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Christmas, also known as Nativity, refers to the accounts of the birth of Jesus mainly based on the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. Traditionally, scenes of Nativity, portray the Holy Family in the stable at Bethlehem. The Christ child is represented lying in a manger or upon the straw, whilst Virgin Mary kneels in adoration before Him. In some scenes Virgin Mary is represented lying next to Jesus. Joseph is portrayed standing at one side. The scene also includes depictions of an ox and a donkey, usually in the background, gazing quietly at the scene in front of them.
Some Nativity scenes depict one or more angels who proclaim Jesus as the savior for all people, and portrayals of shepherds who come to adore Him. There are also scenes representing the wise men (The Maggi ) who, after following a star, arrive to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus.
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Manuscript title: Calendar, Sacramentary
Origin: St. Gall (Switzerland)
Period: 11th century
Image source: St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. Sang. 341, p. 59 – Calendar, Sacramentary (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/list/one/csg/0341)
The zodiac sign of VIRGO is associated with the month of August. In the medieval iconographic compositions it is often represented by a single woman. She is usually presented standing in a landscape, although in some cases she is shown seated or indoors. Usually she holds either a palm or a sheaf and therefore associated to agriculture. In some representations she has flowers in her hand. In the modern horoscope the zodiac sign of VIRGO covers the period from about 23 August until 22 September.
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Manuscript title: Roman Breviary for Sundays and feast days
Origin: Basel (Switzerland)
Period: 14th century
Image source: St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. Sang. 402, p. 8 – Roman Breviary for Sundays and feast days (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/csg/0402/8)
The zodiac sign of AQUARIUS is associated with the month of January and it is represented by the water carrier. In most of the standard medieval iconographic compositions, the water carrier is represented by a single man or a woman, standing or seated, holding one or two vases from which water pours. Usually set in a landscape, the figure is sometimes immersed in a lake, into which he/she pours the water from the vase. The vase is always Classical in form, and in some cases the water flows away from the figure instead of vertically. In some depictions, the figure of the water carrier is represented by a genderless figure which perhaps resembles to a child. In the modern horoscope the zodiac sign of AQUARIUS covers the period from about 20 January until 18 February.
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Manuscript title: Codex Schürstab
Origin: Nürnberg (Germany)
Period: 15th century
Image source: Zürich, Zentralbibliothek, Ms. C 54, p. 5v – Codex Schürstab (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/zbz/C0054/5v)
Manuscript title: Antiphonarium
Manuscript summary: Antiphonary from the Franciscan Monastery of Fribourg, dated 1488 according to the colophon f. 214v. Drolleries are drawn in the margins and by the initials. The manuscript contains a miniature (f. 14v, birth of Christ) and beautiful initials (flowers, fruit, zucchini), attributed to the Master of the Breviary of Jost of Silenen.
Origin: Fribourg, Franciscan Monastery
Period: 15th century
Image source: Fribourg/Freiburg, Couvent des Cordeliers/Franziskanerkloster, Ms. 6: Antiphonarium
Manuscript title: Passover Haggadah
Manuscript summary: This Hebrew manuscript from the 15th century combines liturgical texts and commentaries on the rites that provide the temporal foundation for the observation of Passover. The Passah-Haggadah, adorned with miniatures and rich illustrations, contains the complete liturgical version of the Exodus story. The first part of the manuscript contains the text of the Italian rite, the second part that of the Ashkenazi. This manuscript was written and illuminated by Joël ben Siméon, who signed his work with a Kolophon (f. 34r): I am Joel ben Simeon, called Veibusch Ashkenazi – blessed be his memory – and I am from Cologne, which is on the banks of the Rhine.
Origin: Cologne (Germany)
Period: 15th century
Image source: Cologny, Fondation Martin Bodmer, Cod. Bodmer 81: Passover Haggadah
Manuscript title: Evangelium longum (Evangelistary)
Manuscript summary: The Evangelium Longum, a world-class work created by the St. Gallen monks Sintram (text) and Tuotilo (binding).
Origin: St. Gallen
Period: 9th century
Image source: St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. Sang. 53: Evangelium longum (Evangelistary)
In most of the standard medieval iconographic compositions, St. Mark the Evangelist is presented accompanied by a lion which sometimes is with wings. The lion figure is present presumably because his Gospel emphasizes the royal dignity of Christ, and the lion is the figure representing his royalty. He is shown most of the times seated with a book or pen presenting his character of Evangelist and secretary of St. Peter. In some occasions, only the figure of the Lion, as one of his attributes, is presented.
St. Mark is known as the author of the second Gospel in the New Testament. This Gospel is dedicated to the life of Christ after his baptism, to his death and resurrection, focusing particularly on the last weeks of his life. Tradition says that St. Mark wrote this Gospel receiving the materials directly by St. Peter whilst accompanying him as a secretary on a journey to Rome. He has died in Alexandria where he also founded a church in this city. Several centuries after his death, his body was carried off by Venetian sailors bringing it to Venice where St. Mark became the patron saint of this city which adopts his emblem, the lion, as its own.
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Manuscript title: Latin Gospel readings
Origin: St. Gallen (Switzerland)
Period: 15th century
Image source: St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. Sang. 368, p. 8 – Latin Gospel readings (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/csg/0368/8)
The scenes portraying Christ on the cross, often referred to also as the Crucifixion of Christ, derive their visual details mainly from the four Gospels. However, these accounts vary considerably in detail and therefore it is not unnatural that different aspects and variations of the scene could be represented.
The standard iconographic composition almost always presents crucified Christ positioned in the middle of the scene where he is shown stripped of his cloths. The figures of Virgin Mary and St. John the Apostle are frequently the only figures included in the composition. Other expended versions of the theme, however, include several other pairs of figures of both historical and symbolic relevance that traditionally appear to the right and the left of the cross. In some variations, the scene presents Christ`s cross erected between those of two thieves who were crucified at the same time with him. In other variations, the scene might include soldiers who cast lots for Christ`s cloths, or the figure of centurion, the Roman army officer, who pierced Christ`s side with a spear and afterward declared him to be the Son of God. Often, on the upper part of the composition, there are small personifications of the Sun and Moon which were eclipsed at the Crucifixion. In some cases, the scene depicts an affixed sign on the cross with the Latin acronym “INRI” (Iēsus Nazarēnus, Rēx Iūdaeōrum), which in English reads as “Jesus of Nazareth, The King of the Jews”.
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Manuscript title: Spiegelberger Missal
Origin: Solothurn (Switzerland)
Period: 15th century
Image source: Solothurn, Domschatz der St.-Ursen-Kathedrale, Cod. U 3, p. 103v – Spiegelberger Missal (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/dss/U0003/103v)
Manuscript title: Silver Book of the Land
Manuscript summary: On 86 leaves of parchment, the Silver Book of the Land contains the statutes of the entire region of Appenzell. It is an assemblage of older legal texts; at a later time more recent statutes were added to it. Following the division of the region of Appenzell that took place in 1597, the book became the property of the Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden and remained valid into the 19th century. Rich decorations consisting of miniatures and initials indicate the great importance attributed to this volume.
