II, entre otras razones, para conmemorar su victoria en la batalla de San Quintín, el 10 de agosto de 1557, festividad de San Lorenzo. Esta batalla marcó el inicio del proceso de planificación que culminó con la colocación de la primera piedra el 23 de abril de 1563, bajo la dirección de Juan Bautista de Toledo. Le sucedió tras su muerte, en 1567, el italiano Giovanni Battista Castello El Bergamasco y, posteriormente, su discípulo Juan de Herrera. La última piedra se puso 21 años después, el 13 de septiembre de 1584.

 

El edificio surge por la necesidad de crear un monasterio que asegurase el culto en torno a un panteón familiar de nueva creación, para así poder dar cumplimiento al último testamento de Carlos V de 1558. El Emperador quiso enterrarse con su esposa Isabel de Portugal y con su nueva dinastía alejado de los habituales lugares de entierro de los Trastamara.

 

La Carta de Fundación, firmada por Felipe II el 22 de abril de 1567, cuatro años después del comienzo de las obras, señalaba que el Monasterio estaba dedicado a san Lorenzo, pero sin señalar directamente la batalla de San Quintín, probablemente para evitar citar una guerra como motivo de fundación de un edificio religioso: se «fundó a devoción y en nombre del bienaventurado Sact Lorenzo por la particular devoción» al santo del rey y «en memoria de la merced y victorial que en el día de su festividad de Dios comenzamos a recibir». Las «consideraciones» que cita el rey fueron el agradecimiento a Dios por los beneficios obtenidos, por mantener sus Reinos dentro de la fe cristiana en paz y justicia, para dar culto a Dios, para enterrarse en «una cripta» el propio rey, sus mujeres, hermanos, padres, tías y sucesores, y donde se dieran continuas oraciones por sus almas:

Reconocimiento de los «muchos y grandes beneficios que de Dios nuestro Señor habemos rescibido» y «cuánto Él ha servido de encaminar y guiar los nuestros hechos, e los nuestros negocios a su santo servicio».

 

Por «sostener y mantener estos nuestros Reinos es su sancta Fee y Religión, y en paz y en justicia».

Porque a Dios le agrada que le edifiquen y funden iglesias «donde su sancto nombre se bendice y alaba» y donde los religiosos den ejemplo de fe.

Para que «se ruega e interceda Dios Nuestro Señor por Nos e por los reyes nuestros antecesores e subcesores, e por el bien de nuestras ánimas», según la orden dada por el Emperador «en el cobdecilo que últimamente hizo nos cometió y remitió lo que tocaba a su sepultura y al lugar y parte donde su cuerpo y el de la Emperatriz y Reina, mi señora y madre, había de ser puestos y colocados».

Y para que «por sus ánimas se hagan y digan continuas oraciones, sacrificios, conmemoraciones e memorias.

 

Tampoco se pueden desdeñar otras razones para fundar el Monasterio, como la celebración de la primera victoria de Felipe II como rey, la afrenta que la mención a la Batalla de San Quintín -que se libró a apenas quince kilómetros de París- suponía hacia Francia, la veneración al mártir español san Lorenzo, en unos tiempos en los que la Reforma atacaba el culto a los santos y a las reliquias, o la necesidad de crear un centro unificador de la nueva fe que surgía del Concilio de Trento.

 

Orígenes de su planta

 

En julio de 1559 Juan Bautista de Toledo fue llamado a España por Felipe II para realizar toda una serie de obras de gran importancia para la realeza española. Una realeza que tendrá a partir de ahora una nueva concepción del estado moderno y para la que será necesaria la creación de un nuevo edificio que la representara. Juan Bautista será considerado el primer arquitecto del Monasterio de El Escorial y sus trazas sentarán las bases de lo que posteriormente será el lenguaje herreriano.

 

Las medidas del rectángulo de la planta, según señalaba el padre Sigüenza en 1605, son de 735x580 pies castellanos, es decir, 205x162 metros. La altura total del punto más elevado de la cruz tomada con respecto al pavimento de la iglesia es de 95 metros.

 

Las primeras trazas

 

En primera instancia se observa que las primeras trazas que se conservan de Juan Bautista de Toledo proponían un edificio con una imagen muy diferente al que se construyó definitivamente: torres en la mitad de la fachadas laterales (las huellas de la Torre de la Biblioteca aún son visibles en la fachada que da al Jardín, ya que se construyó en vida de Juan Bautista) y dos torres más en la portada principal, donde el Patio de Reyes quedaba abierto y dejaba ver en el fondo la portada de la Basílica. Sabemos por la documentación que se conserva de los priores del convento que al principio se preveían sólo cincuenta monjes en lugar de los cien finales, por lo que el proyecto original tenía una altura menos en la parte delantera.

 

En cuanto a la planta de la iglesia, el diseño se resolvía con unas naves de menores dimensiones que las actuales, rematadas con una capilla de ábside semicircular. No estando contento Felipe II con esta solución hará llamar a Francesco Paciotto que le aconsejará al monarca que el templo tenga el ábside plano. Finalmente el artífice de la solución definitiva fue Juan de Herrera, que construyó un templo cuadrado basado en la planta del Vaticano sobrepuesto a una planta basilical tradicional con el altar al final de la nave principal. A Herrera también se debe la imagen unitaria de las fachadas con menos torres y sin escalonamiento, lo que contribuyó a la potente imagen final del edificio.

La planta definitiva del edificio, con sólo cuatro torres en las esquinas y el Palacio Real haciendo de «mango», recuerda la forma de una parrilla, por lo que tradicionalmente se ha afirmado que se escogió esta traza en honor a San Lorenzo, martirizado en Roma en una parrilla, ya que el 10 de agosto de 1557, día de la festividad del santo, tuvo lugar la batalla de San Quintín. De ahí el nombre del conjunto y de la localidad creada a su alrededor.1

  

Antecedentes monásticos

 

Fernando Chueca Goitia explicó la disposición general del edificio dando gran importancia a la comprobada intervención de la orden jerónima en las primeras trazas de la obra, de la que resultaría el núcleo conventual de la iglesia y el claustro principal. La principal contribución de Juan Bautista de Toledo habría sido añadir los palacios privados y públicos, integrándolos en un esquema simétrico, mucho más propio del Renacimiento. Este primer esquema de palacio real adosado a un monasterio era costumbre entre los monarcas hispanos medievales, y lo utilizaron en los monasterios que usaban para retiros, lutos y descansos. Podemos encontrar muchos antecedentes, como Santo Tomás de Ávila, Guadalupe, Poblet, Santa Creus o Yuste, entre muchos otros.2

  

Modelos bíblicos: el Templo de Salomón

  

En realidad el origen arquitectónico de su planta es muy controvertido. Dejando a un lado la feliz casualidad de la parrilla, que no apareció hasta que Herrera cerró la fachada principal con la «falsa fachada» de la biblioteca y eliminó seis de las torres, la planta parece estar basada más bien en las descripciones del Templo de Salomón de la Biblia y del historiador judeo-romano Flavio Josefo.3 Esta idea debió ser modificada por las crecientes necesidades del convento y las funciones que Felipe II quiso que albergara el edificio (panteón, basílica, convento, colegio, biblioteca y palacio), por lo que hubo que duplicar las dimensiones iniciales del proyecto. Las estatuas de David y Salomón flanquean la entrada a la basílica recordando el paralelismo con el guerrero Carlos V y el prudente Felipe II. Del mismo modo, se pintan dos frescos de Salomón en el centro de las bóvedas de la Biblioteca y de la Celda del Prior, mostrando sus imágenes de mayor sabiduría y prudencia en el gobierno: el famoso episodio de la discusión con la Reina de Saba y la pelea de las dos madres por el hijo, al que Salomón propone partir en dos.

 

Muchos autores, siguiendo un famoso artículo de René Taylor, han buscado connotaciones ocultistas y mágicas en la comparación con el edificio bíblico, lo que parece difícil dado la inflexible religiosidad de Felipe II. Además, las connotaciones esotéricas del Templo de Salomón no aparecieron hasta dos siglos después, con la aparición de la masonería. La teoría más aceptada en la actualidad es la de que la similitud con el Templo de Jerusalén y la presencia de las estatuas de David y Salomón en su fachada buscaban subrayar la presencia real de Dios en la Eucaristía, idea negada por los protestantes y defendida en el Concilio de Trento. Recordemos que para la Reforma dicha presencia es meramente simbólica, ya que niegan que Dios esté presente en las hostias consagradas. También es muy posible que, como hizo Juan Bautista Villalpando a finales del XVI, se buscara dotar de un trasfondo bíblico a las ideas del Humanismo sobre la recuperación de la arquitectura pagana y las ideas sobre la modulación de Vitrubio, ya que el Templo de Jerusalén que describió Flavio Josefo se construyó durante la dominación romana de Judea.4

  

La arquitectura del Monasterio

  

El resultado final guarda reminiscencencias de los tres dominios que Felipe II había aprendido a amar en su juventud en Valladolid, Milán y Bruselas: la planta rectangular con sus cuatro torres en las esquinas, típica de los sobrios alcázares castellanos de piedra, la arquitectura clásica italiana en la basílica y las portadas, y los típicos tejados apizarrados flamencos. El edificio destaca por la potencia de su imagen, la sabia composición de su complejo programa funcional, el rigor arquitectónico de cada una de sus partes, la elegancia de la articulación arquitectónica entre las distintas piezas, la cuidada perfección de sus proporciones y sus ricos valores simbólicos. Debe destacarse también su impresionante unidad de estilo y el haberse realizado en el reducido plazo para entonces de 21 años. Los valores del proyecto son el orden, la jerarquización y la perfecta relación entre todas las partes de la composición, integrando monarquía, religión, ciencia y cultura en el eje principal: la Portada Principal con la estatua de San Lorenzo, la Biblioteca, los Reyes de Judá, la Basílica y el Palacio privado del rey. La teatralidad de este recorrido a través de este gran eje central para mostrar finalmente el Sagrario con la Eucaristía anticipa a la llegada del Barroco.

 

El estilo escogido fue el del Renacimiento, muy depurado y sin la profusa decoración plateresca. El orden arquitectónico predominante es el toscano, el más sencillo del clasicismo, y el dórico en la iglesia. Pese a su austeridad y aparente frialdad, el Monasterio de El Escorial fue un símbolo del salto entre una España medieval y otra moderna. Su arquitectura, el mejor ejemplo del Renacimiento español y modelo del estilo denominado "Herreriano" o "desornamentado", no puede dejarnos indiferente. Felipe II y sus arquitectos, de acuerdo con su gran cultura humanista aprendida en sus viajes por Italia, Alemania y los Países Bajos, contrapusieron el retorno al clasicismo romano al desbordante plateresco de la época. Se trata de una de las principales obras maestras de la arquitectura española, tal vez su página más brillante. Debe destacarse la fina sensibilidad de la fachada sur, superior a sus imitaciones del siglo XX en un tema tan difícil como es la repetición de tantas ventanas en un único lienzo.

 

Le Corbusier visitó el edificio, invitado en 1928 por García Mercadal y alabó su arquitectura, hasta el punto de que se ha señalado su semejanza con el proyecto del Mundaneum de 1929. Tras la celebración del Cuarto Centenario del Monasterio en 1984 se redescubrieron muchos detalles arquitectónicos del edificio, como la compleja geometría de los chapiteles herrerianos, la audaz bóveda plana, las bellas chimeneas siamesas o la ingeniosa solución espacial de la iluminación cenital de la linterna del convento. Pero no debemos olvidar el valor tradicionalmente reconocido a El Escorial: el hermoso Patio de los Evangelistas, con su espléndido ejercicio de bramantismo del templete central, la grandiosa cúpula trasdosada, la primera realizada sobre un tambor en España, la colosal escalera del convento, y los ejemplos del manierismo de la Basílica y de la fachada principal, entre otras muestras de gran arquitectura.5

  

Secciones del edificio

 

Las principales secciones en que se puede dividir el Real sitio son:

 

Biblioteca

 

Artículo principal: Real Biblioteca de San Lorenzo de El Escorial.

 

Felipe II cedió a la Biblioteca del Monasterio los ricos códices que poseía y para cuyo enriquecimiento encargó la adquisición de las bibliotecas y obras más ejemplares tanto de España como del extranjero. Fue proyectada por el arquitecto Juan de Herrera cerrando el atrio de la Basílica y unificando la fachada principal, ya que Juan Bautista de Toledo la situaba en la desaparecida torre central de la Fachada Sur. Herrera también se ocupó de diseñar las estanterías que contiene. Se ubica en una gran nave de 54 metros de larga, 9 de ancha y 10 metros de altura con suelo de mármol y estanterías de ricas maderas nobles primorosamente talladas.

 

Arias Montano elaboró su primer catálogo y seleccionó algunas de las obras más importantes para la misma. Está dotada de una colección de más de 40.000 volúmenes de extraordinario valor. En 1616 se le concede el privilegio de recibir un ejemplar de cada obra publicada aunque nunca se llegó a cumplir de una forma demasiado rigurosa.

La bóveda de cañón del techo de la biblioteca está decorada con frescos representado las siete artes liberales, esto es: Retórica, Dialéctica, Música, Gramática, Aritmética, Geometría y Astrología. Entre los estantes de libros se colgaron retratos de diversos monarcas españoles, entre ellos el famoso Silver Philip (Felipe IV con traje castaño y plata) pintado por Velázquez, y que ahora está en la National Gallery de Londres. Los frescos de las bóvedas fueron pintados por Pellegrino Tibaldi, según el programa iconológico del Padre Sigüenza.

 

Palacio de Felipe II

 

El también denominado «Palacio de los Austrias» ocupa todo el mango de la parrilla de El Escorial y parte del patio Norte, construido en dos pisos alrededor del Presbiterio de la Basílica y en torno al Patio de Mascarones. Sigue el mismo esquema arquitectónico del Palacio de Carlos V en el Monasterio de Yuste. Actualmente sólo se pueden visitar los Cuartos Reales y la Sala de Batallas. En las dependencias privadas de los Reyes se pueden contemplar importantes obras pictóricas de la escuela española de principios del XVII, de la escuela italiana y veneciana del siglo XVI, y de las escuelas flamencas del XVI y XVII, entre ellos Los pecados capitales de El Bosco.

 

Antes de las habitaciones reales se atraviesan otras dependencias como el Salón de Embajadores, con interesantes objetos expuestos: morteros del siglo XVII, una mesa con incrustaciones de marfil, dos relojes solares en el pavimento, dos sillas plegables de madera chinas de la época Ming (ca. 1570) y los retratos de todos los monarcas de la Casa de Austria. Merecen especial mención las impresionantes puertas de marquetería, regalo del emperador Maximiliano II. Se expone también la supuesta silla-litera en la que Felipe II realizó su último viaje al Monasterio aquejado por la gota.

 

La «Casa del Rey» está formada por una serie de estancias decoradas con sobriedad, ya que fue el lugar de residencia del austero Felipe II. El dormitorio real, situado junto al altar mayor de la Basílica, cuenta con una ventana que permitía al rey seguir la misa desde la cama cuando estaba imposibilitado a causa de la gota que padecía. Está dividido en cuatro estancias: la sala principal, el escritorio, la austera alcoba y el lujoso oratorio.

 

Basílica

 

Artículo principal: Basílica de El Escorial.

 

Precedida por el Patio de los Reyes, es el verdadero núcleo de todo el conjunto, en torno al cual se articulan las demás dependencias.

 

Cripta

 

Artículo principal: Cripta Real del Monasterio de El Escorial.

 

Juan Gómez de Mora, según planos de Juan Bautista Crescenzi, reformó por orden de Felipe III la pequeña capilla funeraria de debajo del altar para albergar allí veintiséis sepulcros de mármol donde reposan los restos de los reyes y reinas de las casas de Austria y Borbón, con sólo algunas excepciones.

 

Relicarios

 

Siguiendo uno de los preceptos aprobados por el Concilio de Trento referente a la veneración de los santos, Felipe II dotó al Monasterio de una de las mayores colecciones de reliquias del mundo católico. La colección se compone de unas 7.500 reliquias, que se guardan en 507 cajas o relicarios escultóricos trazados por Juan de Herrera y la mayoría construidos, por el platero Juan de Arfe y Villafañe. Estos relicarios adoptan las más variadas formas: cabezas, brazos, estuches piramidales, arquetas etc. Las reliquias fueron distribuidas por todo el Monasterio concentrándose las más importantes en la Basílica. En el lado del Evangelio, bajo la protección del Misterio de la Anunciación de María, se guardan todos los huesos de los santos y mártires. En el lado opuesto, en el Altar de San Jerónimo, se sitúan los restos de los santos y mártires. Los restos sagrados se guardan en dos grandes armarios, decorados por Federico Zuccaro, que se encuentran divididos en dos cuerpos; se pueden abrir por delante, para ser expuestos al culto, y por detrás, para poder acceder a las reliquias.

 

Convento

 

El monasterio propiamente dicho ocupa todo el tercio sur del edificio. Fue ocupado originalmente por monjes jerónimos en 1567, aunque desde 1885 está habitado por los padres Agustinos, de clausura. El recinto se organiza en torno al gran claustro principal, el Patio de los Evangelistas, obra maestra diseñada por Juan Bautista de Toledo y que constituye una de las mejores páginas de arquitectura del Monasterio. Sus dos pisos están comunicados por la espectacular escalera principal, con las bóvedas decoradas por frescos de Luca Giordano. El ambicioso programa pictórico de sus soportales fue iniciado por Luca Cambiaso y continuado por Pellegrino Tibaldi. En el centro del claustro se levanta un hermoso templete realizado en granito, mármoles y jaspes de diferentes colores sobre traza de Juan de Herrera, influido por el tempietto de San Pietro in Montorio de Bramante. Las esculturas de los cuatro evangelistas fueron cinceladas por Juan Bautista Monegro de un solo bloque de mármol y sujetan un libro abierto con un fragmento de su Evangelio en la lengua en que fueron escritos.

 

Junto a las Salas Capitulares, destaca también la Celda Prioral Baja, con un fresco en el techo sobre El Juicio de Salomón de Francesco da Urbino, recordando al prior la necesidad de un gobierno justo al frente del Monasterio. La sacristía, aún en uso, con la Adoración de la Sagrada Forma de Sánchez Coello. En la Iglesia Vieja o de Prestado se conserva El Martirio de San Lorenzo de Tiziano, una de las obras maestras del renacimiento italiano, que Felipe II encargó para el retablo principal de la Basílica pero que descartó por su oscuro colorido, poco visible a cierta distancia.

 

Escalera principa

 

Sigue la típica tradición española de escalera imperial con un tramo principal dividido en dos a los lados a partir de la primera meseta, manteniendo el eje de simetría del convento y compatibilizando los tres pisos del Patio de los Evangelistas con los tres del convento mediante puertas discretas que permiten el paso a la zona más recogida y doméstica. Se suele atribuir a Bergamasco, aunque su proyecto fue modificado y desarrollado por Juan de Herrera. Su caja tiene una gran altura y cuenta con una cubierta propia que cubre la gran bóveda esquifada que ilumina desde arriba sus magníficos frescos.

 

Está decorada con frescos de Pellegrino Tibaldi, Luca Giordano y Luca Cambiaso, destacando La batalla de San Quintín y la Fundación de El Escorial, en la que aparece Felipe II discutiendo las trazas del Monasterio con Juan Bautista de Toledo y Juan de Herrera, junto al Obrero Mayor, el jerónimo Fray Antonio de Villacastín.

 

Salas capitulare

 

Destinadas actualmente a pinturas, eran las salas donde los monjes celebraban sus Capítulos, especie de confesiones mutuas para mantener la pureza de la congregación. Desde tiempos de Velázquez, que intervino en su decoración, albergaron importantes pinturas. A pesar del traslado de muchas al Museo del Prado, actualmente se exhiben varias tan importantes como La Última Cena y un San Jerónimo de Tiziano y La túnica de José de Velázquez. En febrero de 2009 se volvió a colgar en sus paredes el Martirio de San Sebastián de Van Dyck, recuperado dos siglos después de su sustracción durante la invasión napoleónica.

 

Su espléndida pinacoteca está formada por obras de las escuelas alemana, flamenca, veneciana, italiana y española, de los siglos XV, XVI y XVII. Incluye diversas obras de Pieter Coecke, pintor predilecto de Felipe II, así como de El Bosco, una Adoración de los pastores de Tintoretto y la famosa Crucifixión (o Gran Calvario) de Rogier van der Weyden.

 

Sala de las Batallas

 

Se trata de una galería de 60 x 6 metros, con 8 metros de altura, situada en la zona de los aposentos reales. En sus muros se representan pintadas al fresco algunas batallas ganadas por los ejércitos españoles. En el muro sur, solo interrumpido por dos puertas, se pintó de forma continua la batalla de La Higueruela (1431). Por el contrario, el muro norte aparece dividido por nueve ventanas creándose nueve espacios en los que se representaron otras tantas escenas de la guerra contra Francia (1557-1558), con el acento puesto en la batalla de San Quintín, vinculada a la fundación del propio monasterio. Por último, en los extremos se representaron dos escenas de una de las más recientes victorias de las tropas españolas: la batalla de la Isla Terceira librada entre la armada española dirigida por Álvaro de Bazán y la armada francesa (1582-1583). De la pintura se encargaron Niccolò Granello y su medio hermano Fabrizio Castello, Lazzaro Tavarone y Orazio Cambiaso, que abandonó pronto. Lo primero que se pintó fueron los grutescos de la bóveda, por los que los artistas cobraron ya en enero de 1585 y se dieron por terminados seis meses más tarde. En enero de 1587 se firmó el contrato para la pintura de la batalla de La Higueruela, que no se terminó hasta septiembre de 1589. El padre Sigüenza explica que se eligió representar esta batalla de la guerra de Granada por haberse hallado en el Alcázar de Segovia en un viejo arcón un lienzo de 130 pies en el que aparecía pintada la misma batalla en grisalla, y que habiendo gustado al rey, ordenó copiarla. Algunos meses después de acabada la pintura de la batalla de la Higueruela se resolvió completar la decoración de la sala, firmándose un nuevo contrato con Castello, Granello y Tavarone en febrero de 1590. Las batallas elegidas eran, por una parte, las de la guerra contra los franceses de 1557 y 1558, las únicas batallas a las que Felipe II había acudido en persona, y la toma de la isla Tercera en las Azores, con la que se completaba la incorporación de Portugal a la corona española. Para asegurar la veracidad histórica, a los pintores se les entregaron modelos de la formación de las escuadras y de sus uniformes proporcionados por Rodrigo de Holanda, yerno de Antonio de las Viñas.6

Museo de Arquitectura[editar · editar fuente]

Está situado en los sótanos del edificio, en la llamada por Juan de Herrera Planta de Bóvedas, y fue creado en el año 1963 como parte de las exposiciones del IV centenario de la colocación de la primera piedra. En sus once salas se muestran las herramientas, grúas y demás material empleado en la construcción del monumento, así como reproducciones de planos, maquetas y documentos relativos a las obras, con datos muy interesantes que explican la idea y gestación del edificio.

Jardines de los Frailes[editar · editar fuente]

  

Los Jardines de los Frailes

Mandados construir por Felipe II, que era un amante de la naturaleza, constituyen un lugar ideal para el reposo y la meditación. Manuel Azaña, que estudió en el colegio de los frailes agustinos de este monasterio, lo cita en sus Memorias y en su obra El jardín de los frailes. Es lugar de entretenimiento y estudio de los alumnos. El rey concebía sus jardines como un espacio productivo donde cultivar hortalizas y plantas medicinales, pero también los veía como una fuente de placer, con fuentes y flores. El monarca recopiló planos de jardines de Francia, Italia, Inglaterra y los Países Bajos, contratando a los mejores jardineros, tanto extranjeros como españoles. Este hoy austero jardín estaba originalmente repleto de flores, formando una especie de tapiz, por lo que fue comparado con las alfombras que se traían de Turquía o Damasco. También era un auténtico jardín botánico, con hasta 68 variedades diferentes de flores, muchas medicinales, y unas 400 plantas que se trajeron del Nuevo Mundo.

Al sudoeste del jardín se encuentra la Galería de Convalecientes o Corredor del Sol, un espacio amplio, aireado y lleno de luz diseñado para el reposo de los enfermos. Se apoya con una articulación arquitectónica poco conseguida en la Torre de la Botica, tal vez por la necesidad de garantizar la clausura a los monjes. Su sobria fachada hacia la lonja Oeste contrasta con la más abierta hacia los jardines, donde la solución arquitrabada con arcos sobre columnatas jónicas es única en el Monasterio.

 

Photo by Austin Young

¿Por qué Catalunya quiere su independencia?

  

¿Por que Catalunya quiere su independencia?

  

Dependencia o independencia de Catalunya

  

Tras treinta años de democracia estable, sólidamente anclados en la Unión Europea y el euro, impensables los golpes de Estado, integrados en la globalización y prósperos, es hora de hacer balance sobre si le conviene a Catalunya seguir en España.

  

Salvo efusiones líricas, amenazas gonadales y acusaciones de delirio psiquiátrico (idénticas a las practicadas por la dictadura soviética), no se oye en España argumento alguno que justifique la dependencia de Catalunya. Los unionistas catalanes, salvo una cierta apelación a la resignación y la rutina, tampoco razonan, incluso recurren crecientemente al escarnio y la amenaza, aquí más próximos a los usos de la dictadura maoísta.

  

Es normal esta afasia, que se intenta ocultar bajo abundantes bramidos, pues el fundamento económico de la conveniencia de pertenecer a España ha desaparecido. Ya no es el Estado español quien tiene moneda y determina los tipos de cambio, los tipos de interés y los aranceles de importación y exportación. Ya no hay mercado español, lo ha absorbido el único europeo, y es Bruselas quien toma esas decisiones y se abre a la globalización, con el resultado inevitable de la disminución de la importancia relativa del antiguo mercado protegido: hoy Catalunya vende al resto del Estado menos del 40% de su producción, e importa de allí menos del 35%. A Catalunya la dependencia ya no le es compensada por el acceso privilegiado al mercado español, que además se ha convertido en arriesgado por ser el único en que los productos catalanes son boicoteados por el hecho de serlo (práctica del 21% de los madrileños, según ABC).

  

Sólo le queda a España un mecanismo de actuación económica, la inversión pública, y los datos y hechos son elocuentes: tras décadas de detraer cada año el 10% del PIB catalán sin invertir en Catalunya (19.200 millones de euros el 2005), se desploman los servicios públicos que gestiona España y llevan su E: RENFE, AENA, REE, ENDESA, etc. ¿Qué reciben los catalanes a cambio del expolio fiscal? Ni siquiera la transparencia, pues los balances fiscales, públicos en la Unión Europea, Alemania o Reino Unido, los ocultan en España tanto los gobiernos del PP como los del PSOE. ¿Qué esconden?

  

Tampoco a la hora de comprar empresas españolas es una ventaja estar en España, pues la toma de control catalana es bloqueada de una u otra manera, y contra ella se blande la Constitución y la xenofobia, que no se invoca frente a OPAs alemanas o italianas.

  

Al expolio del Estado y la explotación monopolística de los servicios públicos privatizados se añade la penuria de la Generalitat. Baste un dato: tras treinta años de autonomía, y para 7,5 millones de habitantes, el presupuesto catalán es de 32.000 millones de euros. Tras ocho años de autonomía, y para 5 millones de habitantes, el presupuesto escocés es de 46.000 millones de euros. Escocia en ocho años ha conseguido el doble por habitante de lo conseguido por Catalunya en treinta.

  

Mal negocio es hoy España para Catalunya: privada de política fiscal, crónicamente objeto de desinversión pública, discriminada hasta en tratados internacionales (esos que firma el Estado español prohibiendo que utilicen el aeropuerto de Barcelona los aviones desde o hacia Toronto, Miami, México, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, etc.), boicoteados sus productos, rechazados sus compradores como extranjeros hostiles, ¿a quién le interesa continuar la dependencia? ¿Alguien podría explicar alguna ventaja comparativa de la dependencia respecto a la independencia? (si puede ser, sin insultar).

El problema de Catalunya se llama España, que se dedica, mediante el aparato del Estado que los catalanes pagan, a bloquear todos sus proyectos: ni conexión ferroviaria del puerto con Europa, ni servicios públicos que funcionen, ni inversiones en infraestructuras, ni TGV a Europa, ni toma de control de empresas españolas, ni aeropuerto intercontinental, ni nada de nada.

  

Ya están conseguidos los objetivos modernizadores comunes a catalanes y españoles, España ya es democrática y europea, pero tan adversa a la diversidad como siempre, no se concibe como plurinacional sino como unitaria, y percibe a los ‘diferentes’ no como un activo a promover sino como una molestia a eliminar. Proclama que Catalunya es España, pero piensa y actúa que Catalunya es de España. Una posesión.

  

Intentamos de buena fe una corrección del expolio fiscal, el dominio político y la discriminación económica y cultural. Tendimos la mano para sólo recibir insultos, boicots y engaños, y un Estatuto que no se aplica ni cumple, pues este Gobierno español, como los anteriores, no tiene por qué cumplir la ley cuando afecta a Catalunya. No pasa nada, ya lo avalarán como siempre los Tribunales Supremo y Constitucional, que para eso los nombran el PP y el PSOE.

Se equivocan: bloqueada bajo España, maltratada en España, insultada por España, harta de España, a Catalunya sólo le queda un camino: la independencia.

  

España tiene mucho a ganar con un Estado catalán, perdería un miembro descontento y problemático pero ganaría un buen vecino y amigo, y podría superar los bloqueos que sufren las libertades y la democracia por causa de una estructura institucional concebida y practicada para asegurar el dominio de una mayoría nacional española sobre las minorías nacionales. Como ya advirtió Burke, es ese dominio la causa de las mayores corrupciones del orden constitucional.

Dijo Azaña que para mantener España unida había que bombardear Barcelona cada cincuenta años, método que calificaba de bárbaro pero efectivo. Los bombardeos ya no son posibles, y España no ha aprendido en su lugar el método de ganar la adhesión cordial e interesada de los catalanes. En el fondo, tanto da. Se ponga como se ponga, la independencia de Catalunya es ineluctable e inevitable. Mene Tequel Parsin. Ha empezado la cuenta atrás.

