A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. The reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but provide water for various needs to include irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.

 

The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, as seen in the names of many old cities.

 

ANCIENT DAMS

Early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the water level, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and could be quite unpredictable.

 

The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, 100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman. This gravity dam featured an originally 9 m high and 1 m wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC.

 

The Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC. as a diversion dam for flood control, but was destroyed by heavy rain during construction or shortly afterwards. During the XIIth dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III and Amenmehat IV dug a canal 16 km long linking the Fayum Depression to the Nile in Middle Egypt. Two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called "Mer-wer" or Lake Moeris covered 1700 square kilometers and is known today as Berkat Qaroun.

 

By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern day India, was built. The system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it.

 

Eflatun Pinar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC.

 

The Kallanai is constructed of unhewn stone, over 300 m long, 4.5 m high and 20 m wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri river in Tamil Nadu, South India. The basic structure dates to the 2nd century AD and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in use. The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile Delta region for irrigation via canals.

 

Du Jiang Yan is the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was finished in 251 BC. A large earthen dam, made by the Prime Minister of Chu (state), Sunshu Ao, flooded a valley in modern-day northern Anhui province that created an enormous irrigation reservoir 100 km in circumference), a reservoir that is still present today.

 

ROMAN ENGINEERING

Roman dam construction was characterized by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a grand scale". Roman planners introduced the then novel concept of large reservoir dams which could secure a permanent water supply for urban settlements also over the dry season. Their pioneering use of water-proof hydraulic mortar and particularly Roman concrete allowed for much larger dam structures than previously built, such as the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to that date, and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam was the Subiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of 50 m remained unsurpassed until its accidental destruction in 1305.

 

Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity dams. Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam designs which had been unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams and multiple arch buttress dams, all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as the Bridge of Valerian in Iran.

 

In Iran, bridge dams such as the Band-e Kaisar were used to provide hydropower through water wheels, which often powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam bridge in Dezful, which could raise water 50 cubits in height for the water supply to all houses in the town. Also diversion dams were known. Milling dams were introduced which the Muslim engineers called the Pul-i-Bulaiti. The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world. Water was conducted from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill. In the 10th century, Al-Muqaddasi described several dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwaz was more than 910 m long, and that and it had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueducts through which it flowed into reservoirs of the city. Another one, the Band-i-Amir dam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.

 

MIDDLE AGES

In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often applied to block rivers in order to regulate the water level and to prevent the sea from entering the marsh lands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often gave rise to the respective place's names in Dutch.

 

For instance the Dutch capital Amsterdam (old name Amstelredam) started with a dam through the river Amstel in the late 12th century, and Rotterdam started with a dam through the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe Maas. The central square of Amsterdam, covering the original place of the 800 year old dam, still carries the name Dam Square or simply the Dam.

 

INDUSTRIAL ERA

The Romans were the first to build arch dams, where the reaction forces from the abutment stabilizes the structure from the external hydrostatic pressure, but it was only in the 19th century that the engineering skills and construction materials available were capable of building the first large scale arch dams.

 

Three pioneering arch dams were built around the British Empire in the early 19th century. Henry Russel of the Royal Engineers oversaw the construction of the Mir Alam dam in 1804 to supply water to the city of Hyderabad (it is still in use today). It had a height of 12 metres and consisted of 21 arches of variable span.

 

In the 1820s and 30s, Lieutenant-Colonel John By supervised the construction of the Rideau Canal in Canada near modern-day Ottawa and built a series of curved masonry dams as part of the waterway system. In particular, the Jones Falls Dam built by John Redpath, was completed in 1832 as the largest dam in North America and an engineering marvel. In order to keep the water in control during construction, two sluices, artificial channels for conducting water, were kept open in the dam. The first was near the base of the dam on its east side. A second sluice was put in on the west side of the dam, about 6 metres above the base. To make the switch from the lower to upper sluice, the outlet of Sand Lake was blocked off.

 

Hunts Creek near the City of Parramatta, Australia was dammed in the 1850s, to cater for the demand for water from the growing population of the city. The masonry arch dam wall was designed by Lieutenant Percy Simpson who was influenced by the advances in dam engineering techniques made by the Royal Engineers in India. The dam cost £17,000 and was completed in 1856 as the first engineered dam built in Australia, and the second arch dam in the world built to mathematical specifications.

 

The first such dam was opened two years earlier in France. It was also the first French arch dam of the industrial era, and it was built by François Zola in the municipality of Aix-en-Provence to improve the supply of water after the 1832 cholera outbreak devastated the area. After royal approval was granted in 1844, the dam was constructed over the following decade. Its construction was carried out on the basis of the mathematical results of scientific stress analysis.

 

The 75-miles dam near Warwick, Australia was possibly the world's first concrete arch dam. Designed by Henry Charles Stanley in 1880 with an overflow spillway and a special water outlet, it was eventually heightened to 10 meters.

 

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, significant advances in the scientific theory of masonry dam design were made. This transformed dam design, from an art based on empirical methodology to a profession based on a rigorously applied scientific theoretical framework. This new emphasis was centered around the engineering faculties of universities in France and in the United Kingdom. William John Macquorn Rankine at the University of Glasgow pioneered the theoretical understanding of dam structures in his 1857 paper On the Stability of Loose Earth. Rankine theory provided a good understanding of the principles behind dam design. In France, J. Augustin Tortene de Sazilly explained the mechanics of vertically faced masonry gravity dams and Zola's dam was the first to be built on the basis of these principles.

 

LARGE DAMS

The era of large dams was initiated with the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in Egypt in 1902, a gravity masonry buttress dam on the Nile River. Following their 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the British began construction in 1898. The project was designed by Sir William Willcocks and involved several eminent engineers of the time, including Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Aird, whose firm, John Aird & Co., was the main contractor. Capital and financing were furnished by Ernest Cassel. When initially constructed between 1899 and 1902, nothing of its scale had ever been attempted; on completion, it was the largest masonry dam in the world.

 

The Hoover Dam was a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, constructed in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the US states of Arizona and Nevada between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression. In 1928, Congress authorized the project to build a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc.. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The torrid summer weather and the lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on 1 March 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.

 

By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over 15 m high.

 

TYPES OF DAMS

Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.

 

BY STRUCTURE

Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as easily created without materials, arch-gravity dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.

 

ARCH DAMS

In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock. The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

 

Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constant-radius dam. The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept a constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels are taken care of by varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam is a constant-angle arch dam.

 

A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City, Nevada in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as viewed from downstream.

 

The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Québec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the hollow gravity type, but requires good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.

 

GRAVITY DAMS

In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earth's gravity pulling down on the mass of the dam. The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side of the dam). The dam's weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe. The designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the dam's weight wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is true whenever the resultant of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the dam acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam.

 

Furthermore, the designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to consider the part of dam above any particular height to be a whole dam itself, that dam also would be held in place by gravity. i.e. there is no tension in the upstream face of the dam holding the top of the dam down. The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam of material essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together against vertical tension.

 

Note that the shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also eliminates a balancing compression stress in the downstream face, providing additional economy.

 

For this type of dam, it is essential to have an impervious foundation with high bearing strength.

 

When situated on a suitable site, a gravity dam can prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams. When built on a carefully studied foundation, the gravity dam probably represents the best developed example of dam building. Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions, gravity dams are being built in some instances where an arch dam would have been more economical.

 

Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry. The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Braddock Locks & Dam is a hollow gravity dam.

 

ARCH-GRAVITY DAMS

A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive amounts of water flow but less material available for a purely gravity dam. The inward compression of the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam. Thus, the gravitation force required by the dam is lessened, i.e. the dam does not need to be so massive. This enables thinner dams and saves resources.

 

BARRAGES

A barrage dam is a special kind of dam which consists of a line of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing the dam. The gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for supporting the water load, and are often used to control and stabilize water flow for irrigation systems.

 

Barrages that are built at the mouth of rivers or lagoons to prevent tidal incursions or utilize the tidal flow for tidal power are known as tidal barrages.

 

EMBARKMENT DAM

Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like gravity dams made from concrete.

 

ROCK-FILL DAM

Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a high percentage of large particles hence the term rock-fill. The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry, concrete, plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which case it is referred to as a core. In the instances where clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam is referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is New Melones Dam in California.

 

A core that is growing in popularity is asphalt concrete. The majority of such dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the main fill material. Almost 100 dams of this design have now been built worldwide since the first such dam was completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete core dams built so far have an excellent performance record. The type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plasticmaterial that can adjust to the movements and deformations imposed on the embankment as a whole, and to settlements in the foundation. The flexible properties of the asphalt make such dams especially suited in earthquake regions.

 

CONCRETE-FACE ROCK-FILL DAMS

A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design offers the concrete slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without concern for uplift pressure. In addition, the CFRD design is flexible for topography, faster to construct and less costly than earth-fill dams. The CFRD originated during the California Gold Rush in the 1860s when miners constructed rock-fill timber-face dams for sluice operations. The timber was later replaced by concrete as the design was applied to irrigation and power schemes. As CFRD designs grew in height during the 1960s, the fill was compacted and the slab's horizontal and vertical joints were replaced with improved vertical joints. In the last few decades, the design has become popular.[42] Currently, the tallest CFRD in the world is the 233 m (764 ft) tall Shuibuya Dam in China which was completed in 2008.

 

EARTH-FILL DAMS

Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a locally plentiful shell with a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the integrity of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam to maintain a watertight region of permafrost within it.

 

Tarbela Dam is a large dam on the Indus River in Pakistan. It is located about 50 km northwest of Islamabad, and a height of 148 m above the river bed and a reservoir size of 250 km2 makes it the largest earth filled dam in the world. The principal element of the project is an embankment 2,700 metres long with a maximum height of 142 metres. The total volume of earth and rock used for the project is approximately 152.8 million cu. Meters which makes it one of the largest man made structure in the world.

 

Because earthen dams can be constructed from materials found on-site or nearby, they can be very cost-effective in regions where the cost of producing or bringing in concrete would be prohibitive.

 

BY SIZE

International standards (including International Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD) define large dams as higher than 15 meters and major dams as over 150 metres in height. The Report of the World Commission on Dams also includes in the large category, dams, such as barrages, which are between 5 and 15 metres high with a reservoir capacity of more than 3 million cubic metres.

 

The tallest dam in the world is the 300-metre high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.

 

BY USE

SADDLE DAM

A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or saddle through which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake. This is similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding.

 

WEIR

A weir (also sometimes called an overflow dam) is a type of small overflow dam that is often used within a river channel to create an impoundment lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow measurement or retardation.

 

CHECK DAM

A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.

 

DRA DAM

A dry dam also known as a flood retarding structure, is a dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and allows the channel to flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream.

 

DIVERSIONARY DAM

A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course. The water may be redirected into a canal or tunnel for irrigation and/or hydroelectric power production.

 

UNDERGROUND DAM

Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it below the surface for extended use in a localized area. In some cases they are also built to prevent saltwater from intruding into a freshwater aquifer. Underground dams are typically constructed in areas where water resources are minimal and need to be efficiently stored, such as in deserts and on islands like the Fukuzato Dam in Okinawa, Japan. They are most common in northeastern Africa and the arid areas of Brazil while also being used in the southwestern United States, Mexico, India, Germany, Italy, Greece, France and Japan.

 

There are two types of underground dams: a sub-surface and a sand-storage dam. A sub-surface dam is built across an aquifer or drainage route from an impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up to just below the surface. They can be constructed of a variety of materials to include bricks, stones, concrete, steel or PVC. Once built, the water stored behind the dam raises the water table and is then extracted with wells. A sand-storage dam is a weir built in stages across a stream or wadi. It must be strong as floods will wash over its crest. Over time sand accumulates in layers behind the dam which helps store water and most importantly, prevent evaporation. The stored water can be extracted with a well, through the dam body, or by means of a drain pipe.

 

TAILING DAM

A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store tailings — which are produced during mining operations after separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore. Conventional water retention dams can serve this purpose but due to cost, a tailings dam is more viable. Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the life of the particular mine. Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed and as it fills with a mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material used to raise the dam can include the tailings (depending on their size) along with dirt.

 

There are three raised tailings dam designs, the upstream, downstream and centerline, named according to the movement of the crest during raising. The specific design used it dependent upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings and cost. An upstream tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of another, moving the crest further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment. The downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill and crest further downstream. A centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly on top of another while fill is placed on the downstream side for support and slurry supports the upstream side.

 

Because tailings dams often store toxic chemicals from the mining process, they have an impervious liner to prevent seepage. Water/slurry levels in the tailings pond must be managed for stability and environmental purposes as well.

 

BY MATERIAL

STEEL DAMS

A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with in around the start of the 20th century which uses steel plating (at an angle) and load bearing beams as the structure. Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an (arguably failed) experiment to determine if a construction technique could be devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams.

 

TIMBER DAMS

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times because of relatively short lifespan and limited height to which they can be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet in order to maintain their water retention properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical to build are those where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber dams were once numerous, especially in the North American west, but most have failed, been hidden under earth embankments, or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank.

 

Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log house and the interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float logs downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

 

Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction methods utilizing heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks.

 

OTHER TYPES

COFFERDAMS

A cofferdam is a barrier, usually temporary, constructed to exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete, or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures. When the project is completed, the cofferdam will usually be demolished or removed unless the area requires continuous maintenance. See also causeway and retaining wall. Common uses for cofferdams include construction and repair of off shore oil platforms. In such cases the cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into the space, displacing the water and allowing a dry work environment below the surface.

 

NATURAL DAMS

Dams can also be created by natural geological forces. Volcanic dams are formed when lava flows, often basaltic, intercept the path of a stream or lake outlet, resulting in the creation of a natural impoundment. An example would be the eruptions of the Uinkaret volcanic field about 1.8 million–10,000 years ago, which created lava dams on the Colorado River in northern Arizona in the United States. The largest such lake grew to about 800 kilometres in length before the failure of its dam. Glacial activity can also form natural dams, such as the damming of the Clark Fork in Montana by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which formed the 7,780 km2 Glacial Lake Missoula near the end of the last Ice Age. Moraine deposits left behind by glaciers can also dam rivers to form lakes, such as at Flathead Lake, also in Montana (see Moraine-dammed lake).

 

Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create landslide dams in mountainous regions with unstable local geology. Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m high, it is the tallest dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams. A more recent example would be the creation of Attabad Lake by a landslide on Pakistan's Hunza River.

 

Natural dams often pose significant hazards to human settlements and infrastructure. The resulting lakes often flood inhabited areas, while a catastrophic failure of the dam could cause even greater damage, such as the failure of western Wyoming's Gros Ventre landslide dam in 1927, which wiped out the town of Kelly and resulted in the deaths of six people.

 

BEAVER DAMS

Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of land, beavers can navigate below or near the surface and remain relatively well hidden or protected from predators. The flooded region also allows beavers access to food, especially during the winter.

 

CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS

POWER GENERATION PLANT

As of 2005, hydroelectric power, mostly from dams, supplies some 19% of the world's electricity, and over 63% of renewable energy. Much of this is generated by large dams, although China uses small scale hydro generation on a wide scale and is responsible for about 50% of world use of this type of power.

 

Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator; to boost the power generation capabilities of a dam, the water may be run through a large pipe called a penstock before the turbine. A variant on this simple model uses pumped storage hydroelectricity to produce electricity to match periods of high and low demand, by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine.

 

SPILLWAYS

A spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the upstream side of a dam to the downstream side. Many spillways have floodgates designed to control the flow through the spillway. Types of spillway include: A service spillway or primary spillway passes normal flow. An auxiliary spillway releases flow in excess of the capacity of the service spillway. An emergency spillway is designed for extreme conditions, such as a serious malfunction of the service spillway. A fuse plug spillway is a low embankment designed to be over topped and washed away in the event of a large flood. The elements of a fuse plug are independent free-standing blocks, set side by side which work without any remote control. They allow increasing the normal pool of the dam without compromising the security of the dam because they are designed to be gradually evacuated for exceptional events. They work as fixed weir at times by allowing over-flow for common floods.

 

The spillway can be gradually eroded by water flow, including cavitation or turbulence of the water flowing over the spillway, leading to its failure. It was the inadequate design of the spillway which led to the 1889 over-topping of the South Fork Dam in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, resulting in the infamous Johnstown Flood (the "great flood of 1889").

 

Erosion rates are often monitored, and the risk is ordinarily minimized, by shaping the downstream face of the spillway into a curve that minimizes turbulent flow, such as an ogee curve.

 

LOCATION

One of the best places for building a dam is a narrow part of a deep river valley; the valley sides can then act as natural walls. The primary function of the dam's structure is to fill the gap in the natural reservoir line left by the stream channel. The sites are usually those where the gap becomes a minimum for the required storage capacity. The most economical arrangement is often a composite structure such as a masonry dam flanked by earth embankments. The current use of the land to be flooded should be dispensable.

 

Significant other engineering and engineering geology considerations when building a dam include:

 

permeability of the surrounding rock or soil

earthquake faults

landslides and slope stability

water table

peak flood flows

reservoir silting

environmental impacts on river fisheries, forests and wildlife (see also fish ladder)

impacts on human habitations

compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement

removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir area

 

IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Impact is assessed in several ways: the benefits to human society arising from the dam (agriculture, water, damage prevention and power), harm or benefit to nature and wildlife, impact on the geology of an area – whether the change to water flow and levels will increase or decrease stability, and the disruption to human lives (relocation, loss of archeological or cultural matters underwater).

 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Reservoirs held behind dams affect many ecological aspects of a river. Rivers topography and dynamics depend on a wide range of flows whilst rivers below dams often experience long periods of very stable flow conditions or saw tooth flow patterns caused by releases followed by no releases. Water releases from a reservoir including that exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, and this in turn can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks; for example, the daily cyclic flow variation caused by the Glen Canyon Dam was a contributor to sand bar erosion.

 

Older dams often lack a fish ladder, which keeps many fish from moving up stream to their natural breeding grounds, causing failure of breeding cycles or blocking of migration paths. Even the presence of a fish ladder does not always prevent a reduction in fish reaching the spawning grounds upstream. In some areas, young fish ("smolt") are transported downstream by barge during parts of the year. Turbine and power-plant designs that have a lower impact upon aquatic life are an active area of research.

 

A large dam can cause the loss of entire ecospheres, including endangered and undiscovered species in the area, and the replacement of the original environment by a new inland lake.

 

Large reservoirs formed behind dams have been indicated in the contribution of seismic activity, due to changes in water load and/or the height of the water table.

 

Dams are also found to have a role in the increase of global warming. The changing water levels in dams and in reservoirs are one of the main sources for green house gas like methane. While dams and the water behind them cover only a small portion of earth's surface, they harbour biological activity that can produce large amounts of greenhouse gases.

 

HUMAN SOCIAL IMPACT

The impact on human society is also significant. Nick Cullather argues in Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia that dam construction requires the state to displace individual people in the name of the common good, and that it often leads to abuses of the masses by planners. He cites Morarji Desai, Interior Minister of India, in 1960 speaking to villagers upset about the Pong Dam, who threatened to "release the waters" and drown the villagers if they did not cooperate.

 

For example, the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China is more than five times the size of the Hoover Dam (U.S.), and will create a reservoir 600 km long to be used for hydro-power generation. Its construction required the loss of over a million people's homes and their mass relocation, the loss of many valuable archaeological and cultural sites, as well as significant ecological change. It is estimated that to date, 40–80 million people worldwide have been physically displaced from their homes as a result of dam construction.

 

ECONOMICS

Construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead-time for site studies, hydrological studies, and environmental impact assessments, and are large-scale projects by comparison to traditional power generation based upon fossil fuels. The number of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited; new sites tend to be far from population centers and usually require extensive power transmission lines. Hydroelectric generation can be vulnerable to major changes in the climate, including variations in rainfall, ground and surface water levels, and glacial melt, causing additional expenditure for the extra capacity to ensure sufficient power is available in low-water years.

 

Once completed, if it is well designed and maintained, a hydroelectric power source is usually comparatively cheap and reliable. It has no fuel and low escape risk, and as an alternative energy source it is cheaper than both nuclear and wind power. It is more easily regulated to store water as needed and generate high power levels on demand compared to wind power.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

This sculpture is a visualization of internet data speeds.

Discovery STO - Single Stage to Orbit Heavy Lift, Hypersonic Aircraft - 70 TON Payload - IO Aircraft

 

IO Aircraft: www.ioaircraft.com

 

Discovery STO Specs

Length:197' 6" / Span: 93' / Palyload Bay: 61' L X 15" W X 15' H / Span: 70 Ton (140,000 LBS)

 

Engines: U-TBCC (Unified Turbined Based Combined Cycle) Inc/Zero Atmosphere

 

Inlets: Adaptive REST, Originally Hapb/Larc NASA

 

Fuel: 125,000 Gallons 12,000 PSI H2 / 90,000 Gallons 12,000 PSI O2

 

Fuel Weight: Apx 72,000 LBS Total / *If liquid, would be 1.4 Million LBS

 

Weight: Apx 325,000 LBS EOW/Dry Weight / Apx 537,000 T/O Weight, Max Payload

 

Airframe: 75+% Proprietary Advanced Composites, 400,000 PSI Tensile Strength Airframe / *NO Ceramic Tiles

 

Thermals: 6,000F Thermal Resistance

 

Estimated Cost: $750 Million Each (Fly Away Price)

 

Estimated Launch Cost: Apx $28 Million at 140,000 LBS, Including Maintenance Costs / Under $250 per pound at Maximum Paylaod Wieght *Could Drop to Below $50 per LBS

 

-----------------------------

single stage to orbit, sto, space plane, falcon heavy, delta iv, hypersonic commercial aircraft, hypersonic commercial plane, hypersonic aircraft, hypersonic plane, ICAO, International Civil Aviation Orginization, hypersonic airline, tbcc, glide breaker, fighter plane, hyperonic fighter, boeing phantom express, phantom works, boeing phantom works, lockheed skunk works, hypersonic weapon, hypersonic missile, scramjet engineering, scramjet physics, boost glide, tactical glide vehicle, scramjet, turbine based combined cycle, ramjet, dual mode ramjet, darpa, onr, navair, afrl, air force research lab, office of naval research, defense advanced research project agency, defense science, missile defense agency, aerospike, hydrogen fueled, hydrogen aircraft, virgin airlines, united airlines, sas, finnair ,emirates airlines, ANA, JAL, airlines, military, physics, airline, british airways, air france, aerion supersonic, aerion, spike aerospace, boom supersonic,

-----------------------------

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle. Current technologies and what Lockheed is trying to force on the Dept of Defense, for that low speed Mach 5 plane DOD gave them $1 billion to build and would disintegrate above Mach 5, is TBCC. 2 separate propulsion systems in the same airframe, which requires TWICE the airframe space to use.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle is 1 propulsion system cutting that airframe deficit in half, and also able to operate above Mach 10 up to Mach 15 in atmosphere, and a simple nozzle modification allows for outside atmosphere rocket mode, ie orbital capable.

 

Additionally, Reaction Engines maximum air breather mode is Mach 4.5, above that it will explode in flight from internal pressures are too high to operate. Thus, must switch to non air breather rocket mode to operate in atmosphere in hypersonic velocities. Which as a result, makes it not feasible for anything practical. It also takes an immense amount of fuel to function.

 

-------------

 

Advanced Additive Manufacturing for Hypersonic Aircraft

 

Utilizing new methods of fabrication and construction, make it possible to use additive manufacturing, dramatically reducing the time and costs of producing hypersonic platforms from missiles, aircraft, and space capable craft. Instead of aircraft being produced in piece, then bolted together; small platforms can be produced as a single unit and large platforms can be produces in large section and mated without bolting. These techniques include using exotic materials and advanced assembly processes, with an end result of streamlining the production costs and time for hypersonic aircraft; reducing months of assembly to weeks. Overall, this process greatly reduced the cost for producing hypersonic platforms. Even to such an extent that a Hellfire missile costs apx $100,000 but by utilizing our technologies, replacing it with a Mach 8-10 hypersonic missile of our physics/engineering and that missile would cost roughly $75,000 each delivered.

 

Materials used for these manufacturing processes are not disclosed, but overall, provides a foundation for extremely high stresses and thermodynamics, ideal for hypersonic platforms. This specific methodology and materials applications is many decades ahead of all known programs. Even to the extend of normalized space flight and re-entry, without concern of thermodynamic failure.

 

*Note, most entities that are experimenting with additive manufacturing for hypersonic aircraft, this makes it mainstream and standardized processes, which also applies for mass production.

 

What would normally be measured in years and perhaps a decade to go from drawing board to test flights, is reduced to singular months and ready for production within a year maximum.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle (U-TBCC)

 

To date, the closest that NASA and industry have achieved for turbine based aircraft to fly at hypersonic velocities is by mounting a turbine into an aircraft and sharing the inlet with a scramjet or rocket based motor. Reaction Engines Sabre is not able to achieve hypersonic velocities and can only transition into a non air breathing rocket for beyond Mach 4.5

 

However, utilizing Unified Turbine Based Combine Cycle also known as U-TBCC, the two separate platforms are able to share a common inlet and the dual mode ramjet/scramjet is contained within the engine itself, which allows for a much smaller airframe footprint, thus engingeers are able to then design much higher performance aerial platforms for hypersonic flight, including the ability for constructing true single stage to orbit aircraft by utilizing a modification/version that allows for transition to outside atmosphere propulsion without any other propulsion platforms within the aircraft. By transitioning and developing aircraft to use Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle, this propulsion system opens up new options to replace that airframe deficit for increased fuel capacity and/or payload.

 

Enhanced Dynamic Cavitation

 

Dramatically Increasing the efficiency of fuel air mixture for combustion processes at hypersonic velocities within scramjet propulsion platforms. The aspects of these processes are non disclosable.

 

Dynamic Scramjet Ignition Processes

 

For optimal scramjet ignition, a process known as Self Start is sought after, but in many cases if the platform becomes out of attitude, the scramjet will ignite. We have already solved this problem which as a result, a scramjet propulsion system can ignite at lower velocities, high velocities, at optimal attitude or not optimal attitude. It doesn't matter, it will ignite anyways at the proper point for maximum thrust capabilities at hypersonic velocities.

 

Hydrogen vs Kerosene Fuel Sources

 

Kerosene is an easy fuel to work with, and most western nations developing scramjet platforms use Kerosene for that fact. However, while kerosene has better thermal properties then Hydrogen, Hydrogen is a far superior fuel source in scramjet propulsion flight, do it having a much higher efficiency capability. Because of this aspect, in conjunction with our developments, it allows for a MUCH increased fuel to air mixture, combustion, thrust; and ability for higher speeds; instead of very low hypersonic velocities in the Mach 5-6 range. Instead, Mach 8-10 range, while we have begun developing hypersonic capabilities to exceed 15 in atmosphere within less then 5 years.

 

Conforming High Pressure Tank Technology for CNG and H2.

 

As most know in hypersonics, Hydrogen is a superior fuel source, but due to the storage abilities, can only be stored in cylinders thus much less fuel supply. Not anymore, we developed conforming high pressure storage technology for use in aerospace, automotive sectors, maritime, etc; which means any overall shape required for 8,000+ PSI CNG or Hydrogen. For hypersonic platforms, this means the ability to store a much larger volume of hydrogen vs cylinders.

 

As an example, X-43 flown by Nasa which flew at Mach 9.97. The fuel source was Hydrogen, which is extremely more volatile and combustible then kerosene (JP-7), via a cylinder in the main body. If it had used our technology, that entire section of the airframe would had been an 8,000 PSI H2 tank, which would had yielded 5-6 times the capacity. While the X-43 flew 11 seconds under power at Mach 9.97, at 6 times the fuel capacity would had yielded apx 66 seconds of fuel under power at Mach 9.97. If it had flew slower, around Mach 6, same principles applied would had yielded apx 500 seconds of fuel supply under power (slower speeds required less energy to maintain).

 

Enhanced Fuel Mixture During Shock Train Interaction

 

Normally, fuel injection is conducted at the correct insertion point within the shock train for maximum burn/combustion. Our methodologies differ, since almost half the fuel injection is conducted PRE shock train within the isolator, so at the point of isolator injection the fuel enhances the combustion process, which then requires less fuel injection to reach the same level of thrust capabilities.

 

Improved Bow Shock Interaction

 

Smoother interaction at hypersonic velocities and mitigating heat/stresses for beyond Mach 6 thermodynamics, which extraordinarily improves Type 3, 4, and 5 shock interaction.

 

6,000+ Fahrenheit Thermal Resistance

 

To date, the maximum thermal resistance was tested at AFRL in the spring of 2018, which resulted in a 3,200F thermal resistance for a short duration. This technology, allows for normalized hypersonic thermal resistance of 3,000-3,500F sustained, and up to 6,500F resistance for short endurance, ie 90 seconds or less. 10-20 minute resistance estimate approximately 4,500F +/- 200F.

  

*** This technology advancement also applies to Aerospike rocket engines, in which it is common for Aerospike's to exceed 4,500-5,000F temperatures, which results in the melting of the reversed bell housing. That melting no longer ocurrs, providing for stable combustion to ocurr for the entire flight envelope

 

Scramjet Propulsion Side Wall Cooling

 

With old technologies, side wall cooling is required for hypersonic flight and scramjet propulsion systems, otherwise the isolator and combustion regions of a scramjet would melt, even using advanced ablatives and ceramics, due to their inability to cope with very high temperatures. Using technology we have developed for very high thermodynamics and high stresses, side wall cooling is no longer required, thus removing that variable from the design process and focusing on improved ignition processes and increasing net thrust values.

