It's sunset on the Sea of Crises.

 

That has a nice ring to it after 2020, doesn't it?

 

Mare Crisium is the exceptionally round looking "sea" that is along the edge of the Moon facing the western horizon in our skies, so it's the easternmost sea that is easily discernible on the Moon. The bright crater that you see below it here is Proclus. Some of the crater Cleomedies is visible at the far left, and Macrobius and Tisserand are the larger and smaller crater in the lower left corner.

 

The Moon was 17.6 days past new during this photo sequence, taken around 0830 UT on 2021-03-01. This is a mosaic of multiple panels. Individual panels were shot as .SER files with a Celestron Edge HD with 3x Barlow and a ZWO ASI120MM camera with green filter. The best 60 of 200 frames were averaged in AutoStakkert. After some processing in PixInsight, the panels were composited in Image Composite Editor. A few more tweaks in PixInsight and final touches in Photoshop brings you this image.

 

The total distance shown here, left (north) to right (south) is about 560 km, or roughly the distance from Los Angeles to San Francisco.

Crises - Mike Oldfield

www.youtube.com/watch?v=FnX8CWzn4Gg&list=PLF-LiKcpokP...

  

Location : Barcelona

 

Note : night photo using only streetlight, no flash or tripod used.

 

Nikon PC-NIKKOR 28mm f/3.5

www.kenrockwell.com/nikon/28mm-pc.htm

Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Keystone, South Dakota

 

"A monument's dimensions should be determined by the importance to civilization of the events commemorated. We are not here trying to carve an epic, portray a moonlight scene, or write a sonnet; neither are we dealing with mystery or tragedy, but rather the constructive and dramatic moments or crises in our amazing history." Gutzon Borglum

Shot Location: Bacnotan, La Union

Bus Type: Golden Dragon Bulilit

*Acquired from Partas

Une grave crise démographique touche l’Europe au 14e siècle. La guerre, la famine et la Peste noire débarquée au sud de la France dès 1347 déciment la population. La ville de Rouen se voit également très lourdement impactée.

Dans la paroisse très peuplée de Saint-Maclou, le cimetière qui jouxte l’église devient bientôt trop petit pour accueillir les défunts. Ainsi, au milieu du 14e siècle, un nouveau cimetière est créé. Il devient le « grand aître », différencié du « petit aître » de l’église. Au Moyen âge, la population utilise pour désigner un cimetière, les termes d’ « aître » ou de « charnier ». Le terme « cimetière » est lui réservé au langage savant des ecclésiastiques.

Ce mot d’ancien français est issu du latin atrium. A l’époque romaine, il désigne la cour intérieure d’une maison entourée d’une galerie soutenue de colonnes. Au fil du temps, le terme atrium va être utilisé pour désigner la cour d’une église qui devient progressivement un cimetière.

De nouvelles vagues d’épidémies de peste touchent la ville de Rouen au cours du 15e et surtout du 16e siècle. Le nouvel aître se révèle alors, malgré de nombreux agrandissements de terrain tout au long du 15e siècle, une nouvelle fois trop petit pour faire face à la grande mortalité des habitants de la paroisse Saint-Maclou.

Ainsi, en 1526, la paroisse décide de construire autour du terrain du cimetière trois galeries destinées à faire office d’ossuaire. Afin de dégager de la place pour de nouvelles inhumations, les os d’anciens morts sont déterrés et placés dans ces galeries, au niveau des greniers, certainement bien ventilés et à la vue de tous. Ces galeries sont enrichies sur les parties en bois et en pierre d’un riche décor macabre.

 

A serious demographic crisis hit Europe in the 14th century. War, famine and the Black Death that arrived in the south of France in 1347 decimated the population. The city of Rouen was also heavily impacted.

In the densely populated parish of Saint-Maclou, the cemetery next to the church soon became too small to accommodate the deceased. Thus, in the middle of the 14th century, a new cemetery was created. It became the "grand aître", differentiated from the "petit aître" of the church. In the Middle Ages, the population used the terms "aître" or "charnier" to designate a cemetery. The term "cemetery" was reserved for the learned language of ecclesiastics.

This Old French word comes from the Latin atrium. In Roman times, it designated the inner courtyard of a house surrounded by a gallery supported by columns. Over time, the term atrium was used to designate the courtyard of a church that gradually became a cemetery.

New waves of plague epidemics hit the city of Rouen during the 15th and especially the 16th century. The new atrium then proved, despite numerous land extensions throughout the 15th century, once again too small to cope with the high mortality rate of the inhabitants of the parish of Saint-Maclou.

Thus, in 1526, the parish decided to build three galleries around the cemetery land intended to serve as an ossuary. In order to free up space for new burials, the bones of former dead were dug up and placed in these galleries, at the level of the attics, certainly well ventilated and in full view of all. These galleries were enriched on the wooden and stone parts with a rich macabre decoration.

The Second Temple period is predominantly characterized by three distinct crises, each of which had lasting effects on Judaism. The first, was the previously mentioned Babylonian exile, culminating in the return to Zion and the construction of the Second Temple. Financing for the project was provided under Persian patronage, and the temple was ready for consecration in the spring of 516 BCE. Completed during the reign of Darius I, the temple was inaugurated before the jubilant masses of all walks of life who had gathered to witness the event. Beneath the euphoria, however, the seeds of mistrust and resentment over no longer being an independent kingdom were already taking root.