  

independencia

  

OPINION DE UN CATALAN:

  

Hola a todos. Soy catalán y europeo, y seguidamente os explico el porqué muchos catalanes pedimos la independencia de nuestra nación.

  

Yo no quiero vivir en un estado federal español, es más, porque no me siento español, igual que muchos catalanes. El Federalismo en españa es una posible vía, es una utopía, sobretodo porque la mayoría de españoles sólo cree en un estado unido, con una capital, y con un gobierno centralista, y con una sola lengua, el castellano. Sólo tiene que hacer un repasito a la historia del siglo pasado, y verá que los pocos intentos de fedearlismo que hubo acabaron como el rosario de la aurora. España nos expolia fiscalmente y esto está más que claro. Os resumo muy brevemente porque queremos la independencia.

  

Queremos la independencia, dejando de lado los temas identitarios, por:

  

1. Sería lo mejor para la integración de los inmigrantes y a su no marginación no comunitarios ya que las competencias de inmigración las tendría y las podría administrar directamente la Generalitat. Se acabaría mejor con la inmigración ilegal, promover las contrataciones en orígen

  

2. El problema de las infraestructuras desaparecería a medio terminio, puesto que nuestros impuestos se quedarían en nuestro territorio y se podría hacer grandes inversiones que actualmente no podemos hacer, a causa de que los impuestos de los lleva el gobierno central. El problema de la RENFE, si esta fuera una empresa gestionada por nosotros, no hubiera existido. El aeropuerto del Prat no puede ser un simple aeropuerto regional que se limite a conectar barcelona con madrid, somos una ciudad internacional, y como tal tenemos el derecho a estar conectados con el mundo exterior. Si AENA fuese propiedad de la Generalitat, tendríamos un aeropuerto de primera. Y lo mismo digo de los puertos. Catalunya tiene que vertebrarse con nuevas carreteras que comuniquen el interior, no que todas vayan hacia barcelona. El centralismo barcelonés también es un problema.

  

3. Una mejora de la educación: La educación mejoraría a medio terminio, por la misma razón que antes comenté. Los impuestos los recoge la generalitat y se invierten en hacer nuevos institutos, contratar nuevos profesores (que mejoraría la atención personalizada de estos hacia los alumnos), desdoblar las clases, desaparecería la masificación de las aulas, a medio plazo desaparecerían los barracones, informatización de las aulas -se ampliarían el número de ordenadores por alumno- (¿Sabe usted que Extremadura es una de las comunidades más pobres y la que goza de un mejor numero de ordenadores/alumno?).

  

4. Tendríamos una mejora de la seguridad. Si todas las competencias estubiesen bajo el mando de los mossos d'esquadra, y no repartidas entre los cuerpos policiales que existen -policia nacional, guardia civil y mossos d'esquadra-, ya que los datos de los delincuentes que tiene cada cuerpo no puede ser consultado por ningún otro sin antes haber pedido permiso: mayor agilización de los trámites.

  

Hay más cosas por las que queremos la independencia. Somos catalanes, internacionales, queremos estar abiertos al mundo y mirar hacia el futuro, y no estar ligados al pasado, y este pasado se llama España.

  

catalunya

  

OTRAS OPINIONES:

A diferencia de lo que muchos españoles no catalanes creen, una ínfima parte de los catalanes busca la independencia.

  

Lo que más deseamos, generalmente, es el consenso, el respeto mútuo, desde dentro y de fuera de Cataluña. Que se nos valore por lo que hacemos, y que no nos pongan en boca lo que no decimos.

  

Yo, como catalana, quiero que se me respete mi cultura, mi lengua y mis tradiciones. Que el modelo de vida catalán no se deteriore por el intrusismo o pasotismo de otros. Que no empleen el discurso nacionalista para ganar votos: ni en Cataluña, ni en España. Sino que las propuestas sean objetivas y lo más favorable posible para todos.

  

Hay un juego político, acentuado hace varios años, de a ver quien es más fuerte: si el catalán (o vasco), o el "español". Gran error. La política no es sólo eso, y por lo tanto el discurso no deberia darle tanta importancia a eso.

  

El porcentaje de catalanes que aclaman la independencia es muy muy pequeño, y nada representativo. Es como si me dijeras que los extremeños (por citar un ejemplo, inventado) quieren otro Franco: por supuesto que habrá extremeños, murcianos o castellanoleoneses con gran devoción a Franco y su dictadura. Pero será una proporción muy baja, o almenos eso espero.

  

Pero si los envidiosos, o quienes carezcan de propuestas verdaderamente constructivas, empiezan a emplear el antifranquismo como "arma" de destrucción de la cultura extremeña; muchísimos más españoles se alzarán en contra de los extremeños, dando su apoyo incondicional a quienes usan estos argumentos, poco o nada bien infundados.

 

Reyes Mantecón, Oax.- El Programa de Ordenamiento Ecológico Regional del Territorio del Estado de Oaxaca (POERTEO) es un instrumento de política ambiental y de observancia obligatoria para las dependencias y entidades de la administración pública federal, estatal y municipal, que tiene como objetivo promover la planeación del uso del suelo y las actividades productivas, destacó la Directora del Instituto Estatal de Ecología y Desarrollo Sustentable (IEEDS), Helena Iturribarría Rojas.

Reyes Mantecón, Oax., 15 de marzo de 2016

Holistic design is a design approach which sees a design as an interconnected whole that is part of the larger world. It goes beyond problem solving to incorporate all aspects of the ecosystem in which a product is used. The focus of holistic design is context dependent; even so, among other things, it considers aesthetics, sustainability, and spirituality.

 

While it is most commonly employed in architecture, with a little thought, holistic design can be adapted to any form of product or service design. Designer Yves Behar offers seven key principles for designers to incorporate holistic design in their work:

 

Begin with questions rather than answers. Instead of acting on a brief which already dictates the answers, asking questions which put the problem in its holistic context is far more important.

Deliver more, not less. Don’t reduce functionality to meet holistic goals – improve the functionality and meet holistic goals.

Create your own theories. Borrow shamelessly from disciplines other than design, and adapt theories from those disciplines so as to deliver greater designs.

Use 360-degree design. Look at the whole customer lifecycle of a product and design from marketing to disposal.

Consider alternative business models. Behar’s business recognizes how hard it can be for clients to trust the iterative holistic design process and often trades royalties or equities rather than charging traditional fees.

Do better. Look at projects which seem impossible, and then aim to deliver them anyway.

Find what you want that everyone else wants. Create change, and meet unmet needs.

Holistic design may appear avant-garde and ambitious, but what it demands of a designer’s imagination is the same creativity that can pay dividends far into the future. Designing for sustainability is key to future-proofing a product; adopting a holistic approach addresses that sustainability.

 

www.interaction-design.org/literature/topics/holistic-design

 

Introduction

I am a lecturer at the Bezalel Academy of Art & Design Architectural Department, Jerusalem and a practicing architect working in Israel for the last 20 years.

My work has focused both on practice & theory.

My on going search for what is behind the order of human environment, had been developed gradually by me since my studies at the Architectural Association (AA) school of Architecture in London (Dip 1973), through research work with Prof. Christopher Alexander at the "Center for Environmental Structure" Berkeley California, my post graduate studies in Architecture & Buddhist studies at U.C. Berkeley (1979-81), and along my teachings and practice in Israel in the last 25 years.

When religion and nationalism are cynically used by fundamentalists and by extremist right and left groups to cause cultural conflicts, and when architects are prompted by aggressive political motives, there is a real existential threat to the physical and human environment we live in.

There is no doubt, that the great art (and architecture) creations throughout history evolved in societies that drew their strength from their cultural and spiritual traditions and from the places they belonged to. These sources, which one might take as the factor that separates cultures and peoples, are exactly the ones that link them together in harmony.

The same tree that symbolizes life in the Cabala appears in Tantra Asana art; the same red thread the people of Tibet wear on their wrist for good luck are put on baby's pram in the Jewish tradition. In present state of affairs there is a need for a new worldview that by its very nature crosses cultures, replacing current conceptions and approaches.

The first part of the essay will present the holistic worldview, a school of thought that has been at the forefront of science for many years in which my architectural work belong, and the way this approach got interpretated by me both in theory and in the design process, a process fundamentally different from customary ones.

 

The second part will be a presentation of two selected projects built by me in Israel forming a clear implementation and interpretation of the concepts described before, in relation to their cultural and physical (urban and rural) reality.

The first project is the Music Centre and Library at the historic heart of Tel-Aviv forming a unique dialogue between a new building and the historical environment, an environment being a unique interface between the orient and the west (completed 1997).

The second project is a Residential Neighborhood in the Kibbutz forming a new concept of housing related to the recent structural changes in the kibbutz life, giving a new definition to the conception of equality.

ARCHITECTURE IS MADE FOR PEOPLE

A phenomenological approach to architecture

The purpose of architecture, as I see it, is first and foremost to create a humanenvironment for human beings. Buildings affect our lives and the fate of the physical environment in which we live over the course of many years, and therefore their real test is the test of time. The fine, old buildings and places we always want to return to ‚ those with timeless relevance‚are the ones that touch our heart, and have the power to create a deep and direct emotional experience.

Contemporary architecture as well as conceptual art sought to dissociate themselves from the world of emotions and connect the design process to the world of ideas, thus creating a rational relation between building and man, devoid of any emotion.

There are different ways to describe buildings that have this timeless quality, buildings that convey an inherent spiritual experience. Frank Lloyd Wright called them "the ones which take you beyond words". Quoted by Stephen Grabow, (Grabow, 1983) Christopher Alexander says: "The buildings that have spiritual value are a diagram of the inner universe, or the picture of the inner soul." And in The Timeless Way of Building (Alexander, 1979), Alexander writes, "There is one timeless way of building. It is thousands of years old, and the same today as it has always been. The great traditional buildings of the past, the villages and tents and temples in which man feels at home, have always been made by people who were very close to the center of this way. And as you will see, this way will lead anyone who looks for it to buildings which are themselves as ancient in their form as the trees and hills, and as our faces are."

His Holiness the Dalai Lama calls this quality: "the great self, the such ness or the nature of reality... The state of mind which brings us close to that quality is a state of knowledge and awareness detached from extraneous factors as the mere clarity of the mind".

 

Although this timeless quality exists in buildings rooted in different cultures and traditions, the experience they generate is common to all people, no matter where or from what culture they come from. Thus Alexander's basic assumption was that behind this quality, which he calls "The quality without a name", lies auniversal and eternal element common to us as human beings.

It seems to me that the real challenge of current architectural practice is to make the best use of the potential inherent in the modern technological age we live in while fulfilling the timeless needs common to us all as human beings - needs that modern architecture in general has knowingly denied for the past 60 years, in order to create a friendly and human environment.

The basic argument presented here is that in order to change the feeling of the environment and create places and buildings that we really feel part of and want to live in, the issue here is not a change of style, but a transformation of theworldview underlying current thought and approaches.

 

THE HOLISTIC APPROACH TO ARCHITECTURE

THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE PARTS AND THE WHOLE

 

The dissociation created in our time between man and his environment is a clear expression of the change that occurred in the concept that man is part of nature and not superior to it. Comparing planning processes which resulted in dissociating man from his environment to planning processes that make him feel part of the physical world he lives in, emphasizes the difference between the mechanistic-fragmentary worldview and the holistic-organic one, which guides the holistic school of thought to which my own work belongs.

These are two different sets of orders.

 

The mechanistic worldview underlying contemporary architecture separates elements and creates an environment of autonomous fragments. The result is cities like Brasilia in Brazil,

 

Chandigarth in India, the satellite towns in England and the new neighborhoods around Jerusalem, where the structured disconnection between the house and the street, the street and the neighborhood, the neighborhood and the city arouses a feeling of detachment and alienation.

The holistic-organic approach that has been for many years at the forefront of science in general and as implemented in my architecture work in particular regards the socio-physical environment as a system or a dynamic whole, the existence of which depends on the proper, ever-changing interrelations among the parts. Moreover, the creation and existence of each part depend on the interrelations between that part and the system.

In his book The Joy of Living and Dying in Peace (Dalai Lama, 1997) His Holiness the Dalai Lama refers to this concept of cause and effect by saying: "Nowadays in the field of science there are many disciplines like cosmology, neurobiology, psychology, and particle physics, disciplines that are the result of generations of scientific investigations. Their findings are closely related to Buddhist teachings. The foundation of all Buddhist teaching and practice is the principle of dependent arising. Since things arise in dependence of other causes and conditions, they are naturally free from independent and autonomous existence. Everything that is composed from parts, or conditioned by causes and conditions, is impermanent and fleeting. These things do not stay forever. They continually disintegrate. This kind of subtle impermanence is confirmed by scientific findings".

In any organic system, each element has its own uniqueness and power, but always acts as part of a larger entity to which it belongs and which it complements. vHaving adopted this concept, I do not regard urban design, architecture, interior design and landscape design as independent disciplines removed from each other, but asone continuous and dynamic system. Thus the building is not perceived as a collection of designed fragments, but asone hierarchical language, in which every design detail, on any level of scale, is derived from the larger whole to which it belongs, which it seeks to enhance, and for whose existence it is responsible. The overall feeling of inner wholeness-unity in a building thus stems from the proper interrelations among its parts.

The same idea is found in the Mandala, a model that represents processes occurring in nature, where there is always a center of energy feeding the parts around it. However, the very existence of this center of energy is dependent on the existence of the parts around it.

 

This concept of interdependence and continuity was presented in a public talk given by His Holiness the Dalai Lama, in which he noted: "The construction of the whole is caused continually by the disintegration of its parts. For example, the butter lamp as a whole is a source of light due to the melting of the butter. The melting of the butter is caused due to the heat produced by the lamp".

THE PLANNING PROCESS ITSELF

1.Choosing A Pattern Language for The Project

Based on the assumption that beauty and harmony are objective properties related to the geometrical properties inherent in the structure itself, and that feelings have to do with facts, Alexander states in his book The Timeless Way of Building (Alexander, 1979) that all places of organic order that seem unplanned and orderless are a clear expression of order on a deep and complex level. This order is based on absolute rules that have always determined the quality and beauty of a place, and is the source of the good feeling in it. In other words, there is a direct connection between the patterns of events that occur in a place and the physical patterns - patterns of space in his terminology ‚ that constitute it.

The fact that places that share a common pattern of events (for example, Piazza San Marco in Venice and Piazza Mayor in Madrid), although different in form, all create the same emotional pleasant experience, gave rise to the hypothesis, that beyond what appears different, there is something else, common to them all.

 

Let's take for example the pattern called Arcade – an archetype of a structure that relates to the transition area between a building and the open space around it. Although the arcade in the Hadera synagogue is different from the one in the Assisi cloister or the one in the Tel-Aviv Senior Citizens Day Center, there is one superstructurecommon to them all, a superstructure that defines therelationship between the building and its surroundings.

Since the environment consists of patterns that produce a common experience, the relevant question was, what lies behind the specific patterns that produce the samecomfortable feeling we all share in that environment. The explanation was, that as in the various spoken languages there is, according to Chomsky, a common structural element he calls the

 

language of languages or the underlying patterns, an element that is innate in human beings and therefore common to us all (which explains why children can so easily learn a foreign language), so in the physical space there are patterns that reflect an innate pattern structured in our brain.

The first step in the planning process is to determine the patterns of space that are relevant to the project. Some of them will stem from the specific context of the project and the cultural reality of the place, patterns that vary from place to place, and some from the more basic needs common to us all as human beings wherever we are, as presented in A Pattern Language (Alexander, Ishikawa, Silverstein, 1977).

Once the list of patterns relevant to a specific project has been decided, a set of interrelations between them is automatically created between them, organically defining the scheme of the project. This scheme is than translated into a plan.

2. Planning on the Site Itself

A transformational Planning Process

The plan of the building that is finally created is actually a structure of balance between the abstract pattern language chosen for the project and the living reality of the actual site, a reality that differs from site to site.

The planning process proposed here is fundamentally different from the common planning processes, a process introduced to by Alexander while I was working with him on the site plan of Shorashim Community Village in Israel, and adopted in all my work since than.

 

Once the list of patterns for the project is set, all planning decisions concerning the physical structure of the project are taken literally only on the site itself. Unlike the common planning process, where planning takes place in the office and then transferred to the site, here the drawings are merely the recordingof planning decisions that have been taken currently on the site itself.

The process of creation has to be inspired by what is already there, and our task as artists or architects is to discover, identify and revive those visible and hidden forces.

 

The creative process which feeds on what is apparently already there, is definitely not a passive one. Unlike common planning process, where everything is predetermined, this is a process whereby the plan of the building develops gradually from the interaction of the abstract planning patterns and the unpredictabledeveloping situation on the site.

In his book Zen in the Art of Archery (Herrigel, 1964) Eugene Herrigel describes the state of mind in which the process of creation must take place, noting, 'Drawing the bow and loosing the shot happens independently of the Archer. The hands must open like the skin of a ripe fruit. The Archer must let himself go, to the point that the only thing that is left of him is a purposeless tension. At this state of mind, being released from all attachments, art should be practiced'.

The order according to which the planning decisions are taken on the site is determined by the hierarchical order in which the planning patterns appear on my list governed by the rules of the pattern language itself. Decisions are first made on issues that affect the larger scale we have to confront at any given moment along the development of the plan, moving to other decisions generating from them.

Moreover, the planning process is not conceived as an additive, but rather as adifferentiating one, where each new element of the plan is differentiatedgradually from previous ones.

Each decision taken on the site and marked on the ground actually changes the configuration of the site as a whole. That new whole (configuration) that has been created and can be fully visualized on the site forms the basis for the next decision. Since each stage is based on the previous one, a wrong decision creates a faulty system that cannot serve as a basis for the next decision.

The final 'layout' that emerges on the site is measured and recorded by a surveyor. That moment when all the markers suddenly become a whole, a visible plan, is a moment of surprise and excitement.

 

Experience has taught me that decisions that sometimes appear irregular and strange on paper often make sense in reality (where it comes from), and vice versa, a plan that appears perfect on paper (where it was created) does not make sense on the site. So, if when looking at the 'stakes plan' doubts arise concerning one or more of the decisions taken on the site, the correction is not made on paper in the office, but checked again on the site itself. The final "stakes plan" forms the basis for the final plan.

      

CHOOSING THE COLORS FOR THE BUILDING

Choosing the colors for the building is one of the more difficult decisions in the design process. The choice of colors has an overwhelming effect on the feeling of the building. Colors have the power to give life and enhance the qualities inherent originally in a building or to suppress them. The choice of color is made intuitively on the site when the building is completed, when I can fully sense its mass as part of the overall environment. I try to envision the colors (hues) that practically reveal themselves naturally from the building. Only then do I experiment with applications of those colors in order to arrive at the final tones.

As in the planning of the building, so at this stage of choosing the colors, the process is a gradual one. First I determine the color of the walls ‚ the big mass, and then deriving from that, follows the decision about the colors of the window frames, the rails, the gates and all the other details, to the smallest one, so as to complement, enhance and enlighten previously chosen colors.

 

A DIALOGUE BETWEEN THE QUALITIES OF

TRADITION AND MODERN TECHNOLOGY

Modern technology available today should not be conceived as an aim or a value in itself, but as a tool to create a human and friendly environment that will satisfy the basic needs that are common to all of us as human beings. Despite the unlimited possibilities it opens to us, that should be used in a controlled, value-oriented and moral way.

 

One of the immediate questions I am asked in reaction to the buildings I design is whether it is a new design that tries to reconstruct an architectural language of the past. My answer to that is that I do not attempt or aim to reconstruct the past or to nostalgically trace this or that style. The similarity and the association created between the buildings I design and those we know from the past, and the similar experience and feeling they create, originate in my use of the same fundamentalpatterns and planning codes that guided in the past and will be guide in the future in any culture and tradition, those who aspire to give a building a spirit and soul, codes that have been brutally ignored (in general) by contemporary architecture, and which I try to revive and implement in the buildings I design, in relation to the physical and social context of the place I am working in.

MUSIC CENTER AND LIBRARY

A UNIQUE DIALOGUE BETWEEN A NEW BUILDING AND THE HISTORICAL ENVIRONMENT

Tel-Aviv, Israel

 

Completion Date 1997

Preserving the spirit of a historical environment does not necessarily mean a fanatic repetition of its language. The Bialik district at the heart of Tel-Aviv, with Bialik Square at its center, is a micro-document of the architectural history of Tel-Aviv from the 19201⁄4s, the "Eclectic period", when European architecture was brought to Israel and integrated with the local oriental architecture, to the 19301⁄4s and the new 'International Style' somewhat later.

The new Music Center and Library built at Bialik Square (1997) is located on the site of a three-story residential house built in 1931 and demolished in 1994. My commission was to design a new building integrating a reconstructed part of the façade of the old one.

My conception was that once you demolish a building and reconstruct just one isolated architectural element of it, it would become a meaningless fragment, for it would no longer be an organic part of the whole, and thus would not serve the initial purpose of preserving the old. Thus, what I tried to do was to treat the reconstructed part as an environmental element that has to be naturally integrated with the newly designed building, to form one coherent functional-visual entity.

The intention was to design the new center as an integral part of the square.

The key question I asked myself was, what is the right thing to do in order to preserve and enhance the spirit of what still exists around there, which is so human and right.

Standing in the square I adopted none of the classical approaches. I aimed neither to reconstruct the past nor to dissociate myself from it by enforcing a completely new order. I was looking for a language that at that point in time in Bialik Square would create a meaningful dialogue between a new, contemporary building and the historical environment.

  

The Interrelation Between The Building And The Square

 

The powerful presence of the building in the square emanates from its being an integral part of it, and not from the efforts to distinguish it from its environment.

This intimate and organic integration was created by several basic means:

The dimensions of the building were in harmony with the human scale of the square.

The façade of the building defines the boundaries of the square, and therefore determines the feeling it inspires. The orange paint of the building1⁄4s faÁade, apparently expected to disturb the tranquility of the square, was the element that complemented the blue color of the sky and the green color of the trees to create a harmony that inspired peace and serenity in the square.

The cornices that jut out at the faÁade belong morphologically both to the building and to the space next to it, uniting them together.

The dialogue between the building and the square continues through the high windows behind which all the indoor 'public' areas are located, as well as from the roof terrace overlooking the square.

The crown on top of the building provides a graduated link to the sky. Its shape was derived from the same language that determined the pattern of the cement tiles of the porch and the reliefs on the railing wall.

At the front, where the building touches the square, an entrance porch was designed for the orchestra to play to the audience sitting in the square, thus creating a physical and human connection between the building and the square.

 

The interior of the building

 

Past the main lobby, at the entrance to the building, is the auditorium, separated from it by a glass wall, through which the back garden at the far end can be seen.

 

At the side of the lobby there is a wide-open staircase, which is an identified beautiful space by itself. It leads to the upper floors, providing a view to all the floors open to it.

The first floor houses the lending library with the catalogues and librarian counter at the entrance. The rear areas are reserved for the notes, scores and books, with access to staff only.

The second floor accommodates the museum of musical instruments and contemporary exhibitions related to music. Further along, past glass partitions are a study and periodicals room and an archive. These three spaces make one visual continuum while preserving the identity and uniqueness of each space.

  

The top floor houses the audiovisual library that lends discs, videotapes, and records. Further along, beyond the glass partition, is an audiovisual room with a view of the sea.

  

Extending from this floor, overlooking the square, is a roof terrace that has also a view of the sea.

The secret enfolded in the beauty of a building (or of any artifact) as a whole lies in its spatial order and in the nature of its details. The details like the furniture, lighting accessories, materials and colors, are regarded as an inherent part of the building and therefore are inseparable part of my planning process.

The similarity in form between the details stems from the common whole to which they belong.

In modern society, beauty has become a term of abuse, often associated with inefficiency, impracticality, lack of functionalism and high costs. That notion of beauty is true when it relates to details as decorative elements and ornamentationfor its own sake.

The Shakers, a religious sect that created an abundance of useful furniture and utensils in the mideighteenth century, noted that the wholeness and beauty of form are products of pure functionalism, and that there is no room for beautiful forms that do not flow from a functional need. Take, for example the gold leaves capital of the iron column, which connects it to the beam. This part is functionally separate from the other parts of the column and was therefore given a different form and color.

At the same time, however, the Shakers did not interpret the term 'pure functionalism' in the narrow sense of the word, as did the modernists, for whom the expression 'form follows function' was semantically connected only to thephysical body of the building, but in the broad sense that connects it both to the physical and spiritual experience in a building. This is the experience I want to create for the users of the buildings I design.

This concept is manifested, for example, in the following design details:

The wall between the lobby and the auditorium, which normally would be solid, is a glass wall that allows a view to the depth of the building immediately upon entrance.

The six steel columns that rise to the top of the building are structural, but at the same time their placement helps to define and distinguish the public areas of each floor.

The capital of the column, a functional entity that both separates it from the beam and connects it to it, is distinguished from other parts of the column by its leave-like shape and its gold color.

The textured gold color of the walls in the public areas is different from the color of other spaces.

The seams between the stone tiles and the carpets are made of cherry wood, a third material that both joins and separates the two.

The soft reflection of the light when it touches the gold, silver and redish colors in the space creates a unique feeling that envelops all parts of the building.

All parts of the audiovisual library are visually connected, all have a view to the roof terrace and the sea at the far distance.

     

RESIDENTIAL NEIGHBORHOOD IN THE KIBBUTZ

Kibbutz Maagan Michael, Israel

Completion Date

Stage 1 2001

Stage 2 2004

STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN KIBBUTZ LIFE REQUIRE A NEW CONCEPT OF HOUSING

From Quantitive Uniformity to Qualitative Equality

 

The social, economic and physical structure of the collective known as a 'kibbutz' was founded in Israel in the early 20th century.

Its uppermost value since its very beginning was equality, translated in most realms of community life not as equality of opportunities, in its qualitative sense, but rather in itsquantitative sense, as formal uniformity. This dogmatic equality obliterated the self-identity and uniqueness of the individual and saw him only as part of the collective.

In recent years, however, this old conception of equality has been redefined in many respects. The social structure reverted back to the nuclear family, with children raised at home, and no longer in a communal house where they were regarded as the possession of the community as

a whole. Wages, previously based on the notion that every member contributed according to his or her own ability, but was supported according to his or her needs, have now become differential, based on one's contribution. Housing in the kibbutz is perhaps the last fortress of the old and simplistic conception of equality, a conception that now more than ever can change.

According to this conception, houses are regarded as static models ofpredetermined uniform shape, arbitrarily positioned on the building site. All houses with no regard to any environmental factors such as the direction of light or the angle open to the view on any specific plot, resulted in having all identical plan and elevations. Thus a tenant whose window happens to face the orchard has the advantage on the one whose window faces the cow shed.

 

This approach created a qualitative inequality between the houses and inequality of opportunities among the tenants.

Moreover, the outcome of this dogmatic approach was that houses built in the desert environment of the Negev or the hilly Galilean environment were exactly the same.

The new model I implemented in the design of the new houses in Kibbutz Maagan Michael was fundamentally different. The planning process adopted was based on patterns that were common to all the houses, patterns that grew out both of the social structure of the kibbutz and the geographic location facing the sea. When these common patterns were used in different site conditions, a variety of houses emerged, sharing one architectural language.

 

Planning the neighborhood on the site

Kibbutz Ma'agan is situated on a hill, with the new neighborhood on the western side that faces the sea. Each planning decision, from the positioning of the house on the site, through the determination of the direction of its entrance in relation to the path, and unto the location of each window, was taken on the site of each plot.

 

First the position of each house in relation to the others was determined, so as to ensure that each one has an open view to the water and can enjoy the breeze coming from the sea.

To determine the level of each house so that one could see the sea while sitting on the terrace, I used a crane that lifted me up to where I could see the sea. This height was measured and the level of the house was determined accordingly.

   

At the center of the neighborhood, a path was planned connecting the promenade that runs along the water and the path that runs from the

communal dining hall at the heart of the kibbutz to the neighborhood.

What dictated the course of the path was the wish to see the water from every spot along the path.

The houses were arranged in small clusters, sharing a communal open space. Unlike the traditional pattern in the kibbutz, where all open spaces, called 'the lawn', are communal and the buildings are dispersed arbitrarily in between, here the secondary paths running between the houses defined in a non-formal way, with no fences, the 'private' zone of each family.

This sense of 'private territory' unexpectedly created a new reality in which each family started to grow its own garden. This new pattern of behavior could not have developed in the traditional model, where the common open spaces were planned as the property of everyone, and therefore of no one.

 

At this stage the site plan was completed. The position of each house in the neighborhood in relation to the paths and its position in relation to the sea produced different types of house plans. On plots where the entrance from the path was in the same direction as the sea view, type A plans emerged. Here the entrance was through the main garden to the living-dining area that faced the view.

On plots where the entrance was from the opposite direction of the sea view, type B plans developed, and the entrance was through the opposite side of the garden and living areas.

In front of each house there is a bicycle rack (the only means of transport allowed within the boundaries of the kibbutz). Next to the entrance door a place for muddy boots was allocated, a prominent symbol of the kibbutz.

The walls are all whitewashed light blue, complemented by regionally quarried sandstone characterizing the construction details.

The implementation of a conceptually new model in a very rigid social framework became possible now, as a result of an overall change in the reality of the kibbutz communities, a change that was inevitable in the twenty-first century.

 

Nili Portugali

© 2005

Nili Portugali is an architect based in Tel-Aviv, Israel and has just published a new book, "The Act of Creation and the Spirit of a Place: A Holistic-Phenomenological Approach to Architecture", Edition Axel Menges, Stuttgart & London 2006. See www.niliportugali.com for more details.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

His Holiness the Dalai Lama, The Joy of Living and Dying in Peace, Harper Collins, India, 1997

Christopher Alexander, S. Ishikawa, M. Silverstein, A Pattern Language, Oxford University Press, 1977

 

Christopher Alexander, The Timeless Way of Building, Oxford University Press, 1979

Stephen Grabow, Christopher Alexander, The Search for a New Paradigm in Architecture, Oriel Press, 1983

Eugene Herrigel, Zen and the Art of Archery, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964

Views expressed on this page are those of the writer and are not necessarily shared by those involved in INTBAU.

  

intbau.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/AHolisticApproachto...