 

Lower Threshold for Hypersonic Ignition

 

Active and adaptive flight dynamics, resulting in the ability for scramjet ignition at a much lower velocity, ie within ramjet envelope, between Mach 2-4, and seamless transition from supersonic to hypersonic flight, ie supersonic ramjet (scramjet). This active and dynamic aspect, has a wide variety of parameters for many flight dynamics, velocities, and altitudes; which means platforms no longer need to be engineered for specific altitude ranges or preset velocities, but those parameters can then be selected during launch configuration and are able to adapt actively in flight.

 

Dramatically Improved Maneuvering Capabilities at Hypersonic Velocities

 

Hypersonic vehicles, like their less technologically advanced brethren, use large actuator and the developers hope those controls surfaces do not disintegrate in flight. In reality, it is like rolling the dice, they may or may not survive, hence another reason why the attempt to keep velocities to Mach 6 or below. We have shrunken down control actuators while almost doubling torque and response capabilities specifically for hypersonic dynamics and extreme stresses involved, which makes it possible for maximum input authority for Mach 10 and beyond.

 

Paradigm Shift in Control Surface Methodologies, Increasing Control Authority (Internal Mechanical Applications)

 

To date, most control surfaces for hypersonic missile platforms still use fins, similar to lower speed conventional missiles, and some using ducted fins. This is mostly due to lack of comprehension of hypersonic velocities in their own favor. Instead, the body itself incorporates those control surfaces, greatly enhancing the airframe strength, opening up more space for hardware and fuel capacity; while simultaneously enhancing the platforms maneuvering capabilities.

 

A scramjet missile can then fly like conventional missile platforms, and not straight and level at high altitudes, losing velocity on it's decent trajectory to target. Another added benefit to this aspect, is the ability to extend range greatly, so if anyone elses hypersonic missile platform were developed for 400 mile range, falling out of the sky due to lack of glide capabilities; our platforms can easily reach 600+ miles, with minimal glide deceleration.

Discovery STO - Single Stage to Orbit Heavy Lift, Hypersonic Aircraft - 70 TON Payload - IO Aircraft

 

IO Aircraft: www.ioaircraft.com

 

Discovery STO Specs

Length:197' 6" / Span: 93' / Palyload Bay: 61' L X 15" W X 15' H / Span: 70 Ton (140,000 LBS)

 

Engines: U-TBCC (Unified Turbined Based Combined Cycle) Inc/Zero Atmosphere

 

Inlets: Adaptive REST, Originally Hapb/Larc NASA

 

Fuel: 125,000 Gallons 12,000 PSI H2 / 90,000 Gallons 12,000 PSI O2

 

Fuel Weight: Apx 72,000 LBS Total / *If liquid, would be 1.4 Million LBS

 

Weight: Apx 325,000 LBS EOW/Dry Weight / Apx 537,000 T/O Weight, Max Payload

 

Airframe: 75+% Proprietary Advanced Composites, 400,000 PSI Tensile Strength Airframe / *NO Ceramic Tiles

 

Thermals: 6,000F Thermal Resistance

 

Estimated Cost: $750 Million Each (Fly Away Price)

 

Estimated Launch Cost: Apx $28 Million at 140,000 LBS, Including Maintenance Costs / Under $250 per pound at Maximum Paylaod Wieght *Could Drop to Below $50 per LBS

 

-----------------------------

single stage to orbit, sto, space plane, falcon heavy, delta iv, hypersonic commercial aircraft, hypersonic commercial plane, hypersonic aircraft, hypersonic plane, ICAO, International Civil Aviation Orginization, hypersonic airline, tbcc, glide breaker, fighter plane, hyperonic fighter, boeing phantom express, phantom works, boeing phantom works, lockheed skunk works, hypersonic weapon, hypersonic missile, scramjet engineering, scramjet physics, boost glide, tactical glide vehicle, scramjet, turbine based combined cycle, ramjet, dual mode ramjet, darpa, onr, navair, afrl, air force research lab, office of naval research, defense advanced research project agency, defense science, missile defense agency, aerospike, hydrogen fueled, hydrogen aircraft, virgin airlines, united airlines, sas, finnair ,emirates airlines, ANA, JAL, airlines, military, physics, airline, british airways, air france, aerion supersonic, aerion, spike aerospace, boom supersonic,

-----------------------------

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle. Current technologies and what Lockheed is trying to force on the Dept of Defense, for that low speed Mach 5 plane DOD gave them $1 billion to build and would disintegrate above Mach 5, is TBCC. 2 separate propulsion systems in the same airframe, which requires TWICE the airframe space to use.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle is 1 propulsion system cutting that airframe deficit in half, and also able to operate above Mach 10 up to Mach 15 in atmosphere, and a simple nozzle modification allows for outside atmosphere rocket mode, ie orbital capable.

 

Additionally, Reaction Engines maximum air breather mode is Mach 4.5, above that it will explode in flight from internal pressures are too high to operate. Thus, must switch to non air breather rocket mode to operate in atmosphere in hypersonic velocities. Which as a result, makes it not feasible for anything practical. It also takes an immense amount of fuel to function.

 

-------------

 

Advanced Additive Manufacturing for Hypersonic Aircraft

 

Utilizing new methods of fabrication and construction, make it possible to use additive manufacturing, dramatically reducing the time and costs of producing hypersonic platforms from missiles, aircraft, and space capable craft. Instead of aircraft being produced in piece, then bolted together; small platforms can be produced as a single unit and large platforms can be produces in large section and mated without bolting. These techniques include using exotic materials and advanced assembly processes, with an end result of streamlining the production costs and time for hypersonic aircraft; reducing months of assembly to weeks. Overall, this process greatly reduced the cost for producing hypersonic platforms. Even to such an extent that a Hellfire missile costs apx $100,000 but by utilizing our technologies, replacing it with a Mach 8-10 hypersonic missile of our physics/engineering and that missile would cost roughly $75,000 each delivered.

 

Materials used for these manufacturing processes are not disclosed, but overall, provides a foundation for extremely high stresses and thermodynamics, ideal for hypersonic platforms. This specific methodology and materials applications is many decades ahead of all known programs. Even to the extend of normalized space flight and re-entry, without concern of thermodynamic failure.

 

*Note, most entities that are experimenting with additive manufacturing for hypersonic aircraft, this makes it mainstream and standardized processes, which also applies for mass production.

 

What would normally be measured in years and perhaps a decade to go from drawing board to test flights, is reduced to singular months and ready for production within a year maximum.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle (U-TBCC)

 

To date, the closest that NASA and industry have achieved for turbine based aircraft to fly at hypersonic velocities is by mounting a turbine into an aircraft and sharing the inlet with a scramjet or rocket based motor. Reaction Engines Sabre is not able to achieve hypersonic velocities and can only transition into a non air breathing rocket for beyond Mach 4.5

 

However, utilizing Unified Turbine Based Combine Cycle also known as U-TBCC, the two separate platforms are able to share a common inlet and the dual mode ramjet/scramjet is contained within the engine itself, which allows for a much smaller airframe footprint, thus engingeers are able to then design much higher performance aerial platforms for hypersonic flight, including the ability for constructing true single stage to orbit aircraft by utilizing a modification/version that allows for transition to outside atmosphere propulsion without any other propulsion platforms within the aircraft. By transitioning and developing aircraft to use Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle, this propulsion system opens up new options to replace that airframe deficit for increased fuel capacity and/or payload.

 

Enhanced Dynamic Cavitation

 

Dramatically Increasing the efficiency of fuel air mixture for combustion processes at hypersonic velocities within scramjet propulsion platforms. The aspects of these processes are non disclosable.

 

Dynamic Scramjet Ignition Processes

 

For optimal scramjet ignition, a process known as Self Start is sought after, but in many cases if the platform becomes out of attitude, the scramjet will ignite. We have already solved this problem which as a result, a scramjet propulsion system can ignite at lower velocities, high velocities, at optimal attitude or not optimal attitude. It doesn't matter, it will ignite anyways at the proper point for maximum thrust capabilities at hypersonic velocities.

 

Hydrogen vs Kerosene Fuel Sources

 

Kerosene is an easy fuel to work with, and most western nations developing scramjet platforms use Kerosene for that fact. However, while kerosene has better thermal properties then Hydrogen, Hydrogen is a far superior fuel source in scramjet propulsion flight, do it having a much higher efficiency capability. Because of this aspect, in conjunction with our developments, it allows for a MUCH increased fuel to air mixture, combustion, thrust; and ability for higher speeds; instead of very low hypersonic velocities in the Mach 5-6 range. Instead, Mach 8-10 range, while we have begun developing hypersonic capabilities to exceed 15 in atmosphere within less then 5 years.

 

Conforming High Pressure Tank Technology for CNG and H2.

 

As most know in hypersonics, Hydrogen is a superior fuel source, but due to the storage abilities, can only be stored in cylinders thus much less fuel supply. Not anymore, we developed conforming high pressure storage technology for use in aerospace, automotive sectors, maritime, etc; which means any overall shape required for 8,000+ PSI CNG or Hydrogen. For hypersonic platforms, this means the ability to store a much larger volume of hydrogen vs cylinders.

 

As an example, X-43 flown by Nasa which flew at Mach 9.97. The fuel source was Hydrogen, which is extremely more volatile and combustible then kerosene (JP-7), via a cylinder in the main body. If it had used our technology, that entire section of the airframe would had been an 8,000 PSI H2 tank, which would had yielded 5-6 times the capacity. While the X-43 flew 11 seconds under power at Mach 9.97, at 6 times the fuel capacity would had yielded apx 66 seconds of fuel under power at Mach 9.97. If it had flew slower, around Mach 6, same principles applied would had yielded apx 500 seconds of fuel supply under power (slower speeds required less energy to maintain).

 

Enhanced Fuel Mixture During Shock Train Interaction

 

Normally, fuel injection is conducted at the correct insertion point within the shock train for maximum burn/combustion. Our methodologies differ, since almost half the fuel injection is conducted PRE shock train within the isolator, so at the point of isolator injection the fuel enhances the combustion process, which then requires less fuel injection to reach the same level of thrust capabilities.

 

Improved Bow Shock Interaction

 

Smoother interaction at hypersonic velocities and mitigating heat/stresses for beyond Mach 6 thermodynamics, which extraordinarily improves Type 3, 4, and 5 shock interaction.

 

6,000+ Fahrenheit Thermal Resistance

 

To date, the maximum thermal resistance was tested at AFRL in the spring of 2018, which resulted in a 3,200F thermal resistance for a short duration. This technology, allows for normalized hypersonic thermal resistance of 3,000-3,500F sustained, and up to 6,500F resistance for short endurance, ie 90 seconds or less. 10-20 minute resistance estimate approximately 4,500F +/- 200F.

  

*** This technology advancement also applies to Aerospike rocket engines, in which it is common for Aerospike's to exceed 4,500-5,000F temperatures, which results in the melting of the reversed bell housing. That melting no longer ocurrs, providing for stable combustion to ocurr for the entire flight envelope

 

Scramjet Propulsion Side Wall Cooling

 

With old technologies, side wall cooling is required for hypersonic flight and scramjet propulsion systems, otherwise the isolator and combustion regions of a scramjet would melt, even using advanced ablatives and ceramics, due to their inability to cope with very high temperatures. Using technology we have developed for very high thermodynamics and high stresses, side wall cooling is no longer required, thus removing that variable from the design process and focusing on improved ignition processes and increasing net thrust values.

 

Lower Threshold for Hypersonic Ignition

 

Active and adaptive flight dynamics, resulting in the ability for scramjet ignition at a much lower velocity, ie within ramjet envelope, between Mach 2-4, and seamless transition from supersonic to hypersonic flight, ie supersonic ramjet (scramjet). This active and dynamic aspect, has a wide variety of parameters for many flight dynamics, velocities, and altitudes; which means platforms no longer need to be engineered for specific altitude ranges or preset velocities, but those parameters can then be selected during launch configuration and are able to adapt actively in flight.

 

Dramatically Improved Maneuvering Capabilities at Hypersonic Velocities

 

Hypersonic vehicles, like their less technologically advanced brethren, use large actuator and the developers hope those controls surfaces do not disintegrate in flight. In reality, it is like rolling the dice, they may or may not survive, hence another reason why the attempt to keep velocities to Mach 6 or below. We have shrunken down control actuators while almost doubling torque and response capabilities specifically for hypersonic dynamics and extreme stresses involved, which makes it possible for maximum input authority for Mach 10 and beyond.

 

Paradigm Shift in Control Surface Methodologies, Increasing Control Authority (Internal Mechanical Applications)

 

To date, most control surfaces for hypersonic missile platforms still use fins, similar to lower speed conventional missiles, and some using ducted fins. This is mostly due to lack of comprehension of hypersonic velocities in their own favor. Instead, the body itself incorporates those control surfaces, greatly enhancing the airframe strength, opening up more space for hardware and fuel capacity; while simultaneously enhancing the platforms maneuvering capabilities.

 

A scramjet missile can then fly like conventional missile platforms, and not straight and level at high altitudes, losing velocity on it's decent trajectory to target. Another added benefit to this aspect, is the ability to extend range greatly, so if anyone elses hypersonic missile platform were developed for 400 mile range, falling out of the sky due to lack of glide capabilities; our platforms can easily reach 600+ miles, with minimal glide deceleration.

Newcastle University (legally the University of Newcastle upon Tyne) is a public research university based in Newcastle upon Tyne, North East England. It has overseas campuses in Singapore and Malaysia. The university is a red brick university and a member of the Russell Group, an association of research-intensive UK universities.

 

The university finds its roots in the School of Medicine and Surgery (later the College of Medicine), established in 1834, and the College of Physical Science (later renamed Armstrong College), founded in 1871. These two colleges came to form the larger division of the federal University of Durham, with the Durham Colleges forming the other. The Newcastle colleges merged to form King's College in 1937. In 1963, following an Act of Parliament, King's College became the University of Newcastle upon Tyne.

 

The university subdivides into three faculties: the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences; the Faculty of Medical Sciences; and the Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering. The university offers around 175 full-time undergraduate degree programmes in a wide range of subject areas spanning arts, sciences, engineering and medicine, together with approximately 340 postgraduate taught and research programmes across a range of disciplines.[6] The annual income of the institution for 2022–23 was £592.4 million of which £119.3 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £558 million.

 

History

Durham University § Colleges in Newcastle

The establishment of a university in Newcastle upon Tyne was first proposed in 1831 by Thomas Greenhow in a lecture to the Literary and Philosophical Society. In 1832 a group of local medics – physicians George Fife (teaching materia medica and therapeutics) and Samuel Knott (teaching theory and practice of medicine), and surgeons John Fife (teaching surgery), Alexander Fraser (teaching anatomy and physiology) and Henry Glassford Potter (teaching chemistry) – started offering medical lectures in Bell's Court to supplement the apprenticeship system (a fourth surgeon, Duncan McAllum, is mentioned by some sources among the founders, but was not included in the prospectus). The first session started on 1 October 1832 with eight or nine students, including John Snow, then apprenticed to a local surgeon-apothecary, the opening lecture being delivered by John Fife. In 1834 the lectures and practical demonstrations moved to the Hall of the Company of Barber Surgeons to accommodate the growing number of students, and the School of Medicine and Surgery was formally established on 1 October 1834.

 

On 25 June 1851, following a dispute among the teaching staff, the school was formally dissolved and the lecturers split into two rival institutions. The majority formed the Newcastle College of Medicine, and the others established themselves as the Newcastle upon Tyne College of Medicine and Practical Science with competing lecture courses. In July 1851 the majority college was recognised by the Society of Apothecaries and in October by the Royal College of Surgeons of England and in January 1852 was approved by the University of London to submit its students for London medical degree examinations. Later in 1852, the majority college was formally linked to the University of Durham, becoming the "Newcastle-upon-Tyne College of Medicine in connection with the University of Durham". The college awarded its first 'Licence in Medicine' (LicMed) under the auspices of the University of Durham in 1856, with external examiners from Oxford and London, becoming the first medical examining body on the United Kingdom to institute practical examinations alongside written and viva voce examinations. The two colleges amalgamated in 1857, with the first session of the unified college opening on 3 October that year. In 1861 the degree of Master of Surgery was introduced, allowing for the double qualification of Licence of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, along with the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Doctor of Medicine, both of which required residence in Durham. In 1870 the college was brought into closer connection with the university, becoming the "Durham University College of Medicine" with the Reader in Medicine becoming the Professor of Medicine, the college gaining a representative on the university's senate, and residence at the college henceforth counting as residence in the university towards degrees in medicine and surgery, removing the need for students to spend a period of residence in Durham before they could receive the higher degrees.

 

Attempts to realise a place for the teaching of sciences in the city were finally met with the foundation of the College of Physical Science in 1871. The college offered instruction in mathematics, physics, chemistry and geology to meet the growing needs of the mining industry, becoming the "Durham College of Physical Science" in 1883 and then renamed after William George Armstrong as Armstrong College in 1904. Both of these institutions were part of the University of Durham, which became a federal university under the Durham University Act 1908 with two divisions in Durham and Newcastle. By 1908, the Newcastle division was teaching a full range of subjects in the Faculties of Medicine, Arts, and Science, which also included agriculture and engineering.

 

Throughout the early 20th century, the medical and science colleges outpaced the growth of their Durham counterparts. Following tensions between the two Newcastle colleges in the early 1930s, a Royal Commission in 1934 recommended the merger of the two colleges to form "King's College, Durham"; that was effected by the Durham University Act 1937. Further growth of both division of the federal university led to tensions within the structure and a feeling that it was too large to manage as a single body. On 1 August 1963 the Universities of Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne Act 1963 separated the two thus creating the "University of Newcastle upon Tyne". As the successor of King's College, Durham, the university at its founding in 1963, adopted the coat of arms originally granted to the Council of King's College in 1937.

 

Above the portico of the Students' Union building are bas-relief carvings of the arms and mottoes of the University of Durham, Armstrong College and Durham University College of Medicine, the predecessor parts of Newcastle University. While a Latin motto, mens agitat molem (mind moves matter) appears in the Students' Union building, the university itself does not have an official motto.

 

Campus and location

The university occupies a campus site close to Haymarket in central Newcastle upon Tyne. It is located to the northwest of the city centre between the open spaces of Leazes Park and the Town Moor; the university medical school and Royal Victoria Infirmary are adjacent to the west.

 

The Armstrong building is the oldest building on the campus and is the site of the original Armstrong College. The building was constructed in three stages; the north east wing was completed first at a cost of £18,000 and opened by Princess Louise on 5 November 1888. The south-east wing, which includes the Jubilee Tower, and south-west wings were opened in 1894. The Jubilee Tower was built with surplus funds raised from an Exhibition to mark Queen Victoria's Jubilee in 1887. The north-west front, forming the main entrance, was completed in 1906 and features two stone figures to represent science and the arts. Much of the later construction work was financed by Sir Isaac Lowthian Bell, the metallurgist and former Lord Mayor of Newcastle, after whom the main tower is named. In 1906 it was opened by King Edward VII.

 

The building contains the King's Hall, which serves as the university's chief hall for ceremonial purposes where Congregation ceremonies are held. It can contain 500 seats. King Edward VII gave permission to call the Great Hall, King's Hall. During the First World War, the building was requisitioned by the War Office to create the first Northern General Hospital, a facility for the Royal Army Medical Corps to treat military casualties. Graduation photographs are often taken in the University Quadrangle, next to the Armstrong building. In 1949 the Quadrangle was turned into a formal garden in memory of members of Newcastle University who gave their lives in the two World Wars. In 2017, a statue of Martin Luther King Jr. was erected in the inner courtyard of the Armstrong Building, to celebrate the 50th anniversary of his honorary degree from the university.

 

The Bruce Building is a former brewery, constructed between 1896 and 1900 on the site of the Hotspur Hotel, and designed by the architect Joseph Oswald as the new premises of Newcastle Breweries Limited. The university occupied the building from the 1950s, but, having been empty for some time, the building was refurbished in 2016 to become residential and office space.

 

The Devonshire Building, opened in 2004, incorporates in an energy efficient design. It uses photovoltaic cells to help to power motorised shades that control the temperature of the building and geothermal heating coils. Its architects won awards in the Hadrian awards and the RICS Building of the Year Award 2004. The university won a Green Gown award for its construction.

 

Plans for additions and improvements to the campus were made public in March 2008 and completed in 2010 at a cost of £200 million. They included a redevelopment of the south-east (Haymarket) façade with a five-storey King's Gate administration building as well as new student accommodation. Two additional buildings for the school of medicine were also built. September 2012 saw the completion of the new buildings and facilities for INTO Newcastle University on the university campus. The main building provides 18 new teaching rooms, a Learning Resource Centre, a lecture theatre, science lab, administrative and academic offices and restaurant.

 

The Philip Robinson Library is the main university library and is named after a bookseller in the city and benefactor to the library. The Walton Library specialises in services for the Faculty of Medical Sciences in the Medical School. It is named after Lord Walton of Detchant, former Dean of the Faculty of Medicine and Professor of Neurology. The library has a relationship with the Northern region of the NHS allowing their staff to use the library for research and study. The Law Library specialises in resources relating to law, and the Marjorie Robinson Library Rooms offers additional study spaces and computers. Together, these house over one million books and 500,000 electronic resources. Some schools within the university, such as the School of Modern Languages, also have their own smaller libraries with smaller highly specialised collections.

 

In addition to the city centre campus there are buildings such as the Dove Marine Laboratory located on Cullercoats Bay, and Cockle Park Farm in Northumberland.

 

International

In September 2008, the university's first overseas branch was opened in Singapore, a Marine International campus called, NUMI Singapore. This later expanded beyond marine subjects and became Newcastle University Singapore, largely through becoming an Overseas University Partner of Singapore Institute of Technology.

 

In 2011, the university's Medical School opened an international branch campus in Iskandar Puteri, Johor, Malaysia, namely Newcastle University Medicine Malaysia.

 

Student accommodation

Newcastle University has many catered and non-catered halls of residence available to first-year students, located around the city of Newcastle. Popular Newcastle areas for private student houses and flats off campus include Jesmond, Heaton, Sandyford, Shieldfield, South Shields and Spital Tongues.

 

Henderson Hall was used as a hall of residence until a fire destroyed it in 2023.

 

St Mary's College in Fenham, one of the halls of residence, was formerly St Mary's College of Education, a teacher training college.

 

Organisation and governance

The current Chancellor is the British poet and artist Imtiaz Dharker. She assumed the position of Chancellor on 1 January 2020. The vice-chancellor is Chris Day, a hepatologist and former pro-vice-chancellor of the Faculty of Medical Sciences.

 

The university has an enrolment of some 16,000 undergraduate and 5,600 postgraduate students. Teaching and research are delivered in 19 academic schools, 13 research institutes and 38 research centres, spread across three Faculties: the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences; the Faculty of Medical Sciences; and the Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering. The university offers around 175 full-time undergraduate degree programmes in a wide range of subject areas spanning arts, sciences, engineering and medicine, together with approximately 340 postgraduate taught and research programmes across a range of disciplines.

 

It holds a series of public lectures called 'Insights' each year in the Curtis Auditorium in the Herschel Building. Many of the university's partnerships with companies, like Red Hat, are housed in the Herschel Annex.

 

Chancellors and vice-chancellors

For heads of the predecessor colleges, see Colleges of Durham University § Colleges in Newcastle.

Chancellors

Hugh Percy, 10th Duke of Northumberland (1963–1988)

Matthew White Ridley, 4th Viscount Ridley (1988–1999)

Chris Patten (1999–2009)

Liam Donaldson (2009–2019)

Imtiaz Dharker (2020–)

Vice-chancellors

Charles Bosanquet (1963–1968)

Henry Miller (1968–1976)

Ewan Stafford Page (1976–1978, acting)

Laurence Martin (1978–1990)

Duncan Murchison (1991, acting)

James Wright (1992–2000)

Christopher Edwards (2001–2007)

Chris Brink (2007–2016)

Chris Day (2017–present)

Civic responsibility

 

The university Quadrangle

The university describes itself as a civic university, with a role to play in society by bringing its research to bear on issues faced by communities (local, national or international).

 

In 2012, the university opened the Newcastle Institute for Social Renewal to address issues of social and economic change, representing the research-led academic schools across the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences[45] and the Business School.

 

Mark Shucksmith was Director of the Newcastle Institute for Social Renewal (NISR) at Newcastle University, where he is also Professor of Planning.

 

In 2006, the university was granted fair trade status and from January 2007 it became a smoke-free campus.

 

The university has also been actively involved with several of the region's museums for many years. The Great North Museum: Hancock originally opened in 1884 and is often a venue for the university's events programme.

 

Faculties and schools

Teaching schools within the university are based within three faculties. Each faculty is led by a Provost/Pro-vice-chancellor and a team of Deans with specific responsibilities.

 

Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences

School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape

School of Arts and Cultures

Newcastle University Business School

Combined Honours Centre

School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences

School of English Literature, Language and Linguistics

School of Geography, Politics and Sociology

School of History, Classics and Archaeology

Newcastle Law School

School of Modern Languages

Faculty of Medical Sciences

School of Biomedical Sciences

School of Dental Sciences

School of Medical Education

School of Pharmacy

School of Psychology

Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology (CBCB)

Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering

School of Computing

School of Engineering

School of Mathematics, Statistics and Physics

School of Natural and Environmental Sciences

Business School

 

Newcastle University Business School

As early as the 1900/1 academic year, there was teaching in economics (political economy, as it was then known) at Newcastle, making Economics the oldest department in the School. The Economics Department is currently headed by the Sir David Dale Chair. Among the eminent economists having served in the Department (both as holders of the Sir David Dale Chair) are Harry Mainwaring Hallsworth and Stanley Dennison.

 

Newcastle University Business School is a triple accredited business school, with accreditation by the three major accreditation bodies: AACSB, AMBA and EQUIS.

 

In 2002, Newcastle University Business School established the Business Accounting and Finance or 'Flying Start' degree in association with the ICAEW and PricewaterhouseCoopers. The course offers an accelerated route towards the ACA Chartered Accountancy qualification and is the Business School's Flagship programme.

 

In 2011 the business school opened their new building built on the former Scottish and Newcastle brewery site next to St James' Park. This building was officially opened on 19 March 2012 by Lord Burns.

 

The business school operated a central London campus from 2014 to 2021, in partnership with INTO University Partnerships until 2020.

 

Medical School

The BMC Medicine journal reported in 2008 that medical graduates from Oxford, Cambridge and Newcastle performed better in postgraduate tests than any other medical school in the UK.

 

In 2008 the Medical School announced that they were expanding their campus to Malaysia.

 

The Royal Victoria Infirmary has always had close links with the Faculty of Medical Sciences as a major teaching hospital.

 

School of Modern Languages

The School of Modern Languages consists of five sections: East Asian (which includes Japanese and Chinese); French; German; Spanish, Portuguese & Latin American Studies; and Translating & Interpreting Studies. Six languages are taught from beginner's level to full degree level ‒ Chinese, Japanese, French, German, Spanish and Portuguese ‒ and beginner's courses in Catalan, Dutch, Italian and Quechua are also available. Beyond the learning of the languages themselves, Newcastle also places a great deal of emphasis on study and experience of the cultures of the countries where the languages taught are spoken. The School of Modern Languages hosts North East England's only branches of two internationally important institutes: the Camões Institute, a language institute for Portuguese, and the Confucius Institute, a language and cultural institute for Chinese.

 

The teaching of modern foreign languages at Newcastle predates the creation of Newcastle University itself, as in 1911 Armstrong College in Newcastle installed Albert George Latham, its first professor of modern languages.

 

The School of Modern Languages at Newcastle is the lead institution in the North East Routes into Languages Consortium and, together with the Durham University, Northumbria University, the University of Sunderland, the Teesside University and a network of schools, undertakes work activities of discovery of languages for the 9 to 13 years pupils. This implies having festivals, Q&A sessions, language tasters, or quizzes organised, as well as a web learning work aiming at constructing a web portal to link language learners across the region.

 

Newcastle Law School

Newcastle Law School is the longest established law school in the north-east of England when law was taught at the university's predecessor college before it became independent from Durham University. It has a number of recognised international and national experts in a variety of areas of legal scholarship ranging from Common and Chancery law, to International and European law, as well as contextual, socio-legal and theoretical legal studies.

 

The Law School occupies four specially adapted late-Victorian town houses. The Staff Offices, the Alumni Lecture Theatre and seminar rooms as well as the Law Library are all located within the School buildings.

 

School of Computing

The School of Computing was ranked in the Times Higher Education world Top 100. Research areas include Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) and ubiquitous computing, secure and resilient systems, synthetic biology, scalable computing (high performance systems, data science, machine learning and data visualization), and advanced modelling. The school led the formation of the National Innovation Centre for Data. Innovative teaching in the School was recognised in 2017 with the award of a National Teaching Fellowship.

 

Cavitation tunnel

Newcastle University has the second largest cavitation tunnel in the UK. Founded in 1950, and based in the Marine Science and Technology Department, the Emerson Cavitation Tunnel is used as a test basin for propellers, water turbines, underwater coatings and interaction of propellers with ice. The Emerson Cavitation Tunnel was recently relocated to a new facility in Blyth.

 

Museums and galleries

The university is associated with a number of the region's museums and galleries, including the Great North Museum project, which is primarily based at the world-renowned Hancock Museum. The Great North Museum: Hancock also contains the collections from two of the university's former museums, the Shefton Museum and the Museum of Antiquities, both now closed. The university's Hatton Gallery is also a part of the Great North Museum project, and remains within the Fine Art Building.