Origin: Appenzell (Switzerland)
Period: 16th century
Image source: Appenzell, Landesarchiv Appenzell Innerrhoden, E.10.02.01.01: Silver Book of the Land (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/list/one/laai/E-10-02-01-01)
Manuscript title: Epistolary
Manuscript summary: Epistolary originating from Reichenau/St. Gall, illustrated with a portrait of the epistle-writer Saint Paul and five painted Christological miniatures from the third quarter of the 11th century.
Origin: St. Gall (possibly) (Switzerland)
Period: 11th century
Image source: St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. Sang. 371, p. 168 – Epistolary (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/csg/0371/168)
The zodiac sign of LIBRA is associated with the month of September and in the medieval iconographic compositions it is often represented by the figure of a woman with scales. The figure of a woman is usually shown full-length, either frontally or in profile. She is often portrayed holding the scales in balance. Sometimes the woman is missing and simply only the scales are shown. In the modern horoscope the zodiac sign of LIBRA covers the period from about 23 September until 23 October.
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Manuscript title: Codex Schürstab
Origin: Nünberg (Germany)
Period: 15th century
Image source: Zürich, Zentralbibliothek, Ms. C 54, p. 21v – Codex Schürstab (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/zbz/C0054/21v)
In most of the standard medieval iconographic compositions, St. John the Evangelist is presented accompanied by the eagle. The eagle figure is presented presumably because his Gospel emphasizes aspects of Christ`s life that are related to “higher” level (like Ascension and Christ`s divine nature), and the eagle is the figure representing the sky and the higher inspiration. He is shown most of the times seated with a book or pen, writing the Gospel. In some occasions, only the figure of the eagle, as one of his attributes, is presented.
St John is known as the author of the fourth Gospel in the New Testament. This Gospel is dedicated to the public ministry of Christ beginning with the witness and affirmation by John the Baptist and concludes with the death, burial, resurrection and post resurrection appearances of Christ. He was the youngest of the twelve Apostles and was also present at the Crucifixion of Christ. Tradition says that from this time on, the Virgin Mary lived with John in fulfillment of Christ`s words. After the Virgin Mary`s death, he traveled to Judea preaching the gospel with St. Peter. Later, he is said to have journeyed into Asia Minor, where he has founded the Seven Churches referred to in the Revelation. He is supposed to have died a natural death at Ephesus.
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Manuscript title: Evangeliar
Origin: Halberstadt (Germany)
Period: 10th century
Image source: Schaffhausen, Stadtbibliothek, Min. 8, p. 144v – Evangeliar (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/sbs/min0008/144v)
The zodiac sign of ARIES is associated with the month of March and it is represented by the ram. In most of the standard iconographic compositions, there is only on animal shown, often standing facing left with the head upturned to the right. There are however cases when the animal is also presented facing right. The ram`s horns are prominently shown, and in order to distinguished it from zodiac sign of the Taurus, they are more curled. In some representations, the animal is presented in a landscape. In the modern horoscope, the zodiac sign of ARIES covers the period from about March 20 – April 19.
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Manuscript title: Codex Schürstab
Origin: Nürnberg (Germany)
Period: 15th century
Image source: Zürich, Zentralbibliothek, Ms. C 54, p. 18r – Codex Schürstab (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/zbz/C0054/18r)
The zodiac sign of LIBRA is associated with the month of September and in the medieval iconographic compositions it is often represented by the figure of a woman with scales. The figure of a woman is usually shown full-length, either frontally or in profile. She is often portrayed holding the scales in balance. Sometimes the woman is missing and simply only the scales are shown. In the modern horoscope the zodiac sign of LIBRA covers the period from about 23 September until 23 October.
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Manuscript title: Book of Hours
Origin: Nantes ? (France)
Period: 15th century
Image source: Genève, Bibliothèque de Genève, Ms. lat. 33, p. 9r – Book of Hours (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/bge/lat0033/9r)
The Quran (English pronunciation: /kɔrˈɑːn/ kor-AHN , Arabic: القرآن al-qur'ān, IPA: [qurˈʔaːn], literally meaning "the recitation", also romanised Qur'an or Koran) is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God (Arabic: الله, Allah). Its scriptural status among a world-spanning religious community, and its major place within world literature generally, has led to a great deal of secondary literature on the Quran. Quranic chapters are called suras and verses are called ayahs.
Muslims believe that the Quran was verbally revealed by God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel (Jibril), gradually over a period of approximately 23 years, beginning on 22 December 609 CE, when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632 CE, the year of his death. Muslims regard the Quran as the most important miracle of Muhammad, a proof of his prophethood, and the culmination of a series of divine messages that started with the messages revealed to Adam and ended with Muhammad. They consider the Quran to be the only revealed book that has been protected by God from distortion or corruption.
According to the traditional narrative, several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations. Shortly after Muhammad's death, the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and memorized parts of it. These codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthman's codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran we have today. However, the existence of variant readings, with mostly minor and some significant variations, and the early unvocalized Arabic script mean the relationship between Uthman's codex to both the text of today's Quran and to the revelations of Muhammad's time is still unclear.
The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Jewish and Christian scriptures. It summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance. It sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law. During prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic.
Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz. Some Muslims read Quranic ayahs (verses) with elocution, which is often called tajwīd. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers. In order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, most Muslims rely on the tafsir.
ETYMOLOGY & MEANING
The word qurʼān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself, assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun (maṣdar) of the Arabic verb qaraʼa (قرأ), meaning "he read" or "he recited". The Syriac equivalent is (ܩܪܝܢܐ) qeryānā, which refers to "scripture reading" or "lesson". While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is qaraʼa itself. Regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the "act of reciting", as reflected in an early Quranic passage: "It is for Us to collect it and to recite it (qurʼānahu)."
In other verses, the word refers to "an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]". Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example: "So when al-qurʼān is recited, listen to it and keep silent." The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel.
The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qurʼān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb (book); āyah (sign); and sūrah (scripture). The latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a definite article (al-), the word is referred to as the "revelation" (waḥy), that which has been "sent down" (tanzīl) at intervals. Other related words are: dhikr (remembrance), used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning, and ḥikmah (wisdom), sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.
The Quran describes itself as "the discernment or the criterion between truth and falsehood" (al-furqān), "the mother book" (umm al-kitāb), "the guide" (huda), "the wisdom" (hikmah), "the remembrance" (dhikr) and "the revelation" (tanzīl; something sent down, signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place). Another term is al-kitāb (the book), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The adjective of "Quran" has multiple transliterations including "quranic," "koranic" and "qur'anic," or capitalised as "Qur'anic," "Koranic" and "Quranic." The term muṣḥaf ('written work') is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books. Other transliterations of "Quran" include "al-Coran", "Coran", "Kuran" and "al-Qurʼan".
