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Also known as Captain Cook's Cottage, this is located in the Fitzroy Gardens, Melbourne, Australia. The cottage was constructed in 1755 in the English village of Great Ayton, North Yorkshire, by the parents of Captain James Cook, James and Grace Cook. It is a point of conjecture among historians whether James Cook, the famous navigator, ever lived in the house, but almost certainly he visited his parents at the house.
In 1933 the owner of the cottage decided to sell it with a condition of sale that the building remain in England. She was persuaded to change "England" to "the Empire", and accepted an Australian bid of £800, by Russell Grimwade, as opposed to the highest local offer of £300.
The cottage was dismantled brick by brick and packed into 253 cases and 40 barrels for shipping aboard the motor ship Port Dunedin from Hull. Cuttings from ivy that adorned the house were also taken and planted when the house was re-erected in Melbourne. Grimwade, a notable businessman and philanthropist, donated the house to the people of Victoria for the centenary anniversary of the settlement of Melbourne in October 1934.
The cottage immediately became a popular tourist attraction. In 1978 further restoration work was carried out on the cottage.
This view is taken from the back of the English cottage garden that has been established around the house, further adding to its period reconstruction.
Captain James Cook FRS was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and Captain in the Royal Navy. Cook made three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand. A statue of the great man can be seen on the left.
For the first churchly visit of that November 2023 trip to the southern French provinces of Roussillon and Languedoc, I will treat you to a truly unique place, the so-called “priory” of Serrabone, which features an absolute world-class masterpiece of Romanesque sculpture: its tribune.
I said “so-called” above because a priory, in the genuine acception of the word, is a secondary monastery established by an abbey. It is populated by monks sent by that abbey. Those monks are led by a prior, whose superior is the abbot of the founding abbey. In the case of Serrabone, there first was a late Carolingian parochial church established in this mountainous locale and first mentioned in writing in 1069. The walls of the nave are, for some part, still those of that ancient church.
It was then, at a time when local lords used to meddle more and more in the affairs of the Church (which was one of the reasons that prompted the coming of the Gregorian reform), that the viscount of Cerdagne and the local lord of Corsavy installed on the Serrabone mountaintop an unusually mixed group of canons and canonesses to live in accordance with the Augustinian Rule.
A new college church was built (mostly by enlarging the previous one) and consecrated in 1151. Its architecture is harmonious but very simple, as one would expect: in the Middle Ages, those mountains were populated (hence the creation of the parish) and did feed their inhabitants (serra bona in Catalan means “good mountain”), but there was precious little commerce with the outside world and the locals had nothing of real value to export. Therefore, the local economy was pretty much a closed circuit and money was far from flowing in abundantly. The style of the church, even though there were donations from the aforementioned lords, reflects this paucity of financial resources.
It is therefore a total mystery how the magnificent sculpted tribune, which would have cost a veritable fortune, was funded, and by whom. Nothing has ever been demonstrated in that matter, although many have conjectured in various directions. The only certainty we have is that it was built around the time when the church itself was completed, i.e., the mid–1150s.
The culmination of the “priory” did not last very long: canons and canonesses are not monks and nuns, their commitment is found throughout history and places to be much less strong, and by the late 1200s they had already broken communal life and begun to live in their own separate homes. Decadence went to such extremes that the “priory” was secularized by the pope in the 16th century and made a dependency of the chapter of the cathedral of Solsona. The last “prior” died in 1612 and the church returned to its simple parochial status.
The place was progressively abandoned as people left the mountains to go live easier lives in the valleys. It was almost in ruins when it was listed as a Historic Landmark in 1875 and the restoration began. Fortunately, the tribune had been protected and its capitals and columns hidden by the locals.
An entire book could be written on the representation of the human figure in Serrabone... and perhaps one will be some day!
Von Wielligh's Baobab
Kruger National Park is one of the largest game reserves in Africa. It covers an area of 19,485 km2 (7,523 sq mi) in the provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga in northeastern South Africa, and extends 360 km (220 mi) from north to south and 65 km (40 mi) from east to west. The administrative headquarters are in Skukuza. Areas of the park were first protected by the government of the South African Republic in 1898, and it became South Africa's first national park in 1926.
To the west and south of the Kruger National Park are the two South African provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga. In the north is Zimbabwe, and to the east is Mozambique. It is now part of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, a peace park that links Kruger National Park with the Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe, and with the Limpopo National Park in Mozambique.
The park is part of the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere an area designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as an International Man and Biosphere Reserve (the "Biosphere").
The park has nine main gates allowing entrance to the different camps.
(Wikipedia)
Adansonia digitata, the African baobab, is the most widespread tree species of the genus Adansonia, the baobabs, and is native to the African continent. The long-lived pachycauls are typically found in dry, hot savannahs of sub-Saharan Africa, where they dominate the landscape, and reveal the presence of a watercourse from afar. Their growth rate is determined by ground water or rainfall, and their maximum age, which is subject to much conjecture, seems to be in the order of 1,500 years. They have traditionally been valued as sources of food, water, health remedies or places of shelter and are steeped in legend and superstition. European explorers of old were inclined to carve their names on baobabs, and many are defaced by modern graffiti.
The scientific name Adansonia refers to the French explorer and botanist, Michel Adanson (1727–1806), who observed a specimen in 1749 on the island of Sor, Senegal. On the nearby Îles des Madeleines Adanson found another baobab, 3.8 metres (12 ft) in diameter, which bore the carvings of passing mariners on its trunk, including those of Henry the Navigator in 1444 and André Thevet in 1555. When Théodore Monod searched the island in the 20th century, this tree was not to be found. Adanson concluded that the baobab, of all the trees he studied, "is probably the most useful tree in all." He consumed baobab juice twice a day while in Africa, and was convinced that it maintained his health. "Digitata" refers to the digits of the hand, as the baobab has compound leaves with normally five (but up to seven) leaflets are akin to a hand.
Common names for the baobab include monkey-bread tree (the soft, dry fruit is edible), upside-down tree (the sparse branches resemble roots), and cream of tartar tree (cream of tartar).
The trees usually grow as solitary individuals, and are large and distinctive elements of savannah or scrubland vegetation. Some large individuals live to well over a thousand years of age. All baobab trees are deciduous, losing their leaves in the dry season, and remain leafless for eight months of the year.
They can grow to between 5–25 m (16–82 ft) in height. They are in fact known both for their height and trunk's girth. The trunk tends to be bottle-shaped and can reach a diameter of 10–14 m (33–46 ft). The span of the roots actually exceed the tree's height, a factor that enables it to survive in a dry climate. Many consider the tree to be “upside-down” due to the trunk likeness to a taproot and the branches akin to finer capillary roots. The trunk is smooth and shiny and can range from being reddish brown to grey. The bark can feel cork-like. The branches are thick and wide and very stout compared to the trunk.
During the early summer (October to December in southern hemisphere) the tree bears very large, heavy, white flowers. These are 12 cm (4.7 in) across and open during the late afternoon to stay open for one night. The pendulous, showy flowers have a very large number of stamens. They have a sweet scent but later emit a carrion smell, especially when they turn brown and fall after 24 hours. Researchers have shown that they appear to be primarily pollinated by fruit bats of the subfamily Pteropodinae. The flowers have 5 petals that are leathery and hairy on the inside. The sepals are cup-shaped and 5-cleft. The stamens are divided into multiple anthers and styles are 7-10 rayed.
The indehiscent fruit are large, egg-shaped capsules. They are filled with pulp that dries, hardens, and falls to pieces which look like chunks of powdery, dry bread. The seeds are hard, black and kidney-shaped.
They are native to mainland Africa. The tree has also been introduced to other regions such as Australia and Asia. The northern limit of its distribution in Africa is associated with rainfall patterns; only on the Atlantic coast and in the Sudanian Savanna does its occurrence venture naturally into the Sahel. On the Atlantic coast, this may be due to spreading after cultivation. Its occurrence is very limited in Central Africa, and it is found only in the very north of South Africa. In Eastern Africa, the trees grow also in shrublands and on the coast. In Angola and Namibia, the baobabs grow in woodlands, and in coastal regions, in addition to savannahs. and in Penang, Malaysia, along certain streets.
The baobab is native to most of Africa, especially in drier, less tropical climates. It is not found in areas where sand is deep. It is sensitive to water logging and frost. More specifically: Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Niger, Nigeria, northern Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, Congo Republic, DR Congo (formerly Zaire), Eritrea, Ethiopia, southern Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Mozambique, Angola, São Tomé, Príncipe, Annobon, Java (introduced), Nepal (introduced), Sri Lanka (introduced), Philippines (introduced), Jamaica (introduced), South Africa (Transvaal), Namibia, Botswana, Puerto Rico (introduced), Haiti (introduced), Dominican Republic (introduced), Venezuela (introduced), Seychelles (introduced), Madagascar (introduced), Comoros (introduced), India (introduced), southwest Yemen (introduced), Oman (Dhofar) (introduced), Guangdong (introduced), Fujian (introduced), Yunnan (introduced).
Adansonia trees produce faint growth rings, probably annually, but they are not reliable for aging specimens, because they are difficult to count and may fade away as the wood ages. Radiocarbon dating has provided data on a few individuals of A. digitata. The Panke baobab in Zimbabwe was some 2,450 years old when it died in 2011, making it the oldest angiosperm ever documented, and two other trees — Dorslandboom in Namibia and Glencoe in South Africa — were estimated to be approximately 2,000 years old. Another specimen known as Grootboom was dated after it died and found to be at least 1275 years old. Greenhouse gases, climate change, and global warming appear to be factors reducing baobab longevity.
The baobab is a traditional food plant in Africa, but is little-known elsewhere. The fruit has been suggested to have the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development, and support sustainable land care.
The African baobab fruit is usually 15–20 cm (6–8 in) long, but can be as big as 25 centimetres (9.8 in). In Sudan — where the tree is called tebeldi — people make tabaldi juice by soaking and dissolving the dry pulp of the fruit in water, locally known as gunguleiz.
Baobab leaves can be eaten as a relish. Young fresh leaves are cooked in a sauce and sometimes are dried and powdered. The powder is called lalo in Mali and sold in many village markets in Western Africa. The leaves are used in the preparation of a soup termed miyan kuka in Northern Nigeria and are rich in phytochemicals and minerals. Oil extracted by pounding the seeds can be used for cooking but this is not widespread.
Baobab leaves are sometimes used as forage for ruminants in dry season. The oilmeal, which is a byproduct of oil extraction, can also be used as animal feed. In times of drought, elephants consume the juicy wood beneath the bark of the baobab.
In 2008, the European Union approved the use and consumption of baobab fruit. It is commonly used as an ingredient in smoothies and cereal bars. In 2009, the United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) granted generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status to baobab dried fruit pulp as a food ingredient.
In Africa, the different populations of baobabs have revealed significant genetic differences. It has consequently been suggested that the taxon contains more than one species. The shape of their fruit especially, varies considerably from region to region.
Baobab seed withstand drying and remain viable over long periods, as it has a hard seed coat. It can potentially be dispersed over long distances, and its germination potential is improved when it has passed through the digestive tract of an animal. Animals like elephants, black rhinos and eland can potentially convey the seeds over long distances. Baboons likewise spread the seeds in their dung, but over shorter distances.
Pollination in the baobab is achieved primarily by fruit bats, but bush babies and several kinds of insect also assist. Some aspects of the baobab's reproductive biology are not yet understood. It is still speculated whether fertile baobab seeds can result from pollination by the tree's own pollen. It would appear as if pollen from another tree is required for fertile seed, as isolated trees do form seed, only to abort them at a late stage. The existence of some very isolated trees, may then be due to their self-incompatibility and inability to reproduce.
Arab traders introduced it to northwestern Madagascar. There they were often planted at the center of villages, and sometimes outlived them.
Along the Zambezi, the tribes believe that baobabs were upright and too proud. The gods became angry and uprooted them and threw them back into the ground upside-down. Evil spirits now cause bad luck to anyone that picks up the sweet white flowers. More specifically, a lion will kill them. In Kafue National Park, one of the largest baobabs is known as “Kondanamwali” or the “tree that eats maidens.” The tree fell in love with four beautiful maidens. When they reached puberty, they made the tree jealous by finding husbands. So, one night, during a thunderstorm, the tree opened its trunk and took the maidens inside. A rest house has been built in the branches of the tree. On stormy nights, the crying of the imprisoned maidens can still be heard. Some people believe that women living in kraals where baobabs are plenty will have more children. This is scientifically plausible as those women will have better access to the tree's vitamin-rich leaves and fruits to complement a vitamin-deficient diet.
The tree also plays a role in Antoine De Saint-Exupéry’s fictional children’s book, The Little Prince. In the story, baobabs are described as dangerous plants which must be weeded out from the good plants, less they overcome a small planet and even break it to pieces.
As of April 2015 baobabs are not yet classified by the IUCN's Red List criteria, but they are a part of the “Catalogue of Life.” The baobab is a protected tree in South Africa. In the Sahel, the effects of drought, desertification and over-use of the fruit have been cited as causes for concern.
(Wikipedia)
Der Kruger-Nationalpark (deutsch häufig falsch Krüger-Nationalpark) ist das größte Wildschutzgebiet Südafrikas. Er liegt im Nordosten des Landes in der Landschaft des Lowveld auf dem Gebiet der Provinz Limpopo sowie des östlichen Abschnitts von Mpumalanga. Seine Fläche erstreckt sich vom Crocodile-River im Süden bis zum Limpopo, dem Grenzfluss zu Simbabwe, im Norden. Die Nord-Süd-Ausdehnung beträgt etwa 350 km, in Ost-West-Richtung ist der Park durchschnittlich 54 km breit und umfasst eine Fläche von rund 20.000 Quadratkilometern. Damit gehört er zu den größten Nationalparks in Afrika.
Das Schutzgebiet wurde am 26. März 1898 unter dem Präsidenten Paul Kruger als Sabie Game Reserve zum Schutz der Wildnis gegründet. 1926 erhielt das Gebiet den Status Nationalpark und wurde in seinen heutigen Namen umbenannt. Im Park leben 147 Säugetierarten inklusive der „Big Five“, außerdem etwa 507 Vogelarten und 114 Reptilienarten, 49 Fischarten und 34 Amphibienarten.
(Wikipedia)
Der Afrikanische Affenbrotbaum (Adansonia digitata), auch Afrikanischer Baobab (von arabisch bu-hubub) genannt, zählt zur Unterfamilie der Bombacoideae in der Familie der Malvengewächse (Malvaceae). Er gehört zu den bekanntesten und charakteristischsten Bäumen des tropischen Afrika.
Der wissenschaftliche Gattungsname ehrt den europäischen Entdecker des Baums, den französischen Naturforscher Michel Adanson, der im 18. Jahrhundert in Saint-Louis den ersten Botanischen Garten Senegals anlegte. Das Artepitheton digitata spielt auf die Form der Blätter an, die sich aus fünf bis neun Einzelblättchen zusammensetzen, welche entfernt an die Finger einer menschlichen Hand erinnern.
Der Affenbrotbaum zeichnet sich durch einen relativ kurzen, extrem dicken Stamm aus. So steht in Südafrika im Letaba-Distrikt ein Affenbrotbaum, der bei einer Höhe von 19 Metern einen Stammdurchmesser von 10,64 Metern aufweist. In Ostafrika treten sehr häufig flaschenförmige Stammformen auf, bei denen sich der Stamm abrupt in wenigen Metern Höhe stark verjüngt.
Die Baumkrone besteht aus kräftigen, oft unförmig erscheinenden Ästen, die eine weit ausladende Krone bilden. Im unbelaubten Zustand erinnert die Astkrone an ein Wurzelsystem, was zu der Legende beigetragen hat, der Affenbrotbaum sei ein vom Teufel verkehrt herum gepflanzter Baum.
Der Stamm ist häufig tief gefurcht oder weist kehlige Vertiefungen auf. Die graubraune bis graue Rinde ist zwischen fünf und zehn Zentimeter dick. Deshalb kann der Baum kleinere Buschbrände relativ unversehrt überstehen. Sie ist außen hart und innen faserig. Junge Bäume haben zuerst eine Pfahlwurzel. Mit zunehmendem Alter des Baumes entwickelt sich ein Lateralwurzelsystem, das bis in 1,8 Meter Tiefe reicht. In horizontaler Richtung erstreckt sich das Wurzelsystem weiter als die Baumhöhe.
Baobab im Senegal
Bei Baobabs werden entsprechend der Stammform vier Entwicklungsphasen unterschieden: schmale Schösslinge, Kegelförmige, Flaschenförmige und Alte. Schösslinge (bis 10–15 Jahre) wachsen zunächst ohne ausgeprägtes Dickenwachstum zu einer Höhe von vier bis sechs Metern heran, die Äste ragen spitzwinklig nach oben. Auf geeigneten Standorten wachsen die jungen Baobabs anfangs jährlich zwischen 80 und 100 Zentimetern. Dann schwillt der Stamm zu einer Kegelform an (bis 60 bis 70 Jahre), der Baum wird 5 bis 15 Meter hoch und bis zu 7 Meter dick, und der Baum blüht erstmals. In einem Alter von 30 bis 40 Jahren beginnen die Äste rechtwinklig vom Stamm weg zu wachsen und nehmen ab diesem Zeitpunkt in ihrem Längenwachstum deutlich zu. Danach ist der Baum mit 10 bis 20 Metern in der Höhe ausgewachsen, der Stamm nimmt in der Dicke nur langsam zu und entwickelt eine Flaschenform (200–300 Jahre). Ein Baum kann im Alter von einhundert Jahren bereits einen Stammdurchmesser von vier bis fünf Metern erreicht haben. Schließlich entwickelt der Baum eine ausladende Krone und wächst nur noch sehr langsam in die Breite; hohle und mehrfache Stämme sind häufig zu finden (Alter: bis zu 800 Jahre).
Der Affenbrotbaum ist ein periodisch laubabwerfender Baum. Die einfachen oder handförmigen, langstieligen und wechselständigen Laubblätter erscheinen an den Zweigenden im Frühsommer kurz vor dem Beginn der Regenzeit und entwickeln sich vollständig innerhalb von vier Wochen. Bleibt der Regen aus oder ist die Regenmenge sehr gering, verzögert sich die Blattentwicklung.
Affenbrotbäume treiben zuerst Blätter von einfacher elliptischer Form aus, die jedoch sehr frühzeitig wieder abgeworfen werden; auch an jungen Pflanzen sind die Blätter einfach. Ihnen folgen glänzend grüne Laubblätter, die fünf- bis neunteilig sind. Sie haben einen Durchmesser von etwa 20 Zentimetern; die Blätter oder Blättchen sind jeweils ganzrandig und bespitzt bis zugespitzt. Der Blattstiel ist bis 16 Zentimeter lang.
Das Alter, in dem der Baum das erste Mal Blüten ansetzt, ist abhängig von seinem Verbreitungsgebiet. In Westafrika blüht der Affenbrotbaum erstmals im Alter von acht bis zehn Jahren, in Ost- und Südafrika frühestens mit 16 Jahren.
Der Blütenansatz erfolgt vier Wochen nach der Blattentwicklung. Die Hauptblütezeit beträgt vier Wochen, die einzelne Blüte blüht dagegen nur 24 Stunden. In dieser Zeit ist sie für etwa 16 bis 20 Stunden bestäubungsfähig.
Die zwittrigen Blüten mit doppelter Blütenhülle erscheinen meist einzeln oder paarig. Die sehr großen Blüten sind von wachsig-weißer Farbe und hängen an langen Stielen von den Blattachseln herab. Sie bestehen aus fünf Kronblättern, die sich ein wenig überlappen und 4,5 bis 5 Zentimeter breit und 12 Zentimeter lang sind. Sowie einem drei- bis fünflappigen, leicht haarigen Kelch. Jede Blüte beinhaltet 720 bis 1.600 rasierpinselförmig angeordnete Staubblätter, die an ihrer Basis zu einer 1,5 bis 4,5 Zentimeter langen, schmalen Röhre (Androphor) zusammengewachsen sind. Der mehrkammerige Fruchtknoten ist oberständig, mit einem langen und vorstehenden Griffel mit einer mehrlappigen Narbe. Auch hier zeigen sich geografische Unterschiede. In Ost- und Südafrika ist der Blütenstiel lediglich 20 Zentimeter lang, in Westafrika dagegen bis zu 90 Zentimeter.
Die für Menschen auf Grund ihres süßlichen Aasgeruches unangenehm riechenden Blüten öffnen sich ab dem späten Nachmittag und sind am nächsten Morgen ganz offen. Während der Nacht werden sie durch Flughunde wie den Palmen- und den Nilflughund bestäubt. Auch der Großohr-Riesengalago, der Senegal-Galago und verschiedene Nachtfalter besuchen die Blüten und tragen in kleinerem Umfang zur Bestäubung bei.
Nach der Bestäubung entwickeln sich an den langen Stielen innerhalb von acht Monaten holzige und samtig behaarte, nicht öffnende, vielsamige Kapseln, die je nach Verbreitungsgebiet unterschiedlich geformt sind. Bei in Angola verbreiteten Affenbrotbäumen ist die Frucht von länglicher Form, in den anderen natürlichen Verbreitungsgebieten eher ei- bis kugelförmig. Die an Stielen herabhängenden Früchte werden 25 bis 50 Zentimeter lang. Sie verfärben sich während des Reifungsprozesses von Grün über Gelb in ein Graubraun.
Das auch für den Menschen essbare Fruchtfleisch ist weiß und trocken-mehlig, schmeckt durch den Vitamin-C-Gehalt säuerlich und ist von einer Konsistenz, die in etwa an feste, brüchige Watte erinnert. Darin eingebettet sind die dunkelbraunen Samen der Früchte, die man herausbrechen und gleichfalls essen kann. Sie sind relativ glatt, haselnussgroß, nierenförmig und sehr fettreich.
Vor allem Elefanten und Paviane, aber auch Antilopen und Kleinsäuger fressen die Früchte und nehmen dabei auch die Samen auf, die aber den Verdauungstrakt unaufgeschlossen passieren und von Vögeln aus dem ausgeschiedenen Kot herausgepickt werden. Die Samen bleiben mehrere Jahre keimfähig. Ihre lange Keimruhe endet in der Natur vermutlich durch Buschfeuer, langanhaltende Regenfälle oder die Verdauung durch Elefanten (Endochorie).
Unbehandelt beträgt die Keimfähigkeit der Samen unter 20 %. Man kann sie künstlich keimfähig machen, indem sie mit kochend heißem Wasser übergossen und etwa einen Tag in der Flüssigkeit stehen gelassen werden. Je nach Witterungsbedingungen können solcherart vorbehandelte Samen dann nach drei Wochen bis sechs Monaten zur Keimung kommen. Auch Säurebehandlung und Anschleifen der dicken Samenschale können die Keimfähigkeit steigern.
Die Mächtigkeit der Bäume und ihre unregelmäßige Wuchsform hat immer wieder dazu geführt, dass ihr Alter überschätzt wurde. So war David Livingstone der Überzeugung, dass ein Baum, den er am Sambesi entdeckte, ein Alter von mindestens 4000 Jahren aufweise. Umfangreiche Untersuchungen in Kenia, Mali, Sudan, Tansania und Sambia haben jedoch gezeigt, dass nur sehr wenige Affenbrotbäume älter als 400 Jahre sind.
2018 berichteten Forscher von einem teilweisen bzw. vollständigen Absterben von 9 der 13 ältesten Baobabs innerhalb der vergangenen zwölf Jahre. Die Ursache hierfür sei unbekannt; womöglich hätten Klimaveränderungen einen Einfluss. Der Studie zufolge sei der weltweit älteste Baobab, Panke in Simbabwe, nach über 2.500 Jahren (2.429 [±14] Jahre mit Radiokohlenstoffmethode gemessen) in den Jahren 2010–2011 abgestorben. Der älteste weitgehend intakte Baobab sei nun Humani Bedford Old baobab in Simbabwe mit einem geschätzten Alter von 1.800 Jahren.
Die Mächtigkeit der Bäume und ihre unregelmäßige Wuchsform hat immer wieder dazu geführt, dass ihr Alter überschätzt wurde. So war David Livingstone der Überzeugung, dass ein Baum, den er am Sambesi entdeckte, ein Alter von mindestens 4000 Jahren aufweise. Umfangreiche Untersuchungen in Kenia, Mali, Sudan, Tansania und Sambia haben jedoch gezeigt, dass nur sehr wenige Affenbrotbäume älter als 400 Jahre sind.
2018 berichteten Forscher von einem teilweisen bzw. vollständigen Absterben von 9 der 13 ältesten Baobabs innerhalb der vergangenen zwölf Jahre. Die Ursache hierfür sei unbekannt; womöglich hätten Klimaveränderungen einen Einfluss. Der Studie zufolge sei der weltweit älteste Baobab, Panke in Simbabwe, nach über 2.500 Jahren (2.429 [±14] Jahre mit Radiokohlenstoffmethode gemessen) in den Jahren 2010–2011 abgestorben. Der älteste weitgehend intakte Baobab sei nun Humani Bedford Old baobab in Simbabwe mit einem geschätzten Alter von 1.800 Jahren.
Elefanten nutzen die Fähigkeit des Affenbrotbaumes zur Wasserspeicherung. Mit den Stoßzähnen brechen sie die Rinde des Affenbrotbaums auf, entfernen mit dem Rüssel die feuchten Fasern im Bauminnern und kauen diese, um so Feuchtigkeit zu gewinnen. Dabei entstehen große Hohlräume in den Bäumen, die dazu führen können, dass die Bäume kollabieren. Es sollen schon Elefanten durch plötzlich umstürzende Affenbrotbäume erschlagen worden sein.
Große Elefantenpopulationsdichten in verschiedenen Nationalparks führten und führen zu einer Gefährdung der Bestände des Baobab, da dessen natürliche Sukzession nicht ausreicht, die Bestandsdichte zu erhalten. Besonders in den Nationalparks Simbabwes gibt es mittlerweile so viele Elefanten, dass sie das langfristige Überleben der Affenbrotbaumbestände gefährden. In anderen Regionen, in denen aufgrund des Bevölkerungsdrucks die landwirtschaftliche Nutzung intensiviert wurde, fehlen dagegen Wildtiere, die die Samen der Affenbrotbäume verbreiten. Auch wenn man die Bäume, die nur sehr schwer zu roden sind, in der Regel stehen lässt, wenn Land einer landwirtschaftlichen Nutzung zugeführt wird, ist damit die natürliche Verjüngung der Bestände unterbunden.
Der Affenbrotbaum ist Wirtspflanze für eine Reihe von Insekten, die als landwirtschaftliche Schädlinge betrachtet werden, und Nebenwirt einiger, besonders für Kakao- und Baumwollpflanzungen problematischer Schadinsekten. Rodungen von Affenbrotbäumen haben jedoch gezeigt, dass diese Schädlinge auf andere Wirtspflanzen ausweichen, wenn Affenbrotbäume fehlen.
Der Affenbrotbaum bietet außerdem zahlreichen weiteren Tierarten Schutz und Nahrung. So nisten in der Krone der Affenbrotbäume beispielsweise Webervögel und Sperlingspapageien; Galagos suchen dort Schutz. Höhlen im Stamm und in den Ästen werden von Blauracken, Eisvögeln, Schleiereulen, Nashornvögeln und einer Reihe von Arten der Langflügelpapageien und Unzertrennlichen zum Brüten genutzt. In einzelnen Regionen brütete der Graukopfpapagei ausschließlich in Höhlen des Affenbrotbaums. Die Früchte des Baums werden außer von Vögeln auch von Elefanten und Pavianen sowie Antilopen und einer Reihe von Kleinsäugern gefressen.
Die San, Bewohner der Kalahari-Wüste, zapfen direkt den Wasservorrat der Bäume an, um ihren Flüssigkeitsbedarf zu decken. Auch Fruchtfleisch, Samen, Rinde, Blätter und Sprösslinge des Affenbrotbaums sind vielseitig einsetzbar; die Höhlungen des Baumes werden außerdem als Speicher für Getreide und Wasser verwendet.
Ähnlich der Rolle, die früher Linden und Eichen im mitteleuropäischen Dorfleben innehatten, spielt der Affenbrotbaum außerdem im afrikanischen Leben eine große Rolle. An zentral gelegenen Bäumen finden in vielen Dörfern Märkte, Verhandlungen und sonstige soziale Ereignisse statt.
In der afrikanischen Volksmedizin findet nahezu jeder Teil des Affenbrotbaums Verwendung. So werden die Früchte beispielsweise gegen Infektionen und Krankheiten wie Pocken und Masern eingesetzt. Die Blätter werden bei Erkrankungen wie Ruhr, Diarrhöe, Koliken und Magen-Darm-Entzündungen eingenommen. Die Samen werden als Herzmittel, bei Zahnschmerzen, Leberinfektionen und Malaria-Erkrankungen genutzt.
Biochemisch nachgewiesen wurde das Vorkommen von Proanthocyanidinen im Perikarp der Früchte. Allerdings stehen placebokontrollierte klinische Studien zur Bewertung der phytopharmakologischen Wirkstoffe aus.
Das Fruchtfleisch und die Samen sind reich an Proteinen, Kohlenhydraten und Öl und enthalten besonders die Mineralien Calcium, Kalium und Magnesium. Nach Entfernung der Samen und Fasern wird das Fruchtfleisch getrocknet und entweder unverarbeitet gegessen oder in Milch oder Breie gemischt. Aus den fettreichen Samen gewinnt man durch Pressen ein Öl, welches reich an Palmitinsäure ist und eine hohe oxidative Stabilität aufweist; in Pulverform dient es zum Andicken von Suppen. Die Samen werden auch geröstet gegessen oder fermentiert als Gewürz verwendet.
Die Blätter des Affenbrotbaums werden außerdem als Gemüse genutzt, indem sie wie Spinat zubereitet entweder frisch gegessen oder getrocknet und pulverisiert werden. 100 Gramm haben einen Energiewert von durchschnittlich 289 kJ (69 kcal) und enthalten unter anderem 3,8 Gramm Eiweiß sowie 50 Milligramm Ascorbinsäure. In Nigeria werden die Blätter als kuka bezeichnet. Kuka-Suppe ist eine für dieses Land typische Spezialität.
Auch zur Getränkeherstellung sind die Früchte geeignet: Das Fruchtfleisch kann bierartig vergoren werden. Im Sudan wird aus Fruchtfleisch mit Wasser ein Getränk unter dem Namen Tabaldi hergestellt.
Der Baum liefert darüber hinaus Material für Kleidung, zum Dachdecken, Halsschmuck, Schnüre und Seile, Netze, Matten, Hüte, Tabletts, Kisten, Körbe und Papier. Verwendet werden dafür die Fasern des inneren Bastes, die sehr dauerhaft und kräftig sind. Sie werden gewonnen, indem die Rinde der Bäume abgeschält wird. Ähnlich wie bei Korkeichen regeneriert sich die Rinde wieder, so dass die Bäume wiederholt als Bastlieferanten genutzt werden können. Aus den Wurzeln wird ein roter Farbstoff gewonnen; der Pollen ergibt, vermischt mit Wasser, einen Klebstoff. Aufgrund des hohen Pottascheanteils wird aus der Asche verschiedener Baumteile außerdem Seife hergestellt.
Affenbrotbäume, die einen hohlen Stamm haben, sollen gelegentlich als Gefängnis oder Toilette verwendet werden; aus Westafrika wird berichtet, dass hohle Affenbrotbäume auch als Begräbnisstätte fungieren.
Forstwirtschaftlich wird der Affenbrotbaum dagegen nicht genutzt. Aufgrund seiner Elastizität ist das leichte Holz nur schwer mit der Axt zu bearbeiten, und es verrottet sehr schnell.
Aufgrund seines Aussehens ranken sich mehrere Legenden um den Affenbrotbaum.
Nach einer in Afrika weit verbreiteten Vorstellung riss der Teufel den Baum aus und steckte ihn anschließend mit den Zweigen zuerst in den Boden, so dass die Wurzeln nun in die Luft ragen. Einer anderen Erzählung zufolge wollte der Baum bei seiner Entstehung schöner als alle anderen Bäume werden. Als ihm dies jedoch nicht gelang, steckte er seinen Kopf in die Erde und das Wurzelwerk ragte gegen den Himmel. Aus dem Reich der Schöpfungsmythologie erschließt sich uns eine weitere Erklärung: Als am Anbeginn der Welt die Hyäne beim ersten Blick ins spiegelnde Wasser ihre eigene Hässlichkeit erkannte, war sie darüber sehr erzürnt. Sie riss einen Baobab aus und schleuderte ihn gen Himmel, um ihren Schöpfer zu treffen, der ihr dies angetan hatte. Der Baum jedoch verfehlte sein Ziel, stürzte zurück zur Erde, blieb dort umgekehrt im Boden stecken und wächst seither mit den Wurzeln nach oben.
Als Sitz von Göttern und Geistern spielt der Baobab außerdem in einer Reihe weiterer afrikanischer Legenden und Sagen eine Rolle.
In der modernen westafrikanischen Literatur steht der Baobab häufig als ein Symbol des traditionellen afrikanischen Lebens und der unberührten, ewigen Natur. Orte mit "heiligen" Baobabs werden oftmals als Sinnbild des Garten Eden verwendet.
Auch in die europäische Kinderliteratur hat der Baum Eingang gefunden. In Antoine de Saint-Exupérys Geschichte Der Kleine Prinz sorgt sich dieser, dass Baobabs seinen kleinen Asteroiden überwuchern und mit ihrem Wurzelwerk sprengen könnten: „Die Affenbrotbäume beginnen damit klein zu sein, bevor sie groß werden.“
Auch in der modernen deutschsprachigen Lyrik ist der Affenbrotbaum gelegentlich als Sujet anzutreffen (so z. B. bei Paul Celan). Hans Magnus Enzensberger benutzt den Affenbrotbaum als Bild für das Neuronale Netz.
(Wikipedia)
A SpaceX Falcon 9 launching the Globalstar 2 satellite at 12:27 am, viewed from Vero Beach. No other payload was listed by SpaceX which would normally leave enough fuel for the first stage to return to the Cape to land. Instead, however, the first stage made a successful landing on the drone ship Just Read the Instructions which was about 500 miles out to sea. This has lead to conjecture that there may have been additional payloads. This was the ninth flight of this particular first stage, and the 126th successful landing of a first stage by SpaceX. Approximate cost of the mission was $52,000,000.
Jetties have been built since ancient times to protect seafarers against the oceanic furies of nature -- winds, waves, currents. Usually constructed at the mouth of a river or harbor, they thrust outward into the organic curl of the sea in brute, linear, perfection. The Ancient Mariner, as well as mariners long before and long after, have sailed in the lee of jetties in comparative safety -- as well as to comparative safety.
The spiral is an archetypical symbol that probably predates speech. In the American west it is found everywhere in the petroglyphs and pictographs and designs of ancient inhabitants. The meaning, the stories these spirals tell, is lost -- something of a mystery, open to conjecture.
"Spiral Jetty", a modern artwork constructed into the Great Salt Lake of Utah from a remote, barren, shore, seems, at first, incongruous, perhaps fanciful. It stands, after all, on the shallow remnant of a dead prehistoric inland sea. A sea on which no one sails. And there is neither river nor harbor for miles.
To walk the length of “Spiral Jetty” can be, with each arc, to metaphorically experience wall after wall constructed between you and nature -- layer after layer of safety. At its end, it is possible to sense an existential isolation as profoundly cosmic as the finality of a galaxy spinning inexorably into a black hole. The only way out is to return the way you came…
~~~
Some may see this ancient bristlecone figure as something more reminiscent of a cinnamon roll. Others might consider such a perception off-theme. It is not -- a cinnamon roll being, in itself, a cosmic decadence...often consumed, layer after layer, from the outside-in.
For the first churchly visit of that November 2023 trip to the southern French provinces of Roussillon and Languedoc, I will treat you to a truly unique place, the so-called “priory” of Serrabone, which features an absolute world-class masterpiece of Romanesque sculpture: its tribune.
I said “so-called” above because a priory, in the genuine acception of the word, is a secondary monastery established by an abbey. It is populated by monks sent by that abbey. Those monks are led by a prior, whose superior is the abbot of the founding abbey. In the case of Serrabone, there first was a late Carolingian parochial church established in this mountainous locale and first mentioned in writing in 1069. The walls of the nave are, for some part, still those of that ancient church.
It was then, at a time when local lords used to meddle more and more in the affairs of the Church (which was one of the reasons that prompted the coming of the Gregorian reform), that the viscount of Cerdagne and the local lord of Corsavy installed on the Serrabone mountaintop an unusually mixed group of canons and canonesses to live in accordance with the Augustinian Rule.
A new college church was built (mostly by enlarging the previous one) and consecrated in 1151. Its architecture is harmonious but very simple, as one would expect: in the Middle Ages, those mountains were populated (hence the creation of the parish) and did feed their inhabitants (serra bona in Catalan means “good mountain”), but there was precious little commerce with the outside world and the locals had nothing of real value to export. Therefore, the local economy was pretty much a closed circuit and money was far from flowing in abundantly. The style of the church, even though there were donations from the aforementioned lords, reflects this paucity of financial resources.
It is therefore a total mystery how the magnificent sculpted tribune, which would have cost a veritable fortune, was funded, and by whom. Nothing has ever been demonstrated in that matter, although many have conjectured in various directions. The only certainty we have is that it was built around the time when the church itself was completed, i.e., the mid–1150s.
The culmination of the “priory” did not last very long: canons and canonesses are not monks and nuns, their commitment is found throughout history and places to be much less strong, and by the late 1200s they had already broken communal life and begun to live in their own separate homes. Decadence went to such extremes that the “priory” was secularized by the pope in the 16th century and made a dependency of the chapter of the cathedral of Solsona. The last “prior” died in 1612 and the church returned to its simple parochial status.
The place was progressively abandoned as people left the mountains to go live easier lives in the valleys. It was almost in ruins when it was listed as a Historic Landmark in 1875 and the restoration began. Fortunately, the tribune had been protected and its capitals and columns hidden by the locals.
And finally, the tribune: this is the masterpiece for which Mediævalists flock to Serrabone from all over the world. Made from local white and red marble from the Bouleternère quarries, it serves a double purpose: separate the eastern part of the nave, intended for the community of canons and canonesses from the western one, meant for the parishioners; and serve as a coro alto for religious dignitaries to sit above the rest of the congregation and address them from a high place, a function which jubés (rood screens) will address in later churches.
This side, the western one, facing the congregation, is highly decorated: it served to impress and educate through the use of images those who could not read (the immense majority of the populace back then). The colonnade at the top was rebuilt via a careful, three-year anastylosis between 1980 and 83.
The spandrels (“écoinçons”) on this face as decorated with floral motifs and a theophany in which the deity is represented by the Agnus Dei, as you will see if you zoom into the photograph.
In the background, looking through the single archway leading to the transept from the other side of the tribune, you can see the main altar. The archway to the left in the foreground leads to the northern aisle, which was also designed to accommodate the parishioners (they would enter the church via the northern portal which I will show another say). We will of course take a very close look at the magnificent historied capitals over the next few days.
The lateral walls are those of the earlier, Carolingian church (medium to large apparel of shale stones).
Calton Hill (archaically spelt Caltoun or Caldoun and also known as "the Calton Hill"), is a hill in central Edinburgh, Scotland, just to the east of Princes Street and is included in the city's UNESCO World Heritage Site. Views of, and from, the hill are often used in photographs and paintings of the city.
Calton Hill is the headquarters of the Scottish Government, which is based at St Andrew's House, on the steep southern slope of the hill; with the Scottish Parliament Building, and other notable buildings, for example Holyrood Palace, lying near the foot of the hill. The hill also includes several iconic monuments and buildings: the National Monument, the Nelson Monument, the Dugald Stewart Monument, the old Royal High School, the Robert Burns Monument, the Political Martyrs' Monument and the City Observatory.
In 1456, James II granted land to Edinburgh by charter wherein Calton Hill is referred to as "Cragingalt" from the Gaelic for "rock or hill of the hazel". This points to "calltuinn", the Gaelic for "hazel grove or copse" as being the derivation of Calton. The hill is referred to as Cragge Ingalt on the Petworth map of the Siege of Leith in 1560. Other, conjectured, derivations are "choille-dun" (forested hill) or "cauldh-dun" (black hill), both also from Gaelic. Mention is made of Caldtoun in the records of South Leith Parish Church in 1591 and this or similar spellings remained general until about 1800 with, for example, the Armstrongs' map of 1773 still using Caldtoun and Ainslie's maps changing from Caltoun in 1780 to Calton in 1804.
The anglicised derivation of Calton is "cold town".
By his charter of 1456, James II granted the community of Edinburgh the valley and the low ground between Calton Hill and Greenside for performing tournaments, sports and other warlike deeds. This was part of his policy of military preparedness that saw the Act of 1457 banning golf and football and ordering archery practise every Sunday. This natural amphitheatre was also used for open-air theatre and saw performances of the early Scots play "Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis" by Sir David Lyndsay. In May 1518 the Carmelite Friars (also known as White Friars and locally based at South Queensferry), were granted lands by charter from the city at Greenside and built a small monastery there. Monasteries were suppressed following the Scottish Reformation of 1560, and this stood empty before conversion in 1591 into a hospital for lepers, founded by John Robertson, a city merchant. So severe were the regulations that escape, or even the opening of the gate of the hospital between sunset and sunrise, would incur the penalty of death carried out on the gallows erected at the gate. The monastery would appear to have been located at the north-east end of Greenside Row and its site is shown there on the 1931 Ordnance Survey maps. Ten skeletons found in July 2009 during roadworks to create a new tramway in Leith Walk (since abandoned) are believed to have been connected with the hospital.