 

Academic profile

Reputation and rankings

Rankings

National rankings

Complete (2024)30

Guardian (2024)67

Times / Sunday Times (2024)37

Global rankings

ARWU (2023)201–300

QS (2024)110

THE (2024)168=

 

Newcastle University's national league table performance over the past ten years

The university is a member of the Russell Group of the UK's research-intensive universities. It is ranked in the top 200 of most world rankings, and in the top 40 of most UK rankings. As of 2023, it is ranked 110th globally by QS, 292nd by Leiden, 139th by Times Higher Education and 201st–300th by the Academic Ranking of World Universities. Nationally, it is ranked joint 33rd by the Times/Sunday Times Good University Guide, 30th by the Complete University Guide[68] and joint 63rd by the Guardian.

 

Admissions

UCAS Admission Statistics 20222021202020192018

Application 33,73532,40034,55031,96533,785

Accepte 6,7556,2556,5806,4456,465

Applications/Accepted Ratio 5.05.25.35.05.2

Offer Rate (%78.178.080.279.280.0)

Average Entry Tariff—151148144152

Main scheme applications, International and UK

UK domiciled applicants

HESA Student Body Composition

In terms of average UCAS points of entrants, Newcastle ranked joint 19th in Britain in 2014. In 2015, the university gave offers of admission to 92.1% of its applicants, the highest amongst the Russell Group.

 

25.1% of Newcastle's undergraduates are privately educated, the thirteenth highest proportion amongst mainstream British universities. In the 2016–17 academic year, the university had a domicile breakdown of 74:5:21 of UK:EU:non-EU students respectively with a female to male ratio of 51:49.

 

Research

Newcastle is a member of the Russell Group of 24 research-intensive universities. In the 2021 Research Excellence Framework (REF), which assesses the quality of research in UK higher education institutions, Newcastle is ranked joint 33rd by GPA (along with the University of Strathclyde and the University of Sussex) and 15th for research power (the grade point average score of a university, multiplied by the full-time equivalent number of researchers submitted).

 

Student life

Newcastle University Students' Union (NUSU), known as the Union Society until a 2012 rebranding, includes student-run sports clubs and societies.

 

The Union building was built in 1924 following a generous gift from an anonymous donor, who is now believed to have been Sir Cecil Cochrane, a major benefactor to the university.[87] It is built in the neo-Jacobean style and was designed by the local architect Robert Burns Dick. It was opened on 22 October 1925 by the Rt. Hon. Lord Eustace Percy, who later served as Rector of King's College from 1937 to 1952. It is a Grade II listed building. In 2010 the university donated £8 million towards a redevelopment project for the Union Building.

 

The Students' Union is run by seven paid sabbatical officers, including a Welfare and Equality Officer, and ten part-time unpaid officer positions. The former leader of the Liberal Democrats Tim Farron was President of NUSU in 1991–1992. The Students' Union also employs around 300 people in ancillary roles including bar staff and entertainment organisers.

 

The Courier is a weekly student newspaper. Established in 1948, the current weekly readership is around 12,000, most of whom are students at the university. The Courier has won The Guardian's Student Publication of the Year award twice in a row, in 2012 and 2013. It is published every Monday during term time.

 

Newcastle Student Radio is a student radio station based in the university. It produces shows on music, news, talk and sport and aims to cater for a wide range of musical tastes.

 

NUTV, known as TCTV from 2010 to 2017, is student television channel, first established in 2007. It produces live and on-demand content with coverage of events, as well as student-made programmes and shows.

 

Student exchange

Newcastle University has signed over 100 agreements with foreign universities allowing for student exchange to take place reciprocally.

 

Sport

Newcastle is one of the leading universities for sport in the UK and is consistently ranked within the top 12 out of 152 higher education institutions in the British Universities and Colleges Sport (BUCS) rankings. More than 50 student-led sports clubs are supported through a team of professional staff and a network of indoor and outdoor sports facilities based over four sites. The university have a strong rugby history and were the winners of the Northumberland Senior Cup in 1965.

 

The university enjoys a friendly sporting rivalry with local universities. The Stan Calvert Cup was held between 1994 and 2018 by major sports teams from Newcastle and Northumbria University. The Boat Race of the North has also taken place between the rowing clubs of Newcastle and Durham University.

 

As of 2023, Newcastle University F.C. compete in men's senior football in the Northern League Division Two.

 

The university's Cochrane Park sports facility was a training venue for the teams playing football games at St James' Park for the 2012 London Olympics.

 

A

Ali Mohamed Shein, 7th President of Zanzibar

Richard Adams - fairtrade businessman

Kate Adie - journalist

Yasmin Ahmad - Malaysian film director, writer and scriptwriter

Prince Adewale Aladesanmi - Nigerian prince and businessman

Jane Alexander - Bishop

Theodosios Alexander (BSc Marine Engineering 1981) - Dean, Parks College of Engineering, Aviation and Technology of Saint Louis University

William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong - industrialist; in 1871 founded College of Physical Science, an early part of the University

Roy Ascott - new media artist

Dennis Assanis - President, University of Delaware

Neil Astley - publisher, editor and writer

Rodney Atkinson - eurosceptic conservative academic

Rowan Atkinson - comedian and actor

Kane Avellano - Guinness World Record for youngest person to circumnavigate the world by motorcycle (solo and unsupported) at the age of 23 in 2017

B

Bruce Babbitt - U.S. politician; 16th Governor of Arizona (1978–1987); 47th United States Secretary of the Interior (1993–2001); Democrat

James Baddiley - biochemist, based at Newcastle University 1954–1983; the Baddiley-Clark building is named in part after him

Tunde Baiyewu - member of the Lighthouse Family

John C. A. Barrett - clergyman

G. W. S. Barrow - historian

Neil Bartlett - chemist, creation of the first noble gas compounds (BSc and PhD at King's College, University of Durham, later Newcastle University)

Sue Beardsmore - television presenter

Alan Beith - politician

Jean Benedetti - biographer, translator, director and dramatist

Phil Bennion - politician

Catherine Bertola - contemporary painter

Simon Best - Captain of the Ulster Rugby team; Prop for the Ireland Team

Andy Bird - CEO of Disney International

Rory Jonathan Courtenay Boyle, Viscount Dungarvan - heir apparent to the earldom of Cork

David Bradley - science writer

Mike Brearley - professional cricketer, formerly a lecturer in philosophy at the university (1968–1971)

Constance Briscoe - one of the first black women to sit as a judge in the UK; author of the best-selling autobiography Ugly; found guilty in May 2014 on three charges of attempting to pervert the course of justice; jailed for 16 months

Steve Brooks - entomologist; attained BSc in Zoology and MSc in Public Health Engineering from Newcastle University in 1976 and 1977 respectively

Thom Brooks - academic, columnist

Gavin Brown - academic

Vicki Bruce - psychologist

Basil Bunting - poet; Northern Arts Poetry Fellow at Newcastle University (1968–70); honorary DLitt in 1971

John Burgan - documentary filmmaker

Mark Burgess - computer scientist

Sir John Burn - Professor of Clinical Genetics at Newcastle University Medical School; Medical Director and Head of the Institute of Genetics; Newcastle Medical School alumnus

William Lawrence Burn - historian and lawyer, history chair at King's College, Newcastle (1944–66)

John Harrison Burnett - botanist, chair of Botany at King's College, Newcastle (1960–68)

C.

Richard Caddel - poet

Ann Cairns - President of International Markets for MasterCard

Deborah Cameron - linguist

Stuart Cameron - lecturer

John Ashton Cannon - historian; Professor of Modern History; Head of Department of History from 1976 until his appointment as Dean of the Faculty of Arts in 1979; Pro-Vice-Chancellor 1983–1986

Ian Carr - musician

Jimmy Cartmell - rugby player, Newcastle Falcons

Steve Chapman - Principal and Vice-Chancellor of Heriot-Watt University

Dion Chen - Hong Kong educator, principal of Ying Wa College and former principal of YMCA of Hong Kong Christian College

Hsing Chia-hui - author

Ashraf Choudhary - scientist

Chua Chor Teck - Managing Director of Keppel Group

Jennifer A. Clack - palaeontologist

George Clarke - architect

Carol Clewlow - novelist

Brian Clouston - landscape architect

Ed Coode - Olympic gold medallist

John Coulson - chemical engineering academic

Caroline Cox, Baroness Cox - cross-bench member of the British House of Lords

Nicola Curtin – Professor of Experimental Cancer Therapeutics

Pippa Crerar - Political Editor of the Daily Mirror

D

Fred D'Aguiar - author

Julia Darling - poet, playwright, novelist, MA in Creative Writing

Simin Davoudi - academic

Richard Dawson - civil engineering academic and member of the UK Committee on Climate Change

Tom Dening - medical academic and researcher

Katie Doherty - singer-songwriter

Nowell Donovan - vice-chancellor for academic affairs and Provost of Texas Christian University

Catherine Douglas - Ig Nobel Prize winner for Veterinary Medicine

Annabel Dover - artist, studied fine art 1994–1998

Alexander Downer - Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (1996–2007)

Chloë Duckworth - archaeologist and presenter

Chris Duffield - Town Clerk and Chief Executive of the City of London Corporation

E

Michael Earl - academic

Tom English - drummer, Maxïmo Park

Princess Eugenie - member of the British royal family. Eugenie is a niece of King Charles III and a granddaughter of Queen Elizabeth II. She began studying at Newcastle University in September 2009, graduating in 2012 with a 2:1 degree in English Literature and History of Art.

F

U. A. Fanthorpe - poet

Frank Farmer - medical physicist; professor of medical physics at Newcastle University in 1966

Terry Farrell - architect

Tim Farron - former Liberal Democrat leader and MP for Westmorland and Lonsdale

Ian Fells - professor

Andy Fenby - rugby player

Bryan Ferry - singer, songwriter and musician, member of Roxy Music and solo artist; studied fine art

E. J. Field - neuroscientist, director of the university's Demyelinating Disease Unit

John Niemeyer Findlay - philosopher

John Fitzgerald - computer scientist

Vicky Forster - cancer researcher

Maximimlian (Max) Fosh- YouTuber and independent candidate in the 2021 London mayoral election.

Rose Frain - artist

G

Hugh Grosvenor, 7th Duke of Westminster - aristocrat, billionaire, businessman and landowner

Peter Gibbs - television weather presenter

Ken Goodall - rugby player

Peter Gooderham - British ambassador

Michael Goodfellow - Professor in Microbial Systematics

Robert Goodwill - politician

Richard Gordon - author

Teresa Graham - accountant

Thomas George Greenwell - National Conservative Member of Parliament

H

Sarah Hainsworth - Pro-Vice-Chancellor and Executive Dean of the School of Engineering and Applied Science at Aston University

Reginald Hall - endocrinologist, Professor of Medicine (1970–1980)

Alex Halliday - Professor of Geochemistry, University of Oxford

Richard Hamilton - artist

Vicki L. Hanson - computer scientist; honorary doctorate in 2017

Rupert Harden - professional rugby union player

Tim Head - artist

Patsy Healey - professor

Alastair Heathcote - rower

Dorothy Heathcote - academic

Adrian Henri - 'Mersey Scene' poet and painter

Stephen Hepburn - politician

Jack Heslop-Harrison - botanist

Tony Hey - computer scientist; honorary doctorate 2007

Stuart Hill - author

Jean Hillier - professor

Ken Hodcroft - Chairman of Hartlepool United; founder of Increased Oil Recovery

Robert Holden - landscape architect

Bill Hopkins - composer

David Horrobin - entrepreneur

Debbie Horsfield - writer of dramas, including Cutting It

John House - geographer

Paul Hudson - weather presenter

Philip Hunter - educationist

Ronald Hunt – Art Historian who was librarian at the Art Department

Anya Hurlbert - visual neuroscientis

I

Martin Ince - journalist and media adviser, founder of the QS World University Rankings

Charles Innes-Ker - Marquess of Bowmont and Cessford

Mark Isherwood - politician

Jonathan Israel - historian

J

Alan J. Jamieson - marine biologist

George Neil Jenkins - medical researcher

Caroline Johnson - Conservative Member of Parliament

Wilko Johnson - guitarist with 1970s British rhythm and blues band Dr. Feelgood

Rich Johnston - comic book writer and cartoonist

Anna Jones - businesswoman

Cliff Jones - computer scientist

Colin Jones - historian

David E. H. Jones - chemist

Francis R. Jones - poetry translator and Reader in Translation Studies

Phil Jones - climatologist

Michael Jopling, Baron Jopling - Member of the House of Lords and the Conservative Party

Wilfred Josephs - dentist and composer

K

Michael King Jr. - civil rights leader; honorary graduate. In November 1967, MLK made a 24-hour trip to the United Kingdom to receive an honorary Doctorate of Civil Law from Newcastle University, becoming the first African American the institution had recognised in this way.

Panayiotis Kalorkoti - artist; studied B.A. (Hons) in Fine Art (1976–80); Bartlett Fellow in the Visual Arts (1988)

Rashida Karmali - businesswoman

Jackie Kay - poet, novelist, Professor of Creative Writing

Paul Kennedy - historian of international relations and grand strategy

Mark Khangure - neuroradiologist

L

Joy Labinjo - artist

Henrike Lähnemann - German medievalist

Dave Leadbetter - politician

Lim Boon Heng - Singapore Minister

Lin Hsin Hsin - IT inventor, artist, poet and composer

Anne Longfield - children's campaigner, former Children's Commissioner for England

Keith Ludeman - businessman

M

Jack Mapanje - writer and poet

Milton Margai - first prime minister of Sierra Leone (medical degree from the Durham College of Medicine, later Newcastle University Medical School)

Laurence Martin - war studies writer

Murray Martin, documentary and docudrama filmmaker, co-founder of Amber Film & Photography Collective

Adrian Martineau – medical researcher and professor of respiratory Infection and immunity at Queen Mary University of London

Carl R. May - sociologist

Tom May - professional rugby union player, now with Northampton Saints, and capped by England

Kate McCann – journalist and television presenter

Ian G. McKeith – professor of Old Age Psychiatry

John Anthony McGuckin - Orthodox Christian scholar, priest, and poet

Wyl Menmuir - novelist

Zia Mian - physicist

Richard Middleton - musicologist

Mary Midgley - moral philosopher

G.C.J. Midgley - philosopher

Moein Moghimi - biochemist and nanoscientist

Hermann Moisl - linguist

Anthony Michaels-Moore - Operatic Baritone

Joanna Moncrieff - Critical Psychiatrist

Theodore Morison - Principal of Armstrong College, Newcastle upon Tyne (1919–24)

Andy Morrell - footballer

Frank Moulaert - professor

Mo Mowlam - former British Labour Party Member of Parliament, former Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, lecturer at Newcastle University

Chris Mullin - former British Labour Party Member of Parliament, author, visiting fellow

VA Mundella - College of Physical Science, 1884—1887; lecturer in physics at the College, 1891—1896: Professor of Physics at Northern Polytechnic Institute and Principal of Sunderland Technical College.

Richard Murphy - architect

N

Lisa Nandy - British Labour Party Member of Parliament, former Shadow Foreign Secretary

Karim Nayernia - biomedical scientist

Dianne Nelmes - TV producer

O

Sally O'Reilly - writer

Mo O'Toole - former British Labour Party Member of European Parliament

P

Ewan Page - founding director of the Newcastle University School of Computing and briefly acting vice-chancellor; later appointed vice-chancellor of the University of Reading

Rachel Pain - academic

Amanda Parker - Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire since 2023

Geoff Parling - Leicester Tigers rugby player

Chris Patten, Baron Patten of Barnes - British Conservative politician and Chancellor of the University (1999–2009)

Chris M Pattinson former Great Britain International Swimmer 1976-1984

Mick Paynter - Cornish poet and Grandbard

Robert A. Pearce - academic

Hugh Percy, 10th Duke of Northumberland - Chancellor of the University (1964–1988)

Jonathan Pile - Showbiz Editor, ZOO magazine

Ben Pimlott - political historian; PhD and lectureship at Newcastle University (1970–79)

Robin Plackett - statistician

Alan Plater - playwright and screenwriter

Ruth Plummer - Professor of Experimental Cancer Medicine at the Northern Institute for Cancer Research and Fellow of the UK's Academy of Medical Sciences.

Poh Kwee Ong - Deputy President of SembCorp Marine

John Porter - musician

Rob Powell - former London Broncos coach

Stuart Prebble - former chief executive of ITV

Oliver Proudlock - Made in Chelsea star; creator of Serge De Nîmes clothing line[

Mark Purnell - palaeontologist

Q

Pirzada Qasim - Pakistani scholar, Vice Chancellor of the University of Karachi

Joyce Quin, Baroness Quin - politician

R

Andy Raleigh - Rugby League player for Wakefield Trinity Wildcats

Brian Randell - computer scientist

Rupert Mitford, 6th Baron Redesdale - Liberal Democrat spokesman in the House of Lords for International Development

Alastair Reynolds - novelist, former research astronomer with the European Space Agency

Ben Rice - author

Lewis Fry Richardson - mathematician, studied at the Durham College of Science in Newcastle

Matthew White Ridley, 4th Viscount Ridley - Chancellor of the University 1988-1999

Colin Riordan - VC of Cardiff University, Professor of German Studies (1988–2006)

Susie Rodgers - British Paralympic swimmer

Nayef Al-Rodhan - philosopher, neuroscientist, geostrategist, and author

Neil Rollinson - poet

Johanna Ropner - Lord lieutenant of North Yorkshire

Sharon Rowlands - CEO of ReachLocal

Peter Rowlinson - Ig Nobel Prize winner for Veterinary Medicine

John Rushby - computer scientist

Camilla Rutherford - actress

S

Jonathan Sacks - former Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth

Ross Samson - Scottish rugby union footballer; studied history

Helen Scales - marine biologist, broadcaster, and writer

William Scammell - poet

Fred B. Schneider - computer scientist; honorary doctorate in 2003

Sean Scully - painter

Nigel Shadbolt - computer scientist

Tom Shakespeare - geneticist

Jo Shapcott - poet

James Shapiro - Canadian surgeon and scientist

Jack Shepherd - actor and playwright

Mark Shucksmith - professor

Chris Simms - crime thriller novel author

Graham William Smith - probation officer, widely regarded as the father of the national probation service

Iain Smith - Scottish politician

Paul Smith - singer, Maxïmo Park

John Snow - discoverer of cholera transmission through water; leader in the adoption of anaesthesia; one of the 8 students enrolled on the very first term of the Medical School

William Somerville - agriculturist, professor of agriculture and forestry at Durham College of Science (later Newcastle University)

Ed Stafford - explorer, walked the length of the Amazon River

Chris Steele-Perkins - photographer

Chris Stevenson - academic

Di Stewart - Sky Sports News reader

Diana Stöcker - German CDU Member of Parliament

Miodrag Stojković - genetics researcher

Miriam Stoppard - physician, author and agony aunt

Charlie van Straubenzee - businessman and investment executive

Peter Straughan - playwright and short story writer

T

Mathew Tait - rugby union footballer

Eric Thomas - academic

David Tibet - cult musician and poet

Archis Tiku - bassist, Maxïmo Park

James Tooley - professor

Elsie Tu - politician

Maurice Tucker - sedimentologist

Paul Tucker - member of Lighthouse Family

George Grey Turner - surgeon

Ronald F. Tylecote - archaeologist

V

Chris Vance - actor in Prison Break and All Saints

Géza Vermes - scholar

Geoff Vigar - lecturer

Hugh Vyvyan - rugby union player

W

Alick Walker - palaeontologist

Matthew Walker - Professor of Neuroscience and Psychology at the University of California, Berkeley

Tom Walker - Sunday Times foreign correspondent

Lord Walton of Detchant - physician; President of the GMC, BMA, RSM; Warden of Green College, Oxford (1983–1989)

Kevin Warwick - Professor of Cybernetics; former Lecturer in Electrical & Electronic Engineering

Duncan Watmore - footballer at Millwall F.C.

Mary Webb - artist

Charlie Webster - television sports presenter

Li Wei - Chair of Applied Linguistics at UCL Institute of Education, University College London

Joseph Joshua Weiss - Professor of Radiation Chemistry

Robert Westall - children's writer, twice winner of Carnegie Medal

Thomas Stanley Westoll - Fellow of the Royal Society

Gillian Whitehead - composer

William Whitfield - architect, later designed the Hadrian Building and the Northern Stage

Claire Williams - motorsport executive

Zoe Williams - sportswoman, worked on Gladiators

Donald I. Williamson - planktologist and carcinologist

Philip Williamson - former Chief Executive of Nationwide Building Society

John Willis - Royal Air Force officer and council member of the University

Lukas Wooller - keyboard player, Maxïmo Park

Graham Wylie - co-founder of the Sage Group; studied Computing Science & Statistics BSc and graduated in 1980; awarded an honorary doctorate in 2004

Y

Hisila Yami, Nepalese politician and former Minister of Physical Planning and Works (Government of Nepal

John Yorke - Controller of Continuing Drama; Head of Independent Drama at the BBC

Martha Young-Scholten - linguist

Paul Younger - hydrogeologist

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. The reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but provide water for various needs to include irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.

 

The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, as seen in the names of many old cities.

 

ANCIENT DAMS

Early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the water level, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and could be quite unpredictable.

 

The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, 100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman. This gravity dam featured an originally 9 m high and 1 m wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC.

 

The Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC. as a diversion dam for flood control, but was destroyed by heavy rain during construction or shortly afterwards. During the XIIth dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III and Amenmehat IV dug a canal 16 km long linking the Fayum Depression to the Nile in Middle Egypt. Two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called "Mer-wer" or Lake Moeris covered 1700 square kilometers and is known today as Berkat Qaroun.

 

By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern day India, was built. The system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it.

 

Eflatun Pinar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC.

 

The Kallanai is constructed of unhewn stone, over 300 m long, 4.5 m high and 20 m wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri river in Tamil Nadu, South India. The basic structure dates to the 2nd century AD and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in use. The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile Delta region for irrigation via canals.

 

Du Jiang Yan is the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was finished in 251 BC. A large earthen dam, made by the Prime Minister of Chu (state), Sunshu Ao, flooded a valley in modern-day northern Anhui province that created an enormous irrigation reservoir 100 km in circumference), a reservoir that is still present today.

 

ROMAN ENGINEERING

Roman dam construction was characterized by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a grand scale". Roman planners introduced the then novel concept of large reservoir dams which could secure a permanent water supply for urban settlements also over the dry season. Their pioneering use of water-proof hydraulic mortar and particularly Roman concrete allowed for much larger dam structures than previously built, such as the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to that date, and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam was the Subiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of 50 m remained unsurpassed until its accidental destruction in 1305.

 

Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity dams. Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam designs which had been unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams and multiple arch buttress dams, all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as the Bridge of Valerian in Iran.

 

In Iran, bridge dams such as the Band-e Kaisar were used to provide hydropower through water wheels, which often powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam bridge in Dezful, which could raise water 50 cubits in height for the water supply to all houses in the town. Also diversion dams were known. Milling dams were introduced which the Muslim engineers called the Pul-i-Bulaiti. The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world. Water was conducted from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill. In the 10th century, Al-Muqaddasi described several dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwaz was more than 910 m long, and that and it had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueducts through which it flowed into reservoirs of the city. Another one, the Band-i-Amir dam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.

 

MIDDLE AGES

In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often applied to block rivers in order to regulate the water level and to prevent the sea from entering the marsh lands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often gave rise to the respective place's names in Dutch.

 

For instance the Dutch capital Amsterdam (old name Amstelredam) started with a dam through the river Amstel in the late 12th century, and Rotterdam started with a dam through the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe Maas. The central square of Amsterdam, covering the original place of the 800 year old dam, still carries the name Dam Square or simply the Dam.

 

INDUSTRIAL ERA

The Romans were the first to build arch dams, where the reaction forces from the abutment stabilizes the structure from the external hydrostatic pressure, but it was only in the 19th century that the engineering skills and construction materials available were capable of building the first large scale arch dams.

 

Three pioneering arch dams were built around the British Empire in the early 19th century. Henry Russel of the Royal Engineers oversaw the construction of the Mir Alam dam in 1804 to supply water to the city of Hyderabad (it is still in use today). It had a height of 12 metres and consisted of 21 arches of variable span.

 

In the 1820s and 30s, Lieutenant-Colonel John By supervised the construction of the Rideau Canal in Canada near modern-day Ottawa and built a series of curved masonry dams as part of the waterway system. In particular, the Jones Falls Dam built by John Redpath, was completed in 1832 as the largest dam in North America and an engineering marvel. In order to keep the water in control during construction, two sluices, artificial channels for conducting water, were kept open in the dam. The first was near the base of the dam on its east side. A second sluice was put in on the west side of the dam, about 6 metres above the base. To make the switch from the lower to upper sluice, the outlet of Sand Lake was blocked off.

 

Hunts Creek near the City of Parramatta, Australia was dammed in the 1850s, to cater for the demand for water from the growing population of the city. The masonry arch dam wall was designed by Lieutenant Percy Simpson who was influenced by the advances in dam engineering techniques made by the Royal Engineers in India. The dam cost £17,000 and was completed in 1856 as the first engineered dam built in Australia, and the second arch dam in the world built to mathematical specifications.

 

The first such dam was opened two years earlier in France. It was also the first French arch dam of the industrial era, and it was built by François Zola in the municipality of Aix-en-Provence to improve the supply of water after the 1832 cholera outbreak devastated the area. After royal approval was granted in 1844, the dam was constructed over the following decade. Its construction was carried out on the basis of the mathematical results of scientific stress analysis.

 

The 75-miles dam near Warwick, Australia was possibly the world's first concrete arch dam. Designed by Henry Charles Stanley in 1880 with an overflow spillway and a special water outlet, it was eventually heightened to 10 meters.

 

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, significant advances in the scientific theory of masonry dam design were made. This transformed dam design, from an art based on empirical methodology to a profession based on a rigorously applied scientific theoretical framework. This new emphasis was centered around the engineering faculties of universities in France and in the United Kingdom. William John Macquorn Rankine at the University of Glasgow pioneered the theoretical understanding of dam structures in his 1857 paper On the Stability of Loose Earth. Rankine theory provided a good understanding of the principles behind dam design. In France, J. Augustin Tortene de Sazilly explained the mechanics of vertically faced masonry gravity dams and Zola's dam was the first to be built on the basis of these principles.

 

LARGE DAMS

The era of large dams was initiated with the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in Egypt in 1902, a gravity masonry buttress dam on the Nile River. Following their 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the British began construction in 1898. The project was designed by Sir William Willcocks and involved several eminent engineers of the time, including Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Aird, whose firm, John Aird & Co., was the main contractor. Capital and financing were furnished by Ernest Cassel. When initially constructed between 1899 and 1902, nothing of its scale had ever been attempted; on completion, it was the largest masonry dam in the world.

 

The Hoover Dam was a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, constructed in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the US states of Arizona and Nevada between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression. In 1928, Congress authorized the project to build a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc.. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The torrid summer weather and the lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on 1 March 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.

 

By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over 15 m high.

 

TYPES OF DAMS

Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.

 

BY STRUCTURE

Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as easily created without materials, arch-gravity dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.

 

ARCH DAMS

In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock. The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

 

Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constant-radius dam. The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept a constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels are taken care of by varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam is a constant-angle arch dam.

 

A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City, Nevada in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as viewed from downstream.

 

The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Québec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the hollow gravity type, but requires good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.

 

GRAVITY DAMS

In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earth's gravity pulling down on the mass of the dam. The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side of the dam). The dam's weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe. The designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the dam's weight wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is true whenever the resultant of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the dam acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam.

 

Furthermore, the designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to consider the part of dam above any particular height to be a whole dam itself, that dam also would be held in place by gravity. i.e. there is no tension in the upstream face of the dam holding the top of the dam down. The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam of material essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together against vertical tension.

 

Note that the shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also eliminates a balancing compression stress in the downstream face, providing additional economy.

 

For this type of dam, it is essential to have an impervious foundation with high bearing strength.

 

When situated on a suitable site, a gravity dam can prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams. When built on a carefully studied foundation, the gravity dam probably represents the best developed example of dam building. Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions, gravity dams are being built in some instances where an arch dam would have been more economical.

 

Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry. The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Braddock Locks & Dam is a hollow gravity dam.

 

ARCH-GRAVITY DAMS

A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive amounts of water flow but less material available for a purely gravity dam. The inward compression of the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam. Thus, the gravitation force required by the dam is lessened, i.e. the dam does not need to be so massive. This enables thinner dams and saves resources.

 

BARRAGES

A barrage dam is a special kind of dam which consists of a line of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing the dam. The gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for supporting the water load, and are often used to control and stabilize water flow for irrigation systems.

 

Barrages that are built at the mouth of rivers or lagoons to prevent tidal incursions or utilize the tidal flow for tidal power are known as tidal barrages.

 

EMBARKMENT DAM

Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like gravity dams made from concrete.

 

ROCK-FILL DAM

Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a high percentage of large particles hence the term rock-fill. The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry, concrete, plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which case it is referred to as a core. In the instances where clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam is referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is New Melones Dam in California.

 

A core that is growing in popularity is asphalt concrete. The majority of such dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the main fill material. Almost 100 dams of this design have now been built worldwide since the first such dam was completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete core dams built so far have an excellent performance record. The type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plasticmaterial that can adjust to the movements and deformations imposed on the embankment as a whole, and to settlements in the foundation. The flexible properties of the asphalt make such dams especially suited in earthquake regions.