HISTORY
PROPHETIC ERA
Islamic tradition relates that Muhammad received his first revelation in the Cave of Hira during one of his isolated retreats to the mountains. Thereafter, he received revelations over a period of 23 years. According to hadith and Muslim history, after Muhammad emigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered many of his companions to recite the Quran and to learn and teach the laws, which were revealed daily. It is related that some of the Quraish who were taken prisoners at the battle of Badr regained their freedom after they had taught some of the Muslims the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of Muslims gradually became literate. As it was initially spoken, the Quran was recorded on tablets, bones, and the wide, flat ends of date palm fronds. Most suras were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shia sources, relating Muhammad's use of the Quran as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632 CE. There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation.
Sahih al-Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell" and Aisha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)." Muhammad's first revelation, according to the Quran, was accompanied with a vision. The agent of revelation is mentioned as the "one mighty in power", the one who "grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon. Then he drew nigh and came down till he was (distant) two bows' length or even nearer." The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the Encyclopaedia of Islam that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. However, Muhammad's critics accused him of being a possessed man, a soothsayer or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in ancient Arabia. Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad's initial claim of prophethood. The Quran describes Muhammad as "ummi", which is traditionally interpreted as "illiterate," but the meaning is rather more complex. The medieval commentators such as Al-Tabari maintained that the term induced two meanings: first, the inability to read or write in general; second, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures (but they gave priority to the first meaning). Besides, Muhammad's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. For example, according to Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as Watt prefer the second meaning.
COMPILATION
Based on earlier transmitted reports, in the year 632 CE, after Muhammad died and a number of his companions who knew the Quran by heart were killed in a battle by Musaylimah, the first caliph Abu Bakr (d. 634CE) decided to collect the book in one volume so that it could be preserved. Zayd ibn Thabit (d. 655CE) was the person to collect the Quran since "he used to write the Divine Inspiration for Allah's Apostle". Thus, a group of scribes, most importantly Zayd, collected the verses and produced a hand-written manuscript of the complete book. The manuscript according to Zayd remained with Abu Bakr until he died. Zayd's reaction to the task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments, palm-leaf stalks, thin stones and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives. After Abu Bakr, Hafsa bint Umar, Muhammad's widow, was entrusted with the manuscript. In about 650 CE, the third Caliph Uthman ibn Affan (d. 656CE) began noticing slight differences in pronunciation of the Quran as Islam expanded beyond the Arabian peninsula into Persia, the Levant, and North Africa. In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr's copy and prepare a standard copy of the Quran. Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death, the Quran was committed to written form. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed. The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr.
According to Shia and some Sunni scholars, Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661CE) compiled a complete version of the Quran shortly after Muhammad's death. The order of this text differed from that gathered later during Uthman's era in that this version had been collected in chronological order. Despite this, he made no objection against the standardized Quran and accepted the Quran in circulation. Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including Ibn Mas'ud's and Ubayy ibn Kab's codex, none of which exist today.
The Quran most likely existed in scattered written form during Muhammad's lifetime. Several sources indicate that during Muhammad's lifetime a large number of his companions had memorized the revelations. Early commentaries and Islamic historical sources support the above-mentioned understanding of the Quran's early development. The Quran in its present form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants has not yielded any differences of great significance. Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted, some still are. There has been no critical text produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based. Historically, controversy over the Quran's content has rarely become an issue, although debates continue on the subject.
In 1972, in a mosque in the city of Sana'a, Yemen, manuscripts were discovered that were later proved to be the most ancient Quranic text known to exist. The Sana'a manuscripts contain palimpsests, a manuscript page from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again - a practice which was common in ancient times due to scarcity of writing material. However, the faint washed-off underlying text (scriptio inferior) is still barely visible and believed to be "pre-Uthmanic" Quranic content, while the text written on top (scriptio superior) is believed to belong to Uthmanic time. Studies using radiocarbon dating indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 AD with a 99 percent probability.
SIGNIFICANCE IN ISLAM
WORSHIP
Muslims believe the Quran to be the book of divine guidance revealed from God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years and view the Quran as God's final revelation to humanity. They also believe that the Quran has solutions to all the problems of humanity irrespective of how complex they may be and in what age they occur.
Revelation in Islamic and Quranic concept means the act of God addressing an individual, conveying a message for a greater number of recipients. The process by which the divine message comes to the heart of a messenger of God is tanzil (to send down) or nuzūl (to come down). As the Quran says, "With the truth we (God) have sent it down and with the truth it has come down."
The Quran frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained. Some verses in the Quran seem to imply that even those who do not speak Arabic would understand the Quran if it were recited to them. The Quran refers to a written pre-text, "the preserved tablet", that records God's speech even before it was sent down.
The issue of whether the Quran is eternal or created became a theological debate (Quran's createdness) in the ninth century. Mu'tazilas, an Islamic school of theology based on reason and rational thought, held that the Quran was created while the most widespread varieties of Muslim theologians considered the Quran to be co-eternal with God and therefore uncreated. Sufi philosophers view the question as artificial or wrongly framed.
Muslims believe that the present wording of the Quran corresponds to that revealed to Muhammad, and according to their interpretation of Quran 15:9, it is protected from corruption ("Indeed, it is We who sent down the Quran and indeed, We will be its guardian."). Muslims consider the Quran to be a guide, a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. They argue it is not possible for a human to produce a book like the Quran, as the Quran itself maintains.
Muslims commemorate annually the beginning of Quran's revelation on the Night of Destiny (Laylat al-Qadr), during the last 10 days of Ramadan, the month during which they fast from sunrise until sunset.
The first sura of the Quran is repeated in daily prayers and in other occasions. This sura, which consists of seven verses, is the most often recited sura of the Quran:
"All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Universe, the Beneficent, the Merciful and Master of the Day of Judgment, You alone We do worship and from You alone we do seek assistance, guide us to the right path, the path of those to whom You have granted blessings, those who are neither subject to Your anger nor have gone astray."
Respect for the written text of the Quran is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims, and the Quran is treated with reverence. Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of Quran 56:79 ("none shall touch but those who are clean"), some Muslims believe that they must perform a ritual cleansing with water before touching a copy of the Quran, although this view is not universal. Worn-out copies of the Quran are wrapped in a cloth and stored indefinitely in a safe place, buried in a mosque or a Muslim cemetery, or burned and the ashes buried or scattered over water.
In Islam, most intellectual disciplines, including Islamic theology, philosophy, mysticism and Jurisprudence, have been concerned with the Quran or have their foundation in its teachings. Muslims believe that the preaching or reading of the Quran is rewarded with divine rewards variously called ajr, thawab or hasanat.
IN ISLAMIC ART
The Quran also inspired Islamic arts and specifically the so-called Quranic arts of calligraphy and illumination.[1] The Quran is never decorated with figurative images, but many Qurans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page, or between the lines or at the start of suras. Islamic verses appear in many other media, on buildings and on objects of all sizes, such as mosque lamps, metal work, pottery and single pages of calligraphy for muraqqas or albums.