The Calton area was owned by the Logan family of Restalrig but their lands were forfeited in 1609 following the posthumous sentence of treason on Robert Logan. The lands of Restalrig and Calton, otherwise known as Easter and Wester Restalrig, passed to the Elphinstone family. Sir James Elphinstone was made Lord Balmerino in 1604 and in 1673 the lands of Restalrig and Calton were erected into a single barony. In 1725, Calton was disjoined and sold to the royal burgh of Edinburgh. Calton remained a burgh of barony (although it was not administered as such) until it was formally incorporated into Edinburgh by the Municipality Extension Act of 1856.
In 1631, the then Lord Balmerino granted a charter to The Society of the Incorporated Trades of Calton forming a society or corporation. This also gave the Society the exclusive right to trade within Calton and the right to tax others who wished to do so. Normally the trades of burghs were separately incorporated, for example in the Canongate there were eight incorporations, but the Incorporated Trades of Calton allowed any tradesman to become a member providing they were healthy and their work was of an acceptable standard. This lack of restrictive practices allowed a thriving trade to develop.
The village of Calton was situated at the bottom of the ravine at the western end of Calton Hill, hence its early name of Craigend. It was on the road from Leith Wynd in Edinburgh and North Back of Canongate to Leith Walk and also to Broughton and thence the Western Road to Leith. In the village, the street was variously known as St. Ninian's Row or Low Calton. Many of the old buildings here were demolished at the time of the Waterloo Place and Regent Bridge development, which bridged the ravine, from 1816. The remaining old village houses of the Low Calton were removed in the 1970s.
Calton was in South Leith Parish and Calton people went to church in Leith. The churchyard there was inconveniently situated for burials from Calton and, in 1718, the Society bought a half acre of land at a cost of £1013 from Lord Balmerino for use as a burial ground. This became known as Old Calton Burial Ground. Permission was granted for an access road, originally known as High Calton and now the street called Calton Hill, up the steep hill from the village to the burial ground. The group of 1760s houses near the top of this street are all that remain of the old village.
The Old Calton Burial Ground was the first substantial development on Calton Hill and lies on the south-western side of the hill. The philosopher David Hume is buried there. His tomb is engraved only with the year of his birth (1711) and death (1776), on the "simple Roman tomb" (a relatively large monument) which he prescribed. The Political Martyrs' Monument is also in the burial ground. This is in memory of five campaigners for political reform and universal suffrage who were convicted of sedition and sent in 1793 to Botany Bay, Australia.
On the West side of Calton Hill is the street named Calton Hill. Agnes Maclehose, better known as Robert Burns' Clarinda, lived at number 14 and died there in 1841. Burns, Scotland's national poet, sent Clarinda many verses over several years in unsuccessful (it is believed) attempts to seduce this beautiful married lady.
Calton Hill was the location of the notorious Calton Jail, a complex comprising a Debtors' Prison, the Bridewell (1791-96) by Robert Adam (later replaced) and a Felons' Prison of 1815-17 by Archibald Elliot. The jails were replaced by Saughton Prison and demolished in 1930 providing a site for St. Andrew's House, home to Scotland's senior civil servants. The sole surviving building is the castellated and turreted Governors House by Elliot. The lower curtain walls of the prison are still visible on the south side of St. Andrew's House, above Calton Road.
The eastern end of the ornate Regent Bridge is built into the side of the hill, crossing a deep gorge (at the bottom of which the opening scene from Trainspotting was shot) to connect the hill with Princes Street, now Edinburgh's main shopping street. The engineer in charge of building Regent Bridge in 1815 was Robert Stevenson, grandfather of the author Robert Louis Stevenson.
The renowned Scottish architect William Henry Playfair was responsible for the elegant thoroughfare that encircles the hill on three sides. Comprising Royal Terrace, Carlton Terrace and Regent Terrace, the largest of the townhouses can be found on Royal Terrace. Playfair's plan is dated 1819 and the first house was built at what is now 40 Royal Terrace. The gardens that cover over one half of the summit of the hill are privately administered by the local Residents Association.
Most of the properties on the terraces are occupied as houses but on Royal Terrace there is a number of hotels by far the largest being the Royal Terrace Hotel while on Regent Terrace is located the United States Consulate. Royal Terrace with its fine views over the Firth of Forth was known affectionately in the 19th-century as Whisky Row. This is said to be a reference to the amount of Spirit merchants, who bought the new properties, and for their supposed abilities to see their ships return from trading trips. Another explanation is that it was so named because of the large number of wine merchants who used to live there. Louis-Antoine, Duke of Angoulême (the elder son of Charles X of France, last of the Bourbon kings) and his wife Marie-Thérèse-Charlotte, (the daughter of Louis XVI of France and Marie Antoinette), moved into what is now 22 (then 21) Regent Terrace in 1830.[5] Caroline Ferdinande Louise the Duchesse de Berri, sister in law of the Duc d'Angoulême, also lived at what is now 12 (then 11) Regent Terrace at that time. Her young son, Henri, the Comte de Chambord, is said to have wept bitterly when his family left for Austria in 1932 as he had become very attached to Scotland. The painter Francis Cadell one of the Scottish Colourists lived in 30 Regent Terrace from 1930-1935. The Western end of Regent Terrace was closed in 2001 to traffic because of security concerns about the United States Consulate. The City of Edinburgh Council proposed closing the Royal Terrace/Blenheim Place entrance to the Calton Hill Terraces in 2010 because of the Edinburgh Trams Project.
Playfair was responsible for many of the monumental structures on the summit of the hill most notably the Scottish National Monument. This monument was intended to be another Parthenon and to commemorate Scottish Soldiers killed in the Napoleonic wars. Construction started in 1826 but work was stopped in 1829 when the building was only partially built due to lack of money. It has never been completed. For many years this failure to complete led to its being nicknamed "Scotland's Disgrace" but this name has waned given the time elapsed since the Napoleonic Wars and it is now accepted for what it is.
The Bara Gumbad, or "big dome," is a large domed structure grouped together with the Friday mosque of Sikander Lodi and a mehman khana (guesthouse), located in New Delhi's Lodi Gardens. The buildings were constructed at different times during the Lodi era and occupy a common raised platform. Formerly an outlying area of Delhi, the Lodi Gardens are a British-planned landscaped garden which includes a number of monuments (primarily tombs) from the Sayyid and the Lodi dynasties. Originally called Willingdon Park, the gardens were located in the former village of Khairpur, now on the edge of Lutyen's Delhi, the colonial capital built by the British in the early 20th century. The gardens, which cover approx. 70 acres, have come to be surrounded by institutional buildings and some of contemporary Delhi's most expensive real estate.
Although they were built under the same dynasty, each of the three structures was undertaken separately. The Bara Gumbad, completed in 1490, is considered to have the first full dome constructed in Delhi. Its original purpose is contested; although it appears to be a freestanding tomb, it contains no tombstone. This causes the speculation that the building might have been intended as a gateway for the Friday mosque; however, their respective placements, stylistic differences, and construction dates do not support this theory. The Friday mosque, completed in 1494, is the first example of the new mosque type that developed during the Lodi era. Characterized by a relatively simple five bay prayer hall building adjacent to a simple open courtyard, this type was an important precedent for mosque architecture in the Lodi and Mughal eras.
The complex can be accessed from various points along the roads bordering the Lodi Gardens, with the access from the Lodi road towards the south most prominent. The buildings are situated at a distance of about 300 meters from Muhammad Shah's tomb towards the south and about 380 meters from Sikander Lodi's tomb towards the north. Another prominent structure, the Shish Gumbad, is located facing the Bara Gumbad at a distance of about seventy-five meters towards the north. The area surrounding the buildings is landscaped with manicured grass lawns. Few trees are planted in the immediate vicinity, leaving the view of the structures unobscured. The path winding through the Lodi Gardens approaches the buildings axially from the north, although the building plinth is accessible all from all sides.
The buildings are sited on a three-meter-high platform, measuring approximately 30 meters (east-west) by 25 meters (north-south). The Friday mosque is located along the western edge of the platform; the guesthouse is sited opposite it, occupying the eastern edge, while the Bara Gumbad is located along the southern edge. Stone masonry walls, about six meters high, connect the three structures along the southern edge. The northern edge is provided with staircases for accessing the platform. A centrally located straight flight comprising of eight steps, about ten meters wide, connects the ground to a generous mid landing. Another 'C' shaped flight of eight steps wraps around the landing, creating an amphitheatre-like space and reaching the top of the platform. The current arrangement of steps appears to be more recent, and the remains of walls adjoining the southern face of the guesthouse and the mosque indicate that the northern edge might have originally been walled. In the center of the raised court, with its southern edge along the staircase, are the remains of a square shaped platform, 8 meters wide, which appears to be a grave.
Friday mosque:
The Friday mosque is a single aisled, rectangular building, approx. 30 meters (north-south) by 8 meters (east-west). The mosque is organized in five unequal bays, which correspond to the five arched doorways on the eastern (entry) elevation. The width of the arched doorways decreases from the center towards the sides. The arches span across grey granite piers. The central arch is framed within a projecting rectangular portal, measuring about 8 meters in height by 6 meters wide. The piers of the rectangular frame are cased in dressed granite and have three shallow arched niches in red sandstone, occurring vertically above the springing point of the arch, on either side. The doorway itself is described by four receding planes of ogee arches, the outermost one being in line with the external face of the rectangular portal. The doorways immediately to the side of the central portal are about 5 meters wide, while those at the two ends are approx. 1.5 meters wide with two receding planes of ogee arches, adding to the prominence of the central doorway. The apex of each innermost arch is constant, measuring approx. 5 meters from the top of the platform. Each arch is finished in plaster and embellished with intricate carved Arabic inscriptions. The spandrels are also heavily carved with geometric motifs, and their the corners are adorned with round inscribed plaster medallions. Red sandstone eaves (chajjas) on stone brackets top the arches, interrupted only by the central projecting portal that extends above them. There is a blank plastered frieze above the eaves, followed by the projecting horizontal bands of the cornice that is topped by a blind masonry parapet adorned with petal shaped crenellations with inscribed plaster medallions.
The interior of the prayer hall reflects the five bay division of the eastern elevation. It is a rectangular space, measuring about 27 meters (north-south) by about 7 meters (east-west). Additional arches spanning between the piers on the eastern elevation and the engaged piers of the western wall emphasize the demarcation of the interior space into bays. These internal ogee arches reach a height of about five meters. They are finished in plaster and profusely decorated with carvings of Arabic inscriptions. The piers are unornamented, dressed gray granite.
The qibla (western) wall of the prayer hall is a blind wall divided into five unequal bays expressed as recessed ogee arched niches, reflecting the arched openings on the eastern wall. The two bays adjacent to the central bay have three equal niches carved out from the portion below the springing line of the main arch. These niches are separated by granite piers, which have smaller arched niches in the top third of their elevation. The three niches are made of two layers of ogee arches framed by the piers. The external layer is in gray-yellow granite, while the interior arch is made of red sandstone. The central niche is mildly distinguishable from the others because its arched portion is curved and the imposts are engraved, while those of the adjacent arches are plain. The innermost rectangular portion of the central niche is blank, while that of the adjoining niches has the carving of a vase and flora inscribed in it. The tympanum of the main outer arch is finished in plaster and has an additional niche directly above the central niche which is embellished heavily with plaster carvings of Arabic inscriptions. A band of similar inscriptions runs along the interior perimeter of the arch and around the upper niche in a closed loop. The voussoirs of the outer arch are plastered and embellished with another layer of carvings. The central bay of the western wall also has three niches, each made of four recessed planes of alternating rectangular and arched profiles. The central mihrab niche is taller and wider. It is also shallower and the innermost plane is blank, while the other two niches are deeper set with relief work. A stone minbar with three steps has been provided abutting the northern pier of the central niche.
Hemispherical domes cover the three central bays, while the terminal bays are covered by low flat vaulted ceilings. The square plan of the three central bays transitions into an octagonal drum through the application of corbelled pendentives at the corners. The corbelling occurs in four layers, which increases in width from the bottom up. The layers are further embellished with curved niches set into rectangular frames, which also increase in number, the lowest corbel having one and the last corbel having five such niches. The last layers of the pendentives form alternate edges of the octagonal drum; the remaining edges being formed by the extension of the walls and are also provided with similar curved niches. The octagonal drum transitions into a hexadecagon, followed by a thirty-two-sided polygon by the provisions of small struts. Each face of the hexadecagon is provided with shallow niches, while the thirty-two-sided polygon is described by a projecting band of red sandstone, followed by a band of inscriptions finally topped by the hemispherical dome. The dome is finished in plain plaster. The voussoirs of the arches, the pendentives and the tympanum are all covered by intricate stucco Arabic inscriptions. The central dome is relatively higher that the other two domes.
The northern and southern walls of the mosque are punctured by ogee arch doorways below the springline of the main arch. Each opening leads to a projecting balcony, comprising of red sandstone posts supporting a tiered roof. The balconies protrude out from the faade and are supported on red sandstone brackets, whose profiles and carvings are characteristic of Hindu architecture. An elaborately carved arched niche is provided above each opening on the interior wall. It is set into a rectangular frame embossed with Arabic text.
The plasterwork on the external northern and southern walls of the mosque has fallen off, exposing the stone masonry, while that on the western wall has survived. The central bay of the western wall projects out and is marked by two solid towers at the corners. These towers are divided vertically into four layers; the first two layers from the bottom are orthogonal, while the third layer has alternating curved and angular fluting; the top layer, extending over the parapet of the mosque, has a circular section. The corners of the mosque are marked by similar tapering towers, which are divided into four layers. Each layer is circular in plan except the third layer, which is described by alternating curved and angular fluting. All the towers have the remains of finials at their apex. The central projecting wall has four red sandstone brackets in its upper third portion, which may have supported a projecting balcony similar to those on the north and south elevations.
The plasterwork on the walls of the plinth is now gone, exposing the rubble masonry construction below. The western face of the plinth is punctured by five ogee arch openings set into rectangular frames, one in the center and two each on the sides. These openings provide access to the basement within the plinth.
The roof has three domes corresponding to the three central bays of the prayer hall and the three central arches on the eastern elevation. The extrados of the domes are finished in plaster. The octagonal drums supporting the domes protrude out over the roof level, above which the circular bases of the domes are decorated with blind crestings having floral motifs. The central dome is marginally larger than the adjacent domes and all three have the remains of lotus finials at their apex.
Bara Gumbad:
Square in plan, the Bara Gumbad measures approx. 20 meters per side. Set on a plinth 3 meters high, it joins the common plinth on the north and projects beyond it to the south. Its plinth is decorated on the east, south, and west with ogee arch openings set into rectangular frames. These provide access to a basement.The walls of the Bara Gumbad are approx. 12 meters tall, above which a hemispherical dome on a hexadecagonal drum extends another 14 meters from the roof level, for a total building height of 29 meters above ground level.
Each of its elevations is nearly identical and divided into 2 horizontal sections. A projecting portal composed of an ogee arch set in a rectangular frame (approx. 8 meters wide), is centered in each elevation and rises approximately 75 cm above the parapet line of the building. The 1.5 meter wide frame is made of dressed gray granite. Each vertical pier of the frame has six shallow red sandstone niches arranged atop one another at varying heights; nine niches continue in a line along the horizontal portion of the frame. The portal is described by two receding planes of grey granite ogee arches; the spandrels are cased with black granite with a thin projecting edge of red sandstone. Two round plaster medallions adorn the spandrels. The lower layer of the portal has a central doorway, spanned by two red sandstone brackets that form a trabeated arch supporting a black granite lintel. These brackets are supported on grey granite posts. An intricately carved red sandstone frame adorns the brackets and the lintel; it starts at the springing point of the arch and frames the lintel of the doorway. The entire composition is set in a rectangular yellow sandstone frame. An ogee arch window has been provided above the trabeated entrance. The portal is crowned by the arched crenellations of the blind parapet. Solid turrets mark the projecting corners of the portal.
The remainder of the elevation, that flanking the central portal on either side and recessed behind it, is divided vertically into two equivalent parts by projecting horizontal bands of stone. Each part is described by two equal arched panels set into rectangular frames. Both the panels of the upper part on either side of the portal are blind and filled with granite masonry. The lower panels located adjacent to the portal are windows, while the lower panels at the edges are filled in. The parapet, like the portal, is decorated with arched crenellations, and the roof has solid turrets at each corner.
A single hemispherical dome surmounted on a sixteen-sided drum crowns the building. Each face of the drum is described by an ogee arched niche set in a rectangular frame. The voussoirs of the arches are gray granite, while the spandrels are clad with red sandstone. The top edge of the drum is decorated with a band of arched crenellations, similar to those on the roof parapets, running above a projecting band of stone that surrounds the drum. Below this projection is band of leaves carved in relief. The extrados of the dome are finished in smooth plaster. The lotus base, possibly for a vanished calyx finial, is still extant.
The structure can be entered either from the raised courtyard via the north elevation or from a double flight of steps located on the western elevation. Inside, the square building measures about seven meters per side. An 80 cm high, 45 cm wide solid seat runs continuously along the interior perimeter of the building. Light streams in from all four walls, which are punctured by the openings of the doorway at the ground level and the ogee arch window above. The interior surfaces of the Gumbad are unornamented and finished in dressed granite. The square plan of the room transitions into an octagon via squinches, which then support the thirty-two-sided drum and the dome. The apex of the dome has two bands of floral inscriptions; otherwise, the dome is finished in plaster. The absence of historical inscriptions has contributed to the confusion over the original purpose of the Bara Gumbad.
Mehman Khana:
The third structure in the group is rectangular in plan, measuring about 27 meters (north-south) by 7 seven meters (east-west). Located along the eastern edge of the common plinth, it faces the mosque and is connected to the Bara Gumbad by a masonry wall along its northern face. The structure is believed to have either been a mehman khana, (guesthouse) or a majlis khana (assembly hall).
The building is accessed from the common plinth through its western wall, which is divided into five bays, mirroring the eastern elevation of the mosque opposite it. The three central bays are considerably larger and have ogee arch doorways, giving access to the interior, while windows puncture the smaller end bays. The arches are set in rectangular frames, which are recessed from the face of the elevation. Each opening is composed of two recessed planes of arches. The spandrels are clad in red sandstone, contrasting with the gray granite of the elevation, and are decorated with round plaster medallions with lotus motifs. The window openings have an additional tie beam or lintel at the springline. The tympanum of the window towards the south has been filled with stone, while that of the window towards the north has been left open. A continuous chajja, supported on equidistant stone brackets, projects from the western wall above the rectangular frame. The cornice is unornamented and is topped by the projecting horizontal band of the parapet, which reaches a height of approximately five meters from the top of the raised plinth. The roof of the structure is flat. The exterior of the building lacks decoration and is finished in dressed granite.
The interior is divided into seven chambers occurring from north to south; the central chamber is the largest, measuring about 5 meters (north-south) long. It is abutted by relatively narrow chambers (approx. 2.5 meters long). The outside chambers which flank the 2.5 meter wide chambers on either side are approximately the size of the central chamber, and correspond to the arched openings in the western wall. The chambers are separated from each other by gray granite walls, punctured by simple ogee arched doorways set in rectangular frames. Square in plan, the outer rooms are separated from the adjacent chambers by stone walls with rectangular door openings with blind ogee arches and rectangular frames. Each doorway has shallow rectangular recesses on either side, as well as a small arched window set into a rectangular recess and a stone jali screen set above the doorway within the tympanum of the main arch. The eastern wall of the building has blind ogee arches, occurring as two successive planes, reflecting the arched openings of the western elevation.
The roof of the central chamber is flat and supported on arches located on four sides; flat stone brackets appear at the corners. The two adjacent rooms are covered by shallow domes supported on squinches. The interior domes are finished in plaster with carved concave fluting. The exterior of the domes has been filled to blend with the flat roof of the central room.
Certain stylistic continuities are recognizable in the three buildings; each was constructed with (local) gray granite and lime mortar. However, the degree and type of embellishment, both interior and exterior, on the mosque differs substantially from that found on the other two, relatively unadorned, buildings.
Apart from the grouping of the three structures and their stylistic similarities, the buildings do not appear to have been planned as a complex. The Friday mosque is the first example of the panchmukhi building type, where "panch" (five) and "mukhi " (facade) characterize a five-bay prayer hall. This approach was influential in both the Lodi and the Mughal periods. The Bara Gumbad is significant for having the first complete hemispherical dome in Delhi.
The differences in the surface ornament of the buildings suggest that the buildings were constructed at different times, with the Bara Gumbad and the guesthouse being similar in style and decoration, without the multilayered arches of the Friday mosque. The function of the Bara Gumbad is still unknown; its geometry and form aligns with the predominant tomb architecture of the period (like the neighboring Shish Gumbad). However, there is no grave or cenotaph in the building, and rather than being blank, its qibla wall (like its other walls) is punctured by an entrance. While the continuous stone bench in the interior is also found in gateway architecture, (as in the Alai Darwaza at the Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Mehrauli), the size of the Bara Gumbad vis-a-vis the Friday mosque does not support this conjecture. Some scholars surmise that the structure might have been a gateway to the larger complex of tombs within the Lodi Gardens.
Lodi Dynasty
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The Lodi dynasty in India arose around 1451 after the Sayyid dynasty. The Lodhi Empire was established by the Ghizlai tribe of the Afghans. They formed the last phase of the Delhi Sultanate. There were three main rulers in the history of Lodi dynasty. All three of them have been discussed in detail in the following lines. So read on about the Lodi dynasty history.
Buhlul Khan Lodi
Buhlul Khan Lodi (1451-1489) was the founder of the Lodi dynasty in India and the first Afghan ruler of Delhi. He was an Afghan noble who was a very brave soldier. Buhlul Khan seized the throne without much resistance from the then ruler, Alam Shah. His territory was spread across Jaunpur, Gwalior and northern Uttar Pradesh. During his reign in 1486, he appointed his eldest son Barbak Shah as the Viceroy of Jaunpur. Though he was an able ruler, he really couldn't decide as to which son of his should succeed him as the heir to the throne.
Sikandar Lodi
After the death of Buhlul Khan, his second son succeeded him as the king. He was given the title of Sultan Sikander Shah. He was a dedicated ruler and made all efforts to expand his territories and strengthen his empire. His empire extended from Punjab to Bihar and he also signed a treaty with the ruler of Bengal, Alauddin Hussain Shah. He was the one who founded a new town where the modern day Agra stands. He was known to be a kind and generous ruler who cared for his subjects.
Ibrahim Lodhi
Ibrahim Lodhi was the son of Sikander who succeeded him after his death. Due to the demands of the nobles, his younger brother Jalal Khan was given a small share of the kingdom and was crowned the ruler of Jaunpur. However, Ibrahim's men assassinated him soon and the kingdom came back to Ibrahim Lodhi. Ibrahim was known to be a very stern ruler and was not liked much by his subjects. In order to take revenge of the insults done by Ibrahim, the governor of Lahore Daulat Khan Lodhi asked the ruler of Kabul, Babur to invade his kingdom. Ibrahim Lodhi was thus killed in a battle with Babur who was the founder of the Mughal dynasty in India. With the death of Ibrahim Lodhi, the Lodhi dynasty also came to an end.
4 Interlocking Hyperboloidal Self-Interwoven Enneacontakaienneagonal Stars 396 units In my hand.
I have designed a number of interlocking star compounds in the past, but this compound was specifically undertaken to illustrate a conjecture I noted not too long ago, namely that almost any convex polyhedral shape can be accommodated to modelling with polygonal stars if 3 frames weave around each other at each vertex, representative of 3 underlying edges converging at that vertex. Of course, many polyhedra have more than 3 edges joining at some vertices, but a truncation of any such vertex will result in new vertices where 3 units do in fact converge every vertex, and are therefore “modelable” using polygonal stars. By trisecting the edges of existing polyhedra, applying truncations, and using the resulting truncated shape as the basis for a polygonal compound, an enormous number of new compound possibilities are opened up. I decided to test an application of this simple conjecture upon an interesting polyhedral shape with pyritohedral symmetry, a near-miss Johnson Solid called a Pentahexagonal pyritoheptacontatetrahedron. The resulting shape has the following axial whorls: 6 dodecagons, 12 decagons, 56 hexagons, 24 pentagons, 36 quadrilaterals, and 264 triangles, by my calculations. The assembly was a bit more challenging than some of the previous polygonal star compounds I have designed, but overall I think it turned out rather well. This is quite simply a compound of four 99-sided polygon stars, which makes these the largest polygons I have ever worked with and the largest polygons (as far as I know) ever rendered in modular origami.
Designed by me.
Folded out of memo paper.
The kylix
Eos poignantly lifts her fallen son, Memnon, who lies listlessly in her arms. She is dressed in a finely pleated Ionic chiton which reveals the lines of her legs, wears a patterned sakkos on her head, and has elaborately patterned wings. Her arms and parts of the torso of Memnon are gone and restored with plain clay. Memnon's head and arms fall lifeless down at the right. Some details of his anatomy and the bleeding wounds are done in dilute glaze. The border around the tondo is formed of alternating crosses, maeanders (alternating directions), and X's; the last two maeanders above the exergue mistakenly overlap.
All characters are named. Above Eos' head, her name “hεος” is reported, near the painter’s signature : Δορις | εγραφσεν – Douris painted.
Below, the face of Memnon, in three lines filling all the space, the are the name of the character, Μεμλον, and the potter’s signature Καλ[λ]ιαδες | εποιεσεν, Kaliades made.
On the left, below Eos’ winges an inscription arranged in three parallel lines reading
[?]ενεμεκνερινε - hερμογενες | καλος{3}. The first sequence is mysterious and disputed, but probably connected to the sexual appeal of the “awesome Hermogenes”.
Source: www.perseus.tufts.edu
CAV / CAVI @ www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/
The Poem Aethiopis.
Proclus' synopsis of the Aethiopis' contents is preserved before the text of the Iliad in the tenth century manuscript known as Venetus A. The poem was divided into five books, and its length may therefore be estimated at some 2,500-3,000 lines. It was attributed to Arctinus of Miletus.
Memnon’ s account is narrated in the Aethiopis’ second book. He is the son of Tithonus and Eos. Accompanied by a large force of Aethiopians, he arrived to assist the Trojans. Thetis prophesied to her son Achilles about the encounter with Memnon. She warned him that if he fought Memnon, he would kill him, but be killed himself after a short time. When battle is joined, Antilochus, Nestor’s son, is killed by Memnon, but then Achilles kills Memnon. The circumstances are assumed to be as related by Pindar, Pyth. 6. 28-42. One of the horses drawing Nestor's chariot is hit by an arrow shot by Paris, preventing Nestor's escape from the onset of Memnon, he shouts to his son Antilochus for help, and Antilochus came and fights Memnon, losing his own life but saving his father's. It is further conjectured that Achilles wanted to avoid Memnon because of his mother’s warning, but that now, incensed by the death of his young friend Antilochus, he joins battle with Memnon killing him. Eos confers immortality upon her son after prevailing on Zeus.
Source: West M.L., "Iliad" and "Aethiopis"
Attic red figure kylix
H. 12 cm; Dm. 26 cm.
Attributed to Douris as painter by signature, and Kalliades as potter by signature
485 – 480 BC
From Capua
Paris, Musée du Louvre, G 115
Fetenacity
A mid summers dream series
A)Dreams tending Arousal
Lakefront Cottage Dream
A narration in one acte
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This story is based from a rather intense dream/ experience I had some weeks past when I stayed for a extended autumn weekend alone at my uncles lake cottage.
It was at this same cottage where we held my Cousins wedding late the previous year
I had attended a formal dinner/dance/ fundraiser in the area and was using the lakefront cottage to save on having to rent a room during my extended visit there.
My friend from university, who also was coming, and I had dared each other to wear the glittery sequined , sleek blue bridesmaids gowns that had been collecting dust in our closets since a mutual friends wedding the previous month.
We both did, with her adding her good jewels to wear with, and I wore my matching set of antique rhinestones I had come across at an antique shoppe, along with my favorite rings.
We must have made a pleasing pair for we were continuously being approached for conversation and then asked to dance by several blokes.
As things were wrapping up and we were given the boot, we stopped in a pub for a drink and that was when my friend told me she had been creeped upon after leaving her hotel earlier!
A young man in a houndstooth sports jacket had been standing in her hotel lobby talking to a pretty young lady wearing a black satin blouse, her buxomy figure loaded up with shiny gold chains .
As my friend walked through the lobby, dressed as she was for the dance, the girl had eyed her over .
She , of course, smiled at her, and surprisingly the girl had just looked back to the guy wearing the houndstooth sport coat without acknowledging her.
Then as she walked outside down the block, realized the guy in the houndstooth sports jacket was following along.
He had seen her look at him and darted down an alley.
Uncomfortable about it, she had spied an approaching hansom and had hailed it to be driven to her destination.
“Do you think he may have wanted to ask me something?” she wondered as she played with her string of white pearls, the rings in her fingers all glittery.
I soothed her by telling her she was “being a silly sod, and not to fret over it!”
Which at the time was my honest opinion of the affair? Certainly did not think the bloke was “creeping” and I told her so with conviction!
I did see her home safely to her hotel room before heading to the lake.
But then walking quite alone up to the cottage in early morning hours, moving in and out of creeping shadows,slightly intoxicated, I heard the rich swishing of my long gown along the path.
I must have presented an interesting picture, waking about alone, dressed such as I was!
I remembered my friend’s story, if someone was following her and had been listening to us, they would know I was here, alone!
This made my hairs prickle as of course my run away imagination Formed some rather chilling , foreboding conjectures
I shook my head to get rid of the thoughts, feeling my earrings swinging up against my cheeks.
Buggers, my bloody jewels would give me away!
I scurried to the cottage, feeling foolish with myself as I unlatched the door!
But entering the dark ,sinisterly empty house, did me no good either, and I held my breath as I cautiously tip toes in to turn on the lights!
My mind was reeling at that point keeping me from feeling tired, as I checked all the windows and doors to make sure they were fastened!
Without bothering to change , I tried watching some telly, before going to bed.
But I ended up watching the only channel that was coming in.. and all it had was an old BW crime thriller that night, which also added fuel to the building fire of my imagination!
Though I will admit that I harbor a like for those type of situations depicted in such movies, experiencing a titillating thrill when a shadow emerged from a dark alleyway, similar to those that compels one to watch horror flicks!
Also, on top of all that, having just being also all dressed up in that wedding party a fortnight ago, before appeared to have been added to the subconscious mix!
Finding I had fallen asleep without seeing the ending,I stretched, rose and went to the bedroom I was staying in.
Dressing for bed, loop-lolly half asleep , watched my reflection in the long mirror removing my twinkling rhinestones, an old silent film I once had critiqued for a term paper quite some time ago popped in from somewhere in a forgotten recess of my mind ...
Of course..!!
- [ ] 1927 Called “Cat and the Canary” and is a dark moody film taking place in a secret passage laced mansion, with sinisterly dark figures , and a sleeping lady whose diamonds are robbed off from around her throat .
There is a 1930 sound remake called “The Cat Creeps” with Helen Twelvetrees that i really had wanted to write about, but found out it is unfortunately an Americans “lost” film!
So I do imagine that it ‘twas those concerns and remembrances all combined, which took root in my sleep, taking a dark flight with my dreams of fancy that night!
For, as I was soon asleep;
I found myself experiencing a sweating combination of nightmare/ wet dream that was so utterly realistic that the scare nearly caused me to soil my slip nightie before I managed to awaken sweating from its horrible hold, feeling some dampness around my crotch!
In the process I had become so entangled in my Blankets that it took some time to extract myself.
Finally awake and free of the blankets I rose...
Placing a thin black robe over my purple slip nightgown, I got a mixed drink, and sat down upon a sofa to collect my wits as I convinced myself it had only been a rather intriguingly wicked dream!
And then I, of course me being me, was compelled to take notes of my night terror before the last vestiges drifted off , as I was then unable to sleep in the empty cottage anyways!
So the long and short is that from those notes taken from that night terror was risen this dream inspired tale!
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Mid-summer Dream sequence A
A beguiling Evening at the Lake House
My dream, not surprisingly,took me innocently enough, to the wedding at my uncle’s family’s rather posh Lakefront “Cottage” where I have spent many a week since youthful childhood...
Mixing in bits of both reality and fiction, my dream went on ...
My cousin(with whom I had been with at University) was getting married at the end of the week which is why I had gone, that and I was to be her Maid of honour.
The week went fast, planning, getting ready for the guests.
What little time I had to myself, I spent on a small deserted island in middle of the lake, just off of the bottom hill landing above which sat my Cousin’s family’s lake front cottage.
The island is a rather secluded, private spot,a great place to just think.
Then came the time for the wedding to be held at the lake village church with reception behind the family lake cottage.
The groom’s best man and I were the only members of the bridal party.
My Cousin had selected a dazzling white satin dream gown.
Sleeveless with a Lacey bodice and a daringly plunging neckline. The skirt fell down to her silver heels in a glistening flow of sleekness. An emerald green rippled satin sash encircled her jealousy petite waist with a glittering crescent shaped emerald rhinestone broach pinned to the centre. Long green satin gloves all added a splash of color for her naturally red hair.
As bridesmaid I was wearing my rather elegant burgundy coloured slick taffeta gown she had helped me pick out.
The neckline is squared , the skirt was short in front reaching just below my knees, and long in back, reaching the tickling down to just past my ankles.
Full sleeves that scrunched up, with their bottom bit reaching up to my wrist, but the top part reaching over my hands ending in pointed tips at my middle finger and held on by gold rings that went on along my middle fingers.
It also had a darling matching flat satin waist-hugging sash that was detachable and tied snugly in the back
Actually the whole outfit was a rather tightly snug fit, but my Cuz liked the look and I will be able to have it let out before wearing it out again.
But it was fun that I appeared to have a pair of noticeably rounded breasts for a change !
Compliments of the gowns fairly tight molded cleavage !
Because my Cousin has decided on wearing her rather handsome collection of pearls, I decided not to wear my own good pearls, but instead opted to wear my rhinestones, which of course in my dream became valuable diamonds.
Also amongst the fine jewels I was wearing was Included at the last minute a rather daring ruby and diamond brooch which I had just picked up in an antique store that is located in the village at the northern most end of the lake.
It was quite a dazzling pretty overall effect we both were putting on, as noted when we poised giggling like a brace of school girls before the bedroom mirror hanging on the backside of our basement bedrooms’ door.
My cousins younger sister, who is just a school girl, overhead us and sauntered down in from the upstairs kitchen.
In my dream she was dressed as she had really been at the actual wedding.
A red head also, she was fetchingly wearing a green satin gown pouring down along her figure, re-wearing It from a dance she had attended that spring.
She also was strikingly wearing the new set of my Aunt’s expensively matched emerald and diamond jewelry !
I felt her gown was rather to slinky in my silent opinion, and the “always gets my way “party girl a bit too immature to be wearing good jewels, but the ensemble certainly grabbed one’s attention I will with a bit of jealousy, admit to that!
But then I guess that is what weddings are all in about, and the bride and I were certainly in no position, glammed up as we were , to caste the first (Gem)stones!
After a bit more girl talk, we put on our serious faces and headed upstairs to begin the day long festivities!
So the wedding and reception proper went off with very few minor hitches and we killed much time pleasantly , dancing and drinking till midnight!
It was a very pretty affair in many aspects!
Then well after midnight as most of the remaining guests were hanging around a fire in the back terrace of the cottage, I felt a wanderlust whimsical feeling to go and sit on one of the antique benches set around a small landing that was set up down the bottom front hillside, the top of which was where the cottage had been built.
Grabbing a flute of wine, I headed off away around the cottage, then down the hillside stairs leading down to the landing, looking forward to finally being away from the lime lite as it were!
I was quite alone in this secluded spot. With a view of my small island off some 50 meters from the landing.
I was setting there for some time lost in my thoughts, feeling sleepy, when I realized with a shiver that it was getting chilly!
But then a warm breeze came in and my mind started to play tricks on me.
That I had not shivered because of the cold, but instead I was getting goose pimples from feeling someone’s eyes upon me !
But then I started to imagined that I was indeed being watched from the island!
A dark figure in a houndstooth sports jacket with hard cold eyes and a mind to be up the to no good!
Someone was watching me I convinced myself!
I nervously turned around and jumped a little!
There was actually a long shadowy figure at the top of the stairs, framed in moonlight, staring me down!!!
As I watched the figure slipped down the stairs, by the flapping dress I knew it was female.
Finally I could make out who it was as she came into the light cast off from the docks lanterns.
It was lady in a slinky black satin number , wearing a bouncing emerald/ diamond pendent and swinging earrings that glittered noticeably from her as she moved.
She smiled, rising a hand that held a tall glass of ice and some clear liquid, her expensive looking bracelet twinkling in a mesmerizing display of its rich coloured emerald/diamond gemstones.
I recognized her as one of the guests I had briefly met,whom, much like a humming bird, had been flittering about amongst us without never really staying long in any one place!
When I first met the slowly approaching lady , She had been a total stranger to me,coming up to me at the reception to compliment me on my pretty attire.
Said she was there alone and was usually quite shy around strangers, though she had not appeared to me in anyway a timid dear!
She had blushed ever so prettily, her eyes magnified by the horned rim glasses she was wearing.
She was actually quite handsome, wearing a long black satin dress with vertical gold stripes. I complimented her on it and she smiled, prettily blushing . She was wearing no jewelry, so I was not able to use that as a topic of conversation or admirations!
Feeling sorry for the poor thing, we had chatted a bit, light talk, and she had taken her leave, apologizing if she was appearing rude, but she must compliment my cousin, the bride, who I saw had just came in, new husband and her pouty younger sister in tow!
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I was watching her now, coming down then over to me as I was sitting on the landings bench, inwardly shuddering a bit!
She was a odd bird, especially the way she was eagerly looking down upon me like an old friend!
But there was something different about her now, something had changed, but in my befuddled state of mind at her appearance it was something could not place a finger on at the time?
But trying to work out a solution to that mystery slipped from my mind as I again felt a chill and wished I had brought my gowns matching wrap!
I couldn’t be rude enough to hurriedly make that as an excuse and leave her just as she arrived. So I settled down to hold ground and meet my fate!
So much for quiet solitude I thought wryly, and assuming my role as part of the bridal party, politely motioned the unwished for guest to come sit with me.
She swished down over, laid a hand on my shoulder, her bracelet sparkling , as I looked up. I could see my own necklace shimmering in her horned rim glassed, rather surprised over how lavish the reflection appeared!
“‘Ello, we meet again !” she said adjusting her gown as she sat next to me.
“Cheers “ she continued clinking her glass to mine and we both took a drink.
She was looking out over the misty waters as she sipped...
“Must say, you are brave, to be down here all alone ?” she asked me, glancing around.
“Not really.” I replied ... “ I come down here a lot to sit and think, it’s one of my favorite spots.”
“Here, and the island over there also!” I added, pointing across the water to the small island.
She shivered. “Creepy island, who knows what or who may be over there lurking in the shadows watching us!”
Despite myself I did jump a little at her words.
She was beginning creeping me out saying things I had already been thinking.
She started to babble on about odd things she had heard happening to others. Footsteps in the dark with no one appearing and other sorts of unwarranted , alone in a dark alleyway ,like tidbits that began to make me a bit uncomfortable!!!
She was on about an old silent movie where a deranged mental patient had broken into an isolated mansion where a young heiress was spending a lonely evening when I decided enough was enough!!!
I was quite done with this uninvited guest and decided it had been time enough, and I could ethically take my leave.
Surrendering my dock landing hideaway to her and head up to rejoin the guests around the warm friendly fire!
I turned to her, startled by the way for a second she had been smiling at me like she knew an untold secret, but her expression changed immediately as I had looked, smiling she leaned over to pat my wrist, her fingers touching my diamond bracelet.
Then, like she had been eerily reading my mind...
“Hope I’m not making you uncomfortable luv?” She said consolingly, but without any real depth to her apology!
Then, while patting me, her drink sloshed, spilling some of the ice cubes, which pooled down upon the lap of my gown, making me shiver,the cool air and the dampness on my gown increasingly adding on an overwhelming need to use the loo, which also added to my already existing urge to excuse myself!!
“Oh dear I’ve solid your dress! Here let me get something...”
As she fumbled in a small, rather bulging, black clutch purse, I declined her assistance ,just glad of a reason to be rid of this odd lady , and told her I would clean up inside the cottage!
She in turn gave me an odd , knowing smile as I rose and politely took my leave.
I managed to stand up without shaking and went back up the deck stairs resisting the urge to run!
At the top I looked back to the island for a few seconds, nothing moved, except the rising shapes of mist that was forming over the long lakes waveless dark waters.
Of course no one was watching from there!
I looked down upon the interloper still seated on my bench...
She was just sitting there, dress fluttering not bothering to look up at me.
The breeze was still warm, so why did I still feel chilled?
I then headed inside through the kitchen to the downstairs basement bath.
The house was quiet and empty, lending to the atmosphere and I was trembling on pins and needles as I was making myself scared silly to be in there, looking down darkened corridors that appeared to be passing themselves off as sinister alleyways!!!