 

These seeds began to bear fruit in the third century BCE. Jerusalem had been under the sway of Hellenistic philosophy following Alexander the Great’s crushing defeat of the Persians, and subsequent subjugation over Judea. The formation of the Seleucid Empire followed Alexander’s sudden demise led to ever more deterioration in the social fabric between Hellenized Jews and Orthodox Jews. This gradually culminated in the second major crisis of the Second Temple period, the Maccabean Revolt of 167 BCE. The influential family behind the revolt’s orchestration were the Hasmoneans (also known as the Maccabees), who succeeded in overthrowing the Seleucid king, after which they established the Hasmonean dynasty, ruling over an independent Judean kingdom. While many would dispute the terminology of this qualifying as an “uprising” and not a “civil war,” the Maccabean Revolt unquestionably marked the second turning point of the Second Temple period.

 

The Hasmonean dynasty would endure until 37 BCE, by which time an undisputedly civil war between rival dynastic heirs had already brought about a Roman intervention and outright annexation, led by Pompey the Great (one of the members of the First Triumvirate), some twenty-seven years earlier. Further Roman intervention named the Judean tetrarch, Herod, King of the Jews. Herod then retook Jerusalem from the beleaguered Hasmoneans and would go on to rule for thirty-seven years; ushering in the Herodian dynasty, as well as the onset of the third and final major crisis.

 

Crised Liner 7177

 

Model: Kia Granbird SD II "Parkway"

Manufacturer: Kia Motors (Korea)

Chassis: Kia KN2GBK122YK

Engine: D6AC

Suspension: Air Suspension

Route: Vigan City (Ilocos Sur) - Carmen (Pangasinan)

Shot Location: J.P. Rizal St., Brgy. Sta. Barbara, Baliuag, Bulacan

Date: February 16, 2015

Photo prise au centre ville de brest.

beaucoup d'humour pour ce sans logis.

 

Merci à lui de m'avoir permis de le prendre en photo!

 

Cela ma quand même coûté 2 euros! :)

Crised Liner

Birdoswald Roman Fort was known as Banna ("horn" in Celtic) in Roman times, reflecting the geography of the site on a triangular spur of land bounded by cliffs to the south and east commanding a broad meander of the River Irthing in Cumbria below.

 

It lies towards the western end of Hadrian's Wall and is one of the best preserved of the 16 forts along the wall. It is also attached to the longest surviving stretch of Hadrian's Wall.

 

Cumbria County Council were responsible for the management of Birdoswald fort from 1984 until the end of 2004, when English Heritage assumed responsibility.

 

This western part of Hadrian's Wall was originally built using turf starting from 122 AD. The stone fort was built some time after the wall, in the usual playing card shape, with gates to the east, west and south.

 

The fort was occupied by Cohors I Aelia Dacorum and by other Roman auxiliaries from approximately AD 126 to AD 400.

 

The two-mile sector of Hadrian's Wall either side of Birdoswald is also of major interest. It is currently the only known sector of Hadrian's Wall in which the original turf wall was replaced, probably in the 130s, by a stone wall approximately 50 metres further north, to line up with the fort's north wall, instead of at its east and west gates. The reasons for this change are unclear, although David Woolliscroft (Woolliscroft, 2001) has plausibly suggested that it was the result of changing signalling requirements, whilst Stewart Ainsworth of Time Team suggested it was a response to a cliff collapse into the river. At any rate, this remains the only area in which both the walls can be directly compared.

 

As of 2005, it is the only site[citation needed] on Hadrian's Wall at which significant occupation in the post-Roman period has been proven. Excavations between 1987 and 1992 showed an unbroken sequence of occupation on the site of the fort granaries, running from the late Roman period until possibly 500AD. The granaries were replaced by two successive large timber halls, reminiscent of others found in many parts of Britain dating to the fifth and sixth centuries. Tony Wilmott (co-director of the excavations) has suggested that, after the end of Roman rule in Britain, the fort served as the power-base for a local warband descended from the late Roman garrison, possibly deriving legitimacy from their ancestors for several generations.

 

Inside were built the usual stone buildings, a central headquarters building (principia), granaries (horrea), and barracks. Unusually for an auxiliary fort, it also included an exercise building (basilica exercitatoria), perhaps reflecting the difficulties of training soldiers in the exposed site in the north of England.

 

Geophysical surveys detected vici (civilian settlements) of different characters on the eastern, western and northern sides of the fort. A bathhouse was also located in the valley of the River Irthing.

 

Approximately 600 metres east of Birdoswald, at the foot of an escarpment, lie the remains of Willowford bridge which carried Hadrian's Wall across the River Irthing. The westward movement of the river course over the centuries has left the east abutment of the bridge high and dry, while the west abutment has probably been destroyed by erosion. Nevertheless, the much-modified visible remains are highly impressive. Until 1996, these remains were not directly accessible from the fort, but they can now be reached by a footbridge.

 

The fort at Birdoswald was linked by a Roman road, sometimes referred to as the Maiden Way, to the outpost fort of Bewcastle, seven miles to the north. Signals could be relayed between the two forts by means of two signalling towers.

 

The fort has been extensively excavated for over a century, with twentieth century excavations starting in 1911 by F.G. Simpson and continuing with Ian Richmond from 1927 to 1933 .[6] The gateways and walls were then re-excavated under the supervision of Brenda Swinbank and J P Gillam from 1949 to 1950.

 

Extensive geophysical surveys, both magnetometry and earth resistance survey, were conducted by TimeScape Surveys (Alan Biggins & David Taylor, 1999 & 2004) between 1997 -2001. These surveys established that the sub-surface remains in the fort were well preserved.

 

An area between the fort and the escarpment was excavated by Channel 4's archaeological television programme Time Team in January 2000. The excavation detected signs of an extramural settlement (vicus), but the area is liable to erosion and the majority of the vicus could have fallen over the cliffs.

 

In 2021 Newcastle University, Historic England, and English Heritage launched a major new archaeological excavation at the site.