INIMITABILITY
Inimitability of the Quran (or "I'jaz") is the belief that no human speech can match the Quran in its content and form. The Quran is considered an inimitable miracle by Muslims, effective until the Day of Resurrection - and, thereby, the central proof granted to Muhammad in authentication of his prophetic status. The concept of inimitability originates in the Quran where in five different verses opponents are challenged to produce something like the Quran: "If men and sprites banded together to produce the like of this Quran they would never produce its like not though they backed one another."[61] So the suggestion is that if there are doubts concerning the divine authorship of the Quran, come forward and create something like it. From the ninth century, numerous works appeared which studied the Quran and examined its style and content. Medieval Muslim scholars including al-Jurjani (d. 1078CE) and al-Baqillani (d. 1013CE) have written treatises on the subject, discussed its various aspects, and used linguistic approaches to study the Quran. Others argue that the Quran contains noble ideas, has inner meanings, maintained its freshness through the ages and has caused great transformations in individual level and in the history. Some scholars state that the Quran contains scientific information that agrees with modern science. The doctrine of miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad's illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran.
TEXT & ARRANGEMENT
The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, each known as a sura. Suras are classified as Meccan or Medinan, depending on whether the verses were revealed before or after the migration of Muhammad to the city of Medina. However, a sura classified as Medinan may contain Meccan verses in it and vice versa. Sura titles are derived from a name or quality discussed in the text, or from the first letters or words of the surah. Suras are arranged roughly in order of decreasing size. The sura arrangement is thus not connected to the sequence of revelation. Each sura except the ninth starts with the Bismillah (بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم) an Arabic phrase meaning 'In the name of God.' There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the Bismillah in the Quran, due to its presence in Quran 27:30 as the opening of Solomon's letter to the Queen of Sheba.
Each sura consists of several verses, known as ayat, which originally means a 'sign' or 'evidence' sent by God. The number of verses differs from sura to sura. An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines. The total number of verses in the Quran is 6236, however, the number varies if the bismillahs are counted separately.
In addition to and independent of the division into suras, there are various ways of dividing the Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading. The 30 juz' (plural ajzāʼ) can be used to read through the entire Quran in a month. Some of these parts are known by names - which are the first few words by which the juzʼ starts. A juz' is sometimes further divided into two ḥizb (plural aḥzāb), and each hizb subdivided into four rubʻ al-ahzab. The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts, manzil (plural manāzil), for it to be recited in a week.
Muqatta'at, or the Quranic initials, are 14 different letter combinations of 14 Arabic letters that appear in the beginning of 29 suras of the Quran. The meanings of these initials remain unclear.
According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77,430 words, 18,994 unique words, 12,183 stems, 3,382 lemmas and 1,685 roots.
CONTENTS
The Quranic content is concerned with the basic beliefs of Islam which include the existence of God and the resurrection. Narratives of the early prophets, ethical and legal subjects, historical events of Muhammad's time, charity and prayer also appear in the Quran. The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and the historical events are related to outline general moral lessons. Verses pertaining to natural phenomena have been interpreted by Muslims as an indication of the authenticity of the Quranic message.
MONOTHEISM
The central theme of the Quran is monotheism. God is depicted as living, eternal, omniscient and omnipotent (see, e.g., Quran 2:20, 2:29, 2:255). God's omnipotence appears above all in his power to create. He is the creator of everything, of the heavens and the earth and what is between them (see, e.g., Quran 13:16, 50:38, etc.). All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God, and their well-being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly.
The Quran uses cosmological and contingency arguments in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the existence of God. Therefore, the universe is originated and needs an originator, and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence. Besides, the design of the universe, is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation: "It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony. You cannot see any fault in God's creation; then look again: Can you see any flaw?"
ESCHATOLOGY
The doctrine of the last day and eschatology (the final fate of the universe) may be reckoned as the second great doctrine of the Quran. It is estimated that around a full one-third of the Quran is eschatological, dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time. There is a reference of the afterlife on most pages of the Quran and the belief in the afterlife is often referred to in conjunction with belief in God as in the common expression: "Believe in God and the last day". A number of suras such as 44, 56, 75, 78, 81 and 101 are directly related to the afterlife and its preparations. Some of the suras indicate the closeness of the event and warn people to be prepared for the imminent day. For instance, the first verses of Sura 22, which deal with the mighty earthquake and the situations of people on that day, represent this style of divine address: "O People! Be respectful to your Lord. The earthquake of the Hour is a mighty thing."
The Quran is often vivid in its depiction of what will happen at the end time. Watt describes the Quranic view of End Time:
"The climax of history, when the present world comes to an end, is referred to in various ways. It is 'the Day of Judgment,' 'the Last Day,' 'the Day of Resurrection,' or simply 'the Hour.' Less frequently it is 'the Day of Distinction' (when the good are separated from the evil), 'the Day of the Gathering' (of men to the presence of God) or 'the Day of the Meeting' (of men with God). The Hour comes suddenly. It is heralded by a shout, by a thunderclap, or by the blast of a trumpet. A cosmic upheaval then takes place. The mountains dissolve into dust, the seas boil up, the sun is darkened, the stars fall and the sky is rolled up. God appears as Judge, but his presence is hinted at rather than described. [...] The central interest, of course, is in the gathering of all mankind before the Judge. Human beings of all ages, restored to life, join the throng. To the scoffing objection of the unbelievers that former generations had been dead a long time and were now dust and mouldering bones, the reply is that God is nevertheless able to restore them to life."
The Quran does not assert a natural immortality of the human soul, since man's existence is dependent on the will of God: when he wills, he causes man to die; and when he wills, he raises him to life again in a bodily resurrection.[68]
PROPHETS
According to the Quran, God communicated with man and made his will known through signs and revelations. Prophets, or 'Messengers of God', received revelations and delivered them to humanity. The message has been identical and for all humankind. "Nothing is said to you that was not said to the messengers before you, that your lord has at his Command forgiveness as well as a most Grievous Penalty." The revelation does not come directly from God to the prophets. Angels acting as God's messengers deliver the divine revelation to them. This comes out in Quran 42:51, in which it is stated: "It is not for any mortal that God should speak to them, except by revelation, or from behind a veil, or by sending a messenger to reveal by his permission whatsoever He will."
ETHICO-RELIGIOUS CONCEPTS
Belief is the center of the sphere of positive moral properties in the Quran. A number of scholars have tried to determine the semantic contents of the words meaning 'belief' and 'believer' in the Quran [70] The Ethico-legal concepts and exhortations dealing with righteous conduct are linked to a profound awareness of God, thereby emphasizing the importance of faith, accountability and the belief in each human's ultimate encounter with God. People are invited to perform acts of charity, especially for the needy. Believers who "spend of their wealth by night and by day, in secret and in public" are promised that they "shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve" It also affirms family life by legislating on matters of marriage, divorce and inheritance. A number of practices such as usury and gambling are prohibited. The Quran is one of the fundamental sources of the Islamic law, or sharia. Some formal religious practices receive significant attention in the Quran including the formal prayers and fasting in the month of Ramadan. As for the manner in which the prayer is to be conducted, the Quran refers to prostration. The term used for charity, Zakat, actually means purification. Charity, according to the Quran, is a means of self-purification.
LITERARY STYLE
The Quran's message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices. In the original Arabic, the suras and verses employ phonetic and thematic structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. Muslims[who?] assert (according to the Quran itself) that the Quranic content and style is inimitable.