I went in and downstairs to the basement bedroom I was sharing with my cousin .
Going to the small toilet I quickly did my business, dabbed at the wet spot on my party dress , deciding I should not take time to change!
As I took a quick look in the mirror, I scolded my panicked stricken looming reflection that I was a “silly old duck”, and then hurriedly left to head back to join the rest of the dwindling reception guests by the warm fire.
I froze in my tracks , the bedroom door that I had left open was now forbiddingly, firmly shut!!!
Suddenly I was grasped from behind by a pair of strong hands.
My whole figure jumped with the enveloping shivering shock , while an ice cold hand clamped over my mouth silencing my startled shriek as it started. ...
A most menacing voice muttered with conviction, “What have we here saide the spyder to the pretty butterfly?”
A chilling feeling swept down over me! As the voice continued on answering my silent question...
“I was coming down to leave, lady and imagine my surprise when I saw you heading downstairs into this hidden bedroom!”
I began to quiver in delicious fright...
“Now Don’t move about my pretty red bird!”
The voice snarled as something hard was stroked along up against my side , and then poked into my waist ,as my heart was pounding in my throat!
“No cry’s for help either Miss “ he hissed close in my ear “Or I may have to use this!” , and the thing he was poking was pressed in even harder into my back to make his point known!
I nodded helplessly in submissive agreement to his threat!
I was cringing and feeling waves of shivers sparking up and down my spine as he held me captive in his hard unforgiving grasp!
Not really knowing with any sickening realty what all was going to happen next, though I was fairly certain my pretty jewels would be on his list!!
He turned me around and I was face to face with an evily black attired man wearing an even blacker, snarly appearing ski mask!
Holding me close as he stared at me with his hard grey eyes he muttered, half to himself.
“Well, well, look at the pretty package we have caught!”
“I only was interested in riffling through the contents of your bedrooms rooms wasn’t I luv, while your fine lot were distracted outside !” He said happily.”
“But the bonus of watching you and your sparklers appear for your ill timed call to nature is appreciated, I will say that !”
“And the discovery of a new bedroom to have a look around is always appreciated, always nice things to be found in ‘em aint there now, Miss !”
He hissed this as he was eyeing me over as I noticed my long shimmering diamond earrings were richly sparkling , reflected in his lusting evil eyes!
I gulped as a dryly feeling scratchy frog came lumping up in my throat!
In answer his rough left hand began excitedly snaking up my front, up over my breasts and lifting up the end of my twinkling diamond necklace as he smirked!
As he had groped along my breasts , he drooled his words, talking to himself .
“A rather fine plump one we have!
Then while he tugged greedily at my necklace. “With some Rather nice ice to be melted away!”
I tried pulling back, but he grasped me harder by the waist and held me to him as I squirmed, I could quite feel that this Wankers figure was undeniably hot and quite stiff with desire!
“Dem flashy jewels your wearin luv, I believe I’ll have them then now won’t” I ! he purred nastily, with a craving conviction.
I countered. “Not my jewels sir I whined, they are worthless!”
But he ignored my pleas and began working me over quite thoroughly chuckling with delight as he , with adept precision ,felt searchingly along my cringing my figure for jewels!
The mirror that was hanging down on the closed door that we had primped in front of earlier, was in view, and I could see my reflection in it, and ... also his as he was working me over. I tried not to look but failed miserably and I began to feel my whole being wilt in utter despair as one by one he I watched him plucking my trembling figure clean!
Starting first by forcing off my flashing rings, then unclamping my favorite diamond cuff bracelet,then yanked off both my earrings , greedily pocketing the lot!
Once finished with that he concentrated on working off the main prize, my shiny necklace!
Reaching up behind my neck, unfastening, drooling over, and then finally pocketing my diamond necklace!
He had taken my Diamond Necklace! And I squirmed uncomfortably as he stashed it away !!
The wanker was all too fondly enjoying this game he was playing at my expense!!!
Finished with that job, he lastly reached down over to my waist to begin prying off my shimmery new broach which my Cousin had had me pin to my sash as a last minute addition so as to match her’s!
I loved that broach!
I managed out a sobbing, crackling dry plea for him not to take it
Surprisingly, He listened and removed his hand from it promising he would not lay a finger on it, “Scouts honours” dame!
Then had me turn around.
“All right dame, lets see you raise those hands up, and keep ‘em there if you know what’s good fer you!”
Wondering “ what now ?!” I obeyed.
He placed his hands upon the sides of my gown, reaching just up under my armpits, and started carefully to pat me down from behind .
I knew he knew he had taken me for everything and was just playing me, adding insult to injury while he was satisfying a dreadful lust to cope a feel of my tight fitting ultra smooth gown! Typical male!
I realized that, Like a seasoned male actor, he obviously was a professional and had played this role enough times that he was self-confident, assuredly in control, and was cravingly, relishing every second of this wicked game!
Everything he did had a purpose, rhyme and reason behind it !
I was just beginning to realize, but I still was not fast enough to figure those reasons ahead of time, and it would cost me !!!
I sighed deeply in my misery and despair, unable to move in my utterly vulnerably paralyzing distress !
Sighing as deeply as I just had, the monster finished, and stood back behind me.
I was still too frozen in fear to move, and saw in the reflection that he had reached into his pocket and pulled out some gold silk handkerchiefs.
The unscrupulous Git must have snatched them from a silky pocket that must have been inside one of the dresses hanging in another bedroom closet!!
“To make sure the creeping cat keeps your tongue!” he said as he gagged me silent with one!
Then he reached up, and yanking down my arms so the were behind my back, he tightly bound my hands with another!
Cheeky Bastard !
But the wanker wasn’t through with me yet!
He pulled my back up against his lustful body and I felt the cold damply sweaty fingers of his right hand reach up and laying his right hand on my the front of my dress !
He than happily felt along my breasts, while his left hand held me securely by the waist as I squirmed in his hold as he fondled about.
It was a bittersweet prickling process I felt as I helplessly underwent his obviously practiced ritual!
“Pity You’re not hiding anything there !” he hissed in my ear he withdrew his hand.
“ Only one more hiding hole to clear !” he said matter of factley taking deep breaths!
Knowing what was coming, I stiffened as he crouched down and cringed as I felt his hand press up into my dress, pushing the still damp material up in between my thighs as I put my legs together in an attempts to force the walkers hand out!!!
My back arched in a spasm as the thief’s right hands fingers attempted to penetrate and grope through my gown to reach towards my private’s !!
As I squirmed about I tried to say through my gag. “ I thought you have my diamonds isn’t that enough you touchy git!”
But he did pull away as I clamped my knees on him!
Prevented from going any further with his groping fingers, he rose quickly as he held his hands onto my waist for support!
“Nuttin in there either, guess I’ve cleaned you out dame !” he said chuckling at his crude humour!
He finally stopped chuckling , than said
“Times a eating !” And pushed me over to my cousins bed and had me turn and awkwardly sit down upon it .
The bastard was having me watch him as he worked over our room for our valuables!
As if what he had done so far wasn’t enough!
As I squirmed with acute anxiety in my bindings, he went about it!
He was thorough I will admit, quickly, unerringly, ransacking our room with expert precision, wasting no time, as he checked through drawers, riffling through our shared closet, quickly fingering over the expensive clothes he was finding within.
Then he searched the bed-stands, discovering both our jewel cases, which he spotlessly cleaned out!
He even pocketed my small gold (plated) antique brush with the rhinestone handle!
The thief was cannily taking anything found that was small, shiny, easily carried, and of any possible value!!
He even managed to find the thin silver headband, the one set with pricey diamond chips, that my cousin had placed hidden at the bottom drawer of her lingerie cabinet!
I had convinced her not to wear it this evening, she had looked better in her bridal gown with her long red hair down and flowing free
And now she would never be wearing it again, and she had that blue satin sequined gown that went amazingly with it as she wore it to hold up her hair at the rehearsal dinner!
Actually that sleek blue gown was now lying in a glittery heap in the floor outside the closet. He had greedily yanked it out to make sure none of the sparkling his hungry eyes had drooled over were actual gems!
He had even shot me a look as he held up it in his touchy paws to see if I was flinching to indicate that it may be valuable enough to steal.
At my lifeless blank stare, he just grunted and tossed it down in a heap!
For some reason my heart had sunk piercingly lower at his discovery of the glittery silver headband even more than it had been doing while I watched him looting our room.
When he had finished, he went and stood over me
“Anything I missed luv?!” he demanded loudly!
Startled, I couldn’t help myself.
He saw me glance over to my pillow
The unethical stinker!
“Thought so!” he said preening with satisfaction at his tomfololery!
I deflatedy cringed as directly he went over to my bed, bending over over and lifting my plum satin coverlet and picking up the matching pillow.
He grasped up the long thin silk purple slip I was wearing for a night gown and looked underneath !
He cackled as he plucked up greedily, the small black velvet satchel that had been hidden underneath my night gown.
He walked it over and emptied it onto his palm before my puppy sad eyes!
I tearfully watched as my pearls, my beautiful set of gleaming white pearls, spilled out onto his eager hand as he whistled his triumphant find!
Now my heart really plummeted !
The greedy, unscrupulous bastard, he had now taken everything with any value that I owned from me and our bedroom!
Then he added his insult to the already deep injury
Leaning over me, looking at me dead in the eye..
Been ever so nice doing business with you, luv!”
He smirked while as he stuffed my pearls roughly inside his pocket, then he slid his fingers along my shoulder and down my tied up taffeta clad arm as I twitched, wallowing in misery...!!
“Where did you come from?” I Irrationally tried to asked, again my words muffled by the gag!
He was watching me struggle to speak...
And once again he answered my unspoken question...
“Followed you from the hotel now didn’t we !” , he said mysteriously as he put on a houndstooth sport jacket.
Then he backed out the door closing it,
I could hear feet rapidly going down the stairs.
Stiff with fright I jumped as a door slams from above
Squirming I managed to quickly undo my tied wrists, silk does not make for solid knots, but then he probably knew that!
It was as I untied my gag, that I coldly realized I had not actually seen the pistol.
“Twit!” I said admonishing myself
That was because he had had no pistol!
The bastard had used only his index finger to utterly fool me into compliancy because I believed he had one!!
Rising I went upstairs to the door leading to the dock stairs.
I should warn her , if she was still setting there on the bench waiting for my return!
Too late, I saw him head down the stairs to the landing.
The lady on the bench rose, diamonds and emeralds rippling a sparkling riot of fire along around her wrist as she walked up to join him, hugging!
She was in on it, had planned this, had set me up in their fiendishly evil trap!
She must have been coming down to wait and meet up with her partner once he was done burgling the cottage bedrooms!
Then she had spied me surpriseingly alone , all dressed up and sitting there by my myself!
What a sweetly plump lamb I must have looked under her wolffish gaze.
All she had to do was simply figure out a way to get this shimmering bird to go alone into the house where her partner was busy looting the bedrooms of guests staying there of their jewels !
And she had decided the ones I had been wearing were to be added into that loot!
She must have been laughing at how easy it had been to trick me into walking into the trap!
And the emeralds/diamonds jewelry she was wearing?
I had suddenly just then remembered , She had not been wearing my any jewelry, when she first approached me!!!
She had been flaunting it, why?
A cold realization finally pierced through the fog of my memory!
They were from the collection of jewelry my cousin had been wearing! Not the bride, but her younger, green satin siren gowned, sister!
The cretins must have surreptitiously (hopefully)removed them from her!
In my minds eye I briefly had a picture of how easily it would have been to stoke the vain ego of my overly dressed flashy young cousin, with her upper levels typically arrogant manner, in order to get her to willingly, literally be played into their hands !!!
Shuddering I watched with falling heart as arm in arm the scoundrels turned a corner and I soon saw a punt appear, with him earnestly rowing away them both away!
I had my hand to my waist as I watched , then with icy cold revelation , suddenly I realized that my sash was gone!
I looked down, with it the also was gone the brilliantly shimmering broach he had promised not to touch, but he had not promised to not touch my sash !
The cold jellied eel like turd had done it as he had been patting me down. And while behind me, fondling me to distraction, his eyes were on another prize!
He flagrantly had white lied to me and untied the sash , unnoticed by me, had slipped it off from my around my waist.
Untying it it with his left hand and pulling it off as he was distracting me by pawing and trying to grope my private bits with his right !
The devil had fooled me entirely, for I had believed his fondling of me had been for his self pleasure, but it had been entirely for the self gain of my valuably gemmed one of a kind broach!!
No wonder he had appeared to be so thoroughly loving his work!
Damn fool I am
I placed a hand to my neck, ears, looked down wrist and fingers.. all of my pretty jewels were gone, going away with the thief as he escaped with his bulging pockets!!
Then I again felt my waistline, hoping I was wrong!
I wasn’t !!!
If I had noticed I pondered, felt him untying it from around my waist ?
Caught red handed, would he then have stopped his pickpocketing? I tried to reason,
“Twit !” I called myself again, “ He wouldn’t have stopped taking the sash. But then he may have demanded I strip and hand over my sumptuous party dress just to be a pisser for my cheekiness !!!”
“But it was all of no use! I hadn’t caught on to his cruel deception, and now the pair of thieves were making off with the jewels, all of my…and our guests , expensively pretty jewels!”
“Never trust a bloody thief!”
I thought sarcastically as I watched the pair of em disappearing into the mist that was rising on the evil appearing black water of the lake, rowing past the lake small island!
It was then I finally found my tongue and screamed the alarm!
With that I managed to wake myself up from the paralyzingly wicked, far too realistic, nightmare I had been caught up in while asleep, tangled up in my covers !!
Fini
For the first churchly visit of that November 2023 trip to the southern French provinces of Roussillon and Languedoc, I will treat you to a truly unique place, the so-called “priory” of Serrabone, which features an absolute world-class masterpiece of Romanesque sculpture: its tribune.
I said “so-called” above because a priory, in the genuine acception of the word, is a secondary monastery established by an abbey. It is populated by monks sent by that abbey. Those monks are led by a prior, whose superior is the abbot of the founding abbey. In the case of Serrabone, there first was a late Carolingian parochial church established in this mountainous locale and first mentioned in writing in 1069. The walls of the nave are, for some part, still those of that ancient church.
It was then, at a time when local lords used to meddle more and more in the affairs of the Church (which was one of the reasons that prompted the coming of the Gregorian reform), that the viscount of Cerdagne and the local lord of Corsavy installed on the Serrabone mountaintop an unusually mixed group of canons and canonesses to live in accordance with the Augustinian Rule.
A new college church was built (mostly by enlarging the previous one) and consecrated in 1151. Its architecture is harmonious but very simple, as one would expect: in the Middle Ages, those mountains were populated (hence the creation of the parish) and did feed their inhabitants (serra bona in Catalan means “good mountain”), but there was precious little commerce with the outside world and the locals had nothing of real value to export. Therefore, the local economy was pretty much a closed circuit and money was far from flowing in abundantly. The style of the church, even though there were donations from the aforementioned lords, reflects this paucity of financial resources.
It is therefore a total mystery how the magnificent sculpted tribune, which would have cost a veritable fortune, was funded, and by whom. Nothing has ever been demonstrated in that matter, although many have conjectured in various directions. The only certainty we have is that it was built around the time when the church itself was completed, i.e., the mid–1150s.
The culmination of the “priory” did not last very long: canons and canonesses are not monks and nuns, their commitment is found throughout history and places to be much less strong, and by the late 1200s they had already broken communal life and begun to live in their own separate homes. Decadence went to such extremes that the “priory” was secularized by the pope in the 16th century and made a dependency of the chapter of the cathedral of Solsona. The last “prior” died in 1612 and the church returned to its simple parochial status.
The place was progressively abandoned as people left the mountains to go live easier lives in the valleys. It was almost in ruins when it was listed as a Historic Landmark in 1875 and the restoration began. Fortunately, the tribune had been protected and its capitals and columns hidden by the locals.
Those of you who will say “We have already seen this one!” like they spot twice-used footage in a movie are right, and I congratulate them for being so attentive!
I admit I unashamedly post a black-and-white version of an earlier color photograph of the underside of the Serrabone tribune —tell me which one you like best! Personally, I like both versions very much: the color version gives you additional information which is important and an integral part of the experience, but the black-and-white one retains, I feel, more “mystery” and ambiance, leaving more to the imagination...
The soaring neo-Gothic façade and central tower of Barcelona Cathedral, completed in 1913, are not medieval but deeply expressive of their time. Funded by banker and politician Manuel Girona i Agrafel, the additions reflected a blend of personal piety, civic ambition, and the prestige of beautifying Barcelona’s religious heart.
They were also aligned with the Renaixença, Catalonia’s late 19th-century cultural revival, which viewed Gothic architecture as a distinctly Catalan inheritance. Re-Gothicizing the cathedral wrapped modern identity in the spiritual grandeur of the past—an act of both nostalgia and assertion.
While the nave, apse, and cloister are genuinely medieval, the façade and tower are authentic to the Gothic Revival moment: not the product of medieval faith, but of Romantic historicism.
As with Viollet-le-Duc’s Notre-Dame in Paris, they reflect the modern impulse to reclaim and reimagine the sacred.
(Chat GPT)
The city of Barcelona must have received the light of Christian faith very early on. The martyrdoms of Saint Eulalia and Saint Cucuphas during the Diocletianic Persecution bear witness to the existence of Christians in Barcelona at least by the late 3rd and early 4th centuries.
Unfortunately, we have no historically proven records of the ecclesiastical organization of our dioceses until 343, when Bishop Praetextatus of Barcelona and another five bishops of Hispania attended the Council of Sardica to ratify the provisions set forth in the Ecumenical Council of Nicea (325) as to the divinity of Jesus Christ.
Certain solidly grounded conjectures lead us to believe that Barcelona already had an Episcopal temple or Cathedral at that time, which would be used soon thereafter for pastoral ministry by other key bishops of our diocese: Saint Pacian (390), Lampius (400), Nundinarius (461), Nebridius (540), Ugne (599), Severus (633), Quiricus (656), Idalici (688), Laülf (693), Frodoí (890), etc. In the year 599 our Cathedral appears in a document dedicating it to the Holy Cross (Second Council of Barcelona).
Recent excavations of the substrata of the Carrer dels Comtes of Barcelona (which currently runs along the Eastern wall of the Cathedral) brought to light a building comprising three naves separated by two series of white marble columns. This undoubtedly identifies with the paleo-Christian basilica constructed in the 4th century and ennobled by subsequent bishops over seven centuries despite the difficulties caused by the Arian fight
That early basilica solemnly housed the relics of Saint Eulalia in one of its chapels, hidden to avoid profanation by the Arab invaders of our peninsula (711). In 877 they were miraculously discovered at the temple of Santa María de les Arenes (or Santa María del Mar).
The primitive Cathedral, profoundly affected when the Arab chieftain Almanzor burned and destroyed the city, remained standing until 1046, when the Count of Barcelona, Ramon Berenguer the Old and his wife Almodis, together with Bishop Guislabert, commenced construction of another Cathedral, called the Romanesque Cathedral. That second Cathedral was consecrated on 18 November 1058 by the Archbishop Wilfred of Narbonne.
The Gothic Cathedral we have today was built on the foundations of the primitive paleo-Christian basilica and the subsequent Romanesque Cathedral. Construction commenced on 1 May 1298 during the mandate of Bishop Bernardo Pelegrí and the reign of King James II of Aragon, the Just, and was virtually completed by the mid-15th century, under the mandate of Bishop Francisco Clemente Sapera and the rule of King Alfonso V of Aragon.
Three distinct periods can be defined within the 150 years of construction: in the first, the building was planned and the apse and radial chapels were built, as were the presbytery – with its altar and crypt- and the pseudo transept; afterward, the three naves, with their respective lateral chapels, were extended back to the choir; finally, construction of the basilica continued to the façade, which was later closed with a simple wall (1417). The Cloister was finished in 1448.
At the end of the 19th century, the Barcelona industrialist Manuel Girona Agrafel offered to undertake the work on the façade and on the two side towers, in keeping with the plans drawn up by the architect Josep O. Mestres and inspired by the initial 15th-century project. Mr Girona’s children finalized their father’s work in 1913 on completion of the cimborio.
catedralbcn.org/en/the-cathedral/history/
The Cathedral of Barcelona comprises three naves [1], but just a single apse [2] and ambulatory [3]. The naves have five sections: that closest to the façade is the longest in order to accommodate the dimensions of the cimborio [4], which is adjacent to the main entrance.
The typical structure used in Catalan Gothic constructions, arranged to permit use of the spaces within the buttresses [5], allowed rows of secondary chapels [6] to be opened up in the Cathedral. There are two chapels in each section of the naves, encircling the entire basilica [7.]
Two large bell towers [8]are located at the ends of the section nearest to the presbytery [9], with no side chapels. One of the towers is over the door of Saint Ivo and the other is over the interior entryway to the Cloister [10]. On the basilica’s terraces, these towers are octagonal with a prismatic body used for the stairways, which are built into the towers (1386–1393 and 16th century).
Large windows open up onto the radial chapels [11] of the ambulatory, illuminating the presbytery. In the lateral naves, a tall, windowed gallery runs above the chapels on the outer wall of the basilica. A small triforium [12] runs around the central nave and the presbytery near the dome [13].
Footnotes
1. [Nave – The central part of a church building, intended to accommodate most of the congregation. It is usually flanked by aisles.] ↩
2. [Apse – A semicircular or polygonal termination to the choir or sanctuary, usually at the eastern end of a church.] ↩
3. [Ambulatory – A covered passage around the apse and choir of a church, often providing access to chapels.] ↩
4. [Cimborio – A Spanish term referring to the lantern or tower situated over the crossing of a church, often allowing light into the space below.] ↩
5. [Buttress – A projecting support built against an external wall, often to counteract the lateral thrust of a vault or roof.] ↩
6. [Chapel – A small area within a church, usually set aside for private prayer or dedicated to a particular saint.] ↩
7. [Basilica – A type of building with a central nave and aisles, originally Roman and later adopted for Christian worship. In this context, it refers to the architectural form rather than a church's official rank.] ↩
8. [Bell tower – A tower housing one or more bells, typically part of or adjacent to a church.] ↩
9. [Presbytery – The part of a church reserved for the clergy, located near the altar and often within the apse.] ↩
10. [Cloister – A covered walkway, often forming a quadrangle, found in monastic and cathedral settings, linking the church to other buildings.] ↩
11. [Radial chapel – A chapel that radiates out from the ambulatory around the apse, typically found in large churches or cathedrals.] ↩
12. [Triforium – A shallow arched gallery within the thickness of an inner wall, above the nave arcade and below the clerestory.] ↩
13. [Dome – A rounded vault forming the roof of a building or structure, typically with a circular base.] ↩
St Mary's Church, Fetcham, Surrey, England is a Church of England parish church (community) but also refers to its building which dates to the 11th century, that of the Norman Conquest and as such is the settlement's oldest building. It is set off the residential road of its address, The Ridgeway, behind a small park, in the suburban part of the largely 20th century railway settlement adjoining the M25 London Orbital Motorway which has retained farmed rural outskirts. The closest secular building is Grade II* listed Fetcham Park House, which is in the same architectural category and the church has an adjoining church hall.
Built during Anglo-Saxon and early Norman periods, the structure has been conjectured by the Victoria County History's architectural analysis to have been a redevelopment of an Anglo-Saxon church:
Roman bricks in considerable quantities in Fetcham Church, remains of Anglo-Saxon architecture in the church...
...quoins and dressings of thin red bricks, no doubt Roman, set in wide mortar joints.
Traces of its long past exist in many parts of its structure. These include the south-west quoin of the nave, and a single splay window high on the south wall with traces of Roman brick, as well as arches which fit with the architecture prevailing before the Norman Conquest of 1066.
In the 19th century a considerable amount of restoration and improvement in the church was carried out by Rev. Sir Edward Moon rector from 1854 to 1904. Moon inherited his baronetcy in 1871 on the death of his father Sir Francis Moon, 1st Baronet, who was commemorated in much of the restoration work in the church.
The structure gained listed status in 1951, has some stained glass windows, and is classed as Grade II*.
An Alien Lost in Space
Description: Definitely a member of the order Diptera, suborder Nematocera, infraorder Culicomorpha, superfamily Chironomoidea and family Chironomidae. Beyond here are dangerous grounds. Chironominae as a subfamily is the most probable bet, and I'm almost willing to place my hand in the fire on this. Cesar of Insetologia thinks the same. The fauna of Chironomids of Ceará in Brazil are very little studied as shown in the link gifted by Cesar: sites.google.com/site/brazilianchironomids/checklist-braz...
Guessing by the fauna of São Paulo, courtesy of Cesar (sites.google.com/site/brazilianchironomids/checklist-braz...), we have something in or close to the genus Axarus based on the other species of the genus (www.pbase.com/tmurray74/image/107284264). So, if we would risk and risk again, Chironomini would be the most probable tribe and the genus Axarus looks close to the individual portrayed.
These are all conjectures with no certainties. Perhaps, though, this will aid in finding the true identity in the future. For now, this will be left as unidentified until further notice. Here is the article on Insetologia: www.insetologia.com.br/2018/05/mosquito-quironomideo-no-c...
As I mentioned in the text in the website above, Pseudochironomini and Tanytarsini also left me in doubt. So there are no guarantees below family level, although there are even less guarantees below subfamily level. For now, I believe the subfamily is correct but will also leave it as doubtful.
Chironomids do not bite. They lack the mouthparts and wing scales of the Culicids.
The subject portrayed is a female, as can be noted from the lack of plumose antennae, which males possess, and had a body length of approximately 2mm. Chironomids are also poorly known as they are incredibly difficult to identify, with some species being identifiable through cytogenetic analysis of the polytene chromosomes.
The larvae are aquatic or semiaquatic and can be found in puddles left on dead leaves, in the holes of trees, puddles left on the leaves of plants, puddles in the soil and puddles in artificial objects and places. Some species of Chironomids do not feed, while others do. The ones that feed will feed on fly droppings, nectar, pollen, honeydew and various sugar-rich materials. Sugar gives energy which allows them to fly longer.
Their importance on pollination is discussed. But the proteins and other nutrients in the pollen, in comparison to nectar, might contribute to the success of the females' reproductive capacities. Both the larvae and the pupae are important food to many fishes and many other aquatic organisms. These aquatic organisms include Hemipterans in the families Nepidae, Notonectidae and Corixidae in their aquatic phases. Water beetles in Dytiscidae and Hydrophillidae, birds, bats, Odonata and Empidids also feed on them. They are important bioindicators of the presence or absence of pollutants. This is due to them being more tolerant to polluted water and are often one of the few organisms encountered in such situations. The larvae of a few genera of Chironomids possess hemoglobin, which fixates the oxygen in the water with ease and allows the larvae to stay more time submerged.
The subject portrayed was found in an urban habitat in the 16th floor of a flat.
Source:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chironomidae
You can find my picture here, in Planeta Invertebrados, where I allowed the owner to post it for environmental education: www.planetainvertebrados.com.br/index.asp?pagina=especies...
PROJECT NOAH (Português): www.projectnoah.org/spottings/1106960195
Cooks' Cottage,
noto anche come Captain Cook's Cottage, si trova nei Fitzroy Gardens.
Il cottage fu costruito nel 1755 nel villaggio inglese di Great Ayton, nel North Yorkshire, dai genitori del capitano James Cook, James e Grace Cook.
Fu portato a Melbourne nel 1934 dal filantropo australiano Sir Russell Grimwade.
È un punto di congettura tra gli storici se James Cook, il famoso navigatore, abbia mai vissuto nella casa, ma quasi certamente andò a trovare i suoi genitori nella casa.
L'interno del cottage comprende oggetti d'antiquariato secolari ed è stilizzato in stile settecentesco, così come gli abiti delle guide volontarie.
Nel 1933, la proprietaria del cottage decise di venderlo a condizione che l'edificio rimanesse in Inghilterra.
È stata convinta a cambiare "Inghilterra" in "Impero" e ha accettato un'offerta australiana di £ 800 da Russell Grimwade.
Il cottage è stato smontato mattone dopo mattone e imballato in 253 casse e 40 barili per la spedizione a bordo della Port Dunedin da Hull . Anche i ritagli di edera che adornavano la casa furono presi e piantati quando la casa fu ricostruita a Melbourne.
Grimwade, un noto uomo d'affari e filantropo, donò la casa al popolo di Victoria per il centenario dell'insediamento di Melbourne nell'ottobre 1934.
Cooks' Cottage,
also known as Captain Cook's Cottage, is located in Fitzroy Gardens. The cottage was built in 1755 in the English village of Great Ayton, North Yorkshire, by Captain James Cook's parents, James and Grace Cook.
It was brought to Melbourne in 1934 by Australian philanthropist Sir Russell Grimwade.
It is a point of conjecture among historians whether James Cook, the famous navigator, ever lived in the house, but he almost certainly visited his parents in the house.
The interior of the cottage includes centuries-old antiques and is stylized in an eighteenth-century style, as are the clothes of the volunteer guides.
In 1933, the owner of the cottage decided to sell it on the condition that the building remain in England.
She was persuaded to change "England" to "Empire" and accepted an Australian offer of £800 from Russell Grimwade.
The cottage was dismantled brick by brick and packed in 253 crates and 40 barrels for shipment aboard the Port Dunedin from Hull. The ivy cuttings that adorned the house were also taken and planted when the house was rebuilt in Melbourne.
Grimwade, a well-known businessman and philanthropist, donated the house to the people of Victoria for the centenary of the settlement of Melbourne in October 1934.
IMG_9392m
For the first churchly visit of that November 2023 trip to the southern French provinces of Roussillon and Languedoc, I will treat you to a truly unique place, the so-called “priory” of Serrabone, which features an absolute world-class masterpiece of Romanesque sculpture: its tribune.
I said “so-called” above because a priory, in the genuine acception of the word, is a secondary monastery established by an abbey. It is populated by monks sent by that abbey. Those monks are led by a prior, whose superior is the abbot of the founding abbey. In the case of Serrabone, there first was a late Carolingian parochial church established in this mountainous locale and first mentioned in writing in 1069. The walls of the nave are, for some part, still those of that ancient church.
It was then, at a time when local lords used to meddle more and more in the affairs of the Church (which was one of the reasons that prompted the coming of the Gregorian reform), that the viscount of Cerdagne and the local lord of Corsavy installed on the Serrabone mountaintop an unusually mixed group of canons and canonesses to live in accordance with the Augustinian Rule.
A new college church was built (mostly by enlarging the previous one) and consecrated in 1151. Its architecture is harmonious but very simple, as one would expect: in the Middle Ages, those mountains were populated (hence the creation of the parish) and did feed their inhabitants (serra bona in Catalan means “good mountain”), but there was precious little commerce with the outside world and the locals had nothing of real value to export. Therefore, the local economy was pretty much a closed circuit and money was far from flowing in abundantly. The style of the church, even though there were donations from the aforementioned lords, reflects this paucity of financial resources.
It is therefore a total mystery how the magnificent sculpted tribune, which would have cost a veritable fortune, was funded, and by whom. Nothing has ever been demonstrated in that matter, although many have conjectured in various directions. The only certainty we have is that it was built around the time when the church itself was completed, i.e., the mid–1150s.
The culmination of the “priory” did not last very long: canons and canonesses are not monks and nuns, their commitment is found throughout history and places to be much less strong, and by the late 1200s they had already broken communal life and begun to live in their own separate homes. Decadence went to such extremes that the “priory” was secularized by the pope in the 16th century and made a dependency of the chapter of the cathedral of Solsona. The last “prior” died in 1612 and the church returned to its simple parochial status.
The place was progressively abandoned as people left the mountains to go live easier lives in the valleys. It was almost in ruins when it was listed as a Historic Landmark in 1875 and the restoration began. Fortunately, the tribune had been protected and its capitals and columns hidden by the locals.
Capitals of the tribune. The quality of the sculpture is truly stunning.
I have made black-and-white versions of some of these shots and I will upload them as well, so you can see if you too believe that “color detracts from the substance”, as my old master dom Angelico, osb, used to say.
Thatta (Sindhi: ٺٽو, Urdu: ٹھٹہ) is a historic town of 220,000 inhabitants in the Sindh province of Pakistan, near Lake Keenjhar, the largest freshwater lake in the country. Thatta's major monuments especially its necropolis at Makli are listed among the World Heritage Sites.[1] The Shah Jahan Mosque is also listed separately on the tentative list since 1993.[2] Located 62 miles (98 kilometeres) east of the provincial capital of Sindh; Karachi, it makes for a practical escape for people from the city seeking to visit the picturesque old town.
HistoryThe city, formerly commanding the delta of the Indus, was the capital of Lower Sindh from the 14th century. During the ruling period of Soomro Tribe Thatta was the capital of Sindh for 95 years. Between 1592-1739, it was governed in the name of the Mughal emperors of Delhi. In 1739 however following the Battle of Karnal the province was ceded to Nadir Shah of Persia, after which Thatta fell into neglect.
Thatta may be the site of ancient Patala,the main port on the Indus in the time of Alexander the Great. Siltation has caused the Indus to change its course many times since the days of Alexander, and the site of Patala has been subject to much conjecture. Ahmad Hasan Dani, director of the Taxila Institute of Asian Civilisations, Islamabad, concluded: “There has been a vain attempt to identify the city of Patala. If ‘Patala’ is not taken as a proper name but only refers to a city, it can be corrected to ‘Pattana’, that is, city or port city par excellence, a term applied in a later period to Thatta, which is ideally situated in the way the Greek historians describe”.[3]
The geographer Strabo (c.64 BC–c.24 AD) had said: “The Indus falls into the southern sea by two mouths, encompassing the country of Patalênê, which resembles the Delta in Egypt”.[4] He noted: “All these [nations] were conquered by Alexander, and last of all he reduced Patalênê, which the Indus forms by splitting into two branches… Patalênê contains a considerable city, Patala, which gives its name to the island”.[5] In the late second century BC Agatharchides of Cnidus recorded merchants from Patala, or as he called it, “Potana”, coming to the island of Socotra to trade with Alexandrian merchants.
SightsThatta's monuments include the Jama Mosque (also Shah Jahan Mosque and Badshahi Mosque), built by Shah Jahan in 1647-49 and lined with glazed tiles. This edifice has 101 domes and is designed in such a way that imam's voice can reach every corner of this building without the help of any loudspeaker or other device. There are also the tombs of Jam Nizamuddin, Satihoo Seven Soomro Sisters (reigned in 1461-1509), several Tarkhan rulers and Mughal officials. A vast old necropolis with thousands of graves may be found at the nearby Makli Hills.
Thatta is historically an important region of Sindh which has served as a centre of literature, religious ideologies and socio political clashes. Makli, the heart of interior Sindh is counted among one of the largest necropolis in the world. Located a few kilometers away from Thatta. Makli is a vibrant archaeological site in Pakistan; it covers about 15-1/2 square kilometers. The mausoleums and [[tombs in Makli are one of the greatest ruins of Sindh and also dictate a lot about Sindh's communal structure from 14 to 18th century. Apart from the mausoleums of Jam Nizam al-Din and Jan Beg Takhan, Makli has undertaken a lot of Sufis, warriors, poets, intellectuals. The artistic monuments at Makli show proof of Islamic ideologies and the Hindu mythology.
The huge graves are made of solid rock and the mosuleums of the sun baked brick with different kinds of Quranic verses embossed on them. Another historical landmark that resides in Thatta is the Shah Jahan Masjid built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. This mosque was built on the orders of Shah Jahan, for the people of Thatta because they welcomed him with open hearts when his father died.
The Shah Jahan Mosque is a great example of highly defined tile work. In total this mosque has 33 arches and 93 domes which are of different sizes which adds the flavor to its beauty. White and Blue tiles of glowing texture have been put together in such a manner that it looks like a beautiful mosaic. The most surprising fact about this mega structure is that unlike other Mughal buildings such as Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, this building has negligible amount of pink sandstone in it. The characteristic that makes this mosque unique is that it has no minarets in it and it only has one dome which lies in the central prayer hall.
2010 Pakistan flood
In August 2010 Thatta was one of the worst affected districts of Pakistan as a result of devastating floods. The sea was on high tide when flooded river water reached it multiplying the damage manifold. By August 28, 175,000 people had left their homes due to another levee being breached and forced to camp on the main road under open sky.
Parámetros :: Parameters :: Paramètres: Fuji FinePix SL1000 ; ISO 400; 0 ev; f3.2; 1/220 s; 4.3 mm Fuji Lens.
Título :: Title :: Titre ::: Fecha (Date): Mujer con rojo :: Woman with red :: Femme avec du rouge ::: 2016/01/01 10:38
Palabras Clave, Keywords: León, España, Calle, Húmedo, Mujer, Gente, Spain, Streets, Damp, Woman, People, Gens, Espagne, Humide, Rues, Femme.
(Es). Historia: León. España. Primer día del año; a la búsqueda de imágenes de personas que aún no se han acostado. Primer paseo con Fray en el 2016. Ya por aquellas fechas pensaba que iba a ser complicado que aquellos que tienen un sueldo mensual por encima de los 4.000,00 € tuvieran prisa en perderlos. Los partidos no pactan para gobernar. Ninguno de ellos, ni de sus dirigentes hacen caso a las urnas. El Soberano, nosotros, hemos dicho que no queremos otra cosa que no sea entenderse entre todos. Ellos a sus sillas y sillones, a sus discursos y visiones, a sus sueldos y descansadas vidas, a sus apariciones en los medios con corbata o remangados, a seguir tomándonos el pelo tanto los viejos como los nuevos. Los charlatanes se están apropiando del debate político. Triste temporada en España.
Sigo caminando y hoy estoy a finales de Marzo. Nuestros políticos/chamanes siguen igual. Pero hay mas refugiados queriendo tener simplemente una vida posible y temporal en Europa para volver cuando antes a su país; pero los políticos/chamanes europeos prefieren venderlos a buen precio a un tercero. Hay más muertos en atentados cometidos inevitablemente por estúpidos trastornados que no tendrán otro futuro que ser vencidos por la cordura con defectos, pero cordura al fin y al cabo… aunque nos vaya la vida en ello.
Toma: He quedado con un amigo en la Plaza de la Catedral y subo calle arriba con la cámara dispuesta a trabajar. Me adelante con paso urgente una mujer con bolso rojo, cigarro en mano y caminar desgarbado… poco estilosa. Cabizbaja la supongo cansada de la fiesta que va terminando. Ella va y otros dos vienen; espero a tenerlos casi a la misma altura.
Tratamiento: Con Lightroom. Original en RAW. Recorto la imagen en un formato más panorámico y encuadrando las líneas de fuga del suelo. Reduzco la intensidad de color manteniendo los rojos tenuemente, marcando ligeramente las alfombras navideñas y el bolso de la mujer. Aumento el enfoque, pero al mismo tiempo reduzco el detalle intentando empastar algunas zonas como si fuera un trazo aleatorio de acuarela sobre ciertas partes mínimas de la imagen. Bordes a sangre sin viñeta.
¡Eso es todo amigos!
(En). The History: León. Spain. First day of the year; to meet images of people still they have not slept. First ride in Leon Fray in 2016. Already at that time thought it would be complicated to those who have a monthly salary above € 4.000,00 were in a hurry to lose. The parties do not compromise to govern. Neither they nor their leaders ignore the polls. The Sovereign, ourselves, say we are not willing to anything that is not understood by all. Them to their chairs and armchairs, their speeches and visions, their salaries and rested lives, their media appearances to tie or rolled up, to keep teasing us both the old parties and new. Quacks are appropriating the political debate. Sad season in Spain.
I keep walking and I'm late March today. Our politicians / shamans continue with their very good life. But there are more refugees wanting to simply have a possible temporary life in Europe and to return to his country as before; but politicians / European shamans prefer to sell at a good price to a third party. There are more deaths in attacks committed by stupid inevitably upset that no other future will be overcome by our defective reason, but reason to after all ... though we go life in it.
Taking up: I've been shot with a friend in the Cathedral Square and climb up the street with the camera ready to work. Suddenly I see urgent step forward me a woman with red bag, cigar in hand and walk ... with little ungainly style. The crestfallen guess the party winds down tired. She and two others will come; I hope to have them almost at the same height.
Treatment: With Lightroom. Original in RAW. Cut out the image in a widescreen format and framing creepage ground. I reduce the color intensity tenuously holding red, slightly marking the Christmas carpets and bag woman. Increase focus, but at the same time we reduce the detail, trying to density to some areas like a random stroke watercolor on certain minimum parts of the image. Without vignette edges.
That's all folks !!
(Fr). Histoire: León. L'Espagne. Jour de l'An; pour répondre à des images de personnes encore ils n'ont pas dormi. Première promenade à Leon Fray en 2016. Déjà à cette époque pensait que ce serait compliqué à ceux qui ont un salaire supérieur à € 4.000,00 étaient pressés de perdre. Les parties ne compromettent pas à gouverner. Ni eux, ni leurs dirigeants ignorent les sondages. Le souverain, nous, dire que nous ne sommes pas disposés à quoi que ce soit qui ne soit pas comprise par tous. Eux à leurs chaises et fauteuils, leurs discours et leurs visions, leurs salaires et reposé vie, leurs apparitions dans les médias pour attacher ou enroulées, pour nous garder les deux vieux partis et de nouvelles taquineries. Les charlatans s'approprient le débat politique. Saison Sad en Espagne.