 

Today the fort's site is operated by English Heritage as Birdoswald Roman Fort. The visitor centre features displays and reconstructions of the fort, exhibits about life in Roman Britain, the site's history through the ages, and archaeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries. Visitors can walk outside along the excavated remains of the fort.

 

Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.

 

Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.

 

The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.

 

Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.

 

Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.

 

History

Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.

 

The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.

 

The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.

 

Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.

 

Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.

 

Roman invasion

The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.

 

The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.

 

The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.

 

Establishment of Roman rule

After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.

 

On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.

 

While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.

 

There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.

 

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.

 

For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.

 

Roman military organisation in the north

In 84 AD

In 84 AD

 

In 155 AD

In 155 AD

 

Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.

 

Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.

 

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.

 

In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.

 

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.

 

During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.

 

In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.

 

The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.

 

3rd century

The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.

 

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.

 

The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.

 

Northern campaigns, 208–211

An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.

 

As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.

 

During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.

 

Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.

 

The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.

 

Diocletian's reforms

As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).

 

The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.

 

Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.

 

The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.

 

The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.

 

Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.

 

In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.

 

A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.

 

4th century

Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.

 

In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.

 

As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.

 

Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.

 

End of Roman rule

The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.

 

The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.

 

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.

 

Sub-Roman Britain

Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.

 

In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.

 

Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.

 

Trade

During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.

 

Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.

 

These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.

 

It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.

 

From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.

 

Economy

Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.

 

The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.

 

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.

 

Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.

 

Government

Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain

Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.

 

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

 

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.

 

Demographics

Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.

 

Town and country

During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.

 

Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.

 

Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C

 

Alcester (Alauna)

Alchester

Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C

Bath (Aquae Sulis) C

Brough (Petuaria) C

Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)

Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C

Caernarfon (Segontium) C

Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C

Caister-on-Sea C

Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C

Carlisle (Luguvalium) C

Carmarthen (Moridunum) C

Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)

Chester (Deva Victrix) C

Chester-le-Street (Concangis)

Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C

Cirencester (Corinium) C

Colchester (Camulodunum) C

Corbridge (Coria) C

Dorchester (Durnovaria) C

Dover (Portus Dubris)

Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C

Gloucester (Glevum) C

Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)

Ilchester (Lindinis) C

Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C

Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C

London (Londinium) C

Manchester (Mamucium) C

Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)

Northwich (Condate)

St Albans (Verulamium) C

Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C

Towcester (Lactodurum)

Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C

Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C

Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C

York (Eboracum) C

 

Religion

The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.

 

The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.

 

Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.

 

Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).

 

Christianity

It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.

 

The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.

 

A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.

 

Environmental changes

The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas

 

Legacy

During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.

 

Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe

Battle Grounds 2015.

PHUKET, Thailand (Aug. 15, 2021) U.S. Navy and Thailand Maritime Enforcement Command Center (Thai MECC) personnel practice maritime tactics, techniques and procedures during Southeast Asia Cooperation and Training (SEACAT) exercise. In its 20th year, SEACAT is a multilateral exercise designed to enhance cooperation among 21 participating Southeast Asian countries and provide mutual support and a common goal to address crises, contingencies, and illegal activities in the maritime domain in support of a free and open Indo-Pacific. (Thailand Maritime Enforcement Command Center courtesy photo)

Soldiers from the 2nd Battalion Parachute Regiment are lifted into training for the live fire phase using Chinook’s and American Black Hawks during exercise Swift Response 2022.

 

The British Army’s global response force is training to show its readiness to respond to global crises alongside allied airborne forces.

 

Exercise Swift Response sees 16 Air Assault Brigade Combat Team take command of more than 3,500 soldiers from 8 NATO countries training together in North Macedonia.

Some 2,000 British troops and 500 vehicles from the 2 PARA Battlegroup and attack, reconnaissance and support helicopters of Aviation Task Force 1 have travelled across Europe by road, rail, air and sea for the six-week-long exercise (21 Apr – 31 May). It starts with preparatory training to build the joint force’s skills and relationships before it deploys by parachute and helicopter to practise offensive and defensive operations on the rugged Krivolak training area.

 

The manoeuvres in North Macedonia are one element of a wider exercise, with four multinational forces under the direction of US Army Europe and Africa conducting simultaneous training across Europe – from the High North to the Caucasus.

 

Photographer:

Corporal Morris

©MoD Crown Copyright 2022

-FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE--

 

ROCK YOUR RACK 2022

October 1, 2022 - October 16, 2022

 

10th Annual Rock Your Rack Event is on the way!

 

Breast cancer is one of the leading health crises for women. 12% of women, and an every increasing percentage of men will be diagnosed with breast cancer in their lifetime. There is currently no known cure for breast cancer, and its early diagnosis is critical to survival.

 

Models Giving Back is pleased to present Rock Your Rack, an annual fundraising event combining the best of SL Music, Art, Dance and Fashion to support the work of breast cancer charities and raise awareness for early detection which is critical to a positive outcome for this devastating disease.

 

This year's sponsors include Blue Rose Creations, Cute N Cuddly Breedables, BOSLArts, Dark Star Radio, Designs by Soosy, Kultivate Music Management, LOPO District, and Fire Within.

 

Thank you to our Media sponsors as well for getting the word out: BOSL Magazine, Equalizer Magazine, Grid Affairs, Kultivate Magazine, Hostcrate, Media SL, ModeLS Magazine, The SL Enquirer, and XRadio SL.

 

This year's event will support the National Breast Cancer Foundation which provides free mammograms, education, support and early detection services to anyone in need.

 

Designers will be providing limited edition creations with 100% of the sales of those items going to the National Breast Cancer Foundation along with a fine selection of the newest, exclusive and most popular designs for your shopping pleasure. And, of course, the very popular 10L hunt will be up and running in the 50+ different designer booths and 35+ different artist booths.