 

CONCRETE-FACE ROCK-FILL DAMS

A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design offers the concrete slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without concern for uplift pressure. In addition, the CFRD design is flexible for topography, faster to construct and less costly than earth-fill dams. The CFRD originated during the California Gold Rush in the 1860s when miners constructed rock-fill timber-face dams for sluice operations. The timber was later replaced by concrete as the design was applied to irrigation and power schemes. As CFRD designs grew in height during the 1960s, the fill was compacted and the slab's horizontal and vertical joints were replaced with improved vertical joints. In the last few decades, the design has become popular.[42] Currently, the tallest CFRD in the world is the 233 m (764 ft) tall Shuibuya Dam in China which was completed in 2008.

 

EARTH-FILL DAMS

Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a locally plentiful shell with a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the integrity of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam to maintain a watertight region of permafrost within it.

 

Tarbela Dam is a large dam on the Indus River in Pakistan. It is located about 50 km northwest of Islamabad, and a height of 148 m above the river bed and a reservoir size of 250 km2 makes it the largest earth filled dam in the world. The principal element of the project is an embankment 2,700 metres long with a maximum height of 142 metres. The total volume of earth and rock used for the project is approximately 152.8 million cu. Meters which makes it one of the largest man made structure in the world.

 

Because earthen dams can be constructed from materials found on-site or nearby, they can be very cost-effective in regions where the cost of producing or bringing in concrete would be prohibitive.

 

BY SIZE

International standards (including International Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD) define large dams as higher than 15 meters and major dams as over 150 metres in height. The Report of the World Commission on Dams also includes in the large category, dams, such as barrages, which are between 5 and 15 metres high with a reservoir capacity of more than 3 million cubic metres.

 

The tallest dam in the world is the 300-metre high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.

 

BY USE

SADDLE DAM

A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or saddle through which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake. This is similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding.

 

WEIR

A weir (also sometimes called an overflow dam) is a type of small overflow dam that is often used within a river channel to create an impoundment lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow measurement or retardation.

 

CHECK DAM

A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.

 

DRA DAM

A dry dam also known as a flood retarding structure, is a dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and allows the channel to flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream.

 

DIVERSIONARY DAM

A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course. The water may be redirected into a canal or tunnel for irrigation and/or hydroelectric power production.

 

UNDERGROUND DAM

Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it below the surface for extended use in a localized area. In some cases they are also built to prevent saltwater from intruding into a freshwater aquifer. Underground dams are typically constructed in areas where water resources are minimal and need to be efficiently stored, such as in deserts and on islands like the Fukuzato Dam in Okinawa, Japan. They are most common in northeastern Africa and the arid areas of Brazil while also being used in the southwestern United States, Mexico, India, Germany, Italy, Greece, France and Japan.

 

There are two types of underground dams: a sub-surface and a sand-storage dam. A sub-surface dam is built across an aquifer or drainage route from an impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up to just below the surface. They can be constructed of a variety of materials to include bricks, stones, concrete, steel or PVC. Once built, the water stored behind the dam raises the water table and is then extracted with wells. A sand-storage dam is a weir built in stages across a stream or wadi. It must be strong as floods will wash over its crest. Over time sand accumulates in layers behind the dam which helps store water and most importantly, prevent evaporation. The stored water can be extracted with a well, through the dam body, or by means of a drain pipe.

 

TAILING DAM

A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store tailings — which are produced during mining operations after separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore. Conventional water retention dams can serve this purpose but due to cost, a tailings dam is more viable. Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the life of the particular mine. Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed and as it fills with a mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material used to raise the dam can include the tailings (depending on their size) along with dirt.

 

There are three raised tailings dam designs, the upstream, downstream and centerline, named according to the movement of the crest during raising. The specific design used it dependent upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings and cost. An upstream tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of another, moving the crest further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment. The downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill and crest further downstream. A centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly on top of another while fill is placed on the downstream side for support and slurry supports the upstream side.

 

Because tailings dams often store toxic chemicals from the mining process, they have an impervious liner to prevent seepage. Water/slurry levels in the tailings pond must be managed for stability and environmental purposes as well.

 

BY MATERIAL

STEEL DAMS

A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with in around the start of the 20th century which uses steel plating (at an angle) and load bearing beams as the structure. Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an (arguably failed) experiment to determine if a construction technique could be devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams.

 

TIMBER DAMS

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times because of relatively short lifespan and limited height to which they can be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet in order to maintain their water retention properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical to build are those where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber dams were once numerous, especially in the North American west, but most have failed, been hidden under earth embankments, or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank.

 

Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log house and the interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float logs downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

 

Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction methods utilizing heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks.

 

OTHER TYPES

COFFERDAMS

A cofferdam is a barrier, usually temporary, constructed to exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete, or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures. When the project is completed, the cofferdam will usually be demolished or removed unless the area requires continuous maintenance. See also causeway and retaining wall. Common uses for cofferdams include construction and repair of off shore oil platforms. In such cases the cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into the space, displacing the water and allowing a dry work environment below the surface.

 

NATURAL DAMS

Dams can also be created by natural geological forces. Volcanic dams are formed when lava flows, often basaltic, intercept the path of a stream or lake outlet, resulting in the creation of a natural impoundment. An example would be the eruptions of the Uinkaret volcanic field about 1.8 million–10,000 years ago, which created lava dams on the Colorado River in northern Arizona in the United States. The largest such lake grew to about 800 kilometres in length before the failure of its dam. Glacial activity can also form natural dams, such as the damming of the Clark Fork in Montana by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which formed the 7,780 km2 Glacial Lake Missoula near the end of the last Ice Age. Moraine deposits left behind by glaciers can also dam rivers to form lakes, such as at Flathead Lake, also in Montana (see Moraine-dammed lake).

 

Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create landslide dams in mountainous regions with unstable local geology. Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m high, it is the tallest dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams. A more recent example would be the creation of Attabad Lake by a landslide on Pakistan's Hunza River.

 

Natural dams often pose significant hazards to human settlements and infrastructure. The resulting lakes often flood inhabited areas, while a catastrophic failure of the dam could cause even greater damage, such as the failure of western Wyoming's Gros Ventre landslide dam in 1927, which wiped out the town of Kelly and resulted in the deaths of six people.

 

BEAVER DAMS

Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of land, beavers can navigate below or near the surface and remain relatively well hidden or protected from predators. The flooded region also allows beavers access to food, especially during the winter.

 

CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS

POWER GENERATION PLANT

As of 2005, hydroelectric power, mostly from dams, supplies some 19% of the world's electricity, and over 63% of renewable energy. Much of this is generated by large dams, although China uses small scale hydro generation on a wide scale and is responsible for about 50% of world use of this type of power.

 

Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator; to boost the power generation capabilities of a dam, the water may be run through a large pipe called a penstock before the turbine. A variant on this simple model uses pumped storage hydroelectricity to produce electricity to match periods of high and low demand, by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine.

 

SPILLWAYS

A spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the upstream side of a dam to the downstream side. Many spillways have floodgates designed to control the flow through the spillway. Types of spillway include: A service spillway or primary spillway passes normal flow. An auxiliary spillway releases flow in excess of the capacity of the service spillway. An emergency spillway is designed for extreme conditions, such as a serious malfunction of the service spillway. A fuse plug spillway is a low embankment designed to be over topped and washed away in the event of a large flood. The elements of a fuse plug are independent free-standing blocks, set side by side which work without any remote control. They allow increasing the normal pool of the dam without compromising the security of the dam because they are designed to be gradually evacuated for exceptional events. They work as fixed weir at times by allowing over-flow for common floods.

 

The spillway can be gradually eroded by water flow, including cavitation or turbulence of the water flowing over the spillway, leading to its failure. It was the inadequate design of the spillway which led to the 1889 over-topping of the South Fork Dam in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, resulting in the infamous Johnstown Flood (the "great flood of 1889").

 

Erosion rates are often monitored, and the risk is ordinarily minimized, by shaping the downstream face of the spillway into a curve that minimizes turbulent flow, such as an ogee curve.

 

LOCATION

One of the best places for building a dam is a narrow part of a deep river valley; the valley sides can then act as natural walls. The primary function of the dam's structure is to fill the gap in the natural reservoir line left by the stream channel. The sites are usually those where the gap becomes a minimum for the required storage capacity. The most economical arrangement is often a composite structure such as a masonry dam flanked by earth embankments. The current use of the land to be flooded should be dispensable.

 

Significant other engineering and engineering geology considerations when building a dam include:

 

permeability of the surrounding rock or soil

earthquake faults

landslides and slope stability

water table

peak flood flows

reservoir silting

environmental impacts on river fisheries, forests and wildlife (see also fish ladder)

impacts on human habitations

compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement

removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir area

 

IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Impact is assessed in several ways: the benefits to human society arising from the dam (agriculture, water, damage prevention and power), harm or benefit to nature and wildlife, impact on the geology of an area – whether the change to water flow and levels will increase or decrease stability, and the disruption to human lives (relocation, loss of archeological or cultural matters underwater).

 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Reservoirs held behind dams affect many ecological aspects of a river. Rivers topography and dynamics depend on a wide range of flows whilst rivers below dams often experience long periods of very stable flow conditions or saw tooth flow patterns caused by releases followed by no releases. Water releases from a reservoir including that exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, and this in turn can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks; for example, the daily cyclic flow variation caused by the Glen Canyon Dam was a contributor to sand bar erosion.

 

Older dams often lack a fish ladder, which keeps many fish from moving up stream to their natural breeding grounds, causing failure of breeding cycles or blocking of migration paths. Even the presence of a fish ladder does not always prevent a reduction in fish reaching the spawning grounds upstream. In some areas, young fish ("smolt") are transported downstream by barge during parts of the year. Turbine and power-plant designs that have a lower impact upon aquatic life are an active area of research.

 

A large dam can cause the loss of entire ecospheres, including endangered and undiscovered species in the area, and the replacement of the original environment by a new inland lake.

 

Large reservoirs formed behind dams have been indicated in the contribution of seismic activity, due to changes in water load and/or the height of the water table.

 

Dams are also found to have a role in the increase of global warming. The changing water levels in dams and in reservoirs are one of the main sources for green house gas like methane. While dams and the water behind them cover only a small portion of earth's surface, they harbour biological activity that can produce large amounts of greenhouse gases.

 

HUMAN SOCIAL IMPACT

The impact on human society is also significant. Nick Cullather argues in Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia that dam construction requires the state to displace individual people in the name of the common good, and that it often leads to abuses of the masses by planners. He cites Morarji Desai, Interior Minister of India, in 1960 speaking to villagers upset about the Pong Dam, who threatened to "release the waters" and drown the villagers if they did not cooperate.

 

For example, the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China is more than five times the size of the Hoover Dam (U.S.), and will create a reservoir 600 km long to be used for hydro-power generation. Its construction required the loss of over a million people's homes and their mass relocation, the loss of many valuable archaeological and cultural sites, as well as significant ecological change. It is estimated that to date, 40–80 million people worldwide have been physically displaced from their homes as a result of dam construction.

 

ECONOMICS

Construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead-time for site studies, hydrological studies, and environmental impact assessments, and are large-scale projects by comparison to traditional power generation based upon fossil fuels. The number of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited; new sites tend to be far from population centers and usually require extensive power transmission lines. Hydroelectric generation can be vulnerable to major changes in the climate, including variations in rainfall, ground and surface water levels, and glacial melt, causing additional expenditure for the extra capacity to ensure sufficient power is available in low-water years.

 

Once completed, if it is well designed and maintained, a hydroelectric power source is usually comparatively cheap and reliable. It has no fuel and low escape risk, and as an alternative energy source it is cheaper than both nuclear and wind power. It is more easily regulated to store water as needed and generate high power levels on demand compared to wind power.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. The reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but provide water for various needs to include irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.

 

The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, as seen in the names of many old cities.

 

ANCIENT DAMS

Early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the water level, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and could be quite unpredictable.

 

The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, 100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman. This gravity dam featured an originally 9 m high and 1 m wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC.

 

The Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC. as a diversion dam for flood control, but was destroyed by heavy rain during construction or shortly afterwards. During the XIIth dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III and Amenmehat IV dug a canal 16 km long linking the Fayum Depression to the Nile in Middle Egypt. Two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called "Mer-wer" or Lake Moeris covered 1700 square kilometers and is known today as Berkat Qaroun.

 

By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern day India, was built. The system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it.

 

Eflatun Pinar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC.

 

The Kallanai is constructed of unhewn stone, over 300 m long, 4.5 m high and 20 m wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri river in Tamil Nadu, South India. The basic structure dates to the 2nd century AD and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in use. The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile Delta region for irrigation via canals.

 

Du Jiang Yan is the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was finished in 251 BC. A large earthen dam, made by the Prime Minister of Chu (state), Sunshu Ao, flooded a valley in modern-day northern Anhui province that created an enormous irrigation reservoir 100 km in circumference), a reservoir that is still present today.

 

ROMAN ENGINEERING

Roman dam construction was characterized by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a grand scale". Roman planners introduced the then novel concept of large reservoir dams which could secure a permanent water supply for urban settlements also over the dry season. Their pioneering use of water-proof hydraulic mortar and particularly Roman concrete allowed for much larger dam structures than previously built, such as the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to that date, and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam was the Subiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of 50 m remained unsurpassed until its accidental destruction in 1305.

 

Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity dams. Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam designs which had been unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams and multiple arch buttress dams, all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as the Bridge of Valerian in Iran.

 

In Iran, bridge dams such as the Band-e Kaisar were used to provide hydropower through water wheels, which often powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam bridge in Dezful, which could raise water 50 cubits in height for the water supply to all houses in the town. Also diversion dams were known. Milling dams were introduced which the Muslim engineers called the Pul-i-Bulaiti. The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world. Water was conducted from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill. In the 10th century, Al-Muqaddasi described several dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwaz was more than 910 m long, and that and it had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueducts through which it flowed into reservoirs of the city. Another one, the Band-i-Amir dam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.

 

MIDDLE AGES

In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often applied to block rivers in order to regulate the water level and to prevent the sea from entering the marsh lands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often gave rise to the respective place's names in Dutch.

 

For instance the Dutch capital Amsterdam (old name Amstelredam) started with a dam through the river Amstel in the late 12th century, and Rotterdam started with a dam through the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe Maas. The central square of Amsterdam, covering the original place of the 800 year old dam, still carries the name Dam Square or simply the Dam.

 

INDUSTRIAL ERA

The Romans were the first to build arch dams, where the reaction forces from the abutment stabilizes the structure from the external hydrostatic pressure, but it was only in the 19th century that the engineering skills and construction materials available were capable of building the first large scale arch dams.

 

Three pioneering arch dams were built around the British Empire in the early 19th century. Henry Russel of the Royal Engineers oversaw the construction of the Mir Alam dam in 1804 to supply water to the city of Hyderabad (it is still in use today). It had a height of 12 metres and consisted of 21 arches of variable span.

 

In the 1820s and 30s, Lieutenant-Colonel John By supervised the construction of the Rideau Canal in Canada near modern-day Ottawa and built a series of curved masonry dams as part of the waterway system. In particular, the Jones Falls Dam built by John Redpath, was completed in 1832 as the largest dam in North America and an engineering marvel. In order to keep the water in control during construction, two sluices, artificial channels for conducting water, were kept open in the dam. The first was near the base of the dam on its east side. A second sluice was put in on the west side of the dam, about 6 metres above the base. To make the switch from the lower to upper sluice, the outlet of Sand Lake was blocked off.

 

Hunts Creek near the City of Parramatta, Australia was dammed in the 1850s, to cater for the demand for water from the growing population of the city. The masonry arch dam wall was designed by Lieutenant Percy Simpson who was influenced by the advances in dam engineering techniques made by the Royal Engineers in India. The dam cost £17,000 and was completed in 1856 as the first engineered dam built in Australia, and the second arch dam in the world built to mathematical specifications.

 

The first such dam was opened two years earlier in France. It was also the first French arch dam of the industrial era, and it was built by François Zola in the municipality of Aix-en-Provence to improve the supply of water after the 1832 cholera outbreak devastated the area. After royal approval was granted in 1844, the dam was constructed over the following decade. Its construction was carried out on the basis of the mathematical results of scientific stress analysis.

 

The 75-miles dam near Warwick, Australia was possibly the world's first concrete arch dam. Designed by Henry Charles Stanley in 1880 with an overflow spillway and a special water outlet, it was eventually heightened to 10 meters.

 

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, significant advances in the scientific theory of masonry dam design were made. This transformed dam design, from an art based on empirical methodology to a profession based on a rigorously applied scientific theoretical framework. This new emphasis was centered around the engineering faculties of universities in France and in the United Kingdom. William John Macquorn Rankine at the University of Glasgow pioneered the theoretical understanding of dam structures in his 1857 paper On the Stability of Loose Earth. Rankine theory provided a good understanding of the principles behind dam design. In France, J. Augustin Tortene de Sazilly explained the mechanics of vertically faced masonry gravity dams and Zola's dam was the first to be built on the basis of these principles.

 

LARGE DAMS

The era of large dams was initiated with the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in Egypt in 1902, a gravity masonry buttress dam on the Nile River. Following their 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the British began construction in 1898. The project was designed by Sir William Willcocks and involved several eminent engineers of the time, including Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Aird, whose firm, John Aird & Co., was the main contractor. Capital and financing were furnished by Ernest Cassel. When initially constructed between 1899 and 1902, nothing of its scale had ever been attempted; on completion, it was the largest masonry dam in the world.

 

The Hoover Dam was a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, constructed in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the US states of Arizona and Nevada between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression. In 1928, Congress authorized the project to build a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc.. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The torrid summer weather and the lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on 1 March 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.

 

By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over 15 m high.

 

TYPES OF DAMS

Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.

 

BY STRUCTURE

Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as easily created without materials, arch-gravity dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.

 

ARCH DAMS

In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock. The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

 

Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constant-radius dam. The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept a constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels are taken care of by varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam is a constant-angle arch dam.

 

A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City, Nevada in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as viewed from downstream.

 

The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Québec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the hollow gravity type, but requires good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.

 

GRAVITY DAMS

In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earth's gravity pulling down on the mass of the dam. The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side of the dam). The dam's weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe. The designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the dam's weight wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is true whenever the resultant of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the dam acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam.

 

Furthermore, the designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to consider the part of dam above any particular height to be a whole dam itself, that dam also would be held in place by gravity. i.e. there is no tension in the upstream face of the dam holding the top of the dam down. The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam of material essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together against vertical tension.

 

Note that the shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also eliminates a balancing compression stress in the downstream face, providing additional economy.

 

For this type of dam, it is essential to have an impervious foundation with high bearing strength.

 

When situated on a suitable site, a gravity dam can prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams. When built on a carefully studied foundation, the gravity dam probably represents the best developed example of dam building. Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions, gravity dams are being built in some instances where an arch dam would have been more economical.

 

Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry. The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Braddock Locks & Dam is a hollow gravity dam.

 

ARCH-GRAVITY DAMS

A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive amounts of water flow but less material available for a purely gravity dam. The inward compression of the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam. Thus, the gravitation force required by the dam is lessened, i.e. the dam does not need to be so massive. This enables thinner dams and saves resources.

 

BARRAGES

A barrage dam is a special kind of dam which consists of a line of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing the dam. The gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for supporting the water load, and are often used to control and stabilize water flow for irrigation systems.

 

Barrages that are built at the mouth of rivers or lagoons to prevent tidal incursions or utilize the tidal flow for tidal power are known as tidal barrages.

 

EMBARKMENT DAM

Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like gravity dams made from concrete.

 

ROCK-FILL DAM

Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a high percentage of large particles hence the term rock-fill. The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry, concrete, plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which case it is referred to as a core. In the instances where clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam is referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is New Melones Dam in California.

 

A core that is growing in popularity is asphalt concrete. The majority of such dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the main fill material. Almost 100 dams of this design have now been built worldwide since the first such dam was completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete core dams built so far have an excellent performance record. The type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plasticmaterial that can adjust to the movements and deformations imposed on the embankment as a whole, and to settlements in the foundation. The flexible properties of the asphalt make such dams especially suited in earthquake regions.

 

CONCRETE-FACE ROCK-FILL DAMS

A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design offers the concrete slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without concern for uplift pressure. In addition, the CFRD design is flexible for topography, faster to construct and less costly than earth-fill dams. The CFRD originated during the California Gold Rush in the 1860s when miners constructed rock-fill timber-face dams for sluice operations. The timber was later replaced by concrete as the design was applied to irrigation and power schemes. As CFRD designs grew in height during the 1960s, the fill was compacted and the slab's horizontal and vertical joints were replaced with improved vertical joints. In the last few decades, the design has become popular.[42] Currently, the tallest CFRD in the world is the 233 m (764 ft) tall Shuibuya Dam in China which was completed in 2008.

 

EARTH-FILL DAMS

Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a locally plentiful shell with a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the integrity of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam to maintain a watertight region of permafrost within it.

 

Tarbela Dam is a large dam on the Indus River in Pakistan. It is located about 50 km northwest of Islamabad, and a height of 148 m above the river bed and a reservoir size of 250 km2 makes it the largest earth filled dam in the world. The principal element of the project is an embankment 2,700 metres long with a maximum height of 142 metres. The total volume of earth and rock used for the project is approximately 152.8 million cu. Meters which makes it one of the largest man made structure in the world.

 

Because earthen dams can be constructed from materials found on-site or nearby, they can be very cost-effective in regions where the cost of producing or bringing in concrete would be prohibitive.

 

BY SIZE

International standards (including International Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD) define large dams as higher than 15 meters and major dams as over 150 metres in height. The Report of the World Commission on Dams also includes in the large category, dams, such as barrages, which are between 5 and 15 metres high with a reservoir capacity of more than 3 million cubic metres.

 

The tallest dam in the world is the 300-metre high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.

 

BY USE

SADDLE DAM

A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or saddle through which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake. This is similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding.

 

WEIR

A weir (also sometimes called an overflow dam) is a type of small overflow dam that is often used within a river channel to create an impoundment lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow measurement or retardation.

 

CHECK DAM

A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.

 

DRA DAM

A dry dam also known as a flood retarding structure, is a dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and allows the channel to flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream.

 

DIVERSIONARY DAM

A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course. The water may be redirected into a canal or tunnel for irrigation and/or hydroelectric power production.

 

UNDERGROUND DAM

Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it below the surface for extended use in a localized area. In some cases they are also built to prevent saltwater from intruding into a freshwater aquifer. Underground dams are typically constructed in areas where water resources are minimal and need to be efficiently stored, such as in deserts and on islands like the Fukuzato Dam in Okinawa, Japan. They are most common in northeastern Africa and the arid areas of Brazil while also being used in the southwestern United States, Mexico, India, Germany, Italy, Greece, France and Japan.

 

There are two types of underground dams: a sub-surface and a sand-storage dam. A sub-surface dam is built across an aquifer or drainage route from an impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up to just below the surface. They can be constructed of a variety of materials to include bricks, stones, concrete, steel or PVC. Once built, the water stored behind the dam raises the water table and is then extracted with wells. A sand-storage dam is a weir built in stages across a stream or wadi. It must be strong as floods will wash over its crest. Over time sand accumulates in layers behind the dam which helps store water and most importantly, prevent evaporation. The stored water can be extracted with a well, through the dam body, or by means of a drain pipe.

 

TAILING DAM

A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store tailings — which are produced during mining operations after separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore. Conventional water retention dams can serve this purpose but due to cost, a tailings dam is more viable. Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the life of the particular mine. Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed and as it fills with a mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material used to raise the dam can include the tailings (depending on their size) along with dirt.

 

There are three raised tailings dam designs, the upstream, downstream and centerline, named according to the movement of the crest during raising. The specific design used it dependent upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings and cost. An upstream tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of another, moving the crest further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment. The downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill and crest further downstream. A centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly on top of another while fill is placed on the downstream side for support and slurry supports the upstream side.

 

Because tailings dams often store toxic chemicals from the mining process, they have an impervious liner to prevent seepage. Water/slurry levels in the tailings pond must be managed for stability and environmental purposes as well.

 

BY MATERIAL

STEEL DAMS

A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with in around the start of the 20th century which uses steel plating (at an angle) and load bearing beams as the structure. Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an (arguably failed) experiment to determine if a construction technique could be devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams.

 

TIMBER DAMS

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times because of relatively short lifespan and limited height to which they can be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet in order to maintain their water retention properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical to build are those where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber dams were once numerous, especially in the North American west, but most have failed, been hidden under earth embankments, or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank.

 

Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log house and the interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float logs downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

 

Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction methods utilizing heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks.

 

OTHER TYPES

COFFERDAMS

A cofferdam is a barrier, usually temporary, constructed to exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete, or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures. When the project is completed, the cofferdam will usually be demolished or removed unless the area requires continuous maintenance. See also causeway and retaining wall. Common uses for cofferdams include construction and repair of off shore oil platforms. In such cases the cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into the space, displacing the water and allowing a dry work environment below the surface.

 

NATURAL DAMS

Dams can also be created by natural geological forces. Volcanic dams are formed when lava flows, often basaltic, intercept the path of a stream or lake outlet, resulting in the creation of a natural impoundment. An example would be the eruptions of the Uinkaret volcanic field about 1.8 million–10,000 years ago, which created lava dams on the Colorado River in northern Arizona in the United States. The largest such lake grew to about 800 kilometres in length before the failure of its dam. Glacial activity can also form natural dams, such as the damming of the Clark Fork in Montana by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which formed the 7,780 km2 Glacial Lake Missoula near the end of the last Ice Age. Moraine deposits left behind by glaciers can also dam rivers to form lakes, such as at Flathead Lake, also in Montana (see Moraine-dammed lake).

 

Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create landslide dams in mountainous regions with unstable local geology. Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m high, it is the tallest dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams. A more recent example would be the creation of Attabad Lake by a landslide on Pakistan's Hunza River.

 

Natural dams often pose significant hazards to human settlements and infrastructure. The resulting lakes often flood inhabited areas, while a catastrophic failure of the dam could cause even greater damage, such as the failure of western Wyoming's Gros Ventre landslide dam in 1927, which wiped out the town of Kelly and resulted in the deaths of six people.

 

BEAVER DAMS

Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of land, beavers can navigate below or near the surface and remain relatively well hidden or protected from predators. The flooded region also allows beavers access to food, especially during the winter.

 

CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS

POWER GENERATION PLANT

As of 2005, hydroelectric power, mostly from dams, supplies some 19% of the world's electricity, and over 63% of renewable energy. Much of this is generated by large dams, although China uses small scale hydro generation on a wide scale and is responsible for about 50% of world use of this type of power.

 

Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator; to boost the power generation capabilities of a dam, the water may be run through a large pipe called a penstock before the turbine. A variant on this simple model uses pumped storage hydroelectricity to produce electricity to match periods of high and low demand, by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine.

 

SPILLWAYS

A spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the upstream side of a dam to the downstream side. Many spillways have floodgates designed to control the flow through the spillway. Types of spillway include: A service spillway or primary spillway passes normal flow. An auxiliary spillway releases flow in excess of the capacity of the service spillway. An emergency spillway is designed for extreme conditions, such as a serious malfunction of the service spillway. A fuse plug spillway is a low embankment designed to be over topped and washed away in the event of a large flood. The elements of a fuse plug are independent free-standing blocks, set side by side which work without any remote control. They allow increasing the normal pool of the dam without compromising the security of the dam because they are designed to be gradually evacuated for exceptional events. They work as fixed weir at times by allowing over-flow for common floods.

 

The spillway can be gradually eroded by water flow, including cavitation or turbulence of the water flowing over the spillway, leading to its failure. It was the inadequate design of the spillway which led to the 1889 over-topping of the South Fork Dam in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, resulting in the infamous Johnstown Flood (the "great flood of 1889").

 

Erosion rates are often monitored, and the risk is ordinarily minimized, by shaping the downstream face of the spillway into a curve that minimizes turbulent flow, such as an ogee curve.

 

LOCATION

One of the best places for building a dam is a narrow part of a deep river valley; the valley sides can then act as natural walls. The primary function of the dam's structure is to fill the gap in the natural reservoir line left by the stream channel. The sites are usually those where the gap becomes a minimum for the required storage capacity. The most economical arrangement is often a composite structure such as a masonry dam flanked by earth embankments. The current use of the land to be flooded should be dispensable.

 

Significant other engineering and engineering geology considerations when building a dam include:

 

permeability of the surrounding rock or soil

earthquake faults

landslides and slope stability

water table

peak flood flows

reservoir silting

environmental impacts on river fisheries, forests and wildlife (see also fish ladder)

impacts on human habitations

compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement

removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir area

 

IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Impact is assessed in several ways: the benefits to human society arising from the dam (agriculture, water, damage prevention and power), harm or benefit to nature and wildlife, impact on the geology of an area – whether the change to water flow and levels will increase or decrease stability, and the disruption to human lives (relocation, loss of archeological or cultural matters underwater).

 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Reservoirs held behind dams affect many ecological aspects of a river. Rivers topography and dynamics depend on a wide range of flows whilst rivers below dams often experience long periods of very stable flow conditions or saw tooth flow patterns caused by releases followed by no releases. Water releases from a reservoir including that exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, and this in turn can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks; for example, the daily cyclic flow variation caused by the Glen Canyon Dam was a contributor to sand bar erosion.

 

Older dams often lack a fish ladder, which keeps many fish from moving up stream to their natural breeding grounds, causing failure of breeding cycles or blocking of migration paths. Even the presence of a fish ladder does not always prevent a reduction in fish reaching the spawning grounds upstream. In some areas, young fish ("smolt") are transported downstream by barge during parts of the year. Turbine and power-plant designs that have a lower impact upon aquatic life are an active area of research.

 

A large dam can cause the loss of entire ecospheres, including endangered and undiscovered species in the area, and the replacement of the original environment by a new inland lake.