Je garde la marche et je suis en retard Mars aujourd'hui. Nos politiciens / chamans continuent avec leur très bonne vie. Mais il y a plus de réfugiés qui veulent simplement avoir une vie temporaire possible en Europe et de revenir dans son pays comme avant; mais les politiciens / chamans européens préfèrent vendre à un bon prix à un tiers. Il y a plus de morts dans des attentats commis par des stupides inévitablement bouleversé qu'aucun autre avenir sera surmonté par notre raison défectueuse, mais la raison d'après tout ... mais nous allons la vie en elle.
Prendre: On m'a tiré dessus avec un ami dans la place de la cathédrale et monter la rue avec l'appareil photo prêt à fonctionner. Tout à coup, je vois pas d'urgence transmettre moi une femme avec un sac rouge, cigare à la main et de marcher ... avec peu de style disgracieuse. La conjecture penaud le parti Lancien fatigué. Elle et deux autres viendront; J'espère les avoir presque à la même hauteur.
Traitement: Avec Lightroom. Original RAW. Découpez l'image dans un format écran large et d'encadrement sol Cheminement. Je réduis l'intensité des couleurs tenuously tenant rouge, marquant légèrement le tapis et sac femme de Noël. Mettre davantage l'accent, mais en même temps, nous réduisons le détail, en essayant de densité dans certaines zones, comme un accident vasculaire cérébral aquarelle aléatoire sur certaines parties minimales de l'image. Sans bords de vignette.
Voilà, c'est tout!
Chronicles of lifting Light B (Bridesmaids)
The alternate version of Chronicles of lifting Light C (The Reception Game)- Album
“ The wedding was a little over the top. The bride wanted her girl’s dresses to be something they would wear out again. A nice thought, but the gowns she found were a little too long for anything but formal evening wear, according to our girls who were asked to be part of the bridal party. The maid of honor wore a red satin version; midnight black satin was selected for the 6 bridesmaids.”
“A few years ago, “Ginny” was watching some type of show when I heard her squeal out. Our Golden Retriever ‘Sam’ meandered back in to see what all the fuss was about? I obediently followed. She pointed out to me an actress ( Emma Watson at the premier for NOAH) , That’s M’gown she exclaimed with enthusiasm, you remember, The ones your sister and I first wore for “Shiela’s” brides party, the one where your sister thought she had been ro… but she broke it off as something caught her attention on the telly.”
“Squirrel I thought, as Sam and I both looked. It was a black satin gown very strikingly similar in colour, cut, and material ( but Ginny’s version lacked a dangling train behind) to the one worn by Ginny ( and me sister) at thier chums wedding years before ( and winningly worn several times hence I might add). It is a pretty thing to behold my charming Ginny wearing it, and in its time, it has born witness to a few goings on that most ladies wearing a gown like that would most likely never encounter…….”
Chronicles of lifting Light B
*************************************** **************************************** *****
This story is true, and is really pretty much told as it happened, but in writing it down for the first time ever I found I could not resist the temptation to embellish and expand some of the scenarios. It makes for a much better story I believe.
It is long, so here goes it….
My twin sister and our friend “Ginny” were invited to join in a school chums bridal party. The groom didn’t have enough to go around so my sister’s boyfriend “Brian” and I were pressed into service.
At the reception Ginny made a comment about the flimsy clasps on the longish rhinestone earrings they were wearing. My sister, touching an earring, told her, “ no worries, luv, no one would nick them anyways, they are only rhinestones”. I wasn’t sure what was going on in my sister’s head that made her come out with that reply. But as I watched her pull at an earring, a seed was planted in my head about something I myself had seen in an old TV show (An episode that first wakened an interest in pickpocketing).
Much later that evening found Brian and I alone, and a little drunk (always a precarious time with us). I had been enjoying watching our girls on the dance floor. “Ginny” was dancing a slow dance with the brides Groom ( an awkward chap with the sometimes unfortunate name of Cecil), Sis was dancing with some boorish banker bloke whose name I choose not to remember. As I watched the girl’s swishing gowns move and flutter about in quite an interesting exhibition, I found meself mesmerized by the manner in which their display of jewels were sparkling. Not being able to shake Ginny’s earlier comment, nor its answer, out of my head, my mind began to drift and wander in some very deep waters; pulled about in some strong personal currents.
Suddenly, I had an epiphany, and I started to tell Brian about the show that had vexed me all these years past. It was an old Gilligan’s Island episode ( The Kidnapper). Ginger was dancing in formal wear with the thief they were trying to reform. He lifted up her long hair, exposing these long diamonded earrings she was wearing. When he let her hair back down, gone went Ginger’s diamond Earrings.( he also nicked another ladies diamond necklace in a similarly devious fashion).
I had been thinking about it, and saw that this may be a prime opportunity to try and mimic what I had found so intriguing in my younger day’s ( is what happened to Ginger possible in real life?) and so I drew Brian’s attention to where my sister was dancing and intentionally pointed out her healthy collection of rhinestones ( the lot of matching sets the bride had picked out for her girls to wear with their silky gowns was a bit overkill in Brian’s opinion, a view not shared by me).
I decided then to plant my own seed, so I questioned out loud if it was possible to pickpocket jewelry in the manner the thief in Gilligan’s Island had so cunningly carried out? We discussed it for bit, ending the friendly dispute that ensued by daring that the other couldn’t pull it off. I focused on my sister, because I figured that would be more of a tantalizing bait to dangle in front of Brian, who was horribly smitten with her, and I was right on the money! So my twin sister in the black satin gown and her rhinestones ended up being the preferred guinea pig for the goad.
Brian lost the toss and danced with her first,( happily cutting in on the banker fella) and was surprisingly as successful as he was swift. I watched as he swirled sis around the dance floor. For such a gig guy, “Brian” is surprisingly light on his feet, which is why in school he was an outstanding rugby player. I was watching eagerly, trying to guess what he was going after. His large hands began inching down her satin gown’s sleeves, so I was sure he was going for one of her dangling rhinestone bracelets.
He must have said something funny, for my sister raised her head back laughing, her long straight hair falling charmingly back, baring her throat to him. Brian’s hands moved back up, and in behind her throat. Then in a manner quite graceful for fingers that large, unclasped and slipped away the thin necklace from around her sweat glistened throat and pocketed it before she had finished her spurt of laughter. The song soon ended, and the pair of ‘em came back, Brian with a very smug grin on his bearded mug. He then took “Ginny” (who had just rejoined us after shaking off a seedy looking bloke who had wanted her to dance) by the hand and led her off dancing, his eyes taunting me to make my attempt.
Not to be outdone, I immediately led Sis back onto the floor before she had time to catch a breath. We danced to a rather Latin type beat. My sister turned her backside into me, and sort of did this gyrating move up and down my front side, with her hands held high above her head. As her warm, sweaty figure, slipped up and down slickly against mine, I looked things over, deciding on which of her remaining jewelry to target.
I started by placing my hands at her waist and let them slither up the silky sides of her satin gown, as I made my choice, one of her shimmering bracelets that were winking at me from her wrists waving above my head. With the prize within my grasp, I made my move. I found meself trembling a bit, as I moved my hands to her shoulders , with the thought bring down her arms in order to work my fingers down her gowns’ sleeve, where just below would be lying my objective. But just as I did, Sis pulled her arms behind me head, and laid her head back on my shoulder and closing her eyes, getting into the music’s deep beat. Her longish rhinestone earrings just hung there, like Gingers, ripe for the picking.
Without really putting any thought into it, I reached up and placed my hands gently alongside her ears, her eyes still shut, my victim smiled. The rest of the maneuver was surprisingly easy, as I glided my fingers down and slipped it off the pair of em in one effortless motion. The sparkling beauties came away from her sweaty ears as smoothly as an ice cube moves along a steaming hot grill ( I actually did have a thought like that). I held them in one fist for a bit, relishing in my success, before securing them away. We finished out the song, me basking in the fact that she was innocently unaware that her shiny earrings were now in her dance partners vest pocket.
But, not willing to be satisfied with the initial success of our experiment, we found that the dares kept coming out. Becoming so competitive between us, that by the time we left for the evening, the score was 5 pieces of jewelry to 4, with Brian winning the bragging rights, and my sister out all of the rhinestone pieces she had started out wearing about on her person.
Of course this is sounding like a masterful bit of pickpocketing, but our efforts were aided by keeping our pretty victim plied with alcohol ( wondering all the while if that is a technique is used by pickpockets working over their victims in real life?). Using that as an edge; another turn on the dance floor, a compliment induced hug, and the victim falling into deep sleep in a lounge armchair, enabled us vultures to eventually part my twin from all of her sparkling jewelry.
Also, as a side note here, all four of us had a discussion later about what it said of us as a society that none outside our group seemed to notice or bother pointing out to my sister about her slowly disappearing baubles!
We left the reception well after midnight and started walking the ten city blocks back to the hotel where Ginny and my sister shared a joining room with Brian and meself. As were making our way through a wooded Provincial park, we stopped in a small, isolated clearing and circling around her ,finally asked my sister about her missing jewels. Her reaction was absolutely, rewardingly priceless.
Her startled response was to the effect of: “Gasping, My God” as she fruitlessly felt about for them, her rustling gown glistened dark in the moon light. “My jewels, where did they go!, who took them, I’ve been robbed, mugged?” she pleaded helplessly, her thought patterns and speech a little slurred by her rather intoxicated condition. She looked desperately around at us, then seeing the look on upon our faces, and upon noticing that Ginny was still adorned with her jewels, Sis froze with the realization that we had all been up to something no good. As the silliness of her conjectures came home, she blushed, and told us to spill it out.
Here, we had all thought she had eventually caught on to what we had been up to all evening and was just humoring us, but in reality she had been utterly clueless. Ginny ( who had soon caught on to our little game but played dumb) was merciless in her teasing of my sister, rubbing it all in as she helped my twin place back on the Rhinestones that Brian and I dug from our pockets. I didn’t add any fuel to the fire, but I noticed that when Sis had uttered the word mugged, Ginny had automatically held onto her necklace and pendent!
Sis ended up taking it all with her usual good humor, or so we thought.
This next bit is my favorite.
We went up to the boys room, as the girls called our room, where we drank beer, danced to music and talked a bit. About two hours later found Brian passed out on the couch, and me sitting next to him in kind of a hazy stupor while holding onto a beer. Ginny and my sister were standing directly in front of me, holding beers of their own and giggling over some girlish nonsense, the swaying of their long glossy black satin gowns slowly putting me to sleep.
Ginny started giggling at one of sis jokes, and turned her figure so the brooch at the center of her gowns’ waistline almost hit me on the nose. Half asleep I reached up and lifted it. Looking up at the girls I saw that Ginny was paying no never mind towards me, my sister however, did notice (this is why I like the Sonia clip) and she laid a hand on Ginny’s shoulder, drawing her close so she could whisper a secret. I was able to undo the brooch, and slip it carefully off without notice. I held it up to my sister’s hand, which closed over it, and then she turned and plopped down next to me on the couch.
We both started talking to Ginny, now standing in front of us, as if nothing was going on. Puzzled I waited for my sister to flaunt the brooch in Ginny’s face. Instead, as she got Ginny into another giggling fit, she leaned over and whispered the word pendant in my ear, her hand holding out her own for added emphasis. I knew then she had thought up some grand plan.
Now wide awake, I got into fully my sister’s game. As I watched the giggling Ginny, my eyes took careful inventory of all her finer points (not just her jewels I will admit) . Now role playing that I was a professional pickpocket, and my twin was the spotter, pointing out whose jewels were worth taking. Ginny stopped, and caught my eyes looking her over, she blushed, and not knowing what was really going through my mind, smiled at me, as I smiled back, my eyes drinking her fetchingly attired figure up. I was imagining that all of Ginny’s collection of rhinestones was real diamonds. And that I was an actual thief after her lovely sparklers.
Thinking for a moment, I rose to my feet, and feeling like the real thing, I took Ginny’s hand and led her across to the window the couch was facing. We were on the 14th floor with a grand sweeping view of the great cities skyline. I asked her if she knew what the pink lights were about (there were no pink lights) and as she looked and kept asking where, I saw in the windows reflection that behind me my sister was pinning Ginny’s brooch onto the Brian’s passed out figure. Smiling, I got to the task at hand.
Using my hands I got Ginny to bend over more to help in her search, watching her dangling “diamond “ chain with its’ oval “diamond” pendent swinging an enticingly beckoning reflection in the window. I reached around with one hand and easily undid the clasp to poor befuddled Ginny’s chain. Using the pendants reflection in the window as a focal point, I subtly lowered my other hand underneath it, and as I caught it, let go of the chain. Pendent and chain slithered into a nice little pile in my palm, which I immediately closed up around it, hiding it from my victim’s possible notice.
I turned and nodded to my sister, who rose, tipsily, and slinked across the room to us. She brushed up against me with the pretense of seeing what we were up to. I felt her arm go around my waist, and handed Ginny’s necklace off. Sis than circled around us, giving Ginny a squeeze, and looked at me meaningfully, her fingers brushing an earring. She went back to the couch and began draping the shimmery chain and pendent on poor Brian.
A slow song had been playing, so I told Ginny to no never mind pink lights, and taking her hand, asked “madameswell” if she cared to dance. I tried it in an accent, failed miserably, and got Ginny to giggling as she accepted. I lead her the long way around the couch to where we had cleared out a little bit of a dancing floor. As I took her into my arms I found it exciting that she was oblivious to my intentions. Innocently unaware, that in indifference to my sisters words earlier, someone did now want to nick the earrings so merrily sawing from her ears.
I bided my time, appearing to look into Ginny’s eyes, my mind was working on something else. When I made my first move it was as subtle as could be, and it paid off. Raising me hand, I lifted her hair above an ear, and an let my fingers run back down through. One of her earrings vanished into my hand, and reaching around, was neatly tossed into another. As my sister placed it on Brian’s ear,( by now he was looking quite comical, and it was all we could do to keep from bursting out laughing), I leaned in and whispered something into Ginny’s now bare ear, while my other hand reached around and plucked the other earring away, and tossed the sparkler gracefully over to my sisters waiting hands.
Needing no more direction from sis now that I knew her plan ( It was her way of getting back at Brian for our game, and at Ginny for her teasing, it never occurred to me to wonder what my punishment would be!), I carried on alone.
Employing the same method that the thief had used in the Gilligan’s Island episode to remove his dance partners necklace, I began to compliment Ginny on how devastating she looked ( no lies), slowly moving my one hand up the slick material of the gown covering her back until I reached the dangling part of her hook and eye necklace with its’ glittering row of single “diamonds”. Lifted it up as she fawned over my words of (not false) praise, holding her ever so her tightly around the waist with my free hand, I unhooked the clasp, and let the necklace fall over one shoulder. Ginny never felt it hanging, or noticed it as I slipped it off her chest and over her gown’s satin shoulder till it slipped sparkling down behind her. I held it hanging behind her back for a few turns, still pouring out the compliments, until I was close enough to neatly toss her necklace over the couch to my waiting partner in crime.
Sis was waiting, and as the necklace sailed over the couch, I saw her raise a hand, and pull at one of her rings. How?, I mouthed, and she held up a finger motioning me to wait a sec. I continued to dance with Ginny, who was growing ever heavier in my arms, as sis placed the necklace around poor Brian’s throat.
I watched as me twin got up and passed us , her satin gown whispering as she walked, heading to get a beer from the fridge. She stood for a moment then gave me a signal to twirl our victim around.
I lifted her hand, and spun Ginny around in a pirouette . The poor thing, already more than a little tipsy, fell hard against me, giggling. I did it again, and as she stared to lose her balance, my sister walked past and faking a trip, bumped into Ginny and both girl’s went down in a heap of black swishing satin. As I bent over to help the pair of giggling dolls untangle, I manage to slip off a ring off from over the sweaty knuckles of Ginny’s left pinky finger.
I helped them both up, and as my sister helped straighten Ginny’s gown while giggling over the incident, Ginny placed her hands behind her back, exposing her bracelets. I pocketed the ring, and moving up against Ginny from behind, attempted to remove the first “Diamond” bracelet from around her wrist. It came away with absolutely no resistance, or notice, and I moved off, and went to stand next to my sister, hands crossed behind me back. She put her arm around me, hugging me against her, I felt her fingers go to my hand, and I opened my fingers and let her take the ring and bracelet. Keeping her fist closed, she coolly left us, retrieving her unopened beer from the floor, and headed back smoothly to the couch.
I will admit I was now getting overly confident. I asked Ginny if she wanted a beer and we went over to the kitchenette to get them. As we walked, I placed my hands on her slick waist and led her there, as she giggled tipsily the whole way. I held the door open, and as she was bending down to get them, she laid her arm along the top of the drawer. I then made my seventh attempt, on her other “Diamond” bracelet
I had undone the clasp, and was getting ready to take it when I made the fatal error at looking over her shoulder at the couch. My sister was inwardly laughing at her handiwork, and to see a person like Brien, who takes his masculinity with pride, now decked out like some bearded floozy, was too much. I chuckled, and the bracelet fell, clanking against the door, landing at Ginny’s feet. I was caught red handed and my attempt at any more thievery was thwarted. Ginny smirked; here now lad, don’t try yer games on me.
Behind her, Ginny head my sister snort, and looking at my smirk, demanded to know what we had found so funny. So I grabbed her, spun her around, and led her back around the couch until she caught sight of the still snoring Brian! We both joined my sister in busting a gut laughing. Then, come to find that poor innocent Ginny thought that it was my sister’s rhinestones plastered all over poor Brian. When we pointed out the errors of her conclusion, it was my sister’s turn to laugh and tease the poor girl over her dumbfounded expression as now it was her hands failing to find her missing pieces of jewelry. Then Brian woke and he became the new center of the joke.
Ginny had reclaimed her rhinestones and had disappeared into the ladies room to replace them to their rightful perch and rejoin in with their remaining companions, which I thought, being so late, why bother? And Brain and Sis were on the couch still teasing the other. Suddenly I felt a hand softly placed on my shoulder, and looking up found myself trapped in a “come hither” look, emanating from Ginny’s twinkling green eyes, a look that I have come since to know very well.
We left the pair of gigglers on the couch, and went out into the evening, just the two of us, meeting nary another living soul at that early morning hour. The only exceptions were a weary desk clerk with a nose buried in her book, and a curious short blue-haired lady wearing a grey pant-suit, carrying a large handbag, who came upon Ginny in the lobby, while I was absent using its restroom . The odd thing here is, that until I showed up after doing my business, the lady appeared to be trying to lead good hearted Ginny outside to help search for some lost keys or such, at 2:30 Am! I suggested her to wait until light.
After managing to pry Ginny away, receiving the now disapproving look from purse –lipped blue haired lady for my efforts, we otherwise were not held up in our progress. The world was now ours, as my richly attired lady and her tuxedoed (handsome?)Escort made their journey together hand in hand. We ended up making a very long stroll in the Provincial park, and reentering the same isolated, secret clearing, proceeded to acting out our own role playing game, ala the movie “to Catch a Thief”, complete with fireworks of our own making.
And I still remember feeling pretty bloody cocky as Ginny and I left our room and rode the elevator down. And why not, I ask? Cause now , not only was I out strolling about with the most captivating ginger haired lass, sparkling in fancy dress around, but I had totally creamed Brian’s score in the jewelry lifting department, and that’s what life is all about for us boys, winning the game, isn’t it?
So ends my story, of which I have written 2 versions.
My question is now this:
Which version, if one reads both, do you believe to be the truer?
Please leave a comment at the end of the story you believe is..
In appreciation,
Thank You
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In Appraisal
This story may be unique in its nature, but if not we would love to hear about it. Please leave a comment or drop an email ( or both) about you own experience.
Thank You
The Sonia clip shortcut ( recommended viewing)
youtu.be/HAZdjhNVjxk
Ps. Check out Chronicles of lifting light C for a less embellished telling this particular event
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No Part of this can reprinted, duplicated, or copied be without the express written permission and approval of Chatwick University.
These photos and stories are works of fiction. Any resemblance to people, living or deceased, is purely coincidental.
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Other photos in First Comment Box and Photos from the net to make this tribute up and put it together to remember the lives lost that night 40 years ago
Remembered Today.
December 19th 1981, 40 years ago.
Loss of the Penlee Lifeboat "Solomon Browne"47 ft Watson Class going to the aid of the coaster "Union Star".
The helicopter stood by as Penlee’s 14m Watson class wooden lifeboat launched into the hurricane force 12 gale, fighting against 90-knot winds and 18m waves.
The Solomon Browne struck against the side of the coaster and the lifeboat crew stood against the railings, throwing lines across to pull themselves alongside.
The lifeboat valiantly battled to come alongside the coaster for half an hour.
The Solomon Browne radioed back to the Coastguard: ‘we’ve got four off’
But the lifeboat decided to make a final rescue attempt – and after that point, all radio contact was lost at 21.21
The Coastguard radioed back to the lifeboat, but there was no response. Ten minutes later, the lights of the Solomon Browne disappeared.
All 8 Crew of the Lifeboat Lost.
All 8 on board of the coaster lost.
The Penlee lifeboat
Cornwall, at the south-west corner of England, juts out into the Atlantic, attracting the worst of the weather and the massive breakers that crash against its granite cliffs and rocks. It is not surprising that there are no fewer than fourteen lifeboat stations around the coast of this one county alone.
Penlee Point is just to the north of the fishing village of Mousehole (pronounced Mousle to rhyme with tousle). The first lifeboat was stationed here in 1913, transferred from nearby Newlyn, although there had been a rescue service in the area from as far back as 1803. In the years before 1981 the station distinguished itself by carrying out many operations and saving lives, recognised by the award of many medals and certificates.
In 1981 the station was equipped with “Solomon Browne”, a 47-foot Watson class wooden boat, a type that has long been superseded. However, it was highly manoeuvrable and could be launched straight down a steep slipway into St Mount’s Bay.
The voyage of Union Star
Union Star was a small bulk carrier, registered in Dublin, that was making its maiden voyage from Denmark via the Netherlands to Ireland, with a cargo of fertiliser. The master was Henry Morton, who had a crew of four on board, plus his wife and her two teenage daughters. He was breaking the rules by having family members on board, but that is a rule that is often broken.
Weather conditions were bad as Union Star beat her way towards Lands End, hoping to make it round the headland and into relatively calmer waters before the worst of the storm struck. However, Captain Morton’s luck ran out when his engines failed just as he reached the most exposed part of the voyage. He was offered a tow from a tugboat, the Noord Holland, but declined the offer. By riding out the storm at anchor and repairing the engines in calmer weather, he would avoid having to pay salvage charges.
The storm was one of the worst to strike that part of the coast for years, with winds of 85 mph, gusting to 95 mph, which is hurricane force. Union Star started to drag her anchor, and the fuel tanks became contaminated with seawater. The ship was being driven towards the Cornish coast and had no means of avoiding her fate if the storm continued, which it did. The Noord Holland was still in the area, should the captain change his mind, but even this option vanished when conditions became so bad that the tug itself would have been in danger. Eventually, Henry Morton called Falmouth Coastguard for help, and the call went out to the Penlee lifeboat crew.
The launch of Solomon Browne
When the call goes out, a lifeboat crew stops what it is doing and gets to the lifeboat station with all due speed. All the crew of the Penlee boat lived in Mousehole, some of them being local fishermen, and some with other jobs. They included the landlord of the Ship Inn, for example. That night, most of the crew were socializing in the British Legion club in the village, but, knowing that they were on call and also being aware of the state of the weather, they would have kept their alcohol intake to a minimum.
The Coxswain was William Trevelyan Richards, at 56 a highly experienced lifeboatman who already had commendations for bravery for previous rescues. Richards knew that this was going to be a very dangerous mission, and for that reason he refused the services of Neil Brockman, aged 17, because his father was already in the crew, and the Coxswain would not risk the lives of two members of any one family. This is common practice in the lifeboat community. The lifeboat was launched shortly after 8pm, well after dark, into waves that reached as high as forty feet.
Solomon Browne did not have far to go to find the Union Star, which was approaching the rocks close to Boscawen Bay and the Tater Du lighthouse, only a few miles down the coast. A helicopter from the Royal Naval Air Station at Culdrose was overhead, but conditions were so bad that it was impossible to winch anyone off the ship. Eventually the helicopter had to break off, and so did not witness the final outcome. There were also people on the cliff top, but in the darkness they could see very little apart from the lights of the two vessels.
Tragedy strikes
In those tumultuous seas, and in the dark, it was essential that nobody went into the water, as their chances of survival would be virtually nil. Solomon Browne therefore had no choice but to get alongside Union Star and for the crew and passengers to be helped across on to the lifeboat. Coxswain Richards was in radio contact with Falmouth Coastguards, and we know from the radio transcripts that several attempts were made get the two vessels as close as possible. On at least one occasion, it would appear that the lifeboat actually landed on the deck of the coaster and was then thrown off again.
We know that four people did manage to get aboard Solomon Browne, as Coxswain Richards’s final message was “we’ve got four off at the moment”. Exactly what happened next must be conjecture, because no more was heard from the Coxswain, and the watchers on the cliffs saw no more lights from shortly afterwards. Nobody from either vessel survived.
A huge rescue mission was launched, but nothing could be done. Other lifeboats were called out, but the Sennen Cove boat could not get round Land’s End, and the Lizard boat, from the other direction, only found wreckage when it arrived. Only eight bodies were ever recovered, four from Union Star and four from Solomon Browne. Union Star lay capsized at the foot of the cliffs for several days before she broke up, but little was ever found of Solomon Browne.
The aftermath
So what happened? It is highly unlikely that the lifeboat capsized, because all lifeboats of its class were self-rightable. However, if a huge wave had turned the boat over, would all of its crew have been washed over the side? Or was one more collision between the vessels too much for Solomon Browne’s wooden hull?
Whatever the cause, the result sent shockwaves through the whole country, which had been looking forward to Christmas and was suddenly reminded of the perils faced by seafarers and the courage of those who volunteer to save their lives.
The shock was particularly profound among those people whose living is made from the sea, and the entire population of south-west England. The custom at Mousehole itself has been, on the evening of 19th December every year, to extinguish all lights in the village as a mark of respect.
A local appeal raised three million pounds to support the families of the crew and provide fitting memorials, although many contributions came from well beyond the local area.
There are always “might have beens” that are asked on such occasions. Should Henry Morton have been required to take a tow from the Noord Holland? One consequence of the disaster has been that, in similar circumstances, today’s regulations demand exactly that. Had Morton’s three family members not been on board, would Solomon Browne have needed to make another attempt to get alongside? Perhaps so, given that only four people had been rescued and not five, but would it have been easier to rescue five seafarers rather than eight people who included two teenage girls? Such questions can be asked, but probably not answered.
There is still a Penlee lifeboat today, although the old lifeboat station is no longer used, being instead preserved as a memorial to Solomon Browne and her crew. In 1983, an Arun class lifeboat, the Mabel Alice, came into service, based at Newlyn. In 2003, a Severn class boat, the Ivan Ellen, came into service. Both boats have made many lifesaving rescues in recent years, including some that have earned awards for courage and outstanding service.
The full list of the lost crew of Solomon Browne, all of whom received posthumous awards, is as follows:
William Trevelyan Richards (age 56) (Coxswain)
James Madron (35) (2nd Coxswain)
Nigel Brockman (43)
John Blewett (43)
Kevin Smith (23)
Barrie Torrie (33)
Charles Greenhaugh (46)
Gary Wallis (23)
In 1992, Neil Brockman, who at 17 was refused a place aboard Solomon Browne on the night that his father lost his life, was appointed Coxswain of the Penlee lifeboat.
I grew up in Poole, which is where the Royal National Lifeboat Institution has its headquarters. I have known many men and women who have gained their living or recreation from the sea, and some who have been members of lifeboat crews. I am delighted to have this opportunity to pay my own tribute to the selfless dedication of these volunteers who put their lives at risk to help save others.
player.bfi.org.uk/free/film/watch-the-loss-of-the-penlee-...
Other photos in First Comment Box and Photos from the net to make this tribute up and put it together to remember the lives lost that night 40 years ago
Remembered Today.
December 19th 1981, 40 years ago.
Loss of the Penlee Lifeboat "Solomon Browne"47 ft Watson Class going to the aid of the coaster "Union Star".
The helicopter stood by as Penlee’s 14m Watson class wooden lifeboat launched into the hurricane force 12 gale, fighting against 90-knot winds and 18m waves.
The Solomon Browne struck against the side of the coaster and the lifeboat crew stood against the railings, throwing lines across to pull themselves alongside.
The lifeboat valiantly battled to come alongside the coaster for half an hour.
The Solomon Browne radioed back to the Coastguard: ‘we’ve got four off’
But the lifeboat decided to make a final rescue attempt – and after that point, all radio contact was lost at 21.21
The Coastguard radioed back to the lifeboat, but there was no response. Ten minutes later, the lights of the Solomon Browne disappeared.
All 8 Crew of the Lifeboat Lost.
All 8 on board of the coaster lost.
The Penlee lifeboat
Cornwall, at the south-west corner of England, juts out into the Atlantic, attracting the worst of the weather and the massive breakers that crash against its granite cliffs and rocks. It is not surprising that there are no fewer than fourteen lifeboat stations around the coast of this one county alone.
Penlee Point is just to the north of the fishing village of Mousehole (pronounced Mousle to rhyme with tousle). The first lifeboat was stationed here in 1913, transferred from nearby Newlyn, although there had been a rescue service in the area from as far back as 1803. In the years before 1981 the station distinguished itself by carrying out many operations and saving lives, recognised by the award of many medals and certificates.
In 1981 the station was equipped with “Solomon Browne”, a 47-foot Watson class wooden boat, a type that has long been superseded. However, it was highly manoeuvrable and could be launched straight down a steep slipway into St Mount’s Bay.
The voyage of Union Star
Union Star was a small bulk carrier, registered in Dublin, that was making its maiden voyage from Denmark via the Netherlands to Ireland, with a cargo of fertiliser. The master was Henry Morton, who had a crew of four on board, plus his wife and her two teenage daughters. He was breaking the rules by having family members on board, but that is a rule that is often broken.
Weather conditions were bad as Union Star beat her way towards Lands End, hoping to make it round the headland and into relatively calmer waters before the worst of the storm struck. However, Captain Morton’s luck ran out when his engines failed just as he reached the most exposed part of the voyage. He was offered a tow from a tugboat, the Noord Holland, but declined the offer. By riding out the storm at anchor and repairing the engines in calmer weather, he would avoid having to pay salvage charges.
The storm was one of the worst to strike that part of the coast for years, with winds of 85 mph, gusting to 95 mph, which is hurricane force. Union Star started to drag her anchor, and the fuel tanks became contaminated with seawater. The ship was being driven towards the Cornish coast and had no means of avoiding her fate if the storm continued, which it did. The Noord Holland was still in the area, should the captain change his mind, but even this option vanished when conditions became so bad that the tug itself would have been in danger. Eventually, Henry Morton called Falmouth Coastguard for help, and the call went out to the Penlee lifeboat crew.
The launch of Solomon Browne
When the call goes out, a lifeboat crew stops what it is doing and gets to the lifeboat station with all due speed. All the crew of the Penlee boat lived in Mousehole, some of them being local fishermen, and some with other jobs. They included the landlord of the Ship Inn, for example. That night, most of the crew were socializing in the British Legion club in the village, but, knowing that they were on call and also being aware of the state of the weather, they would have kept their alcohol intake to a minimum.
The Coxswain was William Trevelyan Richards, at 56 a highly experienced lifeboatman who already had commendations for bravery for previous rescues. Richards knew that this was going to be a very dangerous mission, and for that reason he refused the services of Neil Brockman, aged 17, because his father was already in the crew, and the Coxswain would not risk the lives of two members of any one family. This is common practice in the lifeboat community. The lifeboat was launched shortly after 8pm, well after dark, into waves that reached as high as forty feet.
Solomon Browne did not have far to go to find the Union Star, which was approaching the rocks close to Boscawen Bay and the Tater Du lighthouse, only a few miles down the coast. A helicopter from the Royal Naval Air Station at Culdrose was overhead, but conditions were so bad that it was impossible to winch anyone off the ship. Eventually the helicopter had to break off, and so did not witness the final outcome. There were also people on the cliff top, but in the darkness they could see very little apart from the lights of the two vessels.
Tragedy strikes
In those tumultuous seas, and in the dark, it was essential that nobody went into the water, as their chances of survival would be virtually nil. Solomon Browne therefore had no choice but to get alongside Union Star and for the crew and passengers to be helped across on to the lifeboat. Coxswain Richards was in radio contact with Falmouth Coastguards, and we know from the radio transcripts that several attempts were made get the two vessels as close as possible. On at least one occasion, it would appear that the lifeboat actually landed on the deck of the coaster and was then thrown off again.
We know that four people did manage to get aboard Solomon Browne, as Coxswain Richards’s final message was “we’ve got four off at the moment”. Exactly what happened next must be conjecture, because no more was heard from the Coxswain, and the watchers on the cliffs saw no more lights from shortly afterwards. Nobody from either vessel survived.
A huge rescue mission was launched, but nothing could be done. Other lifeboats were called out, but the Sennen Cove boat could not get round Land’s End, and the Lizard boat, from the other direction, only found wreckage when it arrived. Only eight bodies were ever recovered, four from Union Star and four from Solomon Browne. Union Star lay capsized at the foot of the cliffs for several days before she broke up, but little was ever found of Solomon Browne.
The aftermath
So what happened? It is highly unlikely that the lifeboat capsized, because all lifeboats of its class were self-rightable. However, if a huge wave had turned the boat over, would all of its crew have been washed over the side? Or was one more collision between the vessels too much for Solomon Browne’s wooden hull?
Whatever the cause, the result sent shockwaves through the whole country, which had been looking forward to Christmas and was suddenly reminded of the perils faced by seafarers and the courage of those who volunteer to save their lives.
The shock was particularly profound among those people whose living is made from the sea, and the entire population of south-west England. The custom at Mousehole itself has been, on the evening of 19th December every year, to extinguish all lights in the village as a mark of respect.
A local appeal raised three million pounds to support the families of the crew and provide fitting memorials, although many contributions came from well beyond the local area.
There are always “might have beens” that are asked on such occasions. Should Henry Morton have been required to take a tow from the Noord Holland? One consequence of the disaster has been that, in similar circumstances, today’s regulations demand exactly that. Had Morton’s three family members not been on board, would Solomon Browne have needed to make another attempt to get alongside? Perhaps so, given that only four people had been rescued and not five, but would it have been easier to rescue five seafarers rather than eight people who included two teenage girls? Such questions can be asked, but probably not answered.
There is still a Penlee lifeboat today, although the old lifeboat station is no longer used, being instead preserved as a memorial to Solomon Browne and her crew. In 1983, an Arun class lifeboat, the Mabel Alice, came into service, based at Newlyn. In 2003, a Severn class boat, the Ivan Ellen, came into service. Both boats have made many lifesaving rescues in recent years, including some that have earned awards for courage and outstanding service.
The full list of the lost crew of Solomon Browne, all of whom received posthumous awards, is as follows:
William Trevelyan Richards (age 56) (Coxswain)
James Madron (35) (2nd Coxswain)
Nigel Brockman (43)
John Blewett (43)
Kevin Smith (23)
Barrie Torrie (33)
Charles Greenhaugh (46)
Gary Wallis (23)
In 1992, Neil Brockman, who at 17 was refused a place aboard Solomon Browne on the night that his father lost his life, was appointed Coxswain of the Penlee lifeboat.
I grew up in Poole, which is where the Royal National Lifeboat Institution has its headquarters. I have known many men and women who have gained their living or recreation from the sea, and some who have been members of lifeboat crews. I am delighted to have this opportunity to pay my own tribute to the selfless dedication of these volunteers who put their lives at risk to help save others.
player.bfi.org.uk/free/film/watch-the-loss-of-the-penlee-...
There’s a window of peacefulness at Smuggler’s Cove, it seems. Earlier in the day there were lots of young families with all the chatter that entails (not annoying, just noisy), as well as lots of dog owners letting the beasts run wild* (just as noisy, much more annoying). But for now everything is peaceful.
I love the varied colours in the shallows — the sea here runs from pale green to deep blue.
The origin of the name Smuggler Cove is subject to much speculation. One theory holds that the bay was used by one Larry "Pig Iron" Kelly to pick up Chinese labourers to be smuggled into the United States after the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Another story is that the concealed cove was used as a transhipment location for the smuggling of bootleg liquor, produced on neighbouring Texada Island, into the US during the prohibition era. Given the cove's proximity to Secret Cove, one can conjecture at some connection.
This is a High Dynamic Range panorama stitched from 93 bracketed images with PTGUI Pro, tone-mapped with Photomatix, then touched up in Aperture.
Original size: 17445 × 6747 (117.7 MP; 541.96 MB).
Location: Smuggler Cover Provincial Park, British Columbia, Canada
*Any dog who leaves paw prints on my chest isn’t "under control" — and in any case I would expect the owners to heed the "pets must be on leash" signs.
Seruwila Mangala Raja Maha Vihara is an ancient temple which is among the sixteen holiest Buddhist shrines [Solomathana] in Sri Lanka.
It is reachable both from road and sea. Sea route begins at Trincomalee to Muttur on boat and another 16 km by roads. Land route is via Kantalai, to Allai which is approximately 45 km through dense forest.
List of Monuments in the complex:
Stupa - Origin 2nd Century B.C. - restored in 1920's.
Restored Northern entrance - This building has evidence of molded bricks, balustrades, guard stones and moonstones. In addition there is ruined ceremonial gateway with carved stone door frame.
Western entrance - Evidences of preliminary stages of stone works in moldings showing exemplary stone jointing methods.
Southern entrance - Balustrades with elephant motifs, guard stones and stone door frame etc.
Eastern entrance
Image house building at the Stupa terrace
Sculptured stone lotus
Bo tree shrine [Bodhighara]
Ancient pond
Remains of ancient Chapter House
Remains of monasteries
Remains of a building on stone pillars
Natural stone platform and caves with primitive paintings
History and Development
During the reign of Kavantissa (2nd century B.C.) the Kingdom of Ruhuna was threatened by invaders. The king had to evolve a strategy to prevent a disaster. He was very well aware that there was a buffer state of Seru on the north eastern seaboard of Sri Lanka which was ruled by a prince by the name of Siva. The King finally had been able to solve the problem avoiding military confrontation and as a result he had to build a Stupa at Seruwila.
King Kavantissa knew that he could make use of the loyalty and respect the Sinhala nobles and the populace had for Buddhism to win over Princes Siva and Abhaya, his ally. The word was spread by religious teachers that Sacred Relic of the Buddha which was in the possession of Kavantissa was destined to be enshrined by him personally in a stupa to be built at Seru and that Lord Buddha had prophesied this would happen. Once the ground work had been laid, Kavantissa had marched with his army towards Seru proclaiming the purpose of his visit asking all the landowners in and around Seru to come to his assistance. The Thera who had propagated the story about the Relic of the Buddha had also accompanied him.
"The kinglets of Seru and Soma must have found themselves in the horns of a dilemma. If they received Kavantissa in a friendly manner it would have amounted to acknowledging him as their suzerain. If they did not do so they would have alienated the sympathies of their own subjects, for the declared purpose of Kavantissa's visit was one which the people as a whole would have approved. Besides Kavantissa was accompanied by a powerful force and the spiritual mentor who had accompanied him on this expedition was the one who commanded the respect of the local rulers as the prince of Mahagama. The outcome was, the kinglets of Seru and Soma and their retainers received Kavantissa with honour due to an overlord and assisted him in the building of the shrine. Thus Kavantissa achieved well described as a Dhamma- Vijaya which ultimately was of benefit to all parties concerned'. -Dhatuvamsa-
Thus the Sacred Relic, which was the frontal bone of the Buddha, was enshrined in the stupa which was known as Tissa Maha Vehera.
Reconciliation had brought in its rewards. The stratagem adopted by Kavantissa helped him to unify the entire portion of the country to the south of the Mahaweli and Kelani rivers and establish his capital at Mahagama. Meanwhile, the fame of the Seruwila shrine had spread far and wide and it became a great place of worship and pilgrimage.
Having extended his authority to the Seru district Kavantissa had caused the marsh in the vicinity of the stupa to be drained and converted into a lake. Having done this, he had dedicated the lands around the shrine to a distance of eleven miles for cultivation so the harvests could be used for the maintenance of the sacred shrine and the 500 monks who were the residents there. There are evidences that Arahats have resided in the caves around the Stupa terrace. In the vicinity of the dagaba is an ancient inscription which goes back to the second century. It states -
"Bata Gutaha Lene Caduke" which when translated means - "The cave of Lord Gutta is dedicated to the Sangha of the four quarters."
There is another rock inscription belong to the period of King Kassapa IV [A.D. 898 - 9141 mentioning about the Arahats and identification of the place name as Tissa Maha Vehera. Another inscription found at the Stupa terrace belongs to the reign of Kassapa V [A.D. 914 - 923].
Over the years, the stupa fell into decay under the pressure of the Tamil invasions from the north. But there are evidences in the literature that this area was under the purview of the Kandyan territory during the 17'~ Century AD and the existence of this stupa.
During the Colonial occupation of the island, priority was given to fertile western part of the island and as a result the arid dry zone neglected left to wilderness.
According to the late Dr. R. L. Brohier, Seruwila region was a vast swamp or villu where the flood waters of the Mahaweli Ganga collected. This villu was the home of large flocks of teal (seru) during migratory period. That perhaps was how the place came to be known as Seruwila (Seeing Ceylon by R. L. Brohier).