The common crane (Grus grus), also known as the Eurasian crane, is a bird of the family Gruidae, the cranes. A medium-sized species, it is the only crane commonly found in Europe besides the demoiselle crane (Grus virgo) and the Siberian crane (Leucogeranus leucogeranus) that only are regular in the far eastern part of the continent. Along with the sandhill crane (Antigone canadensis), demoiselle crane and the brolga (Antigone rubicunda), it is one of only four crane species not currently classified as threatened with extinction or conservation dependent on the species level. Despite the species' large numbers, local extinctions and extirpations have taken place in part of its range, and an ongoing reintroduction project is underway in the United Kingdom.

 

Taxonomy

The first formal description of the common crane was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Ardea grus. The current genus Grus was erected by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. Grus is the Latin word for a "crane".

 

Description

 

The common crane is a large, stately bird and a medium-sized crane. It is 100–130 cm (39–51 in) long with a 180–240 cm (71–94 in) wingspan. The body weight can range from 3 to 6.1 kg (6.6 to 13.4 lb), with the nominate subspecies averaging around 5.4 kg (12 lb) and the eastern subspecies (G. g. lilfordi) averaging 4.6 kg (10 lb). Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 50.7–60.8 cm (20.0–23.9 in) long, the tarsus is 20.1–25.2 cm (7.9–9.9 in) and the exposed culmen is 9.5–11.6 cm (3.7–4.6 in).

 

Males are slightly heavier and larger than females, with weight showing the largest sexual size dimorphism, followed by wing, central toe, and head length in adults and juveniles.

 

This species is slate-grey overall. The forehead and lores are blackish with a bare red crown and a white streak extending from behind the eyes to the upper back. The overall colour is darkest on the back and rump and palest on the breast and wings. The primaries, the tips of secondaries, the alula, the tip of the tail, and the edges of upper tail coverts are all black and the greater coverts droop into explosive plumes. This combination of colouration ultimately distinguishes it from similar species in Asia, like the hooded (G. monacha) and black-necked cranes (G. nigricollis). The juvenile has yellowish-brown tips to its body feathers and lacks the drooping wing feathers and the bright neck pattern of the adult, and has a fully feathered crown. Every two years, before migration, the adult common crane undergoes a complete moult, remaining flightless for six weeks, until the new feathers grow.

 

It has a loud trumpeting call, given in flight and display. The call is piercing and can be heard from a considerable distance. It has a dancing display, leaping with wings uplifted, described in detail below.

 

Distribution

The common crane breeds in Europe and across the Palearctic to Siberia. By far the largest breeding populations can be found in Russia, Finland and Sweden. It is a rare breeder in southern and western Europe, with larger numbers breeding in the central and eastern parts of the continent. It has reappeared in several western European countries where it had been extirpated as a breeding bird decades or even centuries ago, including the United Kingdom and, since 2021, the Republic of Ireland. In Russia, it breeds as far east at the Chukchi Peninsula. In Asia, the breeding range of the common crane extends as far south as northern China, Turkey and the Caucasus region.

 

The species is a migrant and common cranes that breed in Europe predominantly winter in Portugal, Spain and northern Africa. Autumn migration is from August to October in the breeding areas, but from late October to early December at the wintering sites. Spring migration starts in February at wintering sites up to early March, but from March through May at the breeding areas. Migration phenology of common cranes is changing due to climate change. Important staging areas occur anywhere from Sweden, the Netherlands and Germany to China (with a large one around the Caspian Sea) and many thousand cranes can be seen in one day in the Autumn. Some birds winter elsewhere in southern Europe, including Portugal and France. During mild winters, some may stay near their breeding locations year-round, even in northwestern Europe. Common cranes that breed in far eastern Europe, including European Russia, winter in the river valleys of Sudan, Ethiopia, Tunisia and Eritrea with smaller numbers in Turkey, northern Israel, Iraq and parts of Iran. The third major wintering region, primarily used by those breeding in central Russia, is in the northern half of the Indian subcontinent, including Pakistan. Minimal wintering also occurs in Burma, Vietnam and Thailand. Lastly, the easternmost breeders winter in eastern China, where they are often the most common crane. Migrating flocks fly in a "V" formation.

 

It is a rare visitor to Japan and Korea, mostly blown over from the Chinese wintering population, and is a rare vagrant to western North America, where birds are occasionally seen with flocks of migrating sandhill cranes.

 

Habitat

 

In Europe, the common crane predominantly breeds in boreal and taiga forest and mixed forests, from an elevation of sea-level to 2,200 m (7,200 ft). In northern climes, it breeds in treeless moors, on bogs, or on dwarf heather habitats, usually where small lakes or pools are also found. In Sweden, breeders are usually found in small, swampy openings amongst pine forests, while in Germany, marshy wetlands are used. Breeding habitat used in Russia are similar, though they can be found nesting in less likely habitat such as steppe and even semi-desert, so long as water is near. Primarily, the largest number of common cranes are found breeding in wooded swamps, bogs and wetlands and seem to require quiet, peaceful environs with minimal human interference. They occur at low density as breeders even where common, typically ranging from 1 to 5 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi).

 

In winter, this species moves to flooded areas, shallow sheltered bays, and swampy meadows. During the flightless moulting period there is a need for shallow waters or high reed cover for concealment. Later, after the migration period, the birds winter regularly in open country, often on cultivated lands and sometimes also in savanna-like areas, for example on the Iberian Peninsula.

 

Behaviour

Diet

The common crane is omnivorous, as are all cranes. It largely eats plant matter, including roots, rhizomes, tubers, stems, leaves, fruits and seeds. They also commonly eat, when available, pond-weeds, heath berries, peas, potatoes, olives, acorns, cedar nuts and pods of peanuts. Notably amongst the berries consumed, the cranberry, is possibly named after the species.

 

Animal foods become more important during the summer breeding season and may be the primary food source at that time of year, especially while regurgitating to young. Their animal foods are insects, especially dragonflies, and also snails, earthworms, crabs, spiders, millipedes, woodlice, amphibians, rodents, and small birds.

 

Common cranes may either forage on land or in shallow water, probing around with their bills for any edible organism. Although crops may locally be damaged by the species, they mostly consume waste grain in winter from previously harvested fields and so actually benefit farmers by cleaning fields for use in the following year. As with other cranes, all foraging (as well as drinking and roosting) is done in small groups, which may variously consist of pairs, family groups or winter flocks.

 

Breeding

 

This species usually lays eggs in May, though seldom will do so earlier or later. Like most cranes, this species displays indefinite monogamous pair bonds. If one mate dies, a crane may attempt to court a new mate the following year. Although a pair may be together for many years, the courtship rituals of the species are enacted by every pair each spring. The dancing of common cranes has complex, social meanings and may occur at almost any time of year. Dancing may include bobs, bows, pirouettes, and stops, as in various crane species. Aggressive displays may include ruffled wing feathers, throwing vegetation in the air and pointing the bare red patch on their heads at each other. Courtship displays begin with a male following the female in a stately, march-like walk. The unison call, consists of the female holding her head up and gradually lowering down as she calls out. The female calls out a high note and then the male follows with a longer scream in a similar posture. Copulation consists of a similar, dramatic display.

 

The nesting territory of common cranes is variable and is based on the local habitat. It can range in size from variously 2 to 500 ha (4.9 to 1,235.5 acres). In common with sandhill cranes (and no other crane species), common cranes "paint" their bodies with mud or decaying vegetation, apparently in order to blend into their nesting environment. The nest is either in or very near shallow water, often with dense shore vegetation nearby, and may be used over several years. The size and placement of the nest varies considerably over the range, with Arctic birds building relatively small nests. In Sweden, an average nest is around 90 cm (35 in) across.

 

The clutch of the common crane usually contains two eggs, with seldom one laid and, even more rarely, 3 or 4. If a clutch is lost early in incubation, the cranes may be able to lay another one within a couple of weeks. The incubation period is around 30 days and is done primarily by the female but occasionally by both sexes. If humans approach the nest both parents may engage in a distraction display but known ground predators (including domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)) are physically attacked almost immediately.

 

New hatchlings are generally quite helpless but are able to crawl away from danger within a few hours, can swim soon after hatching and can run with their parents at 24 hours old. Chicks respond to danger by freezing, using their camouflaged brownish down to defend them beyond their fierce parents. Young chicks use their wings to stabilise them while running, while by 9 weeks of age they can fly short distances. The adult birds go through their postbreeding moult while caring for their young, rendering them flightless for about 5 to 6 weeks around the time the young also can't fly yet. According to figures of cranes wintering in Spain, around 48% birds have surviving young by the time they winter and around 18% are leading two young by winter. By the next breeding season, the previous years young often flock together. The age of sexual maturity in wild birds has been estimated at variously from 3 to 6 years of age.

 

Longevity

This species could live up to 30 or 40 years of age. But the data on longevity (43 years) and life expectancy (12 years, N=7 cranes) were published with captive cranes. Common cranes living in the wild must show shorter lives. Successful breeders, the best subjects in the population, are guessed to live on average 12 years. Unsuccessful breeding cranes, therefore, may have shorter lives. Elementary survival analysis with the Euring database reports a life expectancy at birth (LEB) of c. 5 years. This LEB of 5 years was similar to that estimated for other crane species, as for example the Florida sandhill cranes (G. canadensis) (LEB = 7 years). Reports of tagged common cranes have increased rapidly in the last decades. Therefore, longevity and life expectancy at birth of wild common cranes will be updated.

 

Sociality

The common crane is a fairly social bird while not breeding. Flocks of up to 400 birds may be seen flying together during migration. Staging sites, where migrating birds gather to rest and feed in the middle of their migration, may witness thousands of cranes gathering at once. However, the flocks of the species are not stable social units but rather groups that ensure greater safety in numbers and collectively draw each other's attention to ideal foraging and roosting sites. Possibly due to a longer molt, younger and non-breeding cranes are usually the earliest fall migrants and may band together at that time of year. During these migratory flights, common cranes have been known to fly at altitudes of up to 33,000 ft (10,000 m), one of the highest of any species of bird, second only to the Ruppell's Griffin Vulture.

 

Cranes use a kleptoparasitic strategy to recover from temporary reductions in feeding rate, particularly when the rate is below the threshold of intake necessary for survival. Accumulated intake of common cranes during daytime at a site of stopover and wintering shows a typical anti-sigmoid shape, with greatest increases of intake after dawn and before dusk.

 

Interspecies interactions

There are few natural predators of adult cranes, although white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), Bonelli's eagles (Aquila fasciata), eastern imperial eagles (Aquila heliaca} and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) are a potential predatory threat to common cranes of all ages. The crane has been known to counterattack eagles both on the land and in mid-flight, using their bill as a weapon and kicking with their feet. Common cranes were additionally recorded as prey for Eurasian eagle-owls (Bubo bubo) in the Ukok Plateau of Russia. Mammals such as wild boar (Sus scrofa), wolverine (Gulo gulo) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are attacked at the nest, as they are potential predators. When facing off against mammals, cranes jab with their bill, hit with their wings and kick with their feet. The cranes nimbly avoid strikes against themselves by jumping into the air. It is probable that they are threatened by a wider range of large mammalian predators as is the black-necked crane but these have not yet been recorded. Herbivorous mammals such as red deer (Cervus elaphus) may also be attacked at the nest, indicating the high aggressiveness of the birds while nesting. The determined attack of a parent crane often assures safety from predators, but occasional losses to predation are inevitable. The carrion crow (Corvus corone) is locally a successful predator of common cranes' eggs, trickily using distraction displays to steal them. Other species of Corvus may also cause some loss of eggs, with common ravens (Corvus corax) also taking some small chicks. Common cranes may loosely associate with any other crane in the genus Grus in migration or winter as well as greater white-fronted geese and bean geese.

 

Population and conservation

In 2015, the global population was estimated to be about 500,000 individuals. The vast majority of pairs nest in Russia, Finland (30-40,000 pairs in 2009) and Sweden (c. 30,000 pairs in 2012). On the fringes of its range, it has often become rare or even been extirpated, but in several European countries this trend has been reversed and overall the European population is increasing.

 

In the early 20th century, it was considered rare in Poland, but gradually began to increase and this has accelerated since the 1980s. In 2010-2012, the Polish population was estimated to number 20-22,000 pairs. Norway had 3-5,000 pairs in 2015 and Estonia had 5,800 pairs in 1999, with both increasing. The German breeding population increased from 700 pairs in 1978 to more than 10,000 pairs in 2017, which is still a fraction of the size of the numbers that once bred in the country. After having disappeared as a breeding bird decades earlier, the species began breeding again in France in 2000 and in 2017 there were more than 20 pairs. In Denmark, the common crane returned as a breeder in 1953, about a century after it had disappeared. Numbers remained extremely low, less than 5 pairs, until the 1990s when a rapid increase began; in 2022 there were at least 750 pairs in Denmark. In the Netherlands, the species disappeared as a breeding bird centuries ago, but it returned in 2001 and by 2020 there were about 40 pairs in the country. The common crane returned to the Czech Republic as a breeder in 1981 and by 2004 it had increased to 35 pairs. In 2009, the species again began to breed in Slovakia, and in Austria it returned as a breeding bird in 2018 after having disappeared in 1885. Although large numbers winter in Spain, the last breeding in the country had been in 1954. In 2017, a pair that had been released after being rehabilitated bred in Spain. It was extirpated as a breeder from Italy around 1920 and Hungary by 1952, and it also used to breed in the Balkans; significant numbers still pass through these countries during migration.

 

In the United Kingdom, the common crane became extirpated in the 17th century, but a small and increasing population now breeds again in the Norfolk Broads and a reintroduction began in 2010 in the Somerset levels. A total of 93 birds were released between 2010 and 2014 as part of the reintroduction effort, and there are now 180 resident birds in the UK. In 2016, a wild crane was born in Wales for the first time in over 400 years. In 2021, the British population had increased to 72 pairs. In the Republic of Ireland, several visiting flocks were observed in the 2000s and in 2021 a pair managed to breed for the first time on the island in 300 years.

 

The main threat to the species and the primary reason for its decline comes from habitat loss and degradation, as a result of dam construction, urbanisation, agricultural expansion, and drainage of wetlands. Although it has adapted to human settlement in many areas, nest disturbance, continuing changes in land use, and collision with utility lines are still potential problems. Further threats may include persecution due to crop damage, pesticide poisoning, egg collection, and hunting. The common crane is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.

 

Culture

 

In 1870 Józef Chełmoński painted a picture: "Departure of Cranes" (National Museum in Cracow)

 

In Ireland, despite being extinct for over 200 years, the common crane plays a very important part in Irish culture and folklore and so thus recent efforts to encourage it back to Ireland are received with much enthusiasm.

 

The Kranich Museum in Hessenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany, is dedicated to art and folklore related to the common crane.

 

The common crane is the sacred bird of the god Hephaestus, and it features heavily in the god's iconography. In Indian states of Rajsthan and Gujarat this crane is described in lots of folk songs. For example: a newly married woman (whose husband has gone to a far away place for earning) will sing a song to crane to take a message to her husband and request to tell him to come home early.

Puri is a city and a Municipality of Odisha. It is the district headquarters of Puri district, Odisha, eastern India. It is situated on the Bay of Bengal, 60 kilometres south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as Jagannath Puri after the 12th-century Jagannath Temple located in the city. It is one of the original Char Dham pilgrimage sites for Indian Hindus.

 

Puri was known by several names from the ancient times to the present, and locally called as Badadeula. Puri and the Jagannath Temple were invaded 18 times by Hindu and Muslim rulers, starting from the 4th century to the start of the 19th century with the objective of looting the treasures of the temple. Odisha, including Puri and its temple, were under the British Raj from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947. Even though princely states do not exist in independent India, the heirs of the Gajapati Dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple. The temple town has many Hindu religious maths or monasteries.

 

The economy of Puri town is dependent on the religious importance of the Jagannath Temple to the extent of nearly 80%. The festivals which contribute to the economy are the 24 held every year in the temple complex, including 13 major festivals; Ratha Yatra and its related festivals are the most important which are attended by millions of people every year. Sand art and applique art are some of the important crafts of the city. Puri is one of the 12 heritage cities chosen by the Government of India for holistic development.

 

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

GEOGRAPHY

Puri, located on the east coast of India on the Bay of Bengal, is in the center of the district of the same name. It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the south east, the Mauza Sipaurubilla on the west, Mauz Gopinathpur in the north and Mauza Balukhand in the east. It is within the 67 kilometres coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between Chilika Lake and the south of Puri city. However, the administrative jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of 16.3268 square kilometres spread over 30 wards, which includes a shore line of 5 kilometres.

 

Puri is in the coastal delta of the Mahanadi River on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. In the ancient days it was near to Sisupalgarh (Ashokan Tosali) when the land was drained by a tributary of the River Bhargavi, a branch of the Mahanadi River, which underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the estuary, and formed many sand hills. These sand hills could not be "cut through" by the streams. Because of the sand hills, the Bhargavi River flowing to the south of Puri, moved away towards the Chilika Lake. This shift also resulted in the creation of two lagoons known as Sar and Samang on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively. Sar lagoon has a length of 8.0 km in an east-west direction and has a width of 3.2 km in north-south direction. The river estuary has a shallow depth of 1.5 m only and the process of siltation is continuing. According to a 15th-century chronicle the stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or Neelachal was used as the foundation or high plinth of the present temple which was then known as Purushottama, the Supreme Being. A 16th century chronicle attributes filling up of the bed of the river which flowed through the present Grand Road, during the reign of King Narasimha II (1278–1308).

 

CLIMATE

According to the Köppen and Geiger the climate of Puri is classified Aw. The city has moderate and tropical climate. Humidity is fairly high throughout the year. The temperature during summer touches a maximum of 36 °C and during winter it is 17 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1,337 millimetres and the average annual temperature is 26.9 °C.

 

HISTORY

NAMES IN HISTORY

Puri, the holy land of Lord Jaganath, also known popularly as Badadeula in local usage, has many ancient names in the Hindu scriptures such as the Rigveda, Matsya purana, Brahma Purana, Narada Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Kapila samhita and Niladrimahodaya. In the Rigveda, in particular, it is mentioned as a place called Purushamandama-grama meaning the place where the Creator deity of the world – Supreme Divinity deified on altar or mandapa was venerated near the coast and prayers offered with vedic hymns. Over time the name got changed to Purushottama Puri and further shortened to Puri and the Purusha became Jagannatha. Close to this place sages like Bhrigu, Atri and Markandeya had their hermitage. Its name is mentioned, conforming to the deity worshipped, as Srikshetra, Purusottama Dhāma, Purusottama Kshetra, Purusottama Puri and Jagannath Puri. Puri is however, a common usage now. It is also known the geographical features of its siting as Shankhakshetra (layout of the town is in the form of a conch shell.), Neelāchala ("blue mountain" a terminology used to name very large sand lagoon over which the temple was built but this name is not in vogue), Neelāchalakshetra, Neelādri, The word 'Puri' in Sanskrit means "town", or 'city' and is cognate with polis in Greek.

 

Another ancient name is Charita as identified by Cunningham which was later spelled as Che-li-ta-lo by Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang.When the present temple was built by the Ganga king Chodangadev in the 11th and 12th centuries it was called Purushottamkshetra. However, the Moghuls, the Marathas and early British rulers called it Purushottama-chhatar or just Chhatar. In Akbar's Ain-i-Akbari and subsequent Muslim historical records it was known as Purushottama. In the Sanskrit drama authored by Murari Mishra in the 8th century it is referred as Purushottama only. It was only after twelfth century Puri came to be known by the shortened form of Jagannatha Puri, named after the deity or in a short form as Puri. In some records pertaining to the British rule, the word 'Jagannath' was used for Puri. It is the only shrine in India, where Radha, along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga, Bhudevi, Sati, Parvati, and Shakti abodes with Krishna, also known as Jagannath.

 

ANCIENT PERIOD

According to the chronicle Madala Panji, in 318 the priests and servitors of the temple spirited away the idols to escape the wrath of the Rashtrakuta King Rakatavahu. The temple's ancient historical records also finds mention in the Brahma Purana and Skanda Purana as having been built by the king Indradyumna of Ujjayani.

 

According to W.J. Wilkinson, in Puri, Buddhism was once a well established practice but later Buddhists were persecuted and Brahmanism became the order of the religious practice in the town; the Buddha deity in now worshipped by the Hindus as Jagannatha. It is also said that some relics of Buddha were placed inside the idol of Jagannath which the Brahmins claimed were the bones of Krishna. Even during Ashoka’s reign in 240 BC Odisha was a Buddhist center and that a tribe known as Lohabahu (barbarians from outside Odisha) converted to Buddhism and built a temple with an idol of Buddha which is now worshipped as Jagannatha. It is also said that Lohabahu deposited some Buddha relics in the precincts of the temple.

 

Construction of the Jagannatha Temple started in 1136 and completed towards the later part of the 12th century. The King of the Ganga dynasty, Anangabhima dedicated his kingdom to the God, then known as the Purushottam-Jagannatha and resolved that from then on he and his descendants would rule under "divine order as Jagannatha's sons and vassals". Even though princely states do not exist in independent India, the heirs of the Gajapati dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple; the king formally sweeps the road in front of the chariots before the start of the Rathayatra.

 

MEDIEVAL AND EARLY MODERN PERIODS

History of the temple is the history of the town of Puri, which was invaded 18 times during its history to plunder the treasures of the Jagannath Puri temple. The first invasion was in the 8th century by Rastrakuta king Govinda-III (AD 798–814) and the last was in 1881 by the followers of Alekh Religion who did not recognize Jagannath worship. In between, from the 1205 onward there were many invasions of the city and its temple by Muslims of the Afghans and Moghuls descent, known as Yavanas or foreigners; they had mounted attacks to ransack the wealth of the temple rather than for religious reasons. In most of these invasions the idols were taken to safe places by the priests and the servitors of the temple. Destruction of the temple was prevented by timely resistance or surrender by the kings of the region. However, the treasures of the temple were repeatedly looted. Puri is the site of the Govardhana matha, one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankaracharya, when he visited Puri in 810 and since then it has become an important dham (divine centre) for the Hindus; the others being those at Sringeri, Dwaraka and Jyotirmath. The matha is headed by Jagatguru Shankarachrya. The significance of the four dhams is that the Lord Vishnu takes his dinner at Puri, has his bath at Rameshwaram, spends the night at Dwarka and does penance at Badrinath.

 

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Bengal who established the Bhakti movements of India in the sixteenth century, now known by the name the Hare Krishna movement, spent many years as a devotee of Jagannatha at Puri; he is said to have merged his "corporal self" with the deity. There is also a matha of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu here.

 

In the 17th century for the sailors sailing on the east coast of India, the landmark was the temple located in a plaza in the centre of the town which they called the "White Pagoda" while the Konark Sun Temple, 60 kilometres away to the east of Puri, was known as the "Black Pagoda".

 

The iconographic representation of the images in the Jagannath temple are believed to be the forms derived from the worship made by the tribal groups of Sabaras belonging to northern Odisha. These images are replaced at regular intervals as the wood deteriorates. This replacement is a special event carried out ritulistically by special group of carpenters.

 

The town has many Mathas (Monasteries of the various Hindu sects). Among the important mathas is the Emar Matha founded by the Tamil Vaishnav Saint Ramanujacharya in the 12th century AD. At present this matha is located in front of Simhadvara across the eastern corner of the Jagannath Temple is reported to have been built in the 16th century during the reign of Suryavamsi Gajapati. The matha was in the news recently for the large cache of 522 silver slabs unearthded from a closed room.

 

The British conquered Orissa in 1803 and recognizing the importance of the Jagannatha Temple in the life of the people of the state they initially placed an official to look after the temple's affairs and later declared it a district with the same name.

 

MODERN HISTORY

In 1906, Sri Yukteswar an exponent of Kriya Yoga, a resident of Puri, established an ashram in the sea-side town of Puri, naming it "Kararashram" as a spiritual training center. He died on 9 March 1936 and his body is buried in the garden of the ashram.

 

The city is the site of the former summer residence of British Raj built in 1913–14 during the era of governors, the Raj Bhavan.

 

For the people of Puri Lord Jagannath, visualized as Lord Krishna, is synonymous with their city. They believe that the Jagannatha looks after the welfare of the state. However, after the incident of the partial collapse of the Jagannatha Temple, the Amalaka part of the tower on 14 June 1990 people became apprehensive and thought it was not a good omen for the welfare of the State of Odisha. The replacement of the fallen stone by another of the same size and weight (seven tons) had to be done only in the an early morning hours after the gods had woken up after a good nights sleep which was done on 28 February 1991.

 

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of the Indian Government. It is one of 12 the heritage cities chosen with "focus on holistic development" to be implemented in 27 months by end of March 2017.

 

Non-Hindus are not permitted to enter the shrines but are allowed to view the temple and the proceedings from the roof of the Raghunandan library within the precincts of the temple for a small donation.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2001 India census, Puri city, an urban Agglomeration governed by Municipal Corporation in Orissa state, had a population of 157,610 which increased to 200,564 in 2011. Males, 104,086, females, 96,478, children under 6 years of age, 18,471. The sex ratio is 927 females to 1000 males. Puri has an average literacy rate of 88.03 percent (91.38 percent males and 84.43 percent females). Religion-wise data is not reported.

 

ECONOMY

The economy of Puri is dependent on tourism to the extent of about 80%. The temple is the focal point of the entire area of the town and provides major employment to the people of the town. Agricultural production of rice, ghee, vegetables and so forth of the region meets the huge requirements of the temple, with many settlements aroiund the town exclusively catering to the other religious paraphernalia of the temple. The temple administration employs 6,000 men to perform the rituals. The temple also provides economic sustenance to 20,000 people belonging to 36 orders and 97 classes. The kitchen of the temple which is said to be the largest in the world employs 400 cooks.

 

CITY MANAGEMENT AND GOVERNANCE

Puri Municipality, Puri Konark Development Authority, Public Health Engineering Organisastion, Orissa Water Supply Sewerage Board are some of the principal organizations that are devolved with the responsibility of providing for all the urban needs of civic amenities such as water supply, sewerage, waste management, street lighting, and infrastructure of roads. The major activity which puts maximum presuure on these organizations is the annual event of the Ratha Yatra held for 10 days during July when more than a million people attend the grand event. This event involves to a very large extent the development activities such as infrastructure and amenities to the pilgrims, apart from security to the pilgrims.

 

The civic administration of Puri is the responsibility of the Puri Municipality which came into existence in 1864 in the name of Puri Improvement Trust which got converted into Puri Municipality in 1881. After India's independence in 1947, Orissa Municipal Act-1950 was promulgated entrusting the administration of the city to the Puri Municipality. This body is represented by elected representative with a Chairperson and councilors representing the 30 wards within the municipal limits.

 

LANDMARKS

JAGANNATH TEMPLE AT PURI

The Temple of Jagannath at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples built in the Kalinga style of architecture, in respect of its plan, front view and structural detailing. It is one of the Pancharatha (Five chariots) type consisting of two anurathas, two konakas and one ratha with well-developed pagas. Vimana or Deula is the sanctum sanctorum where the triad (three) deities are deified on the ratnavedi (Throne of Pearls), and over which is the temple tower, known as the rekha deula; the latter is built over a rectangular base of the pidha temples as its roof is made up of pidhas that are sequentially arranged horizontal platforms built in descending order forming a pyramidal shape. The mandapa in front of the sanctum sanctorum is known as Jagamohana where devotees assemble to offer worship. The temple tower with a spire rises to a height of 58 m in height and a flag is unfurled above it fixed over a wheel (chakra). Within the temple complex is the Nata Mandir, a large hall where Garuda stamba (pillar). Chaitanya Mahaprabhu used to stand here and pray. In the interior of the Bhoga Mantap, adjoining the Nata mandir, there is profusion of decorations of sculptures and paintings which narrate the story of Lord Krishna. The temple is built on an elevated platform (of about 39,000 m2 area), 20 ft above the adjoining area. The temple rises to a height of 214 ft above the road level. The temple complex covers an area of 4,3 ha. There is double walled enclosure, rectangular in shape (rising to a height of 20 ft) surrounding the temple complex of which the outer wall is known as Meghanada Prachira, measuring 200 by 192 metres. The inner walled enclosure, known as Kurmabedha. measures 126m x 95m. There are four entry gates (in four cardinal directions to the temple located at the center of the walls in the four directions of the outer circle. These are: the eastern gate called Singhadwara (Lions Gate), the southern gate known as Ashwa Dwara (Horse Gate), the western gate called the Vyaghra Dwara (Tigers Gate) or the Khanja Gate, and the northern gate called the Hathi Dwara or (elephant gate). The four gates symbolize the four fundamental principles of Dharma (right conduct), Jnana (knowledge), Vairagya (renunciation) and Aishwarya (prosperity). The gates are crowned with pyramid shapes structures. There is stone pillar in front of the Singhadwara called the Aruna Stambha {Solar Pillar}, 11 metres in height with 16 faces, made of chlorite stone, at the top of which is mounted an elegant statue of Arun (Sun) in a prayer mode. This pillar was shifted from the Konarak Sun temple. All the gates are decorated with guardian statues in the form of lion, horse mounted men, tigers and elephants in the name and order of the gates. A pillar made of fossilized wood is used for placing lamps as offering. The Lion Gate (Singhadwara) is the main gate to the temple, which guarded by two guardian deities Jaya and Vijaya. The main gates is ascended through 22 steps known as Baisi Pahaca which are revered as it is said to possess "spiritual animation". Children are made to roll down these steps from top to bottom to bring them spiritual happiness. After entering the temple on the left hand side there is huge kitchen where food is prepared in hygienic conditions in huge quantities that it is termed as "the biggest hotel of the world".

 

The legend says that King Indradyumma was directed by Lord Jagannath in a dream to build a temple for him and he built it as directed. However, according to historical records the temple was started some time during the 12th century by King Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. It was however completed by his descendant, Anangabhima Deva, in the 12th century. The wooden images of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra were then deified here. The temple was under the control of the Hindu rulers up to 1558. Then, when Orissa was occupied by the Afghan Nawab of Bengal, it was brought under the control of the Afghan General Kalapahad. Following the defeat of the Afghan king by Raja Mansingh, the General of Mughal emperor Akbar, the temple became a part of the Mughal empire till 1751 AD. Subsequently it was under the control of the Marathas till 1803. Then, when British Raj took over Orissa, the Puri Raja was entrusted with its to management until 1947.