The language of the Quran has been described as "rhymed prose" as it partakes of both poetry and prose, however, this description runs the risk of compromising the rhythmic quality of Quranic language, which is certainly more poetic in some parts and more prose-like in others. Rhyme, while found throughout the Quran, is conspicuous in many of the earlier Meccan suras, in which relatively short verses throw the rhyming words into prominence. The effectiveness of such a form is evident for instance in Sura 81, and there can be no doubt that these passages impressed the conscience of the hearers. Frequently a change of rhyme from one set of verses to another signals a change in the subject of discussion. Later sections also preserve this form but the style is more expository.
The Quranic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net. The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to have lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order and presence of repetition. Michael Sells, citing the work of the critic Norman O. Brown, acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming disorganization of Quranic literary expression – its scattered or fragmented mode of composition in Sells's phrase – is in fact a literary device capable of delivering profound effects as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated. Sells also addresses the much-discussed repetitiveness of the Quran, seeing this, too, as a literary device.
A text is self-referential when it speaks about itself and makes reference to itself. According to Stefan Wild the Quran demonstrates this meta-textuality by explaining, classifying, interpreting and justifying the words to be transmitted. Self-referentiality is evident in those passages when the Quran refers to itself as revelation (tanzil), remembrance (dhikr), news (naba'), criterion (furqan) in a self-designating manner (explicitly asserting its Divinity, "And this is a blessed Remembrance that We have sent down; so are you now denying it?"), or in the frequent appearance of the 'Say' tags, when Muhammad is commanded to speak (e.g. "Say: 'God's guidance is the true guidance' ", "Say: 'Would you then dispute with us concerning God?' "). According to Wild the Quran is highly self-referential. The feature is more evident in early Meccan suras.
INTERPRETATION
The Quran has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication (tafsīr), aimed at explaining the "meanings of the Quranic verses, clarifying their import and finding out their significance".
Tafsir is one of the earliest academic activities of Muslims. According to the Quran, Muhammad was the first person who described the meanings of verses for early Muslims. Other early exegetes included a few Companions of Muhammad, like ʻAli ibn Abi Talib, ʻAbdullah ibn Abbas, ʻAbdullah ibn Umar and Ubayy ibn Kaʻb. Exegesis in those days was confined to the explanation of literary aspects of the verse, the background of its revelation and, occasionally, interpretation of one verse with the help of the other. If the verse was about a historical event, then sometimes a few traditions (hadith) of Muhammad were narrated to make its meaning clear.
Because the Quran is spoken in classical Arabic, many of the later converts to Islam (mostly non-Arabs) did not always understand the Quranic Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were clear to early Muslims fluent in Arabic and they were concerned with reconciling apparent conflict of themes in the Quran. Commentators erudite in Arabic explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly, explained which Quranic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim community, and which had been revealed later, canceling out or "abrogating" (nāsikh) the earlier text (mansūkh). Other scholars, however, maintain that no abrogation has taken place in the Quran. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has published a 10-volume Urdu commentary on the Quran, with the name Tafseer e Kabir.
ESOTERIC INTERPRETATION
Esoteric or Sufi interpretation attempts to unveil the inner meanings of the Quran. Sufism moves beyond the apparent (zahir) point of the verses and instead relates Quranic verses to the inner or esoteric (batin) and metaphysical dimensions of consciousness and existence. According to Sands, esoteric interpretations are more suggestive than declarative, they are 'allusions' (isharat) rather than explanations (tafsir). They indicate possibilities as much as they demonstrate the insights of each writer.
Sufi interpretation, according to Annabel Keeler, also exemplifies the use of the theme of love, as for instance can seen in Qushayri's interpretation of the Quran. Quran 7:143 says:
"when Moses came at the time we appointed, and his Lord spoke to him, he said, 'My Lord, show yourself to me! Let me see you!' He said, 'you shall not see me but look at that mountain, if it remains standing firm you will see me.' When his Lord revealed Himself to the mountain, He made it crumble. Moses fell down unconscious. When he recovered, he said, 'Glory be to you! I repent to you! I am the first to believe!'"
Moses, in 7:143, comes the way of those who are in love, he asks for a vision but his desire is denied, he is made to suffer by being commanded to look at other than the Beloved while the mountain is able to see God. The mountain crumbles and Moses faints at the sight of God's manifestation upon the mountain. In Qushayri's words, Moses came like thousands of men who traveled great distances, and there was nothing left to Moses of Moses. In that state of annihilation from himself, Moses was granted the unveiling of the realities. From the Sufi point of view, God is the always the beloved and the wayfarer's longing and suffering lead to realization of the truths.[90]
Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei says that according to the popular explanation among the later exegetes, ta'wil indicates the particular meaning a verse is directed towards. The meaning of revelation (tanzil), as opposed to ta'wil, is clear in its accordance to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed. But this explanation has become so widespread that, at present, it has become the primary meaning of ta'wil, which originally meant "to return" or "the returning place". In Tabatabaei's view, what has been rightly called ta'wil, or hermeneutic interpretation of the Quran, is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Quran issue forth. Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse - rather it transpires through that meaning, in a special sort of transpiration. There is a spiritual reality - which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or the basic aim in describing a divine attribute - and then there is an actual significance that a Quranic story refers to.
According to Shia beliefs, those who are firmly rooted in knowledge like Muhammad and the imams know the secrets of the Quran. According to Tabatabaei, the statement "none knows its interpretation except God" remains valid, without any opposing or qualifying clause. Therefore, so far as this verse is concerned, the knowledge of the Quran's interpretation is reserved for God. But Tabatabaei uses other verses and concludes that those who are purified by God know the interpretation of the Quran to a certain extent.
According to Tabatabaei, there are acceptable and unacceptable esoteric interpretations. Acceptable ta'wil refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning; rather the implicit meaning, which ultimately is known only to God and can't be comprehended directly through human thought alone. The verses in question here refer to the human qualities of coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sorrow, which are apparently attributed to God. Unacceptable ta'wil is where one "transfers" the apparent meaning of a verse to a different meaning by means of a proof; this method is not without obvious inconsistencies. Although this unacceptable ta'wil has gained considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and cannot be applied to the Quranic verses. The correct interpretation is that reality a verse refers to. It is found in all verses, the decisive and the ambiguous alike; it is not a sort of a meaning of the word; it is a fact that is too sublime for words. God has dressed them with words to bring them a bit nearer to our minds; in this respect they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind, and thus help the hearer to clearly grasp the intended idea.