Development
It was only in 1922 that the dagaba was re-discovered by Ven. Dambagasare Sumedhankara Thero and assisted by the Archeological Department, he restored the Stupa using remains of ancient structures still survive around the Stupa to conjecture the conservation work. The conservation was completed in 1931.
In view of the importance of this sacred shrine and to attract more pilgrims to the area, the Department of Town and Country Planning has drawn up a plan for the development of a new town complete with pilgrim rests, market areas etc. during 1970's.
Because of the unrest in the North and the East of the island, past two decades show low progress in restoration and development activities and the raging war situation has aggravated the deterioration of the remains.
Form and date of most recent records of site
"Historic Seruwila" - An unpublished M.A. Dissertation by Mr. P.D. Ratnasiri submitted for the Post Graduate Examination in Archaeology of the University of Kelaniya. Submitted in May 2002.
Present state of conservation
Because of the unrest in the North and the East of the island, past two decades show very low progress in restoration activities and the raging war situation has aggravated the deterioration of the remains.
The nation must be grateful to the Ven. Dambagasare Sri Sumedhankara Thero for discovering the long forgotten Seruwila Stupa in 1922. After the re-discovery it was repaired with the permission of the English Government in 1924 with finances collected forming a society. In 1931, the stupa was opened to the public veneration.
The Stupa and its environs covering approximately 85 acres had been declared as an Archaeological Reserve in 1962. After this the Department of Archaeology had been carrying out conservation work by stages.
Monument - Year of conservation
Ancient Pond - 1970's
Northern entrance - 1973 [conjectural restoration]
Western entrance - 1979
Bodhighara - 1980
Stone Paved Terrace of Stupa - 1981
Awasa [monks' residence] - 1983
The Department of Archaeology is responsible for the conservation work and preservation of the site. The Chief incumbent thero and the development society of the Temple are managing and maintain the premises at present.
Policies and programmes related to the presentation and promotion of the property
Meaningful and urgent measures are necessary to upgrade its environs so that pilgrims would not be inconvenienced after a long journey. It is vital that we should retain Seruwila as a prime pilgrim location in the East of the Island. The National Physical Planning Department has been drafted a Development and Management Plan for the Buffer zone of the site, which is to be developed as a socio-cultural entity with museums, educational programmes, information centres to facilitate the pilgrims.
In The Compleat Angler or The Contemplative Man's Recreation, Izaak Walton writes, 'And you are further to know, that there be certain waters, that breed Trouts remarkable both for their number and smallness. I know a little brook in Kent, that breeds them to a number incredible, and you may take them twenty and forty in an hour, but none greater than about the size of a Gudgeon ...'. It was conjectured by James Rennie (Editor of the 1833 Printing), that Walton was referring to the River Cray, seen here as it flows through Crayford (in the London Borough of Bexley).
Sukkur, or Sakharu (Urdu: سکھر [səkʰəru], Sindhi: سکر), formerly Aror (Sanskrit: अरोड, Urdu: اروڑ [əroːɽ]), is the third largest city of Sindh province, situated on the west bank of Indus River in Pakistan in Sukkur District. One conjecture is that when Arabs invaded Sukkur (Sindh) in the 8th century, they found an extreme climate (hot and cold), and called it Saqar, which means intense.[citation needed] However, the word Sakharu in Sindhi means "superior", which the spelling of the city's name in Sindhi suggests is the origin of the name. Sukkur is nicknamed Darya Dino (درياءَ ڏنو, meaning the gift of river), as without the Indus the city would be a desert. People of Sukkur speak Sindhi (70%), Urdu (17.5%), Punjabi (8%), Pashto (1.5%), Balochi (1%), and others 2%.
Administration
The city of Sukkur, as well as being district headquarters, is the capital of Sukkur Talukas and contains many Union council.
Geography & climate
The district of Sukkur (whose name is derived from its head quarter Sukkur city) covers an area of 5,165 square kilometres. Geographically it is spanned from 27°05' to 28°02' north latitudes and from 68°47' to 69°43' east longitudes. The city of Sukkur is located at an altitude of 220 feet (67 m) from sea level, having terrestrial coordinates 68°52' east and 27°42' north. It is also the narrowest point of the lower Indus course.
Sukkur district shares its northern border with Shikarpur and the recently constituted Kashmore districts. Ghotki is located on the north-eastern side while Khairpur on the south. Sukkur also shares its border with India (Jaisalmer, Rajasthan). Sukkur is also connected by road and by air with all major cities of Pakistan.
The climate of the Sukkur is characterized by hot and hazy weather during summer days with dry and cold weather in winter. During January, the temperature ranges from 7 to 22 °C (45 to 72 °F). The summer (month of June before the monsoon) temperature averages 35 °C (95 °F) though it often reaches up to 42 °C (108 °F). Generally the summer season commences in March - April and ends before October. The average rainfall of the district is 88 mm, and ranges from 0.59 mm to 25.62 mm per month.
History
Sukkur has been an important strategic centre and trading route from time immemorial. Alor (or Aror, Sukkur) held the status of capital under the reign of Musikanos, when Alexander invaded India in 326 BCE. The ruins of this ancient town still exist, 8 km east of Rohri, in Sukkur district. The Rai Dynasty built a huge temple of Shiva (Shankar), hence 'Sukkur'. In 711 CE, the Arabs invaded Sindh, led by 17 year old Muhammad bin Qasim, and Sukkur (including all of Sindh and lower Punjab) became part of the Umayyad Caliphate.
Later Mughals and many semi-autonomous tribes ruled over Sukkur. The city was ceded to Mirs of Khairpur between 1809 and 1824. In 1833, Shah Shuja (a warlord of Kandahar, Afghanistan) defeated the Talpurs near Sukkur and later made a solemn treaty with the Talpur ruler, by which he relinquished all claims on Sindh. In 1843, the British (General Charles James Napier) defeated the Talpurs at the battles of Miani and Dubbo near Hyderabad. Sukkur, along with the rest of Sindh, was under British rule until the independence of Pakistan in 1947. The (current) district of Sukkur was constituted in 1901 out of part of Shikarpur District, the remainder of which was formed into the Larkana District. Sukkur saw a significant socio-economic uplift after the 1930s, when the British built the world's largest barrage here on the Indus River. After the independence of Pakistan in 1947, thousands of Muslim escaping from pograms and genocide moved to Pakistan and thousands of Hindu Sindhi refugees escaping from pograms and genocide left Sukkur for India.
Economy
Industry
Sukkur is a hub of many small and large scale industries. Among important industries are cotton textiles, cement, leather, tobacco, paint and varnish, pharmaceuticals, agriculture implements, hand pumps, lock making, rice-husking, and sugar. Small-scale cottage industries comprise hosiery, boat making, fishing accessories, thread ball spooling, trunk making brass-wares, cutlery and ceramics.
Agriculture
Sukkur had a large fertile and cultivable land area until a few decades ago, when the Indus river was not as barren as today. Now its agricultural productivity has been much reduced. It has not achieved a reasonable yield per unit area over time, on account of continuous shortages of water and ignorance of modern irrigation systems. Despite the lack of water, during kharif, rice, bajra, cotton, tomatoes and peas are cultivated; whereas during rabi the main crops are wheat, barley, graham and melons. Sukkur is famous, world over, for its delicious dates. Sukkur also has a large Riveraine forest along the course of the Indus. These tropical forests are found within the protective embankments on either side of the Indus. During 1997-98 the total area under forests was 510 km2 which yielded 55,000 cubic feet (1,600 m3) of timber and 27,000 cubic feet (760 m3) of firewood besides other mine products.
Sites of interest
•War Mubarak Mohammad in Rohri City
•Manzilgah, Bundar road
•Rohri
•Aror (ruins of historical city)
•Shrine of Syed Sadar-Ur-Din-Shah
•Tomb of Shah Khairuddin Jillani
•Tomb of the Seven Maidens Sateen Jo Aastan
•Kot Mir Yakoob Ali Shah Rohri
•Tomb of Abdul Baqi Purani, Ex-Governor of Bukkur.
•Bukkur Island
•Tomb of Syed Hakim Ali
•Minaret of Masum Shah
•Sadh Belo Temple on River Indus
•Thermal Power Station Sukkur
•Lansdowne Bridge Rohri
•Sukkur (Lloyd) Barrage
•Shikarpur Road connecting Quetta via Shikarpur
•Shrine of Qazi Baba
•Adam Shah je Takri
•Degree College
•Islamia College
•Dadu Choke conneting Shikarpur Road, Waritar Rd & Hussaini Rd
•Lab-e-Mehran
•Lansdowne Bridge
•Minara Road (sarak)
•Shahi Bazaar, Frere Road
•Ayub Gate
•Ladies and Children Hill Park
•Looks Park/Qasim Park
•Acher Ghitti
•Bhutta Road (old Garden Road)
•Bunder Road
•Barrage colony
•Mir-ki-street
•Purana Sukkur (Old Sukkur)
•Sheikh Shee Road Sukkur
•Raharki sahib
•Jinnat (Genie's) Building, Old Sukkur
•Hyderi Masjid, Old Sukkur
•Tomb Syed Mukhdoom Shah Badshah
•Shah Khair ud din Shah Badshah (G. A. Shah) - Old Sukkur
Photos from our road trip down the South Island of New Zealand in January. This shot was taken in Oamaru our stop of for lunch on the first day of our trip, January 20, 2015 New Zealand.
The whitestone townscape of Oamaru contains some of the best-preserved heritage buildings in New Zealand. In the late 19th century, the town prospered through gold-mining, quarrying and timber milling. Some of the wealth was spent on elegant stone buildings made from local limestone.
This Harbour-Tyne Street area in the Victorian precinct is particularly special and great for shopping is great too.
The name Oamaru derives from Māori words meaning the place of Maru.The identity of Maru remains open to conjecture.
For more Info: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oamaru
Katherine is a town in the Northern Territory of Australia. It is situated on the Katherine River (after which it is named) below the "Top End", 320 kilometres (200 mi) southeast of Darwin. It is the fourth largest settlement in the Territory and is known as the place where "The outback meets the tropics". Katherine had an urban population of approximately 6,300 at the 2016 Census. Katherine is also the closest major town to RAAF Base Tindal located 17 km southeast and provides education, health, local government services and employment opportunities for the families of Defence personnel stationed there. In the 2016 census, the base had a residential population of 857, with only around 20% of the workforce engaged in employment outside of defence, the majority commuting to work in Katherine.
Beginning as an outpost established with the Australian Overland Telegraph Line on the North-South transport route between Darwin and Adelaide, Katherine has grown with the development of transport and local industries including mining – particularly gold mining; a strategic military function with RAAF Base Tindal; also as a tourism gateway to the attractions of nearby Nitmiluk National Park, particularly Katherine Gorge and its many ancient rock paintings. The region is known to experience heavy flooding during the wet season.
HISTORY
The first inhabitants of the area were Indigenous Australian tribes, specifically the Dagoman people, Jawoyn people and Wardaman people. It was important meeting place for these tribes and remains a place of convergence. Today the Walpiri People from the Victoria River District and Tanami Desert areas now have a dedicated community based at Katherine East.
Explorer John McDouall Stuart passed through the area in 1862 on his successful third journey across the continent from north to south. On 4 July 1862, Stuart crossed the Katherine River (90 km upstream from the present town) and recorded in his diary: "Came upon another large creek, having a running stream to the south of west and coming from the north of east. This I have named 'Katherine', in honour of the second daughter of pastoralist James Chambers Esq." There is some conjecture over Stuart's accuracy. Chambers's wife's name was Katherine but, according to most sources, his daughter's name was Catherine.
Katherine Telegraph Station was established on 22 August 1872 and the completion of the Overland Telegraph Line later in 1872, and the town began with a small permanent population on the west side of the Katherine River. Katherine benefited from the proximity to nearby gold fields including Pine Creek 90 kilometres to the north.
Gold was discovered 50 kilometres to the north in 1889 at Mount Todd.
The North Australia Railway was extended to Katherine with construction beginning in 1923 of the Katherine railway bridge. During construction of the railway, the town's centre was relocated to the eastern side of the river. The bridge was completed in 1926 and the first train crossed on 21 January 1926. On 15 July 1926, the town's present site was gazetted. The original post office and the Overland Telegraph station were set just above Knott's Crossing and next to the Sportsman's Arms Hotel that had quarters for the station master at the Overland Telegraph station and a single room police station.
During World War II, the Australian Army set up two hospitals around Katherine, the 101st Australian General Hospital and 121st Australian General Hospital. The army also set up a Katherine Area Headquarters. On 22 March 1942, Katherine sustained its only air raid during World War II. One man was killed when a Japanese aircraft bombed the town.
The river flooded the town in 1957, 1974, 1998 and a minor flood in 2006.
Mining production has declined since the closure of the mine at Mount Todd (50 kilometres to the north) in 2000.
Construction began on a new rail line in July 2001. On 13 September 2003, the line was finished with a continuous track from Adelaide, South Australia to Darwin. The Ghan passenger train service commenced on 4 February 2004 running several times a week and stopping on both the northbound and southbound journeys.
The April 2006 floods placed parts of the town under water (including about 50 houses), caused millions of dollars of damage, and resulted in the declaration of a state of emergency on 7 April. However, there were no reports of the flooding causing structural damage. Town residents were given warning that the river might flood on 5 April, and the town centre was underwater before noon the next day. The floodwaters reached a peak of nearly 19 metres at the Katherine River bridge. Dozens of homes were inundated with up to 2 m of water, with many residents having time to escape with little more than the clothes they were wearing. Over the weekend of 8–9 April, more than 1,100 people went to the evacuation centres in the town. The state of emergency was lifted on 9 April.
In recent decades, Katherine has developed as a regional centre supporting the cattle, horticulture, agriculture and tourism industries. Located at the junction of major tourism drives, Central Arnhem Road, the Savannah Way and the Explorers Way, Katherine is an important visitor gateway for the Northern Territory. . On Australia Day in 1998 a major flood devastated the town, and the area was declared a national disaster. The flood resulted from the 300–400 mm of rainwater brought by Cyclone Les that caused the already full Katherine River to peak at 20.4 metres. The floodwaters inundated the town and much of the surrounding region, requiring the evacuation of many residents. The flood covered an area of 1000 square kilometres, affected 1100 homes and cut off many roads in and out of Katherine. Three people drowned.
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE
TOPOGRAPHY
Katherine is located 320 km south of Darwin, and is situated on the banks of the Katherine River, which is part of the Daly River system. The upper reaches rise into the Arnhem Land escarpment and Kakadu, to the northeast. The Victoria River (The Northern Territory's largest river system) is situated 189 km south-west of Katherine along the Victoria Highway. Katherine is at the crossroads of the Outback due to its location between the Darwin region, Kakadu National Park, the Barkley Region, the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Kimberley region of Western Australia.
The topography of the region is predominantly dry tropical savanna woodlands and consists of plains, hills, rock outcrops. To the east lies koombolgie sandstone escarpments and spectacular gorges through Nitmiluk National Park. The township itself is set among relatively flat plains along the Katherine River within the Tindall / Oolloo Aquifers, dotted with rugged Karst limestone formations, subterranean caves and jagged outcrops. Numerous mesas (flat-topped hills or "Jump-ups") emerge south and south-west of Katherine throughout Scott Creek, Aroona and Manbulloo cattle stations.
CLIMATE
Katherine experiences a dry tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification Aw) with distinct wet and dry seasons. Daily temperatures in the wet season typically range from 30 °C to 37 °C, reaching over 40 °C from late September to late November. Very high humidity accompanies high temperatures during the build-up period to the wet season, when the region receives spectacular electrical storms. The wet season monsoon period is a dramatic time of year, from large thunderstorms and heavy downpours to the transitions of lush greenery appearing from the parched deciduous landscapes of the dry season. Katherine experiences around 50 thunderstorm days per year, most of which occur from November to April.
In the dry, the nights can get quite cool, regularly dropping to 7 °C overnight around June and July. Humidity levels are much lower from June to August and hence this has become the most popular time for visitors who wish to explore the region. Most parks and roads are accessible during the dry season, whereas the wet season often causes accessibility restrictions.
Low elevation relative to surrounding areas, as well as the town's situation on the banks of a river, means that the area is prone to flooding. A flood on Australia Day in 1998 was particularly destructive. Ex-Tropical Cyclone Les produced between 300 and 400 millimetres of rainfall during a 48-hour period, causing the Katherine River to rise to 21.3 metres and claim the lives of three people.
There’s a window of peacefulness at Smuggler’s Cove, it seems. Earlier in the day there were lots of young families with all the chatter that entails (not annoying, just noisy), as well as lots of dog owners letting the beasts run wild* (just as noisy, much more annoying). But for now everything is peaceful.
I love the varied colours in the shallows — the sea here runs from pale green to deep blue.
The origin of the name Smuggler Cove is subject to much speculation. One theory holds that the bay was used by one Larry "Pig Iron" Kelly to pick up Chinese labourers to be smuggled into the United States after the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Another story is that the concealed cove was used as a transhipment location for the smuggling of bootleg liquor, produced on neighbouring Texada Island, into the US during the prohibition era. Given the cove's proximity to Secret Cove, one can conjecture at some connection.
This is a High Dynamic Range panorama stitched from 24 bracketed images with PTGUI Pro, tone-mapped with Photomatix, then touched up in Aperture.
Original size: 11425 × 3914 (44.7 MP; 210.26 MB).
Location: Smuggler Cover Provincial Park, British Columbia, Canada
*Any dog who leaves paw prints on my chest isn’t "under control" — and in any case I would expect the owners to heed the "pets must be on leash" signs.
A look down the row of shops in the former Pierce Block building in Clifton Springs, NY
Clifton Springs grew from the well-known benefits of the sulphur springs which runs through the village. Back when various therapies were based more in conjecture and spiritual beliefs than true scientific facts, Clifton Springs drew in thousands of visitors over the years for the healing properties the springs provided.
The seated gentleman appears as if he is offering soothing, consoling words to the 1940 Ford Deluxe sedan behind him while the 1939 Buick on his right appears to be reflecting upon the advice.
Of course this is purely conjecture on my part but if the visages of the cars were actually those of people then it would be easy to imagine that. :-)
The license plates have been altered for privacy.
EVOLUTIONARIES
(Part of my 'TRANSHUMANISUM' series)
10" X 10" - Acrylic on birch wood panel
Completed 12/09/2008 - Los Angeles
In the near future people will be able to decide how they evolve. Evolution will be taken from the hands of nature and we shall control what we become through science and technology. Breakthroughs such as nano technology and A.I., ( en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_inteligence ) will enable us to transcend the slow pace of human evolution exponentially.
This may result in several and varied evolutionary variations. Some may choose to have extremely strong and large bodies like giant insects, while others may decide to become small and invisible like a floating energy. Nanobots, ( en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanobots ) and utility fog, ( en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_fog ) will make the physical world and many of it's laws absolute.
Until we are able to control ALL THINGS, (in which case it is conjectured that we have become god, and fulfilled human destiny) we will be limited in the changes we can make to ourselves. This could be an amazing period where we make ourselves into our own 'Art Forms' as different and varied as snowflakes.
In this possible world, People will transcend the physicality of eons of intelligence and physical evolution in an amazing short period of time, (see The Singularity, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singularity).
There may be those who will rebel against what they see as "ungodly' modifications of the accepted human form, (see Luddites, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luddite).
Early adopters of modification and augmentation technologies may be termed "EVOLUTIONARIES".
~ RSC ~ 12/10/08
........
At this time, this painting is available for sale. Contact me at rsconnett@gmail.com
Yellowstone National Park (Arapaho: Henihco'oo or Héetíhco'oo) is a national park located primarily in the U.S. state of Wyoming, although it also extends into Montana and Idaho. It was established by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1872. Yellowstone, widely held to be the first national park in the world, is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features, especially Old Faithful Geyser, one of the most popular features in the park. It has many types of ecosystems, but the subalpine forest is most abundant. It is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion.
Yellowstone National Park spans an area of 3,468.4 square miles (8,983 km2), comprising lakes, canyons, rivers and mountain ranges. Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high-altitude lakes in North America and is centered over the Yellowstone Caldera, the largest supervolcano on the continent. The caldera is considered an active volcano. It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years. Half of the world's geothermal features are in Yellowstone, fueled by this ongoing volcanism. Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the land area of Yellowstone. The park is the centerpiece of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the largest remaining nearly-intact ecosystem in the Earth's northern temperate zone.
Hundreds of species of mammals, birds, fish and reptiles have been documented, including several that are either endangered or threatened. The vast forests and grasslands also include unique species of plants. Yellowstone Park is the largest and most famous megafauna location in the Continental United States. Grizzly bears, wolves, and free-ranging herds of bison and elk live in the park. The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States. Forest fires occur in the park each year; in the large forest fires of 1988, nearly one third of the park was burnt. Yellowstone has numerous recreational opportunities, including hiking, camping, boating, fishing and sightseeing. Paved roads provide close access to the major geothermal areas as well as some of the lakes and waterfalls. During the winter, visitors often access the park by way of guided tours that use either snow coaches or snowmobiles.
The park is located at the headwaters of the Yellowstone River, from which it takes its historical name. Near the end of the 18th century, French trappers named the river "Roche Jaune", which is probably a translation of the Hidatsa name "Mi tsi a-da-zi" (Rock Yellow River). Later, American trappers rendered the French name in English as "Yellow Stone". Although it is commonly believed that the river was named for the yellow rocks seen in the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, the Native American name source is not clear.
The first detailed expedition to the Yellowstone area was the Cook–Folsom–Peterson Expedition of 1869, which consisted of three privately funded explorers. The Folsom party followed the Yellowstone River to Yellowstone Lake. The members of the Folsom party kept a journal and based on the information it reported, a party of Montana residents organized the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition in 1870. It was headed by the surveyor-general of Montana Henry Washburn, and included Nathaniel P. Langford (who later became known as "National Park" Langford) and a U.S. Army detachment commanded by Lt. Gustavus Doane.
The expedition spent about a month exploring the region, collecting specimens and naming sites of interest. A Montana writer and lawyer named Cornelius Hedges, who had been a member of the Washburn expedition, proposed that the region should be set aside and protected as a national park; he wrote a number of detailed articles about his observations for the Helena Herald newspaper between 1870 and 1871. Hedges essentially restated comments made in October 1865 by acting Montana Territorial Governor Thomas Francis Meagher, who had previously commented that the region should be protected. Others made similar suggestions. In an 1871 letter from Jay Cooke to Ferdinand V. Hayden, Cooke wrote that his friend, Congressman William D. Kelley had also suggested "Congress pass a bill reserving the Great Geyser Basin as a public park forever".
By 1915, 1,000 automobiles per year were entering the park, resulting in conflicts with horses and horse-drawn transportation. Horse travel on roads was eventually prohibited.
The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a New Deal relief agency for young men, played a major role between 1933 and 1942 in developing Yellowstone facilities. CCC projects included reforestation, campground development of many of the park's trails and campgrounds, trail construction, fire hazard reduction, and fire-fighting work. The CCC built the majority of the early visitor centers, campgrounds and the current system of park roads.
During World War II, tourist travel fell sharply, staffing was cut, and many facilities fell into disrepair. By the 1950s, visitation increased tremendously in Yellowstone and other national parks. To accommodate the increased visitation, park officials implemented Mission 66, an effort to modernize and expand park service facilities. Planned to be completed by 1966, in honor of the 50th anniversary of the founding of the National Park Service, Mission 66 construction diverged from the traditional log cabin style with design features of a modern style. During the late 1980s, most construction styles in Yellowstone reverted to the more traditional designs. After the enormous forest fires of 1988 damaged much of Grant Village, structures there were rebuilt in the traditional style. The visitor center at Canyon Village, which opened in 2006, incorporates a more traditional design as well.
A large arch made of irregular-shaped natural stone over a road
The 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake just west of Yellowstone at Hebgen Lake damaged roads and some structures in the park. In the northwest section of the park, new geysers were found, and many existing hot springs became turbid. It was the most powerful earthquake to hit the region in recorded history.
In 1963, after several years of public controversy regarding the forced reduction of the elk population in Yellowstone, United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall appointed an advisory board to collect scientific data to inform future wildlife management of the national parks. In a paper known as the Leopold Report, the committee observed that culling programs at other national parks had been ineffective, and recommended management of Yellowstone's elk population.
The wildfires during the summer of 1988 were the largest in the history of the park. Approximately 793,880 acres (321,272 ha; 1,240 sq mi) or 36% of the parkland was impacted by the fires, leading to a systematic re-evaluation of fire management policies. The fire season of 1988 was considered normal until a combination of drought and heat by mid-July contributed to an extreme fire danger. On "Black Saturday", August 20, 1988, strong winds expanded the fires rapidly, and more than 150,000 acres (61,000 ha; 230 sq mi) burned.
The expansive cultural history of the park has been documented by the 1,000 archeological sites that have been discovered. The park has 1,106 historic structures and features, and of these Obsidian Cliff and five buildings have been designated National Historic Landmarks. Yellowstone was designated an International Biosphere Reserve on October 26, 1976, and a UN World Heritage Site on September 8, 1978. The park was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger from 1995 to 2003 due to the effects of tourism, infection of wildlife, and issues with invasive species. In 2010, Yellowstone National Park was honored with its own quarter under the America the Beautiful Quarters Program.
Heritage and Research Center
The Heritage and Research Center is located at Gardiner, Montana, near the north entrance to the park. The center is home to the Yellowstone National Park's museum collection, archives, research library, historian, archeology lab, and herbarium. The Yellowstone National Park Archives maintain collections of historical records of Yellowstone and the National Park Service. The collection includes the administrative records of Yellowstone, as well as resource management records, records from major projects, and donated manuscripts and personal papers. The archives are affiliated with the National Archives and Records Administration.
Approximately 96 percent of the land area of Yellowstone National Park is located within the state of Wyoming. Another three percent is within Montana, with the remaining one percent in Idaho. The park is 63 miles (101 km) north to south, and 54 miles (87 km) west to east by air. Yellowstone is 2,219,789 acres (898,317 ha; 3,468.420 sq mi) in area, larger than the states of Rhode Island or Delaware. Rivers and lakes cover five percent of the land area, with the largest water body being Yellowstone Lake at 87,040 acres (35,220 ha; 136.00 sq mi). Yellowstone Lake is up to 400 feet (120 m) deep and has 110 miles (180 km) of shoreline. At an elevation of 7,733 feet (2,357 m) above sea level, Yellowstone Lake is the largest high altitude lake in North America. Forests comprise 80 percent of the land area of the park; most of the rest is grassland.
The Continental Divide of North America runs diagonally through the southwestern part of the park. The divide is a topographic feature that separates Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean water drainages. About one third of the park lies on the west side of the divide. The origins of the Yellowstone and Snake Rivers are near each other but on opposite sides of the divide. As a result, the waters of the Snake River flow to the Pacific Ocean, while those of the Yellowstone find their way to the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf of Mexico.
The park sits on the Yellowstone Plateau, at an average elevation of 8,000 feet (2,400 m) above sea level. The plateau is bounded on nearly all sides by mountain ranges of the Middle Rocky Mountains, which range from 9,000 to 11,000 feet (2,700 to 3,400 m) in elevation. The highest point in the park is atop Eagle Peak (11,358 feet or 3,462 metres) and the lowest is along Reese Creek (5,282 feet or 1,610 metres). Nearby mountain ranges include the Gallatin Range to the northwest, the Beartooth Mountains in the north, the Absaroka Range to the east, and the Teton Range and the Madison Range to the southwest and west. The most prominent summit on the Yellowstone Plateau is Mount Washburn at 10,243 feet (3,122 m).
Yellowstone National Park has one of the world's largest petrified forests, trees which were long ago buried by ash and soil and transformed from wood to mineral materials. This ash and other volcanic debris, are believed to have come from the park area itself. This is largely due to the fact that Yellowstone is actually a massive caldera of a supervolcano. There are 290 waterfalls of at least 15 feet (4.6 m) in the park, the highest being the Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River at 308 feet (94 m).
Three deep canyons are located in the park, cut through the volcanic tuff of the Yellowstone Plateau by rivers over the last 640,000 years. The Lewis River flows through Lewis Canyon in the south, and the Yellowstone River has carved two colorful canyons, the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone and the Black Canyon of the Yellowstone in its journey north.
Yellowstone is at the northeastern end of the Snake River Plain, a great U-shaped arc through the mountains that extends from Boise, Idaho some 400 miles (640 km) to the west. This feature traces the route of the North American Plate over the last 17 million years as it was transported by plate tectonics across a stationary mantle hotspot. The landscape of present-day Yellowstone National Park is the most recent manifestation of this hotspot below the crust of the Earth.
The Yellowstone Caldera is the largest volcanic system in North America. It has been termed a "supervolcano" because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions. The magma chamber that lies under Yellowstone is estimated to be a single connected chamber, about 37 miles (60 km) long, 18 miles (29 km) wide, and 3 to 7 miles (5 to 12 km) deep. The current caldera was created by a cataclysmic eruption that occurred 640,000 years ago, which released more than 240 cubic miles (1,000 km³) of ash, rock and pyroclastic materials. This eruption was more than 1,000 times larger than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. It produced a caldera nearly five eighths of a mile (1 km) deep and 45 by 28 miles (72 by 45 km) in area and deposited the Lava Creek Tuff, a welded tuff geologic formation. The most violent known eruption, which occurred 2.1 million years ago, ejected 588 cubic miles (2,450 km³) of volcanic material and created the rock formation known as the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff and created the Island Park Caldera. A smaller eruption ejected 67 cubic miles (280 km³) of material 1.3 million years ago, forming the Henry's Fork Caldera and depositing the Mesa Falls Tuff.
Each of the three climactic eruptions released vast amounts of ash that blanketed much of central North America, falling many hundreds of miles away. The amount of ash and gases released into the atmosphere probably caused significant impacts to world weather patterns and led to the extinction of some species, primarily in North America.
Wooden walkways allow visitors to closely approach the Grand Prismatic Spring.
A subsequent caldera-forming eruption occurred about 160,000 years ago. It formed the relatively small caldera that contains the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake. Since the last supereruption, a series of smaller eruptive cycles between 640,000 and 70,000 years ago, has nearly filled in the Yellowstone Caldera with >80 different eruptions of rhyolitic lavas such as those that can be seen at Obsidian Cliffs and basaltic lavas which can be viewed at Sheepeater Cliff. Lava strata are most easily seen at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, where the Yellowstone River continues to carve into the ancient lava flows. The canyon is a classic V-shaped valley, indicative of river-type erosion rather than erosion caused by glaciation.
Each eruption is part of an eruptive cycle that climaxes with the partial collapse of the roof of the volcano's partially emptied magma chamber. This creates a collapsed depression, called a caldera, and releases vast amounts of volcanic material, usually through fissures that ring the caldera. The time between the last three cataclysmic eruptions in the Yellowstone area has ranged from 600,000 to 800,000 years, but the small number of such climactic eruptions cannot be used to make an accurate prediction for future volcanic events.
The most famous geyser in the park, and perhaps the world, is Old Faithful Geyser, located in Upper Geyser Basin. Castle Geyser, Lion Geyser and Beehive Geyser are in the same basin. The park contains the largest active geyser in the world—Steamboat Geyser in the Norris Geyser Basin. A study that was completed in 2011 found that at least 1283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone. Of these, an average of 465 are active in a given year. Yellowstone contains at least 10,000 geothermal features altogether. Half the geothermal features and two-thirds of the world's geysers are concentrated in Yellowstone.
In May 2001, the U.S. Geological Survey, Yellowstone National Park, and the University of Utah created the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO), a partnership for long-term monitoring of the geological processes of the Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field, for disseminating information concerning the potential hazards of this geologically active region.
In 2003, changes at the Norris Geyser Basin resulted in the temporary closure of some trails in the basin. New fumaroles were observed, and several geysers showed enhanced activity and increasing water temperatures. Several geysers became so hot that they were transformed into purely steaming features; the water had become superheated and they could no longer erupt normally. This coincided with the release of reports of a multiple year United States Geological Survey research project which mapped the bottom of Yellowstone Lake and identified a structural dome that had uplifted at some time in the past. Research indicated that these uplifts posed no immediate threat of a volcanic eruption, since they may have developed long ago, and there had been no temperature increase found near the uplifts. On March 10, 2004, a biologist discovered 5 dead bison which apparently had inhaled toxic geothermal gases trapped in the Norris Geyser Basin by a seasonal atmospheric inversion. This was closely followed by an upsurge of earthquake activity in April 2004. In 2006, it was reported that the Mallard Lake Dome and the Sour Creek Dome— areas that have long been known to show significant changes in their ground movement— had risen at a rate of 1.5 to 2.4 inches (3.8 to 6.1 cm) per year from mid–2004 through 2006. As of late 2007, the uplift has continued at a reduced rate. These events inspired a great deal of media attention and speculation about the geologic future of the region. Experts responded to the conjecture by informing the public that there was no increased risk of a volcanic eruption in the near future. However, these changes demonstrate the dynamic nature of the Yellowstone hydrothermal system.
Yellowstone experiences thousands of small earthquakes every year, virtually all of which are undetectable to people. There have been six earthquakes with at least magnitude 6 or greater in historical times, including a 7.5‑magnitude quake that struck just outside the northwest boundary of the park in 1959. This quake triggered a huge landslide, which caused a partial dam collapse on Hebgen Lake; immediately downstream, the sediment from the landslide dammed the river and created a new lake, known as Earthquake Lake. Twenty-eight people were killed, and property damage was extensive in the immediate region. The earthquake caused some geysers in the northwestern section of the park to erupt, large cracks in the ground formed and emitted steam, and some hot springs that normally have clear water turned muddy. A 6.1‑magnitude earthquake struck inside the park on June 30, 1975, but damage was minimal.
For three months in 1985, 3,000 minor earthquakes were detected in the northwestern section of the park, during what has been referred to as an earthquake swarm, and has been attributed to minor subsidence of the Yellowstone caldera. Beginning on April 30, 2007, 16 small earthquakes with magnitudes up to 2.7 occurred in the Yellowstone Caldera for several days. These swarms of earthquakes are common, and there have been 70 such swarms between 1983 and 2008. In December 2008, over 250 earthquakes were measured over a four-day span under Yellowstone Lake, the largest measuring a magnitude of 3.9. In January 2010, more than 250 earthquakes were detected over a two-day period. Seismic activity in Yellowstone National Park continues and is reported hourly by the Earthquake Hazards Program of the U.S. Geological Survey.
On March 30, 2014, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck almost the very middle of Yellowstone near the Norris Basin at 6.34am; reports indicated no damage. This was the biggest earthquake to hit the park since February 22, 1980.
Over 1,700 species of trees and other vascular plants are native to the park. Another 170 species are considered to be exotic species and are non-native. Of the eight conifer tree species documented, Lodgepole Pine forests cover 80% of the total forested areas. Other conifers, such as Subalpine Fir, Engelmann Spruce, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and Whitebark Pine, are found in scattered groves throughout the park. As of 2007, the whitebark pine is threatened by a fungus known as white pine blister rust; however, this is mostly confined to forests well to the north and west. In Yellowstone, about seven percent of the whitebark pine species have been impacted with the fungus, compared to nearly complete infestations in northwestern Montana. Quaking Aspen and willows are the most common species of deciduous trees. The aspen forests have declined significantly since the early 20th century, but scientists at Oregon State University attribute recent recovery of the aspen to the reintroduction of wolves which has changed the grazing habits of local elk.
There are dozens of species of flowering plants that have been identified, most of which bloom between the months of May and September. The Yellowstone Sand Verbena is a rare flowering plant found only in Yellowstone. It is closely related to species usually found in much warmer climates, making the sand verbena an enigma. The estimated 8,000 examples of this rare flowering plant all make their home in the sandy soils on the shores of Yellowstone Lake, well above the waterline.
In Yellowstone's hot waters, bacteria form mats of bizarre shapes consisting of trillions of individuals. These bacteria are some of the most primitive life forms on earth. Flies and other arthropods live on the mats, even in the middle of the bitterly cold winters. Initially, scientists thought that microbes there gained sustenance only from sulfur. In 2005 researchers from the University of Colorado at Boulder discovered that the sustenance for at least some of the diverse hyperthermophilic species is molecular hydrogen.
Thermus aquaticus is a bacterium found in the Yellowstone hot springs that produces an important enzyme (Taq polymerase) that is easily replicated in the lab and is useful in replicating DNA as part of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process. The retrieval of these bacteria can be achieved with no impact to the ecosystem. Other bacteria in the Yellowstone hot springs may also prove useful to scientists who are searching for cures for various diseases.
Non-native plants sometimes threaten native species by using up nutrient resources. Though exotic species are most commonly found in areas with the greatest human visitation, such as near roads and at major tourist areas, they have also spread into the backcountry. Generally, most exotic species are controlled by pulling the plants out of the soil or by spraying, both of which are time consuming and expensive.
Yellowstone is widely considered to be the finest megafauna wildlife habitat in the lower 48 states. There are almost 60 species of mammals in the park, including the gray wolf, the threatened lynx, and grizzly bears. Other large mammals include the bison (often referred to as buffalo), black bear, elk, moose, mule deer, white-tailed deer, mountain goat, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, and mountain lion.
Bison graze near a hot spring
The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the largest public herd of American bison in the United States. The relatively large bison populations are a concern for ranchers, who fear that the species can transmit bovine diseases to their domesticated cousins. In fact, about half of Yellowstone's bison have been exposed to brucellosis, a bacterial disease that came to North America with European cattle that may cause cattle to miscarry. The disease has little effect on park bison, and no reported case of transmission from wild bison to domestic livestock has been filed. However, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has stated that bison are the "likely source" of the spread of the disease in cattle in Wyoming and North Dakota. Elk also carry the disease and are believed to have transmitted the infection to horses and cattle. Bison once numbered between 30 and 60 million individuals throughout North America, and Yellowstone remains one of their last strongholds. Their populations had increased from less than 50 in the park in 1902 to 4,000 by 2003. The Yellowstone Park bison herd reached a peak in 2005 with 4,900 animals. Despite a summer estimated population of 4,700 in 2007, the number dropped to 3,000 in 2008 after a harsh winter and controversial brucellosis management sending hundreds to slaughter. The Yellowstone Park bison herd is believed to be one of only four free roaming and genetically pure herds on public lands in North America. The other three herds are the Henry Mountains bison herd of Utah, at Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota and on Elk Island in Alberta.
Elk Mother Nursing Her Calf
To combat the perceived threat of brucellosis transmission to cattle, national park personnel regularly harass bison herds back into the park when they venture outside of the area's borders. During the winter of 1996–97, the bison herd was so large that 1,079 bison that had exited the park were shot or sent to slaughter. Animal rights activists argue that this is a cruel practice and that the possibility for disease transmission is not as great as some ranchers maintain. Ecologists point out that the bison are merely traveling to seasonal grazing areas that lie within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem that have been converted to cattle grazing, some of which are within National Forests and are leased to private ranchers. APHIS has stated that with vaccinations and other means, brucellosis can be eliminated from the bison and elk herds throughout Yellowstone.
A reintroduced northwestern wolf in Yellowstone National Park
Starting in 1914, in an effort to protect elk populations, the U.S. Congress appropriated funds to be used for the purposes of "destroying wolves, prairie dogs, and other animals injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry" on public lands. Park Service hunters carried out these orders, and by 1926 they had killed 136 wolves, and wolves were virtually eliminated from Yellowstone. Further exterminations continued until the National Park Service ended the practice in 1935. With the passing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973, the wolf was one of the first mammal species listed. After the wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone, the coyote then became the park's top canine predator. However, the coyote is not able to bring down large animals, and the result of this lack of a top predator on these populations was a marked increase in lame and sick megafauna.
Bison in Yellowstone National Park
By the 1990s, the Federal government had reversed its views on wolves. In a controversial decision by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (which oversees threatened and endangered species), northwestern wolves, imported from Canada, were reintroduced into the park. Reintroduction efforts have been successful with populations remaining relatively stable. A survey conducted in 2005 reported that there were 13 wolf packs, totaling 118 individuals in Yellowstone and 326 in the entire ecosystem. These park figures were lower than those reported in 2004 but may be attributable to wolf migration to other nearby areas as suggested by the substantial increase in the Montana population during that interval. Almost all the wolves documented were descended from the 66 wolves reintroduced in 1995–96. The recovery of populations throughout the states of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho has been so successful that on February 27, 2008, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service removed the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf population from the endangered species list.
An estimated 600 grizzly bears live in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, with more than half of the population living within Yellowstone. The grizzly is currently listed as a threatened species, however the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has announced that they intend to take it off the endangered species list for the Yellowstone region but will likely keep it listed in areas where it has not yet recovered fully. Opponents of delisting the grizzly are concerned that states might once again allow hunting and that better conservation measures need to be implemented to ensure a sustainable population. Black bears are common in the park and were a park symbol due to visitor interaction with the bears starting in 1910. Feeding and close contact with bears has not been permitted since the 1960s to reduce their desire for human foods. Yellowstone is one of the few places in the United States where black bears can be seen coexisting with grizzly bears. Black bear observations occur most often in the park's northern ranges and in the Bechler area which is in the park's southwestern corner.