 

The triad of images in the temple are of Jagannatha, personifying Lord Krishna, Balabhadra, his older brother, and Subhadra his younger sister, which are made of wood (neem) in an unfinished form. The stumps of wood which form the images of the brothers have human arms and that of Subhadra does not have any arms. The heads are large and un-carved and are painted. The faces are made distinct with the large circular shaped eyes.

 

THE PANCHA TIRTHA OF PURI

Hindus consider it essential to bathe in the Pancha Tirtha or the five sacred bathing spots of Puri, India, to complete a pilgrimage to Puri. The five sacred water bodies are the Indradyumana Tank, the Rohini Kunda, the Markandeya Tank, Swetaganga Tank, and the The Sea also called the Mahodadhi is considered a sacred bathing spot in the Swargadwar area. These tanks have perennial sources of supply in the form of rain water and ground water.

 

GUNDICHA TEMPLE

Known as the Garden House of Jagannath, the Gundicha temple stands in the centre of a beautiful garden, surrounded by compound walls on all sides. It lies at a distance of about 3 kilometres to the north east of the Jagannath Temple. The two temples are located at the two ends of the Bada Danda (Grand Avenue) which is the pathway for the Rath Yatra. According to a legend, Gundicha was the wife of King Indradyumna who originally built the Jagannath temple.

 

The temple is built using light-grey sandstone and architecturally, it exemplifies typical Kalinga temple architecture in the Deula style. The complex comprises four components: vimana (tower structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), nata-mandapa (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings). There is also a kitchen connected by a small passage. The temple is set within a garden, and is known as "God's Summer Garden Retreat" or garden house of Jagannath. The entire complex, including garden, is surrounded by a wall which measures 131 m × 98 m with height of 6.1 m.

 

Except for the 9-day Rath Yatra when triad images are worshipped in Gundicha Temple, the rest of the year it remains unoccupied. Tourists can visit the temple after paying an entry fee. Foreigners (prohibited entry in the main temple) are allowed inside this temple during this period. The temple is under the Jagannath Temple Administration, Puri – the governing body of the main temple. A small band of servitors maintain the temple.

 

SWARGADWAR

Swargadwar is the name given to the cremation ground or burning ghat which is located on the shores of the sea were thousands of dead bodies of Hindus are brought from faraway places to cremate. It is a belief that the Chitanya Mahaparabhu disppaeread from this Swargadwar about 500 years back.

 

BEACH

The beach at Puri known as the "Ballighai beach} is 8 km away at the mouth of Nunai River from the town and is fringed by casurian trees. It has golden yellow sand and has pleasant sunshine. Sunrise and sunset are pleasant scenic attractions here. Waves break in at the beach which is long and wide.

 

DISTRICT MUSEUM

The Puri district museum is located on the station road where the exhibits are of different types of garments worn by Lord Jagannath, local sculptures, patachitra (traditional, cloth-based scroll painting) and ancient Palm-leaf manuscripts and local craft work.

 

RAGHUNANDANA LIBRARY

Raghunandana Library is located in the Emmra matha complex (opposite Simhadwara or Lion gate, the main entrance gate). The Jagannatha Aitihasika Gavesana Samiti (Jagannatha Historical Center) is also located here. The library contains ancient palm leaf manuscripts of Jagannatha, His cult and the history of the city. From the roof of the library one gets a picturesque view of the temple complex.

 

FESTIVALS OF PURI

Puri witnesses 24 festivals every year, of which 13 are major festivals. The most important of these is the Rath Yatra or the Car festival held in the month June–July which is attended by more than 1 million people.

 

RATH YATRA AT PURI

The Jagannath triad are usually worshiped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of Asadha (Rainy Season of Orissa, usually falling in month of June or July), they are brought out onto the Bada Danda (main street of Puri) and travel 3 kilometrer to the Shri Gundicha Temple, in huge chariots (ratha), allowing the public to have darśana (Holy view). This festival is known as Rath Yatra, meaning the journey (yatra) of the chariots (ratha). The yatra starts, according to Hindu calendar Asadha Sukla Dwitiya )the second day of bright fortnight of Asadha (June–July) every year.

 

Historically, the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Rath Yatra at the completion of the great temple around 1150 AD. This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early. In his own account of 1321, Odoric reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the King and Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.

 

The Rathas are huge wheeled wooden structures, which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees. The chariot for Jagannath is about 14 m high and 35 feet square and takes about 2 months to construct. Th chariot is mounted with 16 wheels, each of 2.1 m diameter. The carvings in the front of the chariot has four wooden horses drawn by Maruti. On its other three faces the wooden carvings are Rama, Surya and Vishnu. The chariot is known as Nandi Ghosha. The roof of the chariot is covered with yellow and golden coloured cloth. The next chariot is that of Balabhadra which is 13 m in height fitted with 14 wheels. The chariot is carved with Satyaki as the charioteer. The carvings on this chariot also include images of Narasimha and Rudra as Jagannath's companions. The next chariot in the order is that of Subhadra, which is 13 m in height supported on 12 wheels, roof covered in black and red colour cloth and the chariot is known as Darpa-Dalaan. The charioteer carved is Arjuna. Other images carved on the chariot are that of Vana Durga, Tara Devi and Chandi Devi. The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels, the wood-carved charioteer and horses, and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne. The huge chariots of Jagannath pulled during Rath Yatra is the etymological origin of the English word Juggernaut. The Ratha-Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra and Ghosha yatra

 

CHHERA PAHARA

The Chhera Pahara is a significant ritual associated with the Ratha-Yatra. During the festival, the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots in the Chera Pahara (sweeping with water) ritual. The Gajapati King cleanses the road before the chariots with a gold-handled broom and sprinkles sandalwood water and powder with utmost devotion. As per the custom, although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in the Kalingan kingdom, he still renders the menial service to Jagannath. This ritual signified that under the lordship of Jagannath, there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign Gajapati King and the most humble devotee.

 

CHADAN YATRA

In Akshaya Tritiya every year the Chandan Yatra festival marks the commencement of the construction of the Chariots of the Rath Yatra. It also marks the celebration of the Hindu new year.

 

SNANA YATRA

On the Purnima day in the month of Jyestha (June) the triad images of the Jagannath temple are ceremonially bathed and decorated every year on the occasion of Snana Yatra. Water for the bath is taken in 108 pots from the Suna kuan (meaning: "golden well") located near the northern gate of the temple. Water is drawn from this well only once in a year for the sole purpose of this religious bath of the deities. After the bath the triad images are dressed in the fashion of the elephant god, Ganesha. Later during the night the original triad images are taken out in a procession back to the main temple but kept at a place known as Anasara pindi. After this the Jhulana Yatra is when proxy images of the deities are taken out in a grand procession for 21 days, cruised over boats in the Narmada tank.

 

ANAVASARA OR ANASARA

Anasara literally means vacation. Every year, the triad images without the Sudarshan after the holy Snana Yatra are taken to a secret altar named Anavasara Ghar Palso known as "Anasara pindi} where they remain for the next dark fortnight (Krishna paksha). Hence devotees are not allowed to view them. Instead of this devotees go to nearby place Brahmagiri to see their beloved lord in the form of four handed form Alarnath a form of Vishnu. Then people get the first glimpse of lord on the day before Rath Yatra, which is called Navayouvana. It is said that the gods suffer from fever after taking ritual detailed bath and they are treated by the special servants named, Daitapatis for 15 days. Daitapatis perform special niti (rite) known as Netrotchhaba (a rite of painting the eyes of the triad). During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.

 

NAVA KALEVARA

One of the most grandiloquent events associated with the Lord Jagannath, Naba Kalabera takes place when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another lunar month of Aashadha, called Adhika Masa (extra month). This can take place in 8, 12 or even 18 years. Literally meaning the "New Body" (Nava = New, Kalevar = Body), the festival is witnessed by as millions of people and the budget for this event exceeds $500,000. The event involves installation of new images in the temple and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha. The idols that were worshipped in the temple, installed in the year 1996, were replaced by specially made new images made of neem wood during Nabakalebara 2015 ceremony held during July 2015. More than 3 million devotees were expected to visit the temple during the Nabakalebara 2015 held in July.

 

SUNA BESHA

Suna Bhesha also known as Raja or Rajadhiraja bhesha or Raja Bhesha, is an event when the triad images of the Jagannath Temple are adorned with gold jewelry. This event is observed 5 times during a year. It is commonly observed on Magha Purnima (January), Bahuda Ekadashi also known as Asadha Ekadashi (July), Dashahara (Vijyadashami) (October), Karthik Purnima (November), and Pousa Purnima (December). While one such Suna Bhesha event is observed on Bahuda Ekadashi during the Rath Yatra on the chariots placed at the lion's gate or the Singhdwar; the other four Bheshas' are observed inside the temple on the Ratna Singhasana (gem studded altar). On this occasion gold plates are decorated over the hands and feet of Jagannath and Balabhadra; Jagannath is also adorned with a Chakra (disc) made of gold on the right hand while a silver conch adorns the left hand. However, Balabhadra is decorated with a plough made of gold on the left hand while a golden mace adorns his right hand.

 

NILADRI BIJE

Celebrated on Asadha Trayodashi. It marks the end of the 12 days Ratha yatra. The large wooden images of the triad of gods are moved from the chariots and then carried to the sanctum sanctorum, swaying rhythmically, a ritual which is known as pahandi.

 

SAHI YATRA

Considered the world's biggest open-air theatre, the Sahi yatra is an 11 day long traditional cultural theatre festival or folk drama which begins on Ram Navami and ending in Rama avishke (Sanskrit:anointing) every year. The festival includes plays depicting various scenes from the Ramayan. The residents of various localities or Sahis are entrusted the task of performing the drama at the street corners.

  

TRANSPORT

Earlier when roads did not exist people walked or travelled by animal drawn vehicles or carriages along beaten tracks. Up to Calcutta travel was by riverine craft along the Ganges and then by foot or carriages to Puri. It was only during the Maratha rule that the popular Jagannath Sadak (Road) was built around 1790. The East India Company laid the rail track from Calcutta to Puri which became operational in 1898. Puri is now well connected by rail, road and air services. A broad gauge railway line of the South Eastern Railways connects with Puri and Khurda is an important Railway junction. By rail it is about 499 kilometres away from Calcutta and 468 kilometres from Vishakhapatnam. Road network includes NH 203 that links the town with Bhubaneswar, the capital of Odisha which is about 60 kilometres away. NH 203 B connects the town with Satapada via Brahmagiri. Marine drive which is part of NH 203 A connects Puri with Konark. The nearest airport is at Bhubaneswar, about 60 kilometres away from Puri. Puri railway station is among the top hundred booking stations of Indian Railways.

 

ARTS AND CRAFTS

SAND ART

Sand art is a special art form that is created on the beaches of the sea coast of Puri. The art form is attributed to Balaram Das, a poet who lived in the 14th century. He started crafting the sand art forms of the triad deities of the Jagannath Temple at the Puri beach. Now sculptures in sand of various gods and famous people are created by amateur artists which are temporal in nature as they get washed away by waves. This is an art form which has gained international fame in recent years. One of the well known sand artist is Sudarshan Patnaik. He has established the Golden Sand Art Institute in 1995 at the beach to provide training to students interested in this art form.

 

APPLIQUE ART

Applique art work, which is a stitching based craft, unlike embroidery, which was pioneered by the Hatta Maharana of Pipili is widely used in Puri, both for decoration of the deities but also for sale. His family members are employed as darjis or tailors or sebaks by the Maharaja of Puri who prepare articles for decorating the deities in the temple for various festivals and religious ceremonies. These applique works are brightly coloured and patterned fabric in the form of canopies, umbrellas, drapery, carry bags, flags, coberings of dummy horses and cows, and other household textiles which are marketed in Puri. The cloth used are in dark colours of red, black, yellow, green, blue and turquoise blue.

 

CULTURE

Cultural activities, apart from religiuos festivals, held annually are: The Puri Beach Festival held between 5 and 9 November and the Shreeksherta Utsav held from 20 December to 2 January where cultural programmes include unique sand art, display of local and traditional handicrafts and food festival. In addition cultural programmes are held every Saturday for two hours on in second Saturday of the moth at the district Collector's Conference Hall near Sea Beach Polic Station. Apart from Odissi dance, Odiya music, folk dances, and cultural programmes are part of this event. Odishi dance is the cultural heritage of Puri. This dance form originated in Puri in the dances performed Devadasis (Maharis) attached to the Jagannath temple who performed dances in the Natamantapa of the temple to please the deities. Though the devadadsi practice has been discontinued, the dance form has become modern and classical and is widely popular, and many of the Odishi virtuoso artists and gurus (teachers) are from Puri.

 

EDUCATION

SOME OF THE EDUCATIONNAL INSTITUTIONS IN PURI

- Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management

- Gangadhar Mohapatra Law College, established in 1981[84]

- Extension Unit of Regional Research Institute of Homoeopathy; Puri under Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH), New Delhi established in March 2006

- Sri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, established in July 1981

- The Industrial Training Institute, a Premier Technical Institution to provide education in skilled, committed & talented technicians, established in 1966 of the Government of India

 

PURI PEOPLE

Gopabandhu Das

Acharya Harihar

Nilakantha Das

Kelucharan Mohapatra

Pankaj Charan Das

Manasi Pradhan

Raghunath Mohapatra

Sudarshan Patnaik

Biswanath Sahinayak

Rituraj Mohanty

 

WIKIPEDIA

The Creation of Trafford Park

 

The development of Trafford Park as the world's first industrial park, (and still its biggest), was dependent upon the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal. It was this canal which made it suitable for import of raw materials and export of mercantile goods directly to the River Mersey and on to the world beyond.

The port of Manchester still ranked as fourth most important in the UK, thanks to the Manchester Ship Canal and its direct access to the sea. It ran directly through the Trafford Park Industrial Estate, where other new industries had emerged.

 

Trafford Park is some 1,183 acres, originally parkland with deer, and Trafford Hall as its centre. The hall was destroyed in the blitz of 1940. It was purchased in August 1896 by Ernest Hooley for the sum of £360,000. Hooley immediately created the Trafford Park Estates Company and set about developing it as an "industrial estate" - then a radically new concept.

 

The Companies who came to Trafford Park

 

Trafford Park was the industrial home of the Co-operative Wholesale Society (the CWS), a Rochdale-born organisation , which had a major food packing factory and a flour mill there - they had purchased land at Trafford Wharf in 1903. Within the next few years, over 40 companies had relocated to Trafford Park, and it was, from the outset, a major economic success story for Manchester and its working people.

The British Westinghouse Electric Company had also purchased large tracts of land in the Park in 1899 and began manufacturing turbines and generators there in by 1903. A large housing estate was also built by the company to house its workers. At that time Westinghouse employed half of the 12,000 people working within Trafford Park. In 1919 Westinghouse renamed the company Metropolitan Vickers - it was here that Alcock and Brown met each other and talked the company into building and supplying the Vickers Vimy Aeroplane which they flew across the Atlantic in 1919.

 

Some of Trafford Park's earliest constructions were wooden grain silos built by the Hovis Flour Mill (now Rank Hovis McDougal) to receive the corn from America and Canada which would feed the population of Manchester. These silos were also destroyed in the 1940 blitz and were subsequently replaced by concrete silos just near to Dock 9 on the adjacent Ship Canal. The Hovis company, had opened the mill in 1914; their brown loaf became synonymous with good quality and "natural" baking. Kemp's Biscuits were also produced there from 1923. With widespread laying-off of textile workers in the two decades after the Great War of 1914-18, Manchester came to depend more than ever on its distribution infrastructure.

 

In 1938 the Kellogg company opened a major industrial complex at Barton Dock, and massively increased the importation of maize and grain products into the region - their factory uses Trafford Park as its European headquarters, and still makes Corn Flakes there to this day. After 1945, Brook Bond moved their tea packaging factory at the canal side in Ordsall.

Many foreign businesses were attracted to Trafford. By 1933, over 300 American firms had bases in Trafford Park. The Ford Motor Company moved to the Park in 1910 and by 1913 was in production of the Model T Ford Car, before its relocation to Dagenham in 1931- they returned to Trafford during World War II to build Rolls Royce aircraft engines. The Guiness Company began brewing in the Park, and even went so far as to sink artesian wells to obtain clean water for their products. ICI built its first purpose-built factory for the mass production of penicillin. Rank-Hovis still have major production facilities in the Park.

 

The Fall & Rise of Trafford Park

 

By the outbreak of the Second World War, Trafford Park had so grown as to acquire the status of a borough in its own right. At its peak (around 1945), the Park employed over 75,000 workers. Trafford Park has continued to grow throughout the years, and has offset many of the worst effects of depression on employment in Manchester. Many new service industries have moved in as well as light engineering and cleaner hi-tech industries.

The decline of the Manchester Ship Canal and the closure of the Port of Manchester in the 1960s and 1970s reflected the depression in the Park's fortunes. However, in recent years there has been a complete turnaround, as the M62 and M60 motorways now fulfil a similar function; the Park has once again found itself connected to the rest of the world. Today there is a distinct sense of revival to Trafford Park.

 

As shown in many of my Quays images, the prestigious award winning Lowry Centre has been built on the site of the old derelict docks; the Imperial War Museum North now stands defiantly facing the Lowry; the Trafford Centre retail and leisure park built at Dumplington - all signs of regeneration and new life back to the former deer park at Trafford.

Symphoricarpos albus - fruit, bud and flower on black. Oddly disturbing.

  

SRBrookImages

 

D7K_7813_00001

The bamboos (Bambusoideae) are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae.

 

Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. In bamboos, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering.

 

Bamboos are some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 88.9 Centimeters within a 24-hour period, at a rate of 3 cm/h (a growth of approximately 1 millimeter every 2 minutes). Bamboos are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel.

 

The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Malay.

 

SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

The bamboos have long been considered the most primitive grasses, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmas. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives).

 

The bamboos contains three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions, representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae) and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, there are more than 1,400 species in 115 genera.

 

Tribe Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos)

Tribe Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos)

Tribe Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bamboo species are found in diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the mid-Atlantic states south to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost point at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo.

 

Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso).

 

ECOLOGY

Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates of 250 cm in 24 hours. However, the growth rate is dependent on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 3–10 centimetre per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 15–20 cm in diameter. However, the size range for mature bamboo is species dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.6–12 metres, depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide.

 

Unlike all trees, individual bamboo stems, or culms, emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During these several months, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboos have a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species will produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms will be produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter.

 

Many tropical bamboo species will die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier or so-called temperate bamboos can survive temperatures as low as −29 °C. Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in places as cold as USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–6, although they typically will defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes will survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA Zone 8 and above, some hardy bamboo may remain fully leafed out year-round.

 

MASS FLOWERING

Most bamboo species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular cohort flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

 

One hypothesis to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis which argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit, so, even if predators eat their fill, seeds will still be left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

 

Another, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire. Because bamboos can be aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

 

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation hypothesis does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[20] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolutionary progress.

 

More recently, a mathematical explanation for the extreme length of the flowering cycles has been offered, involving both the stabilizing selection implied by the predator satiation hypothesis and others, and the fact that plants that flower at longer intervals tend to release more seeds. The hypothesis claims that bamboo flowering intervals grew by integer multiplication. A mutant bamboo plant flowering at a non-integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds alone, and would not enjoy the benefits of collective flowering (such as protection from predators). On the other hand, a mutant bamboo plant flowering at an integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds only during collective flowering events, and would release more seeds than the average plant in the population. It could therefore take over the population, establishing a flowering interval that is an integer multiple of the previous flowering interval. The hypothesis predicts that observed bamboo flowering intervals should factorize into small prime numbers.

 

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 Nova documentary "Rat Attack".

 

In any case, flowering produces masses of seeds, typically suspended from the ends of the branches. These seeds will give rise to a new generation of plants that may be identical in appearance to those that preceded the flowering, or they may produce new cultivars with different characteristics, such as the presence or absence of striping or other changes in coloration of the culms.

 

Several bamboo species are never known to set seed even when sporadically flowering has been reported. Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus stocksii are common examples of such bamboo.

 

AS ANIMAL DIET

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.

 

The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan Province, China, feeds off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.

 

CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL TIMBER

Timber is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as "timber bamboos".

 

HARVESTING

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

 

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles:

 

1) Life cycle of the culm: As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.

 

2) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence, harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season.

 

3) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon.

 

LEACHING

Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis.

 

EXEMPLES OF THIS PRACTICE INCLUDE:

Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant.

A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap.

Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks.

Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment).

 

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

 

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.

 

ORNAMENTAL BAMBOOS

The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping" (sympodial) and "running" (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. "Running" bamboos, on the other hand, need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

 

Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, collectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

 

Regular observations will indicate major growth directions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature, and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the removed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo.

 

Bamboo growth is also controlled by surrounding the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60– to 90-cm-deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) If the containment area is small, this method can be detrimental to ornamental bamboo, as the bamboo within can become rootbound and start to display the signs of any unhealthy containerized plant. In addition, rhizomes can escape over the top, or beneath the barrier if it is not deep enough. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers, so care must be taken. In small areas, regular maintenance may be the best method for controlling the running bamboos. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos, although these may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

 

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as "lucky bamboo" is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of feng shui and images of the plant widely available on the Web are often used to depict bamboo. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mistaken for a bamboo, but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species. Phyllostachys species of bamboo are also considered invasive and illegal to sell or propagate in some areas of the US.

 

USES

CULINARY

Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.

 

The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called khorisa. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (alu tama (आलु तामा) in Nepali).

 

In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called gulai rebung. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely.

 

Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots.

 

The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.

 

Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali:तामा tama) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy food in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurant around the world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winter months. Baby shoots (Nepali: tusa) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in Hilly regions.

 

In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as hendua. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves.

 

In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (kirlu) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare 'kirla sukke'.

 

The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.

 

In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.

 

MEDICINE

Bamboo is used in Chinese medicine for treating infections and healing. In northern Indian state of Assam, the fermented bamboo paste known as khorisa is known locally as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, infertility, and menstrual pains.

 

CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.

 

In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance.

 

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber.

 

Various structural shapes may be made by training the bamboo to assume them as it grows. Squared sections of bamboo are created by compressing the growing stalk within a square form. Arches may similarly be created by forcing the bamboo's growth into the desired form, costing much less than it would to obtain the same shape with regular wood timber. More traditional forming methods, such as the application of heat and pressure, may also be used to curve or flatten the cut stalks.

 

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks. This process involves cutting stalks into thin strips, planing them flat, and boiling and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed and finished. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West during the mid-1990s; products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture and even decorations, are currently surging in popularity, transitioning from the boutique market to mainstream providers such as Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which also includes small goods, fabric, etc.) is expected to be worth $25 billion by 2012. The quality of bamboo laminate varies among manufacturers and varies according to the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years being considered the optimum); the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood while others may be softer than standard hardwood.

 

Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric acid. Another process involves boiling cut bamboo to remove the starches that attract insects.

 

Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful, though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject. Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.

 

Several institutes, businesses, and universities are researching the use of bamboo as an ecological construction material. In the United States and France, it is possible to get houses made entirely of bamboo,[citation needed] which are earthquake- and cyclone-resistant and internationally certified. In Bali, Indonesia, an international K-12 school, the Green School, is constructed entirely of bamboo, for its beauty and advantages as a sustainable resource. There are three ISO standards for bamboo as a construction material.

 

In parts of India, bamboo is used for drying clothes indoors, both as a rod high up near the ceiling to hang clothes on, and as a stick wielded with acquired expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the clothes when dry. It is also commonly used to make ladders, which apart from their normal function, are also used for carrying bodies in funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name velu for bamboo is most likely from Sanskrit, while vana means forest.

 

Furthermore, bamboo is also used to create flagpoles for saffron-coloured, Hindu religious flags, which can be seen fluttering across India, especially in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Guyana and Suriname in South America.

 

Bamboo was used for the structural members of the India pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, about 34 m in diameter, with bamboo beams/members overlaid with a ferro-concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar PV panels, a small windmill, and live plants. A total of 30 km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported on 18-m-long steel piles and a series of steel ring beams. The bamboo was treated with borax and boric acid as a fire retardant and insecticide and bent in the required shape. The bamboo sections were joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to achieve the necessary lengths.

 

TEXTILES

Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet; however, the Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo".

 

AS A WRITING SURFACE

Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. However, references in earlier texts surviving on other media make it clear that some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was in use as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC).

 

Bamboo or wooden strips were the standard writing material during the Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production.

 

Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities.

 

Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. The most common bamboo species used for paper are Dendrocalamus asper and Bamboo bluemanea. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production.[

 

WEAPONS

Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts.

 

A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of silambam, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo".

Staves used in the Indian martial art of gatka are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight.

A bamboo sword called a shinai is used in the Japanese martial art of kendo.

Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called yumi, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art kyudo.

Bamboo is sometimes used to craft the limbs of the longbow and recurve bow used in traditional archery, and to make superior weapons for bowhunting and target archery.

The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo.

Bamboo was apparently used in East and South Asia as a means of torture.

 

OTHER USES

Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jomon period (2000–1000 BC).

 

Bamboo has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition.

 

Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.

 

Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a meriam buluh or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.

 

Food is cooked in East Timor in bamboo in fire. This is called Tukir.

 

Many minority groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 metres long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 metre. Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chop sticks, trays, and tea scoops.

 

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change.

 

SYMBOLISM AND CULTURE

Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness, while in India it is a symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Bamboo is said to bloom in this manner only about every 50 years (see 28–60 year examples in FAO: 'gregarious' species table).

 

In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.

 

The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.

 

BAMBOO, NOBLE AND USEFUL

Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and hollow heart, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. According to laws, an ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (sǔn筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called "Sǔn Pǔ筍譜" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden.

 

In Japan, a bamboo forest sometimes surrounds a Shinto shrine as part of a sacred barrier against evil. Many Buddhist temples also have bamboo groves.

 

Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): cương nhu phối triển (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear", the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (lũy tre).

 

IN MYTHOLOGY

Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.

 

In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man, Malakás ("Strong"), and the first woman, Maganda ("Beautiful"), each emerged from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. The Japanese folktale "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" (Taketori Monogatari) tells of a princess from the Moon emerging from a shining bamboo section. Hawaiian bamboo ('ohe) is a kinolau or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne.

 

A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo.

 

In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. Later, Shun drowned in the Xiang River. The tears his two bereaved wives let fall upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses.

 

WIKIPEDIA

1/2000, f/5.6, TMax 400, Canon FD 50mm f/3.5 macro on F-1. HC-110, 1:63, 10 min @ 21.5C

Dependencia bendita

invisible cadena que me ata a la vida

y en momentos oscuros...

Rojitas las orejas - Fito & Fitipaldis

The Mexican economy has quietly become dependent on the money sent from workers in the US. Conversely, the US economy has quietly become dependent on the labor of Mexican immigrants. Along with the depth of their sacrifice, it is the quietness of this dependence which makes Mexican immigrant workers a subject of interest.

The principal objective of this series is to pay homage to these brave and determined men and women that somehow manage, without the help of any supernatural power, to withstand extreme conditions of labor in order to help their families and communities survive and prosper.

This project consists of 20 color photographs of Mexican immigrants dressed in the costumes of popular American and Mexican superheroes. Each photo pictures the worker/superhero in their work environment, and is accompanied by a short text including the worker’s name, their hometown in Mexico, the number of years they have been working in New York, and the amount of money they send to Mexico each week.

www.dulcepinzon.com/en_projects_superhero.htm

Lefkoniko (Greek: Λευκόνοικο; Turkish: Lefkonuk or Geçitkale) is a town in the Mesaoria Plain under the de facto control of Northern Cyprus, claimed by Cyprus. Lefkoniko is the birthplace of Cypriot national poet Vasilis Michaelides and is known for its lace.

 

Geçitkale Air Base of the Turkish Air Force is near Lefkoniko.

 

In 1909, the first co-op in Cyprus was founded in Lefkoniko and, in 1939, the municipality of Lefkoniko was established.

 

In a 1955 anti-British demonstration, schoolboys burned the town post office. A collective fine of $2,000 was placed on the inhabitants of Lefkoniko and the Governor of Cyprus ordered a 24-hour curfew on Lefkoniko until it was paid.

 

Before 1960, Lefkoniko was inhabited both by Greek and Turkish Cypriots. The latter were the minority. With the exception of a family of three, all Turkish Cypriots fled the town in the Emergency years. Greek Cypriots were displaced to the south of the island during the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus, and Lefkoniko was repopulated by Turkish Cypriots from Kofinou and nearby Artemi, which was abandoned. In 1960, Lefkoniko had a population of 2,358. It was the 8th most populous settlement in Famagusta District and 32nd in the whole of Cyprus. As of 2011, its population was 1,253.

 

Turkish Cypriot Geçitkale Günay Spor Kulübü was founded in 1955, and is now in Cyprus Turkish Football Association (CTFA) BTM 1st League. Also Geçitkale Women’s Team was founded in 2012 and currently playing in the top league of CTFA Women’s League.

 

In June 2018,after long efforts, Lefkoniko finally joined to Cittaslow (slow city) network and received their official certificate of conformity and their flag during the general assembly. Therefore Lefkoniko has won the fourth Cittaslow title in the TRNC.

 

Lefkoniko is twinned with:

Turkey Yalova, Turkey

 

Tourist attractions

Archangelos Michael Church

The construction of the church dates back to the 12th century. The church has an arcade along the south side and a double aisle with a chamber at the south west corner of it. The church also has a painting of Archangelos Michael covering a wall. Renovation works are fully funded by EU within Cultural Heritage Programme that European Commission implements through UNDP. Renovation works have started in October 2016 and completed in a year (October 2017). The total cost was 430,000 Euro.

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

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Me: Mom, Daughter, Girlfriend, Friend, Bartender, Photographer, Flickr Addict, Social Alcoholic, Binge Smoker, Big Eater, Round, Funny, Loud, Obnoxious, Humble, Mood-Swingy, Tired, 40 year old Kid, 80's music lover, British Comedy Lover, Irish, Italian, French, Scottish, Mentor, Muse, Part Time Asshole, Secret Keeper, Caring, Honest, Bitchy, Whiny, Sarcastic, Right Handed, Charitable, Hypo-Allergenic, Cat Lover, Half-Hillbilly, Independent, Co-Dependent, Snarky, Silly, Two-Job Havin, Diva, Leo, Snorer, Comfort Food Cookin future diner owner.