HISTORY OF SUFI COMMENTARIES
One of the notable authors of esoteric interpretation prior to the 12th century is Sulami (d. 1021 CE) without whose work the majority of very early Sufi commentaries would not have been preserved. Sulami's major commentary is a book named haqaiq al-tafsir ("Truths of Exegesis") which is a compilation of commentaries of earlier Sufis. From the 11th century onwards several other works appear, including commentaries by Qushayri (d. 1074), Daylami (d. 1193), Shirazi (d. 1209) and Suhrawardi (d. 1234). These works include material from Sulami's books plus the author's contributions. Many works are written in Persian such as the works of Maybudi (d. 1135) kash al-asrar ("the unveiling of the secrets"). Rumi (d. 1273) wrote a vast amount of mystical poetry in his book Mathnawi. Rumi makes heavy use of the Quran in his poetry, a feature that is sometimes omitted in translations of Rumi's work. A large number of Quranic passages can be found in Mathnawi, which some consider a kind of Sufi interpretation of the Quran. Rumi's book is not exceptional for containing citations from and elaboration on the Quran, however, Rumi does mention Quran more frequently. Simnani (d. 1336) wrote two influential works of esoteric exegesis on the Quran. He reconciled notions of God's manifestation through and in the physical world with the sentiments of Sunni Islam. Comprehensive Sufi commentaries appears in the 18th century such as the work of Ismail Hakki Bursevi (d. 1725). His work ruh al-Bayan (the Spirit of Elucidation) is a voluminous exegesis. Written in Arabic, it combines the author's own ideas with those of his predecessors (notably Ibn Arabi and Ghazali), all woven together in Hafiz, a Persian poetry form.
LEVELS OF MEANING
Unlike the Salafis and Zahiri, Shias and Sufis as well as some other Muslim philosophers believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect. For them, it is an essential idea that the Quran also has inward aspects. Henry Corbin narrates a hadith that goes back to Muhammad:
"The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning (this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres, which are enclosed within each other). So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings (seven depths of hidden depth)."
According to this view, it has also become evident that the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body. Corbin considers the Quran to play a part in Islamic philosophy, because gnosiology itself goes hand in hand with prophetology.
Commentaries dealing with the zahir (outward aspects) of the text are called tafsir, and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the batin are called ta'wil ("interpretation" or "explanation"), which involves taking the text back to its beginning. Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Quran is known only to God. In contrast, Quranic literalism, followed by Salafis and Zahiris, is the belief that the Quran should only be taken at its apparent meaning.
TRANSLATIONS
Translation of the Quran has always been a problematic and difficult issue. Many argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form. Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult.
Nevertheless, the Quran has been translated into most African, Asian and European languages. The first translator of the Quran was Salman the Persian, who translated surat al-Fatiha into Persian during the seventh century. Another translation of the Quran was completed in 884 CE in Alwar (Sindh, India now Pakistan) by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk.
The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in Persian language. The Samanid king, Mansur I (961-976), ordered a group of scholars from Khorasan to translate the Tafsir al-Tabari, originally in Arabic, into Persian. Later in the 11th century, one of the students of Abu Mansur Abdullah al-Ansari wrote a complete tafsir of the Quran in Persian. In the 12th century, Najm al-Din Abu Hafs al-Nasafi translated the Quran into Persian. The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have been published several times.
Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Quran. In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer.
In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known. In 2010, the Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review reported that the Quran was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran.
Manuscript title: Evronot ("Rules for Calculation of the Calendar")
Manuscript summary: This manuscript contains an Evronot ("Rules for Calculation of the Calendar"). Many so-called Sifre evoronot ("Books of calculation") emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries. They can be taken as a reaction to the Gregorian calendar, introduced in 1582. Such manuscripts often depict the biblical Issachar, one of Jacob’s sons, on or near a ladder; as an attribute, he holds an hourglass in his hand. This manuscript has two such miniatures; above the first of which there is also an illustration of a waning and a waxing moon with a human face and stars. The title page depicts an ornamental architectural arch. At the end of the book, there is the familiar motif of Moses seated at a table holding the Tablets of the Law.
Origin: Germany
Period: 17th century
Image source: Zürich, Braginsky Collection, B247: Evronot ("Rules for Calculation of the Calendar") (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/list/one/bc/b-0247)
Manuscript title: Evangelary of Erchenbaldus
Manuscript summary: This 10th century Latin manuscript originated in the St. Gall scriptorium. It belonged to the Bishop of Strasbourg Erchembald (965-991) and was kept in the Cathedral of Strasbourg. The humanist Wimpheling mentions consulting it in Strasbourg in the early years of the 16th century. This manuscript appeared in the sales catalog of the Ambroise Firmin-Didot collection and was bought by the Mulhouse alderman Armand Weiss (1821-1892); after his death, he left it to the Industrial Society of Mulhouse. The Carolingian Gospel Book was written on vellum and contains 300 initials decorated with gold and silver. The beginning and end of the manuscript contain historical annotations. The original binding no longer exists; it was replaced with a contemporary binding during restoration at the Bibliothèque Nationale around 1970.
Origin: St. Gall (Switzerland)
Period: 10th century
Image source: Mulhouse, Bibliothèque municipale, AW 1, f. 76r – Evangelary of Erchenbaldus (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/list/one/bmm/Erk)
Manuscript title: Evangelary of Erchenbaldus
Manuscript summary: This 10th century Latin manuscript originated in the St. Gall scriptorium. It belonged to the Bishop of Strasbourg Erchembald (965-991) and was kept in the Cathedral of Strasbourg. The humanist Wimpheling mentions consulting it in Strasbourg in the early years of the 16th century. This manuscript appeared in the sales catalog of the Ambroise Firmin-Didot collection and was bought by the Mulhouse alderman Armand Weiss (1821-1892); after his death, he left it to the Industrial Society of Mulhouse. The Carolingian Gospel Book was written on vellum and contains 300 initials decorated with gold and silver. The beginning and end of the manuscript contain historical annotations. The original binding no longer exists; it was replaced with a contemporary binding during restoration at the Bibliothèque Nationale around 1970.
Origin: St. Gall (Switzerland)
Period: 10th century
Image source: Mulhouse, Bibliothèque municipale, AW 1, f. 76r – Evangelary of Erchenbaldus (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/list/one/bmm/Erk)
Manuscript title: Aristoteles, Ethica Nicomachea
Manuscript summary: This manuscript contains a Latin version of Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, translated and glossed by Robert Grosseteste (1175-1253), Bishop of Lincoln. The decoration of monochrome as well as red and blue fleuronné initials at the beginning of the chapters (e.g., 3r) and the colorfully decorated initials at the beginning of the books (e.g., 1r) attest to an origin in Southwestern Germany in the third quarter of the 15th century. The manuscript was originally part of the episcopal library; during the French Revolution it came to the library of the Jesuit College of Porrentruy; in the 20th century it finally became part of the collection of the Library of the Canton of Jura.
Origin: Southwestern Germany
Period: 15th century
Image source: Porrentruy, Bibliothèque cantonale jurassienne, Ms. 4: Aristoteles, Ethica Nicomachea
In most of the standard medieval iconographic compositions, St. John the Evangelist is presented accompanied by the eagle. The eagle figure is presented presumably because his Gospel emphasizes aspects of Christ`s life that are related to “higher” level (like Ascension and Christ`s divine nature), and the eagle is the figure representing the sky and the higher inspiration. He is shown most of the times seated with a book or pen, writing the Gospel. In some occasions, only the figure of the eagle, as one of his attributes, is presented.