 

Large reservoirs formed behind dams have been indicated in the contribution of seismic activity, due to changes in water load and/or the height of the water table.

 

Dams are also found to have a role in the increase of global warming. The changing water levels in dams and in reservoirs are one of the main sources for green house gas like methane. While dams and the water behind them cover only a small portion of earth's surface, they harbour biological activity that can produce large amounts of greenhouse gases.

 

HUMAN SOCIAL IMPACT

The impact on human society is also significant. Nick Cullather argues in Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia that dam construction requires the state to displace individual people in the name of the common good, and that it often leads to abuses of the masses by planners. He cites Morarji Desai, Interior Minister of India, in 1960 speaking to villagers upset about the Pong Dam, who threatened to "release the waters" and drown the villagers if they did not cooperate.

 

For example, the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China is more than five times the size of the Hoover Dam (U.S.), and will create a reservoir 600 km long to be used for hydro-power generation. Its construction required the loss of over a million people's homes and their mass relocation, the loss of many valuable archaeological and cultural sites, as well as significant ecological change. It is estimated that to date, 40–80 million people worldwide have been physically displaced from their homes as a result of dam construction.

 

ECONOMICS

Construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead-time for site studies, hydrological studies, and environmental impact assessments, and are large-scale projects by comparison to traditional power generation based upon fossil fuels. The number of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited; new sites tend to be far from population centers and usually require extensive power transmission lines. Hydroelectric generation can be vulnerable to major changes in the climate, including variations in rainfall, ground and surface water levels, and glacial melt, causing additional expenditure for the extra capacity to ensure sufficient power is available in low-water years.

 

Once completed, if it is well designed and maintained, a hydroelectric power source is usually comparatively cheap and reliable. It has no fuel and low escape risk, and as an alternative energy source it is cheaper than both nuclear and wind power. It is more easily regulated to store water as needed and generate high power levels on demand compared to wind power.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. The reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but provide water for various needs to include irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.

 

The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, as seen in the names of many old cities.

 

ANCIENT DAMS

Early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the water level, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and could be quite unpredictable.

 

The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, 100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman. This gravity dam featured an originally 9 m high and 1 m wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC.

 

The Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC. as a diversion dam for flood control, but was destroyed by heavy rain during construction or shortly afterwards. During the XIIth dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III and Amenmehat IV dug a canal 16 km long linking the Fayum Depression to the Nile in Middle Egypt. Two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called "Mer-wer" or Lake Moeris covered 1700 square kilometers and is known today as Berkat Qaroun.

 

By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern day India, was built. The system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it.

 

Eflatun Pinar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC.

 

The Kallanai is constructed of unhewn stone, over 300 m long, 4.5 m high and 20 m wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri river in Tamil Nadu, South India. The basic structure dates to the 2nd century AD and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in use. The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile Delta region for irrigation via canals.

 

Du Jiang Yan is the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was finished in 251 BC. A large earthen dam, made by the Prime Minister of Chu (state), Sunshu Ao, flooded a valley in modern-day northern Anhui province that created an enormous irrigation reservoir 100 km in circumference), a reservoir that is still present today.

 

ROMAN ENGINEERING

Roman dam construction was characterized by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a grand scale". Roman planners introduced the then novel concept of large reservoir dams which could secure a permanent water supply for urban settlements also over the dry season. Their pioneering use of water-proof hydraulic mortar and particularly Roman concrete allowed for much larger dam structures than previously built, such as the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to that date, and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam was the Subiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of 50 m remained unsurpassed until its accidental destruction in 1305.

 

Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity dams. Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam designs which had been unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams and multiple arch buttress dams, all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as the Bridge of Valerian in Iran.

 

In Iran, bridge dams such as the Band-e Kaisar were used to provide hydropower through water wheels, which often powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam bridge in Dezful, which could raise water 50 cubits in height for the water supply to all houses in the town. Also diversion dams were known. Milling dams were introduced which the Muslim engineers called the Pul-i-Bulaiti. The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world. Water was conducted from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill. In the 10th century, Al-Muqaddasi described several dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwaz was more than 910 m long, and that and it had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueducts through which it flowed into reservoirs of the city. Another one, the Band-i-Amir dam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.

 

MIDDLE AGES

In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often applied to block rivers in order to regulate the water level and to prevent the sea from entering the marsh lands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often gave rise to the respective place's names in Dutch.

 

For instance the Dutch capital Amsterdam (old name Amstelredam) started with a dam through the river Amstel in the late 12th century, and Rotterdam started with a dam through the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe Maas. The central square of Amsterdam, covering the original place of the 800 year old dam, still carries the name Dam Square or simply the Dam.

 

INDUSTRIAL ERA

The Romans were the first to build arch dams, where the reaction forces from the abutment stabilizes the structure from the external hydrostatic pressure, but it was only in the 19th century that the engineering skills and construction materials available were capable of building the first large scale arch dams.

 

Three pioneering arch dams were built around the British Empire in the early 19th century. Henry Russel of the Royal Engineers oversaw the construction of the Mir Alam dam in 1804 to supply water to the city of Hyderabad (it is still in use today). It had a height of 12 metres and consisted of 21 arches of variable span.

 

In the 1820s and 30s, Lieutenant-Colonel John By supervised the construction of the Rideau Canal in Canada near modern-day Ottawa and built a series of curved masonry dams as part of the waterway system. In particular, the Jones Falls Dam built by John Redpath, was completed in 1832 as the largest dam in North America and an engineering marvel. In order to keep the water in control during construction, two sluices, artificial channels for conducting water, were kept open in the dam. The first was near the base of the dam on its east side. A second sluice was put in on the west side of the dam, about 6 metres above the base. To make the switch from the lower to upper sluice, the outlet of Sand Lake was blocked off.

 

Hunts Creek near the City of Parramatta, Australia was dammed in the 1850s, to cater for the demand for water from the growing population of the city. The masonry arch dam wall was designed by Lieutenant Percy Simpson who was influenced by the advances in dam engineering techniques made by the Royal Engineers in India. The dam cost £17,000 and was completed in 1856 as the first engineered dam built in Australia, and the second arch dam in the world built to mathematical specifications.

 

The first such dam was opened two years earlier in France. It was also the first French arch dam of the industrial era, and it was built by François Zola in the municipality of Aix-en-Provence to improve the supply of water after the 1832 cholera outbreak devastated the area. After royal approval was granted in 1844, the dam was constructed over the following decade. Its construction was carried out on the basis of the mathematical results of scientific stress analysis.

 

The 75-miles dam near Warwick, Australia was possibly the world's first concrete arch dam. Designed by Henry Charles Stanley in 1880 with an overflow spillway and a special water outlet, it was eventually heightened to 10 meters.

 

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, significant advances in the scientific theory of masonry dam design were made. This transformed dam design, from an art based on empirical methodology to a profession based on a rigorously applied scientific theoretical framework. This new emphasis was centered around the engineering faculties of universities in France and in the United Kingdom. William John Macquorn Rankine at the University of Glasgow pioneered the theoretical understanding of dam structures in his 1857 paper On the Stability of Loose Earth. Rankine theory provided a good understanding of the principles behind dam design. In France, J. Augustin Tortene de Sazilly explained the mechanics of vertically faced masonry gravity dams and Zola's dam was the first to be built on the basis of these principles.

 

LARGE DAMS

The era of large dams was initiated with the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in Egypt in 1902, a gravity masonry buttress dam on the Nile River. Following their 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the British began construction in 1898. The project was designed by Sir William Willcocks and involved several eminent engineers of the time, including Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Aird, whose firm, John Aird & Co., was the main contractor. Capital and financing were furnished by Ernest Cassel. When initially constructed between 1899 and 1902, nothing of its scale had ever been attempted; on completion, it was the largest masonry dam in the world.

 

The Hoover Dam was a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, constructed in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the US states of Arizona and Nevada between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression. In 1928, Congress authorized the project to build a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc.. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The torrid summer weather and the lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on 1 March 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.

 

By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over 15 m high.

 

TYPES OF DAMS

Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.

 

BY STRUCTURE

Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as easily created without materials, arch-gravity dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.

 

ARCH DAMS

In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock. The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

 

Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constant-radius dam. The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept a constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels are taken care of by varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam is a constant-angle arch dam.

 

A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City, Nevada in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as viewed from downstream.

 

The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Québec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the hollow gravity type, but requires good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.

 

GRAVITY DAMS

In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earth's gravity pulling down on the mass of the dam. The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side of the dam). The dam's weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe. The designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the dam's weight wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is true whenever the resultant of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the dam acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam.

 

Furthermore, the designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to consider the part of dam above any particular height to be a whole dam itself, that dam also would be held in place by gravity. i.e. there is no tension in the upstream face of the dam holding the top of the dam down. The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam of material essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together against vertical tension.

 

Note that the shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also eliminates a balancing compression stress in the downstream face, providing additional economy.

 

For this type of dam, it is essential to have an impervious foundation with high bearing strength.

 

When situated on a suitable site, a gravity dam can prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams. When built on a carefully studied foundation, the gravity dam probably represents the best developed example of dam building. Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions, gravity dams are being built in some instances where an arch dam would have been more economical.

 

Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry. The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Braddock Locks & Dam is a hollow gravity dam.

 

ARCH-GRAVITY DAMS

A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive amounts of water flow but less material available for a purely gravity dam. The inward compression of the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam. Thus, the gravitation force required by the dam is lessened, i.e. the dam does not need to be so massive. This enables thinner dams and saves resources.

 

BARRAGES

A barrage dam is a special kind of dam which consists of a line of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing the dam. The gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for supporting the water load, and are often used to control and stabilize water flow for irrigation systems.

 

Barrages that are built at the mouth of rivers or lagoons to prevent tidal incursions or utilize the tidal flow for tidal power are known as tidal barrages.

 

EMBARKMENT DAM

Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like gravity dams made from concrete.

 

ROCK-FILL DAM

Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a high percentage of large particles hence the term rock-fill. The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry, concrete, plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which case it is referred to as a core. In the instances where clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam is referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is New Melones Dam in California.

 

A core that is growing in popularity is asphalt concrete. The majority of such dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the main fill material. Almost 100 dams of this design have now been built worldwide since the first such dam was completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete core dams built so far have an excellent performance record. The type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plasticmaterial that can adjust to the movements and deformations imposed on the embankment as a whole, and to settlements in the foundation. The flexible properties of the asphalt make such dams especially suited in earthquake regions.

 

CONCRETE-FACE ROCK-FILL DAMS

A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design offers the concrete slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without concern for uplift pressure. In addition, the CFRD design is flexible for topography, faster to construct and less costly than earth-fill dams. The CFRD originated during the California Gold Rush in the 1860s when miners constructed rock-fill timber-face dams for sluice operations. The timber was later replaced by concrete as the design was applied to irrigation and power schemes. As CFRD designs grew in height during the 1960s, the fill was compacted and the slab's horizontal and vertical joints were replaced with improved vertical joints. In the last few decades, the design has become popular.[42] Currently, the tallest CFRD in the world is the 233 m (764 ft) tall Shuibuya Dam in China which was completed in 2008.

 

EARTH-FILL DAMS

Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a locally plentiful shell with a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the integrity of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam to maintain a watertight region of permafrost within it.

 

Tarbela Dam is a large dam on the Indus River in Pakistan. It is located about 50 km northwest of Islamabad, and a height of 148 m above the river bed and a reservoir size of 250 km2 makes it the largest earth filled dam in the world. The principal element of the project is an embankment 2,700 metres long with a maximum height of 142 metres. The total volume of earth and rock used for the project is approximately 152.8 million cu. Meters which makes it one of the largest man made structure in the world.

 

Because earthen dams can be constructed from materials found on-site or nearby, they can be very cost-effective in regions where the cost of producing or bringing in concrete would be prohibitive.

 

BY SIZE

International standards (including International Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD) define large dams as higher than 15 meters and major dams as over 150 metres in height. The Report of the World Commission on Dams also includes in the large category, dams, such as barrages, which are between 5 and 15 metres high with a reservoir capacity of more than 3 million cubic metres.

 

The tallest dam in the world is the 300-metre high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.

 

BY USE

SADDLE DAM

A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or saddle through which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake. This is similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding.

 

WEIR

A weir (also sometimes called an overflow dam) is a type of small overflow dam that is often used within a river channel to create an impoundment lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow measurement or retardation.

 

CHECK DAM

A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.

 

DRA DAM

A dry dam also known as a flood retarding structure, is a dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and allows the channel to flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream.

 

DIVERSIONARY DAM

A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course. The water may be redirected into a canal or tunnel for irrigation and/or hydroelectric power production.

 

UNDERGROUND DAM

Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it below the surface for extended use in a localized area. In some cases they are also built to prevent saltwater from intruding into a freshwater aquifer. Underground dams are typically constructed in areas where water resources are minimal and need to be efficiently stored, such as in deserts and on islands like the Fukuzato Dam in Okinawa, Japan. They are most common in northeastern Africa and the arid areas of Brazil while also being used in the southwestern United States, Mexico, India, Germany, Italy, Greece, France and Japan.

 

There are two types of underground dams: a sub-surface and a sand-storage dam. A sub-surface dam is built across an aquifer or drainage route from an impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up to just below the surface. They can be constructed of a variety of materials to include bricks, stones, concrete, steel or PVC. Once built, the water stored behind the dam raises the water table and is then extracted with wells. A sand-storage dam is a weir built in stages across a stream or wadi. It must be strong as floods will wash over its crest. Over time sand accumulates in layers behind the dam which helps store water and most importantly, prevent evaporation. The stored water can be extracted with a well, through the dam body, or by means of a drain pipe.

 

TAILING DAM

A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store tailings — which are produced during mining operations after separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore. Conventional water retention dams can serve this purpose but due to cost, a tailings dam is more viable. Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the life of the particular mine. Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed and as it fills with a mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material used to raise the dam can include the tailings (depending on their size) along with dirt.

 

There are three raised tailings dam designs, the upstream, downstream and centerline, named according to the movement of the crest during raising. The specific design used it dependent upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings and cost. An upstream tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of another, moving the crest further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment. The downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill and crest further downstream. A centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly on top of another while fill is placed on the downstream side for support and slurry supports the upstream side.

 

Because tailings dams often store toxic chemicals from the mining process, they have an impervious liner to prevent seepage. Water/slurry levels in the tailings pond must be managed for stability and environmental purposes as well.

 

BY MATERIAL

STEEL DAMS

A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with in around the start of the 20th century which uses steel plating (at an angle) and load bearing beams as the structure. Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an (arguably failed) experiment to determine if a construction technique could be devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams.

 

TIMBER DAMS

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times because of relatively short lifespan and limited height to which they can be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet in order to maintain their water retention properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical to build are those where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber dams were once numerous, especially in the North American west, but most have failed, been hidden under earth embankments, or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank.

 

Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log house and the interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float logs downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

 

Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction methods utilizing heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks.

 

OTHER TYPES

COFFERDAMS

A cofferdam is a barrier, usually temporary, constructed to exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete, or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures. When the project is completed, the cofferdam will usually be demolished or removed unless the area requires continuous maintenance. See also causeway and retaining wall. Common uses for cofferdams include construction and repair of off shore oil platforms. In such cases the cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into the space, displacing the water and allowing a dry work environment below the surface.

 

NATURAL DAMS

Dams can also be created by natural geological forces. Volcanic dams are formed when lava flows, often basaltic, intercept the path of a stream or lake outlet, resulting in the creation of a natural impoundment. An example would be the eruptions of the Uinkaret volcanic field about 1.8 million–10,000 years ago, which created lava dams on the Colorado River in northern Arizona in the United States. The largest such lake grew to about 800 kilometres in length before the failure of its dam. Glacial activity can also form natural dams, such as the damming of the Clark Fork in Montana by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which formed the 7,780 km2 Glacial Lake Missoula near the end of the last Ice Age. Moraine deposits left behind by glaciers can also dam rivers to form lakes, such as at Flathead Lake, also in Montana (see Moraine-dammed lake).

 

Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create landslide dams in mountainous regions with unstable local geology. Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m high, it is the tallest dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams. A more recent example would be the creation of Attabad Lake by a landslide on Pakistan's Hunza River.

 

Natural dams often pose significant hazards to human settlements and infrastructure. The resulting lakes often flood inhabited areas, while a catastrophic failure of the dam could cause even greater damage, such as the failure of western Wyoming's Gros Ventre landslide dam in 1927, which wiped out the town of Kelly and resulted in the deaths of six people.

 

BEAVER DAMS

Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of land, beavers can navigate below or near the surface and remain relatively well hidden or protected from predators. The flooded region also allows beavers access to food, especially during the winter.

 

CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS

POWER GENERATION PLANT

As of 2005, hydroelectric power, mostly from dams, supplies some 19% of the world's electricity, and over 63% of renewable energy. Much of this is generated by large dams, although China uses small scale hydro generation on a wide scale and is responsible for about 50% of world use of this type of power.

 

Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator; to boost the power generation capabilities of a dam, the water may be run through a large pipe called a penstock before the turbine. A variant on this simple model uses pumped storage hydroelectricity to produce electricity to match periods of high and low demand, by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine.

 

SPILLWAYS

A spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the upstream side of a dam to the downstream side. Many spillways have floodgates designed to control the flow through the spillway. Types of spillway include: A service spillway or primary spillway passes normal flow. An auxiliary spillway releases flow in excess of the capacity of the service spillway. An emergency spillway is designed for extreme conditions, such as a serious malfunction of the service spillway. A fuse plug spillway is a low embankment designed to be over topped and washed away in the event of a large flood. The elements of a fuse plug are independent free-standing blocks, set side by side which work without any remote control. They allow increasing the normal pool of the dam without compromising the security of the dam because they are designed to be gradually evacuated for exceptional events. They work as fixed weir at times by allowing over-flow for common floods.

 

The spillway can be gradually eroded by water flow, including cavitation or turbulence of the water flowing over the spillway, leading to its failure. It was the inadequate design of the spillway which led to the 1889 over-topping of the South Fork Dam in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, resulting in the infamous Johnstown Flood (the "great flood of 1889").

 

Erosion rates are often monitored, and the risk is ordinarily minimized, by shaping the downstream face of the spillway into a curve that minimizes turbulent flow, such as an ogee curve.

 

LOCATION

One of the best places for building a dam is a narrow part of a deep river valley; the valley sides can then act as natural walls. The primary function of the dam's structure is to fill the gap in the natural reservoir line left by the stream channel. The sites are usually those where the gap becomes a minimum for the required storage capacity. The most economical arrangement is often a composite structure such as a masonry dam flanked by earth embankments. The current use of the land to be flooded should be dispensable.

 

Significant other engineering and engineering geology considerations when building a dam include:

 

permeability of the surrounding rock or soil

earthquake faults

landslides and slope stability

water table

peak flood flows

reservoir silting

environmental impacts on river fisheries, forests and wildlife (see also fish ladder)

impacts on human habitations

compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement

removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir area

 

IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Impact is assessed in several ways: the benefits to human society arising from the dam (agriculture, water, damage prevention and power), harm or benefit to nature and wildlife, impact on the geology of an area – whether the change to water flow and levels will increase or decrease stability, and the disruption to human lives (relocation, loss of archeological or cultural matters underwater).

 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Reservoirs held behind dams affect many ecological aspects of a river. Rivers topography and dynamics depend on a wide range of flows whilst rivers below dams often experience long periods of very stable flow conditions or saw tooth flow patterns caused by releases followed by no releases. Water releases from a reservoir including that exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, and this in turn can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks; for example, the daily cyclic flow variation caused by the Glen Canyon Dam was a contributor to sand bar erosion.

 

Older dams often lack a fish ladder, which keeps many fish from moving up stream to their natural breeding grounds, causing failure of breeding cycles or blocking of migration paths. Even the presence of a fish ladder does not always prevent a reduction in fish reaching the spawning grounds upstream. In some areas, young fish ("smolt") are transported downstream by barge during parts of the year. Turbine and power-plant designs that have a lower impact upon aquatic life are an active area of research.

 

A large dam can cause the loss of entire ecospheres, including endangered and undiscovered species in the area, and the replacement of the original environment by a new inland lake.

 

Large reservoirs formed behind dams have been indicated in the contribution of seismic activity, due to changes in water load and/or the height of the water table.

 

Dams are also found to have a role in the increase of global warming. The changing water levels in dams and in reservoirs are one of the main sources for green house gas like methane. While dams and the water behind them cover only a small portion of earth's surface, they harbour biological activity that can produce large amounts of greenhouse gases.

 

HUMAN SOCIAL IMPACT

The impact on human society is also significant. Nick Cullather argues in Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia that dam construction requires the state to displace individual people in the name of the common good, and that it often leads to abuses of the masses by planners. He cites Morarji Desai, Interior Minister of India, in 1960 speaking to villagers upset about the Pong Dam, who threatened to "release the waters" and drown the villagers if they did not cooperate.

 

For example, the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China is more than five times the size of the Hoover Dam (U.S.), and will create a reservoir 600 km long to be used for hydro-power generation. Its construction required the loss of over a million people's homes and their mass relocation, the loss of many valuable archaeological and cultural sites, as well as significant ecological change. It is estimated that to date, 40–80 million people worldwide have been physically displaced from their homes as a result of dam construction.

 

ECONOMICS

Construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead-time for site studies, hydrological studies, and environmental impact assessments, and are large-scale projects by comparison to traditional power generation based upon fossil fuels. The number of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited; new sites tend to be far from population centers and usually require extensive power transmission lines. Hydroelectric generation can be vulnerable to major changes in the climate, including variations in rainfall, ground and surface water levels, and glacial melt, causing additional expenditure for the extra capacity to ensure sufficient power is available in low-water years.

 

Once completed, if it is well designed and maintained, a hydroelectric power source is usually comparatively cheap and reliable. It has no fuel and low escape risk, and as an alternative energy source it is cheaper than both nuclear and wind power. It is more easily regulated to store water as needed and generate high power levels on demand compared to wind power.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. The reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but provide water for various needs to include irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.

 

The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, as seen in the names of many old cities.

 

ANCIENT DAMS

Early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the water level, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and could be quite unpredictable.

 

The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, 100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman. This gravity dam featured an originally 9 m high and 1 m wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC.

 

The Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC. as a diversion dam for flood control, but was destroyed by heavy rain during construction or shortly afterwards. During the XIIth dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III and Amenmehat IV dug a canal 16 km long linking the Fayum Depression to the Nile in Middle Egypt. Two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called "Mer-wer" or Lake Moeris covered 1700 square kilometers and is known today as Berkat Qaroun.

 

By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern day India, was built. The system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it.

 

Eflatun Pinar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC.

 

The Kallanai is constructed of unhewn stone, over 300 m long, 4.5 m high and 20 m wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri river in Tamil Nadu, South India. The basic structure dates to the 2nd century AD and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in use. The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile Delta region for irrigation via canals.

 

Du Jiang Yan is the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was finished in 251 BC. A large earthen dam, made by the Prime Minister of Chu (state), Sunshu Ao, flooded a valley in modern-day northern Anhui province that created an enormous irrigation reservoir 100 km in circumference), a reservoir that is still present today.

 

ROMAN ENGINEERING

Roman dam construction was characterized by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a grand scale". Roman planners introduced the then novel concept of large reservoir dams which could secure a permanent water supply for urban settlements also over the dry season. Their pioneering use of water-proof hydraulic mortar and particularly Roman concrete allowed for much larger dam structures than previously built, such as the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to that date, and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam was the Subiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of 50 m remained unsurpassed until its accidental destruction in 1305.

 

Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity dams. Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam designs which had been unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams and multiple arch buttress dams, all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as the Bridge of Valerian in Iran.

 

In Iran, bridge dams such as the Band-e Kaisar were used to provide hydropower through water wheels, which often powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam bridge in Dezful, which could raise water 50 cubits in height for the water supply to all houses in the town. Also diversion dams were known. Milling dams were introduced which the Muslim engineers called the Pul-i-Bulaiti. The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world. Water was conducted from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill. In the 10th century, Al-Muqaddasi described several dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwaz was more than 910 m long, and that and it had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueducts through which it flowed into reservoirs of the city. Another one, the Band-i-Amir dam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.

 

MIDDLE AGES

In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often applied to block rivers in order to regulate the water level and to prevent the sea from entering the marsh lands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often gave rise to the respective place's names in Dutch.

 

For instance the Dutch capital Amsterdam (old name Amstelredam) started with a dam through the river Amstel in the late 12th century, and Rotterdam started with a dam through the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe Maas. The central square of Amsterdam, covering the original place of the 800 year old dam, still carries the name Dam Square or simply the Dam.

 

INDUSTRIAL ERA

The Romans were the first to build arch dams, where the reaction forces from the abutment stabilizes the structure from the external hydrostatic pressure, but it was only in the 19th century that the engineering skills and construction materials available were capable of building the first large scale arch dams.

 

Three pioneering arch dams were built around the British Empire in the early 19th century. Henry Russel of the Royal Engineers oversaw the construction of the Mir Alam dam in 1804 to supply water to the city of Hyderabad (it is still in use today). It had a height of 12 metres and consisted of 21 arches of variable span.

 

In the 1820s and 30s, Lieutenant-Colonel John By supervised the construction of the Rideau Canal in Canada near modern-day Ottawa and built a series of curved masonry dams as part of the waterway system. In particular, the Jones Falls Dam built by John Redpath, was completed in 1832 as the largest dam in North America and an engineering marvel. In order to keep the water in control during construction, two sluices, artificial channels for conducting water, were kept open in the dam. The first was near the base of the dam on its east side. A second sluice was put in on the west side of the dam, about 6 metres above the base. To make the switch from the lower to upper sluice, the outlet of Sand Lake was blocked off.

 

Hunts Creek near the City of Parramatta, Australia was dammed in the 1850s, to cater for the demand for water from the growing population of the city. The masonry arch dam wall was designed by Lieutenant Percy Simpson who was influenced by the advances in dam engineering techniques made by the Royal Engineers in India. The dam cost £17,000 and was completed in 1856 as the first engineered dam built in Australia, and the second arch dam in the world built to mathematical specifications.

 

The first such dam was opened two years earlier in France. It was also the first French arch dam of the industrial era, and it was built by François Zola in the municipality of Aix-en-Provence to improve the supply of water after the 1832 cholera outbreak devastated the area. After royal approval was granted in 1844, the dam was constructed over the following decade. Its construction was carried out on the basis of the mathematical results of scientific stress analysis.

 

The 75-miles dam near Warwick, Australia was possibly the world's first concrete arch dam. Designed by Henry Charles Stanley in 1880 with an overflow spillway and a special water outlet, it was eventually heightened to 10 meters.

 

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, significant advances in the scientific theory of masonry dam design were made. This transformed dam design, from an art based on empirical methodology to a profession based on a rigorously applied scientific theoretical framework. This new emphasis was centered around the engineering faculties of universities in France and in the United Kingdom. William John Macquorn Rankine at the University of Glasgow pioneered the theoretical understanding of dam structures in his 1857 paper On the Stability of Loose Earth. Rankine theory provided a good understanding of the principles behind dam design. In France, J. Augustin Tortene de Sazilly explained the mechanics of vertically faced masonry gravity dams and Zola's dam was the first to be built on the basis of these principles.

 

LARGE DAMS

The era of large dams was initiated with the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in Egypt in 1902, a gravity masonry buttress dam on the Nile River. Following their 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the British began construction in 1898. The project was designed by Sir William Willcocks and involved several eminent engineers of the time, including Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Aird, whose firm, John Aird & Co., was the main contractor. Capital and financing were furnished by Ernest Cassel. When initially constructed between 1899 and 1902, nothing of its scale had ever been attempted; on completion, it was the largest masonry dam in the world.

 

The Hoover Dam was a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, constructed in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the US states of Arizona and Nevada between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression. In 1928, Congress authorized the project to build a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc.. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The torrid summer weather and the lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on 1 March 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.

 

By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over 15 m high.

 

TYPES OF DAMS

Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.

 

BY STRUCTURE

Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as easily created without materials, arch-gravity dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.

 

ARCH DAMS

In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock. The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

 

Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constant-radius dam. The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept a constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels are taken care of by varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam is a constant-angle arch dam.

 

A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City, Nevada in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as viewed from downstream.

 

The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Québec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the hollow gravity type, but requires good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.

 

GRAVITY DAMS

In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earth's gravity pulling down on the mass of the dam. The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side of the dam). The dam's weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe. The designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the dam's weight wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is true whenever the resultant of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the dam acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam.

 

Furthermore, the designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to consider the part of dam above any particular height to be a whole dam itself, that dam also would be held in place by gravity. i.e. there is no tension in the upstream face of the dam holding the top of the dam down. The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam of material essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together against vertical tension.

 

Note that the shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also eliminates a balancing compression stress in the downstream face, providing additional economy.

 

For this type of dam, it is essential to have an impervious foundation with high bearing strength.

 

When situated on a suitable site, a gravity dam can prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams. When built on a carefully studied foundation, the gravity dam probably represents the best developed example of dam building. Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions, gravity dams are being built in some instances where an arch dam would have been more economical.

 

Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry. The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Braddock Locks & Dam is a hollow gravity dam.

 

ARCH-GRAVITY DAMS

A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive amounts of water flow but less material available for a purely gravity dam. The inward compression of the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam. Thus, the gravitation force required by the dam is lessened, i.e. the dam does not need to be so massive. This enables thinner dams and saves resources.

 

BARRAGES

A barrage dam is a special kind of dam which consists of a line of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing the dam. The gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for supporting the water load, and are often used to control and stabilize water flow for irrigation systems.