 

Yup. That about sums me up.

 

And as of May 13th, an interviewee...I was blogged! Check it out here if you like. It's only embarrasing because my mom commented on it. Geez. :D

 

Thanks to Diana for making me seem pretty cool.

Ardana (Greek: Άρδανα, Turkish: Ardahan) is a village in Cyprus, located 9 km north of Trikomo. It is under the de facto control of Northern Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

Puri is a city and a Municipality of Odisha. It is the district headquarters of Puri district, Odisha, eastern India. It is situated on the Bay of Bengal, 60 kilometres south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as Jagannath Puri after the 12th-century Jagannath Temple located in the city. It is one of the original Char Dham pilgrimage sites for Indian Hindus.

 

Puri was known by several names from the ancient times to the present, and locally called as Badadeula. Puri and the Jagannath Temple were invaded 18 times by Hindu and Muslim rulers, starting from the 4th century to the start of the 19th century with the objective of looting the treasures of the temple. Odisha, including Puri and its temple, were under the British Raj from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947. Even though princely states do not exist in independent India, the heirs of the Gajapati Dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple. The temple town has many Hindu religious maths or monasteries.

 

The economy of Puri town is dependent on the religious importance of the Jagannath Temple to the extent of nearly 80%. The festivals which contribute to the economy are the 24 held every year in the temple complex, including 13 major festivals; Ratha Yatra and its related festivals are the most important which are attended by millions of people every year. Sand art and applique art are some of the important crafts of the city. Puri is one of the 12 heritage cities chosen by the Government of India for holistic development.

 

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

GEOGRAPHY

Puri, located on the east coast of India on the Bay of Bengal, is in the center of the district of the same name. It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the south east, the Mauza Sipaurubilla on the west, Mauz Gopinathpur in the north and Mauza Balukhand in the east. It is within the 67 kilometres coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between Chilika Lake and the south of Puri city. However, the administrative jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of 16.3268 square kilometres spread over 30 wards, which includes a shore line of 5 kilometres.

 

Puri is in the coastal delta of the Mahanadi River on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. In the ancient days it was near to Sisupalgarh (Ashokan Tosali) when the land was drained by a tributary of the River Bhargavi, a branch of the Mahanadi River, which underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the estuary, and formed many sand hills. These sand hills could not be "cut through" by the streams. Because of the sand hills, the Bhargavi River flowing to the south of Puri, moved away towards the Chilika Lake. This shift also resulted in the creation of two lagoons known as Sar and Samang on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively. Sar lagoon has a length of 8.0 km in an east-west direction and has a width of 3.2 km in north-south direction. The river estuary has a shallow depth of 1.5 m only and the process of siltation is continuing. According to a 15th-century chronicle the stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or Neelachal was used as the foundation or high plinth of the present temple which was then known as Purushottama, the Supreme Being. A 16th century chronicle attributes filling up of the bed of the river which flowed through the present Grand Road, during the reign of King Narasimha II (1278–1308).

 

CLIMATE

According to the Köppen and Geiger the climate of Puri is classified Aw. The city has moderate and tropical climate. Humidity is fairly high throughout the year. The temperature during summer touches a maximum of 36 °C and during winter it is 17 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1,337 millimetres and the average annual temperature is 26.9 °C.

 

HISTORY

NAMES IN HISTORY

Puri, the holy land of Lord Jaganath, also known popularly as Badadeula in local usage, has many ancient names in the Hindu scriptures such as the Rigveda, Matsya purana, Brahma Purana, Narada Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Kapila samhita and Niladrimahodaya. In the Rigveda, in particular, it is mentioned as a place called Purushamandama-grama meaning the place where the Creator deity of the world – Supreme Divinity deified on altar or mandapa was venerated near the coast and prayers offered with vedic hymns. Over time the name got changed to Purushottama Puri and further shortened to Puri and the Purusha became Jagannatha. Close to this place sages like Bhrigu, Atri and Markandeya had their hermitage. Its name is mentioned, conforming to the deity worshipped, as Srikshetra, Purusottama Dhāma, Purusottama Kshetra, Purusottama Puri and Jagannath Puri. Puri is however, a common usage now. It is also known the geographical features of its siting as Shankhakshetra (layout of the town is in the form of a conch shell.), Neelāchala ("blue mountain" a terminology used to name very large sand lagoon over which the temple was built but this name is not in vogue), Neelāchalakshetra, Neelādri, The word 'Puri' in Sanskrit means "town", or 'city' and is cognate with polis in Greek.

 

Another ancient name is Charita as identified by Cunningham which was later spelled as Che-li-ta-lo by Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang.When the present temple was built by the Ganga king Chodangadev in the 11th and 12th centuries it was called Purushottamkshetra. However, the Moghuls, the Marathas and early British rulers called it Purushottama-chhatar or just Chhatar. In Akbar's Ain-i-Akbari and subsequent Muslim historical records it was known as Purushottama. In the Sanskrit drama authored by Murari Mishra in the 8th century it is referred as Purushottama only. It was only after twelfth century Puri came to be known by the shortened form of Jagannatha Puri, named after the deity or in a short form as Puri. In some records pertaining to the British rule, the word 'Jagannath' was used for Puri. It is the only shrine in India, where Radha, along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga, Bhudevi, Sati, Parvati, and Shakti abodes with Krishna, also known as Jagannath.

 

ANCIENT PERIOD

According to the chronicle Madala Panji, in 318 the priests and servitors of the temple spirited away the idols to escape the wrath of the Rashtrakuta King Rakatavahu. The temple's ancient historical records also finds mention in the Brahma Purana and Skanda Purana as having been built by the king Indradyumna of Ujjayani.

 

According to W.J. Wilkinson, in Puri, Buddhism was once a well established practice but later Buddhists were persecuted and Brahmanism became the order of the religious practice in the town; the Buddha deity in now worshipped by the Hindus as Jagannatha. It is also said that some relics of Buddha were placed inside the idol of Jagannath which the Brahmins claimed were the bones of Krishna. Even during Ashoka’s reign in 240 BC Odisha was a Buddhist center and that a tribe known as Lohabahu (barbarians from outside Odisha) converted to Buddhism and built a temple with an idol of Buddha which is now worshipped as Jagannatha. It is also said that Lohabahu deposited some Buddha relics in the precincts of the temple.

 

Construction of the Jagannatha Temple started in 1136 and completed towards the later part of the 12th century. The King of the Ganga dynasty, Anangabhima dedicated his kingdom to the God, then known as the Purushottam-Jagannatha and resolved that from then on he and his descendants would rule under "divine order as Jagannatha's sons and vassals". Even though princely states do not exist in independent India, the heirs of the Gajapati dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple; the king formally sweeps the road in front of the chariots before the start of the Rathayatra.

 

MEDIEVAL AND EARLY MODERN PERIODS

History of the temple is the history of the town of Puri, which was invaded 18 times during its history to plunder the treasures of the Jagannath Puri temple. The first invasion was in the 8th century by Rastrakuta king Govinda-III (AD 798–814) and the last was in 1881 by the followers of Alekh Religion who did not recognize Jagannath worship. In between, from the 1205 onward there were many invasions of the city and its temple by Muslims of the Afghans and Moghuls descent, known as Yavanas or foreigners; they had mounted attacks to ransack the wealth of the temple rather than for religious reasons. In most of these invasions the idols were taken to safe places by the priests and the servitors of the temple. Destruction of the temple was prevented by timely resistance or surrender by the kings of the region. However, the treasures of the temple were repeatedly looted. Puri is the site of the Govardhana matha, one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankaracharya, when he visited Puri in 810 and since then it has become an important dham (divine centre) for the Hindus; the others being those at Sringeri, Dwaraka and Jyotirmath. The matha is headed by Jagatguru Shankarachrya. The significance of the four dhams is that the Lord Vishnu takes his dinner at Puri, has his bath at Rameshwaram, spends the night at Dwarka and does penance at Badrinath.

 

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Bengal who established the Bhakti movements of India in the sixteenth century, now known by the name the Hare Krishna movement, spent many years as a devotee of Jagannatha at Puri; he is said to have merged his "corporal self" with the deity. There is also a matha of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu here.

 

In the 17th century for the sailors sailing on the east coast of India, the landmark was the temple located in a plaza in the centre of the town which they called the "White Pagoda" while the Konark Sun Temple, 60 kilometres away to the east of Puri, was known as the "Black Pagoda".

 

The iconographic representation of the images in the Jagannath temple are believed to be the forms derived from the worship made by the tribal groups of Sabaras belonging to northern Odisha. These images are replaced at regular intervals as the wood deteriorates. This replacement is a special event carried out ritulistically by special group of carpenters.

 

The town has many Mathas (Monasteries of the various Hindu sects). Among the important mathas is the Emar Matha founded by the Tamil Vaishnav Saint Ramanujacharya in the 12th century AD. At present this matha is located in front of Simhadvara across the eastern corner of the Jagannath Temple is reported to have been built in the 16th century during the reign of Suryavamsi Gajapati. The matha was in the news recently for the large cache of 522 silver slabs unearthded from a closed room.

 

The British conquered Orissa in 1803 and recognizing the importance of the Jagannatha Temple in the life of the people of the state they initially placed an official to look after the temple's affairs and later declared it a district with the same name.

 

MODERN HISTORY

In 1906, Sri Yukteswar an exponent of Kriya Yoga, a resident of Puri, established an ashram in the sea-side town of Puri, naming it "Kararashram" as a spiritual training center. He died on 9 March 1936 and his body is buried in the garden of the ashram.

 

The city is the site of the former summer residence of British Raj built in 1913–14 during the era of governors, the Raj Bhavan.

 

For the people of Puri Lord Jagannath, visualized as Lord Krishna, is synonymous with their city. They believe that the Jagannatha looks after the welfare of the state. However, after the incident of the partial collapse of the Jagannatha Temple, the Amalaka part of the tower on 14 June 1990 people became apprehensive and thought it was not a good omen for the welfare of the State of Odisha. The replacement of the fallen stone by another of the same size and weight (seven tons) had to be done only in the an early morning hours after the gods had woken up after a good nights sleep which was done on 28 February 1991.

 

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of the Indian Government. It is one of 12 the heritage cities chosen with "focus on holistic development" to be implemented in 27 months by end of March 2017.

 

Non-Hindus are not permitted to enter the shrines but are allowed to view the temple and the proceedings from the roof of the Raghunandan library within the precincts of the temple for a small donation.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2001 India census, Puri city, an urban Agglomeration governed by Municipal Corporation in Orissa state, had a population of 157,610 which increased to 200,564 in 2011. Males, 104,086, females, 96,478, children under 6 years of age, 18,471. The sex ratio is 927 females to 1000 males. Puri has an average literacy rate of 88.03 percent (91.38 percent males and 84.43 percent females). Religion-wise data is not reported.

 

ECONOMY

The economy of Puri is dependent on tourism to the extent of about 80%. The temple is the focal point of the entire area of the town and provides major employment to the people of the town. Agricultural production of rice, ghee, vegetables and so forth of the region meets the huge requirements of the temple, with many settlements aroiund the town exclusively catering to the other religious paraphernalia of the temple. The temple administration employs 6,000 men to perform the rituals. The temple also provides economic sustenance to 20,000 people belonging to 36 orders and 97 classes. The kitchen of the temple which is said to be the largest in the world employs 400 cooks.

 

CITY MANAGEMENT AND GOVERNANCE

Puri Municipality, Puri Konark Development Authority, Public Health Engineering Organisastion, Orissa Water Supply Sewerage Board are some of the principal organizations that are devolved with the responsibility of providing for all the urban needs of civic amenities such as water supply, sewerage, waste management, street lighting, and infrastructure of roads. The major activity which puts maximum presuure on these organizations is the annual event of the Ratha Yatra held for 10 days during July when more than a million people attend the grand event. This event involves to a very large extent the development activities such as infrastructure and amenities to the pilgrims, apart from security to the pilgrims.

 

The civic administration of Puri is the responsibility of the Puri Municipality which came into existence in 1864 in the name of Puri Improvement Trust which got converted into Puri Municipality in 1881. After India's independence in 1947, Orissa Municipal Act-1950 was promulgated entrusting the administration of the city to the Puri Municipality. This body is represented by elected representative with a Chairperson and councilors representing the 30 wards within the municipal limits.

 

LANDMARKS

JAGANNATH TEMPLE AT PURI

The Temple of Jagannath at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples built in the Kalinga style of architecture, in respect of its plan, front view and structural detailing. It is one of the Pancharatha (Five chariots) type consisting of two anurathas, two konakas and one ratha with well-developed pagas. Vimana or Deula is the sanctum sanctorum where the triad (three) deities are deified on the ratnavedi (Throne of Pearls), and over which is the temple tower, known as the rekha deula; the latter is built over a rectangular base of the pidha temples as its roof is made up of pidhas that are sequentially arranged horizontal platforms built in descending order forming a pyramidal shape. The mandapa in front of the sanctum sanctorum is known as Jagamohana where devotees assemble to offer worship. The temple tower with a spire rises to a height of 58 m in height and a flag is unfurled above it fixed over a wheel (chakra). Within the temple complex is the Nata Mandir, a large hall where Garuda stamba (pillar). Chaitanya Mahaprabhu used to stand here and pray. In the interior of the Bhoga Mantap, adjoining the Nata mandir, there is profusion of decorations of sculptures and paintings which narrate the story of Lord Krishna. The temple is built on an elevated platform (of about 39,000 m2 area), 20 ft above the adjoining area. The temple rises to a height of 214 ft above the road level. The temple complex covers an area of 4,3 ha. There is double walled enclosure, rectangular in shape (rising to a height of 20 ft) surrounding the temple complex of which the outer wall is known as Meghanada Prachira, measuring 200 by 192 metres. The inner walled enclosure, known as Kurmabedha. measures 126m x 95m. There are four entry gates (in four cardinal directions to the temple located at the center of the walls in the four directions of the outer circle. These are: the eastern gate called Singhadwara (Lions Gate), the southern gate known as Ashwa Dwara (Horse Gate), the western gate called the Vyaghra Dwara (Tigers Gate) or the Khanja Gate, and the northern gate called the Hathi Dwara or (elephant gate). The four gates symbolize the four fundamental principles of Dharma (right conduct), Jnana (knowledge), Vairagya (renunciation) and Aishwarya (prosperity). The gates are crowned with pyramid shapes structures. There is stone pillar in front of the Singhadwara called the Aruna Stambha {Solar Pillar}, 11 metres in height with 16 faces, made of chlorite stone, at the top of which is mounted an elegant statue of Arun (Sun) in a prayer mode. This pillar was shifted from the Konarak Sun temple. All the gates are decorated with guardian statues in the form of lion, horse mounted men, tigers and elephants in the name and order of the gates. A pillar made of fossilized wood is used for placing lamps as offering. The Lion Gate (Singhadwara) is the main gate to the temple, which guarded by two guardian deities Jaya and Vijaya. The main gates is ascended through 22 steps known as Baisi Pahaca which are revered as it is said to possess "spiritual animation". Children are made to roll down these steps from top to bottom to bring them spiritual happiness. After entering the temple on the left hand side there is huge kitchen where food is prepared in hygienic conditions in huge quantities that it is termed as "the biggest hotel of the world".

 

The legend says that King Indradyumma was directed by Lord Jagannath in a dream to build a temple for him and he built it as directed. However, according to historical records the temple was started some time during the 12th century by King Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. It was however completed by his descendant, Anangabhima Deva, in the 12th century. The wooden images of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra were then deified here. The temple was under the control of the Hindu rulers up to 1558. Then, when Orissa was occupied by the Afghan Nawab of Bengal, it was brought under the control of the Afghan General Kalapahad. Following the defeat of the Afghan king by Raja Mansingh, the General of Mughal emperor Akbar, the temple became a part of the Mughal empire till 1751 AD. Subsequently it was under the control of the Marathas till 1803. Then, when British Raj took over Orissa, the Puri Raja was entrusted with its to management until 1947.

 

The triad of images in the temple are of Jagannatha, personifying Lord Krishna, Balabhadra, his older brother, and Subhadra his younger sister, which are made of wood (neem) in an unfinished form. The stumps of wood which form the images of the brothers have human arms and that of Subhadra does not have any arms. The heads are large and un-carved and are painted. The faces are made distinct with the large circular shaped eyes.

 

THE PANCHA TIRTHA OF PURI

Hindus consider it essential to bathe in the Pancha Tirtha or the five sacred bathing spots of Puri, India, to complete a pilgrimage to Puri. The five sacred water bodies are the Indradyumana Tank, the Rohini Kunda, the Markandeya Tank, Swetaganga Tank, and the The Sea also called the Mahodadhi is considered a sacred bathing spot in the Swargadwar area. These tanks have perennial sources of supply in the form of rain water and ground water.

 

GUNDICHA TEMPLE

Known as the Garden House of Jagannath, the Gundicha temple stands in the centre of a beautiful garden, surrounded by compound walls on all sides. It lies at a distance of about 3 kilometres to the north east of the Jagannath Temple. The two temples are located at the two ends of the Bada Danda (Grand Avenue) which is the pathway for the Rath Yatra. According to a legend, Gundicha was the wife of King Indradyumna who originally built the Jagannath temple.

 

The temple is built using light-grey sandstone and architecturally, it exemplifies typical Kalinga temple architecture in the Deula style. The complex comprises four components: vimana (tower structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), nata-mandapa (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings). There is also a kitchen connected by a small passage. The temple is set within a garden, and is known as "God's Summer Garden Retreat" or garden house of Jagannath. The entire complex, including garden, is surrounded by a wall which measures 131 m × 98 m with height of 6.1 m.

 

Except for the 9-day Rath Yatra when triad images are worshipped in Gundicha Temple, the rest of the year it remains unoccupied. Tourists can visit the temple after paying an entry fee. Foreigners (prohibited entry in the main temple) are allowed inside this temple during this period. The temple is under the Jagannath Temple Administration, Puri – the governing body of the main temple. A small band of servitors maintain the temple.

 

SWARGADWAR

Swargadwar is the name given to the cremation ground or burning ghat which is located on the shores of the sea were thousands of dead bodies of Hindus are brought from faraway places to cremate. It is a belief that the Chitanya Mahaparabhu disppaeread from this Swargadwar about 500 years back.

 

BEACH

The beach at Puri known as the "Ballighai beach} is 8 km away at the mouth of Nunai River from the town and is fringed by casurian trees. It has golden yellow sand and has pleasant sunshine. Sunrise and sunset are pleasant scenic attractions here. Waves break in at the beach which is long and wide.

 

DISTRICT MUSEUM

The Puri district museum is located on the station road where the exhibits are of different types of garments worn by Lord Jagannath, local sculptures, patachitra (traditional, cloth-based scroll painting) and ancient Palm-leaf manuscripts and local craft work.

 

RAGHUNANDANA LIBRARY

Raghunandana Library is located in the Emmra matha complex (opposite Simhadwara or Lion gate, the main entrance gate). The Jagannatha Aitihasika Gavesana Samiti (Jagannatha Historical Center) is also located here. The library contains ancient palm leaf manuscripts of Jagannatha, His cult and the history of the city. From the roof of the library one gets a picturesque view of the temple complex.

 

FESTIVALS OF PURI

Puri witnesses 24 festivals every year, of which 13 are major festivals. The most important of these is the Rath Yatra or the Car festival held in the month June–July which is attended by more than 1 million people.

 

RATH YATRA AT PURI

The Jagannath triad are usually worshiped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of Asadha (Rainy Season of Orissa, usually falling in month of June or July), they are brought out onto the Bada Danda (main street of Puri) and travel 3 kilometrer to the Shri Gundicha Temple, in huge chariots (ratha), allowing the public to have darśana (Holy view). This festival is known as Rath Yatra, meaning the journey (yatra) of the chariots (ratha). The yatra starts, according to Hindu calendar Asadha Sukla Dwitiya )the second day of bright fortnight of Asadha (June–July) every year.

 

Historically, the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Rath Yatra at the completion of the great temple around 1150 AD. This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early. In his own account of 1321, Odoric reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the King and Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.

 

The Rathas are huge wheeled wooden structures, which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees. The chariot for Jagannath is about 14 m high and 35 feet square and takes about 2 months to construct. Th chariot is mounted with 16 wheels, each of 2.1 m diameter. The carvings in the front of the chariot has four wooden horses drawn by Maruti. On its other three faces the wooden carvings are Rama, Surya and Vishnu. The chariot is known as Nandi Ghosha. The roof of the chariot is covered with yellow and golden coloured cloth. The next chariot is that of Balabhadra which is 13 m in height fitted with 14 wheels. The chariot is carved with Satyaki as the charioteer. The carvings on this chariot also include images of Narasimha and Rudra as Jagannath's companions. The next chariot in the order is that of Subhadra, which is 13 m in height supported on 12 wheels, roof covered in black and red colour cloth and the chariot is known as Darpa-Dalaan. The charioteer carved is Arjuna. Other images carved on the chariot are that of Vana Durga, Tara Devi and Chandi Devi. The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels, the wood-carved charioteer and horses, and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne. The huge chariots of Jagannath pulled during Rath Yatra is the etymological origin of the English word Juggernaut. The Ratha-Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra and Ghosha yatra

 

CHHERA PAHARA

The Chhera Pahara is a significant ritual associated with the Ratha-Yatra. During the festival, the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots in the Chera Pahara (sweeping with water) ritual. The Gajapati King cleanses the road before the chariots with a gold-handled broom and sprinkles sandalwood water and powder with utmost devotion. As per the custom, although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in the Kalingan kingdom, he still renders the menial service to Jagannath. This ritual signified that under the lordship of Jagannath, there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign Gajapati King and the most humble devotee.

 

CHADAN YATRA

In Akshaya Tritiya every year the Chandan Yatra festival marks the commencement of the construction of the Chariots of the Rath Yatra. It also marks the celebration of the Hindu new year.

 

SNANA YATRA

On the Purnima day in the month of Jyestha (June) the triad images of the Jagannath temple are ceremonially bathed and decorated every year on the occasion of Snana Yatra. Water for the bath is taken in 108 pots from the Suna kuan (meaning: "golden well") located near the northern gate of the temple. Water is drawn from this well only once in a year for the sole purpose of this religious bath of the deities. After the bath the triad images are dressed in the fashion of the elephant god, Ganesha. Later during the night the original triad images are taken out in a procession back to the main temple but kept at a place known as Anasara pindi. After this the Jhulana Yatra is when proxy images of the deities are taken out in a grand procession for 21 days, cruised over boats in the Narmada tank.

 

ANAVASARA OR ANASARA

Anasara literally means vacation. Every year, the triad images without the Sudarshan after the holy Snana Yatra are taken to a secret altar named Anavasara Ghar Palso known as "Anasara pindi} where they remain for the next dark fortnight (Krishna paksha). Hence devotees are not allowed to view them. Instead of this devotees go to nearby place Brahmagiri to see their beloved lord in the form of four handed form Alarnath a form of Vishnu. Then people get the first glimpse of lord on the day before Rath Yatra, which is called Navayouvana. It is said that the gods suffer from fever after taking ritual detailed bath and they are treated by the special servants named, Daitapatis for 15 days. Daitapatis perform special niti (rite) known as Netrotchhaba (a rite of painting the eyes of the triad). During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.

 

NAVA KALEVARA

One of the most grandiloquent events associated with the Lord Jagannath, Naba Kalabera takes place when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another lunar month of Aashadha, called Adhika Masa (extra month). This can take place in 8, 12 or even 18 years. Literally meaning the "New Body" (Nava = New, Kalevar = Body), the festival is witnessed by as millions of people and the budget for this event exceeds $500,000. The event involves installation of new images in the temple and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha. The idols that were worshipped in the temple, installed in the year 1996, were replaced by specially made new images made of neem wood during Nabakalebara 2015 ceremony held during July 2015. More than 3 million devotees were expected to visit the temple during the Nabakalebara 2015 held in July.

 

SUNA BESHA

Suna Bhesha also known as Raja or Rajadhiraja bhesha or Raja Bhesha, is an event when the triad images of the Jagannath Temple are adorned with gold jewelry. This event is observed 5 times during a year. It is commonly observed on Magha Purnima (January), Bahuda Ekadashi also known as Asadha Ekadashi (July), Dashahara (Vijyadashami) (October), Karthik Purnima (November), and Pousa Purnima (December). While one such Suna Bhesha event is observed on Bahuda Ekadashi during the Rath Yatra on the chariots placed at the lion's gate or the Singhdwar; the other four Bheshas' are observed inside the temple on the Ratna Singhasana (gem studded altar). On this occasion gold plates are decorated over the hands and feet of Jagannath and Balabhadra; Jagannath is also adorned with a Chakra (disc) made of gold on the right hand while a silver conch adorns the left hand. However, Balabhadra is decorated with a plough made of gold on the left hand while a golden mace adorns his right hand.

 

NILADRI BIJE

Celebrated on Asadha Trayodashi. It marks the end of the 12 days Ratha yatra. The large wooden images of the triad of gods are moved from the chariots and then carried to the sanctum sanctorum, swaying rhythmically, a ritual which is known as pahandi.

 

SAHI YATRA

Considered the world's biggest open-air theatre, the Sahi yatra is an 11 day long traditional cultural theatre festival or folk drama which begins on Ram Navami and ending in Rama avishke (Sanskrit:anointing) every year. The festival includes plays depicting various scenes from the Ramayan. The residents of various localities or Sahis are entrusted the task of performing the drama at the street corners.

  

TRANSPORT

Earlier when roads did not exist people walked or travelled by animal drawn vehicles or carriages along beaten tracks. Up to Calcutta travel was by riverine craft along the Ganges and then by foot or carriages to Puri. It was only during the Maratha rule that the popular Jagannath Sadak (Road) was built around 1790. The East India Company laid the rail track from Calcutta to Puri which became operational in 1898. Puri is now well connected by rail, road and air services. A broad gauge railway line of the South Eastern Railways connects with Puri and Khurda is an important Railway junction. By rail it is about 499 kilometres away from Calcutta and 468 kilometres from Vishakhapatnam. Road network includes NH 203 that links the town with Bhubaneswar, the capital of Odisha which is about 60 kilometres away. NH 203 B connects the town with Satapada via Brahmagiri. Marine drive which is part of NH 203 A connects Puri with Konark. The nearest airport is at Bhubaneswar, about 60 kilometres away from Puri. Puri railway station is among the top hundred booking stations of Indian Railways.

 

ARTS AND CRAFTS

SAND ART

Sand art is a special art form that is created on the beaches of the sea coast of Puri. The art form is attributed to Balaram Das, a poet who lived in the 14th century. He started crafting the sand art forms of the triad deities of the Jagannath Temple at the Puri beach. Now sculptures in sand of various gods and famous people are created by amateur artists which are temporal in nature as they get washed away by waves. This is an art form which has gained international fame in recent years. One of the well known sand artist is Sudarshan Patnaik. He has established the Golden Sand Art Institute in 1995 at the beach to provide training to students interested in this art form.

 

APPLIQUE ART

Applique art work, which is a stitching based craft, unlike embroidery, which was pioneered by the Hatta Maharana of Pipili is widely used in Puri, both for decoration of the deities but also for sale. His family members are employed as darjis or tailors or sebaks by the Maharaja of Puri who prepare articles for decorating the deities in the temple for various festivals and religious ceremonies. These applique works are brightly coloured and patterned fabric in the form of canopies, umbrellas, drapery, carry bags, flags, coberings of dummy horses and cows, and other household textiles which are marketed in Puri. The cloth used are in dark colours of red, black, yellow, green, blue and turquoise blue.

 

CULTURE

Cultural activities, apart from religiuos festivals, held annually are: The Puri Beach Festival held between 5 and 9 November and the Shreeksherta Utsav held from 20 December to 2 January where cultural programmes include unique sand art, display of local and traditional handicrafts and food festival. In addition cultural programmes are held every Saturday for two hours on in second Saturday of the moth at the district Collector's Conference Hall near Sea Beach Polic Station. Apart from Odissi dance, Odiya music, folk dances, and cultural programmes are part of this event. Odishi dance is the cultural heritage of Puri. This dance form originated in Puri in the dances performed Devadasis (Maharis) attached to the Jagannath temple who performed dances in the Natamantapa of the temple to please the deities. Though the devadadsi practice has been discontinued, the dance form has become modern and classical and is widely popular, and many of the Odishi virtuoso artists and gurus (teachers) are from Puri.

 

EDUCATION

SOME OF THE EDUCATIONNAL INSTITUTIONS IN PURI

- Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management

- Gangadhar Mohapatra Law College, established in 1981[84]

- Extension Unit of Regional Research Institute of Homoeopathy; Puri under Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH), New Delhi established in March 2006

- Sri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, established in July 1981

- The Industrial Training Institute, a Premier Technical Institution to provide education in skilled, committed & talented technicians, established in 1966 of the Government of India

 

PURI PEOPLE

Gopabandhu Das

Acharya Harihar

Nilakantha Das

Kelucharan Mohapatra

Pankaj Charan Das

Manasi Pradhan

Raghunath Mohapatra

Sudarshan Patnaik

Biswanath Sahinayak

Rituraj Mohanty

 

WIKIPEDIA

flickriver.com/photos/javier1949/popular-interesting/

  

Palacio de Exposiciones y Congresos Ciudad de Oviedo (Buenavista)

C/ Arturo Álvarez Buylla s/n Oviedo, Asturias

Arquitecto: Santiago Calatrava. Concurso de proyectos 2000, obras 2003-2011.

Diseñado por el premio Príncipe de Asturias de las Artes en 1999, el arquitecto Santiago Calatrava, por su tamaño, envergadura y situación es uno de los edificios más singulares y controvertidos de la ciudad de Oviedo. Popularmente se le conoce como “el Cangrejo”. Se levanta en Buenavista, en el lugar que ocupó el antiguo estadio de fútbol Carlos Tartiere.

Su polémica construcción se inicia en 2003 con el derribo del antiguo estadio de fútbol, en 2007 se inauguran las dependencias administrativas del Principado de Asturias, y en 2008 el centro comercial. En 2010 se retoman las obras después de una paralización de cerca de 2 años, y en 2011 se inaugura el Palacio de Congresos.