Population figures for elk are in excess of 30,000—the largest population of any large mammal species in Yellowstone. The northern herd has decreased enormously since the mid‑1990s; this has been attributed to wolf predation and causal effects such as elk using more forested regions to evade predation, consequently making it harder for researchers to accurately count them. The northern herd migrates west into southwestern Montana in the winter. The southern herd migrates southward, and the majority of these elk winter on the National Elk Refuge, immediately southeast of Grand Teton National Park. The southern herd migration is the largest mammalian migration remaining in the U.S. outside of Alaska.
In 2003 the tracks of one female lynx and her cub were spotted and followed for over 2 miles (3.2 km). Fecal material and other evidence obtained were tested and confirmed to be those of a lynx. No visual confirmation was made, however. Lynx have not been seen in Yellowstone since 1998, though DNA taken from hair samples obtained in 2001 confirmed that lynx were at least transient to the park. Other less commonly seen mammals include the mountain lion and wolverine. The mountain lion has an estimated population of only 25 individuals parkwide. The wolverine is another rare park mammal, and accurate population figures for this species are not known. These uncommon and rare mammals provide insight into the health of protected lands such as Yellowstone and help managers make determinations as to how best to preserve habitats.
Eighteen species of fish live in Yellowstone, including the core range of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout—a fish highly sought by anglers. The Yellowstone cutthroat trout has faced several threats since the 1980s, including the suspected illegal introduction into Yellowstone Lake of lake trout, an invasive species which consume the smaller cutthroat trout. Although lake trout were established in Shoshone and Lewis lakes in the Snake River drainage from U.S. Government stocking operations in 1890, it was never officially introduced into the Yellowstone River drainage. The cutthroat trout has also faced an ongoing drought, as well as the accidental introduction of a parasite—whirling disease—which causes a terminal nervous system disease in younger fish. Since 2001, all native sport fish species caught in Yellowstone waterways are subject to a catch and release law. Yellowstone is also home to six species of reptiles, such as the painted turtle and Prairie rattlesnake, and four species of amphibians, including the Boreal Chorus Frog.
311 species of birds have been reported, almost half of which nest in Yellowstone. As of 1999, twenty-six pairs of nesting bald eagles have been documented. Extremely rare sightings of whooping cranes have been recorded, however only three examples of this species are known to live in the Rocky Mountains, out of 385 known worldwide. Other birds, considered to be species of special concern because of their rarity in Yellowstone, include the common loon, harlequin duck, osprey, peregrine falcon and the trumpeter swan.
As wildfire is a natural part of most ecosystems, plants that are indigenous to Yellowstone have adapted in a variety of ways. Douglas-fir have a thick bark which protects the inner section of the tree from most fires. Lodgepole Pines —the most common tree species in the park— generally have cones that are only opened by the heat of fire. Their seeds are held in place by a tough resin, and fire assists in melting the resin, allowing the seeds to disperse. Fire clears out dead and downed wood, providing fewer obstacles for lodgepole pines to flourish. Subalpine Fir, Engelmann Spruce, Whitebark Pine, and other species tend to grow in colder and moister areas, where fire is less likely to occur. Aspen trees sprout new growth from their roots, and even if a severe fire kills the tree above ground, the roots often survive unharmed because they are insulated from the heat by soil. The National Park Service estimates that in natural conditions, grasslands in Yellowstone burned an average of every 20 to 25 years, while forests in the park would experience fire about every 300 years.
About thirty-five natural forest fires are ignited each year by lightning, while another six to ten are started by people— in most cases by accident. Yellowstone National Park has three fire lookout towers, each staffed by trained fire fighters. The easiest one to reach is atop Mount Washburn, though it is closed to the public. The park also monitors fire from the air and relies on visitor reports of smoke and/or flames. Fire towers are staffed almost continuously from late June to mid-September— the primary fire season. Fires burn with the greatest intensity in the late afternoon and evening. Few fires burn more than 100 acres (40 ha), and the vast majority of fires reach only a little over an acre (0.5 ha) before they burn themselves out. Fire management focuses on monitoring dead and down wood quantities, soil and tree moisture, and the weather, to determine those areas most vulnerable to fire should one ignite. Current policy is to suppress all human caused fires and to evaluate natural fires, examining the benefit or detriment they may pose on the ecosystem. If a fire is considered to be an immediate threat to people and structures, or will burn out of control, then fire suppression is performed.
In an effort to minimize the chances of out of control fires and threats to people and structures, park employees do more than just monitor the potential for fire. Controlled burns are prescribed fires which are deliberately started to remove dead timber under conditions which allow fire fighters an opportunity to carefully control where and how much wood is consumed. Natural fires are sometimes considered prescribed fires if they are left to burn. In Yellowstone, unlike some other parks, there have been very few fires deliberately started by employees as prescribed burns. However, over the last 30 years, over 300 natural fires have been allowed to burn naturally. In addition, fire fighters remove dead and down wood and other hazards from areas where they will be a potential fire threat to lives and property, reducing the chances of fire danger in these areas. Fire monitors also regulate fire through educational services to the public and have been known to temporarily ban campfires from campgrounds during periods of high fire danger. The common notion in early United States land management policies was that all forest fires were bad. Fire was seen as a purely destructive force and there was little understanding that it was an integral part of the ecosystem. Consequently, until the 1970s, when a better understanding of wildfire was developed, all fires were suppressed. This led to an increase in dead and dying forests, which would later provide the fuel load for fires that would be much harder, and in some cases, impossible to control. Fire Management Plans were implemented, detailing that natural fires should be allowed to burn if they posed no immediate threat to lives and property.
1988 started with a wet spring season although by summer, drought began moving in throughout the northern Rockies, creating the driest year on record to that point. Grasses and plants which grew well in the early summer from the abundant spring moisture produced plenty of grass, which soon turned to dry tinder. The National Park Service began firefighting efforts to keep the fires under control, but the extreme drought made suppression difficult. Between July 15 and 21, 1988, fires quickly spread from 8,500 acres (3,400 ha; 13.3 sq mi) throughout the entire Yellowstone region, which included areas outside the park, to 99,000 acres (40,000 ha; 155 sq mi) on the park land alone. By the end of the month, the fires were out of control. Large fires burned together, and on August 20, 1988, the single worst day of the fires, more than 150,000 acres (61,000 ha; 230 sq mi) were consumed. Seven large fires were responsible for 95% of the 793,000 acres (321,000 ha; 1,239 sq mi) that were burned over the next couple of months. A total of 25,000 firefighters and U.S. military forces participated in the suppression efforts, at a cost of 120 million dollars. By the time winter brought snow that helped extinguish the last flames, the fires had destroyed 67 structures and caused several million dollars in damage. Though no civilian lives were lost, two personnel associated with the firefighting efforts were killed.
Contrary to media reports and speculation at the time, the fires killed very few park animals— surveys indicated that only about 345 elk (of an estimated 40,000–50,000), 36 deer, 12 moose, 6 black bears, and 9 bison had perished. Changes in fire management policies were implemented by land management agencies throughout the United States, based on knowledge gained from the 1988 fires and the evaluation of scientists and experts from various fields. By 1992, Yellowstone had adopted a new fire management plan which observed stricter guidelines for the management of natural fires.
from Wikipedia
Tanzania
Manyara lake
Adansonia digitata, the baobab, is the most widespread tree species of the genus Adansonia, the baobabs, and is native to the African continent. The long-lived pachycauls are typically found in dry, hot savannahs of sub-Saharan Africa, where they dominate the landscape, and reveal the presence of a watercourse from afar. Their growth rate is determined by ground water or rainfall, and their maximum age, which is subject to much conjecture, seems to be in the order of 1,500 years. They have traditionally been valued as sources of food, water, health remedies or places of shelter and are steeped in legend and superstition. European explorers of old were inclined to carve their names on baobabs, and many are defaced by modern graffiti.
Common names for the baobab include dead-rat tree (from the appearance of the fruit), monkey-bread tree (the soft, dry fruit is edible), upside-down tree (the sparse branches resemble roots) and cream of tartar tree (cream of tartar).
The Novikov self-consistency principle, also known as the Novikov self-consistency conjecture, is a principle developed by Russian physicist Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov in the mid-1980s to solve the problem of paradoxes in time travel, which is theoretically permitted in certain solutions of general relativity (solutions containing what are known as closed timelike curves). Stated simply, the Novikov consistency principle asserts that if an event exists that would give rise to a paradox, or to any "change" to the past whatsoever, then the probability of that event is zero. In short, it says that it's impossible to create time paradoxes.
Yellowstone National Park (Arapaho: Henihco'oo or Héetíhco'oo) is a national park located primarily in the U.S. state of Wyoming, although it also extends into Montana and Idaho. It was established by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1872. Yellowstone, widely held to be the first national park in the world, is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features, especially Old Faithful Geyser, one of the most popular features in the park. It has many types of ecosystems, but the subalpine forest is most abundant. It is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion.
Yellowstone National Park spans an area of 3,468.4 square miles (8,983 km2), comprising lakes, canyons, rivers and mountain ranges. Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high-altitude lakes in North America and is centered over the Yellowstone Caldera, the largest supervolcano on the continent. The caldera is considered an active volcano. It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years. Half of the world's geothermal features are in Yellowstone, fueled by this ongoing volcanism. Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the land area of Yellowstone. The park is the centerpiece of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the largest remaining nearly-intact ecosystem in the Earth's northern temperate zone.
Hundreds of species of mammals, birds, fish and reptiles have been documented, including several that are either endangered or threatened. The vast forests and grasslands also include unique species of plants. Yellowstone Park is the largest and most famous megafauna location in the Continental United States. Grizzly bears, wolves, and free-ranging herds of bison and elk live in the park. The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States. Forest fires occur in the park each year; in the large forest fires of 1988, nearly one third of the park was burnt. Yellowstone has numerous recreational opportunities, including hiking, camping, boating, fishing and sightseeing. Paved roads provide close access to the major geothermal areas as well as some of the lakes and waterfalls. During the winter, visitors often access the park by way of guided tours that use either snow coaches or snowmobiles.
The park is located at the headwaters of the Yellowstone River, from which it takes its historical name. Near the end of the 18th century, French trappers named the river "Roche Jaune", which is probably a translation of the Hidatsa name "Mi tsi a-da-zi" (Rock Yellow River). Later, American trappers rendered the French name in English as "Yellow Stone". Although it is commonly believed that the river was named for the yellow rocks seen in the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, the Native American name source is not clear.
The first detailed expedition to the Yellowstone area was the Cook–Folsom–Peterson Expedition of 1869, which consisted of three privately funded explorers. The Folsom party followed the Yellowstone River to Yellowstone Lake. The members of the Folsom party kept a journal and based on the information it reported, a party of Montana residents organized the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition in 1870. It was headed by the surveyor-general of Montana Henry Washburn, and included Nathaniel P. Langford (who later became known as "National Park" Langford) and a U.S. Army detachment commanded by Lt. Gustavus Doane.
The expedition spent about a month exploring the region, collecting specimens and naming sites of interest. A Montana writer and lawyer named Cornelius Hedges, who had been a member of the Washburn expedition, proposed that the region should be set aside and protected as a national park; he wrote a number of detailed articles about his observations for the Helena Herald newspaper between 1870 and 1871. Hedges essentially restated comments made in October 1865 by acting Montana Territorial Governor Thomas Francis Meagher, who had previously commented that the region should be protected. Others made similar suggestions. In an 1871 letter from Jay Cooke to Ferdinand V. Hayden, Cooke wrote that his friend, Congressman William D. Kelley had also suggested "Congress pass a bill reserving the Great Geyser Basin as a public park forever".
By 1915, 1,000 automobiles per year were entering the park, resulting in conflicts with horses and horse-drawn transportation. Horse travel on roads was eventually prohibited.
The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a New Deal relief agency for young men, played a major role between 1933 and 1942 in developing Yellowstone facilities. CCC projects included reforestation, campground development of many of the park's trails and campgrounds, trail construction, fire hazard reduction, and fire-fighting work. The CCC built the majority of the early visitor centers, campgrounds and the current system of park roads.
During World War II, tourist travel fell sharply, staffing was cut, and many facilities fell into disrepair. By the 1950s, visitation increased tremendously in Yellowstone and other national parks. To accommodate the increased visitation, park officials implemented Mission 66, an effort to modernize and expand park service facilities. Planned to be completed by 1966, in honor of the 50th anniversary of the founding of the National Park Service, Mission 66 construction diverged from the traditional log cabin style with design features of a modern style. During the late 1980s, most construction styles in Yellowstone reverted to the more traditional designs. After the enormous forest fires of 1988 damaged much of Grant Village, structures there were rebuilt in the traditional style. The visitor center at Canyon Village, which opened in 2006, incorporates a more traditional design as well.
A large arch made of irregular-shaped natural stone over a road
The 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake just west of Yellowstone at Hebgen Lake damaged roads and some structures in the park. In the northwest section of the park, new geysers were found, and many existing hot springs became turbid. It was the most powerful earthquake to hit the region in recorded history.
In 1963, after several years of public controversy regarding the forced reduction of the elk population in Yellowstone, United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall appointed an advisory board to collect scientific data to inform future wildlife management of the national parks. In a paper known as the Leopold Report, the committee observed that culling programs at other national parks had been ineffective, and recommended management of Yellowstone's elk population.
The wildfires during the summer of 1988 were the largest in the history of the park. Approximately 793,880 acres (321,272 ha; 1,240 sq mi) or 36% of the parkland was impacted by the fires, leading to a systematic re-evaluation of fire management policies. The fire season of 1988 was considered normal until a combination of drought and heat by mid-July contributed to an extreme fire danger. On "Black Saturday", August 20, 1988, strong winds expanded the fires rapidly, and more than 150,000 acres (61,000 ha; 230 sq mi) burned.
The expansive cultural history of the park has been documented by the 1,000 archeological sites that have been discovered. The park has 1,106 historic structures and features, and of these Obsidian Cliff and five buildings have been designated National Historic Landmarks. Yellowstone was designated an International Biosphere Reserve on October 26, 1976, and a UN World Heritage Site on September 8, 1978. The park was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger from 1995 to 2003 due to the effects of tourism, infection of wildlife, and issues with invasive species. In 2010, Yellowstone National Park was honored with its own quarter under the America the Beautiful Quarters Program.
Heritage and Research Center
The Heritage and Research Center is located at Gardiner, Montana, near the north entrance to the park. The center is home to the Yellowstone National Park's museum collection, archives, research library, historian, archeology lab, and herbarium. The Yellowstone National Park Archives maintain collections of historical records of Yellowstone and the National Park Service. The collection includes the administrative records of Yellowstone, as well as resource management records, records from major projects, and donated manuscripts and personal papers. The archives are affiliated with the National Archives and Records Administration.
Approximately 96 percent of the land area of Yellowstone National Park is located within the state of Wyoming. Another three percent is within Montana, with the remaining one percent in Idaho. The park is 63 miles (101 km) north to south, and 54 miles (87 km) west to east by air. Yellowstone is 2,219,789 acres (898,317 ha; 3,468.420 sq mi) in area, larger than the states of Rhode Island or Delaware. Rivers and lakes cover five percent of the land area, with the largest water body being Yellowstone Lake at 87,040 acres (35,220 ha; 136.00 sq mi). Yellowstone Lake is up to 400 feet (120 m) deep and has 110 miles (180 km) of shoreline. At an elevation of 7,733 feet (2,357 m) above sea level, Yellowstone Lake is the largest high altitude lake in North America. Forests comprise 80 percent of the land area of the park; most of the rest is grassland.
The Continental Divide of North America runs diagonally through the southwestern part of the park. The divide is a topographic feature that separates Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean water drainages. About one third of the park lies on the west side of the divide. The origins of the Yellowstone and Snake Rivers are near each other but on opposite sides of the divide. As a result, the waters of the Snake River flow to the Pacific Ocean, while those of the Yellowstone find their way to the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf of Mexico.
The park sits on the Yellowstone Plateau, at an average elevation of 8,000 feet (2,400 m) above sea level. The plateau is bounded on nearly all sides by mountain ranges of the Middle Rocky Mountains, which range from 9,000 to 11,000 feet (2,700 to 3,400 m) in elevation. The highest point in the park is atop Eagle Peak (11,358 feet or 3,462 metres) and the lowest is along Reese Creek (5,282 feet or 1,610 metres). Nearby mountain ranges include the Gallatin Range to the northwest, the Beartooth Mountains in the north, the Absaroka Range to the east, and the Teton Range and the Madison Range to the southwest and west. The most prominent summit on the Yellowstone Plateau is Mount Washburn at 10,243 feet (3,122 m).
Yellowstone National Park has one of the world's largest petrified forests, trees which were long ago buried by ash and soil and transformed from wood to mineral materials. This ash and other volcanic debris, are believed to have come from the park area itself. This is largely due to the fact that Yellowstone is actually a massive caldera of a supervolcano. There are 290 waterfalls of at least 15 feet (4.6 m) in the park, the highest being the Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River at 308 feet (94 m).
Three deep canyons are located in the park, cut through the volcanic tuff of the Yellowstone Plateau by rivers over the last 640,000 years. The Lewis River flows through Lewis Canyon in the south, and the Yellowstone River has carved two colorful canyons, the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone and the Black Canyon of the Yellowstone in its journey north.
Yellowstone is at the northeastern end of the Snake River Plain, a great U-shaped arc through the mountains that extends from Boise, Idaho some 400 miles (640 km) to the west. This feature traces the route of the North American Plate over the last 17 million years as it was transported by plate tectonics across a stationary mantle hotspot. The landscape of present-day Yellowstone National Park is the most recent manifestation of this hotspot below the crust of the Earth.
The Yellowstone Caldera is the largest volcanic system in North America. It has been termed a "supervolcano" because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions. The magma chamber that lies under Yellowstone is estimated to be a single connected chamber, about 37 miles (60 km) long, 18 miles (29 km) wide, and 3 to 7 miles (5 to 12 km) deep. The current caldera was created by a cataclysmic eruption that occurred 640,000 years ago, which released more than 240 cubic miles (1,000 km³) of ash, rock and pyroclastic materials. This eruption was more than 1,000 times larger than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. It produced a caldera nearly five eighths of a mile (1 km) deep and 45 by 28 miles (72 by 45 km) in area and deposited the Lava Creek Tuff, a welded tuff geologic formation. The most violent known eruption, which occurred 2.1 million years ago, ejected 588 cubic miles (2,450 km³) of volcanic material and created the rock formation known as the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff and created the Island Park Caldera. A smaller eruption ejected 67 cubic miles (280 km³) of material 1.3 million years ago, forming the Henry's Fork Caldera and depositing the Mesa Falls Tuff.
Each of the three climactic eruptions released vast amounts of ash that blanketed much of central North America, falling many hundreds of miles away. The amount of ash and gases released into the atmosphere probably caused significant impacts to world weather patterns and led to the extinction of some species, primarily in North America.
Wooden walkways allow visitors to closely approach the Grand Prismatic Spring.
A subsequent caldera-forming eruption occurred about 160,000 years ago. It formed the relatively small caldera that contains the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake. Since the last supereruption, a series of smaller eruptive cycles between 640,000 and 70,000 years ago, has nearly filled in the Yellowstone Caldera with >80 different eruptions of rhyolitic lavas such as those that can be seen at Obsidian Cliffs and basaltic lavas which can be viewed at Sheepeater Cliff. Lava strata are most easily seen at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, where the Yellowstone River continues to carve into the ancient lava flows. The canyon is a classic V-shaped valley, indicative of river-type erosion rather than erosion caused by glaciation.
Each eruption is part of an eruptive cycle that climaxes with the partial collapse of the roof of the volcano's partially emptied magma chamber. This creates a collapsed depression, called a caldera, and releases vast amounts of volcanic material, usually through fissures that ring the caldera. The time between the last three cataclysmic eruptions in the Yellowstone area has ranged from 600,000 to 800,000 years, but the small number of such climactic eruptions cannot be used to make an accurate prediction for future volcanic events.
The most famous geyser in the park, and perhaps the world, is Old Faithful Geyser, located in Upper Geyser Basin. Castle Geyser, Lion Geyser and Beehive Geyser are in the same basin. The park contains the largest active geyser in the world—Steamboat Geyser in the Norris Geyser Basin. A study that was completed in 2011 found that at least 1283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone. Of these, an average of 465 are active in a given year. Yellowstone contains at least 10,000 geothermal features altogether. Half the geothermal features and two-thirds of the world's geysers are concentrated in Yellowstone.
In May 2001, the U.S. Geological Survey, Yellowstone National Park, and the University of Utah created the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO), a partnership for long-term monitoring of the geological processes of the Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field, for disseminating information concerning the potential hazards of this geologically active region.
In 2003, changes at the Norris Geyser Basin resulted in the temporary closure of some trails in the basin. New fumaroles were observed, and several geysers showed enhanced activity and increasing water temperatures. Several geysers became so hot that they were transformed into purely steaming features; the water had become superheated and they could no longer erupt normally. This coincided with the release of reports of a multiple year United States Geological Survey research project which mapped the bottom of Yellowstone Lake and identified a structural dome that had uplifted at some time in the past. Research indicated that these uplifts posed no immediate threat of a volcanic eruption, since they may have developed long ago, and there had been no temperature increase found near the uplifts. On March 10, 2004, a biologist discovered 5 dead bison which apparently had inhaled toxic geothermal gases trapped in the Norris Geyser Basin by a seasonal atmospheric inversion. This was closely followed by an upsurge of earthquake activity in April 2004. In 2006, it was reported that the Mallard Lake Dome and the Sour Creek Dome— areas that have long been known to show significant changes in their ground movement— had risen at a rate of 1.5 to 2.4 inches (3.8 to 6.1 cm) per year from mid–2004 through 2006. As of late 2007, the uplift has continued at a reduced rate. These events inspired a great deal of media attention and speculation about the geologic future of the region. Experts responded to the conjecture by informing the public that there was no increased risk of a volcanic eruption in the near future. However, these changes demonstrate the dynamic nature of the Yellowstone hydrothermal system.
Yellowstone experiences thousands of small earthquakes every year, virtually all of which are undetectable to people. There have been six earthquakes with at least magnitude 6 or greater in historical times, including a 7.5‑magnitude quake that struck just outside the northwest boundary of the park in 1959. This quake triggered a huge landslide, which caused a partial dam collapse on Hebgen Lake; immediately downstream, the sediment from the landslide dammed the river and created a new lake, known as Earthquake Lake. Twenty-eight people were killed, and property damage was extensive in the immediate region. The earthquake caused some geysers in the northwestern section of the park to erupt, large cracks in the ground formed and emitted steam, and some hot springs that normally have clear water turned muddy. A 6.1‑magnitude earthquake struck inside the park on June 30, 1975, but damage was minimal.
For three months in 1985, 3,000 minor earthquakes were detected in the northwestern section of the park, during what has been referred to as an earthquake swarm, and has been attributed to minor subsidence of the Yellowstone caldera. Beginning on April 30, 2007, 16 small earthquakes with magnitudes up to 2.7 occurred in the Yellowstone Caldera for several days. These swarms of earthquakes are common, and there have been 70 such swarms between 1983 and 2008. In December 2008, over 250 earthquakes were measured over a four-day span under Yellowstone Lake, the largest measuring a magnitude of 3.9. In January 2010, more than 250 earthquakes were detected over a two-day period. Seismic activity in Yellowstone National Park continues and is reported hourly by the Earthquake Hazards Program of the U.S. Geological Survey.
On March 30, 2014, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck almost the very middle of Yellowstone near the Norris Basin at 6.34am; reports indicated no damage. This was the biggest earthquake to hit the park since February 22, 1980.
Over 1,700 species of trees and other vascular plants are native to the park. Another 170 species are considered to be exotic species and are non-native. Of the eight conifer tree species documented, Lodgepole Pine forests cover 80% of the total forested areas. Other conifers, such as Subalpine Fir, Engelmann Spruce, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and Whitebark Pine, are found in scattered groves throughout the park. As of 2007, the whitebark pine is threatened by a fungus known as white pine blister rust; however, this is mostly confined to forests well to the north and west. In Yellowstone, about seven percent of the whitebark pine species have been impacted with the fungus, compared to nearly complete infestations in northwestern Montana. Quaking Aspen and willows are the most common species of deciduous trees. The aspen forests have declined significantly since the early 20th century, but scientists at Oregon State University attribute recent recovery of the aspen to the reintroduction of wolves which has changed the grazing habits of local elk.
There are dozens of species of flowering plants that have been identified, most of which bloom between the months of May and September. The Yellowstone Sand Verbena is a rare flowering plant found only in Yellowstone. It is closely related to species usually found in much warmer climates, making the sand verbena an enigma. The estimated 8,000 examples of this rare flowering plant all make their home in the sandy soils on the shores of Yellowstone Lake, well above the waterline.
In Yellowstone's hot waters, bacteria form mats of bizarre shapes consisting of trillions of individuals. These bacteria are some of the most primitive life forms on earth. Flies and other arthropods live on the mats, even in the middle of the bitterly cold winters. Initially, scientists thought that microbes there gained sustenance only from sulfur. In 2005 researchers from the University of Colorado at Boulder discovered that the sustenance for at least some of the diverse hyperthermophilic species is molecular hydrogen.
Thermus aquaticus is a bacterium found in the Yellowstone hot springs that produces an important enzyme (Taq polymerase) that is easily replicated in the lab and is useful in replicating DNA as part of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process. The retrieval of these bacteria can be achieved with no impact to the ecosystem. Other bacteria in the Yellowstone hot springs may also prove useful to scientists who are searching for cures for various diseases.
Non-native plants sometimes threaten native species by using up nutrient resources. Though exotic species are most commonly found in areas with the greatest human visitation, such as near roads and at major tourist areas, they have also spread into the backcountry. Generally, most exotic species are controlled by pulling the plants out of the soil or by spraying, both of which are time consuming and expensive.
Yellowstone is widely considered to be the finest megafauna wildlife habitat in the lower 48 states. There are almost 60 species of mammals in the park, including the gray wolf, the threatened lynx, and grizzly bears. Other large mammals include the bison (often referred to as buffalo), black bear, elk, moose, mule deer, white-tailed deer, mountain goat, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, and mountain lion.
Bison graze near a hot spring
The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the largest public herd of American bison in the United States. The relatively large bison populations are a concern for ranchers, who fear that the species can transmit bovine diseases to their domesticated cousins. In fact, about half of Yellowstone's bison have been exposed to brucellosis, a bacterial disease that came to North America with European cattle that may cause cattle to miscarry. The disease has little effect on park bison, and no reported case of transmission from wild bison to domestic livestock has been filed. However, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has stated that bison are the "likely source" of the spread of the disease in cattle in Wyoming and North Dakota. Elk also carry the disease and are believed to have transmitted the infection to horses and cattle. Bison once numbered between 30 and 60 million individuals throughout North America, and Yellowstone remains one of their last strongholds. Their populations had increased from less than 50 in the park in 1902 to 4,000 by 2003. The Yellowstone Park bison herd reached a peak in 2005 with 4,900 animals. Despite a summer estimated population of 4,700 in 2007, the number dropped to 3,000 in 2008 after a harsh winter and controversial brucellosis management sending hundreds to slaughter. The Yellowstone Park bison herd is believed to be one of only four free roaming and genetically pure herds on public lands in North America. The other three herds are the Henry Mountains bison herd of Utah, at Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota and on Elk Island in Alberta.
Elk Mother Nursing Her Calf
To combat the perceived threat of brucellosis transmission to cattle, national park personnel regularly harass bison herds back into the park when they venture outside of the area's borders. During the winter of 1996–97, the bison herd was so large that 1,079 bison that had exited the park were shot or sent to slaughter. Animal rights activists argue that this is a cruel practice and that the possibility for disease transmission is not as great as some ranchers maintain. Ecologists point out that the bison are merely traveling to seasonal grazing areas that lie within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem that have been converted to cattle grazing, some of which are within National Forests and are leased to private ranchers. APHIS has stated that with vaccinations and other means, brucellosis can be eliminated from the bison and elk herds throughout Yellowstone.
A reintroduced northwestern wolf in Yellowstone National Park
Starting in 1914, in an effort to protect elk populations, the U.S. Congress appropriated funds to be used for the purposes of "destroying wolves, prairie dogs, and other animals injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry" on public lands. Park Service hunters carried out these orders, and by 1926 they had killed 136 wolves, and wolves were virtually eliminated from Yellowstone. Further exterminations continued until the National Park Service ended the practice in 1935. With the passing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973, the wolf was one of the first mammal species listed. After the wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone, the coyote then became the park's top canine predator. However, the coyote is not able to bring down large animals, and the result of this lack of a top predator on these populations was a marked increase in lame and sick megafauna.
Bison in Yellowstone National Park
By the 1990s, the Federal government had reversed its views on wolves. In a controversial decision by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (which oversees threatened and endangered species), northwestern wolves, imported from Canada, were reintroduced into the park. Reintroduction efforts have been successful with populations remaining relatively stable. A survey conducted in 2005 reported that there were 13 wolf packs, totaling 118 individuals in Yellowstone and 326 in the entire ecosystem. These park figures were lower than those reported in 2004 but may be attributable to wolf migration to other nearby areas as suggested by the substantial increase in the Montana population during that interval. Almost all the wolves documented were descended from the 66 wolves reintroduced in 1995–96. The recovery of populations throughout the states of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho has been so successful that on February 27, 2008, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service removed the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf population from the endangered species list.
An estimated 600 grizzly bears live in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, with more than half of the population living within Yellowstone. The grizzly is currently listed as a threatened species, however the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has announced that they intend to take it off the endangered species list for the Yellowstone region but will likely keep it listed in areas where it has not yet recovered fully. Opponents of delisting the grizzly are concerned that states might once again allow hunting and that better conservation measures need to be implemented to ensure a sustainable population. Black bears are common in the park and were a park symbol due to visitor interaction with the bears starting in 1910. Feeding and close contact with bears has not been permitted since the 1960s to reduce their desire for human foods. Yellowstone is one of the few places in the United States where black bears can be seen coexisting with grizzly bears. Black bear observations occur most often in the park's northern ranges and in the Bechler area which is in the park's southwestern corner.
Population figures for elk are in excess of 30,000—the largest population of any large mammal species in Yellowstone. The northern herd has decreased enormously since the mid‑1990s; this has been attributed to wolf predation and causal effects such as elk using more forested regions to evade predation, consequently making it harder for researchers to accurately count them. The northern herd migrates west into southwestern Montana in the winter. The southern herd migrates southward, and the majority of these elk winter on the National Elk Refuge, immediately southeast of Grand Teton National Park. The southern herd migration is the largest mammalian migration remaining in the U.S. outside of Alaska.
In 2003 the tracks of one female lynx and her cub were spotted and followed for over 2 miles (3.2 km). Fecal material and other evidence obtained were tested and confirmed to be those of a lynx. No visual confirmation was made, however. Lynx have not been seen in Yellowstone since 1998, though DNA taken from hair samples obtained in 2001 confirmed that lynx were at least transient to the park. Other less commonly seen mammals include the mountain lion and wolverine. The mountain lion has an estimated population of only 25 individuals parkwide. The wolverine is another rare park mammal, and accurate population figures for this species are not known. These uncommon and rare mammals provide insight into the health of protected lands such as Yellowstone and help managers make determinations as to how best to preserve habitats.
Eighteen species of fish live in Yellowstone, including the core range of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout—a fish highly sought by anglers. The Yellowstone cutthroat trout has faced several threats since the 1980s, including the suspected illegal introduction into Yellowstone Lake of lake trout, an invasive species which consume the smaller cutthroat trout. Although lake trout were established in Shoshone and Lewis lakes in the Snake River drainage from U.S. Government stocking operations in 1890, it was never officially introduced into the Yellowstone River drainage. The cutthroat trout has also faced an ongoing drought, as well as the accidental introduction of a parasite—whirling disease—which causes a terminal nervous system disease in younger fish. Since 2001, all native sport fish species caught in Yellowstone waterways are subject to a catch and release law. Yellowstone is also home to six species of reptiles, such as the painted turtle and Prairie rattlesnake, and four species of amphibians, including the Boreal Chorus Frog.
311 species of birds have been reported, almost half of which nest in Yellowstone. As of 1999, twenty-six pairs of nesting bald eagles have been documented. Extremely rare sightings of whooping cranes have been recorded, however only three examples of this species are known to live in the Rocky Mountains, out of 385 known worldwide. Other birds, considered to be species of special concern because of their rarity in Yellowstone, include the common loon, harlequin duck, osprey, peregrine falcon and the trumpeter swan.
As wildfire is a natural part of most ecosystems, plants that are indigenous to Yellowstone have adapted in a variety of ways. Douglas-fir have a thick bark which protects the inner section of the tree from most fires. Lodgepole Pines —the most common tree species in the park— generally have cones that are only opened by the heat of fire. Their seeds are held in place by a tough resin, and fire assists in melting the resin, allowing the seeds to disperse. Fire clears out dead and downed wood, providing fewer obstacles for lodgepole pines to flourish. Subalpine Fir, Engelmann Spruce, Whitebark Pine, and other species tend to grow in colder and moister areas, where fire is less likely to occur. Aspen trees sprout new growth from their roots, and even if a severe fire kills the tree above ground, the roots often survive unharmed because they are insulated from the heat by soil. The National Park Service estimates that in natural conditions, grasslands in Yellowstone burned an average of every 20 to 25 years, while forests in the park would experience fire about every 300 years.
About thirty-five natural forest fires are ignited each year by lightning, while another six to ten are started by people— in most cases by accident. Yellowstone National Park has three fire lookout towers, each staffed by trained fire fighters. The easiest one to reach is atop Mount Washburn, though it is closed to the public. The park also monitors fire from the air and relies on visitor reports of smoke and/or flames. Fire towers are staffed almost continuously from late June to mid-September— the primary fire season. Fires burn with the greatest intensity in the late afternoon and evening. Few fires burn more than 100 acres (40 ha), and the vast majority of fires reach only a little over an acre (0.5 ha) before they burn themselves out. Fire management focuses on monitoring dead and down wood quantities, soil and tree moisture, and the weather, to determine those areas most vulnerable to fire should one ignite. Current policy is to suppress all human caused fires and to evaluate natural fires, examining the benefit or detriment they may pose on the ecosystem. If a fire is considered to be an immediate threat to people and structures, or will burn out of control, then fire suppression is performed.
In an effort to minimize the chances of out of control fires and threats to people and structures, park employees do more than just monitor the potential for fire. Controlled burns are prescribed fires which are deliberately started to remove dead timber under conditions which allow fire fighters an opportunity to carefully control where and how much wood is consumed. Natural fires are sometimes considered prescribed fires if they are left to burn. In Yellowstone, unlike some other parks, there have been very few fires deliberately started by employees as prescribed burns. However, over the last 30 years, over 300 natural fires have been allowed to burn naturally. In addition, fire fighters remove dead and down wood and other hazards from areas where they will be a potential fire threat to lives and property, reducing the chances of fire danger in these areas. Fire monitors also regulate fire through educational services to the public and have been known to temporarily ban campfires from campgrounds during periods of high fire danger. The common notion in early United States land management policies was that all forest fires were bad. Fire was seen as a purely destructive force and there was little understanding that it was an integral part of the ecosystem. Consequently, until the 1970s, when a better understanding of wildfire was developed, all fires were suppressed. This led to an increase in dead and dying forests, which would later provide the fuel load for fires that would be much harder, and in some cases, impossible to control. Fire Management Plans were implemented, detailing that natural fires should be allowed to burn if they posed no immediate threat to lives and property.
1988 started with a wet spring season although by summer, drought began moving in throughout the northern Rockies, creating the driest year on record to that point. Grasses and plants which grew well in the early summer from the abundant spring moisture produced plenty of grass, which soon turned to dry tinder. The National Park Service began firefighting efforts to keep the fires under control, but the extreme drought made suppression difficult. Between July 15 and 21, 1988, fires quickly spread from 8,500 acres (3,400 ha; 13.3 sq mi) throughout the entire Yellowstone region, which included areas outside the park, to 99,000 acres (40,000 ha; 155 sq mi) on the park land alone. By the end of the month, the fires were out of control. Large fires burned together, and on August 20, 1988, the single worst day of the fires, more than 150,000 acres (61,000 ha; 230 sq mi) were consumed. Seven large fires were responsible for 95% of the 793,000 acres (321,000 ha; 1,239 sq mi) that were burned over the next couple of months. A total of 25,000 firefighters and U.S. military forces participated in the suppression efforts, at a cost of 120 million dollars. By the time winter brought snow that helped extinguish the last flames, the fires had destroyed 67 structures and caused several million dollars in damage. Though no civilian lives were lost, two personnel associated with the firefighting efforts were killed.
Contrary to media reports and speculation at the time, the fires killed very few park animals— surveys indicated that only about 345 elk (of an estimated 40,000–50,000), 36 deer, 12 moose, 6 black bears, and 9 bison had perished. Changes in fire management policies were implemented by land management agencies throughout the United States, based on knowledge gained from the 1988 fires and the evaluation of scientists and experts from various fields. By 1992, Yellowstone had adopted a new fire management plan which observed stricter guidelines for the management of natural fires.
from Wikipedia
The Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project is a currently non-producing solar thermal power project with an installed capacity of 110 megawatt (MW) and 1.1 gigawatt-hours of energy storage located near Tonopah, about 190 miles northwest of Las Vegas. Crescent Dunes was the first concentrated solar power (CSP) plant with a central receiver tower and advanced molten salt energy storage technology.
Startup energy venture company SolarReserve, created via seed funding by US Renewables Group and United Technologies, was the original owner of Tonopah Solar Energy LLC, the owner and operator of the Crescent Dunes plant. The Crescent Dunes project was subsequently backed by a $737 million in U.S. government loan guarantees and by Tonopah partnering with Cobra Thermosolar Plants, Inc. The overall venture had a projected cost of less than $1 billion. The plant suffered several design, construction and technical problems, only achieving about a 20% capacity factor in 2018, resulting in lawsuits and changes of control. The Crescent Dunes site has not produced power since April 2019 and its sole customer, NV Energy, subsequently terminated their contract.
Since the initial failure of the Crescent Dunes project, SolarReserve took down their website and was believed to have permanently ceased operations. Upon the developer's silence as the involved parties sought legal recourse, the plant's exact status was publicly unknown for some time and was left to conjecture.
While proceeding through its subsequent bankruptcy proceedings, Tonopah Solar Energy stated that it had hopes for a restart of the Crescent Dunes plant by the end of 2020. According to court documents, Tonopah is owned by SolarReserve, Cobra Energy Investment LLC, a division of Spanish construction company ACS Group and Banco Santander, S.A.. On September 11, 2020, the bankruptcy court approved Tonopah Solar Energy's disclosure statement. On December 3, 2020 the Chapter 11 bankruptcy reorganization plan was confirmed by the court. As one result of this plan's confirmation, Cobra now has operational control of the plant.
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Status Date
Status DateJuly 07, 2021
Background
Break Ground Date2011
Expected Generation (GWh/year)500
Lat/Long Location38.239,-117.363
Total Power Station Land
Participants
DeveloperSolarReserve, ACS Cobra
USA, Spain
EPCCobra
Spain
OperatorSolarReserve's Tonopah Solar Energy, LLC
Electricity Generation OfftakerNV Energy
Costs
Total Construction Cost (2015)$ 983.00 million
Total Cost USD (2020)$1032.24 million
Specific Cost/kW USD (2020)$ 9384
LCOE USD/kWh (2020)$ 0.18
Levelised cost of electricity with 5% weighted average cost of capital and a 25 year payback period, capacity dependent O&M (1.5% of investment cost per year), deflated from Year_operational using the Worldbank's GDP deflator; if station under development or construction then not deflated (assumed cost year 2020)
Remuneration USD/kWh0.14
Remuneration Start Year2015
Remuneration USD/kWh Deflated (2020)0.14
PPA or Tariff Period (Years)25
Support Scheme TypeTender/PPA
Concessional Funding or Other SupportFederal Loan Guarantee $737 million, 30% investment tax credit
Plant Configuration
Solar Field
Solar Field Aperture Area (m²)1197148
# of Heliostats (or dishes for dish systems)10347
Heliostat Aperture Area (m²) (or dish aperature for dish systems)116
Collector/Heliostat Engineering or IP OwnerSolarrserve
USA
Collector/Heliostat ModelRocketdyne (Solarreserve)
Mirror ManufacturerFlabeg
Germany
Solar Field (Receiver)
Receiver Working FluidMolten salt
Receiver Working Fluid CategorySalt
Tower Height (m)195
Receiver ManufacturerRocketdyne (SolarReserve)
USA
Receiver ModelExternal - cylindrical
Power Block
Nominal Turbine or Power Cycle Capacity110 MW
Turbine ManufacturerAlstom
France
Power CycleSteam Rankine
Power Cycle Pressure (Bar)115
Cooling TypeHybrid
Thermal Energy Storage
Storage Type2-tank direct
Storage Capacity (Hours)10
Storage DescriptionThermal energy storage achieved by raising salt temperature from 550 to 1050 F. Thermal storage efficiency is 99%
For the first churchly visit of that November 2023 trip to the southern French provinces of Roussillon and Languedoc, I will treat you to a truly unique place, the so-called “priory” of Serrabone, which features an absolute world-class masterpiece of Romanesque sculpture: its tribune.
I said “so-called” above because a priory, in the genuine acception of the word, is a secondary monastery established by an abbey. It is populated by monks sent by that abbey. Those monks are led by a prior, whose superior is the abbot of the founding abbey. In the case of Serrabone, there first was a late Carolingian parochial church established in this mountainous locale and first mentioned in writing in 1069. The walls of the nave are, for some part, still those of that ancient church.