St John is known as the author of the fourth Gospel in the New Testament. This Gospel is dedicated to the public ministry of Christ beginning with the witness and affirmation by John the Baptist and concludes with the death, burial, resurrection and post resurrection appearances of Christ. He was the youngest of the twelve Apostles and was also present at the Crucifixion of Christ. Tradition says that from this time on, the Virgin Mary lived with John in fulfillment of Christ`s words. After the Virgin Mary`s death, he traveled to Judea preaching the gospel with St. Peter. Later, he is said to have journeyed into Asia Minor, where he has founded the Seven Churches referred to in the Revelation. He is supposed to have died a natural death at Ephesus.
Link to "St. John the Evangelist" set.
Link to "The four Evangelists" collection.
Manuscript title: Book of Hours from Paris
Origin: Paris (France)
Period: 16th century
Image source: Trogen, Kantonsbibliothek Appenzell Ausserrhoden, CM Ms. 8, p. 8r – Book of Hours from Paris (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/cea/0008/8r)
Manuscript title: Manuscript summary: At the beginning of the 17th century, a book of black magic was published, attributed to the mythical Faust and known by the title Höllenzwang. The library in Weimar owned a manuscript of this text, which Goethe was aware of. In 1949 Martin Bodmer was able to purchase a similar manuscript. This document, which is difficult to date, is written in cabalistic signs and, according to a German gloss, contains a series of magic spells for exorcists, which can be used in particular to call up the seven evil spirits.
Origin: Cologny? (Switzerland)
Period: middle of 18th century
Image source: Cologny, Fondation Martin Bodmer, Cod. Bodmer 66: Doktor Fausts Dreifacher Höllenzwang (e-codices.unifr.ch/en/list/one/fmb/cb-0066).
Manuscript title: Passionary of Weissenau
Manuscript summary: This copy of the Lives of the Saints, produced during the 12th century, possibly in the German Cloister of Weissenau, is decorated with ornately detailed and illustrated initial capitals, including one notable initial in which the illuminator, "Fr. Ruffilus" includes himself (fol. 244r).
Origin: Weissenau (Germany)
Period: 12th century
Image source: Cologny, Fondation Martin Bodmer, Cod. Bodmer 127: Passionary of Weissenau
In most of the standard medieval iconographic compositions, St. John the Evangelist is presented accompanied by the eagle. The eagle figure is presented presumably because his Gospel emphasizes aspects of Christ`s life that are related to “higher” level (like Ascension and Christ`s divine nature), and the eagle is the figure representing the sky and the higher inspiration. He is shown most of the times seated with a book or pen, writing the Gospel. In some occasions, only the figure of the eagle, as one of his attributes, is presented.
St John is known as the author of the fourth Gospel in the New Testament. This Gospel is dedicated to the public ministry of Christ beginning with the witness and affirmation by John the Baptist and concludes with the death, burial, resurrection and post resurrection appearances of Christ. He was the youngest of the twelve Apostles and was also present at the Crucifixion of Christ. Tradition says that from this time on, the Virgin Mary lived with John in fulfillment of Christ`s words. After the Virgin Mary`s death, he traveled to Judea preaching the gospel with St. Peter. Later, he is said to have journeyed into Asia Minor, where he has founded the Seven Churches referred to in the Revelation. He is supposed to have died a natural death at Ephesus.
Link to "St. John the Evangelist" set.
Link to "The four Evangelists" collection.
Manuscript title:Book of Hours
Origin: Tours (France)
Period: 16th century
Image source: Genève, Bibliothèque de Genève, Comites Latentes 124, p. 13r – Book of Hours (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/bge/cl0124/13r)
The zodiac sign of PISCES is associated with the month of February and it is represented by two fish. In most of standard iconographic compositions, the two fish are represented nearly always swimming in opposite directions and are often linked together by a cord from both of their mouths. They usually swim horizontally and in some cases they are mirror images of each other. Water or other decoration is sometimes shown around them, but there can also be a blank undecorated area. In the modern horoscope the zodiac sign of PISCES covers the period from about February 19 – March 20.
Link to “Zodiac sign of PISCES” set.
Link to the "Zodiac signs" collection.
Manuscript title: Genus Arati
Origin: Naples (Italy)
Period: 15th century
Image source:Cologny, Fondation Martin Bodmer, Cod. Bodmer 7, p. 24v – Genus Arati (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/cb/0007/24v)
The zodiac sign of AQUARIUS is associated with the month of January and it is represented by the water carrier. In most of the standard medieval iconographic compositions, the water carrier is represented by a single man or a woman, standing or seated, holding one or two vases from which water pours. Usually set in a landscape, the figure is sometimes immersed in a lake, into which he/she pours the water from the vase. The vase is always Classical in form, and in some cases the water flows away from the figure instead of vertically. In some depictions, the figure of the water carrier is represented by a genderless figure which perhaps resembles to a child. In the modern horoscope the zodiac sign of AQUARIUS covers the period from about 20 January until 18 February.
Link to the “Zodiac sign of AQUARIUS “ set
Link to the "Zodiac signs" collection
Manuscript title: Astronomical-computistic encyclopedia
Origin: St. Gallen (Switzerland)
Period: 9th century
Image source: St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. Sang. 250, p. 496 – Astronomical-computistic encyclopedia (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/csg/0250/496)
Manuscript title: Bibliorum sacrorum pars prima
Manuscript summary: Part of a four-volume Latin Bible in parchment, produced in the scriptorium of Allerheiligen monastery in Schaffhausen shortly after 1080. The codex has numerous initials with scroll ornaments, a page decorated with colours and gold featuring an initial V (the vision of Isaiah), and a historiated inital with scroll ornaments (the calling of Jeremiah), in which the influence of manuscripts from Reichenau can be recognized. Along with Min. 18, Min. 4 is one of the most important codices from the prime of Allerheiligen, when the monastery, founded in 1049, supported, under Abbot Siegfried (d. 1096), the reforms of Hirsau and, for this purpose established a library. (spe)
Origin: Schaffhausen (Switzerland)
Period: 11th century
Image source: Schaffhausen, Ministerialbibliothek, Min. 4: Bibliorum sacrorum pars prima
Built during the reign of Doge Francesco Foscari. It was here that the precious codices which Petrarch and Cardinal Bessarion had left to the Republic were housed before the building of the Biblioteca Marciana. Thereafter, in 1532, it was decided to use this chamber for the voting procedures required by various state appointments, hence its present name. ( info by Shay Tressa )
The decor dates from 1578 to 1615. The richly decorated ceiling was designed by the painter-cartographer Cristoforo Sorte and depicts Venetian naval victories in the East and the conquest of Padua in 1405.
The walls are decorated with various military victories over the period 809 to 1656; Andrea Vicentino's rendering of The Battle of Lepanto in 1571 is particularly striking.
It may seem strange that a room destined to be used for voting purposes has a decor which exalts military might rather than political wisdom; but the whole scheme was carried out just after that victory at Lepanto, at a time when Venice's pride in its arms was at its greatest.