 

For a complete listing of events and more details on this year's event, please visit the website: rockyourrack.wordpress.com

 

The event officially opens to the public on Saturday, October 1, 2022 at 12:00 am SLT and will close at 11:59 pm SLT on Sunday, October 16, 2022.

 

Together we can make a difference!

 

Those who are unable to attend but wish to support the cause, may visit the Model's Giving Back official donation page at fundraise.nbcf.org/MGB2022 where donations can be made directly using a variety of means.

 

****************************************************

About Models Giving Back

 

Models Giving Back is an agency of professional, certified SecondLife models who give of their time and talents to raise funds for legitimate and verified SL and RL charities.

 

Models Giving Back was founded in October of 2012 by Jamee Sandalwood after a previous agency dedicated to charity work was forced to close due to the owner leaving SecondLife. Jamee felt the work that was being done needed to be continued and set out to lead the models that were already a part of the former agency into new and bigger endeavors at the newly created Models Giving Back.

 

To date the agency has partnered with dozens of designers and provided models for runway, print and other functions that support charities around SL.

 

Rock Your Rack is the creation of Jamee Sandalwood and is owned exclusively by Models Giving Back in SecondLife.

 

Models Giving Back CEO: Jamee Sandalwood

Models Giving Back Logo:

Models Giving Back Facebook Page: www.facebook.com/ModelsGivingBack

 

Models Giving Back Flickr:http://www.flickr.com/photos/94469096@N04/

 

********************************************

About the National Breast Cancer Foundation

 

The National Breast Cancer Foundation was founded in 1991 by breast cancer survivor, Janelle Hail. She was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1980 at the age of 34. At the time of her diagnosis, there was little information about the disease, and she was forced to make a decision about her health with few options. After her treatment, Janelle made a commitment to help women around the world by educating them about breast cancer and the importance of early detection. NBCF’s mission is to save lives through early detection and to provide mammograms for those in need. This mission includes increasing awareness through education, providing diagnostic breast care services for those in need, and providing nurturing support services.

 

www.nationalbreastcancer.org

Gerenciamento de Crises

Batalhão de Operações Especiais

Polícia Militar do Distrito Federal

 

Military Police of Brasília City

Crises de riso..

CRISE TWINZ tlz

  

Voilà où mènent les sanctions contre la Russie !

Crise du Covid 19. Mars 2020.

Crises -Mike Oldfield-

www.youtube.com/watch?v=pJ_vgFF52w0

  

Location :Barcelona

 

Nikon PC-NIKKOR 28mm f/3.5

www.kenrockwell.com/nikon/28mm-pc.htm

7th Annual Rock Your Rack Event is on the way!

 

Breast cancer is one of the leading health crises for women. 1 in 8 women, and an every increasing percentage of men will be diagnosed with breast cancer in their lifetime. There is currently no known cure for breast cancer, and its early diagnosis is critical to survival.

 

Models Giving Back is pleased to present Rock Your Rack, an annual fundraising event combining the best of SL Music, Art and Fashion to support the work of breast cancer charities and raise awareness for early detection which is critical to a positive outcome for this devastating disease.

 

This Year's Sim Sponsor is Digital Farm Systems. Other sponsors include Awesome Breed Creations, Dark Betty, Emerald Couture, MOZ Fashion Designs, and Yasum Fashionart.

 

This year's event will support the National Breast Cancer Foundation which provides free mammograms, education, support and early detection services to anyone in need.

 

Designers will be providing limited edition creations with 100% of the sales of those items going to the National Breast Cancer Foundation along with a fine selection of the newest, exclusive and most popular designs for your shopping pleasure. And, of course, the very popular 10L hunt will be up and running in the 85 different designer booths and 25 different artist booths.

 

For a complete listing of events and more details on this year's event, please visit the website: rockyourrack.wordpress.com

 

This year's event officially opens to the public on Saturday, October 5, 2019 at 12:00 am SLT and will close at 11:59 pm SLT on Saturday, October 19, 2019.

 

Together we can make a difference!

 

Those who are unable to attend but wish to support the cause, may visit the Model's Giving Back official donation page at fundraise.nbcf.org/MGB2019 where donations can be made directly using a variety of means.

 

****************************************************

About Models Giving Back

 

Models Giving Back is an agency of professional, certified SecondLife models who give of their time and talents to raise funds for legitimate and verified SL and RL charities.

 

Models Giving Back was founded in October of 2012 by Jamee Sandalwood after a previous agency dedicated to charity work was forced to close due to the owner leaving SecondLife. Jamee felt the work that was being done needed to be continued and set out to lead the models that were already a part of the former agency into new and bigger endeavors at the newly created Models Giving Back.

 

To date the agency has partnered with dozens of designers and provided models for runway, print and other functions that support charities around SL.

 

Rock Your Rack is the creation of Jamee Sandalwood and is owned exclusively by Models Giving Back in SecondLife.

 

Models Giving Back CEO: Jamee Sandalwood

Models Giving Back Facebook Page: www.facebook.com/ModelsGivingBack

 

Models Giving Back Flickr:http://www.flickr.com/photos/94469096@N04/

 

********************************************

About the National Breast Cancer Foundation

 

The National Breast Cancer Foundation was founded in 1991 by breast cancer survivor, Janelle Hail. She was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1980 at the age of 34. At the time of her diagnosis, there was little information about the disease, and she was forced to make a decision about her health with few options. After her treatment, Janelle made a commitment to help women around the world by educating them about breast cancer and the importance of early detection. NBCF’s mission is to save lives through early detection and to provide mammograms for those in need. This mission includes increasing awareness through education, providing diagnostic breast care services for those in need, and providing nurturing support services.

 

www.nationalbreastcancer.org

   

Montreuil, France

Shot Location: San Fernando City, La Union

Route: Laoag City-Carmen, Rosales

Bus Type: Golden Dragon

 

*I think galing ito kay Partas.