It was then, at a time when local lords used to meddle more and more in the affairs of the Church (which was one of the reasons that prompted the coming of the Gregorian reform), that the viscount of Cerdagne and the local lord of Corsavy installed on the Serrabone mountaintop an unusually mixed group of canons and canonesses to live in accordance with the Augustinian Rule.
A new college church was built (mostly by enlarging the previous one) and consecrated in 1151. Its architecture is harmonious but very simple, as one would expect: in the Middle Ages, those mountains were populated (hence the creation of the parish) and did feed their inhabitants (serra bona in Catalan means “good mountain”), but there was precious little commerce with the outside world and the locals had nothing of real value to export. Therefore, the local economy was pretty much a closed circuit and money was far from flowing in abundantly. The style of the church, even though there were donations from the aforementioned lords, reflects this paucity of financial resources.
It is therefore a total mystery how the magnificent sculpted tribune, which would have cost a veritable fortune, was funded, and by whom. Nothing has ever been demonstrated in that matter, although many have conjectured in various directions. The only certainty we have is that it was built around the time when the church itself was completed, i.e., the mid–1150s.
The culmination of the “priory” did not last very long: canons and canonesses are not monks and nuns, their commitment is found throughout history and places to be much less strong, and by the late 1200s they had already broken communal life and begun to live in their own separate homes. Decadence went to such extremes that the “priory” was secularized by the pope in the 16th century and made a dependency of the chapter of the cathedral of Solsona. The last “prior” died in 1612 and the church returned to its simple parochial status.
The place was progressively abandoned as people left the mountains to go live easier lives in the valleys. It was almost in ruins when it was listed as a Historic Landmark in 1875 and the restoration began. Fortunately, the tribune had been protected and its capitals and columns hidden by the locals.
The underside of the tribune.
If it wasn't for a brown sign pointing down a farm track at the edge of the village of Duloe in south-east Cornwall it is highly unlikely that anyone would find this small stone circle. In fact, it wasn't recognised as such for a considerable time as a hedge once went right through the centre of it. The prehistoric stone circle at Duloe, near Looe, is the smallest in Cornwall with a diameter of around twelve metres. It is thought to have been constructed around 2,000BC. The stones seem likely to have come from Herodsfoot, about two miles away. The largest weighs about nine tons. There has been much conjecture as to their purpose, but in truth we may never know why the ancient peoples constructed them.
The Bara Gumbad, or "big dome," is a large domed structure grouped together with the Friday mosque of Sikander Lodi and a mehman khana (guesthouse), located in New Delhi's Lodi Gardens. The buildings were constructed at different times during the Lodi era and occupy a common raised platform. Formerly an outlying area of Delhi, the Lodi Gardens are a British-planned landscaped garden which includes a number of monuments (primarily tombs) from the Sayyid and the Lodi dynasties. Originally called Willingdon Park, the gardens were located in the former village of Khairpur, now on the edge of Lutyen's Delhi, the colonial capital built by the British in the early 20th century. The gardens, which cover approx. 70 acres, have come to be surrounded by institutional buildings and some of contemporary Delhi's most expensive real estate.
Although they were built under the same dynasty, each of the three structures was undertaken separately. The Bara Gumbad, completed in 1490, is considered to have the first full dome constructed in Delhi. Its original purpose is contested; although it appears to be a freestanding tomb, it contains no tombstone. This causes the speculation that the building might have been intended as a gateway for the Friday mosque; however, their respective placements, stylistic differences, and construction dates do not support this theory. The Friday mosque, completed in 1494, is the first example of the new mosque type that developed during the Lodi era. Characterized by a relatively simple five bay prayer hall building adjacent to a simple open courtyard, this type was an important precedent for mosque architecture in the Lodi and Mughal eras.
The complex can be accessed from various points along the roads bordering the Lodi Gardens, with the access from the Lodi road towards the south most prominent. The buildings are situated at a distance of about 300 meters from Muhammad Shah's tomb towards the south and about 380 meters from Sikander Lodi's tomb towards the north. Another prominent structure, the Shish Gumbad, is located facing the Bara Gumbad at a distance of about seventy-five meters towards the north. The area surrounding the buildings is landscaped with manicured grass lawns. Few trees are planted in the immediate vicinity, leaving the view of the structures unobscured. The path winding through the Lodi Gardens approaches the buildings axially from the north, although the building plinth is accessible all from all sides.
The buildings are sited on a three-meter-high platform, measuring approximately 30 meters (east-west) by 25 meters (north-south). The Friday mosque is located along the western edge of the platform; the guesthouse is sited opposite it, occupying the eastern edge, while the Bara Gumbad is located along the southern edge. Stone masonry walls, about six meters high, connect the three structures along the southern edge. The northern edge is provided with staircases for accessing the platform. A centrally located straight flight comprising of eight steps, about ten meters wide, connects the ground to a generous mid landing. Another 'C' shaped flight of eight steps wraps around the landing, creating an amphitheatre-like space and reaching the top of the platform. The current arrangement of steps appears to be more recent, and the remains of walls adjoining the southern face of the guesthouse and the mosque indicate that the northern edge might have originally been walled. In the center of the raised court, with its southern edge along the staircase, are the remains of a square shaped platform, 8 meters wide, which appears to be a grave.
Friday mosque:
The Friday mosque is a single aisled, rectangular building, approx. 30 meters (north-south) by 8 meters (east-west). The mosque is organized in five unequal bays, which correspond to the five arched doorways on the eastern (entry) elevation. The width of the arched doorways decreases from the center towards the sides. The arches span across grey granite piers. The central arch is framed within a projecting rectangular portal, measuring about 8 meters in height by 6 meters wide. The piers of the rectangular frame are cased in dressed granite and have three shallow arched niches in red sandstone, occurring vertically above the springing point of the arch, on either side. The doorway itself is described by four receding planes of ogee arches, the outermost one being in line with the external face of the rectangular portal. The doorways immediately to the side of the central portal are about 5 meters wide, while those at the two ends are approx. 1.5 meters wide with two receding planes of ogee arches, adding to the prominence of the central doorway. The apex of each innermost arch is constant, measuring approx. 5 meters from the top of the platform. Each arch is finished in plaster and embellished with intricate carved Arabic inscriptions. The spandrels are also heavily carved with geometric motifs, and their the corners are adorned with round inscribed plaster medallions. Red sandstone eaves (chajjas) on stone brackets top the arches, interrupted only by the central projecting portal that extends above them. There is a blank plastered frieze above the eaves, followed by the projecting horizontal bands of the cornice that is topped by a blind masonry parapet adorned with petal shaped crenellations with inscribed plaster medallions.
The interior of the prayer hall reflects the five bay division of the eastern elevation. It is a rectangular space, measuring about 27 meters (north-south) by about 7 meters (east-west). Additional arches spanning between the piers on the eastern elevation and the engaged piers of the western wall emphasize the demarcation of the interior space into bays. These internal ogee arches reach a height of about five meters. They are finished in plaster and profusely decorated with carvings of Arabic inscriptions. The piers are unornamented, dressed gray granite.
The qibla (western) wall of the prayer hall is a blind wall divided into five unequal bays expressed as recessed ogee arched niches, reflecting the arched openings on the eastern wall. The two bays adjacent to the central bay have three equal niches carved out from the portion below the springing line of the main arch. These niches are separated by granite piers, which have smaller arched niches in the top third of their elevation. The three niches are made of two layers of ogee arches framed by the piers. The external layer is in gray-yellow granite, while the interior arch is made of red sandstone. The central niche is mildly distinguishable from the others because its arched portion is curved and the imposts are engraved, while those of the adjacent arches are plain. The innermost rectangular portion of the central niche is blank, while that of the adjoining niches has the carving of a vase and flora inscribed in it. The tympanum of the main outer arch is finished in plaster and has an additional niche directly above the central niche which is embellished heavily with plaster carvings of Arabic inscriptions. A band of similar inscriptions runs along the interior perimeter of the arch and around the upper niche in a closed loop. The voussoirs of the outer arch are plastered and embellished with another layer of carvings. The central bay of the western wall also has three niches, each made of four recessed planes of alternating rectangular and arched profiles. The central mihrab niche is taller and wider. It is also shallower and the innermost plane is blank, while the other two niches are deeper set with relief work. A stone minbar with three steps has been provided abutting the northern pier of the central niche.
Hemispherical domes cover the three central bays, while the terminal bays are covered by low flat vaulted ceilings. The square plan of the three central bays transitions into an octagonal drum through the application of corbelled pendentives at the corners. The corbelling occurs in four layers, which increases in width from the bottom up. The layers are further embellished with curved niches set into rectangular frames, which also increase in number, the lowest corbel having one and the last corbel having five such niches. The last layers of the pendentives form alternate edges of the octagonal drum; the remaining edges being formed by the extension of the walls and are also provided with similar curved niches. The octagonal drum transitions into a hexadecagon, followed by a thirty-two-sided polygon by the provisions of small struts. Each face of the hexadecagon is provided with shallow niches, while the thirty-two-sided polygon is described by a projecting band of red sandstone, followed by a band of inscriptions finally topped by the hemispherical dome. The dome is finished in plain plaster. The voussoirs of the arches, the pendentives and the tympanum are all covered by intricate stucco Arabic inscriptions. The central dome is relatively higher that the other two domes.
The northern and southern walls of the mosque are punctured by ogee arch doorways below the springline of the main arch. Each opening leads to a projecting balcony, comprising of red sandstone posts supporting a tiered roof. The balconies protrude out from the faade and are supported on red sandstone brackets, whose profiles and carvings are characteristic of Hindu architecture. An elaborately carved arched niche is provided above each opening on the interior wall. It is set into a rectangular frame embossed with Arabic text.
The plasterwork on the external northern and southern walls of the mosque has fallen off, exposing the stone masonry, while that on the western wall has survived. The central bay of the western wall projects out and is marked by two solid towers at the corners. These towers are divided vertically into four layers; the first two layers from the bottom are orthogonal, while the third layer has alternating curved and angular fluting; the top layer, extending over the parapet of the mosque, has a circular section. The corners of the mosque are marked by similar tapering towers, which are divided into four layers. Each layer is circular in plan except the third layer, which is described by alternating curved and angular fluting. All the towers have the remains of finials at their apex. The central projecting wall has four red sandstone brackets in its upper third portion, which may have supported a projecting balcony similar to those on the north and south elevations.
The plasterwork on the walls of the plinth is now gone, exposing the rubble masonry construction below. The western face of the plinth is punctured by five ogee arch openings set into rectangular frames, one in the center and two each on the sides. These openings provide access to the basement within the plinth.
The roof has three domes corresponding to the three central bays of the prayer hall and the three central arches on the eastern elevation. The extrados of the domes are finished in plaster. The octagonal drums supporting the domes protrude out over the roof level, above which the circular bases of the domes are decorated with blind crestings having floral motifs. The central dome is marginally larger than the adjacent domes and all three have the remains of lotus finials at their apex.
Bara Gumbad:
Square in plan, the Bara Gumbad measures approx. 20 meters per side. Set on a plinth 3 meters high, it joins the common plinth on the north and projects beyond it to the south. Its plinth is decorated on the east, south, and west with ogee arch openings set into rectangular frames. These provide access to a basement.The walls of the Bara Gumbad are approx. 12 meters tall, above which a hemispherical dome on a hexadecagonal drum extends another 14 meters from the roof level, for a total building height of 29 meters above ground level.
Each of its elevations is nearly identical and divided into 2 horizontal sections. A projecting portal composed of an ogee arch set in a rectangular frame (approx. 8 meters wide), is centered in each elevation and rises approximately 75 cm above the parapet line of the building. The 1.5 meter wide frame is made of dressed gray granite. Each vertical pier of the frame has six shallow red sandstone niches arranged atop one another at varying heights; nine niches continue in a line along the horizontal portion of the frame. The portal is described by two receding planes of grey granite ogee arches; the spandrels are cased with black granite with a thin projecting edge of red sandstone. Two round plaster medallions adorn the spandrels. The lower layer of the portal has a central doorway, spanned by two red sandstone brackets that form a trabeated arch supporting a black granite lintel. These brackets are supported on grey granite posts. An intricately carved red sandstone frame adorns the brackets and the lintel; it starts at the springing point of the arch and frames the lintel of the doorway. The entire composition is set in a rectangular yellow sandstone frame. An ogee arch window has been provided above the trabeated entrance. The portal is crowned by the arched crenellations of the blind parapet. Solid turrets mark the projecting corners of the portal.
The remainder of the elevation, that flanking the central portal on either side and recessed behind it, is divided vertically into two equivalent parts by projecting horizontal bands of stone. Each part is described by two equal arched panels set into rectangular frames. Both the panels of the upper part on either side of the portal are blind and filled with granite masonry. The lower panels located adjacent to the portal are windows, while the lower panels at the edges are filled in. The parapet, like the portal, is decorated with arched crenellations, and the roof has solid turrets at each corner.
A single hemispherical dome surmounted on a sixteen-sided drum crowns the building. Each face of the drum is described by an ogee arched niche set in a rectangular frame. The voussoirs of the arches are gray granite, while the spandrels are clad with red sandstone. The top edge of the drum is decorated with a band of arched crenellations, similar to those on the roof parapets, running above a projecting band of stone that surrounds the drum. Below this projection is band of leaves carved in relief. The extrados of the dome are finished in smooth plaster. The lotus base, possibly for a vanished calyx finial, is still extant.
The structure can be entered either from the raised courtyard via the north elevation or from a double flight of steps located on the western elevation. Inside, the square building measures about seven meters per side. An 80 cm high, 45 cm wide solid seat runs continuously along the interior perimeter of the building. Light streams in from all four walls, which are punctured by the openings of the doorway at the ground level and the ogee arch window above. The interior surfaces of the Gumbad are unornamented and finished in dressed granite. The square plan of the room transitions into an octagon via squinches, which then support the thirty-two-sided drum and the dome. The apex of the dome has two bands of floral inscriptions; otherwise, the dome is finished in plaster. The absence of historical inscriptions has contributed to the confusion over the original purpose of the Bara Gumbad.
Mehman Khana:
The third structure in the group is rectangular in plan, measuring about 27 meters (north-south) by 7 seven meters (east-west). Located along the eastern edge of the common plinth, it faces the mosque and is connected to the Bara Gumbad by a masonry wall along its northern face. The structure is believed to have either been a mehman khana, (guesthouse) or a majlis khana (assembly hall).
The building is accessed from the common plinth through its western wall, which is divided into five bays, mirroring the eastern elevation of the mosque opposite it. The three central bays are considerably larger and have ogee arch doorways, giving access to the interior, while windows puncture the smaller end bays. The arches are set in rectangular frames, which are recessed from the face of the elevation. Each opening is composed of two recessed planes of arches. The spandrels are clad in red sandstone, contrasting with the gray granite of the elevation, and are decorated with round plaster medallions with lotus motifs. The window openings have an additional tie beam or lintel at the springline. The tympanum of the window towards the south has been filled with stone, while that of the window towards the north has been left open. A continuous chajja, supported on equidistant stone brackets, projects from the western wall above the rectangular frame. The cornice is unornamented and is topped by the projecting horizontal band of the parapet, which reaches a height of approximately five meters from the top of the raised plinth. The roof of the structure is flat. The exterior of the building lacks decoration and is finished in dressed granite.
The interior is divided into seven chambers occurring from north to south; the central chamber is the largest, measuring about 5 meters (north-south) long. It is abutted by relatively narrow chambers (approx. 2.5 meters long). The outside chambers which flank the 2.5 meter wide chambers on either side are approximately the size of the central chamber, and correspond to the arched openings in the western wall. The chambers are separated from each other by gray granite walls, punctured by simple ogee arched doorways set in rectangular frames. Square in plan, the outer rooms are separated from the adjacent chambers by stone walls with rectangular door openings with blind ogee arches and rectangular frames. Each doorway has shallow rectangular recesses on either side, as well as a small arched window set into a rectangular recess and a stone jali screen set above the doorway within the tympanum of the main arch. The eastern wall of the building has blind ogee arches, occurring as two successive planes, reflecting the arched openings of the western elevation.
The roof of the central chamber is flat and supported on arches located on four sides; flat stone brackets appear at the corners. The two adjacent rooms are covered by shallow domes supported on squinches. The interior domes are finished in plaster with carved concave fluting. The exterior of the domes has been filled to blend with the flat roof of the central room.
Certain stylistic continuities are recognizable in the three buildings; each was constructed with (local) gray granite and lime mortar. However, the degree and type of embellishment, both interior and exterior, on the mosque differs substantially from that found on the other two, relatively unadorned, buildings.
Apart from the grouping of the three structures and their stylistic similarities, the buildings do not appear to have been planned as a complex. The Friday mosque is the first example of the panchmukhi building type, where "panch" (five) and "mukhi " (facade) characterize a five-bay prayer hall. This approach was influential in both the Lodi and the Mughal periods. The Bara Gumbad is significant for having the first complete hemispherical dome in Delhi.
The differences in the surface ornament of the buildings suggest that the buildings were constructed at different times, with the Bara Gumbad and the guesthouse being similar in style and decoration, without the multilayered arches of the Friday mosque. The function of the Bara Gumbad is still unknown; its geometry and form aligns with the predominant tomb architecture of the period (like the neighboring Shish Gumbad). However, there is no grave or cenotaph in the building, and rather than being blank, its qibla wall (like its other walls) is punctured by an entrance. While the continuous stone bench in the interior is also found in gateway architecture, (as in the Alai Darwaza at the Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Mehrauli), the size of the Bara Gumbad vis-a-vis the Friday mosque does not support this conjecture. Some scholars surmise that the structure might have been a gateway to the larger complex of tombs within the Lodi Gardens.
Lodi Dynasty
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The Lodi dynasty in India arose around 1451 after the Sayyid dynasty. The Lodhi Empire was established by the Ghizlai tribe of the Afghans. They formed the last phase of the Delhi Sultanate. There were three main rulers in the history of Lodi dynasty. All three of them have been discussed in detail in the following lines. So read on about the Lodi dynasty history.
Buhlul Khan Lodi
Buhlul Khan Lodi (1451-1489) was the founder of the Lodi dynasty in India and the first Afghan ruler of Delhi. He was an Afghan noble who was a very brave soldier. Buhlul Khan seized the throne without much resistance from the then ruler, Alam Shah. His territory was spread across Jaunpur, Gwalior and northern Uttar Pradesh. During his reign in 1486, he appointed his eldest son Barbak Shah as the Viceroy of Jaunpur. Though he was an able ruler, he really couldn't decide as to which son of his should succeed him as the heir to the throne.
Sikandar Lodi
After the death of Buhlul Khan, his second son succeeded him as the king. He was given the title of Sultan Sikander Shah. He was a dedicated ruler and made all efforts to expand his territories and strengthen his empire. His empire extended from Punjab to Bihar and he also signed a treaty with the ruler of Bengal, Alauddin Hussain Shah. He was the one who founded a new town where the modern day Agra stands. He was known to be a kind and generous ruler who cared for his subjects.
Ibrahim Lodhi
Ibrahim Lodhi was the son of Sikander who succeeded him after his death. Due to the demands of the nobles, his younger brother Jalal Khan was given a small share of the kingdom and was crowned the ruler of Jaunpur. However, Ibrahim's men assassinated him soon and the kingdom came back to Ibrahim Lodhi. Ibrahim was known to be a very stern ruler and was not liked much by his subjects. In order to take revenge of the insults done by Ibrahim, the governor of Lahore Daulat Khan Lodhi asked the ruler of Kabul, Babur to invade his kingdom. Ibrahim Lodhi was thus killed in a battle with Babur who was the founder of the Mughal dynasty in India. With the death of Ibrahim Lodhi, the Lodhi dynasty also came to an end.
Yellowstone National Park (Arapaho: Henihco'oo or Héetíhco'oo) is a national park located primarily in the U.S. state of Wyoming, although it also extends into Montana and Idaho. It was established by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1872. Yellowstone, widely held to be the first national park in the world, is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features, especially Old Faithful Geyser, one of the most popular features in the park. It has many types of ecosystems, but the subalpine forest is most abundant. It is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion.
Yellowstone National Park spans an area of 3,468.4 square miles (8,983 km2), comprising lakes, canyons, rivers and mountain ranges. Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high-altitude lakes in North America and is centered over the Yellowstone Caldera, the largest supervolcano on the continent. The caldera is considered an active volcano. It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years. Half of the world's geothermal features are in Yellowstone, fueled by this ongoing volcanism. Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the land area of Yellowstone. The park is the centerpiece of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the largest remaining nearly-intact ecosystem in the Earth's northern temperate zone.
Hundreds of species of mammals, birds, fish and reptiles have been documented, including several that are either endangered or threatened. The vast forests and grasslands also include unique species of plants. Yellowstone Park is the largest and most famous megafauna location in the Continental United States. Grizzly bears, wolves, and free-ranging herds of bison and elk live in the park. The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States. Forest fires occur in the park each year; in the large forest fires of 1988, nearly one third of the park was burnt. Yellowstone has numerous recreational opportunities, including hiking, camping, boating, fishing and sightseeing. Paved roads provide close access to the major geothermal areas as well as some of the lakes and waterfalls. During the winter, visitors often access the park by way of guided tours that use either snow coaches or snowmobiles.
The park is located at the headwaters of the Yellowstone River, from which it takes its historical name. Near the end of the 18th century, French trappers named the river "Roche Jaune", which is probably a translation of the Hidatsa name "Mi tsi a-da-zi" (Rock Yellow River). Later, American trappers rendered the French name in English as "Yellow Stone". Although it is commonly believed that the river was named for the yellow rocks seen in the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, the Native American name source is not clear.
The first detailed expedition to the Yellowstone area was the Cook–Folsom–Peterson Expedition of 1869, which consisted of three privately funded explorers. The Folsom party followed the Yellowstone River to Yellowstone Lake. The members of the Folsom party kept a journal and based on the information it reported, a party of Montana residents organized the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition in 1870. It was headed by the surveyor-general of Montana Henry Washburn, and included Nathaniel P. Langford (who later became known as "National Park" Langford) and a U.S. Army detachment commanded by Lt. Gustavus Doane.
The expedition spent about a month exploring the region, collecting specimens and naming sites of interest. A Montana writer and lawyer named Cornelius Hedges, who had been a member of the Washburn expedition, proposed that the region should be set aside and protected as a national park; he wrote a number of detailed articles about his observations for the Helena Herald newspaper between 1870 and 1871. Hedges essentially restated comments made in October 1865 by acting Montana Territorial Governor Thomas Francis Meagher, who had previously commented that the region should be protected. Others made similar suggestions. In an 1871 letter from Jay Cooke to Ferdinand V. Hayden, Cooke wrote that his friend, Congressman William D. Kelley had also suggested "Congress pass a bill reserving the Great Geyser Basin as a public park forever".
By 1915, 1,000 automobiles per year were entering the park, resulting in conflicts with horses and horse-drawn transportation. Horse travel on roads was eventually prohibited.
The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a New Deal relief agency for young men, played a major role between 1933 and 1942 in developing Yellowstone facilities. CCC projects included reforestation, campground development of many of the park's trails and campgrounds, trail construction, fire hazard reduction, and fire-fighting work. The CCC built the majority of the early visitor centers, campgrounds and the current system of park roads.
During World War II, tourist travel fell sharply, staffing was cut, and many facilities fell into disrepair. By the 1950s, visitation increased tremendously in Yellowstone and other national parks. To accommodate the increased visitation, park officials implemented Mission 66, an effort to modernize and expand park service facilities. Planned to be completed by 1966, in honor of the 50th anniversary of the founding of the National Park Service, Mission 66 construction diverged from the traditional log cabin style with design features of a modern style. During the late 1980s, most construction styles in Yellowstone reverted to the more traditional designs. After the enormous forest fires of 1988 damaged much of Grant Village, structures there were rebuilt in the traditional style. The visitor center at Canyon Village, which opened in 2006, incorporates a more traditional design as well.
A large arch made of irregular-shaped natural stone over a road
The 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake just west of Yellowstone at Hebgen Lake damaged roads and some structures in the park. In the northwest section of the park, new geysers were found, and many existing hot springs became turbid. It was the most powerful earthquake to hit the region in recorded history.
In 1963, after several years of public controversy regarding the forced reduction of the elk population in Yellowstone, United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall appointed an advisory board to collect scientific data to inform future wildlife management of the national parks. In a paper known as the Leopold Report, the committee observed that culling programs at other national parks had been ineffective, and recommended management of Yellowstone's elk population.
The wildfires during the summer of 1988 were the largest in the history of the park. Approximately 793,880 acres (321,272 ha; 1,240 sq mi) or 36% of the parkland was impacted by the fires, leading to a systematic re-evaluation of fire management policies. The fire season of 1988 was considered normal until a combination of drought and heat by mid-July contributed to an extreme fire danger. On "Black Saturday", August 20, 1988, strong winds expanded the fires rapidly, and more than 150,000 acres (61,000 ha; 230 sq mi) burned.
The expansive cultural history of the park has been documented by the 1,000 archeological sites that have been discovered. The park has 1,106 historic structures and features, and of these Obsidian Cliff and five buildings have been designated National Historic Landmarks. Yellowstone was designated an International Biosphere Reserve on October 26, 1976, and a UN World Heritage Site on September 8, 1978. The park was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger from 1995 to 2003 due to the effects of tourism, infection of wildlife, and issues with invasive species. In 2010, Yellowstone National Park was honored with its own quarter under the America the Beautiful Quarters Program.
Heritage and Research Center
The Heritage and Research Center is located at Gardiner, Montana, near the north entrance to the park. The center is home to the Yellowstone National Park's museum collection, archives, research library, historian, archeology lab, and herbarium. The Yellowstone National Park Archives maintain collections of historical records of Yellowstone and the National Park Service. The collection includes the administrative records of Yellowstone, as well as resource management records, records from major projects, and donated manuscripts and personal papers. The archives are affiliated with the National Archives and Records Administration.
Approximately 96 percent of the land area of Yellowstone National Park is located within the state of Wyoming. Another three percent is within Montana, with the remaining one percent in Idaho. The park is 63 miles (101 km) north to south, and 54 miles (87 km) west to east by air. Yellowstone is 2,219,789 acres (898,317 ha; 3,468.420 sq mi) in area, larger than the states of Rhode Island or Delaware. Rivers and lakes cover five percent of the land area, with the largest water body being Yellowstone Lake at 87,040 acres (35,220 ha; 136.00 sq mi). Yellowstone Lake is up to 400 feet (120 m) deep and has 110 miles (180 km) of shoreline. At an elevation of 7,733 feet (2,357 m) above sea level, Yellowstone Lake is the largest high altitude lake in North America. Forests comprise 80 percent of the land area of the park; most of the rest is grassland.
The Continental Divide of North America runs diagonally through the southwestern part of the park. The divide is a topographic feature that separates Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean water drainages. About one third of the park lies on the west side of the divide. The origins of the Yellowstone and Snake Rivers are near each other but on opposite sides of the divide. As a result, the waters of the Snake River flow to the Pacific Ocean, while those of the Yellowstone find their way to the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf of Mexico.
The park sits on the Yellowstone Plateau, at an average elevation of 8,000 feet (2,400 m) above sea level. The plateau is bounded on nearly all sides by mountain ranges of the Middle Rocky Mountains, which range from 9,000 to 11,000 feet (2,700 to 3,400 m) in elevation. The highest point in the park is atop Eagle Peak (11,358 feet or 3,462 metres) and the lowest is along Reese Creek (5,282 feet or 1,610 metres). Nearby mountain ranges include the Gallatin Range to the northwest, the Beartooth Mountains in the north, the Absaroka Range to the east, and the Teton Range and the Madison Range to the southwest and west. The most prominent summit on the Yellowstone Plateau is Mount Washburn at 10,243 feet (3,122 m).
Yellowstone National Park has one of the world's largest petrified forests, trees which were long ago buried by ash and soil and transformed from wood to mineral materials. This ash and other volcanic debris, are believed to have come from the park area itself. This is largely due to the fact that Yellowstone is actually a massive caldera of a supervolcano. There are 290 waterfalls of at least 15 feet (4.6 m) in the park, the highest being the Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River at 308 feet (94 m).
Three deep canyons are located in the park, cut through the volcanic tuff of the Yellowstone Plateau by rivers over the last 640,000 years. The Lewis River flows through Lewis Canyon in the south, and the Yellowstone River has carved two colorful canyons, the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone and the Black Canyon of the Yellowstone in its journey north.
Yellowstone is at the northeastern end of the Snake River Plain, a great U-shaped arc through the mountains that extends from Boise, Idaho some 400 miles (640 km) to the west. This feature traces the route of the North American Plate over the last 17 million years as it was transported by plate tectonics across a stationary mantle hotspot. The landscape of present-day Yellowstone National Park is the most recent manifestation of this hotspot below the crust of the Earth.
The Yellowstone Caldera is the largest volcanic system in North America. It has been termed a "supervolcano" because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions. The magma chamber that lies under Yellowstone is estimated to be a single connected chamber, about 37 miles (60 km) long, 18 miles (29 km) wide, and 3 to 7 miles (5 to 12 km) deep. The current caldera was created by a cataclysmic eruption that occurred 640,000 years ago, which released more than 240 cubic miles (1,000 km³) of ash, rock and pyroclastic materials. This eruption was more than 1,000 times larger than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. It produced a caldera nearly five eighths of a mile (1 km) deep and 45 by 28 miles (72 by 45 km) in area and deposited the Lava Creek Tuff, a welded tuff geologic formation. The most violent known eruption, which occurred 2.1 million years ago, ejected 588 cubic miles (2,450 km³) of volcanic material and created the rock formation known as the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff and created the Island Park Caldera. A smaller eruption ejected 67 cubic miles (280 km³) of material 1.3 million years ago, forming the Henry's Fork Caldera and depositing the Mesa Falls Tuff.
Each of the three climactic eruptions released vast amounts of ash that blanketed much of central North America, falling many hundreds of miles away. The amount of ash and gases released into the atmosphere probably caused significant impacts to world weather patterns and led to the extinction of some species, primarily in North America.
Wooden walkways allow visitors to closely approach the Grand Prismatic Spring.
A subsequent caldera-forming eruption occurred about 160,000 years ago. It formed the relatively small caldera that contains the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake. Since the last supereruption, a series of smaller eruptive cycles between 640,000 and 70,000 years ago, has nearly filled in the Yellowstone Caldera with >80 different eruptions of rhyolitic lavas such as those that can be seen at Obsidian Cliffs and basaltic lavas which can be viewed at Sheepeater Cliff. Lava strata are most easily seen at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, where the Yellowstone River continues to carve into the ancient lava flows. The canyon is a classic V-shaped valley, indicative of river-type erosion rather than erosion caused by glaciation.
Each eruption is part of an eruptive cycle that climaxes with the partial collapse of the roof of the volcano's partially emptied magma chamber. This creates a collapsed depression, called a caldera, and releases vast amounts of volcanic material, usually through fissures that ring the caldera. The time between the last three cataclysmic eruptions in the Yellowstone area has ranged from 600,000 to 800,000 years, but the small number of such climactic eruptions cannot be used to make an accurate prediction for future volcanic events.
The most famous geyser in the park, and perhaps the world, is Old Faithful Geyser, located in Upper Geyser Basin. Castle Geyser, Lion Geyser and Beehive Geyser are in the same basin. The park contains the largest active geyser in the world—Steamboat Geyser in the Norris Geyser Basin. A study that was completed in 2011 found that at least 1283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone. Of these, an average of 465 are active in a given year. Yellowstone contains at least 10,000 geothermal features altogether. Half the geothermal features and two-thirds of the world's geysers are concentrated in Yellowstone.
In May 2001, the U.S. Geological Survey, Yellowstone National Park, and the University of Utah created the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO), a partnership for long-term monitoring of the geological processes of the Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field, for disseminating information concerning the potential hazards of this geologically active region.
In 2003, changes at the Norris Geyser Basin resulted in the temporary closure of some trails in the basin. New fumaroles were observed, and several geysers showed enhanced activity and increasing water temperatures. Several geysers became so hot that they were transformed into purely steaming features; the water had become superheated and they could no longer erupt normally. This coincided with the release of reports of a multiple year United States Geological Survey research project which mapped the bottom of Yellowstone Lake and identified a structural dome that had uplifted at some time in the past. Research indicated that these uplifts posed no immediate threat of a volcanic eruption, since they may have developed long ago, and there had been no temperature increase found near the uplifts. On March 10, 2004, a biologist discovered 5 dead bison which apparently had inhaled toxic geothermal gases trapped in the Norris Geyser Basin by a seasonal atmospheric inversion. This was closely followed by an upsurge of earthquake activity in April 2004. In 2006, it was reported that the Mallard Lake Dome and the Sour Creek Dome— areas that have long been known to show significant changes in their ground movement— had risen at a rate of 1.5 to 2.4 inches (3.8 to 6.1 cm) per year from mid–2004 through 2006. As of late 2007, the uplift has continued at a reduced rate. These events inspired a great deal of media attention and speculation about the geologic future of the region. Experts responded to the conjecture by informing the public that there was no increased risk of a volcanic eruption in the near future. However, these changes demonstrate the dynamic nature of the Yellowstone hydrothermal system.
Yellowstone experiences thousands of small earthquakes every year, virtually all of which are undetectable to people. There have been six earthquakes with at least magnitude 6 or greater in historical times, including a 7.5‑magnitude quake that struck just outside the northwest boundary of the park in 1959. This quake triggered a huge landslide, which caused a partial dam collapse on Hebgen Lake; immediately downstream, the sediment from the landslide dammed the river and created a new lake, known as Earthquake Lake. Twenty-eight people were killed, and property damage was extensive in the immediate region. The earthquake caused some geysers in the northwestern section of the park to erupt, large cracks in the ground formed and emitted steam, and some hot springs that normally have clear water turned muddy. A 6.1‑magnitude earthquake struck inside the park on June 30, 1975, but damage was minimal.
For three months in 1985, 3,000 minor earthquakes were detected in the northwestern section of the park, during what has been referred to as an earthquake swarm, and has been attributed to minor subsidence of the Yellowstone caldera. Beginning on April 30, 2007, 16 small earthquakes with magnitudes up to 2.7 occurred in the Yellowstone Caldera for several days. These swarms of earthquakes are common, and there have been 70 such swarms between 1983 and 2008. In December 2008, over 250 earthquakes were measured over a four-day span under Yellowstone Lake, the largest measuring a magnitude of 3.9. In January 2010, more than 250 earthquakes were detected over a two-day period. Seismic activity in Yellowstone National Park continues and is reported hourly by the Earthquake Hazards Program of the U.S. Geological Survey.
On March 30, 2014, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck almost the very middle of Yellowstone near the Norris Basin at 6.34am; reports indicated no damage. This was the biggest earthquake to hit the park since February 22, 1980.
Over 1,700 species of trees and other vascular plants are native to the park. Another 170 species are considered to be exotic species and are non-native. Of the eight conifer tree species documented, Lodgepole Pine forests cover 80% of the total forested areas. Other conifers, such as Subalpine Fir, Engelmann Spruce, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and Whitebark Pine, are found in scattered groves throughout the park. As of 2007, the whitebark pine is threatened by a fungus known as white pine blister rust; however, this is mostly confined to forests well to the north and west. In Yellowstone, about seven percent of the whitebark pine species have been impacted with the fungus, compared to nearly complete infestations in northwestern Montana. Quaking Aspen and willows are the most common species of deciduous trees. The aspen forests have declined significantly since the early 20th century, but scientists at Oregon State University attribute recent recovery of the aspen to the reintroduction of wolves which has changed the grazing habits of local elk.
There are dozens of species of flowering plants that have been identified, most of which bloom between the months of May and September. The Yellowstone Sand Verbena is a rare flowering plant found only in Yellowstone. It is closely related to species usually found in much warmer climates, making the sand verbena an enigma. The estimated 8,000 examples of this rare flowering plant all make their home in the sandy soils on the shores of Yellowstone Lake, well above the waterline.
In Yellowstone's hot waters, bacteria form mats of bizarre shapes consisting of trillions of individuals. These bacteria are some of the most primitive life forms on earth. Flies and other arthropods live on the mats, even in the middle of the bitterly cold winters. Initially, scientists thought that microbes there gained sustenance only from sulfur. In 2005 researchers from the University of Colorado at Boulder discovered that the sustenance for at least some of the diverse hyperthermophilic species is molecular hydrogen.
Thermus aquaticus is a bacterium found in the Yellowstone hot springs that produces an important enzyme (Taq polymerase) that is easily replicated in the lab and is useful in replicating DNA as part of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process. The retrieval of these bacteria can be achieved with no impact to the ecosystem. Other bacteria in the Yellowstone hot springs may also prove useful to scientists who are searching for cures for various diseases.
Non-native plants sometimes threaten native species by using up nutrient resources. Though exotic species are most commonly found in areas with the greatest human visitation, such as near roads and at major tourist areas, they have also spread into the backcountry. Generally, most exotic species are controlled by pulling the plants out of the soil or by spraying, both of which are time consuming and expensive.
Yellowstone is widely considered to be the finest megafauna wildlife habitat in the lower 48 states. There are almost 60 species of mammals in the park, including the gray wolf, the threatened lynx, and grizzly bears. Other large mammals include the bison (often referred to as buffalo), black bear, elk, moose, mule deer, white-tailed deer, mountain goat, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, and mountain lion.
Bison graze near a hot spring
The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the largest public herd of American bison in the United States. The relatively large bison populations are a concern for ranchers, who fear that the species can transmit bovine diseases to their domesticated cousins. In fact, about half of Yellowstone's bison have been exposed to brucellosis, a bacterial disease that came to North America with European cattle that may cause cattle to miscarry. The disease has little effect on park bison, and no reported case of transmission from wild bison to domestic livestock has been filed. However, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has stated that bison are the "likely source" of the spread of the disease in cattle in Wyoming and North Dakota. Elk also carry the disease and are believed to have transmitted the infection to horses and cattle. Bison once numbered between 30 and 60 million individuals throughout North America, and Yellowstone remains one of their last strongholds. Their populations had increased from less than 50 in the park in 1902 to 4,000 by 2003. The Yellowstone Park bison herd reached a peak in 2005 with 4,900 animals. Despite a summer estimated population of 4,700 in 2007, the number dropped to 3,000 in 2008 after a harsh winter and controversial brucellosis management sending hundreds to slaughter. The Yellowstone Park bison herd is believed to be one of only four free roaming and genetically pure herds on public lands in North America. The other three herds are the Henry Mountains bison herd of Utah, at Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota and on Elk Island in Alberta.
Elk Mother Nursing Her Calf
To combat the perceived threat of brucellosis transmission to cattle, national park personnel regularly harass bison herds back into the park when they venture outside of the area's borders. During the winter of 1996–97, the bison herd was so large that 1,079 bison that had exited the park were shot or sent to slaughter. Animal rights activists argue that this is a cruel practice and that the possibility for disease transmission is not as great as some ranchers maintain. Ecologists point out that the bison are merely traveling to seasonal grazing areas that lie within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem that have been converted to cattle grazing, some of which are within National Forests and are leased to private ranchers. APHIS has stated that with vaccinations and other means, brucellosis can be eliminated from the bison and elk herds throughout Yellowstone.
A reintroduced northwestern wolf in Yellowstone National Park
Starting in 1914, in an effort to protect elk populations, the U.S. Congress appropriated funds to be used for the purposes of "destroying wolves, prairie dogs, and other animals injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry" on public lands. Park Service hunters carried out these orders, and by 1926 they had killed 136 wolves, and wolves were virtually eliminated from Yellowstone. Further exterminations continued until the National Park Service ended the practice in 1935. With the passing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973, the wolf was one of the first mammal species listed. After the wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone, the coyote then became the park's top canine predator. However, the coyote is not able to bring down large animals, and the result of this lack of a top predator on these populations was a marked increase in lame and sick megafauna.
Bison in Yellowstone National Park
By the 1990s, the Federal government had reversed its views on wolves. In a controversial decision by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (which oversees threatened and endangered species), northwestern wolves, imported from Canada, were reintroduced into the park. Reintroduction efforts have been successful with populations remaining relatively stable. A survey conducted in 2005 reported that there were 13 wolf packs, totaling 118 individuals in Yellowstone and 326 in the entire ecosystem. These park figures were lower than those reported in 2004 but may be attributable to wolf migration to other nearby areas as suggested by the substantial increase in the Montana population during that interval. Almost all the wolves documented were descended from the 66 wolves reintroduced in 1995–96. The recovery of populations throughout the states of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho has been so successful that on February 27, 2008, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service removed the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf population from the endangered species list.
An estimated 600 grizzly bears live in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, with more than half of the population living within Yellowstone. The grizzly is currently listed as a threatened species, however the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has announced that they intend to take it off the endangered species list for the Yellowstone region but will likely keep it listed in areas where it has not yet recovered fully. Opponents of delisting the grizzly are concerned that states might once again allow hunting and that better conservation measures need to be implemented to ensure a sustainable population. Black bears are common in the park and were a park symbol due to visitor interaction with the bears starting in 1910. Feeding and close contact with bears has not been permitted since the 1960s to reduce their desire for human foods. Yellowstone is one of the few places in the United States where black bears can be seen coexisting with grizzly bears. Black bear observations occur most often in the park's northern ranges and in the Bechler area which is in the park's southwestern corner.