 

Barrages that are built at the mouth of rivers or lagoons to prevent tidal incursions or utilize the tidal flow for tidal power are known as tidal barrages.

 

EMBARKMENT DAM

Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like gravity dams made from concrete.

 

ROCK-FILL DAM

Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a high percentage of large particles hence the term rock-fill. The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry, concrete, plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which case it is referred to as a core. In the instances where clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam is referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is New Melones Dam in California.

 

A core that is growing in popularity is asphalt concrete. The majority of such dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the main fill material. Almost 100 dams of this design have now been built worldwide since the first such dam was completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete core dams built so far have an excellent performance record. The type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plasticmaterial that can adjust to the movements and deformations imposed on the embankment as a whole, and to settlements in the foundation. The flexible properties of the asphalt make such dams especially suited in earthquake regions.

 

CONCRETE-FACE ROCK-FILL DAMS

A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design offers the concrete slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without concern for uplift pressure. In addition, the CFRD design is flexible for topography, faster to construct and less costly than earth-fill dams. The CFRD originated during the California Gold Rush in the 1860s when miners constructed rock-fill timber-face dams for sluice operations. The timber was later replaced by concrete as the design was applied to irrigation and power schemes. As CFRD designs grew in height during the 1960s, the fill was compacted and the slab's horizontal and vertical joints were replaced with improved vertical joints. In the last few decades, the design has become popular.[42] Currently, the tallest CFRD in the world is the 233 m (764 ft) tall Shuibuya Dam in China which was completed in 2008.

 

EARTH-FILL DAMS

Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a locally plentiful shell with a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the integrity of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam to maintain a watertight region of permafrost within it.

 

Tarbela Dam is a large dam on the Indus River in Pakistan. It is located about 50 km northwest of Islamabad, and a height of 148 m above the river bed and a reservoir size of 250 km2 makes it the largest earth filled dam in the world. The principal element of the project is an embankment 2,700 metres long with a maximum height of 142 metres. The total volume of earth and rock used for the project is approximately 152.8 million cu. Meters which makes it one of the largest man made structure in the world.

 

Because earthen dams can be constructed from materials found on-site or nearby, they can be very cost-effective in regions where the cost of producing or bringing in concrete would be prohibitive.

 

BY SIZE

International standards (including International Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD) define large dams as higher than 15 meters and major dams as over 150 metres in height. The Report of the World Commission on Dams also includes in the large category, dams, such as barrages, which are between 5 and 15 metres high with a reservoir capacity of more than 3 million cubic metres.

 

The tallest dam in the world is the 300-metre high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.

 

BY USE

SADDLE DAM

A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or saddle through which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake. This is similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding.

 

WEIR

A weir (also sometimes called an overflow dam) is a type of small overflow dam that is often used within a river channel to create an impoundment lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow measurement or retardation.

 

CHECK DAM

A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.

 

DRA DAM

A dry dam also known as a flood retarding structure, is a dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and allows the channel to flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream.

 

DIVERSIONARY DAM

A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course. The water may be redirected into a canal or tunnel for irrigation and/or hydroelectric power production.

 

UNDERGROUND DAM

Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it below the surface for extended use in a localized area. In some cases they are also built to prevent saltwater from intruding into a freshwater aquifer. Underground dams are typically constructed in areas where water resources are minimal and need to be efficiently stored, such as in deserts and on islands like the Fukuzato Dam in Okinawa, Japan. They are most common in northeastern Africa and the arid areas of Brazil while also being used in the southwestern United States, Mexico, India, Germany, Italy, Greece, France and Japan.

 

There are two types of underground dams: a sub-surface and a sand-storage dam. A sub-surface dam is built across an aquifer or drainage route from an impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up to just below the surface. They can be constructed of a variety of materials to include bricks, stones, concrete, steel or PVC. Once built, the water stored behind the dam raises the water table and is then extracted with wells. A sand-storage dam is a weir built in stages across a stream or wadi. It must be strong as floods will wash over its crest. Over time sand accumulates in layers behind the dam which helps store water and most importantly, prevent evaporation. The stored water can be extracted with a well, through the dam body, or by means of a drain pipe.

 

TAILING DAM

A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store tailings — which are produced during mining operations after separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore. Conventional water retention dams can serve this purpose but due to cost, a tailings dam is more viable. Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the life of the particular mine. Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed and as it fills with a mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material used to raise the dam can include the tailings (depending on their size) along with dirt.

 

There are three raised tailings dam designs, the upstream, downstream and centerline, named according to the movement of the crest during raising. The specific design used it dependent upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings and cost. An upstream tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of another, moving the crest further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment. The downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill and crest further downstream. A centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly on top of another while fill is placed on the downstream side for support and slurry supports the upstream side.

 

Because tailings dams often store toxic chemicals from the mining process, they have an impervious liner to prevent seepage. Water/slurry levels in the tailings pond must be managed for stability and environmental purposes as well.

 

BY MATERIAL

STEEL DAMS

A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with in around the start of the 20th century which uses steel plating (at an angle) and load bearing beams as the structure. Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an (arguably failed) experiment to determine if a construction technique could be devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams.

 

TIMBER DAMS

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times because of relatively short lifespan and limited height to which they can be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet in order to maintain their water retention properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical to build are those where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber dams were once numerous, especially in the North American west, but most have failed, been hidden under earth embankments, or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank.

 

Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log house and the interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float logs downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

 

Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction methods utilizing heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks.

 

OTHER TYPES

COFFERDAMS

A cofferdam is a barrier, usually temporary, constructed to exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete, or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures. When the project is completed, the cofferdam will usually be demolished or removed unless the area requires continuous maintenance. See also causeway and retaining wall. Common uses for cofferdams include construction and repair of off shore oil platforms. In such cases the cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into the space, displacing the water and allowing a dry work environment below the surface.

 

NATURAL DAMS

Dams can also be created by natural geological forces. Volcanic dams are formed when lava flows, often basaltic, intercept the path of a stream or lake outlet, resulting in the creation of a natural impoundment. An example would be the eruptions of the Uinkaret volcanic field about 1.8 million–10,000 years ago, which created lava dams on the Colorado River in northern Arizona in the United States. The largest such lake grew to about 800 kilometres in length before the failure of its dam. Glacial activity can also form natural dams, such as the damming of the Clark Fork in Montana by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which formed the 7,780 km2 Glacial Lake Missoula near the end of the last Ice Age. Moraine deposits left behind by glaciers can also dam rivers to form lakes, such as at Flathead Lake, also in Montana (see Moraine-dammed lake).

 

Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create landslide dams in mountainous regions with unstable local geology. Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m high, it is the tallest dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams. A more recent example would be the creation of Attabad Lake by a landslide on Pakistan's Hunza River.

 

Natural dams often pose significant hazards to human settlements and infrastructure. The resulting lakes often flood inhabited areas, while a catastrophic failure of the dam could cause even greater damage, such as the failure of western Wyoming's Gros Ventre landslide dam in 1927, which wiped out the town of Kelly and resulted in the deaths of six people.

 

BEAVER DAMS

Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of land, beavers can navigate below or near the surface and remain relatively well hidden or protected from predators. The flooded region also allows beavers access to food, especially during the winter.

 

CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS

POWER GENERATION PLANT

As of 2005, hydroelectric power, mostly from dams, supplies some 19% of the world's electricity, and over 63% of renewable energy. Much of this is generated by large dams, although China uses small scale hydro generation on a wide scale and is responsible for about 50% of world use of this type of power.

 

Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator; to boost the power generation capabilities of a dam, the water may be run through a large pipe called a penstock before the turbine. A variant on this simple model uses pumped storage hydroelectricity to produce electricity to match periods of high and low demand, by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine.

 

SPILLWAYS

A spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the upstream side of a dam to the downstream side. Many spillways have floodgates designed to control the flow through the spillway. Types of spillway include: A service spillway or primary spillway passes normal flow. An auxiliary spillway releases flow in excess of the capacity of the service spillway. An emergency spillway is designed for extreme conditions, such as a serious malfunction of the service spillway. A fuse plug spillway is a low embankment designed to be over topped and washed away in the event of a large flood. The elements of a fuse plug are independent free-standing blocks, set side by side which work without any remote control. They allow increasing the normal pool of the dam without compromising the security of the dam because they are designed to be gradually evacuated for exceptional events. They work as fixed weir at times by allowing over-flow for common floods.

 

The spillway can be gradually eroded by water flow, including cavitation or turbulence of the water flowing over the spillway, leading to its failure. It was the inadequate design of the spillway which led to the 1889 over-topping of the South Fork Dam in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, resulting in the infamous Johnstown Flood (the "great flood of 1889").

 

Erosion rates are often monitored, and the risk is ordinarily minimized, by shaping the downstream face of the spillway into a curve that minimizes turbulent flow, such as an ogee curve.

 

LOCATION

One of the best places for building a dam is a narrow part of a deep river valley; the valley sides can then act as natural walls. The primary function of the dam's structure is to fill the gap in the natural reservoir line left by the stream channel. The sites are usually those where the gap becomes a minimum for the required storage capacity. The most economical arrangement is often a composite structure such as a masonry dam flanked by earth embankments. The current use of the land to be flooded should be dispensable.

 

Significant other engineering and engineering geology considerations when building a dam include:

 

permeability of the surrounding rock or soil

earthquake faults

landslides and slope stability

water table

peak flood flows

reservoir silting

environmental impacts on river fisheries, forests and wildlife (see also fish ladder)

impacts on human habitations

compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement

removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir area

 

IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Impact is assessed in several ways: the benefits to human society arising from the dam (agriculture, water, damage prevention and power), harm or benefit to nature and wildlife, impact on the geology of an area – whether the change to water flow and levels will increase or decrease stability, and the disruption to human lives (relocation, loss of archeological or cultural matters underwater).

 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Reservoirs held behind dams affect many ecological aspects of a river. Rivers topography and dynamics depend on a wide range of flows whilst rivers below dams often experience long periods of very stable flow conditions or saw tooth flow patterns caused by releases followed by no releases. Water releases from a reservoir including that exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, and this in turn can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks; for example, the daily cyclic flow variation caused by the Glen Canyon Dam was a contributor to sand bar erosion.

 

Older dams often lack a fish ladder, which keeps many fish from moving up stream to their natural breeding grounds, causing failure of breeding cycles or blocking of migration paths. Even the presence of a fish ladder does not always prevent a reduction in fish reaching the spawning grounds upstream. In some areas, young fish ("smolt") are transported downstream by barge during parts of the year. Turbine and power-plant designs that have a lower impact upon aquatic life are an active area of research.

 

A large dam can cause the loss of entire ecospheres, including endangered and undiscovered species in the area, and the replacement of the original environment by a new inland lake.

 

Large reservoirs formed behind dams have been indicated in the contribution of seismic activity, due to changes in water load and/or the height of the water table.

 

Dams are also found to have a role in the increase of global warming. The changing water levels in dams and in reservoirs are one of the main sources for green house gas like methane. While dams and the water behind them cover only a small portion of earth's surface, they harbour biological activity that can produce large amounts of greenhouse gases.

 

HUMAN SOCIAL IMPACT

The impact on human society is also significant. Nick Cullather argues in Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia that dam construction requires the state to displace individual people in the name of the common good, and that it often leads to abuses of the masses by planners. He cites Morarji Desai, Interior Minister of India, in 1960 speaking to villagers upset about the Pong Dam, who threatened to "release the waters" and drown the villagers if they did not cooperate.

 

For example, the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China is more than five times the size of the Hoover Dam (U.S.), and will create a reservoir 600 km long to be used for hydro-power generation. Its construction required the loss of over a million people's homes and their mass relocation, the loss of many valuable archaeological and cultural sites, as well as significant ecological change. It is estimated that to date, 40–80 million people worldwide have been physically displaced from their homes as a result of dam construction.

 

ECONOMICS

Construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead-time for site studies, hydrological studies, and environmental impact assessments, and are large-scale projects by comparison to traditional power generation based upon fossil fuels. The number of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited; new sites tend to be far from population centers and usually require extensive power transmission lines. Hydroelectric generation can be vulnerable to major changes in the climate, including variations in rainfall, ground and surface water levels, and glacial melt, causing additional expenditure for the extra capacity to ensure sufficient power is available in low-water years.

 

Once completed, if it is well designed and maintained, a hydroelectric power source is usually comparatively cheap and reliable. It has no fuel and low escape risk, and as an alternative energy source it is cheaper than both nuclear and wind power. It is more easily regulated to store water as needed and generate high power levels on demand compared to wind power.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. The reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but provide water for various needs to include irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.

 

The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, as seen in the names of many old cities.

 

ANCIENT DAMS

Early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the water level, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and could be quite unpredictable.

 

The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, 100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman. This gravity dam featured an originally 9 m high and 1 m wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC.

 

The Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC. as a diversion dam for flood control, but was destroyed by heavy rain during construction or shortly afterwards. During the XIIth dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III and Amenmehat IV dug a canal 16 km long linking the Fayum Depression to the Nile in Middle Egypt. Two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called "Mer-wer" or Lake Moeris covered 1700 square kilometers and is known today as Berkat Qaroun.

 

By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern day India, was built. The system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it.

 

Eflatun Pinar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC.

 

The Kallanai is constructed of unhewn stone, over 300 m long, 4.5 m high and 20 m wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri river in Tamil Nadu, South India. The basic structure dates to the 2nd century AD and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in use. The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile Delta region for irrigation via canals.

 

Du Jiang Yan is the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was finished in 251 BC. A large earthen dam, made by the Prime Minister of Chu (state), Sunshu Ao, flooded a valley in modern-day northern Anhui province that created an enormous irrigation reservoir 100 km in circumference), a reservoir that is still present today.

 

ROMAN ENGINEERING

Roman dam construction was characterized by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a grand scale". Roman planners introduced the then novel concept of large reservoir dams which could secure a permanent water supply for urban settlements also over the dry season. Their pioneering use of water-proof hydraulic mortar and particularly Roman concrete allowed for much larger dam structures than previously built, such as the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to that date, and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam was the Subiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of 50 m remained unsurpassed until its accidental destruction in 1305.

 

Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity dams. Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam designs which had been unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams and multiple arch buttress dams, all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as the Bridge of Valerian in Iran.

 

In Iran, bridge dams such as the Band-e Kaisar were used to provide hydropower through water wheels, which often powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam bridge in Dezful, which could raise water 50 cubits in height for the water supply to all houses in the town. Also diversion dams were known. Milling dams were introduced which the Muslim engineers called the Pul-i-Bulaiti. The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world. Water was conducted from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill. In the 10th century, Al-Muqaddasi described several dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwaz was more than 910 m long, and that and it had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueducts through which it flowed into reservoirs of the city. Another one, the Band-i-Amir dam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.

 

MIDDLE AGES

In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often applied to block rivers in order to regulate the water level and to prevent the sea from entering the marsh lands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often gave rise to the respective place's names in Dutch.

 

For instance the Dutch capital Amsterdam (old name Amstelredam) started with a dam through the river Amstel in the late 12th century, and Rotterdam started with a dam through the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe Maas. The central square of Amsterdam, covering the original place of the 800 year old dam, still carries the name Dam Square or simply the Dam.

 

INDUSTRIAL ERA

The Romans were the first to build arch dams, where the reaction forces from the abutment stabilizes the structure from the external hydrostatic pressure, but it was only in the 19th century that the engineering skills and construction materials available were capable of building the first large scale arch dams.

 

Three pioneering arch dams were built around the British Empire in the early 19th century. Henry Russel of the Royal Engineers oversaw the construction of the Mir Alam dam in 1804 to supply water to the city of Hyderabad (it is still in use today). It had a height of 12 metres and consisted of 21 arches of variable span.

 

In the 1820s and 30s, Lieutenant-Colonel John By supervised the construction of the Rideau Canal in Canada near modern-day Ottawa and built a series of curved masonry dams as part of the waterway system. In particular, the Jones Falls Dam built by John Redpath, was completed in 1832 as the largest dam in North America and an engineering marvel. In order to keep the water in control during construction, two sluices, artificial channels for conducting water, were kept open in the dam. The first was near the base of the dam on its east side. A second sluice was put in on the west side of the dam, about 6 metres above the base. To make the switch from the lower to upper sluice, the outlet of Sand Lake was blocked off.

 

Hunts Creek near the City of Parramatta, Australia was dammed in the 1850s, to cater for the demand for water from the growing population of the city. The masonry arch dam wall was designed by Lieutenant Percy Simpson who was influenced by the advances in dam engineering techniques made by the Royal Engineers in India. The dam cost £17,000 and was completed in 1856 as the first engineered dam built in Australia, and the second arch dam in the world built to mathematical specifications.

 

The first such dam was opened two years earlier in France. It was also the first French arch dam of the industrial era, and it was built by François Zola in the municipality of Aix-en-Provence to improve the supply of water after the 1832 cholera outbreak devastated the area. After royal approval was granted in 1844, the dam was constructed over the following decade. Its construction was carried out on the basis of the mathematical results of scientific stress analysis.

 

The 75-miles dam near Warwick, Australia was possibly the world's first concrete arch dam. Designed by Henry Charles Stanley in 1880 with an overflow spillway and a special water outlet, it was eventually heightened to 10 meters.

 

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, significant advances in the scientific theory of masonry dam design were made. This transformed dam design, from an art based on empirical methodology to a profession based on a rigorously applied scientific theoretical framework. This new emphasis was centered around the engineering faculties of universities in France and in the United Kingdom. William John Macquorn Rankine at the University of Glasgow pioneered the theoretical understanding of dam structures in his 1857 paper On the Stability of Loose Earth. Rankine theory provided a good understanding of the principles behind dam design. In France, J. Augustin Tortene de Sazilly explained the mechanics of vertically faced masonry gravity dams and Zola's dam was the first to be built on the basis of these principles.

 

LARGE DAMS

The era of large dams was initiated with the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in Egypt in 1902, a gravity masonry buttress dam on the Nile River. Following their 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the British began construction in 1898. The project was designed by Sir William Willcocks and involved several eminent engineers of the time, including Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Aird, whose firm, John Aird & Co., was the main contractor. Capital and financing were furnished by Ernest Cassel. When initially constructed between 1899 and 1902, nothing of its scale had ever been attempted; on completion, it was the largest masonry dam in the world.

 

The Hoover Dam was a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, constructed in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the US states of Arizona and Nevada between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression. In 1928, Congress authorized the project to build a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc.. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The torrid summer weather and the lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on 1 March 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.

 

By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over 15 m high.

 

TYPES OF DAMS

Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.

 

BY STRUCTURE

Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as easily created without materials, arch-gravity dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.

 

ARCH DAMS

In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock. The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

 

Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constant-radius dam. The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept a constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels are taken care of by varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam is a constant-angle arch dam.

 

A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City, Nevada in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as viewed from downstream.

 

The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Québec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the hollow gravity type, but requires good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.

 

GRAVITY DAMS

In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earth's gravity pulling down on the mass of the dam. The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side of the dam). The dam's weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe. The designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the dam's weight wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is true whenever the resultant of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the dam acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam.

 

Furthermore, the designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to consider the part of dam above any particular height to be a whole dam itself, that dam also would be held in place by gravity. i.e. there is no tension in the upstream face of the dam holding the top of the dam down. The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam of material essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together against vertical tension.

 

Note that the shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also eliminates a balancing compression stress in the downstream face, providing additional economy.

 

For this type of dam, it is essential to have an impervious foundation with high bearing strength.

 

When situated on a suitable site, a gravity dam can prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams. When built on a carefully studied foundation, the gravity dam probably represents the best developed example of dam building. Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions, gravity dams are being built in some instances where an arch dam would have been more economical.

 

Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry. The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Braddock Locks & Dam is a hollow gravity dam.

 

ARCH-GRAVITY DAMS

A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive amounts of water flow but less material available for a purely gravity dam. The inward compression of the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam. Thus, the gravitation force required by the dam is lessened, i.e. the dam does not need to be so massive. This enables thinner dams and saves resources.

 

BARRAGES

A barrage dam is a special kind of dam which consists of a line of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing the dam. The gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for supporting the water load, and are often used to control and stabilize water flow for irrigation systems.

 

Barrages that are built at the mouth of rivers or lagoons to prevent tidal incursions or utilize the tidal flow for tidal power are known as tidal barrages.

 

EMBARKMENT DAM

Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like gravity dams made from concrete.

 

ROCK-FILL DAM

Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a high percentage of large particles hence the term rock-fill. The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry, concrete, plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which case it is referred to as a core. In the instances where clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam is referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is New Melones Dam in California.

 

A core that is growing in popularity is asphalt concrete. The majority of such dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the main fill material. Almost 100 dams of this design have now been built worldwide since the first such dam was completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete core dams built so far have an excellent performance record. The type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plasticmaterial that can adjust to the movements and deformations imposed on the embankment as a whole, and to settlements in the foundation. The flexible properties of the asphalt make such dams especially suited in earthquake regions.

 

CONCRETE-FACE ROCK-FILL DAMS

A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design offers the concrete slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without concern for uplift pressure. In addition, the CFRD design is flexible for topography, faster to construct and less costly than earth-fill dams. The CFRD originated during the California Gold Rush in the 1860s when miners constructed rock-fill timber-face dams for sluice operations. The timber was later replaced by concrete as the design was applied to irrigation and power schemes. As CFRD designs grew in height during the 1960s, the fill was compacted and the slab's horizontal and vertical joints were replaced with improved vertical joints. In the last few decades, the design has become popular.[42] Currently, the tallest CFRD in the world is the 233 m (764 ft) tall Shuibuya Dam in China which was completed in 2008.

 

EARTH-FILL DAMS

Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a locally plentiful shell with a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the integrity of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam to maintain a watertight region of permafrost within it.

 

Tarbela Dam is a large dam on the Indus River in Pakistan. It is located about 50 km northwest of Islamabad, and a height of 148 m above the river bed and a reservoir size of 250 km2 makes it the largest earth filled dam in the world. The principal element of the project is an embankment 2,700 metres long with a maximum height of 142 metres. The total volume of earth and rock used for the project is approximately 152.8 million cu. Meters which makes it one of the largest man made structure in the world.

 

Because earthen dams can be constructed from materials found on-site or nearby, they can be very cost-effective in regions where the cost of producing or bringing in concrete would be prohibitive.

 

BY SIZE

International standards (including International Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD) define large dams as higher than 15 meters and major dams as over 150 metres in height. The Report of the World Commission on Dams also includes in the large category, dams, such as barrages, which are between 5 and 15 metres high with a reservoir capacity of more than 3 million cubic metres.

 

The tallest dam in the world is the 300-metre high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.

 

BY USE

SADDLE DAM

A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or saddle through which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake. This is similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding.

 

WEIR

A weir (also sometimes called an overflow dam) is a type of small overflow dam that is often used within a river channel to create an impoundment lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow measurement or retardation.

 

CHECK DAM

A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.

 

DRA DAM

A dry dam also known as a flood retarding structure, is a dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and allows the channel to flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream.

 

DIVERSIONARY DAM

A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course. The water may be redirected into a canal or tunnel for irrigation and/or hydroelectric power production.

 

UNDERGROUND DAM

Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it below the surface for extended use in a localized area. In some cases they are also built to prevent saltwater from intruding into a freshwater aquifer. Underground dams are typically constructed in areas where water resources are minimal and need to be efficiently stored, such as in deserts and on islands like the Fukuzato Dam in Okinawa, Japan. They are most common in northeastern Africa and the arid areas of Brazil while also being used in the southwestern United States, Mexico, India, Germany, Italy, Greece, France and Japan.

 

There are two types of underground dams: a sub-surface and a sand-storage dam. A sub-surface dam is built across an aquifer or drainage route from an impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up to just below the surface. They can be constructed of a variety of materials to include bricks, stones, concrete, steel or PVC. Once built, the water stored behind the dam raises the water table and is then extracted with wells. A sand-storage dam is a weir built in stages across a stream or wadi. It must be strong as floods will wash over its crest. Over time sand accumulates in layers behind the dam which helps store water and most importantly, prevent evaporation. The stored water can be extracted with a well, through the dam body, or by means of a drain pipe.

 

TAILING DAM

A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store tailings — which are produced during mining operations after separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore. Conventional water retention dams can serve this purpose but due to cost, a tailings dam is more viable. Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the life of the particular mine. Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed and as it fills with a mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material used to raise the dam can include the tailings (depending on their size) along with dirt.

 

There are three raised tailings dam designs, the upstream, downstream and centerline, named according to the movement of the crest during raising. The specific design used it dependent upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings and cost. An upstream tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of another, moving the crest further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment. The downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill and crest further downstream. A centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly on top of another while fill is placed on the downstream side for support and slurry supports the upstream side.

 

Because tailings dams often store toxic chemicals from the mining process, they have an impervious liner to prevent seepage. Water/slurry levels in the tailings pond must be managed for stability and environmental purposes as well.

 

BY MATERIAL

STEEL DAMS

A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with in around the start of the 20th century which uses steel plating (at an angle) and load bearing beams as the structure. Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an (arguably failed) experiment to determine if a construction technique could be devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams.

 

TIMBER DAMS

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times because of relatively short lifespan and limited height to which they can be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet in order to maintain their water retention properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical to build are those where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber dams were once numerous, especially in the North American west, but most have failed, been hidden under earth embankments, or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank.

 

Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log house and the interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float logs downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

 

Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction methods utilizing heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks.

 

OTHER TYPES

COFFERDAMS

A cofferdam is a barrier, usually temporary, constructed to exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete, or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures. When the project is completed, the cofferdam will usually be demolished or removed unless the area requires continuous maintenance. See also causeway and retaining wall. Common uses for cofferdams include construction and repair of off shore oil platforms. In such cases the cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into the space, displacing the water and allowing a dry work environment below the surface.

 

NATURAL DAMS

Dams can also be created by natural geological forces. Volcanic dams are formed when lava flows, often basaltic, intercept the path of a stream or lake outlet, resulting in the creation of a natural impoundment. An example would be the eruptions of the Uinkaret volcanic field about 1.8 million–10,000 years ago, which created lava dams on the Colorado River in northern Arizona in the United States. The largest such lake grew to about 800 kilometres in length before the failure of its dam. Glacial activity can also form natural dams, such as the damming of the Clark Fork in Montana by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which formed the 7,780 km2 Glacial Lake Missoula near the end of the last Ice Age. Moraine deposits left behind by glaciers can also dam rivers to form lakes, such as at Flathead Lake, also in Montana (see Moraine-dammed lake).

 

Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create landslide dams in mountainous regions with unstable local geology. Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m high, it is the tallest dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams. A more recent example would be the creation of Attabad Lake by a landslide on Pakistan's Hunza River.

 

Natural dams often pose significant hazards to human settlements and infrastructure. The resulting lakes often flood inhabited areas, while a catastrophic failure of the dam could cause even greater damage, such as the failure of western Wyoming's Gros Ventre landslide dam in 1927, which wiped out the town of Kelly and resulted in the deaths of six people.

 

BEAVER DAMS

Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of land, beavers can navigate below or near the surface and remain relatively well hidden or protected from predators. The flooded region also allows beavers access to food, especially during the winter.

 

CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS

POWER GENERATION PLANT

As of 2005, hydroelectric power, mostly from dams, supplies some 19% of the world's electricity, and over 63% of renewable energy. Much of this is generated by large dams, although China uses small scale hydro generation on a wide scale and is responsible for about 50% of world use of this type of power.

 

Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator; to boost the power generation capabilities of a dam, the water may be run through a large pipe called a penstock before the turbine. A variant on this simple model uses pumped storage hydroelectricity to produce electricity to match periods of high and low demand, by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine.

 

SPILLWAYS

A spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the upstream side of a dam to the downstream side. Many spillways have floodgates designed to control the flow through the spillway. Types of spillway include: A service spillway or primary spillway passes normal flow. An auxiliary spillway releases flow in excess of the capacity of the service spillway. An emergency spillway is designed for extreme conditions, such as a serious malfunction of the service spillway. A fuse plug spillway is a low embankment designed to be over topped and washed away in the event of a large flood. The elements of a fuse plug are independent free-standing blocks, set side by side which work without any remote control. They allow increasing the normal pool of the dam without compromising the security of the dam because they are designed to be gradually evacuated for exceptional events. They work as fixed weir at times by allowing over-flow for common floods.

 

The spillway can be gradually eroded by water flow, including cavitation or turbulence of the water flowing over the spillway, leading to its failure. It was the inadequate design of the spillway which led to the 1889 over-topping of the South Fork Dam in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, resulting in the infamous Johnstown Flood (the "great flood of 1889").

 

Erosion rates are often monitored, and the risk is ordinarily minimized, by shaping the downstream face of the spillway into a curve that minimizes turbulent flow, such as an ogee curve.

 

LOCATION

One of the best places for building a dam is a narrow part of a deep river valley; the valley sides can then act as natural walls. The primary function of the dam's structure is to fill the gap in the natural reservoir line left by the stream channel. The sites are usually those where the gap becomes a minimum for the required storage capacity. The most economical arrangement is often a composite structure such as a masonry dam flanked by earth embankments. The current use of the land to be flooded should be dispensable.

 

Significant other engineering and engineering geology considerations when building a dam include:

 

permeability of the surrounding rock or soil

earthquake faults

landslides and slope stability

water table

peak flood flows

reservoir silting

environmental impacts on river fisheries, forests and wildlife (see also fish ladder)

impacts on human habitations

compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement

removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir area

 

IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Impact is assessed in several ways: the benefits to human society arising from the dam (agriculture, water, damage prevention and power), harm or benefit to nature and wildlife, impact on the geology of an area – whether the change to water flow and levels will increase or decrease stability, and the disruption to human lives (relocation, loss of archeological or cultural matters underwater).