El conjunto está constituido por un edificio central, de planta elíptica destinado a Palacio de Congresos y Exposiciones, otro perimetral en forma de U dedicado a hotel, oficinas y dependencias administrativas del Principado, y un basamento o plataforma subterránea dedicada a zona comercial que ocupa tres plantas, denominada Espacio Buenavista, con una superficie de 52.000 metros cuadrados, además de aparcamiento para más de 1.800 vehículos. Delante de la fachada principal se sitúa una zona verde con parque infantil.

El edificio central, dedicado al Palacio, se distribuye en tres niveles: en el inferior se encuentran el hall principal y el área expositiva, una sala de reuniones con un aforo para 217 personas y una sala multiusos; la planta intermedia da acceso al Auditorio que dispone de 2.144 butacas y está cubierto por una cúpula de acero blanco de 45 m de altura; finalmente en la tercera planta se organizan las 12 salas de reuniones, de las cuales 8 son modulares. Inicialmente cuenta con una cubierta móvil cuyos elementos pueden inclinarse permitiendo una mayor entrada de luz y modificando el aspecto exterior.

 

El edificio en "U", que rodea perimetralmente, por las fachadas laterales y trasera, el Palacio de Congresos, se destina a hotel, con 150 habitaciones, y a oficinas de las consejerías del Principado, con una superficie de 11.196 metros cuadrados. Se eleva unos 30 metros del suelo a partir de un complejo diseño de pórticos de acero que se construyen pieza a pieza, como un mecano, en forma de árbol, cada una compuesta a su vez por 6 subestructuras en voladizo, con los ascensores en el núcleo central.

Comissão de Assuntos Sociais (CAS) realiza reunião deliberativa com 17 itens. Entre eles, o PL 682/2019, que concede benefícios fiscais por dependentes com doenças raras.

 

Bancada:

senadora Leila Barros (PSB-DF);

senadora Soraya Thronicke (PSL-MS);

senadora Renilde Bulhões (Pros-AL).

 

Foto: Marcos Oliveira/Agência Senado

Grass that made revolution

Sabai grass is a fine natural fibre that has the potential to be dyed. The local tribal people are dependent on the surrounding forests for their livelihood – the collection of a variety of leaves and grasses has been their main source of income over the period of time. Traditionally ropes were the only product made from Sabai grass. This grass is found in abundance in the forest fringe areas of West Bengal, and is now bringing about a silent revolution.

[ www.naturallybengal.com/?craft=sabai ]

  

Kankrajhor

Kankrajhor is a beautiful tourist destination of Jangalmahal Circuit in West Bengal, India. It is situated in the tropical, hilly forestlands of Jhargram district. It comprises 9000 hectares of hardwood forests. The wealth of trees includes Kusum (Ceylon oak), Shaal (Shorea robusta), Segun (Tectona grandis), Mahua (Indian Butter tree, or honey tree- Madhuca longifolia ), Piyal (almondette or calumpong nut, ) and Akashmani (Acacia auriculiformis), as named in Bengali. Its tribal villages at the edge of forests and ethnic people will make you feel a happy stay. Kankrajhor is just 22km from Ghatshila (Jharkhand) & 65 km from Jhargram town.

 

Beyond the fertile Gangetic plains of Bengal, Jhargram offers the most exotic undulating topography culminating in hilly ranges of Belpahari, Kankrajhor in the north to the serene and meandering Subarnarekha River in the south. Nearby famous Dolma Hills are frequented by animals from Bihar, including tigers, leopards and elephants. Bears and wild boars are frequently found in the hills in search of Mahua flower sap. The sap is a potent intoxicant in the region and is used to make country liquor, simply called Mahua. This is a regular corridor of elephants. They are very much fond of this Mohua flowers and get intoxicated...a pleasure to watch in a full moon night. Every year at this time of month elephants frequently enter into these villages and spoil the crops.

It is a favourite destination for people who love forests and tranquillity. Its exquisite forestry, ancient temples, native folk cultural and tribal dances, makes it an extremely attractive destination for tourists who love yet unspoiled nature and her people of the soil on the face of earth.

How to Reach Kankrajhor-Belpahari:

By Train: The distance from Howrah to Jhargram station is 157 Kms and the journey takes three hours by train from Howrah.

By Road: Jhargram is also very well connected by highways with other nearby cities like Medinipur, Kharagpur, Durgapur, Bankura, Purulia, and Kolkata.

 

Personal experience

In the first week of April, this year, we suddenly planned to go to Kankrajhor, in the district of Jhargram, West Bengal, India. We drove straight from Kolkata to Jhargram, and then another 60km drive to the heart of Kankrajhor. Our destination was a private cottage with very basic arrangements situated in a small tribal village, on the edge of the forests. This time of a year it was little bit late to enjoy the dazzling blooms of Palash, described as “Flames of the Forests” (Butea monosperma). But this was a right time to cherish the beauty of Shaal-Piyal-Mohua trees everywhere. The green new leaves, sweet intoxicating fragrance of Mohua flowers and the extreme business of the wild bees and birds, will always remind you the youthfulness of a spring. The red lateritic forest floor is an experience to walk on. While walking on its undulated trails through forests you will hear only the relentless chirping of birds and murmurs of dry leaves being moved by frequent gust of cold breezes. Such ambiance in an afternoon will surely make you intoxicated and drowsy, free of all wiriness and stresses of busy urban life, and will help you enter into a peaceful siesta. One may arrange tribal dances amidst this forest, their native home. Their beating of drums, and the indigenous harmony of dances will make you fallen in love with this place. I’m sure. With the sunset the whole surroundings suddenly turn into a mystical darkness. Far from the distance sitting in the hut you may hear the intermittent sounds of nocturnal birds, hyenas, jackals and foxes.

The dinner is very simple. Country chicken and rice is a luxury here. We had the wonderful taste of its country liquor made from Mohua flowers (Madhuca longifolia). It was a wonderful experience for all of us.

Simple and beautiful tribal people there, basic stay with optimal standard and simple healthy food, unspoiled nature, tranquillity, and serenity...all will definitely make you feel... “How much we need to be happy?” Really?

always has the need

when is the day to stand by itself?

that's the design

can only choose a different spot to stand

  

------------------------------------------------

Agfa CT Precisa

  

Hoy dependencia municipal, perteneció antigüamente al coronel Moldes y su familia.

José Moldes (n. 1 de enero de 1785 en Salta; m. 18 de abril de 1824 en Buenos Aires) fue un militar y político salteño. Hijo del Alcalde Antonio Moldes y González, y de doña Antonia Fernández de Loira y Arias Velázquez.

Fue un vehemente patriota salteño que jugó un importante papel en los primeros años del movimiento por la independencia, tanto en España como en Argentina; enérgico exponente del localismo, no obstante su temperamento excitable, se considera que Moldes ha llevado a cabo importantes servicios personales y financieros para la causa de la libertad.

 

View on black

 

Gallery on black

  

Puri is a city and a Municipality of Odisha. It is the district headquarters of Puri district, Odisha, eastern India. It is situated on the Bay of Bengal, 60 kilometres south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as Jagannath Puri after the 12th-century Jagannath Temple located in the city. It is one of the original Char Dham pilgrimage sites for Indian Hindus.

 

Puri was known by several names from the ancient times to the present, and locally called as Badadeula. Puri and the Jagannath Temple were invaded 18 times by Hindu and Muslim rulers, starting from the 4th century to the start of the 19th century with the objective of looting the treasures of the temple. Odisha, including Puri and its temple, were under the British Raj from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947. Even though princely states do not exist in independent India, the heirs of the Gajapati Dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple. The temple town has many Hindu religious maths or monasteries.

 

The economy of Puri town is dependent on the religious importance of the Jagannath Temple to the extent of nearly 80%. The festivals which contribute to the economy are the 24 held every year in the temple complex, including 13 major festivals; Ratha Yatra and its related festivals are the most important which are attended by millions of people every year. Sand art and applique art are some of the important crafts of the city. Puri is one of the 12 heritage cities chosen by the Government of India for holistic development.

 

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

GEOGRAPHY

Puri, located on the east coast of India on the Bay of Bengal, is in the center of the district of the same name. It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the south east, the Mauza Sipaurubilla on the west, Mauz Gopinathpur in the north and Mauza Balukhand in the east. It is within the 67 kilometres coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between Chilika Lake and the south of Puri city. However, the administrative jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of 16.3268 square kilometres spread over 30 wards, which includes a shore line of 5 kilometres.

 

Puri is in the coastal delta of the Mahanadi River on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. In the ancient days it was near to Sisupalgarh (Ashokan Tosali) when the land was drained by a tributary of the River Bhargavi, a branch of the Mahanadi River, which underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the estuary, and formed many sand hills. These sand hills could not be "cut through" by the streams. Because of the sand hills, the Bhargavi River flowing to the south of Puri, moved away towards the Chilika Lake. This shift also resulted in the creation of two lagoons known as Sar and Samang on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively. Sar lagoon has a length of 8.0 km in an east-west direction and has a width of 3.2 km in north-south direction. The river estuary has a shallow depth of 1.5 m only and the process of siltation is continuing. According to a 15th-century chronicle the stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or Neelachal was used as the foundation or high plinth of the present temple which was then known as Purushottama, the Supreme Being. A 16th century chronicle attributes filling up of the bed of the river which flowed through the present Grand Road, during the reign of King Narasimha II (1278–1308).

 

CLIMATE

According to the Köppen and Geiger the climate of Puri is classified Aw. The city has moderate and tropical climate. Humidity is fairly high throughout the year. The temperature during summer touches a maximum of 36 °C and during winter it is 17 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1,337 millimetres and the average annual temperature is 26.9 °C.

 

HISTORY

NAMES IN HISTORY

Puri, the holy land of Lord Jaganath, also known popularly as Badadeula in local usage, has many ancient names in the Hindu scriptures such as the Rigveda, Matsya purana, Brahma Purana, Narada Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Kapila samhita and Niladrimahodaya. In the Rigveda, in particular, it is mentioned as a place called Purushamandama-grama meaning the place where the Creator deity of the world – Supreme Divinity deified on altar or mandapa was venerated near the coast and prayers offered with vedic hymns. Over time the name got changed to Purushottama Puri and further shortened to Puri and the Purusha became Jagannatha. Close to this place sages like Bhrigu, Atri and Markandeya had their hermitage. Its name is mentioned, conforming to the deity worshipped, as Srikshetra, Purusottama Dhāma, Purusottama Kshetra, Purusottama Puri and Jagannath Puri. Puri is however, a common usage now. It is also known the geographical features of its siting as Shankhakshetra (layout of the town is in the form of a conch shell.), Neelāchala ("blue mountain" a terminology used to name very large sand lagoon over which the temple was built but this name is not in vogue), Neelāchalakshetra, Neelādri, The word 'Puri' in Sanskrit means "town", or 'city' and is cognate with polis in Greek.

 

Another ancient name is Charita as identified by Cunningham which was later spelled as Che-li-ta-lo by Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang.When the present temple was built by the Ganga king Chodangadev in the 11th and 12th centuries it was called Purushottamkshetra. However, the Moghuls, the Marathas and early British rulers called it Purushottama-chhatar or just Chhatar. In Akbar's Ain-i-Akbari and subsequent Muslim historical records it was known as Purushottama. In the Sanskrit drama authored by Murari Mishra in the 8th century it is referred as Purushottama only. It was only after twelfth century Puri came to be known by the shortened form of Jagannatha Puri, named after the deity or in a short form as Puri. In some records pertaining to the British rule, the word 'Jagannath' was used for Puri. It is the only shrine in India, where Radha, along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga, Bhudevi, Sati, Parvati, and Shakti abodes with Krishna, also known as Jagannath.

 

ANCIENT PERIOD

According to the chronicle Madala Panji, in 318 the priests and servitors of the temple spirited away the idols to escape the wrath of the Rashtrakuta King Rakatavahu. The temple's ancient historical records also finds mention in the Brahma Purana and Skanda Purana as having been built by the king Indradyumna of Ujjayani.

 

According to W.J. Wilkinson, in Puri, Buddhism was once a well established practice but later Buddhists were persecuted and Brahmanism became the order of the religious practice in the town; the Buddha deity in now worshipped by the Hindus as Jagannatha. It is also said that some relics of Buddha were placed inside the idol of Jagannath which the Brahmins claimed were the bones of Krishna. Even during Ashoka’s reign in 240 BC Odisha was a Buddhist center and that a tribe known as Lohabahu (barbarians from outside Odisha) converted to Buddhism and built a temple with an idol of Buddha which is now worshipped as Jagannatha. It is also said that Lohabahu deposited some Buddha relics in the precincts of the temple.

 

Construction of the Jagannatha Temple started in 1136 and completed towards the later part of the 12th century. The King of the Ganga dynasty, Anangabhima dedicated his kingdom to the God, then known as the Purushottam-Jagannatha and resolved that from then on he and his descendants would rule under "divine order as Jagannatha's sons and vassals". Even though princely states do not exist in independent India, the heirs of the Gajapati dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple; the king formally sweeps the road in front of the chariots before the start of the Rathayatra.

 

MEDIEVAL AND EARLY MODERN PERIODS

History of the temple is the history of the town of Puri, which was invaded 18 times during its history to plunder the treasures of the Jagannath Puri temple. The first invasion was in the 8th century by Rastrakuta king Govinda-III (AD 798–814) and the last was in 1881 by the followers of Alekh Religion who did not recognize Jagannath worship. In between, from the 1205 onward there were many invasions of the city and its temple by Muslims of the Afghans and Moghuls descent, known as Yavanas or foreigners; they had mounted attacks to ransack the wealth of the temple rather than for religious reasons. In most of these invasions the idols were taken to safe places by the priests and the servitors of the temple. Destruction of the temple was prevented by timely resistance or surrender by the kings of the region. However, the treasures of the temple were repeatedly looted. Puri is the site of the Govardhana matha, one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankaracharya, when he visited Puri in 810 and since then it has become an important dham (divine centre) for the Hindus; the others being those at Sringeri, Dwaraka and Jyotirmath. The matha is headed by Jagatguru Shankarachrya. The significance of the four dhams is that the Lord Vishnu takes his dinner at Puri, has his bath at Rameshwaram, spends the night at Dwarka and does penance at Badrinath.

 

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Bengal who established the Bhakti movements of India in the sixteenth century, now known by the name the Hare Krishna movement, spent many years as a devotee of Jagannatha at Puri; he is said to have merged his "corporal self" with the deity. There is also a matha of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu here.

 

In the 17th century for the sailors sailing on the east coast of India, the landmark was the temple located in a plaza in the centre of the town which they called the "White Pagoda" while the Konark Sun Temple, 60 kilometres away to the east of Puri, was known as the "Black Pagoda".

 

The iconographic representation of the images in the Jagannath temple are believed to be the forms derived from the worship made by the tribal groups of Sabaras belonging to northern Odisha. These images are replaced at regular intervals as the wood deteriorates. This replacement is a special event carried out ritulistically by special group of carpenters.

 

The town has many Mathas (Monasteries of the various Hindu sects). Among the important mathas is the Emar Matha founded by the Tamil Vaishnav Saint Ramanujacharya in the 12th century AD. At present this matha is located in front of Simhadvara across the eastern corner of the Jagannath Temple is reported to have been built in the 16th century during the reign of Suryavamsi Gajapati. The matha was in the news recently for the large cache of 522 silver slabs unearthded from a closed room.

 

The British conquered Orissa in 1803 and recognizing the importance of the Jagannatha Temple in the life of the people of the state they initially placed an official to look after the temple's affairs and later declared it a district with the same name.

 

MODERN HISTORY

In 1906, Sri Yukteswar an exponent of Kriya Yoga, a resident of Puri, established an ashram in the sea-side town of Puri, naming it "Kararashram" as a spiritual training center. He died on 9 March 1936 and his body is buried in the garden of the ashram.

 

The city is the site of the former summer residence of British Raj built in 1913–14 during the era of governors, the Raj Bhavan.

 

For the people of Puri Lord Jagannath, visualized as Lord Krishna, is synonymous with their city. They believe that the Jagannatha looks after the welfare of the state. However, after the incident of the partial collapse of the Jagannatha Temple, the Amalaka part of the tower on 14 June 1990 people became apprehensive and thought it was not a good omen for the welfare of the State of Odisha. The replacement of the fallen stone by another of the same size and weight (seven tons) had to be done only in the an early morning hours after the gods had woken up after a good nights sleep which was done on 28 February 1991.

 

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of the Indian Government. It is one of 12 the heritage cities chosen with "focus on holistic development" to be implemented in 27 months by end of March 2017.

 

Non-Hindus are not permitted to enter the shrines but are allowed to view the temple and the proceedings from the roof of the Raghunandan library within the precincts of the temple for a small donation.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2001 India census, Puri city, an urban Agglomeration governed by Municipal Corporation in Orissa state, had a population of 157,610 which increased to 200,564 in 2011. Males, 104,086, females, 96,478, children under 6 years of age, 18,471. The sex ratio is 927 females to 1000 males. Puri has an average literacy rate of 88.03 percent (91.38 percent males and 84.43 percent females). Religion-wise data is not reported.

 

ECONOMY

The economy of Puri is dependent on tourism to the extent of about 80%. The temple is the focal point of the entire area of the town and provides major employment to the people of the town. Agricultural production of rice, ghee, vegetables and so forth of the region meets the huge requirements of the temple, with many settlements aroiund the town exclusively catering to the other religious paraphernalia of the temple. The temple administration employs 6,000 men to perform the rituals. The temple also provides economic sustenance to 20,000 people belonging to 36 orders and 97 classes. The kitchen of the temple which is said to be the largest in the world employs 400 cooks.

 

CITY MANAGEMENT AND GOVERNANCE

Puri Municipality, Puri Konark Development Authority, Public Health Engineering Organisastion, Orissa Water Supply Sewerage Board are some of the principal organizations that are devolved with the responsibility of providing for all the urban needs of civic amenities such as water supply, sewerage, waste management, street lighting, and infrastructure of roads. The major activity which puts maximum presuure on these organizations is the annual event of the Ratha Yatra held for 10 days during July when more than a million people attend the grand event. This event involves to a very large extent the development activities such as infrastructure and amenities to the pilgrims, apart from security to the pilgrims.

 

The civic administration of Puri is the responsibility of the Puri Municipality which came into existence in 1864 in the name of Puri Improvement Trust which got converted into Puri Municipality in 1881. After India's independence in 1947, Orissa Municipal Act-1950 was promulgated entrusting the administration of the city to the Puri Municipality. This body is represented by elected representative with a Chairperson and councilors representing the 30 wards within the municipal limits.

 

LANDMARKS

JAGANNATH TEMPLE AT PURI

The Temple of Jagannath at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples built in the Kalinga style of architecture, in respect of its plan, front view and structural detailing. It is one of the Pancharatha (Five chariots) type consisting of two anurathas, two konakas and one ratha with well-developed pagas. Vimana or Deula is the sanctum sanctorum where the triad (three) deities are deified on the ratnavedi (Throne of Pearls), and over which is the temple tower, known as the rekha deula; the latter is built over a rectangular base of the pidha temples as its roof is made up of pidhas that are sequentially arranged horizontal platforms built in descending order forming a pyramidal shape. The mandapa in front of the sanctum sanctorum is known as Jagamohana where devotees assemble to offer worship. The temple tower with a spire rises to a height of 58 m in height and a flag is unfurled above it fixed over a wheel (chakra). Within the temple complex is the Nata Mandir, a large hall where Garuda stamba (pillar). Chaitanya Mahaprabhu used to stand here and pray. In the interior of the Bhoga Mantap, adjoining the Nata mandir, there is profusion of decorations of sculptures and paintings which narrate the story of Lord Krishna. The temple is built on an elevated platform (of about 39,000 m2 area), 20 ft above the adjoining area. The temple rises to a height of 214 ft above the road level. The temple complex covers an area of 4,3 ha. There is double walled enclosure, rectangular in shape (rising to a height of 20 ft) surrounding the temple complex of which the outer wall is known as Meghanada Prachira, measuring 200 by 192 metres. The inner walled enclosure, known as Kurmabedha. measures 126m x 95m. There are four entry gates (in four cardinal directions to the temple located at the center of the walls in the four directions of the outer circle. These are: the eastern gate called Singhadwara (Lions Gate), the southern gate known as Ashwa Dwara (Horse Gate), the western gate called the Vyaghra Dwara (Tigers Gate) or the Khanja Gate, and the northern gate called the Hathi Dwara or (elephant gate). The four gates symbolize the four fundamental principles of Dharma (right conduct), Jnana (knowledge), Vairagya (renunciation) and Aishwarya (prosperity). The gates are crowned with pyramid shapes structures. There is stone pillar in front of the Singhadwara called the Aruna Stambha {Solar Pillar}, 11 metres in height with 16 faces, made of chlorite stone, at the top of which is mounted an elegant statue of Arun (Sun) in a prayer mode. This pillar was shifted from the Konarak Sun temple. All the gates are decorated with guardian statues in the form of lion, horse mounted men, tigers and elephants in the name and order of the gates. A pillar made of fossilized wood is used for placing lamps as offering. The Lion Gate (Singhadwara) is the main gate to the temple, which guarded by two guardian deities Jaya and Vijaya. The main gates is ascended through 22 steps known as Baisi Pahaca which are revered as it is said to possess "spiritual animation". Children are made to roll down these steps from top to bottom to bring them spiritual happiness. After entering the temple on the left hand side there is huge kitchen where food is prepared in hygienic conditions in huge quantities that it is termed as "the biggest hotel of the world".

 

The legend says that King Indradyumma was directed by Lord Jagannath in a dream to build a temple for him and he built it as directed. However, according to historical records the temple was started some time during the 12th century by King Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. It was however completed by his descendant, Anangabhima Deva, in the 12th century. The wooden images of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra were then deified here. The temple was under the control of the Hindu rulers up to 1558. Then, when Orissa was occupied by the Afghan Nawab of Bengal, it was brought under the control of the Afghan General Kalapahad. Following the defeat of the Afghan king by Raja Mansingh, the General of Mughal emperor Akbar, the temple became a part of the Mughal empire till 1751 AD. Subsequently it was under the control of the Marathas till 1803. Then, when British Raj took over Orissa, the Puri Raja was entrusted with its to management until 1947.

 

The triad of images in the temple are of Jagannatha, personifying Lord Krishna, Balabhadra, his older brother, and Subhadra his younger sister, which are made of wood (neem) in an unfinished form. The stumps of wood which form the images of the brothers have human arms and that of Subhadra does not have any arms. The heads are large and un-carved and are painted. The faces are made distinct with the large circular shaped eyes.

 

THE PANCHA TIRTHA OF PURI

Hindus consider it essential to bathe in the Pancha Tirtha or the five sacred bathing spots of Puri, India, to complete a pilgrimage to Puri. The five sacred water bodies are the Indradyumana Tank, the Rohini Kunda, the Markandeya Tank, Swetaganga Tank, and the The Sea also called the Mahodadhi is considered a sacred bathing spot in the Swargadwar area. These tanks have perennial sources of supply in the form of rain water and ground water.

 

GUNDICHA TEMPLE

Known as the Garden House of Jagannath, the Gundicha temple stands in the centre of a beautiful garden, surrounded by compound walls on all sides. It lies at a distance of about 3 kilometres to the north east of the Jagannath Temple. The two temples are located at the two ends of the Bada Danda (Grand Avenue) which is the pathway for the Rath Yatra. According to a legend, Gundicha was the wife of King Indradyumna who originally built the Jagannath temple.

 

The temple is built using light-grey sandstone and architecturally, it exemplifies typical Kalinga temple architecture in the Deula style. The complex comprises four components: vimana (tower structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), nata-mandapa (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings). There is also a kitchen connected by a small passage. The temple is set within a garden, and is known as "God's Summer Garden Retreat" or garden house of Jagannath. The entire complex, including garden, is surrounded by a wall which measures 131 m × 98 m with height of 6.1 m.

 

Except for the 9-day Rath Yatra when triad images are worshipped in Gundicha Temple, the rest of the year it remains unoccupied. Tourists can visit the temple after paying an entry fee. Foreigners (prohibited entry in the main temple) are allowed inside this temple during this period. The temple is under the Jagannath Temple Administration, Puri – the governing body of the main temple. A small band of servitors maintain the temple.

 

SWARGADWAR

Swargadwar is the name given to the cremation ground or burning ghat which is located on the shores of the sea were thousands of dead bodies of Hindus are brought from faraway places to cremate. It is a belief that the Chitanya Mahaparabhu disppaeread from this Swargadwar about 500 years back.

 

BEACH

The beach at Puri known as the "Ballighai beach} is 8 km away at the mouth of Nunai River from the town and is fringed by casurian trees. It has golden yellow sand and has pleasant sunshine. Sunrise and sunset are pleasant scenic attractions here. Waves break in at the beach which is long and wide.

 

DISTRICT MUSEUM

The Puri district museum is located on the station road where the exhibits are of different types of garments worn by Lord Jagannath, local sculptures, patachitra (traditional, cloth-based scroll painting) and ancient Palm-leaf manuscripts and local craft work.

 

RAGHUNANDANA LIBRARY

Raghunandana Library is located in the Emmra matha complex (opposite Simhadwara or Lion gate, the main entrance gate). The Jagannatha Aitihasika Gavesana Samiti (Jagannatha Historical Center) is also located here. The library contains ancient palm leaf manuscripts of Jagannatha, His cult and the history of the city. From the roof of the library one gets a picturesque view of the temple complex.

 

FESTIVALS OF PURI

Puri witnesses 24 festivals every year, of which 13 are major festivals. The most important of these is the Rath Yatra or the Car festival held in the month June–July which is attended by more than 1 million people.

 

RATH YATRA AT PURI

The Jagannath triad are usually worshiped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of Asadha (Rainy Season of Orissa, usually falling in month of June or July), they are brought out onto the Bada Danda (main street of Puri) and travel 3 kilometrer to the Shri Gundicha Temple, in huge chariots (ratha), allowing the public to have darśana (Holy view). This festival is known as Rath Yatra, meaning the journey (yatra) of the chariots (ratha). The yatra starts, according to Hindu calendar Asadha Sukla Dwitiya )the second day of bright fortnight of Asadha (June–July) every year.

 

Historically, the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Rath Yatra at the completion of the great temple around 1150 AD. This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early. In his own account of 1321, Odoric reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the King and Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.

 

The Rathas are huge wheeled wooden structures, which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees. The chariot for Jagannath is about 14 m high and 35 feet square and takes about 2 months to construct. Th chariot is mounted with 16 wheels, each of 2.1 m diameter. The carvings in the front of the chariot has four wooden horses drawn by Maruti. On its other three faces the wooden carvings are Rama, Surya and Vishnu. The chariot is known as Nandi Ghosha. The roof of the chariot is covered with yellow and golden coloured cloth. The next chariot is that of Balabhadra which is 13 m in height fitted with 14 wheels. The chariot is carved with Satyaki as the charioteer. The carvings on this chariot also include images of Narasimha and Rudra as Jagannath's companions. The next chariot in the order is that of Subhadra, which is 13 m in height supported on 12 wheels, roof covered in black and red colour cloth and the chariot is known as Darpa-Dalaan. The charioteer carved is Arjuna. Other images carved on the chariot are that of Vana Durga, Tara Devi and Chandi Devi. The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels, the wood-carved charioteer and horses, and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne. The huge chariots of Jagannath pulled during Rath Yatra is the etymological origin of the English word Juggernaut. The Ratha-Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra and Ghosha yatra

 

CHHERA PAHARA

The Chhera Pahara is a significant ritual associated with the Ratha-Yatra. During the festival, the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots in the Chera Pahara (sweeping with water) ritual. The Gajapati King cleanses the road before the chariots with a gold-handled broom and sprinkles sandalwood water and powder with utmost devotion. As per the custom, although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in the Kalingan kingdom, he still renders the menial service to Jagannath. This ritual signified that under the lordship of Jagannath, there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign Gajapati King and the most humble devotee.

 

CHADAN YATRA

In Akshaya Tritiya every year the Chandan Yatra festival marks the commencement of the construction of the Chariots of the Rath Yatra. It also marks the celebration of the Hindu new year.

 

SNANA YATRA

On the Purnima day in the month of Jyestha (June) the triad images of the Jagannath temple are ceremonially bathed and decorated every year on the occasion of Snana Yatra. Water for the bath is taken in 108 pots from the Suna kuan (meaning: "golden well") located near the northern gate of the temple. Water is drawn from this well only once in a year for the sole purpose of this religious bath of the deities. After the bath the triad images are dressed in the fashion of the elephant god, Ganesha. Later during the night the original triad images are taken out in a procession back to the main temple but kept at a place known as Anasara pindi. After this the Jhulana Yatra is when proxy images of the deities are taken out in a grand procession for 21 days, cruised over boats in the Narmada tank.

 

ANAVASARA OR ANASARA

Anasara literally means vacation. Every year, the triad images without the Sudarshan after the holy Snana Yatra are taken to a secret altar named Anavasara Ghar Palso known as "Anasara pindi} where they remain for the next dark fortnight (Krishna paksha). Hence devotees are not allowed to view them. Instead of this devotees go to nearby place Brahmagiri to see their beloved lord in the form of four handed form Alarnath a form of Vishnu. Then people get the first glimpse of lord on the day before Rath Yatra, which is called Navayouvana. It is said that the gods suffer from fever after taking ritual detailed bath and they are treated by the special servants named, Daitapatis for 15 days. Daitapatis perform special niti (rite) known as Netrotchhaba (a rite of painting the eyes of the triad). During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.

 

NAVA KALEVARA

One of the most grandiloquent events associated with the Lord Jagannath, Naba Kalabera takes place when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another lunar month of Aashadha, called Adhika Masa (extra month). This can take place in 8, 12 or even 18 years. Literally meaning the "New Body" (Nava = New, Kalevar = Body), the festival is witnessed by as millions of people and the budget for this event exceeds $500,000. The event involves installation of new images in the temple and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha. The idols that were worshipped in the temple, installed in the year 1996, were replaced by specially made new images made of neem wood during Nabakalebara 2015 ceremony held during July 2015. More than 3 million devotees were expected to visit the temple during the Nabakalebara 2015 held in July.