Population figures for elk are in excess of 30,000—the largest population of any large mammal species in Yellowstone. The northern herd has decreased enormously since the mid‑1990s; this has been attributed to wolf predation and causal effects such as elk using more forested regions to evade predation, consequently making it harder for researchers to accurately count them. The northern herd migrates west into southwestern Montana in the winter. The southern herd migrates southward, and the majority of these elk winter on the National Elk Refuge, immediately southeast of Grand Teton National Park. The southern herd migration is the largest mammalian migration remaining in the U.S. outside of Alaska.
In 2003 the tracks of one female lynx and her cub were spotted and followed for over 2 miles (3.2 km). Fecal material and other evidence obtained were tested and confirmed to be those of a lynx. No visual confirmation was made, however. Lynx have not been seen in Yellowstone since 1998, though DNA taken from hair samples obtained in 2001 confirmed that lynx were at least transient to the park. Other less commonly seen mammals include the mountain lion and wolverine. The mountain lion has an estimated population of only 25 individuals parkwide. The wolverine is another rare park mammal, and accurate population figures for this species are not known. These uncommon and rare mammals provide insight into the health of protected lands such as Yellowstone and help managers make determinations as to how best to preserve habitats.
Eighteen species of fish live in Yellowstone, including the core range of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout—a fish highly sought by anglers. The Yellowstone cutthroat trout has faced several threats since the 1980s, including the suspected illegal introduction into Yellowstone Lake of lake trout, an invasive species which consume the smaller cutthroat trout. Although lake trout were established in Shoshone and Lewis lakes in the Snake River drainage from U.S. Government stocking operations in 1890, it was never officially introduced into the Yellowstone River drainage. The cutthroat trout has also faced an ongoing drought, as well as the accidental introduction of a parasite—whirling disease—which causes a terminal nervous system disease in younger fish. Since 2001, all native sport fish species caught in Yellowstone waterways are subject to a catch and release law. Yellowstone is also home to six species of reptiles, such as the painted turtle and Prairie rattlesnake, and four species of amphibians, including the Boreal Chorus Frog.
311 species of birds have been reported, almost half of which nest in Yellowstone. As of 1999, twenty-six pairs of nesting bald eagles have been documented. Extremely rare sightings of whooping cranes have been recorded, however only three examples of this species are known to live in the Rocky Mountains, out of 385 known worldwide. Other birds, considered to be species of special concern because of their rarity in Yellowstone, include the common loon, harlequin duck, osprey, peregrine falcon and the trumpeter swan.
As wildfire is a natural part of most ecosystems, plants that are indigenous to Yellowstone have adapted in a variety of ways. Douglas-fir have a thick bark which protects the inner section of the tree from most fires. Lodgepole Pines —the most common tree species in the park— generally have cones that are only opened by the heat of fire. Their seeds are held in place by a tough resin, and fire assists in melting the resin, allowing the seeds to disperse. Fire clears out dead and downed wood, providing fewer obstacles for lodgepole pines to flourish. Subalpine Fir, Engelmann Spruce, Whitebark Pine, and other species tend to grow in colder and moister areas, where fire is less likely to occur. Aspen trees sprout new growth from their roots, and even if a severe fire kills the tree above ground, the roots often survive unharmed because they are insulated from the heat by soil. The National Park Service estimates that in natural conditions, grasslands in Yellowstone burned an average of every 20 to 25 years, while forests in the park would experience fire about every 300 years.
About thirty-five natural forest fires are ignited each year by lightning, while another six to ten are started by people— in most cases by accident. Yellowstone National Park has three fire lookout towers, each staffed by trained fire fighters. The easiest one to reach is atop Mount Washburn, though it is closed to the public. The park also monitors fire from the air and relies on visitor reports of smoke and/or flames. Fire towers are staffed almost continuously from late June to mid-September— the primary fire season. Fires burn with the greatest intensity in the late afternoon and evening. Few fires burn more than 100 acres (40 ha), and the vast majority of fires reach only a little over an acre (0.5 ha) before they burn themselves out. Fire management focuses on monitoring dead and down wood quantities, soil and tree moisture, and the weather, to determine those areas most vulnerable to fire should one ignite. Current policy is to suppress all human caused fires and to evaluate natural fires, examining the benefit or detriment they may pose on the ecosystem. If a fire is considered to be an immediate threat to people and structures, or will burn out of control, then fire suppression is performed.
In an effort to minimize the chances of out of control fires and threats to people and structures, park employees do more than just monitor the potential for fire. Controlled burns are prescribed fires which are deliberately started to remove dead timber under conditions which allow fire fighters an opportunity to carefully control where and how much wood is consumed. Natural fires are sometimes considered prescribed fires if they are left to burn. In Yellowstone, unlike some other parks, there have been very few fires deliberately started by employees as prescribed burns. However, over the last 30 years, over 300 natural fires have been allowed to burn naturally. In addition, fire fighters remove dead and down wood and other hazards from areas where they will be a potential fire threat to lives and property, reducing the chances of fire danger in these areas. Fire monitors also regulate fire through educational services to the public and have been known to temporarily ban campfires from campgrounds during periods of high fire danger. The common notion in early United States land management policies was that all forest fires were bad. Fire was seen as a purely destructive force and there was little understanding that it was an integral part of the ecosystem. Consequently, until the 1970s, when a better understanding of wildfire was developed, all fires were suppressed. This led to an increase in dead and dying forests, which would later provide the fuel load for fires that would be much harder, and in some cases, impossible to control. Fire Management Plans were implemented, detailing that natural fires should be allowed to burn if they posed no immediate threat to lives and property.
1988 started with a wet spring season although by summer, drought began moving in throughout the northern Rockies, creating the driest year on record to that point. Grasses and plants which grew well in the early summer from the abundant spring moisture produced plenty of grass, which soon turned to dry tinder. The National Park Service began firefighting efforts to keep the fires under control, but the extreme drought made suppression difficult. Between July 15 and 21, 1988, fires quickly spread from 8,500 acres (3,400 ha; 13.3 sq mi) throughout the entire Yellowstone region, which included areas outside the park, to 99,000 acres (40,000 ha; 155 sq mi) on the park land alone. By the end of the month, the fires were out of control. Large fires burned together, and on August 20, 1988, the single worst day of the fires, more than 150,000 acres (61,000 ha; 230 sq mi) were consumed. Seven large fires were responsible for 95% of the 793,000 acres (321,000 ha; 1,239 sq mi) that were burned over the next couple of months. A total of 25,000 firefighters and U.S. military forces participated in the suppression efforts, at a cost of 120 million dollars. By the time winter brought snow that helped extinguish the last flames, the fires had destroyed 67 structures and caused several million dollars in damage. Though no civilian lives were lost, two personnel associated with the firefighting efforts were killed.
Contrary to media reports and speculation at the time, the fires killed very few park animals— surveys indicated that only about 345 elk (of an estimated 40,000–50,000), 36 deer, 12 moose, 6 black bears, and 9 bison had perished. Changes in fire management policies were implemented by land management agencies throughout the United States, based on knowledge gained from the 1988 fires and the evaluation of scientists and experts from various fields. By 1992, Yellowstone had adopted a new fire management plan which observed stricter guidelines for the management of natural fires.
from Wikipedia
There’s a window of peacefulness at Smuggler’s Cove, it seems. Earlier in the day there were lots of young families with all the chatter that entails (not annoying, just noisy), as well as lots of dog owners letting the beasts run wild* (just as noisy, much more annoying). But for now everything is peaceful.
I love the varied colours in the shallows — the sea here runs from pale green to deep blue.
The origin of the name Smuggler Cove is subject to much speculation. One theory holds that the bay was used by one Larry "Pig Iron" Kelly to pick up Chinese labourers to be smuggled into the United States after the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Another story is that the concealed cove was used as a transhipment location for the smuggling of bootleg liquor, produced on neighbouring Texada Island, into the US during the prohibition era. Given the cove's proximity to Secret Cove, one can conjecture at some connection.
This is a High Dynamic Range panorama stitched from 42 bracketed images with PTGUI Pro, tone-mapped with Photomatix, then touched up in Aperture.
Original size: 10763 × 4380 (47.1 MP; 85.90 MB).
Location: Smuggler Cover Provincial Park, British Columbia, Canada
*Any dog who leaves paw prints on my chest isn’t "under control" — and in any case I would expect the owners to heed the "pets must be on leash" signs.
If anywhere in England has a claim to be Xanadu, Cliveden is it.
The third of three properties on this site, the present Grade I listed house was built in 1851 by the architect Charles Barry (best known for the Houses of Parliament) for the 2nd Duke of Sutherland.
In 1893, the vast estate was purchased by an American millionaire, William Waldorf Astor (later 1st Viscount Astor), who made huge embellishments and in turn gave it to his son Waldolf on his marriage to Nancy Langhorne in 1904, and so began the glory years of the house.
Particularly in the 1920's to 40's the so called 'Cliveden Set' attracted a glittering array of the great and good (and many who were not the latter with the hindsight of history), from Europe and both sides of the Atlantic. How far their right-wing influence extended, particularly that of Nancy Aster who was vehemently anti-Catholic and anti Jewish, and how deep was their involvement in Nazi appeasement is still open to conjecture.
But for most British people, Cliveden will always be connected to the Profumo Affair of the early 1960's.
In an atmosphere of ever increasing and wilder parties, John Profumo, the Secretary of State for War in Harold Macmillan's Conservative government and married to a much admired British film star, had an affair with the 19-year-old model Christine Keeler whom he’d met whilst she swam naked in the swimming pool during a party. When it was revealed she may have been simultaneously involved with Captain Yevgeny Ivanov, a Soviet naval attaché and thought to be a spy, things quickly became more complicated.
The lasciviously reported story had everything the press could want; unimaginable wealth, the British class system, the establishment gathering ranks, an increasingly tawdry court case, a suicide, tales of police blackmail and violence, and lots of sex and sleaze. I think it was the 60's getting going; ten years earlier I suspect it wouldn't have been reported.
It brought down Macmillan's government and truly shocked a nation that had been brought up to believe that those in power were 'one's betters' and is still a rich source of speculation and unanswered questions.
The F-104 is a small aircraft, but the MiG-21 is actually 6 ft (1.85 m) shorter! You can see the size difference in this image. Both aircraft endured much longer than anyone really expected. To me, they represent classic NATO-Warsaw Pact fighters. There were bigger and more powerful fighters used by the USAF and the Soviet Union, but I always imagined these aircraft would see the brunt of the heavy fighting. Of course, I am also glad that we never had to find out, and these discussions remain part conjecture and part imagination. It's too bad we can't say the same today.
The BBC were, from their early days, great publishers of this and that with publications, leaflets and magazines designed to inform the public of their services and to further educate them as to the content of broadcasting. It was seen as a noble cause. From the late-1920s until a few years ago they issued an annual handbook, a sort of diary of the year's events and the BBC's services and personalities as, yes, they did allow them even at this date so long as they wore tie and tails. The Yearbook can make useful reading and the adverts are very of the day when radio broadcasting was just starting to go mainstream. But the book itself is an object lesson in old fashioned layout and typography and can be a heavy read as, one suspects, Auntie Beeb intended. What then caused them to go wild with the dust jackets for several years is a matter of conjecture as here, by one of the most eminent artist designers of the day is a cover that must have simply leapt out of bookshop windows and shelves. And perhaps that was the plan - marketing plain and simple, lure people in and ... Anyhow, what a cover. McKnight Kauffer was an emigre American who found his metier in graphic design here in the UK after the First World War largely through early commissions from London Underground.
The concept of an otherworld in historical Indo-European religion is reconstructed in comparative mythology. Its name is a calque of orbis alius (Latin for "other Earth/world"), a term used by Lucan in his description of the Celtic Otherworld.
Comparable religious, mythological or metaphysical concepts, such as a realm of supernatural beings and a realm of the dead, are found in cultures throughout the world. Spirits are thought to travel between worlds, or layers of existence in such traditions, usually along an axis such as a giant tree, a tent pole, a river, a rope or mountains.
Many Indo-European mythologies show evidence for a belief in some form of "Otherworld" and in many cases such as in Persian, Greek, Germanic,Celtic,Slavic and Indic mythologies a river had to be crossed to allow entrance to it and it is usually an old man that would transport the soul across the waters. In Greek and Indic mythology the waters of this river were thought to wash away sins or memories whereas Celtic and Germanic myths feature wisdom-imparting waters, suggesting that while the memories of the deceased are washed away a drinker of the waters would gain inspiration. The wayfarer will commonly encounter a dog either in the capacity of a guardian of the Otherworld or as the wanderer's guide.[3] Examples of this are the Greek Cerberus, the three-headed hound of Hades, and the Indic सर्वरा "sarvarā, one of the hounds of Yama, whose names may derive from an Indo-European *ḱerberos meaning "spotted".[3] In Indo-European mythologies the Otherworld is depicted in many ways, including peaceful meadows, islands and buildings making it hard to determine how the original Proto-Indo-European Otherworld was viewed. However the ruler of the dead was possibly Yemo, the divine twin of Manu the first man.
The Chinvat Bridge (Avestan Cinvatô Peretûm, "bridge of judgement" or "beam-shaped bridge") or the Bridge of the Requiter in Zoroastrianism is the sifting bridge which separates the world of the living from the world of the dead. All souls must cross the bridge upon death. The bridge is guarded by two four-eyed dogs. A related myth is that of Yama, the Hindu ruler of Hell who watches the gates of Hell with his two four-eyed dogs.
Many Celtic Immrams or "voyage stories" and other medieval texts provide evidence of a Celtic belief in an otherworld. One example which helps the reader understand the Celtic concept of the otherworld is The Voyage of Saint Brendan. Another Classic example of a Celtic "otherworld" is the Voyage of Bran. Because Celtic life largely was based upon nourishment from the sea and around the wet and foggy weather of Northern Europe the otherworld is often portrayed as an island to the west in Celtic oral tradition and even shown on some maps of Ireland during the medieval era. The otherworld in the idea of Celtic people became hard to distinguish and sometimes overlapped with the Christian idea of hell or heaven as this was often an analogy made to the Celtic idea of an otherworld or Scandinavian idea of a world tree. This is likely because of Roman and Scandinavian influences on Celtic cultures. An example of Scandinavian influence is apparent in the Voyage of Saint Brendan from the likeness of Lasconius the serpent to the Scandinavian Midgard Serpent. Red and white are the colors of animals in the Celtic Otherworld, and these colors still animate transcendent religious and political symbols today.
See also: Alfheim, Asgard, Vanaheim, and Norse cosmology
As was the case in the Celtic mythologies, in Germanic myths apples were particularly associated with the Otherworld. In the Scandinavian tradition mythological localities are featured, as in Irish mythology; however, unlike Irish mythology, an attempt was made to map the localities of the Otherworld rather than list locales associated with it.In the Edda many locations are named including the dwellings of the gods such as Odin's hall of Valhalla or Ullr's dwelling of Ydalar ("Yewdale"). The Gylfaginning and the later Norwegian poem the Draumkvaede feature travels into the Otherworld.
The Early Slavs believed in a mythical place where birds flew for the winter and souls went after death; this realm was often identified with paradise and it is called Vyraj. It was also said that spring arrived on Earth from Vyraj.The gates of Vyraj stopped mortals from entering. They were guarded by Veles, who sometimes took the animal form of a raróg, grasping in its claws the keys to the otherworlds. Vyraj was sometimes also connected to the deity known as Rod - it was apparently located far beyond the sea, at the end of the Milky Way.It was usually imagined as a garden, located in the crown of the cosmic tree. Whereas the branches were said to be nested by the birds, who were usually identified as human souls. When the Slavic populations were gradually turning to Christianity (e.g. during the Christianization of Kievan Rus' and the Baptism of Poland), a new version of this belief became widespread in which there were two of these realms - one analogous to the original myth, a heavenly place where birds departed, and the other an underworld for snakes and zmeys, often associated with the Christian idea of hell. This second variant bears many similarities to Nav, another representation of the Slavonic underworld. See also: Mount Olympus, Greek Underworld, Hades, and Fortunate Isles In Greco-Roman mythology the Gods were said to dwell on Mount Olympus whereas the dead usually went to the Underworld or Fortunate Isles after death
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otherworld
The world to come, age to come, or heaven on Earth are eschatological phrases reflecting the belief that the current world or current age is flawed or cursed[citation needed] and will be replaced in the future by a better world, age, or paradise. The concept is related to but differs from the concepts of heaven, the afterlife, and the Kingdom of God in that heaven is another place or state generally seen as above the world, the afterlife is generally an individual's life after death, and the Kingdom of God could be in the present (such as Realized eschatology) or the future. In Hindu eschatology the current age is the Kali Yuga, a period of decline. Kalki ('Destroyer of Filth') will appear to purge all evil, beginning a golden age of Satya Yuga. There have been a range of dates predicted, purportedly from different methods of calculation.Sri Potuluri Virabrahmendra Swami, for example, wrote 400 years ago in his Divya Maha Kala Gnana, or 'Divine Knowledge of the Time,' that Kalki would arrive when the moon, sun, Venus and Jupiter entered the same sign. This is not a rare occurrence and last happened in early 2012, passing without event.The time of arrival of Kalki has not been consistently asserted by astrologers. Resurrection of the dead, fresco from the Dura-Europos synagogue HaOlam HaBa, or "the world to come", is an important part of Jewish eschatology, although Judaism concentrates on the importance of HaOlam HaZeh ("this world"). The afterlife is known as Olam haBa, Gan Eden (the Heavenly Garden of Eden) and Gehinom. According to the Talmud, any non-Jew who lives according to the Seven Laws of Noah is regarded as a Ger toshav (righteous gentile), and is assured of a place in the world to come, the final reward of the righteous.
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, an 1887 painting by Victor Vasnetsov. The Lamb of God is visible at the top.
Main article: Christian eschatology Under Christian eschatology, the phrase is found in the Nicene Creed (current Ecumenical version): "We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come." It is also found in the King James Version of the New Testament at Matthew 12:32, Mark 10:30, Luke 18:30, Hebrews 2:5, Hebrews 6:5. Other related expressions are "age to come" which is typically found in more recent translations, Kingdom of God, Messianic Age, Millennial Age, The New Earth and New Jerusalem, and dispensation of the fulness of times and possibly also eternal life. There have been a number of unsuccessful predictions (a partial list of unsuccessful predictions can be found at Predictions and claims for the Second Coming of Christ) of the date of the Christian End Times, despite Jesus' admonition at the end of the Olivet Discourse that only God the Father knows when the end times will begin (Mark 13:32–37).
In Zoroastrian eschatology, the world to come is the frashokereti, where the saoshyant will bring about a resurrection of the dead in the bodies they had before they died. This is followed by a last judgment. The yazatas Airyaman and Atar will melt the metal in the hills and mountains, and the molten metal will then flow across the earth like a river. All humankind—both the living and the resurrected dead—will be required to wade through that river, but for the righteous (ashavan) it will seem to be a river of warm milk, while the wicked will be burned. The river will then flow down to hell, where it will annihilate Angra Mainyu and the last vestiges of wickedness in the universe.
The New Testament frequently cites Jewish scripture to support the claim of the Early Christians that Jesus of Nazareth is the Messiah, and faith in Jesus as the Christos and his imminent expected Second Coming. The majority of these quotations and references are taken from the Book of Isaiah, but they range over the entire corpus of Jewish writings. People of the Jewish faith do not regard any of these as having been fulfilled by Jesus, and in some cases do not regard them as messianic prophecies at all. These either were not prophecies (the verses make no claim of predicting anything) or the verses do not explicitly refer to the Messiah.In Abrahamic religions, the Messianic Age is the future period of time on earth in which the messiah will reign and bring universal peace and brotherhood, without any evil. Many believe that there will be such an age; some refer to it as the consummate "kingdom of God" or the "world to come".
Apocalyptic literature is a genre of prophetical writing that developed in post-Exilic Jewish culture and was popular among millennialist early Christians. "Apocalypse" (ἀποκάλυψις) is a Greek word meaning "revelation", "an unveiling or unfolding of things not previously known and which could not be known apart from the unveiling". As a genre, apocalyptic literature details the authors' visions of the end times as revealed by an angel or other heavenly messenger. The apocalyptic literature of Judaism and Christianity embraces a considerable period, from the centuries following the Babylonian exile down to the close of the Middle Ages.Apocalyptic elements can be detected in the prophetical books of Joel and Zechariah, while Isaiah chapters 24–27 and 33 present well-developed apocalypses. The Book of Daniel offers a fully matured and classic example of this genre of literature.
The non-fulfillment of prophecies served to popularize the methods of apocalyptic in comparison with the non-fulfillment of the advent of the Messianic kingdom. Thus, though Jeremiah had promised that after seventy years Israelites should be restored to their own land, and then enjoy the blessings of the Messianic kingdom under the Messianic king,[6] this period passed by and things remained as of old.[7] Some[who?] believe that the Messianic kingdom was not necessarily predicted to occur at the end of the seventy years of the Babylonian exile, but at some unspecified time in the future. The only thing for certain that was predicted was the return of the Jews to their land, which occurred when Cyrus the Persian conquered Babylon in circa 539 BC. Thus, the fulfillment of the Messianic kingdom remained in the future for the Jews.
Haggai and Zechariah explained the delay by the failure of Judah to rebuild the temple, and so hope of the kingdom persisted, until in the first half of the 2nd century the delay is explained in the Books of Daniel and Enoch as due not to man's shortcomings but to the counsels of God.[8] Regarding the 70 years of exile predicted in Jeremiah 29:10, the Jews were first exiled in 605 BC in the reign of king Jehoiakim and were allowed to return to their land in c. 536 BC when King Cyrus conquered Babylon. This period was approximately 70 years, as prophesied by Jeremiah.[citation needed] But some people[who?] believe that the 70 years of Jeremiah were later interpreted by the angel in Daniel 9 as 70 weeks of years, of which 69½ have already expired, while Enoch 85 interprets the 70 years of Jeremiah as the 70 successive reigns of the 70 angelic patrons of the nations, which are to come to a close in his own generation.[8] The Book of Enoch, however, was not considered inspired Scripture by the Jews, so that any failed prophecy in it is of no consequence to the Jewish faith.
The Greek empire of the East was overthrown by Rome, and prompted a new interpretation of Daniel. The fourth and last empire was declared to be Roman by the Apocalypse of Baruch[8] chapters 36–40 and 4 Ezra 10:60–12:35. Again, these two books were not considered inspired Scripture by the Jews, and thus were not authoritative on matters of prophecy. In addition, earlier in Daniel chapter 7 and also in chapter 2, the fourth and final world empire is considered to be Rome since Babylon, Medo-Persia (Achaemenid Empire), Greece, and Rome were world empires which all clearly arrived in succession. Thus, it might be interpreted[by whom?] that Daniel was saying that Rome would be the last world power before the kingdom of God.
Such ideas as those of "the day of Yahweh" and the "new heavens and a new earth" were re-interpreted by the Jewish people with fresh nuances in conformity with their new settings. Thus the inner development of Jewish apocalyptic was conditioned by the historical experiences of the nation. But the prophecies found in Jewish scriptures, which have not changed over time, await their fulfillment.
Another source of apocalyptic thought was primitive mythological and cosmological traditions, in which the eye of the seer could see the secrets of the future. Thus the six days of the world's creation, followed by a seventh of rest, were regarded as at once a history of the past and a forecasting of the future. As the world was made in six days its history would be accomplished in six thousand years, since each day with God was as a thousand years and a thousand years as one day; and as the six days of creation were followed by one of rest, so the six thousand years of the world's history would be followed by a rest of a thousand years.
The object of this literature in general was to square the righteousness of God with the suffering condition of His righteous servants on earth. Early Old Testament prophecy taught the need of personal and national righteousness, and foretold the ultimate blessedness of the righteous nation on the present earth. Its views were not systematic and comprehensive in regard to the nations in general. Regarding the individual, it held that God’s service here was its own and adequate reward, and saw no need of postulating another world to set right the evils of this one.
But later, with the growing claims of the individual and the acknowledgment of these in the religious and intellectual life, both problems, and especially the latter, pressed themselves irresistibly on the notice of religious thinkers, and made it impossible for any conception of the divine rule and righteousness to gain acceptance, which did not render adequate satisfaction to the claims of both problems. To render such satisfaction was the task undertaken by apocalyptic, as well as to vindicate the righteousness of God alike in respect of the individual and of the nation. Later prophecy incorporated an idea of future vindication of present evils, often including the idea of an afterlife.
Apocalyptic prophets sketched in outline the history of the world and mankind, the origin of evil and its course, and the final consummation of all things. The righteous as a nation should yet possess the earth, either via an eternal Messianic kingdom on earth, or else in temporary blessedness here and eternal blessedness hereafter. Though the individual might perish amid the disorders of this world, apocalyptic prophets taught that the righteous person would not fail to attain through resurrection the recompense that was due in the Messianic kingdom or, alternatively, in heaven itself.
Some may distinguish between the messages of the prophets and the messages of proto-apocalyptic and apocalyptic literature by saying that the message of the prophets was primarily a preaching of repentance and righteousness needed for the nation to escape judgment; the message of the apocalyptic writers was of patience and trust for that deliverance and reward were sure to come. Neither the prophets nor the apocalyptic authors are without conflict between their messages, however, and there are significant similarities between prophecy and apocalyptic writings.
Apocalyptic literature shares with prophecy revelation through the use of visions and dreams, and these often combine reality and fantasy. In both cases, a heavenly interpreter is often provided to the receiver so that he may understand the many complexities of what he has seen. The oracles in Amos, Hosea, First Isaiah, and Jeremiah give a clear sense of how messages of imminent punishment develop into the later proto-apocalyptic literature, and eventually into the thoroughly apocalyptic literature of Daniel 7–12. The fully apocalyptic visions in Daniel 7–12, as well as those in the New Testament’s Revelation, can trace their roots to the pre-exilic latter biblical prophets; the sixth century BCE prophets Ezekiel, Isaiah 40–55 and 56–66, Haggai 2, and Zechariah 1–8 show a transition phase between prophecy and
Prophecy believes that this world is God's world and that in this world His goodness and truth will yet be vindicated. Hence the prophet prophesies of a definite future arising out of and organically connected with the present. The apocalyptic writer despairs of the present and directs his hopes to the future, to a new world standing in essential opposition to the present. This becomes a dualistic principle, which, though it can largely be accounted for by the interaction of certain inner tendencies and outward sorrowful experience on the part of Judaism, may ultimately be derived from Mazdean influences. This principle, which shows itself in the conception that the various nations are under angelic rulers, who are in a greater or less degree in rebellion against God, as in Daniel and Enoch, grows in strength with each succeeding age, till at last Satan is conceived as "the ruler of this world" or "the god of this age." The prophet stood in direct relations with his people; his prophecy was first spoken and afterwards written. The apocalyptic writer could obtain no hearing from his contemporaries, who held that, though God spoke in the past, "there was no more any prophet." This pessimism limited and defined the form in which religious enthusiasm should manifest itself, and prescribed as a condition of successful effort the adoption of pseudonymous authorship. The apocalyptic writer, therefore, professedly addressed his book to future generations. Generally directions as to the hiding and sealing of the book[ were given in the text in order to explain its publication so long after the date of its professed period. There was a sense in which such books were not wholly pseudonymous. Their writers were students of ancient prophecy and apocalyptical tradition, and though they might recast and reinterpret them, they could not regard them as their own inventions. Each fresh apocalypse would in the eyes of its writer be in some degree but a fresh edition of the traditions naturally attaching themselves to great names in Israel’s past, and thus the books named respectively Enoch, Noah, Ezra would to some slight extent be not pseudonymous. Apocalyptic writing took a wider view of the world's history than did prophecy. Whereas prophecy had to deal with governments of other nations, apocalyptic writings arose at a time when Israel had been subject for generations to the sway of one or other of the great world-powers. Hence to harmonize Israel's difficulties with belief in God's righteousness, apocalyptic writing had to encompass such events in the counsels of God, the rise, duration and the downfall of each empire in turn, until, finally the lordship of the world passed into the hands of Israel, or the final judgment arrived. These events belonged in the main to the past, but the writer represented them as still in the future, arranged under certain artificial categories of time definitely determined from the beginning in the counsels of God and revealed by Him to His servants, the prophets. Determinism thus became a leading characteristic of Jewish apocalyptic, and its conception of history became mechanical.
Characteristics of Old Testament apocalyptic literature[edit]
The revelations from heavenly messengers, about the end times, came in the form of angels, or from people who have been taken up to heaven and are returned to earth with messages. The descriptions not only tell of the end times, but also describe both past and present events and their significance, often in heavily coded language. When speaking of the end times, apocalyptic literature generally included chronologies of events that will occur and frequently places them in the near future, which gives a sense of urgency to the prophet’s broader message. Though the understanding of the present is bleak, the visions of the future are far more positive, and include divinely delivered victory and a complete reformation of absolutely everything. Many visions of these end times mirror creation mythologies, invoke the triumph of God over the primordial forces of chaos, and provide clear distinctions between light and dark, good and evil. In such revelations, humankind is typically divided into a small group that experiences salvation, while the wicked majority is destroyed. Since the apocalyptic genre developed during the Persian period, this dualism may have developed under the influence of Persian thought. The imagery in apocalyptic literature is not realistic or reflective of the physical world as it was, but is rather surreal and fantastic, invoking a sense of wonder at the complete newness of the new order to come. According to Jewish tradition, the Messianic Era will be one of global peace and harmony, an era free of strife and hardship, and one conducive to the furtherment of the knowledge of the Creator. The theme of the Messiah ushering in an era of global peace is encapsulated in two of the most famous scriptural passages from the Book of Isaiah: They shall beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks; nation will not lift sword against nation and they will no longer study warfare.— Isaiah 2:4 The wolf will live with the lamb, the leopard will lie down with the goat, the calf and the lion and the yearling together; and a little child will lead them. The cow will feed with the bear, their young will lie down together, and the lion will eat straw like the ox. The infant will play near the hole of the cobra, and the young child put his hand into the viper's nest. They will neither harm nor destroy on all my holy mountain, for the earth will be full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea.— Isaiah 11:6-9
In his Mishneh Torah, Maimonides describes the Messianic Era:"And at that time there will be no hunger or war, no jealousy or rivalry. For the good will be plentiful, and all delicacies available as dust. The entire occupation of the world will be only to know God... the people Israel will be of great wisdom; they will perceive the esoteric truths and comprehend their Creator's wisdom as is the capacity of man. As it is written (Isaiah 11:9): "For the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of God, as the waters cover the sea."
According to the Talmud,the Midrash, and the ancient Kabbalistic work, the Zohar, the Messiah must arrive before the year 6000 from the time of creation. In Orthodox Jewish belief, the Hebrew calendar dates to the time of creation, making this correspond to the year 2240 on the Gregorian calendar. The Midrash comments: "Six eons for going in and coming out, for war and peace. The seventh eon is entirely Shabbat and rest for life everlasting."
There is a kabbalistic tradition[ that maintains that each of the seven days of the week, which are based upon the seven days of creation, correspond to the seven millennia of creation. The tradition teaches that the seventh day of the week, the Sabbath day of rest, corresponds to the seventh millennium, the age of universal 'rest' - the Messianic Era. The seventh millennium perforce begins with the year 6000, and is the latest time the Messiah can come. Supporting and elaborating on this theme are numerous early and late Jewish scholars, including Rabbeinu Bachya, Abraham ibn Ezra,the Ramban,Isaac Abrabanel, the Ramchal,the Vilna Gaon,Aryeh Kaplan, and the Lubavitcher Rebbe.
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Christian eschatology includes several views of the Messianic Age. According to realized eschatology, the Messianic Era, a time of universal peace and brotherhood on the earth, without crime, war and poverty, is already here. With the crucifixion of Jesus the Messianic Era had begun, but according to inaugurated eschatology it will only be initiated and fulfilled by the parousia of Christ.
The Book of Revelation is commonly interpreted as referring to the "unveiling" or "revelation" of Jesus as the Messiah in the apocalypse or end of the world. It tells of a 1000-year period after the apocalypse in which Satan will be bound so that he cannot influence those living on the Earth, and Jesus Christ will reign on the Earth with resurrected saints. After that Satan will be defeated once and for all, the Earth and heaven will pass away, and people will face judgment by Jesus Christ to determine whether or not they will enter the new heaven and Earth that will be established. (Revelation 21) The Nicene Creed, professed by most Christians, expresses the belief that Christ ascended to Heaven, where he now sits at the Right hand of God and will return to earth at the Second Coming to establish the Kingdom of God of the World to Come.
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Quran states that Isa ibn Maryam (Jesus, son of Mary) was the Messiah or "Prophet" sent to the Jews.[Quran 3:45] Muslims believe he is alive in Heaven, and will return to Earth to defeat the Masih ad-Dajjal, an anti-messiah comparable to the Christian Antichrist and the Jewish Armilus. A hadith in Abu Dawud (37:4310) says: Narrated Abu Hurayrah: The Prophet said: There is no prophet between me and him, that is, Jesus. He will descend (to the earth). When you see him, recognise him: a man of medium height, reddish hair, wearing two light yellow garments, looking as if drops were falling down from his head though it will not be wet. He will fight for the cause of Islam. He will break the cross, kill the swine, and put an end to war (in another tradition, there is the word Jizyah instead of Harb (war), meaning that he will abolish jizyah); God will perish all religions except Islam. He [Jesus] will destroy the Antichrist who will live on the earth for forty days and then he will die. The Muslims will pray behind him. Both Sunni and Shia Muslims agree Imam Mahdi will arrive first, and after him, Jesus. Jesus will proclaim that the true leader is al-Mahdi. A war, literally Jihad (Jihade Asghar) will be fought—the Dajjal (evil) against al-Mahdi and Jesus (good). This war will mark the approach of the coming of the Last Day. After Jesus slays al-Dajjāl at the Gate of Lud, he will bear witness and reveal that Islam is the true and final word from God to humanity as Yusuf Ali's translation reads:[Quran 4:159 (Translated by Yusuf Ali)] And there is none of the People of the Book but must believe in him before his death; and on the Day of Judgment He will be a witness against them.― (159) He will live for several years, marry, have children and will be buried in Medina. A hadith in Sahih Bukhari (Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:55:658) says: Allah's Apostle said "How will you be when the son of Mary descends amongst you and your Imam is from amongst you."Very few scholars outside of Orthodox Islam reject all the quotes (Hadith) attributed to Muhammad that mention the second return of Jesus, the Dajjal and Imam Mahdi, believing that they have no Quranic basis. However, Quran emphatically rejects the implication of termination of Jesus’ life when he was allegedly crucified. Yusuf Ali’s translation reads: That they said (in boast), "We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah";― but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them and those who differ therein are full of doubts, with no (certain) knowledge, but only conjecture to follow, for of a surety they killed him not. (157) Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself; and Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise. (158)[Quran 4:157–158] So Peace is on me the day I was born, the day that I die and the day that I shall be raised up to life (again).[Quran 19:33] Many classical commentators such as Ibn Kathir, At-Tabari, al-Qurtubi, Suyuti, al-Undlusi (Bahr al-Muhit), Abu al-Fadl al-Alusi (Ruh al-Maani) clearly mention that verse 43:61 of the Qur'an refers to the descent of Jesus before the Day of Resurrection, indicating that Jesus would be the Sign that the Hour is close. And (Jesus) shall be a Sign (for the coming of) the Hour (of Judgment): therefore have no doubt about the (Hour)...[Quran 43:61] In Ahmadiyya Islam, the present age (the Messianic age) has been a witness to the wrath of God with the occurrence of the World Wars and the frequency of natural disasters. In Ahmadiyya, Ghulam Ahmad (d.1908) is seen as the promised Messiah whose Islamic teachings will establish spiritual reform and ultimately establish an age of peace upon earth. This age continues for around a thousand years as per Judeo-Christian prophecies; and is characterised by the assembling of mankind under one faith that is Islam as per Ahmadiyya belief. In the Bahá'í Faith, the "Messianic Age" refers to a 1000-year period beginning with the Declaration of Bahá'u'lláh in 1863. Bahá'ís believe the period of peace and prosperity is gradually unfolding and will culminate in the appearance of "The Most Great Peace".The prophet stood in direct relations with his people; his prophecy was first spoken and afterwards written. The apocalyptic writer could obtain no hearing from his contemporaries, who held that, though God spoke in the past, "there was no more any prophet." This pessimism limited and defined the form in which religious enthusiasm should manifest itself, and prescribed as a condition of successful effort the adoption of pseudonymous authorship. The apocalyptic writer, therefore, professedly addressed his book to future generations. Generally directions as to the hiding and sealing of the book were given in the text in order to explain its publication so long after the date of its professed period. There was a sense in which such books were not wholly pseudonymous. Their writers were students of ancient prophecy and apocalyptical tradition, and though they might recast and reinterpret them, they could not regard them as their own inventions. Each fresh apocalypse would in the eyes of its writer be in some degree but a fresh edition of the traditions naturally attaching themselves to great names in Israel’s past, and thus the books named respectively Enoch, Noah, Ezra would to some slight extent be not pseudonymous.
For the first churchly visit of that November 2023 trip to the southern French provinces of Roussillon and Languedoc, I will treat you to a truly unique place, the so-called “priory” of Serrabone, which features an absolute world-class masterpiece of Romanesque sculpture: its tribune.
I said “so-called” above because a priory, in the genuine acception of the word, is a secondary monastery established by an abbey. It is populated by monks sent by that abbey. Those monks are led by a prior, whose superior is the abbot of the founding abbey. In the case of Serrabone, there first was a late Carolingian parochial church established in this mountainous locale and first mentioned in writing in 1069. The walls of the nave are, for some part, still those of that ancient church.
It was then, at a time when local lords used to meddle more and more in the affairs of the Church (which was one of the reasons that prompted the coming of the Gregorian reform), that the viscount of Cerdagne and the local lord of Corsavy installed on the Serrabone mountaintop an unusually mixed group of canons and canonesses to live in accordance with the Augustinian Rule.
A new college church was built (mostly by enlarging the previous one) and consecrated in 1151. Its architecture is harmonious but very simple, as one would expect: in the Middle Ages, those mountains were populated (hence the creation of the parish) and did feed their inhabitants (serra bona in Catalan means “good mountain”), but there was precious little commerce with the outside world and the locals had nothing of real value to export. Therefore, the local economy was pretty much a closed circuit and money was far from flowing in abundantly. The style of the church, even though there were donations from the aforementioned lords, reflects this paucity of financial resources.
It is therefore a total mystery how the magnificent sculpted tribune, which would have cost a veritable fortune, was funded, and by whom. Nothing has ever been demonstrated in that matter, although many have conjectured in various directions. The only certainty we have is that it was built around the time when the church itself was completed, i.e., the mid–1150s.
The culmination of the “priory” did not last very long: canons and canonesses are not monks and nuns, their commitment is found throughout history and places to be much less strong, and by the late 1200s they had already broken communal life and begun to live in their own separate homes. Decadence went to such extremes that the “priory” was secularized by the pope in the 16th century and made a dependency of the chapter of the cathedral of Solsona. The last “prior” died in 1612 and the church returned to its simple parochial status.
The place was progressively abandoned as people left the mountains to go live easier lives in the valleys. It was almost in ruins when it was listed as a Historic Landmark in 1875 and the restoration began. Fortunately, the tribune had been protected and its capitals and columns hidden by the locals.
This other, and very beautiful, capital crowns one of the pilasters that support the tribune on the western side. It depicts a Centaur chasing a deer (which sports a very lion-like mane!) and aiming at it with its bow. Symbolically, it is an allegory of Evil pursuing Good and trying to bring it down —read, make sin happen.
There are nine species of baobab tree, six of which are native to Madagascar, two are native to mainland Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, and one is native to Australia.
This one is an Adansonia digitata, the most common of all nine species, and widely seen in northern Botswana where this shot was taken.
"Adansonia digitata, the baobab, is the most widespread tree species of the genus Adansonia, the baobabs, and is native to the African continent. The long-lived pachycauls are typically found in dry, hot savannahs of sub-Saharan Africa, where they dominate the landscape, and reveal the presence of a watercourse from afar. Their growth rate is determined by ground water or rainfall, and their maximum age, which is subject to much conjecture, seems to be in the order of 1,500 years. They have traditionally been valued as sources of food, water, health remedies or places of shelter and are steeped in legend and superstition. European explorers of old were inclined to carve their names on baobabs, and many are defaced by modern graffiti.
Common names for the baobab include dead-rat tree (from the appearance of the fruit), monkey-bread tree (the soft, dry fruit is edible), upside-down tree (the sparse branches resemble roots) and cream of tartar tree (cream of tartar)."
For my video: youtu.be/XAEJc_upOmg
Oamaru, Otago, New Zealand
Oamaru is the largest town in North Otago, in the South Island of New Zealand, it is the main town in the Waitaki District. It is 80 kilometres (50 mi) south of Timaru and 120 kilometres (75 mi) north of Dunedin on the Pacific coast; State Highway 1 and the railway Main South Line connect it to both cities. With a population of 13,700, Oamaru is the 28th largest urban area in New Zealand, and the third largest in Otago behind Dunedin and Queenstown.
The name Oamaru derives from the Māori and can be translated as "the place of Maru" (cf. Timaru). The identity of Maru remains open to conjecture.