Spiritual crises as the cause of paranormal phenomena, Paranormal phenomena seen in connection with clairvoyance, and Paranormal phenomena seen in connection with channeling).Symbols from the universal images are of a completely different character. They reproduce a much clearer, more precise and superior astral wholeness. It is from these symbols you can receive direct teachings about your spiritual development process.

 

When you have trained meditation and dream yoga in many years, a so-called divine being can visit you through a symbol from the universal images: Christ, Buddha, masters, teachers, angels. Note that these of course also can from the collective images – the difference is explained below:

 

Such a symbol is, as mentioned, a telescopying, a representing quintessence of the informationquantities, which the wholeness in a universal image contains. The divine being will in that way canalize information to you from the universal image, which, together with the whole of the universal vision, constitutes the dream-tracks and the songlines in the artwork of your life. The divine being (or other symbols from the universal images) will in that way help you to compose, to synthesize and interlock, what your inner thinker in the waking state has divided. But it is very important to understand that this nothing has to do with the channeling phenomenon, which belongs to the collective images. In order to receive help from a divine being you must be very close to enlightenment yourself. Our suffering, our painbody is, through the inner evaluating ego, which the painbody is constructed around, connected with the more dangerous dephts of the astral plane´s collective history, which also are a kind of dark, ancient inertia, which opposes any change of the ego (see my article The emotional painbody and why psychotherapy can´t heal it). That is also the reason why you, through therapy, can´t heal Man from the ground. In order to heal Man from the ground you need to go into a spiritual practice. It is only within the religions and their spiritual traditions they have knowledge and names for the more dark sides of the astral plane´s collective history. The West has very precisely called this factor the original sin. The East has called it negative karma. The concepts indicate, that the inertia projects beyond the personal history (growing up conditions, traumatic bindings, painful experiences etc.) and far down into the collective inherit-backgrounds of history (genes, environment, society-ideals, the archetypes and the primordial images of the dreams, fantasies, fairy-tales, myths, and finally: instincts inherited from the animals). It is a factor, which lies in the evolution itself, in the genes, in the collective subconcious, in the collectice history.

A mystical experience is happening when astral energies and content arrive to the consciousness, either from the collective images, or from the universal images. When energy and content arrive to the consciousness from the collective images, then this energy, and this content, will symbolize itself. This is due to, that the collective images are in a condition of vague, diffuse, astral oneness. What is coming from the collective images therefore contains a much greater width and depth than the limitary, relatively narrow and clear concepts and classes of the ordinary consciousness. The vague, wide contents and energies from the collective images are therefore growing narrower in the meeting with the consciousness. The symbol is this quintessence, this shortened, condensed form of expression of the vague, wide collective material. The other types of symbols are coming from the universal images, and therewith from reality and truth itself. All reality, which shall mirror itself in the superficial mind, will automatically symbolize itself. Again the symbol is a telescopying, a representing quintessence of the informationquantities, and the greater clarity, which are connected with reality. Symbols from the collective images reproduce a more vague, more imprecisely, but richer organic astral oneness. Symbols from the universal images reproduce a clearer, more precise and superior astral oneness. The more vague astral oneness, or the more precise astral oneness, shows itself in symbolic form in the dividing, separating structure of consciousness. This refers to the three forms of states the wholeness can be in: sleep, dream, awake. When the wholeness is sleeping, mountains are mountains and woods are woods. This is the reality of the ordinary consciousness (the Ego-consciousness). The ordinary consciousness can sleep in three ways: 1) the dark sleep, which is the Ego´s deep nightly sleep; 2) the grey sleep, which is the Ego´s nightly dreams and other dreams; 3) the light sleep, where the Ego is awake. The three forms of states the wholeness can be in, can also be described as the personal time, the collective time and the universal time. Furthermore it can be described as the personal history, the collective history and the universal history. Time and history constitute the structure under your thinking. This structure is also called the astral plane, or the astral world. It is a plane of existence postulated both by classical (particular neo-Platonic), medieval, oriental and esoteric philosophies and mystery religions. It is the world of the planetary spheres, crossed by the soul in its astral body, either through the dream state, or on the way to being born and after death, and generally said to be populated by angels, demons, spirits or other immaterial beings. The astral plane is connected with the so-called Akashic records. The Akashic records are a compendium of mystical knowledge encoded in a non-physical plane of existence: the astral plane. These records are described as containing all knowledge of human experience and the history of the cosmos. They are holding a record of all events, actions, thoughts and feelings that have ever occurred or will ever occur. Since my teenage years, I have had relationships with Beings of Light such as Jeshua, Michael, Sanat Kumara, Lady Portia, Amira, Maitreya, Sananda, the Great Crystal Master, the Dragon and many others. They instructed me in their conceptions that allowed me to prune my beliefs, to experience new knowledge. Thanks to their attention, I was progressing in my inner study. Taking advantage of their advice and encouragement, I went through the adversity I had encountered. During all this time, I carefully integrated their teachings without disclosing them, I applied them consciously in my daily life. Several times they told me, through mediums, that it was time for me to work with my fellow human beings. I would say "I, who have so many obstacles" and I would continue my studies with them. More than twenty years ago, Awakeness told me that I had the opportunity to read Akashic annals, I didn't know what it was. It took me a long time to get acquainted with the library of Nature where everything is recorded in every detail, from Creation to infinity. Today, I confess that I used this database in ignorance. Facts arose without my knowledge, I met more and more people in great difficulty, I offered them, anonymously, what I had received. One day, I was offered a book on Akashic annals. I knew the time had come to expose myself. The opportunity to concretize this new experimentation presented itself to me, through one of my friends who was experiencing an important annoyance. I said to him:"If you want I ask Akasha for teachings to give you solutions to your context". The impact of the explanation and the akashic vibration collected by Martine was immediate and spread throughout her home. His entourage was surprised by this change and asked him what had happened. She received the necessary answers to her family situation and also all the understandings that allowed her to find joy in sincere and harmonious relationships, which are still in force and spread to her household. Everyone watched and looked at the sufferings he was carrying in order to transform them. An information was transmitted to her by her husband, who had crossed the bridge of earthly life for the afterlife, which confirmed her to act on the decisions.