 

SUNA BESHA

Suna Bhesha also known as Raja or Rajadhiraja bhesha or Raja Bhesha, is an event when the triad images of the Jagannath Temple are adorned with gold jewelry. This event is observed 5 times during a year. It is commonly observed on Magha Purnima (January), Bahuda Ekadashi also known as Asadha Ekadashi (July), Dashahara (Vijyadashami) (October), Karthik Purnima (November), and Pousa Purnima (December). While one such Suna Bhesha event is observed on Bahuda Ekadashi during the Rath Yatra on the chariots placed at the lion's gate or the Singhdwar; the other four Bheshas' are observed inside the temple on the Ratna Singhasana (gem studded altar). On this occasion gold plates are decorated over the hands and feet of Jagannath and Balabhadra; Jagannath is also adorned with a Chakra (disc) made of gold on the right hand while a silver conch adorns the left hand. However, Balabhadra is decorated with a plough made of gold on the left hand while a golden mace adorns his right hand.

 

NILADRI BIJE

Celebrated on Asadha Trayodashi. It marks the end of the 12 days Ratha yatra. The large wooden images of the triad of gods are moved from the chariots and then carried to the sanctum sanctorum, swaying rhythmically, a ritual which is known as pahandi.

 

SAHI YATRA

Considered the world's biggest open-air theatre, the Sahi yatra is an 11 day long traditional cultural theatre festival or folk drama which begins on Ram Navami and ending in Rama avishke (Sanskrit:anointing) every year. The festival includes plays depicting various scenes from the Ramayan. The residents of various localities or Sahis are entrusted the task of performing the drama at the street corners.

  

TRANSPORT

Earlier when roads did not exist people walked or travelled by animal drawn vehicles or carriages along beaten tracks. Up to Calcutta travel was by riverine craft along the Ganges and then by foot or carriages to Puri. It was only during the Maratha rule that the popular Jagannath Sadak (Road) was built around 1790. The East India Company laid the rail track from Calcutta to Puri which became operational in 1898. Puri is now well connected by rail, road and air services. A broad gauge railway line of the South Eastern Railways connects with Puri and Khurda is an important Railway junction. By rail it is about 499 kilometres away from Calcutta and 468 kilometres from Vishakhapatnam. Road network includes NH 203 that links the town with Bhubaneswar, the capital of Odisha which is about 60 kilometres away. NH 203 B connects the town with Satapada via Brahmagiri. Marine drive which is part of NH 203 A connects Puri with Konark. The nearest airport is at Bhubaneswar, about 60 kilometres away from Puri. Puri railway station is among the top hundred booking stations of Indian Railways.

 

ARTS AND CRAFTS

SAND ART

Sand art is a special art form that is created on the beaches of the sea coast of Puri. The art form is attributed to Balaram Das, a poet who lived in the 14th century. He started crafting the sand art forms of the triad deities of the Jagannath Temple at the Puri beach. Now sculptures in sand of various gods and famous people are created by amateur artists which are temporal in nature as they get washed away by waves. This is an art form which has gained international fame in recent years. One of the well known sand artist is Sudarshan Patnaik. He has established the Golden Sand Art Institute in 1995 at the beach to provide training to students interested in this art form.

 

APPLIQUE ART

Applique art work, which is a stitching based craft, unlike embroidery, which was pioneered by the Hatta Maharana of Pipili is widely used in Puri, both for decoration of the deities but also for sale. His family members are employed as darjis or tailors or sebaks by the Maharaja of Puri who prepare articles for decorating the deities in the temple for various festivals and religious ceremonies. These applique works are brightly coloured and patterned fabric in the form of canopies, umbrellas, drapery, carry bags, flags, coberings of dummy horses and cows, and other household textiles which are marketed in Puri. The cloth used are in dark colours of red, black, yellow, green, blue and turquoise blue.

 

CULTURE

Cultural activities, apart from religiuos festivals, held annually are: The Puri Beach Festival held between 5 and 9 November and the Shreeksherta Utsav held from 20 December to 2 January where cultural programmes include unique sand art, display of local and traditional handicrafts and food festival. In addition cultural programmes are held every Saturday for two hours on in second Saturday of the moth at the district Collector's Conference Hall near Sea Beach Polic Station. Apart from Odissi dance, Odiya music, folk dances, and cultural programmes are part of this event. Odishi dance is the cultural heritage of Puri. This dance form originated in Puri in the dances performed Devadasis (Maharis) attached to the Jagannath temple who performed dances in the Natamantapa of the temple to please the deities. Though the devadadsi practice has been discontinued, the dance form has become modern and classical and is widely popular, and many of the Odishi virtuoso artists and gurus (teachers) are from Puri.

 

EDUCATION

SOME OF THE EDUCATIONNAL INSTITUTIONS IN PURI

- Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management

- Gangadhar Mohapatra Law College, established in 1981[84]

- Extension Unit of Regional Research Institute of Homoeopathy; Puri under Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH), New Delhi established in March 2006

- Sri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, established in July 1981

- The Industrial Training Institute, a Premier Technical Institution to provide education in skilled, committed & talented technicians, established in 1966 of the Government of India

 

PURI PEOPLE

Gopabandhu Das

Acharya Harihar

Nilakantha Das

Kelucharan Mohapatra

Pankaj Charan Das

Manasi Pradhan

Raghunath Mohapatra

Sudarshan Patnaik

Biswanath Sahinayak

Rituraj Mohanty

 

WIKIPEDIA

Comissão de Assuntos Sociais (CAS) realiza reunião deliberativa com 17 itens. Entre eles, o PL 682/2019, que concede benefícios fiscais por dependentes com doenças raras.

 

Bancada:

senadora Leila Barros (PSB-DF);

senadora Soraya Thronicke (PSL-MS);

senadora Renilde Bulhões (Pros-AL).

 

Foto: Marcos Oliveira/Agência Senado

FRONTISPICIO

 

El frontispicio, es obra de Ponciano Ponzano y representa a España abrazando la Constitución. Rodeada por la Fortaleza, la Justicia, las Ciencias, la Armonía, las Bellas Artes, el Comercio, la Agricultura, los Ríos y Canales de navegación, la Abundancia y la Paz.

  

EDIFICIO DEL CONGRESO DE LOS DIPUTADOS

  

En el espacio que ocupa el Palacio de las Cortes se situaba antaño el convento del Espíritu Santo, de la Orden de Clérigos Menores, el cual sufrió un grave incendio en 1823. Con la llegada en 1834 del régimen liberal, el gobierno moderado de Francisco Martínez de la Rosa decidió que sus reuniones se celebrasen provisionalmente en la iglesia del convento. Al asumir el Partido Progresista el poder, se tomó la decisión de construir un nuevo edificio en sustitución del edificio religioso enfrente de la Plaza de las Cortes.

 

El proyecto fue elaborado y ejecutado por el arquitecto Narciso Pascual Colomer, iniciándose el 10 de octubre de 1843 y siendo inaugurado el 31 de octubre de 1850 por la reina Isabel II. Durante los siete años que duraron las obras los diputados se vieron obligados a reunirse en el Salón de baile del Teatro Real de Madrid.

En los años 1980 sufrió su primera ampliación de sus dependencias, construyéndose en la manzana adyacente, en la que antaño se ubicó Hospital de Italianos entre 1598 y 1885, un edificio que comunica con el original mediante un puente sobre la calle de Floridablanca. Dicha ampliación fue inaugurada por los reyes de España, Juan Carlos I y Sofía el 28 de mayo de 1980.

 

Más tarde, en 1994, sufrió una nueva reforma y ampliación; asimismo el 1 de junio de 2006 se concluyó la última ampliación, sobre las antiguas sedes de dos bancos, el Banco Exterior de España y el Banco de Crédito Industrial.

 

En 2009, durante unas obras de saneamiento y rehabilitación del sótano del Congreso de los Diputados, se encontraron restos humanos muy antiguos. Una de las posibilidades sobre su origen es que procedan de un antiguo cementerio del convento sobre el que está construido el edificio.

 

Descripción del edificio

 

La fachada principal recae a la Carrera de san Jerónimo, una de las vías principales de la ciudad de Madrid. Constituye una de las obras maestras del Neoclasicismo en España, a pesar de lo tardío de su construcción (el edificio fue concluido mediado el siglo XIX), y la obra más conocida de su arquitecto, Narciso Pascual y Colomer.

 

El arquitecto creó una fachada de tipo palacial de reminiscencias renacentistas, en dos pisos, el primero almohadillado y el segundo de ventanales con frontones rectos. Como entrada monumental, dispuso un gran pórtico de seis columnas de estilo corintio que soportan un frontón triangular, decorado por un bajorrelieve representando a España con la Constitución, acompañada a ambos lados por imágenes que idealizan la Fortaleza, la Justicia, el Valor, las Ciencias, la Armonía, las Bellas Artes, la Agricultura, el Comercio, los Ríos, la Abundancia y la Paz, obra maestra del escultor Ponciano Ponzano. El pórtico, de fuerte influjo clasicista, protege las puertas de bronce que dan acceso al edificio y que sólo se utilizan cuando el Rey realiza la solemne apertura de sesiones del Congreso. La entrada de uso habitual se encuentra en un lateral del edificio, en la calle Floridablanca, cerrada al tráfico y convertida en lonja de acceso.

 

Delante del cuerpo central se abre una monumental escalera, flanqueada por los elementos más característicos e icónicos del edificio: dos monumentales leones, obra de Ponciano Ponzano, fundidos en 1866, según reza una inscripción al pie de las esculturas, con los cañones capturados al enemigo en la Guerra de África de 1860. La cultura popular los ha nombrado como Daoíz y Velarde, en honor de los dos capitanes insurrectos muertos durante el levantamiento del dos de mayo.

 

Sala de Sesiones

 

El más conocido espacio del Palacio, de forma semicircular, alberga la sala del plenario del Congreso de los Diputados, también conocida como "hemiciclo". En la cabecera se encuentra un tapiz con el escudo nacional, flanqueado por dos esculturas en mármol de Carrara blanco, con las efigies de los Reyes Católicos. Junto a ellas, dos lienzos, siendo uno de ellos María de Molina presenta a su hijo Fernando IV en las Cortes de Valladolid de 1295, pintado por Antonio Gisbert en 1863, y el otro El juramento de los diputados de las Cortes de Cádiz de 1812, obra de José Casado del Alisal, de 1863. En la parte alta del testero se localizan cuatro efigies que simbolizan la Marina, la Agricultura, el Comercio y las Ciencias, esculpidas por Sabino Medina, además de dos pinturas a cada lado, en forma triangular, del Decálogo y el Evangelio, obra de Carlos Luis de Ribera.

 

Frente al testero se sitúa la Presidencia y miembros de la Mesa del Congreso, y la tribuna de oradores. Enfrente los escaños donde se sitúan los miembros del Gobierno y los diputados, y por encima de los mismos, el espacio reservado a los invitados, prensa, cuerpo diplomático, público y a los senadores cuando las cámaras se reúnen en sesión conjunta. Es de destacar que en los arquitrabes de las tribunas están representados los escudos de todas las provincias españolas.

El hemiciclo está cubierto por una bóveda de 50 metros, con una pintura central, representando a la reina Isabel II rodeada de personajes de la historia de España, entre los que destacan El Cid, Cristóbal Colón y Miguel de Cervantes; todo ello rodeado de representaciones de las virtudes cardinales y alegorías de legisladores de todas las épocas. El autor de esta obra fue Carlos Luis de Ribera. La estructura sufrió daños por impacto de bala en el Golpe de Estado en España de 1981

 

Salón de Conferencias

Al lado del Salón de Sesiones, en línea recta hacia la puerta principal de las Cortes, se encuentra el Salón de Conferencias. La sala está profusamente decorada al estilo isabelino, con bajorrelieves y molduras en estuco de estilo neoplateresco. El centro de la misma está ocupado por una espléndida mesa, con adornos de bronce y nácar y tablero de ágata, donada por Isabel II. En la bóveda se encuentran los bustos de políticos de la misma época y cuadros que representan los continentes. En las paredes, doce cuadros representativos de los Reinos que componen España y algunas provincias, así como los ríos más importantes: Ebro, Tajo, Duero y Guadalquivir.

 

Vestíbulo principal

 

Se trata de una estancia de forma ovalada que sirve de acceso desde el pórtico de entrada, y que por tanto sólo se utiliza en momentos solemnes. Estucos polícromos imitando mármoles y jaspes decoran sus paredes. Preside la estancia una estatua de la reina Isabel II, obra de José Piquer. En uno de los laterales se encuentra una mesa que fue utilizada en las Cortes de Cádiz.

 

Biblioteca

La biblioteca está situada en el ángulo que forma la planta baja, y es obra del arquitecto Arturo Mélida, de 1889. Con tres pisos de altura, alberga cerca de 210.000 volúmenes y es, junto al archivo, custodio de los documentos de las Cortes desde su apertura.

  

MADRID DE LOS AUSTRIAS

 

Por Madrid de los Austrias, también llamado barrio de los Austrias, se conoce una amplia zona de la capital española, sin entidad administrativa, correspondiente al primitivo trazado medieval de la ciudad y a la expansión urbanística iniciada por los monarcas de la Casa de Austria, a partir de los reinados de Carlos I y, especialmente, de Felipe II, que, en el año 1561, estableció la Corte en Madrid. A efectos turísticos, el nombre se emplea para promocionar los conjuntos monumentales de una gran parte de los barrios administrativos de Sol y Palacio, que representa aproximadamente una cuarta parte de la citada zona. Además de su acepción geográfica, el término Madrid de los Austrias también tiene una acepción histórica. Según esta perspectiva, la expresión se emplea para designar la evolución, preferentemente urbanística, de la ciudad entre los reinados de Carlos I (r. 1516–1556), el primero de los Austrias, y Carlos II (r. 1665–1700), con el que se extinguió la rama española de esta dinastía.

Los límites del Madrid de los Austrias difieren significativamente según el punto de vista adoptado, ya sea histórico o turístico.

 

Límites históricos

  

Durante el reinado de Carlos I, Madrid estaba integrado por dos núcleos principales: el recinto comprendido dentro de la muralla cristiana, de origen medieval, y los arrabales. El casco urbano se extendía, de oeste a este, desde el Palacio Real hasta la Puerta del Sol; y, de norte a sur, desde la plaza de Santo Domingo hasta la plaza de la Cebada.

 

A partir de 1561, con la capitalidad, la ciudad creció de forma vertiginosa, expandiéndose principalmente hacia el este. El plano de Madrid realizado por Pedro Teixeira en el año 1656, casi un siglo después del establecimiento de la Corte, da una idea precisa de las dimensiones del casco urbano, en tiempos de Felipe IV (r. 1621–1665).​

 

La villa estaba rodeada por una cerca, mandada construir por el citado monarca en el año 1625, levantada, hacia el norte, sobre las actuales calles de Génova, Sagasta, Carranza y Alberto Aguilera (conocidas popularmente como los bulevares); hacia el sur, sobre las rondas de Toledo, Valencia y Embajadores; hacia el este, sobre los paseos del Prado y Recoletos; y hacia el oeste, sobre los terraplenes del valle del río Manzanares.

 

Extramuros,​ se situaban los jardines, parajes agrestes y recintos palaciegos del Buen Retiro, en la parte oriental de la ciudad; de la Casa de Campo, en la occidental; y del El Pardo, en la noroccidental.

 

La cerca de Felipe IV sustituyó a una anterior, promovida por Felipe II (r. 1556–1598) y que enseguida quedó obsoleta. Fue erigida para detener el crecimiento desordenado que estaba experimentando la ciudad y actuó como una auténtica barrera urbanística, que limitó la expansión de la urbe hasta el siglo XIX. Fue derribada en 1868.

 

A grandes rasgos, el espacio comprendido dentro de la cerca de Felipe IV se corresponde en la actualidad con el distrito Centro. Su superficie es de 523,73 hectáreas y comprende los barrios administrativos de Cortes, Embajadores, Justicia, Palacio, Sol y Universidad.

 

Límites turísticos

 

A diferencia de los límites históricos, perfectamente establecidos a través de la cerca de Felipe IV, la zona promocionada turísticamente como Madrid de los Austrias carece de una delimitación precisa. Se circunscribe a un ámbito sensiblemente menor, que comprende parcialmente los barrios administrativos de Sol y Palacio, pertenecientes al distrito Centro de la capital.

 

Se estaría hablando de las áreas de influencia de las calles Mayor, Arenal, Segovia, carrera de San Francisco, Bailén y Toledo y de las plazas de la Cebada, de la Paja, Mayor, Puerta del Sol y de Oriente, donde se hallan barrios y áreas sin entidad administrativa, como La Latina, Ópera o Las Vistillas.

 

Aquí se encuentran conjuntos monumentales construidos tanto en los siglos XVI y XVII, cuando reinó en España la dinastía Habsburgo, como en épocas anteriores y posteriores. Por lo general, todos ellos quedan incluidos en los itinerarios turísticos que utilizan la expresión Madrid de los Austrias. Es el caso de las iglesias medievales de san Nicolás de los Servitas y san Pedro el Viejo, de los siglos XII y XIV, respectivamente, y del Palacio Real, erigido en el siglo XVIII.

 

En orden inverso, existen monumentos promovidos por los Austrias no integrados en las citadas rutas, al situarse fuera de los barrios de Sol y Palacio. Algunos ejemplos son el Salón de Reinos y el Casón del Buen Retiro, que formaron parte del desaparecido Palacio del Buen Retiro, y los jardines homónimos.

 

También quedan excluidas de esta clasificación turística zonas de menor valor monumental, pero con un gran significado histórico en la época de los Austrias. Es el caso del barrio de las Letras, articulado alrededor de la calle de las Huertas, donde coincidieron algunos de los literatos más destacados del Siglo de Oro español, tales como Félix Lope de Vega, Miguel de Cervantes o Francisco de Quevedo; o de la Casa de Campo, concebida por Felipe II como una finca de recreo y reserva de caza. En la primera mitad del siglo XVI, antes de su designación como capital, Madrid era una villa de tamaño medio entre las urbes castellanas, con cierta relevancia social e influencia política. Tenía entre 10 000 y 20 000 habitantes y formaba parte del grupo de dieciocho ciudades que disfrutaban del privilegio de tener voz y voto en las Cortes de Castilla.​

 

Había acogido en numerosas ocasiones las Cortes del Reino y, desde la época de los Trastámara, era frecuentada por la monarquía, atraída por su riqueza cinegética. Además, uno de sus templos religiosos, San Jerónimo el Real, fue elegido por la monarquía como escenario oficial del acto de jura de los príncipes de Asturias como herederos de la Corona.​ El primero en hacerlo fue Felipe II (18 de abril de 1528), que 33 años después fijaría la Corte en Madrid, y la última Isabel II (20 de junio de 1883).

Carlos I (r. 1516–1556), el primer monarca de la Casa de Austria, mostró un interés especial por la villa, tal vez con la intención de establecer de forma definitiva la Corte en Madrid. Así sostiene el cronista Luis Cabrera de Córdoba (1559–1623), en un escrito referido a Felipe II

El emperador impulsó diferentes obras arquitectónicas y urbanísticas en Madrid. A él se debe la conversión del primitivo castillo de El Pardo en palacio, situado en las afueras del casco urbano. Las obras, dirigidas por el arquitecto Luis de Vega, se iniciaron en 1547 y concluyeron en 1558, durante el reinado de Felipe II. De este proyecto sólo se conservan algunos elementos que, como el Patio de los Austrias, quedaron integrados en la estructura definitiva del Palacio Real de El Pardo, fruto de la reconstrucción llevada a cabo en el siglo XVIII, tras el incendio de 1604.

 

Otro de los edificios que el monarca ordenó reformar fue el Real Alcázar de Madrid, un castillo de origen medieval, que fue pasto de las llamas en 1734 y en cuyo solar se levanta en la actualidad el Palacio Real. Duplicó su superficie con diferentes añadidos, entre los que destacan el Patio y las Salas de la Reina y la llamada Torre de Carlos I, a partir de un diseño de Luis de Vega y Alonso de Covarrubias.

 

Entre los proyectos urbanísticos promovidos por Carlos I, figura la demolición de la Puerta de Guadalaxara, el acceso principal de la antigua muralla cristiana de Madrid, y su sustitución por una más monumental, con tres arcos. Fue levantada hacia 1535 a la altura del número 49 de la actual calle Mayor y el 2 de septiembre de 1582 desapareció en un incendio.​

 

Durante su reinado, se inauguraron algunos templos religiosos, entre ellos el santuario de Nuestra Señora de Atocha, que data de 1523. Fue derribado en 1888, ante su mal estado, y reconstruido como basílica en el siglo XX.

 

En 1541, se dispuso la ampliación de la Iglesia de San Ginés, situada en la calle del Arenal, mediante un anejo parroquial en la calle de la Montera, que recibió el nombre de San Luis Obispo. Abrió sus puertas en 1689, en tiempos de Carlos II, y fue incendiado en 1935. Sólo se conserva su fachada principal, que fue trasladada e integrada en la estructura de la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora del Carmen, en la calle del Carmen.

 

El Convento de San Felipe el Real, de 1547, fue uno de los puntos de encuentro más importantes del Madrid de los Austrias. Su lonja recibió el sobrenombre de mentidero de la villa, por los rumores que allí se fraguaban.​ El edificio, destruido en 1838, poseía un relevante claustro renacentista, compuesto por 28 arcos en cada una de sus dos galerías.

 

Otro templo de la época es la Iglesia de San Sebastián (1554–1575), que tuvo que ser reconstruida tras ser alcanzada por una bomba durante la Guerra Civil.

 

La Capilla del Obispo es, sin duda, la construcción religiosa de mayor interés arquitectónico llevada a cabo en Madrid, en tiempos de Carlos I.​ Fue levantada entre 1520 y 1535, como un anejo de la iglesia medieval de San Andrés. Responde a una iniciativa de la familia de los Vargas, una de las más poderosas del Madrid medieval y renacentista. Debe su nombre a Gutierre de Vargas y Carvajal, obispo de Plasencia, su principal impulsor.

 

En el terreno social, el religioso Antón Martín creó en 1552 el Hospital de Nuestra Señora del Amor de Dios, que estuvo en la calle de Atocha, cerca de la plaza que lleva el nombre de su fundador.

 

En 1529, Carlos I ordenó que el Real Hospital de la Corte, de carácter itinerante ya que acompañaba a la Corte en sus desplazamientos, quedara establecido de forma fija en Madrid. Su edificio, conocido como Hospital del Buen Suceso, estaba integrado por un recinto hospitalario y una iglesia, que fueron concluidos en 1607. A mediados del siglo XIX, se procedió a su derribo dentro de las obras de ampliación de la Puerta del Sol, donde se encontraba.

 

En cuanto a las residencias palaciegas, cabe mencionar la de Alonso Gutiérrez de Madrid, tesorero del emperador, cuya estructura fue aprovechada, durante el reinado de Felipe II, para la fundación del Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales. Recientes intervenciones en este edificio han puesto al descubierto elementos originales del patio principal del citado palacio.​

 

El Palacio de los condes de Paredes de Nava o Casa de San Isidro, donde tiene sus instalaciones el Museo de los Orígenes, se encuentra en la plaza de San Andrés. Fue construido en el solar de un antiguo edificio donde, según la tradición, vivió Iván de Vargas, quien, en el siglo XI, dio alojamiento y trabajo a san Isidro. Data de la primera mitad del siglo XVI.

 

Por su parte, la Casa de Cisneros data del año 1537 y está construida en estilo plateresco. Situada entre la calle del Sacramento y la plaza de la Villa, su primer propietario fue Benito Jiménez de Cisneros, sobrino del cardenal Cisneros (1436–1517), de quien toma su nombre.

 

Reinado de Felipe II

 

En 1561, Felipe II (r. 1556–1598) estableció la Corte en Madrid. Tal designación provocó un aumento de la población vertiginoso: de los 10 000 - 20 000 habitantes que podía haber en la villa antes de la capitalidad se pasó a 35 000 - 45 000 en el año 1575 y a más de 100 000 a finales del siglo XVI.

 

Para hacer frente a este crecimiento demográfico, el Concejo de Madrid, respaldado por la Corona, elaboró un proyecto de ordenación urbanística, consistente en la alineación y ensanchamiento de calles, el derribo de la antigua muralla medieval, la adecuación de la plaza del Arrabal (antecedente de la actual Plaza Mayor) y la construcción de edificios públicos como hospitales, hospicios, orfanatos, instalaciones de abastos y templos religiosos.

 

Felipe II puso al frente de este plan al arquitecto Juan Bautista de Toledo. Sin embargo, la falta de medios y lentitud burocrática del consistorio y el desinterés mostrado por la Corona en la aportación de recursos ralentizaron su desarrollo. La consecuencia fue un crecimiento urbano rápido y desordenado, que se realizó preferentemente hacia el este del centro histórico, dada la accidentada orografía de la parte occidental, orientada a los barrancos y terraplenes del valle del río Manzanares.

 

Los nuevos edificios se construyeron siguiendo la dirección de los caminos que partían de la villa y, a su alrededor, surgió un entramado de calles estrechas, aunque dispuestas hipodámicamente. El que conducía hasta Alcalá de Henares (hoy calle de Alcalá) vertebró el crecimiento urbano hacia el este, al igual que el camino que llevaba a San Jerónimo el Real, sobre el que se originó la carrera de San Jerónimo. Por el sudeste, la expansión tomó como eje principal el camino del santuario de Nuestra Señora de Atocha (actual calle de Atocha).

 

Hacia el sur, las nuevas casas se alinearon alrededor del camino de Toledo (calle de Toledo) y, por el norte, la referencia urbanística estuvo marcada por los caminos de Hortaleza y de Fuencarral (con sus respectivas calles homónimas), si bien hay que tener en cuenta que, en estos dos lados de la ciudad, el crecimiento fue más moderado.

 

Antes de la capitalidad, en 1535, la superficie de Madrid era de 72 hectáreas, cifra que aumentó hasta 134 en 1565, sólo cuatro años después de establecerse la Corte en la villa. A finales del reinado de Felipe II, el casco urbano ocupaba 282 hectáreas y tenía unos 7590 inmuebles, tres veces más que en 1563 (2250), al poco tiempo de la designación de Madrid como capital.

 

La intensa actividad inmobiliaria de este periodo no fue suficiente para satisfacer la demanda de viviendas, por parte de cortesanos y sirvientes de la Corona. Tal situación llevó al monarca a promulgar el edicto conocido como Regalía de Aposento, mediante el cual los propietarios de inmuebles de más de una planta estaban obligados a ceder una de ellas a una familia cortesana.

 

Este decreto favoreció el desarrollo de las llamadas casas a la malicia, un tipo de vivienda con el que sus propietarios intentaban evitar el cumplimiento de la norma, mediante diferentes soluciones (una única planta, compartimentación excesiva de los interiores, ocultación a la vía pública del piso superior...).

 

En 1590, la Corona y el Concejo crearon la Junta de Policía y Ornato, organismo presidido por el arquitecto Francisco de Mora, con el que se intentó poner fin a los desarreglos urbanísticos provocados por la rápida expansión de la ciudad. La correcta alineación de las calles, mediante la supresión de los recovecos existentes entre los inmuebles, fue uno de sus objetivos.

 

Felipe II promovió la realización de diferentes infraestructuras urbanas, caso del Puente de Segovia, la calle Real Nueva (actual calle de Segovia) y la Plaza Mayor. Los proyectos inicialmente previstos para estas tres obras no pudieron llevarse a cabo plenamente, adoptándose soluciones menos ambiciosas, ante las limitaciones presupuestarias.

 

Las dos primeras se enmarcaban dentro del mismo plan, consistente en la creación de una gran avenida, de aire monumental, que, salvando el río Manzanares por el oeste, conectase el antiguo camino de Segovia con el Real Alcázar. Finalmente, sólo pudo ejecutarse el puente (1582–1584), atribuido a Juan de Herrera, mientras que la avenida quedó reducida a unas nivelaciones del terreno sobre el barranco del arroyo de San Pedro y al derribo de varios edificios, que dieron origen a la calle de Segovia, terminada en 1577.

 

Con respecto a la Plaza Mayor, levantada sobre la antigua plaza del Arrabal, el centro comercial de la villa en aquel entonces, el monarca encargó su diseño a Juan de Herrera en el año 1580. Durante su reinado, se demolieron los edificios primitivos y dieron comienzo las obras de la Casa de la Panadería (1590), proyectada por Diego Sillero. Fue su sucesor, Felipe III, quien dio el impulso definitivo al recinto.

 

Felipe II continuó con las reformas y ampliaciones del Real Alcázar, iniciadas por su padre, con la edificación de la Torre Dorada, obra de Juan Bautista de Toledo, y la decoración de las distintas dependencias. También ordenó la construcción, en las inmediaciones del palacio, de la Casa del Tesoro, las Caballerizas Reales y la Armería Real. Todos estos conjuntos han desaparecido.

 

Pero tal vez su proyecto más personal fuese la Casa de Campo, paraje que convirtió en un recinto palaciego y ajardinado para su recreo. Se debe a un diseño de Juan Bautista de Toledo, que siguió el modelo de naturaleza urbanizada, acorde con el gusto renacentista de la época, a modo de conexión con el Monte de El Pardo.​ De este proyecto sólo se conservan partes del trazado de los jardines y algunos restos del palacete.

 

Asimismo, fueron levantados distintos edificios religiosos y civiles. El Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales fue fundado en 1559 por Juana de Austria, hermana del monarca, y en 1561 comenzaron las obras del Convento de la Victoria, que, como aquel, también estuvo muy vinculado con la Corona.

 

En 1583 abrió su puertas el corral de comedias del Teatro del Príncipe (en cuyo solar se levanta ahora el Teatro Español), institución clave en el Siglo de Oro español.15​ En 1590, fue inaugurado el Colegio de María de Córdoba y Aragón (actual Palacio del Senado), que toma su nombre de una dama de la reina Ana de Austria, principal impulsora del proyecto.

 

Entre los palacios nobiliarios, hay que destacar la Casa de las Siete Chimeneas (1574–1577), actual sede del Ministerio de Cultura, situada en la plaza del Rey. Su primer propietario fue Pedro de Ledesma, secretario de Antonio Pérez.

 

En la calle de Atocha se encontraban las casas de Antonio Pérez y en la plaza de la Paja se halla el Palacio de los Vargas, cuya fachada fue transformada en el siglo XX, adoptándose una solución historicista, a modo de continuación de la contigua Capilla del Obispo.