 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Reservoirs held behind dams affect many ecological aspects of a river. Rivers topography and dynamics depend on a wide range of flows whilst rivers below dams often experience long periods of very stable flow conditions or saw tooth flow patterns caused by releases followed by no releases. Water releases from a reservoir including that exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, and this in turn can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks; for example, the daily cyclic flow variation caused by the Glen Canyon Dam was a contributor to sand bar erosion.

 

Older dams often lack a fish ladder, which keeps many fish from moving up stream to their natural breeding grounds, causing failure of breeding cycles or blocking of migration paths. Even the presence of a fish ladder does not always prevent a reduction in fish reaching the spawning grounds upstream. In some areas, young fish ("smolt") are transported downstream by barge during parts of the year. Turbine and power-plant designs that have a lower impact upon aquatic life are an active area of research.

 

A large dam can cause the loss of entire ecospheres, including endangered and undiscovered species in the area, and the replacement of the original environment by a new inland lake.

 

Large reservoirs formed behind dams have been indicated in the contribution of seismic activity, due to changes in water load and/or the height of the water table.

 

Dams are also found to have a role in the increase of global warming. The changing water levels in dams and in reservoirs are one of the main sources for green house gas like methane. While dams and the water behind them cover only a small portion of earth's surface, they harbour biological activity that can produce large amounts of greenhouse gases.

 

HUMAN SOCIAL IMPACT

The impact on human society is also significant. Nick Cullather argues in Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia that dam construction requires the state to displace individual people in the name of the common good, and that it often leads to abuses of the masses by planners. He cites Morarji Desai, Interior Minister of India, in 1960 speaking to villagers upset about the Pong Dam, who threatened to "release the waters" and drown the villagers if they did not cooperate.

 

For example, the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China is more than five times the size of the Hoover Dam (U.S.), and will create a reservoir 600 km long to be used for hydro-power generation. Its construction required the loss of over a million people's homes and their mass relocation, the loss of many valuable archaeological and cultural sites, as well as significant ecological change. It is estimated that to date, 40–80 million people worldwide have been physically displaced from their homes as a result of dam construction.

 

ECONOMICS

Construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead-time for site studies, hydrological studies, and environmental impact assessments, and are large-scale projects by comparison to traditional power generation based upon fossil fuels. The number of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited; new sites tend to be far from population centers and usually require extensive power transmission lines. Hydroelectric generation can be vulnerable to major changes in the climate, including variations in rainfall, ground and surface water levels, and glacial melt, causing additional expenditure for the extra capacity to ensure sufficient power is available in low-water years.

 

Once completed, if it is well designed and maintained, a hydroelectric power source is usually comparatively cheap and reliable. It has no fuel and low escape risk, and as an alternative energy source it is cheaper than both nuclear and wind power. It is more easily regulated to store water as needed and generate high power levels on demand compared to wind power.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. The reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but provide water for various needs to include irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.

 

The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, as seen in the names of many old cities.

 

ANCIENT DAMS

Early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the water level, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and could be quite unpredictable.

 

The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, 100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman. This gravity dam featured an originally 9 m high and 1 m wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC.

 

The Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC. as a diversion dam for flood control, but was destroyed by heavy rain during construction or shortly afterwards. During the XIIth dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III and Amenmehat IV dug a canal 16 km long linking the Fayum Depression to the Nile in Middle Egypt. Two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called "Mer-wer" or Lake Moeris covered 1700 square kilometers and is known today as Berkat Qaroun.

 

By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern day India, was built. The system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it.

 

Eflatun Pinar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC.

 

The Kallanai is constructed of unhewn stone, over 300 m long, 4.5 m high and 20 m wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri river in Tamil Nadu, South India. The basic structure dates to the 2nd century AD and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in use. The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile Delta region for irrigation via canals.

 

Du Jiang Yan is the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was finished in 251 BC. A large earthen dam, made by the Prime Minister of Chu (state), Sunshu Ao, flooded a valley in modern-day northern Anhui province that created an enormous irrigation reservoir 100 km in circumference), a reservoir that is still present today.

 

ROMAN ENGINEERING

Roman dam construction was characterized by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a grand scale". Roman planners introduced the then novel concept of large reservoir dams which could secure a permanent water supply for urban settlements also over the dry season. Their pioneering use of water-proof hydraulic mortar and particularly Roman concrete allowed for much larger dam structures than previously built, such as the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to that date, and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam was the Subiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of 50 m remained unsurpassed until its accidental destruction in 1305.

 

Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity dams. Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam designs which had been unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams and multiple arch buttress dams, all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as the Bridge of Valerian in Iran.

 

In Iran, bridge dams such as the Band-e Kaisar were used to provide hydropower through water wheels, which often powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam bridge in Dezful, which could raise water 50 cubits in height for the water supply to all houses in the town. Also diversion dams were known. Milling dams were introduced which the Muslim engineers called the Pul-i-Bulaiti. The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world. Water was conducted from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill. In the 10th century, Al-Muqaddasi described several dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwaz was more than 910 m long, and that and it had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueducts through which it flowed into reservoirs of the city. Another one, the Band-i-Amir dam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.

 

MIDDLE AGES

In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often applied to block rivers in order to regulate the water level and to prevent the sea from entering the marsh lands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often gave rise to the respective place's names in Dutch.

 

For instance the Dutch capital Amsterdam (old name Amstelredam) started with a dam through the river Amstel in the late 12th century, and Rotterdam started with a dam through the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe Maas. The central square of Amsterdam, covering the original place of the 800 year old dam, still carries the name Dam Square or simply the Dam.

 

INDUSTRIAL ERA

The Romans were the first to build arch dams, where the reaction forces from the abutment stabilizes the structure from the external hydrostatic pressure, but it was only in the 19th century that the engineering skills and construction materials available were capable of building the first large scale arch dams.

 

Three pioneering arch dams were built around the British Empire in the early 19th century. Henry Russel of the Royal Engineers oversaw the construction of the Mir Alam dam in 1804 to supply water to the city of Hyderabad (it is still in use today). It had a height of 12 metres and consisted of 21 arches of variable span.

 

In the 1820s and 30s, Lieutenant-Colonel John By supervised the construction of the Rideau Canal in Canada near modern-day Ottawa and built a series of curved masonry dams as part of the waterway system. In particular, the Jones Falls Dam built by John Redpath, was completed in 1832 as the largest dam in North America and an engineering marvel. In order to keep the water in control during construction, two sluices, artificial channels for conducting water, were kept open in the dam. The first was near the base of the dam on its east side. A second sluice was put in on the west side of the dam, about 6 metres above the base. To make the switch from the lower to upper sluice, the outlet of Sand Lake was blocked off.

 

Hunts Creek near the City of Parramatta, Australia was dammed in the 1850s, to cater for the demand for water from the growing population of the city. The masonry arch dam wall was designed by Lieutenant Percy Simpson who was influenced by the advances in dam engineering techniques made by the Royal Engineers in India. The dam cost £17,000 and was completed in 1856 as the first engineered dam built in Australia, and the second arch dam in the world built to mathematical specifications.

 

The first such dam was opened two years earlier in France. It was also the first French arch dam of the industrial era, and it was built by François Zola in the municipality of Aix-en-Provence to improve the supply of water after the 1832 cholera outbreak devastated the area. After royal approval was granted in 1844, the dam was constructed over the following decade. Its construction was carried out on the basis of the mathematical results of scientific stress analysis.

 

The 75-miles dam near Warwick, Australia was possibly the world's first concrete arch dam. Designed by Henry Charles Stanley in 1880 with an overflow spillway and a special water outlet, it was eventually heightened to 10 meters.

 

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, significant advances in the scientific theory of masonry dam design were made. This transformed dam design, from an art based on empirical methodology to a profession based on a rigorously applied scientific theoretical framework. This new emphasis was centered around the engineering faculties of universities in France and in the United Kingdom. William John Macquorn Rankine at the University of Glasgow pioneered the theoretical understanding of dam structures in his 1857 paper On the Stability of Loose Earth. Rankine theory provided a good understanding of the principles behind dam design. In France, J. Augustin Tortene de Sazilly explained the mechanics of vertically faced masonry gravity dams and Zola's dam was the first to be built on the basis of these principles.

 

LARGE DAMS

The era of large dams was initiated with the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in Egypt in 1902, a gravity masonry buttress dam on the Nile River. Following their 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the British began construction in 1898. The project was designed by Sir William Willcocks and involved several eminent engineers of the time, including Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Aird, whose firm, John Aird & Co., was the main contractor. Capital and financing were furnished by Ernest Cassel. When initially constructed between 1899 and 1902, nothing of its scale had ever been attempted; on completion, it was the largest masonry dam in the world.

 

The Hoover Dam was a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, constructed in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the US states of Arizona and Nevada between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression. In 1928, Congress authorized the project to build a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc.. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The torrid summer weather and the lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on 1 March 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.

 

By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over 15 m high.

 

TYPES OF DAMS

Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.

 

BY STRUCTURE

Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as easily created without materials, arch-gravity dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.

 

ARCH DAMS

In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock. The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

 

Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constant-radius dam. The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept a constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels are taken care of by varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam is a constant-angle arch dam.

 

A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City, Nevada in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as viewed from downstream.

 

The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Québec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the hollow gravity type, but requires good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.

 

GRAVITY DAMS

In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earth's gravity pulling down on the mass of the dam. The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side of the dam). The dam's weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe. The designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the dam's weight wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is true whenever the resultant of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the dam acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam.

 

Furthermore, the designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to consider the part of dam above any particular height to be a whole dam itself, that dam also would be held in place by gravity. i.e. there is no tension in the upstream face of the dam holding the top of the dam down. The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam of material essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together against vertical tension.

 

Note that the shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also eliminates a balancing compression stress in the downstream face, providing additional economy.

 

For this type of dam, it is essential to have an impervious foundation with high bearing strength.

 

When situated on a suitable site, a gravity dam can prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams. When built on a carefully studied foundation, the gravity dam probably represents the best developed example of dam building. Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions, gravity dams are being built in some instances where an arch dam would have been more economical.

 

Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry. The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Braddock Locks & Dam is a hollow gravity dam.

 

ARCH-GRAVITY DAMS

A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive amounts of water flow but less material available for a purely gravity dam. The inward compression of the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam. Thus, the gravitation force required by the dam is lessened, i.e. the dam does not need to be so massive. This enables thinner dams and saves resources.

 

BARRAGES

A barrage dam is a special kind of dam which consists of a line of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing the dam. The gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for supporting the water load, and are often used to control and stabilize water flow for irrigation systems.

 

Barrages that are built at the mouth of rivers or lagoons to prevent tidal incursions or utilize the tidal flow for tidal power are known as tidal barrages.

 

EMBARKMENT DAM

Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like gravity dams made from concrete.

 

ROCK-FILL DAM

Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a high percentage of large particles hence the term rock-fill. The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry, concrete, plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which case it is referred to as a core. In the instances where clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam is referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is New Melones Dam in California.

 

A core that is growing in popularity is asphalt concrete. The majority of such dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the main fill material. Almost 100 dams of this design have now been built worldwide since the first such dam was completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete core dams built so far have an excellent performance record. The type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plasticmaterial that can adjust to the movements and deformations imposed on the embankment as a whole, and to settlements in the foundation. The flexible properties of the asphalt make such dams especially suited in earthquake regions.

 

CONCRETE-FACE ROCK-FILL DAMS

A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design offers the concrete slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without concern for uplift pressure. In addition, the CFRD design is flexible for topography, faster to construct and less costly than earth-fill dams. The CFRD originated during the California Gold Rush in the 1860s when miners constructed rock-fill timber-face dams for sluice operations. The timber was later replaced by concrete as the design was applied to irrigation and power schemes. As CFRD designs grew in height during the 1960s, the fill was compacted and the slab's horizontal and vertical joints were replaced with improved vertical joints. In the last few decades, the design has become popular.[42] Currently, the tallest CFRD in the world is the 233 m (764 ft) tall Shuibuya Dam in China which was completed in 2008.

 

EARTH-FILL DAMS

Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a locally plentiful shell with a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the integrity of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam to maintain a watertight region of permafrost within it.

 

Tarbela Dam is a large dam on the Indus River in Pakistan. It is located about 50 km northwest of Islamabad, and a height of 148 m above the river bed and a reservoir size of 250 km2 makes it the largest earth filled dam in the world. The principal element of the project is an embankment 2,700 metres long with a maximum height of 142 metres. The total volume of earth and rock used for the project is approximately 152.8 million cu. Meters which makes it one of the largest man made structure in the world.

 

Because earthen dams can be constructed from materials found on-site or nearby, they can be very cost-effective in regions where the cost of producing or bringing in concrete would be prohibitive.

 

BY SIZE

International standards (including International Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD) define large dams as higher than 15 meters and major dams as over 150 metres in height. The Report of the World Commission on Dams also includes in the large category, dams, such as barrages, which are between 5 and 15 metres high with a reservoir capacity of more than 3 million cubic metres.

 

The tallest dam in the world is the 300-metre high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.

 

BY USE

SADDLE DAM

A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or saddle through which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake. This is similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding.

 

WEIR

A weir (also sometimes called an overflow dam) is a type of small overflow dam that is often used within a river channel to create an impoundment lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow measurement or retardation.

 

CHECK DAM

A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.

 

DRA DAM

A dry dam also known as a flood retarding structure, is a dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and allows the channel to flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream.

 

DIVERSIONARY DAM

A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course. The water may be redirected into a canal or tunnel for irrigation and/or hydroelectric power production.

 

UNDERGROUND DAM

Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it below the surface for extended use in a localized area. In some cases they are also built to prevent saltwater from intruding into a freshwater aquifer. Underground dams are typically constructed in areas where water resources are minimal and need to be efficiently stored, such as in deserts and on islands like the Fukuzato Dam in Okinawa, Japan. They are most common in northeastern Africa and the arid areas of Brazil while also being used in the southwestern United States, Mexico, India, Germany, Italy, Greece, France and Japan.

 

There are two types of underground dams: a sub-surface and a sand-storage dam. A sub-surface dam is built across an aquifer or drainage route from an impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up to just below the surface. They can be constructed of a variety of materials to include bricks, stones, concrete, steel or PVC. Once built, the water stored behind the dam raises the water table and is then extracted with wells. A sand-storage dam is a weir built in stages across a stream or wadi. It must be strong as floods will wash over its crest. Over time sand accumulates in layers behind the dam which helps store water and most importantly, prevent evaporation. The stored water can be extracted with a well, through the dam body, or by means of a drain pipe.

 

TAILING DAM

A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store tailings — which are produced during mining operations after separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore. Conventional water retention dams can serve this purpose but due to cost, a tailings dam is more viable. Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the life of the particular mine. Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed and as it fills with a mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material used to raise the dam can include the tailings (depending on their size) along with dirt.

 

There are three raised tailings dam designs, the upstream, downstream and centerline, named according to the movement of the crest during raising. The specific design used it dependent upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings and cost. An upstream tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of another, moving the crest further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment. The downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill and crest further downstream. A centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly on top of another while fill is placed on the downstream side for support and slurry supports the upstream side.

 

Because tailings dams often store toxic chemicals from the mining process, they have an impervious liner to prevent seepage. Water/slurry levels in the tailings pond must be managed for stability and environmental purposes as well.

 

BY MATERIAL

STEEL DAMS

A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with in around the start of the 20th century which uses steel plating (at an angle) and load bearing beams as the structure. Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an (arguably failed) experiment to determine if a construction technique could be devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams.

 

TIMBER DAMS

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times because of relatively short lifespan and limited height to which they can be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet in order to maintain their water retention properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical to build are those where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber dams were once numerous, especially in the North American west, but most have failed, been hidden under earth embankments, or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank.

 

Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log house and the interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float logs downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

 

Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction methods utilizing heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks.

 

OTHER TYPES

COFFERDAMS

A cofferdam is a barrier, usually temporary, constructed to exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete, or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures. When the project is completed, the cofferdam will usually be demolished or removed unless the area requires continuous maintenance. See also causeway and retaining wall. Common uses for cofferdams include construction and repair of off shore oil platforms. In such cases the cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into the space, displacing the water and allowing a dry work environment below the surface.

 

NATURAL DAMS

Dams can also be created by natural geological forces. Volcanic dams are formed when lava flows, often basaltic, intercept the path of a stream or lake outlet, resulting in the creation of a natural impoundment. An example would be the eruptions of the Uinkaret volcanic field about 1.8 million–10,000 years ago, which created lava dams on the Colorado River in northern Arizona in the United States. The largest such lake grew to about 800 kilometres in length before the failure of its dam. Glacial activity can also form natural dams, such as the damming of the Clark Fork in Montana by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which formed the 7,780 km2 Glacial Lake Missoula near the end of the last Ice Age. Moraine deposits left behind by glaciers can also dam rivers to form lakes, such as at Flathead Lake, also in Montana (see Moraine-dammed lake).

 

Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create landslide dams in mountainous regions with unstable local geology. Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m high, it is the tallest dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams. A more recent example would be the creation of Attabad Lake by a landslide on Pakistan's Hunza River.

 

Natural dams often pose significant hazards to human settlements and infrastructure. The resulting lakes often flood inhabited areas, while a catastrophic failure of the dam could cause even greater damage, such as the failure of western Wyoming's Gros Ventre landslide dam in 1927, which wiped out the town of Kelly and resulted in the deaths of six people.

 

BEAVER DAMS

Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of land, beavers can navigate below or near the surface and remain relatively well hidden or protected from predators. The flooded region also allows beavers access to food, especially during the winter.

 

CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS

POWER GENERATION PLANT

As of 2005, hydroelectric power, mostly from dams, supplies some 19% of the world's electricity, and over 63% of renewable energy. Much of this is generated by large dams, although China uses small scale hydro generation on a wide scale and is responsible for about 50% of world use of this type of power.

 

Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator; to boost the power generation capabilities of a dam, the water may be run through a large pipe called a penstock before the turbine. A variant on this simple model uses pumped storage hydroelectricity to produce electricity to match periods of high and low demand, by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine.

 

SPILLWAYS

A spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the upstream side of a dam to the downstream side. Many spillways have floodgates designed to control the flow through the spillway. Types of spillway include: A service spillway or primary spillway passes normal flow. An auxiliary spillway releases flow in excess of the capacity of the service spillway. An emergency spillway is designed for extreme conditions, such as a serious malfunction of the service spillway. A fuse plug spillway is a low embankment designed to be over topped and washed away in the event of a large flood. The elements of a fuse plug are independent free-standing blocks, set side by side which work without any remote control. They allow increasing the normal pool of the dam without compromising the security of the dam because they are designed to be gradually evacuated for exceptional events. They work as fixed weir at times by allowing over-flow for common floods.

 

The spillway can be gradually eroded by water flow, including cavitation or turbulence of the water flowing over the spillway, leading to its failure. It was the inadequate design of the spillway which led to the 1889 over-topping of the South Fork Dam in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, resulting in the infamous Johnstown Flood (the "great flood of 1889").

 

Erosion rates are often monitored, and the risk is ordinarily minimized, by shaping the downstream face of the spillway into a curve that minimizes turbulent flow, such as an ogee curve.

 

LOCATION

One of the best places for building a dam is a narrow part of a deep river valley; the valley sides can then act as natural walls. The primary function of the dam's structure is to fill the gap in the natural reservoir line left by the stream channel. The sites are usually those where the gap becomes a minimum for the required storage capacity. The most economical arrangement is often a composite structure such as a masonry dam flanked by earth embankments. The current use of the land to be flooded should be dispensable.

 

Significant other engineering and engineering geology considerations when building a dam include:

 

permeability of the surrounding rock or soil

earthquake faults

landslides and slope stability

water table

peak flood flows

reservoir silting

environmental impacts on river fisheries, forests and wildlife (see also fish ladder)

impacts on human habitations

compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement

removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir area

 

IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Impact is assessed in several ways: the benefits to human society arising from the dam (agriculture, water, damage prevention and power), harm or benefit to nature and wildlife, impact on the geology of an area – whether the change to water flow and levels will increase or decrease stability, and the disruption to human lives (relocation, loss of archeological or cultural matters underwater).

 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Reservoirs held behind dams affect many ecological aspects of a river. Rivers topography and dynamics depend on a wide range of flows whilst rivers below dams often experience long periods of very stable flow conditions or saw tooth flow patterns caused by releases followed by no releases. Water releases from a reservoir including that exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, and this in turn can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks; for example, the daily cyclic flow variation caused by the Glen Canyon Dam was a contributor to sand bar erosion.

 

Older dams often lack a fish ladder, which keeps many fish from moving up stream to their natural breeding grounds, causing failure of breeding cycles or blocking of migration paths. Even the presence of a fish ladder does not always prevent a reduction in fish reaching the spawning grounds upstream. In some areas, young fish ("smolt") are transported downstream by barge during parts of the year. Turbine and power-plant designs that have a lower impact upon aquatic life are an active area of research.

 

A large dam can cause the loss of entire ecospheres, including endangered and undiscovered species in the area, and the replacement of the original environment by a new inland lake.

 

Large reservoirs formed behind dams have been indicated in the contribution of seismic activity, due to changes in water load and/or the height of the water table.

 

Dams are also found to have a role in the increase of global warming. The changing water levels in dams and in reservoirs are one of the main sources for green house gas like methane. While dams and the water behind them cover only a small portion of earth's surface, they harbour biological activity that can produce large amounts of greenhouse gases.

 

HUMAN SOCIAL IMPACT

The impact on human society is also significant. Nick Cullather argues in Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia that dam construction requires the state to displace individual people in the name of the common good, and that it often leads to abuses of the masses by planners. He cites Morarji Desai, Interior Minister of India, in 1960 speaking to villagers upset about the Pong Dam, who threatened to "release the waters" and drown the villagers if they did not cooperate.

 

For example, the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China is more than five times the size of the Hoover Dam (U.S.), and will create a reservoir 600 km long to be used for hydro-power generation. Its construction required the loss of over a million people's homes and their mass relocation, the loss of many valuable archaeological and cultural sites, as well as significant ecological change. It is estimated that to date, 40–80 million people worldwide have been physically displaced from their homes as a result of dam construction.

 

ECONOMICS

Construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead-time for site studies, hydrological studies, and environmental impact assessments, and are large-scale projects by comparison to traditional power generation based upon fossil fuels. The number of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited; new sites tend to be far from population centers and usually require extensive power transmission lines. Hydroelectric generation can be vulnerable to major changes in the climate, including variations in rainfall, ground and surface water levels, and glacial melt, causing additional expenditure for the extra capacity to ensure sufficient power is available in low-water years.

 

Once completed, if it is well designed and maintained, a hydroelectric power source is usually comparatively cheap and reliable. It has no fuel and low escape risk, and as an alternative energy source it is cheaper than both nuclear and wind power. It is more easily regulated to store water as needed and generate high power levels on demand compared to wind power.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. The reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but provide water for various needs to include irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.

 

The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, as seen in the names of many old cities.

 

ANCIENT DAMS

Early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the water level, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and could be quite unpredictable.

 

The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, 100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman. This gravity dam featured an originally 9 m high and 1 m wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC.

 

The Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC. as a diversion dam for flood control, but was destroyed by heavy rain during construction or shortly afterwards. During the XIIth dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III and Amenmehat IV dug a canal 16 km long linking the Fayum Depression to the Nile in Middle Egypt. Two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called "Mer-wer" or Lake Moeris covered 1700 square kilometers and is known today as Berkat Qaroun.

 

By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern day India, was built. The system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it.

 

Eflatun Pinar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC.

 

The Kallanai is constructed of unhewn stone, over 300 m long, 4.5 m high and 20 m wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri river in Tamil Nadu, South India. The basic structure dates to the 2nd century AD and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in use. The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile Delta region for irrigation via canals.

 

Du Jiang Yan is the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was finished in 251 BC. A large earthen dam, made by the Prime Minister of Chu (state), Sunshu Ao, flooded a valley in modern-day northern Anhui province that created an enormous irrigation reservoir 100 km in circumference), a reservoir that is still present today.

 

ROMAN ENGINEERING

Roman dam construction was characterized by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a grand scale". Roman planners introduced the then novel concept of large reservoir dams which could secure a permanent water supply for urban settlements also over the dry season. Their pioneering use of water-proof hydraulic mortar and particularly Roman concrete allowed for much larger dam structures than previously built, such as the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to that date, and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam was the Subiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of 50 m remained unsurpassed until its accidental destruction in 1305.

 

Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity dams. Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam designs which had been unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams and multiple arch buttress dams, all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as the Bridge of Valerian in Iran.

 

In Iran, bridge dams such as the Band-e Kaisar were used to provide hydropower through water wheels, which often powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam bridge in Dezful, which could raise water 50 cubits in height for the water supply to all houses in the town. Also diversion dams were known. Milling dams were introduced which the Muslim engineers called the Pul-i-Bulaiti. The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world. Water was conducted from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill. In the 10th century, Al-Muqaddasi described several dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwaz was more than 910 m long, and that and it had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueducts through which it flowed into reservoirs of the city. Another one, the Band-i-Amir dam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.

 

MIDDLE AGES

In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often applied to block rivers in order to regulate the water level and to prevent the sea from entering the marsh lands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often gave rise to the respective place's names in Dutch.

 

For instance the Dutch capital Amsterdam (old name Amstelredam) started with a dam through the river Amstel in the late 12th century, and Rotterdam started with a dam through the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe Maas. The central square of Amsterdam, covering the original place of the 800 year old dam, still carries the name Dam Square or simply the Dam.

 

INDUSTRIAL ERA

The Romans were the first to build arch dams, where the reaction forces from the abutment stabilizes the structure from the external hydrostatic pressure, but it was only in the 19th century that the engineering skills and construction materials available were capable of building the first large scale arch dams.

 

Three pioneering arch dams were built around the British Empire in the early 19th century. Henry Russel of the Royal Engineers oversaw the construction of the Mir Alam dam in 1804 to supply water to the city of Hyderabad (it is still in use today). It had a height of 12 metres and consisted of 21 arches of variable span.

 

In the 1820s and 30s, Lieutenant-Colonel John By supervised the construction of the Rideau Canal in Canada near modern-day Ottawa and built a series of curved masonry dams as part of the waterway system. In particular, the Jones Falls Dam built by John Redpath, was completed in 1832 as the largest dam in North America and an engineering marvel. In order to keep the water in control during construction, two sluices, artificial channels for conducting water, were kept open in the dam. The first was near the base of the dam on its east side. A second sluice was put in on the west side of the dam, about 6 metres above the base. To make the switch from the lower to upper sluice, the outlet of Sand Lake was blocked off.

 

Hunts Creek near the City of Parramatta, Australia was dammed in the 1850s, to cater for the demand for water from the growing population of the city. The masonry arch dam wall was designed by Lieutenant Percy Simpson who was influenced by the advances in dam engineering techniques made by the Royal Engineers in India. The dam cost £17,000 and was completed in 1856 as the first engineered dam built in Australia, and the second arch dam in the world built to mathematical specifications.

 

The first such dam was opened two years earlier in France. It was also the first French arch dam of the industrial era, and it was built by François Zola in the municipality of Aix-en-Provence to improve the supply of water after the 1832 cholera outbreak devastated the area. After royal approval was granted in 1844, the dam was constructed over the following decade. Its construction was carried out on the basis of the mathematical results of scientific stress analysis.

 

The 75-miles dam near Warwick, Australia was possibly the world's first concrete arch dam. Designed by Henry Charles Stanley in 1880 with an overflow spillway and a special water outlet, it was eventually heightened to 10 meters.

 

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, significant advances in the scientific theory of masonry dam design were made. This transformed dam design, from an art based on empirical methodology to a profession based on a rigorously applied scientific theoretical framework. This new emphasis was centered around the engineering faculties of universities in France and in the United Kingdom. William John Macquorn Rankine at the University of Glasgow pioneered the theoretical understanding of dam structures in his 1857 paper On the Stability of Loose Earth. Rankine theory provided a good understanding of the principles behind dam design. In France, J. Augustin Tortene de Sazilly explained the mechanics of vertically faced masonry gravity dams and Zola's dam was the first to be built on the basis of these principles.

 

LARGE DAMS

The era of large dams was initiated with the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in Egypt in 1902, a gravity masonry buttress dam on the Nile River. Following their 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the British began construction in 1898. The project was designed by Sir William Willcocks and involved several eminent engineers of the time, including Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Aird, whose firm, John Aird & Co., was the main contractor. Capital and financing were furnished by Ernest Cassel. When initially constructed between 1899 and 1902, nothing of its scale had ever been attempted; on completion, it was the largest masonry dam in the world.

 

The Hoover Dam was a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, constructed in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the US states of Arizona and Nevada between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression. In 1928, Congress authorized the project to build a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc.. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The torrid summer weather and the lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on 1 March 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.

 

By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over 15 m high.

 

TYPES OF DAMS

Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.

 

BY STRUCTURE

Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as easily created without materials, arch-gravity dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.

 

ARCH DAMS

In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock. The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

 

Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constant-radius dam. The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept a constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels are taken care of by varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam is a constant-angle arch dam.

 

A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City, Nevada in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as viewed from downstream.

 

The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Québec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the hollow gravity type, but requires good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.