The frieze under the ceiling continues the series of portraits of doges, while one of the shorter walls is decorated with a Last Judgement. Painted by Jacopo Palma il Giovane between 1594 and 1595, this could be seen as linked with the Paradiso in the Hall of the Great Council.
The Voting Chamber ends with a majestic triumphal arch. The work of Andrea Tirali, this was raised to commemorate Doge Francesco Morosini Peloponnesiaco, who died in 1694 during the successful campaign in which Venice took control of the Peloponnese from the Turks.
The zodiac sign of CAPRICORN is associated with the month of December and it is represented by the goat. In most of the standard medieval iconographic compositions, the goat is represented with two horns, standing or seated. For an animal rather familiar to the artists in that time, the portrayal of the goat tends to be surprisingly unrealistic to the extent that the goat is often shown very similar to the unicorn. Variations on this form show a creature with upper body of a goat and lower body of a fish with a tail emerging from a shell. In the modern horoscope the zodiac sign of CAPRICORN covers the period from about 22 December until 19 January.
Link to the "Zodiac sign of CAPRICORN" set
Link to the "Zodiac signs" collection
Manuscript title: Codex Schürstab
Origin: Nürnberg (Germany)
Period: 15th century
Image source: Zürich, Zentralbibliothek, Ms. C 54, p. 23r – Codex Schürstab (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/zbz/C0054/23r)
Manuscript title: Rheinau Psalter
Manuscript summary: The Rheinau Psalter, Ms. Rh. 167, is among the preeminent treasures of the Zurich Central Library. Its miniatures are a product of the highest level of artistry of the High Gothic painting of this period around 1260, which is also true for the sophisticated color and painting techniques that were used. In contrast, the script, while of quite good quality, cannot be counted among the highest examples of the art of writing. The commissioner of the manuscript must be sought in the area of Lake Constance, probably in the city of Constance, which was very important in the politics and church politics at the time of the interregnum. In 1817, Father Blasius Hauntinger purchased the manuscript from Melchior Kirchhofer in Schaffhausen for the Benedictine Rheinau Abbey; in 1863, the manuscript, along with the Rheinau Abbey Library, became part of the Cantonal Library (today Central Library) in Zurich.
Origin: Constance (Switzerland)
Period: 13th century
Image source: Zürich, Zentralbibliothek, Ms. Rh. 167: Rheinau Psalter
The zodiac sign of SCORPIO is associated with the month of October and it is represented by the scorpion. In some of the standard medieval iconographic compositions, the scorpion is normally viewed from above and is similar to the crab (used to represent Cancer and the month of June). Being that many of the artist and illuminators responsible for these works never saw a scorpion or had a model book to work from, the representation of this sign reflect great variety. Therefore, the scorpion can have a long tail extending from his head or can look like a dog or a tortoise. In the modern horoscope the zodiac sign of SCORPIO covers the period from about 23 October until 21 November.
Link to the "Zodiac sign of SCORPIO" set
Link to the "Zodiac signs" collection
Manuscript title: Codex Schürstab
Origin: Nünberg (Germany)
Period: 15th century
Image source: Zürich, Zentralbibliothek, Ms. C 54, p. 22r – Codex Schürstab (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/zbz/C0054/22r)
Christmas, also known as Nativity, refers to the accounts of the birth of Jesus mainly based on the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. Traditionally, scenes of Nativity, portray the Holy Family in the stable at Bethlehem. The Christ child is represented lying in a manger or upon the straw, whilst Virgin Mary kneels in adoration before Him. In some scenes Virgin Mary is represented lying next to Jesus. Joseph is portrayed standing at one side. The scene also includes depictions of an ox and a donkey, usually in the background, gazing quietly at the scene in front of them.
Some Nativity scenes depict one or more angels who proclaim Jesus as the savior for all people, and portrayals of shepherds who come to adore Him. There are also scenes representing the wise men (The Maggi ) who, after following a star, arrive to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus.
Link to the "Christmas scenes" set
Manuscript title: Klosterneuburger Evangelienwerk
Origin: Austria
Period: 14th century
Image source: Schaffhausen, Stadtbibliothek, Gen. 8, p. 8v – Klosterneuburger Evangelienwerk (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/sbs/0008/8v)
Manuscript title: Folchart Psalter (Psalterium Gallicanum with Cantica)
Manuscript summary: The Folchart Psalter, a masterpiece of late Carolingian illumination.
Origin: St. Gall (Switzerland)
Period: 9th century
Image source: St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. Sang. 23: Folchart Psalter (Psalterium Gallicanum with Cantica)
The zodiac sign of VIRGO is associated with the month of August. In the medieval iconographic compositions it is often represented by a single woman. She is usually presented standing in a landscape, although in some cases she is shown seated or indoors. Usually she holds either a palm or a sheaf and therefore associated to agriculture. In some representations she has flowers in her hand. In the modern horoscope the zodiac sign of VIRGO covers the period from about 23 August until 22 September.
Link to "Zodiac sign of VIRGO" set.
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Manuscript title: Astronomical-computistic encyclopedia
Origin: St Gallen (Switzerland)
Period: 9th century
Image source: St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. Sang. 250, p. 481 – Astronomical-computistic encyclopedia (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/csg/0250/481)
Manuscript title: Sefirat ha-Omer (Counting of the Omer) and other prayers
Manuscript summary: The Counting of the Omer is the ritual counting of the 49 days between Passover and Shavuot, the Feast of Weeks. In this manuscript, these days and their corresponding numbers, are inscribed in 49 quatrefoils. F. 18r shows a menorah with the seven verses of Psalm 67 inscribed in microsript on the seven arms of the candelabrum. The scribe Baruch ben Schemaria from Brest-Litovsk (Belarus) created this manuscript in Amsterdam in 1795 for Aaron ben Abraham Prinz, of Alkmaar in the Netherlands, as noted on the title page. The drawing on f. 1r, a page of calligraphic decoration, depicts the giant Samson as Atlas, since, according to rabbinical tradition, he was endowed with superhuman strength.
Origin: Amsterdam (The Netherlands)
Period: 18th century
Image source: Zürich, Braginsky collection, B28: Sefirat ha-Omer (Counting of the Omer) and other prayers (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/list/one/bc/b-0028).
Manuscript title:Amyris. Poem in honor of Sultan Mehmed II, by Gian Mario Filelfo
Manuscript summary:At the request of his friend Othman Lillo Ferducci of Ancona, Gian Mario Filelfo composed the Amyris in the years 1471-1476. This long Latin poem was intended to thank Sultan Mehmet II for having freed Ferducci’s brother-in-law, who had been taken prisoner by the Turcs during the capture of Constantinople in 1453. Gian Mario Filelfo had the manuscript decorated in Florence with "bianchi girari” ornamentation, had it bound in Urbino with a very beautiful Italian Renaissance binding, and then gave it to the Duke of Urbino, Federico da Montefeltro, at whose court he was staying in 1477 and 1478.
Origin:Florence (Italy)
Period:15th century
Image source:Genève, Bibliothèque de Genève, Ms. lat. 99: Amyris. Poem in honor of Sultan Sultans Mehmed II, by Gian Mario Filelfo (www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/list/one/bge/lat0099).