The Sanskrit term akasha was introduced to the language of theosophy through H. P. Blavatsky (1831–1891), who characterized it as a sort of life force; she also referred to "indestructible tablets of the astral light" recording both the past and future of human thought and action, but she did not use the term "akashic". The notion of an akashic record is attributed to Alfred Percy Sinnett, who, in his book Esoteric Buddhism (1883), wrote of a Buddhist belief in "a permanency of records in the Akasa" and "the potential capacity of man to read the same."By C. W. Leadbeater's Clairvoyance (1899) the association of the term with the idea was complete, and he identified the akashic records by name as something a clairvoyant could read. In his 1913 Man: How, Whence, and Whither?, Leadbeater claims to record the history of Atlantis and other civilizations as well as the future society of Earth in the 28th century.The Akasha is an “astral light” containing occult records, which spiritual beings can perceive by their “astral senses” and “astral bodies”. Clairvoyance, spiritual insight, prophecy and many other metaphysical and religious notions are made possible by tapping into the Akashic reacords. They are metaphorically described as a library. They can be accessed through astral projection, meditation, near-death experience, lucid dreaming, or other means. The Akashic records are the wholeness, and as mentioned: the wholeness can be in three states of spiritual awakening - sleep, dream, awake – which again can be described as the personal, collective and universal time (or history).

The reactions to experience of the entire animal kingdom, the aggregation of the thought-forms of a karmic nature (based on desire) of every human unit throughout time. Herein lies the great deception of the records. Only a trained occultist can distinguish between actual experience and those astral pictures created by imagination and keen desire. Since Wilhelm Haidinger discovered the phenomenon of the ‘brush’ which is named after him in 1844, there can be no doubt that human vision comprises an additional sense for the orientation of a so called polarised luminance. In this paper the physical conditions under which Haidinger’s Brush is to be observed in transparent or reflective media are described in detail. Furthermore it will be shown how Goethe’s work on ‘entoptic colour’, Steiner’s concept of the U-Region and modern physiological and natural science touch on a mutual ground that is to be characterised by Haidinger’s Brush appearing.Seen from a spiritual perspective, this instinctive survival strategi (the Ego) appears as a resistance, an invincible inertia: original sin, negative karma. You can´t, by therapeutic strategies, free the consciousness for its attachment to this inertia. You can therefore not dissolve or dilute or convert the original sin through therapy. Only the intervention of the Source (God, Christ, the enlightened consciousness) can basically help Man with a trancendence of the negative karma of the original sin. But in order to, that a human being should be able to receive this help from the Source (gift of grace), then this requires an eminently precise and profound preparation. And as part of this preparation serve the true spiritual practice within the religions

 

mortentolboll.weebly.com/paranormal-phenomena-seen-in-con...

 

The whole extent of circumstances which have its observation in common, distinguish it as a higher phenomenon among others, that it is the primary phenomenon of polarisation.Haidinger-Büschel als Urphänomen der Polarisationserscheinungen Albert Pröbstl.f Goethe’s Urphänomen, the ferreting out of the simplest,

archetypal concept which exhibits the characteristics of the complex whole and proceeding from the simple to the more composite. At this point, the similarity of Hegel’s method to that of Goethe is evident, except of course that the relevant complex whole is not to be understoodas a natural phenomenon but rather manifestations of Spirit, specificallyformations of consciousness. , this stream of impressions has to be surmounted, and grasped as

a whole. This holistic view is not attained by contemplation of the name or the idea of Nature, but on the contrary by contemplation of Nature itself and determination of the archetypal phenomenon, the simplest unit of a complex natural process. This insight is only the outcome of patient, attentive and delicate observation. Likewise, if a citizen of any social formation, recognizes as Absolute the guiding principle of his own activity, Hegel does not suppose that they see in that form of practice a finite manifestation of Absolute Spirit. That is an insight which becomes available only to the philosopher who looks back from the end of the journey of Spirit. Goethe and Hegel shared a common concern, not just for Truth, but for the Spiritual Community. One of the driving forces of Goethe’s science was to work out a practice and concept of science which would be accessible to participation by the entire people,something of which Hegel despaired. But there are obvious differences in the conception of the Deity as well. For Goethe, God is Nature, and insofar as he is engaged with Nature, it is the principle of his relation to Nature. Man is part of Nature, but he cannot understand his literary and social activities Pantheistically. For Hegel on the other hand, Spirit produces Nature and the human world of finite spirit, and out of them produces itself, but it is above all to human affairs that Hegel looks for his glimpse of the Deity. In the human world, Hegel gains insight into the absolute Absolute which manifests in each shape of consciousness. For Goethe we have a reified God/Nature; for Hegel we have Spirit. The crucial innovation made by Hegel is his use of the Triune structure of the concept which transcends the various dichotomies inherited from Kant whilst investing the concept with internal resources for self-mediation

A central element of Hegel’s view of the relation of man

to the Absolute, he appropriated from Goethe’s Romantic

science. Goethe’s Pantheistic conception of Urphänomen

was the single archetypal phenomena exhibiting the

essential features of some natural phenomena.