Reinado de Felipe III

En 1601, pocos años después de subir al trono Felipe III (r. 1598–1621), Madrid perdió la capitalidad a favor de Valladolid. Consiguió recuperarla cinco años después, tras el pago a la Corona de 250 000 ducados y el compromiso por parte del Concejo de abastecer de agua potable al Real Alcázar, entre otras infraestructuras.

 

Con tal fin, el consistorio realizó los denominados viajes de agua (conducciones desde manantiales cercanos a la villa), entre los cuales cabe destacar el de Amaniel (1614–1616). De ellos también se beneficiaron algunos conventos y palacios, además de los propios vecinos, a través de las fuentes públicas.​ En 1617 fue creada la llamada Junta de Fuentes, organismo encargado de su mantenimiento y conservación.

 

Bajo el reinado de Felipe III, se proyectaron numerosos edificios religiosos y civiles, algunos de los cuales fueron inaugurados en la época de Felipe IV. Es el caso de la Colegiata de San Isidro; de la nueva fachada del Real Alcázar (1610–1636), obra de Juan Gómez de Mora, que perduró hasta el incendio del palacio en 1734;​ y del Convento de los Padres Capuchinos, en El Pardo, fundado por el rey en 1612, cuyo edificio definitivo no pudo comenzarse hasta 1638.

 

Las nuevas edificaciones se construyeron con mayor calidad arquitectónica que en los periodos anteriores, al tiempo que se impuso un estilo propio, típicamente madrileño, de aire clasicista y de clara influencia herreriana,​ aunque también se observan rasgos prebarrocos.

 

Además, se establecieron arquetipos arquitectónicos, que, en relación con las casas palaciegas, quedaron definidos en un trazado de planta rectangular, dos o más alturas de órdenes, portadas manieristas, cubiertas abuhardilladas de pizarra y torres cuadrangulares, por lo general dos, con chapiteles rematados en punta, en la línea escurialense.

 

Este esquema, uno de los que mejor definen la arquitectura madrileña de los Austrias y de periodos posteriores, empezó a gestarse en tiempos de Felipe III, con ejemplos tan notables como las Casas de la Panadería y de la Carnicería, en la Plaza Mayor; el Palacio del marqués de Camarasa, ubicado en la calle Mayor y sede actual de diferentes dependencias municipales; el proyecto de reconstrucción del Palacio Real de El Pardo, incendiado el 13 de marzo de 1604; y la ya citada fachada del Real Alcázar. No obstante, fue con Felipe IV cuando alcanzó su máxima expresión.

 

Por su parte, el Palacio de los Consejos (también llamado del duque de Uceda) puede ser considerado un precedente en lo que respecta a la organización del espacio y fachadas, si bien carece de las torres de inspiración herreriana. Fue diseñado por Francisco de Mora, quien contó con la colaboración de Alonso de Trujillo, al frente las obras entre 1608 y 1613.

 

En cuanto a los templos religiosos, la mayoría de las construcciones utilizó como referencia el modelo jesuítico, de planta de cruz latina, que tiene su origen en la Iglesia del Gesú (Roma, Italia). La Colegiata de San Isidro, que, como se ha referido, fue diseñada en tiempos de Felipe III y terminada con Felipe IV, responde a esta pauta.

 

Mención especial merece el Real Monasterio de la Encarnación (1611–1616), fundado por Margarita de Austria, esposa del rey. Su fachada, obra de Juan Gómez de Mora (aunque posiblemente proyectada por su tío, Francisco de Mora), fue una de las más imitadas en la arquitectura castellana del siglo XVII y buena parte del XVIII.​

 

Un ejemplo es el Monasterio de la Inmaculada Concepción, en Loeches (Madrid), que, como aquel, presenta fachada rectangular con pórtico, pilastras a ambos lados y frontón en la parte superior.

 

La lista de edificios religiosos levantados durante el reinado de Felipe III es amplia. El Convento de San Ildefonso de las Trinitarias Descalzas (o, sencillamente, de las Trinitarias), del año 1609, se encuentra en el Barrio de las Letras y en él fue enterrado Miguel de Cervantes. Del Convento del Santísimo Sacramento, fundado en 1615 por Cristóbal Gómez de Sandoval y de la Cerda, valido del rey, sólo se conserva su iglesia (actual Catedral Arzobispal Castrense), levantada en tiempos de Carlos II.

 

El Monasterio del Corpus Christi o de las Carboneras y la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora del Carmen fueron empezados en 1607 y 1611, respectivamente, y ambos se deben a Miguel de Soria. La Iglesia de San Antonio de los Alemanes, de 1606, es una de las más singulares del primer tercio del siglo XVII, por su planta oval.21​ Su interior está decorado al fresco por Lucas Jordán, Juan Carreño de Miranda y Francisco Rizi.

 

Las iglesias de San Ildefonso (1619) y de Santos Justo y Pastor (hacia 1620) se encuentran entre las últimas fundaciones religiosas llevadas a cabo antes de la muerte del monarca en 1621. La primera, destruida completamente durante la Guerra Civil Española, fue reconstruida en la década de 1950.

 

Pero, sin duda, el proyecto urbanístico más importante llevado a cabo por el monarca fue la Plaza Mayor. En 1619, Felipe III finalizó las obras, que había iniciado su antecesor, con un nuevo diseño, firmado y desarrollado por Juan Gómez de Mora. Este arquitecto fue también responsable de la Casa de la Panadería, que preside el conjunto, si bien su aspecto actual corresponde a la reconstrucción realizada por Tomás Román, tras el incendio acaecido en 1672.

 

Además de este recinto, se procedió a adecuar otras plazas, como la de la Cebada y la desaparecida de Valnadú, esta última resultado de la demolición en el año 1567 de la puerta homónima, en la época de Felipe II. Otro de sus logros urbanísticos fue la reorganización del territorio en las riberas del río Manzanares y en el Real Camino de Valladolid, mediante la eliminación de las compartimentaciones internas y la estructuración de los plantíos.​

 

En el terreno de la escultura, destaca la estatua ecuestre del propio rey, traída desde Italia como obsequio del Gran Duque de Florencia. Realizada en bronce, fue comenzada por Juan de Bolonia y terminada por su discípulo, Pietro Tacca, en 1616.

 

Estuvo emplazada en la Casa de Campo, recinto que fue objeto de una especial atención por parte del monarca con la construcción de nuevas salas en el palacete (del Mosaico y de las Burlas) y la instalación de diferentes fuentes y adornos en los jardines. En 1848, la escultura fue trasladada al centro de la Plaza Mayor, donde actualmente se exhibe, por orden de Isabel II.

 

Reinado de Felipe IV

Felipe IV (r. 1621–1665) accedió al trono a la edad de dieciséis años, tras la inesperada muerte de su padre. Tradicionalmente ha sido considerado como un mecenas de las letras y de las artes, principalmente de la pintura.​ Durante su reinado, Madrid se convirtió en uno de los principales focos culturales de Europa y en el escenario donde se fraguaron muchas de las grandes creaciones del Siglo de Oro español. Además, la ciudad albergó la mayor parte de la colección pictórica del monarca, una de las más importantes de la historia del coleccionismo español

 

En el ámbito de la arquitectura, se levantaron numerosos edificios civiles y religiosos, al tiempo que se construyó una nueva residencia regia en el entorno del Prado de los Jerónimos, en el lado oriental del casco urbano. El Palacio del Buen Retiro desplazó hacia el este buena parte de la actividad política, social y cultural de la villa, que hasta entonces gravitaba únicamente sobre el Real Alcázar, situado en el extremo occidental.

En líneas generales, la arquitectura palaciega del reinado de Felipe IV siguió el modelo post-escurialense, de rasgos barrocos contenidos, que comenzó a forjarse con Felipe III. Este estándar aparecía en estado puro en el desaparecido Palacio del Buen Retiro, cuyo origen fue el llamado Cuarto Real, un anexo del Monasterio de los Jerónimos, que, desde tiempos de los Reyes Católicos, era frecuentado por la realeza para su descanso y retiro.

 

Siguiendo una iniciativa del Conde-Duque de Olivares,29​ en 1632 Felipe IV ordenó al arquitecto Alonso Carbonel la ampliación del recinto y su conversión en residencia veraniega. El palacio fue concebido como un lugar de recreo, función que quedó remarcada mediante una configuración articulada alrededor de dos grandes patios, diseñados a modo de plazas urbanas.30​ La Plaza Principal estaba reservada a la Familia Real, mientras que la Plaza Grande, de mayores dimensiones, era utilizada para la celebración de fiestas, actos lúdico-culturales y eventos taurinos.

 

La primera fase, correspondiente al núcleo central (Plaza Principal), se concluyó en 1633, sólo un año después de realizarse el encargo. Por su parte, las obras de la Plaza Grande, el Picadero, el Salón de Baile, el Coliseo y los jardines se prolongaron, a lo largo de diferentes etapas, hasta 1640.

 

El recinto palaciego sufrió graves desperfectos durante la Guerra de la Independencia y, finalmente, fue demolido en la época de Isabel II, ante la imposibilidad de recuperación. Sólo se conservan el Salón de Reinos y el Salón de Baile (o Casón del Buen Retiro), si bien con importantes transformaciones en relación con el diseño original.

 

En lo que respecta a los jardines, el Parque de El Retiro es heredero del trazado llevado a cabo en la época de Felipe IV, aunque su fisonomía actual responde a múltiples remodelaciones ejecutadas en periodos posteriores, principalmente en los siglos XVIII y XIX. Entre los elementos primitivos que aún se mantienen, cabe citar algunos complejos hidráulicos, como el Estanque Grande y la Ría Chica.

 

Además del Buen Retiro, el monarca mostró una especial predilección por el Real Sitio de El Pardo, donde mandó construir el Palacio de la Zarzuela, actual residencia de la Familia Real, y ampliar la Torre de la Parada, a partir de un diseño de Juan Gómez de Mora. Este último edificio fue erigido como pabellón de caza por Felipe II y resultó completamente destruido en el siglo XVIII.

 

La arquitectura civil tiene en el Palacio de Santa Cruz y en la Casa de la Villa, ambos proyectados por Juan Gómez de Mora en el año 1629, dos notables exponentes.

 

El primero albergó la Sala de Alcaldes de Casa y Corte y la Cárcel de Corte y, en la actualidad, acoge al Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. Se estructura alrededor de dos patios cuadrangulares simétricos, unidos mediante un eje central que sirve de distribuidor y acceso al edificio. La horizontalidad de su fachada principal, que da a la Plaza de la Provincia, queda rota por los torreones laterales de inspiración herreriana y la portada con dos niveles de triple vano. Fue terminado en 1636 y ha sido objeto de numerosas reformas en siglos posteriores.

 

Por su parte, la Casa de la Villa fue diseñada como sede del gobierno municipal y Cárcel de Villa. Sus obras comenzaron en 1644, quince años después de realizarse el proyecto, y finalizaron en 1696. Junto a Gómez de Mora, colaboraron José de Villarreal, a quien se debe el patio central, Teodoro Ardemans y José del Olmo.

 

Entre las residencias nobiliarias, figuran el Palacio del duque de Abrantes, construido por Juan Maza entre 1653 y 1655 y transformado sustancialmente en el siglo XIX, y el Palacio de la Moncloa. Este último fue erigido en el año 1642, a iniciativa de Melchor Antonio Portocarrero y Lasso de la Vega, conde de Monclova y virrey del Perú, su primer propietario. La estructura actual corresponde a la reconstrucción y ampliación llevadas a cabo en el siglo XX, tras los daños sufridos durante la Guerra Civil.

La arquitectura religiosa del reinado de Felipe IV presenta dos fases, coincidentes con los procesos evolutivos que se dieron en el arte barroco español a lo largo del siglo XVII.

 

En la primera mitad, se mantuvo la austeridad geométrica y espacial, arrastrada del estilo herreriano, con escasos y calculados motivos ornamentales, salvo en los interiores, que, en clara contraposición, aparecían profusamente decorados. En la segunda mitad del siglo, el gusto por las formas favoreció un progresivo alejamiento del clasicismo y la incorporación de motivos naturalistas en las fachadas.

 

Dentro de la primera corriente, que puede ser denominada como barroco clasicista, se encuentran la Colegiata de San Isidro, la Ermita de San Antonio de los Portugueses y el Convento de San Plácido.

 

La Colegiata de San Isidro (1622–1664) fue fundada como iglesia del antiguo Colegio Imperial,​ situado dentro del mismo complejo. El templo se debe a un proyecto del hermano jesuita Pedro Sánchez de hacia 1620, iniciándose su construcción en 1622. A su muerte, en 1633, se hará cargo de la obra el hermano Francisco Bautista junto con Melchor de Bueras. Es de planta de cruz latina y destaca por su fachada monumental, realizada en piedra de granito y flanqueada por dos torres en los lados. Fue la catedral provisional de Madrid desde 1885 hasta 1993.

 

La Ermita de San Antonio de los Portugueses estuvo ubicada en una isla artificial, en medio de un estanque lobulado, dentro de los Jardines del Buen Retiro. Fue edificada entre 1635 y 1637 por Alonso Carbonel y derribada en 1761, para levantar, sobre su solar, la Real Fábrica de Porcelana de la China, igualmente desaparecida. Su torre cuadrangular, rematada con chapitel herreriano, y su suntuosa portada, configurada por cuatro grandes columnas de mármol blanco y capiteles de mármol negro, eran sus elementos más notables.

 

El edificio actual del Convento de San Plácido, obra de Lorenzo de San Nicolás, data de 1641. La decoración interior es la parte más sobresaliente y en él se conserva un Cristo yacente de Gregorio Fernández.

 

Conforme fue avanzando el siglo XVII, los exteriores sobrios fueron perdiendo vigencia y se impuso un estilo plenamente barroco, sin apenas concesiones al clasicismo. Esta evolución puede apreciarse en la ya citada Casa de la Villa, que, dado su prolongado proceso de construcción (el diseño se hizo en 1629 y el edificio se terminó en 1696), fue incorporando diferentes elementos ornamentales en su fachada clasicista, acordes con las nuevas tendencias.

 

La Capilla de San Isidro ejemplifica el apogeo del barroco. Fue construida como un anejo de la iglesia de origen medieval de San Andrés para albergar los restos mortales de san Isidro. La primera piedra se puso en 1642, a partir de un proyecto de Pedro de la Torre. En 1657, José de Villarreal realizó un segundo proyecto, cuyas obras fueron inauguradas por Felipe IV y su esposa Mariana de Austria en un acto institucional. Fue terminada en 1699.

 

Junto a la basílica neoclásica de San Francisco el Grande (siglo XVIII), se halla la Capilla del santo Cristo de los Dolores para la Venerable Orden Tercera de San Francisco (1662–1668), realizada por el arquitecto Francisco Bautista. En su interior sobresale la decoración barroca, con especial mención al baldaquino, hecho en maderas, jaspes y mármoles, donde se guarda la talla del Cristo de los Dolores.

 

El Convento de Nuestra Señora de la Concepción o de las Góngoras es otro ejemplo del barroco madrileño. Debe su nombre a Juan Jiménez de Góngora, ministro del Consejo de Castilla, quien procedió a su creación, por encargo directo del rey, como ofrenda por el nacimiento de su hijo Carlos (a la postre Carlos II). Fue inaugurado en 1665 y ampliado en 1669, según un proyecto de Manuel del Olmo.

 

Dentro del capítulo de arquitectura religiosa, también hay que destacar la reconstrucción de la iglesia medieval de San Ginés, llevada a cabo, a partir de 1645, por el arquitecto Juan Ruiz. Es de planta de cruz latina, de tres naves, con crucero y cúpula.

 

Escultura

Las numerosas fundaciones religiosas llevadas a cabo con Felipe IV generaron una importante actividad escultórica, destinada a la realización de tallas y retablos. Hacia 1646 se estableció en la Corte Manuel Pereira, a quien se debe el retablo de la Iglesia de San Andrés, desaparecido durante la Guerra Civil, y la estatua de San Bruno, considerada una de sus obras maestras, que se conserva en la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando.

 

Fuera del ámbito religioso, la producción escultórica se desarrolló a través de dos vías: la ornamentación de calles y plazas, mediante la construcción de fuentes artísticas (es el caso de la Fuente de Orfeo, diseñada por Juan Gómez de Mora y terminada en 1629), y los encargos reales, entre los que sobresale la estatua ecuestre de Felipe IV (1634–1640).

 

Se trata de las primera escultura a caballo del mundo en la que éste se sostiene únicamente sobre sus patas traseras.34​ Es obra de Pietro Tacca, quien trabajó sobre unos bocetos hechos por Velázquez y, según la tradición, contó con el asesoramiento científico de Galileo Galilei. Conocida como el caballo de bronce, estuvo inialmente en el Palacio del Buen Retiro y, en tiempos de Isabel II, fue trasladada a la Plaza de Oriente, su actual ubicación.

En el terreno urbanístico, Felipe IV ordenó la construcción de una cerca alrededor del casco urbano, mediante la cual quedaron establecidos los nuevos límites de la villa, tras los procesos expansivos de los periodos anteriores. Desde la fundación de Madrid en el siglo IX, había sido costumbre cercar el caserío, bien con una finalidad defensiva (murallas musulmana y cristiana), bien para el control fiscal de los abastos e inmigración (cerca medieval de los arrabales y Cerca de Felipe II).

 

La Cerca de Felipe IV provocó varios efectos en el desarrollo urbano: por un lado, impidió la expansión horizontal de Madrid hasta bien entrado el siglo XIX, cuando fue demolida y pudieron acometerse los primeros ensanches; y, por otro, favoreció un cierto crecimiento vertical, dando lugar a las corralas, viviendas dispuestas en varias alturas y organizadas en corredera, alrededor de un gran patio común.

 

De la citada cerca, realizada en ladrillo y mampostería, aún se mantienen en pie algunos restos, como los situados en la Ronda de Segovia, en los alrededores de la Puerta de Toledo.

 

El Puente de Toledo es otro de los proyectos urbanísticos impulsados por el rey. Su función era enlazar directamente el casco urbano con el camino de Toledo, salvando el río Manzanares por la parte suroccidental de la ciudad. Fue construido por José de Villarreal entre 1649 y 1660, a partir de un proyecto de Juan Gómez de Mora.

 

El puente quedó destruido en una riada y en 1671, durante el reinado de Carlos II, se levantó uno nuevo, que también desapareció por los mismos motivos. La estructura definitiva que ha llegado a la actualidad corresponde al primer tercio del siglo XVIII y es obra de Pedro de Ribera.

Reinado de Carlos II

Con la llegada al trono de Carlos II (r. 1665–1700), se frenó el ritmo constructor del reinado anterior, sobre todo en lo que respecta a las edificaciones civiles. Entre éstas, tan sólo cabe mencionar la Puerta de Felipe IV (1680), que, pese a su nombre, fue erigida en honor de María Luisa de Orleáns, primera esposa de Carlos II. Trazada por Melchor Bueras, estuvo inicialmente emplazada en la Carrera de San Jerónimo, hasta su traslado, a mediados del siglo XIX, a la calle de Alfonso XII, donde sirve de acceso al Parque de El Retiro.

 

En cuanto a las fundaciones religiosas, se levantaron algunos templos de interés artístico, que abandonaron definitivamente el aspecto austero de la primera mitad del siglo XVII e incorporaron plenamente las tendencias barrocas.

 

Es el caso de la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de Montserrat, que forma parte del convento homónimo.​ Fue trazada en el año 1668 por el arquitecto Sebastián Herrera Barnuevo, si bien su proyecto fue transformado por Gaspar de la Peña, Juan de Torija, Pedro de la Torre, Francisco Aspur y Pedro de Ribera, que intervinieron, en diferentes fases, hasta la conclusión del conjunto en 1720. El edificio destaca por su exterior profusamente ornamentado, en especial la torre que flanquea uno de sus lados, con abundantes motivos naturalistas en su parte superior y alrededor de los vanos.

 

El gusto por las formas también está presente en la Iglesia de las Calatravas (1670–1678), situada en la calle de Alcalá. Se debe a un diseño de fray Lorenzo de San Nicolás, terminado por Isidro Martínez y Gregorio Garrote. Presenta planta de cruz latina y, en su crucero, se alza una cúpula con tambor de ocho vanos, cuatro abiertos y cuatro cegados. La capilla mayor está adornada con un retablo de José Benito de Churriguera, realizado en tiempos de Felipe V.

 

Del Monasterio del santísimo Sacramento, fundado por Cristóbal Gómez de Sandoval en la época de Felipe IV, sólo se conserva su iglesia, actual Catedral Arzobispal Castrense. El templo se construyó con Carlos II, entre 1671 y 1744, a partir de un proyecto firmado por Francisco Bautista, Manuel del Olmo y Bartolomé Hurtado García.

 

Su fachada, labrada en sillares de granito, se estructura en tres niveles horizontales y está rematada por un frontón circular. La decoración exterior consiste en diferentes molduras que recorren los vanos, con motivos naturales, y en un relieve dedicado a san Benito y san Bernardo, instalado en el nivel intermedio.

 

Pese a las corrientes barrocas del momento, el Convento de las Comendadoras de Santiago se aproxima más al arquetipo arquitectónico de la primera mitad del reinado de Felipe IV, caracterizado por su sobriedad. El edificio, que empezó a construirse en 1667, destaca por su iglesia, de planta de cruz griega, fachada inspirada en el modelo del Real Monasterio de la Encarnación y torres con chapiteles herrerianos en los lados.

 

The black swan (Cygnus atratus) is a large waterbird, a species of swan which breeds mainly in the southeast and southwest regions of Australia. Within Australia, the black swan is nomadic, with erratic migration patterns dependent on climatic conditions. It is a large bird with black plumage and a red bill. It is a monogamous breeder, with both partners sharing incubation and cygnet-rearing duties.

 

The black swan was introduced to various countries as an ornamental bird in the 1800s, but has managed to escape and form stable populations. Described scientifically by English naturalist John Latham in 1790, the black swan was formerly placed into a monotypic genus, Chenopis. Black swans can be found singly, or in loose companies numbering into the hundreds or even thousands. It is a popular bird in zoological gardens and bird collections, and escapees are sometimes seen outside their natural range.

 

This bird is a regional symbol of both Western Australia, where it is native, and the English town of Dawlish, where it is an introduced species.

 

Description

Black swans are black-feathered birds, with white flight feathers. The bill is bright red, with a pale bar and tip; and legs and feet are greyish-black. Cobs (males) are slightly larger than pens (females), with a longer and straighter bill. Cygnets (immature birds) are a greyish-brown with pale-edged feathers.

 

Mature black swans measure between 110 and 142 centimetres (43 and 56 in) in length and weigh 3.7–9 kilograms (8.2–19.8 lb). Their wing span is between 1.6 and 2 metres (5.2 and 6.6 ft). The neck is long (relatively the longest neck among the swans) and curved in an "S"-shape.

 

The black swan utters a musical and far reaching bugle-like sound, called either on the water or in flight, as well as a range of softer crooning notes. It can also whistle, especially when disturbed while breeding and nesting.

 

When swimming, black swans hold their necks arched or erect and often carry their feathers or wings raised in an aggressive display. In flight, a wedge of black swans will form as a line or a V, with the individual birds flying strongly with undulating long necks, making whistling sounds with their wings and baying, bugling or trumpeting calls.

  

Black swan skeleton (Museum of Osteology)

The black swan is unlike any other Australian bird, although in poor light and at long range it may be confused with a magpie goose in flight. However, the black swan can be distinguished by its much longer neck and slower wing beat.

 

One captive population of black swans in Lakeland, Florida has produced a few individuals which are a light mottled grey colour instead of black. White black swans are also known to exist; these individuals, which are leucistic, are believed to occur rarely in the wild.

 

Distribution

The black swan is common in the wetlands of southwestern and eastern Australia and adjacent coastal islands. In the south west its range encompasses an area between North West Cape, Cape Leeuwin and Eucla; while in the east it covers a large region bounded by the Atherton Tableland, the Eyre Peninsula and Tasmania, with the Murray Darling Basin supporting very large populations of black swans. It is uncommon in central and northern Australia.

 

The black swan's preferred habitat extends across fresh, brackish and salt water lakes, swamps and rivers with underwater and emergent vegetation for food and nesting materials. It also favors permanent wetlands, including ornamental lakes, but can also be found in flooded pastures and tidal mudflats, and occasionally on the open sea near islands or the shore.

 

The black swan was once thought to be sedentary, but is now known to be highly nomadic. There is no set migratory pattern, but rather opportunistic responses to either rainfall or drought. In high rainfall years, emigration occurs from the south west and south east into the interior, with a reverse migration to these heartlands in drier years. When rain does fall in the arid central regions, black swans will migrate to these areas to nest and raise their young. However, should dry conditions return before the young have been raised, the adult birds will abandon the nests and their eggs or cygnets and return to wetter areas.

 

The black swan, like many other water fowl, loses all its flight feathers at once when it moults after breeding and is unable to fly for about a month. During this time it will usually settle on large, open waters for safety.

 

The species has a large range, with figures between 1 and 10 million km2 given as the extent of occurrence. The current global population is estimated to be up to 500,000 individuals. No threat of extinction or significant decline in population has been identified with this numerous and widespread bird.

 

Black swans were first seen by Europeans in 1697, when Willem de Vlamingh's expedition explored the Swan River, Western Australia.

 

Introduced populations

Before the arrival of the Māori in New Zealand, a related species of swan known as the New Zealand swan had developed there, but was apparently hunted to extinction. In 1864, the Australian black swan was introduced to New Zealand as an ornamental waterfowl and populations are now common on larger coastal or inland lakes, especially Rotorua Lakes, Lake Wairarapa, Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora, and the Chatham Islands. Black swans have also naturally flown to New Zealand, leading scientists to consider them a native rather than exotic species, although the present population appears to be largely descended from deliberate introductions.

 

United Kingdom

The black swan is also very popular as an ornamental waterbird in western Europe, especially Britain, and escapees are commonly reported. As yet, the population in Britain is not considered to be self-sustaining and so the species is not afforded admission to the official British List, but the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust have recorded a maximum of nine breeding pairs in the UK in 2001, with an estimate of 43 feral birds in 2003–2004. A small population of black swans exists on the River Thames at Marlow, on the brook running through the small town of Dawlish in Devon, near the River Itchen, Hampshire, and the River Tees near Stockton on Tees. The Dawlish population is so well associated with the town that the bird has been the town's emblem for forty years.

 

Japan

There are also wild populations in Japan, having originally been imported during 1950–1960.

 

United States

Black swans have been reported in Florida, but there is no evidence that they are breeding; persistent sightings may be due to continual releases or escapes. Orange County, California reported black swans in Lake Forest, Irvine and Newport Beach on October 5, 2020, and Santa Ana in December 2021 in the “Versailles on the Lake” apartment community. The "Lake Forest Keys” community bought the original swans about eight to ten years ago and since then there have been many births and gaggles from the original couple" according to a report in the Orange County Register. Black swans formerly resided in the vicinity of Lake Junaluska, a large lake in Waynesville, North Carolina.

 

Mainland China

Black swans can also be found in mainland China. In 2018, one group of swans was introduced to the Shenzhen University campus on an artificial lake in Guangdong Province.

 

Behaviour

Diet and feeding

The black swan is almost exclusively herbivorous, and while there is some regional and seasonal variation, the diet is generally dominated by aquatic and marshland plants. In New South Wales the leaf of reedmace (genus Typha) is the most important food of birds in wetlands, followed by submerged algae and aquatic plants such as Vallisneria. In Queensland, aquatic plants such as Potamogeton, stoneworts, and algae are the dominant foods. The exact composition varies with water level; in flood situations where normal foods are out of reach black swans will feed on pasture plants on shore. The black swan feeds in a similar manner to other swans. When feeding in shallow water it will dip its head and neck under the water and it is able to keep its head flat against the bottom while keeping its body horizontal. In deeper water the swan up-ends to reach lower. Black swans are also able to filter feed at the water's surface.

 

Nesting and reproduction

Like other swans, the black swan is largely monogamous, pairing for life (about 6% divorce rate). Recent studies have shown that around a third of all broods exhibit extra-pair paternity. An estimated one-quarter of all pairings are homosexual, mostly between males. They steal nests, or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs, driving away the female after she lays the eggs.

 

Generally, black swans in the Southern hemisphere nest in the wetter winter months (February to September), occasionally in large colonies. A black swan nest is essentially a large heap or mound of reeds, grasses and weeds between 1 and 1.5 metres (3–4+1⁄2 feet) in diameter and up to 1 metre high, in shallow water or on islands. A nest is reused every year, restored or rebuilt as needed. Both parents share the care of the nest. A typical clutch contains four to eight greenish-white eggs that are incubated for about 35–40 days. Incubation begins after the laying of the last egg, to synchronise the hatching of the chicks. Prior to the commencement of incubation the parent will sit over the eggs without actually warming them. Both sexes incubate the eggs, with the female incubating at night. The change over between incubation periods is marked by ritualised displays by both sexes. If eggs accidentally roll out of the nest both sexes will retrieve the egg using the neck (in other swan species only the female performs this feat). Like all swans, black swans will aggressively defend their nests with their wings and beaks. After hatching, the cygnets are tended by the parents for about nine months until fledging. Cygnets may ride on their parent's back for longer trips into deeper water, but black swans undertake this behaviour less frequently than mute and black-necked swans.

 

Conservation

The black swan is protected in New South Wales, Australia under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 (s.5). The Black Swan is fully protected in all states and territories of Australia and must not be shot. It is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

 

Australian culture

Main article: Black swan emblems and popular culture

The black swan was a literary or artistic image among Europeans even before their arrival in Australia. Cultural reference has been based on symbolic contrast and as a distinctive motif.

 

The black swan's role in Australian heraldry and culture extends to the first founding of the colonies in the eighteenth century. It has often been equated with antipodean identity, the contrast to the white swan of the northern hemisphere indicating 'Australianness'. The black swan is featured on the flag, and is both the state bird and state emblem of Western Australia; it also appears in the Coat of Arms and other iconography of the state's institutions. The Black Swan was the sole postage stamp design of Western Australia from 1854 to 1902.

 

Indigenous Australia

The Noongar People of the South-West of Australia call the black swan Kooldjak along the West and South-West coast, Gooldjak in the South East and it is sometimes referred to as maali in language schools.