Recognition of the Urphänomen constituted a glimpse of

the Deity. Although the Urphänomen is specific to some

given complex, Goethe came to see in it a general

principle. Hegel appropriated Goethe’s idea of

Urphänomen, not unlike Herder’s Schwerpunkt, in the

Phenomenology, and transformed the archetypal norm of

a Gestalt des Bewußtseins into the Begriff of the Logic, as

an archetype of the Absolute. Expressed more generally, Goethe’s problem was this: how can we understand a complex process as a whole, as a Gestalt? Goethe rejected a

number of approaches which are characteristic of what he called ‘Newtonian’ natural science. He rejected the method of hypothesising some force or vibration or principle which controlled the complex whole from beyond the horizon of phenomena. Blavatsky said the akasha forms the ANIMA MUNDI and constitutes the soul and astral spirit of man. It produces mesmeric, magnetic, and psychic phenomena and is a component in all magical operations of nature.

Hegel polemicised along the same lines in the Logic. To say that people come to the city because the

city exerts a force of attraction explains nothing. Newton’s idea of acceleration being caused by gravity simply shifts the problem from understanding a form of motion sensuously given to us, to understanding an invisible and baseless force, known only through its expression for which it is supposed to be the explanation.The Urphänomen was Goethe’s solution to the problem of how to conceive of the whole.“... the Divine, which reveals Itself in Urphänomene, physical and moral, behind which it dwells, and which proceed from It” (To Eckermann, February 13 1829, quoted in Heinemann 1934)“This spiritual breath – it is of this that I really wished to

speak and that alone is worth speaking of – is what has

necessarily given me such great delight in Your

Excellency’s exposition of the phenomena surrounding

entopic colours. What is simple and abstract, what you

strikingly call the Urphänomen, you place at the very

beginning. You then show how the intervention of further

spheres of influence and circumstances generates the

concrete phenomena, and you regulate the whole

progression so that the succession proceeds from simple

conditions to the more composite, and so that the

complex now appears in full clarity through this

decomposition. To ferret out the Urphänomen, to free it

from those further environs which are accidental to it, to

apprehend as we say abstractly – this I take to be a matter

of spiritual intelligence for nature, just as I take that

course generally to be the truly scientific knowledge in

this field” (Hegel 1984: 698).New York: akasha (akasa) Im Eastern mysticism and oeculism, the all-pervasive lile principle or all pervasive space of the cosmos. The term akasha is derived from the Sanskrit term for 'sky." The akasha is known by various other names in Western occultism and MAGIC. In Hinduism, the akasha is the substance ether, a fifth element and the subtlest of all elements. The akasha per meates everything in the universe and is the vehicle for all life and sound. In yoga, the akasha is one of three unit versal principles along with prana, the universal life force, and creative mind. These three principles are immanent in all things throughout the universe and are the sources of magical and psychic power. From the akasha comes will, an important component of magic, which enables all man ner of feats to be accomplished. In Buddhism, is not ether but space, ol which there are rwo kinds. One is space that is limited by the material, from which springs the manifestation of the elements of nature. The second is space that is unlimited, unbounded by the material and beyond description. The concept of the akasha was inaroduced to Weslern occultism in the early 20th century by hel ena p blavat sky, founder of the theosophical society. Blavatsky said the akasha forms the ANIMA MUNDI and constitutes the soul and astral spirit of man. It produces mesmerie, magnetic and psychic phenomena and is a component in all magi cal operations of nature. Blavatsky compared the akasha to lhe "sidereal lighi" ol rosic rucianism, he asi ral light of iphas levi, and the odyle or odic lorce of Baron Karl von uivalent of the llebrew ruah, the Reichenbach is th in motion, or moving spirit and is identi- wind, breath, air cal with the spirit of God moving on the tace ol the waters described the akasha as incomprehensible. non-created, and undefinable. Akasha creates everything and keeps everything in bal it is the all in all.

Five arts was Goethe's method of transmuting his observation of human nature into sharable form. Drawing from his novel, Elective Affinities (Wahlverwandschaften), Goethe discerned a geheime Verwandschaft (hidden relationship) of parts that explains how one form can transform into another form whilst being part of an underlying archetypal form (Ur-phänomen). It is this organizing idea or form that guides the consideration of the parts; it is a Bild or virtual image that "emerges and re-emerges from the interaction of experience and ideas"[3] This consideration is a special type of thinking (noetic ideation or denken) carried out with a different organ of cognizance to that of the brain (mentation or sinnen), one that involves an act of creative imagination, what Goethe terms "the living imaginal beholding of Nature" (das lebendige Anschauen der Natur). Goethe's nature (natura naturans, the activity of "nature naturing" – as distinguished from natura naturata, "nature natured", the domain of naturally formed objects) is one in constant flux and flow, but nonetheless governed by law, logic and intelligence above the mind. To approach vital nature requires a different cognitive capacity (denken) and cognitive organ (Gemüt) from that used to perceive inert nature (sinnen based on the Intellect or Sinn).

Hegel goes on to speak of his philosophical appropriation of the Urphänomen: “But may I now still speak to you of the special interest that an Urphänomen, thus cast in relief, has for us philosophers, namely that we can put such a preparation – with Your Excellency’s permission – directly to

philosophical use. But if we have at last worked our

initially oyster-like Absolute – whether it be grey or

entirely black, suit yourself – through towards air and

light to the point that the Absolute has itself come to

desire this air and light, we now need to throw open the

window so as to lead the Absolute fully out into the light

of day” (Hegel 1984: 699).Leaf operculum alone all others as a blessing creativity, vitality, hope and madness and more !!! Akasha is the aura of the Earth. physically. All trace continues to exist in the akasha of the Earth, which made the Egyptians say that we can survive through supports representing us (statuettes, photos, engravings, icons) and that gives the feeling to certain peoples that being photographed traps the soul ... it's partly true but not definitively. At each new galactic hour (every 25 600 years in human years), a reset of the akasha takes place. The next is scheduled for December 21, 2012. Getting back to work can be a good thing. Pilgrims of Heaven, we are! Good day. The Astral is another name to refer to the psyche (radiation of thoughts and human emotions) and the energetic aura (electromagnetic radiation) of the Earth for me. Etheric means spiritual energy of the higher consciousness planes tand qu 'energetic' refers to terrestrial and human radiation. The Paradise are the high parts of the astral, in these circles of purity are the teachings of the Ascended Masters. There are also portals to other dimensions of life here, on Earth in the 3rd dimension we are calibrated by a heart rate, a lunar rhythm, a terrestrial electro magnetic energy and the frequencies of human thoughts and emotions. All these frequencies reduce us condense us, lower us. We live at best on the frequency of our stomach (self-enhancement individualism and competition at worst on the frequency of our gut (withdrawal on the family, devaluation of self for the benefit of the local collective, war to defend its territory against invaders, aliens, energy racism) And when one is underdeveloped socially, one is based on the root chakra, connected to the spirit of survival, leads to mistrust vis-avis humans, with the need to live outside without social constraints like solitary wild animals (sdf and marginality chosen)

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethean_science

  

Furcifer Pardalis

Crises in Europe - where are we going - many look to the horizon and look further

... et tourisme sur les berges de Garonne.

 

Avec ces virus qui semblent tout droit sortis des labos qui vont ensuite vendre les antidotes, les clients se font rares.

Il y avait le risque sida, il y a maintenant le risque covid.

La vieille prostituée de la frayère d'aloses s'est lassée d'attendre . Elle a laissé ce message à ses habitués et s'en est allée sabler du champagne bien frais.

On lui pardonnera la faute d'orthographe, elle n'a jamais été vraiment douée pour cette discipline.

  

Le Passage d'Agen,

avenue sans nom sur Google et "Grande Pêche" sur IGN. (!!!)

  

Montréal - Crise Climatique, Manifestation Historique

  

Le 15 mars dernier, alors que nous étions plus de 150 000 étudiantes et étudiants officiellement en grève au Québec et plus encore dans les rues de Montréal, Québec, Alma, Baie-Comeau, Cap-aux-Meules, Carleton-sur-Mer, Gaspé, Gatineau, Joliette, La Pocatière, Magog, Mont-Laurier, Rimouski, Rivière-du-Loup, Rouyn-Noranda, Saguenay, Saint-André-Avellin, Saint-Félicien, Saint-Hyacinthe, Sept-Îles, Shawinigan, Sherbrooke, Trois-Rivières, Valcourt et Warwick, on s’était lancé une nouvelle invitation: le 27 septembre. On s'était dit que même si ce que l’on venait d’accomplir était beau, cette date-là, elle, serait encore plus grandiose. On s’était dit que ce serait encore plus gros, plus puissant. C’était un rendez-vous. Ce rendez-vous est aujourd’hui marqué à l’agenda.

 

Le 27 septembre, à midi, on se retrouvera au monument George-Étienne Cartier sur le Mont-Royal à Montréal. Promis, nous, nous y serons.

 

Entre le 15 mars et le 27 septembre, 196 jours se seront écoulés. Et tout nous pousse à croire que sans mobilisation de plus grande envergure, nos décideurs et décideuses ne prendront pas d’initiatives en vue d’éviter le pire, mais aussi en vue de nous proposer un monde plus respirable. Habitable. Un monde tout simplement plus désirable.

 

Le 27 septembre, la planète est en grève. Pas seulement les étudiantes et étudiants, mais aussi les travailleuses, travailleurs, citoyennes, citoyens. Parce que la crise climatique n’épargne personne, nous devons toutes et tous nous mobiliser. Faisons de cette date un moment historique. Celui du véritable changement.

 

Parce qu’il est grand temps que l’on prenne les choses en main.

  

===

  

On March 15, when we were more than 150,000 students officially on strike in Quebec and more crossing the streets of Montreal, Quebec, Alma, Baie-Comeau, Cap-aux-Meules, Carleton-sur-Mer, Gaspé, Gatineau, Joliette, La Pocatière, Magog, Mont-Laurier, Rimouski, Rivière-du-Loup, Rouyn-Noranda, Saguenay, Saint-André-Avellin, Saint-Félicien, Saint-Hyacinthe, Sept-Îles, Shawinigan, Sherbrooke, Trois-Rivières, Valcourt and Warwick, we were launching a new invitation: on September 27th. We were thinking that even if what we had just accomplished was beautiful, this new date would be even more grandiose. We were thinking that it would be even bigger, more powerful. It was a meeting. This appointment is today marked on the agenda.

 

On September 27, at 12 pm, we will meet at George-Etienne Cartier Monument on Mount Royal in Montreal. We promise, we will be there.

 

Between March 15 and September 27, 196 days will have elapsed. And everything leads us to believe that without a greater mobilization, our decision-makers won’t take initiatives to avoid the worst, but also to give us a more breathable world. Liveable. A world simply more desirable.

 

On September 27, the planet is on strike. Not just students, but also workers, citizens. Because the climate crisis spares nobody, we must all be mobilized. Let's make this date a historic moment. The one of true change.

 

Because it is high time we take matters into our own hands.

  

less human than human?

Montpellier

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www.michaelmassart.com

Bom... crise é quando um ser humano se aproxima...

  

Well... crisis is when a human is coming...

 

Metamórfico de rela / Metamorphic of Common tree frog (Hyla arborea)

Castelo Branco, Portugal. (06/05/10)

 

Todos os comentários e convites impessoais serão apagados. Por favor poupe-me o trabalho...

 

All the impersonal comments and invites will be deleted. Please save me the work...