 

GRAVITY DAMS

In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earth's gravity pulling down on the mass of the dam. The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side of the dam). The dam's weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe. The designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the dam's weight wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is true whenever the resultant of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the dam acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam.

 

Furthermore, the designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to consider the part of dam above any particular height to be a whole dam itself, that dam also would be held in place by gravity. i.e. there is no tension in the upstream face of the dam holding the top of the dam down. The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam of material essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together against vertical tension.

 

Note that the shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also eliminates a balancing compression stress in the downstream face, providing additional economy.

 

For this type of dam, it is essential to have an impervious foundation with high bearing strength.

 

When situated on a suitable site, a gravity dam can prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams. When built on a carefully studied foundation, the gravity dam probably represents the best developed example of dam building. Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions, gravity dams are being built in some instances where an arch dam would have been more economical.

 

Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry. The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Braddock Locks & Dam is a hollow gravity dam.

 

ARCH-GRAVITY DAMS

A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive amounts of water flow but less material available for a purely gravity dam. The inward compression of the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam. Thus, the gravitation force required by the dam is lessened, i.e. the dam does not need to be so massive. This enables thinner dams and saves resources.

 

BARRAGES

A barrage dam is a special kind of dam which consists of a line of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing the dam. The gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for supporting the water load, and are often used to control and stabilize water flow for irrigation systems.

 

Barrages that are built at the mouth of rivers or lagoons to prevent tidal incursions or utilize the tidal flow for tidal power are known as tidal barrages.

 

EMBARKMENT DAM

Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like gravity dams made from concrete.

 

ROCK-FILL DAM

Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a high percentage of large particles hence the term rock-fill. The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry, concrete, plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which case it is referred to as a core. In the instances where clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam is referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is New Melones Dam in California.

 

A core that is growing in popularity is asphalt concrete. The majority of such dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the main fill material. Almost 100 dams of this design have now been built worldwide since the first such dam was completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete core dams built so far have an excellent performance record. The type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plasticmaterial that can adjust to the movements and deformations imposed on the embankment as a whole, and to settlements in the foundation. The flexible properties of the asphalt make such dams especially suited in earthquake regions.

 

CONCRETE-FACE ROCK-FILL DAMS

A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design offers the concrete slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without concern for uplift pressure. In addition, the CFRD design is flexible for topography, faster to construct and less costly than earth-fill dams. The CFRD originated during the California Gold Rush in the 1860s when miners constructed rock-fill timber-face dams for sluice operations. The timber was later replaced by concrete as the design was applied to irrigation and power schemes. As CFRD designs grew in height during the 1960s, the fill was compacted and the slab's horizontal and vertical joints were replaced with improved vertical joints. In the last few decades, the design has become popular.[42] Currently, the tallest CFRD in the world is the 233 m (764 ft) tall Shuibuya Dam in China which was completed in 2008.

 

EARTH-FILL DAMS

Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a locally plentiful shell with a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the integrity of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam to maintain a watertight region of permafrost within it.

 

Tarbela Dam is a large dam on the Indus River in Pakistan. It is located about 50 km northwest of Islamabad, and a height of 148 m above the river bed and a reservoir size of 250 km2 makes it the largest earth filled dam in the world. The principal element of the project is an embankment 2,700 metres long with a maximum height of 142 metres. The total volume of earth and rock used for the project is approximately 152.8 million cu. Meters which makes it one of the largest man made structure in the world.

 

Because earthen dams can be constructed from materials found on-site or nearby, they can be very cost-effective in regions where the cost of producing or bringing in concrete would be prohibitive.

 

BY SIZE

International standards (including International Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD) define large dams as higher than 15 meters and major dams as over 150 metres in height. The Report of the World Commission on Dams also includes in the large category, dams, such as barrages, which are between 5 and 15 metres high with a reservoir capacity of more than 3 million cubic metres.

 

The tallest dam in the world is the 300-metre high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.

 

BY USE

SADDLE DAM

A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or saddle through which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake. This is similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding.

 

WEIR

A weir (also sometimes called an overflow dam) is a type of small overflow dam that is often used within a river channel to create an impoundment lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow measurement or retardation.

 

CHECK DAM

A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.

 

DRA DAM

A dry dam also known as a flood retarding structure, is a dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and allows the channel to flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream.

 

DIVERSIONARY DAM

A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course. The water may be redirected into a canal or tunnel for irrigation and/or hydroelectric power production.

 

UNDERGROUND DAM

Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it below the surface for extended use in a localized area. In some cases they are also built to prevent saltwater from intruding into a freshwater aquifer. Underground dams are typically constructed in areas where water resources are minimal and need to be efficiently stored, such as in deserts and on islands like the Fukuzato Dam in Okinawa, Japan. They are most common in northeastern Africa and the arid areas of Brazil while also being used in the southwestern United States, Mexico, India, Germany, Italy, Greece, France and Japan.

 

There are two types of underground dams: a sub-surface and a sand-storage dam. A sub-surface dam is built across an aquifer or drainage route from an impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up to just below the surface. They can be constructed of a variety of materials to include bricks, stones, concrete, steel or PVC. Once built, the water stored behind the dam raises the water table and is then extracted with wells. A sand-storage dam is a weir built in stages across a stream or wadi. It must be strong as floods will wash over its crest. Over time sand accumulates in layers behind the dam which helps store water and most importantly, prevent evaporation. The stored water can be extracted with a well, through the dam body, or by means of a drain pipe.

 

TAILING DAM

A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store tailings — which are produced during mining operations after separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore. Conventional water retention dams can serve this purpose but due to cost, a tailings dam is more viable. Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the life of the particular mine. Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed and as it fills with a mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material used to raise the dam can include the tailings (depending on their size) along with dirt.

 

There are three raised tailings dam designs, the upstream, downstream and centerline, named according to the movement of the crest during raising. The specific design used it dependent upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings and cost. An upstream tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of another, moving the crest further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment. The downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill and crest further downstream. A centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly on top of another while fill is placed on the downstream side for support and slurry supports the upstream side.

 

Because tailings dams often store toxic chemicals from the mining process, they have an impervious liner to prevent seepage. Water/slurry levels in the tailings pond must be managed for stability and environmental purposes as well.

 

BY MATERIAL

STEEL DAMS

A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with in around the start of the 20th century which uses steel plating (at an angle) and load bearing beams as the structure. Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an (arguably failed) experiment to determine if a construction technique could be devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams.

 

TIMBER DAMS

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times because of relatively short lifespan and limited height to which they can be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet in order to maintain their water retention properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical to build are those where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber dams were once numerous, especially in the North American west, but most have failed, been hidden under earth embankments, or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank.

 

Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log house and the interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float logs downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

 

Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction methods utilizing heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks.

 

OTHER TYPES

COFFERDAMS

A cofferdam is a barrier, usually temporary, constructed to exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete, or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures. When the project is completed, the cofferdam will usually be demolished or removed unless the area requires continuous maintenance. See also causeway and retaining wall. Common uses for cofferdams include construction and repair of off shore oil platforms. In such cases the cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into the space, displacing the water and allowing a dry work environment below the surface.

 

NATURAL DAMS

Dams can also be created by natural geological forces. Volcanic dams are formed when lava flows, often basaltic, intercept the path of a stream or lake outlet, resulting in the creation of a natural impoundment. An example would be the eruptions of the Uinkaret volcanic field about 1.8 million–10,000 years ago, which created lava dams on the Colorado River in northern Arizona in the United States. The largest such lake grew to about 800 kilometres in length before the failure of its dam. Glacial activity can also form natural dams, such as the damming of the Clark Fork in Montana by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which formed the 7,780 km2 Glacial Lake Missoula near the end of the last Ice Age. Moraine deposits left behind by glaciers can also dam rivers to form lakes, such as at Flathead Lake, also in Montana (see Moraine-dammed lake).

 

Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create landslide dams in mountainous regions with unstable local geology. Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m high, it is the tallest dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams. A more recent example would be the creation of Attabad Lake by a landslide on Pakistan's Hunza River.

 

Natural dams often pose significant hazards to human settlements and infrastructure. The resulting lakes often flood inhabited areas, while a catastrophic failure of the dam could cause even greater damage, such as the failure of western Wyoming's Gros Ventre landslide dam in 1927, which wiped out the town of Kelly and resulted in the deaths of six people.

 

BEAVER DAMS

Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of land, beavers can navigate below or near the surface and remain relatively well hidden or protected from predators. The flooded region also allows beavers access to food, especially during the winter.

 

CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS

POWER GENERATION PLANT

As of 2005, hydroelectric power, mostly from dams, supplies some 19% of the world's electricity, and over 63% of renewable energy. Much of this is generated by large dams, although China uses small scale hydro generation on a wide scale and is responsible for about 50% of world use of this type of power.

 

Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator; to boost the power generation capabilities of a dam, the water may be run through a large pipe called a penstock before the turbine. A variant on this simple model uses pumped storage hydroelectricity to produce electricity to match periods of high and low demand, by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine.

 

SPILLWAYS

A spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the upstream side of a dam to the downstream side. Many spillways have floodgates designed to control the flow through the spillway. Types of spillway include: A service spillway or primary spillway passes normal flow. An auxiliary spillway releases flow in excess of the capacity of the service spillway. An emergency spillway is designed for extreme conditions, such as a serious malfunction of the service spillway. A fuse plug spillway is a low embankment designed to be over topped and washed away in the event of a large flood. The elements of a fuse plug are independent free-standing blocks, set side by side which work without any remote control. They allow increasing the normal pool of the dam without compromising the security of the dam because they are designed to be gradually evacuated for exceptional events. They work as fixed weir at times by allowing over-flow for common floods.

 

The spillway can be gradually eroded by water flow, including cavitation or turbulence of the water flowing over the spillway, leading to its failure. It was the inadequate design of the spillway which led to the 1889 over-topping of the South Fork Dam in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, resulting in the infamous Johnstown Flood (the "great flood of 1889").

 

Erosion rates are often monitored, and the risk is ordinarily minimized, by shaping the downstream face of the spillway into a curve that minimizes turbulent flow, such as an ogee curve.

 

LOCATION

One of the best places for building a dam is a narrow part of a deep river valley; the valley sides can then act as natural walls. The primary function of the dam's structure is to fill the gap in the natural reservoir line left by the stream channel. The sites are usually those where the gap becomes a minimum for the required storage capacity. The most economical arrangement is often a composite structure such as a masonry dam flanked by earth embankments. The current use of the land to be flooded should be dispensable.

 

Significant other engineering and engineering geology considerations when building a dam include:

 

permeability of the surrounding rock or soil

earthquake faults

landslides and slope stability

water table

peak flood flows

reservoir silting

environmental impacts on river fisheries, forests and wildlife (see also fish ladder)

impacts on human habitations

compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement

removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir area

 

IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Impact is assessed in several ways: the benefits to human society arising from the dam (agriculture, water, damage prevention and power), harm or benefit to nature and wildlife, impact on the geology of an area – whether the change to water flow and levels will increase or decrease stability, and the disruption to human lives (relocation, loss of archeological or cultural matters underwater).

 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Reservoirs held behind dams affect many ecological aspects of a river. Rivers topography and dynamics depend on a wide range of flows whilst rivers below dams often experience long periods of very stable flow conditions or saw tooth flow patterns caused by releases followed by no releases. Water releases from a reservoir including that exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, and this in turn can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks; for example, the daily cyclic flow variation caused by the Glen Canyon Dam was a contributor to sand bar erosion.

 

Older dams often lack a fish ladder, which keeps many fish from moving up stream to their natural breeding grounds, causing failure of breeding cycles or blocking of migration paths. Even the presence of a fish ladder does not always prevent a reduction in fish reaching the spawning grounds upstream. In some areas, young fish ("smolt") are transported downstream by barge during parts of the year. Turbine and power-plant designs that have a lower impact upon aquatic life are an active area of research.

 

A large dam can cause the loss of entire ecospheres, including endangered and undiscovered species in the area, and the replacement of the original environment by a new inland lake.

 

Large reservoirs formed behind dams have been indicated in the contribution of seismic activity, due to changes in water load and/or the height of the water table.

 

Dams are also found to have a role in the increase of global warming. The changing water levels in dams and in reservoirs are one of the main sources for green house gas like methane. While dams and the water behind them cover only a small portion of earth's surface, they harbour biological activity that can produce large amounts of greenhouse gases.

 

HUMAN SOCIAL IMPACT

The impact on human society is also significant. Nick Cullather argues in Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia that dam construction requires the state to displace individual people in the name of the common good, and that it often leads to abuses of the masses by planners. He cites Morarji Desai, Interior Minister of India, in 1960 speaking to villagers upset about the Pong Dam, who threatened to "release the waters" and drown the villagers if they did not cooperate.

 

For example, the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China is more than five times the size of the Hoover Dam (U.S.), and will create a reservoir 600 km long to be used for hydro-power generation. Its construction required the loss of over a million people's homes and their mass relocation, the loss of many valuable archaeological and cultural sites, as well as significant ecological change. It is estimated that to date, 40–80 million people worldwide have been physically displaced from their homes as a result of dam construction.

 

ECONOMICS

Construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead-time for site studies, hydrological studies, and environmental impact assessments, and are large-scale projects by comparison to traditional power generation based upon fossil fuels. The number of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited; new sites tend to be far from population centers and usually require extensive power transmission lines. Hydroelectric generation can be vulnerable to major changes in the climate, including variations in rainfall, ground and surface water levels, and glacial melt, causing additional expenditure for the extra capacity to ensure sufficient power is available in low-water years.

 

Once completed, if it is well designed and maintained, a hydroelectric power source is usually comparatively cheap and reliable. It has no fuel and low escape risk, and as an alternative energy source it is cheaper than both nuclear and wind power. It is more easily regulated to store water as needed and generate high power levels on demand compared to wind power.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

We used a rubber-band powered catapult to shoot golf balls at water-filled balloons at about 33 m/s (74 mph / 119 km/h). Cavitation - the ball has punched a big hole into the water inside the balloon. In this case the balloon did not pop; instead the golf ball came back out of the ballon through the opening it had created on impact.

2016 Makers Faire, San Mateo

hydrogen, LH2, with high winds as the energy source. Recently they found ammonia. To store (wind- and sun-) energy. To store and to spread out the energy after then storm is over. So, we have an input. Spailboat, for storms and waves at sea and orbitesstrai, for high wind and storm on land. We need them and a medium like, hydrogen or, ammonia to store the energy and to spread it all out.

 

The super structure of the Spailboat is the actual invention. This implies stable sailing. The rest followed, like the wheels for dagger boards, to avoid cavition at high speed. Besides, the wheels spin, collecting the energy from the motion.

 

Bewegen houdt in dat er energie is. Een wereld zonder vervuiling kan worden gemaakt met waterstof, ammonia. Wheels spin, cuz of wind and waves at sea. Remote energy to ammonia. That is all. Wherever hydrogen, LH2, is mentioned, also ammonia can be read.

 

U ziet hoe.

Met wielen onder boten. De uitzetconstructie is de eigenlijke uitvinding. De wielen volgen vanzelf door de snelheden. Hoge snelheden door water laat het water caviteren.

 

Please, understand that holding a wing, as a kite, is essential, priority, condition, to sail in a stable way.

 

The goal is energy and super composites, carbon fibred constructions.

 

Holding "Spailboat ''''fixed'''' to the plane of the earth takes gyroscopes. So, Spailboat is like an insect. made as such, in two major ways > by means of the monocoque construction methods and the nervousness of the winged composition. 100km/hr, surprisingly easy to reach with wind surfing and kite surfing. the race circuit for a wind surfer is the line flat to the wind. ''''half wind''''

 

WATER WHEELS to avoid cavitation and to drive axis running into turbines for energy. wheels are spinned by storms, driving turbines for energy. The old wheel is seen here, under SPAILBOAT. wheels under spailboat are special swords to avoid cavitation.

 

before the airplane showed up, we called flying what birds, winged insects and bats did. already can be distinguished here, because, there are also flying fish, squirrels, frogs, snakes and the rest which I forget. the flights of flying fish, falling frogs, squirrels and snakes, are another type of flying than the birds and insects. it is for sure that for planes birds served as the example. later came the helicopter and it had been based clearly more on an insect, probably a dragonfly.

 

voordat het vliegtuig kwam, noemden we vliegen hetgeen vogels en gevleugelde insecten deden. nu al kan er onderscheid worden gemaakt, want, er zijn ook vliegende vissen, eekhoorns, kikkers, slangen en de rest die ik vergeet. de vluchten van vliegende vissen, vallende kikkers, eekhoorns en slangen, zijn een ander soort van vliegen dan de vogels en insecten. ik kan me zo voorstellen dat voor vliegtuigen vogels als voorbeeld dienden. later kwam de helikopter en die was duidelijk meer gebaseerd op een insect, een libel denk ik.

 

as from now flying is therefore presented as the flaunting piece of birds and bats. flying is in fact therefore in this context the control over the articulation of wings. to couple directly to full imagination; a swarm of birds, in a storm or, fall winds or other type turbulent air trends. another show is the flight of for example an albatross, only actively moving the wings occasionally. of course, it is best for birds to save as much energy as possible and to glide as much as they can with the wings, but, in case of a swarm in a storm, is it necessary, to fly!?

 

vanaf nu wordt vliegen dus voorgesteld als het pronkstuk van vogels. vliegen is dus in deze context eigenlijk de controle hebben over vleugels. om direct de verbeelding aan te spreken stel ik een hele zwerm vogels voor, in een storm, valwind of ander soort turbulente luchtstromingen. een andere voorstelling is de koele vlucht van bijvoorbeeld een Albatros, die zo weinig mogelijk met zijn vleugels wiekt. natuurlijk is het zaak voor vogels om zo weinig mogelijk te slaan met de vleugels, maar, in geval van een zwerm in een storm, is het nodig, om, te vliegen!?

 

So, what is in fact flying? flying is the not stationary position of wings with respect to the fuselage of the bird. because, a flying fish or a falling squirrel or flat snake fly also but, there is another source for flying than clapping the wings. a flying fish, for instance, is launched from the water by swimming speed and a falling flat snake or squirrel really do not fly to the other side, but glide over the air. and this to slide comes already in neighbourhood of what albatrosses dearest doing. from time to time clap with the wings and for the rest use the albatrosses the thermals but also, the pushed up air as a result of sea waves.

 

hier wil ik U hebben ; wat is nu eigenlijk vliegen? natuurlijk is dat hetgeen vogels doen door het wieken van de vleugels ten opzichte van de romp van de vogel. want, een vliegende vis of een vallende eekhoorn of platte slang vliegen ook wel, maar, er is ook spraken van een andere aandrijving dan de kracht van de klappende vleugels. een vliegende vis wordt als het ware uit het water afgeschoten en een vallende platte slang of eekhoorn vliegen niet echt naar de overkant, maar glijden, en dit glijden komt al in buurt van wat Albatrossen het liefste doen. af en toe een slagje om op hoogte te blijven en voor de rest gebruiken de Albatrossen de thermiek maar ook, de opgestuwde lucht als gevolg van zee golven.

dan, een vliegtuig. het stond natuurlijk groots in de krant rond, 1900AD. de mensheid kan vliegen! maar, was dat ook zo? de vleugels stonden star, zonder articulatie zoals vogels, vleermuizen en -honden en dat wel degelijk hebben, aan de romp, en van vliegen was eigenlijk geen sprake, want, het valt onder vallen, glijden, met in plaats van de zwaartekracht als aandrijvende kracht, een motor, de propeller. een vliegtuig is dus meer te vergelijken met een vallende platte slang of, die speciale eekhoorn of kikker. met andere woorden, zonder een motor, en zonder een valhoogte kunnen platte slangen, eekhoorns en, vliegtuigen, niet vliegen! een vliegtuig is dus in feite geen vliegtuig, maar een luchtglijder. zonder een motor en zonder een valhoogte kan er niet worden gevlogen door luchtglijders.

 

then, an airplane. massive in the newspaper around, 1900AD: humanity can fly! but, was this in fact the case? the airplane got airborne and covered a distance by using the air as carrier of the mass. true, of course. and in a way, we can call that phenomenon ‘’’’flying’’’’, but, of course! however, after looking closer to this kind of flying, we will see that this kind of flying is in fact more like falling or, air gliding; like flat snakes and squirrels do, when covering distance by falling. only birds, winged insects and bats can take off caused by the motion of the wings with respect to the fuselage. the wings at the fuselage of an airplane are without articulation, such as birds have indeed. so, flying, like birds do, was in fact not copied. flying, gliding, like airplanes do, without wings articulated to the fuselages, need a propeller or, compulsion other than the motion of the wings with respect to the fuselage and therefore it falls under, falling, or, gliding; like the flat snakes and squirrels do when falling, gliding over the air beneath, from one tree to another or, in any way a point lower than take off height. So, without wings actively used for airborne power, the flying of airplanes falls under: falling, gliding, with, instead of the gravitation as operating strength for the earlier mentioned air gliders, such as flat snakes and squirrels, an engine; the aircraft’s propeller. an air plane, which uses compulsion other than the movements of the wings with respect to the fuselage, is, therefore, to compare with falling flat snakes or, special flying squirrels or, special flying frogs; the last with those nice toes spreading out creating so a fall screen. in other words, without an engine and without a fall altitude, the airplanes fly like flat snakes, squirrels and those nice frogs. not like a bird, at all! an airplane is therefore in fact not a flying thing, but an air glider. without an engine and, without a falling height, so, without a ‘’’’pull’’’’, air gliders cannot be flown.

 

laat staan dat er met een zwerm vliegtuigen kan worden gevlogen in een storm, want, dat noem ik nu vliegen! of beter, de kunst van vliegen. windsurfers en kitesurfers, daarentegen, kunnen dat wel. ze vliegen soms ook zelfs alhoewel dit ook gebeurt door middel van een aanvangssnelheid; net als een vliegende vis in feite. het gemaakte punt is dus deze: windsurfers en kitesurfers hebben vleugels die gearticuleerd zijn ten opzichte van de romp, respectievelijk voortgang van het board. articulatie is dat de vleugels niet star zijn verbonden met de romp.

 

and then, what about a swarm flying airplanes, only inches apart from each other, in a storm or, in turbulent airflows or under fall winds? I mean, that is what I want to call flying! anticipating by means of articulating the wings with respect to the bodies and so, also anticipating with respect to the other birds in the swarm and at the same time with respect to the always differing motions of the air in storms. wind - and kite surfers, on the other hand, can do this, very well in fact. the participation on the ever changing angles of attack in the wings is also done with the articulation of the wings, sails, with respect to the hulls, fuselages, bodies, boards. wind - and kite surfing are therefore bird-like. the triviality now comes with this: also wind - and kite surfers do, sometimes, cover distances through air; which was called flying in the first place, but, in this new definition this kind of flying is air gliding indeed! the actual flying prior to the ‘’’’jump’’’’ is the wind surfing; just like a flying fish uses the swimming just before the air glide. these flying fish cannot wing themselves up to keep on flying for a long time. And neither can snakes, squirrels and frogs. this kind of flying is therefore in fact, not flying, but, gliding on air. the point is therefore: wind - and kite surfers have wings which are articulated with respect to the fuselage, respectively to the board. articulation is that the wings are not rigidly linked with the fuselage but with ball-and-sockets.

 

en, wind- en kitesurfers hebben geen motor en ook geen valhoogte waardoor glijden vervalt en plaats maakt voor, vliegen!? een vliegtuig vliegt dus niet maar glijdt terwijl wind- en kitesurfers wel als vogels vliegen. als dan mijn verhaal is inbegrepen in deze positionering. vliegen door vogels wordt gedaan door de articulatie van de vleugels en wind- en kitesurfen ook.

 

wind - and kite surfing are because of this articulation difficult. so difficult indeed, that, not all can do it; even if they try real hard. there is a kind of talent needed. right away crystals the point: sailing a sailing boat and flying an airplane are so much easier than actively articulating wings by hand, and, so, the brain of the human! skill brings energy, whereas we used to use brutal power. it is war against peace after all. much more effort is to do for peace, than for war, easy. war is stupid. this is the point all the way of course. everyone can sail and fly, but, it takes this special breed to wind surf. no fear and persistance are the first characteristics of this breed. it is therefore no surprise that wind - and kite surfing are not yet embedded in modern science, because, the art of flying is not for sale! the rich cannot buy this art, so, it is just not here. for once, this is the way the system is build up. make, sale. wind surf riggings and boards are, with respect to sailing boats, absurdly cheap and the speed to reach is no less than, 100km/hr, but still, we never see wind surfers in sailing boat regatta’s. so many times I have mentioned the revolution and this is why: sailing is going from, A, to, B. sailing was going somewhere, to make war and for trading. wind - and kite surfing are going nowhere but fast. regatta’s nearly exclude the half wind sailing course! so, there is no place for a wind surfer in regatta’s. the rules make low wind courses and high wind courses and exclude this way the entrance of wind surfing for speed. there was this song: street fighting man. the ever repeating lines were: there is no place for street fighting man. anyway, in the world the rich make is no place for wind surfing. time for a stand, call it revolution. the revolution for using the wind, notably the outcome of using oil and coals! by also planes, indeed. global warming led to more wind and higher sea waves, exactly the two to use by wind surfers. exactly, child’s play! how beautiful do you want to have it? avoiding war is to be done with child’s play. the grownups at the top rather play a different game of course, they rather go to war for oil, otherwise, their airplanes cannot glide and their cars would not run! the facts are that the population is now so big, that this world of the happy few is ending real fast. the thing is, in history these days, that we cannot make war any more over nothing, whereas the rich always had this trick in the sleeve to get rid of the young men, which were threatening the kingdoms. the rage could always be tempered, by taking the young out in a war with the neighbours. so, now the rich seek to go to war outside. bingo. game on. but, what if the children of the West gave Iran water, which is the result of burning, LH2? what if we use the human skill to make energy instead of war? and what about identical core of the message. walk away from the pyramids. paragraphs of the three most important books, where we all are called to walk away from the Pyramid? the problem we face as mankind is to straighten out a few tiny things. where in the Bible Moses doubts God, there is no doubt by Moses in the Quran. Iran, me West, give you water! please see.

instead of going to war with Iran, we can ask for a debate about this passage. and then, the Quran was written long after the Bible was partly corrupted by the Catholics, so that it makes sense that God came back to tell the story again, in plain terms. this is the issue of modern mankind. the differences in interpretation of what God, Allah, meant. the problem is not oil, as I showed you earlier, the problem with energy is that the rich cannot buy the skill to make it. on the other hand is oil for flying for sale, so that energy is a matter of skill. mankind is brutal and this proves this point. flying, well, now called, air gliding an airplane is a brutal act. air gliding has in fact nothing to do with flying like birds do. so, making war over oil is that too. Wind surfing for energy is the revolution of today. this means that the articulation of the wings with respect to the boards can only be coordinated and controlled by human power. and, of course, human power is the complex combination of the muscles and the brain. articulation of the wings with planes, demands : ‘’’’science’’’’, the same as articulation of guns in war is! air anti-aircraft guns, such as the goal keeper, and guns on tanks are articulated, just like the wings on the joints in the hands of the wind surfer. wind surfing is three dimensionally articulation and fall, therefore, under the war industry.

  

wind- en kitesurfen zijn dus erg moeilijk. alleen de mens zelf kan het. anders dan over de lucht glijden met vliegtuigen, vergt wind en kitesurfen de gecontroleerde articulatie van de vleugels. de '''wetenschap''' die wel goed is met articuleren is oorlog! luchtafweergeschut, zoals de goalkeeper, en de lopen van tanks worden gearticuleerd. wind- en kitesurfen vallen dus onder de oorlogsindustrie.

 

the aim is to replace the human handler of the wings by mechanics, just like in war the humans who hold the guns were replaced by tanks and air anti-aircraft guns et cetera. because, how large can the barrel of a gun be, if directly in the hands of a soldier? war for oil. peace with oil. oil is plastic, and oil is mechanical wind and kite surfer which arouse energy. the technique for war proves to be the same such as those for peace, if with the wind made speed of the wind - and kite surfer is producing energy, LH2. lalala, mass in motion, E°kinetic and then electrifying the whole santamacram for LH2, from marine water. why do you think planet earth is the blue one? and, now, imagine living somewhere else in the universe ; what do we want to look for? of course, a globe like earth. so, stop looking for life ; if there is life somewhere, they will look for us. again, space exploiration, for now, without flying saucers, are like pyramids. insane. the efforts and the sacrifices from the working people should be used for preserving planet earth. first, we unite, make peace, and, then, maybe, with flying saucers on, LH2, we can enter space. how absurd is looking for life, in space, without the proper means, while our own planet is on fire? saving this planet is, number one. again, what if we were looking for life, from far space, and we find this paradize on this planet and we encounter the mess the so called intelligent life on it has made? where is the mirror? it is like leaving your burning home, where your starving family is fighting to death with eachother, where they search desperately for the last crumble of corn and the last drop of clean water, to go to work in your Rolls Roys, and, telling your neighbours on your way out how they should live happy, where on your work place your job is looking for a new piece of land, to build a new house. So much better is to clean up ( y ) our own shit and make the harmony. I mean, what bad does a baby? it is only love that saves us. LH2_energy is water, after burning, which is food. LH2 from marine water pumps water from the oceans to land. on land we need ( sweet - ) water and we also need the sea level to drop. wheeling to paradize.

 

het doel is om de mens te vervangen als drager / behandelaar van de vleugels, net zoals in oorlog de mens werd vervangen door kanonnen en luchtafweergeschut et cetera. want, hoe groot kan een loop van een geweer nu eenmaal zijn, indien rechtstreeks in de handen van een soldaat? Hoe groot zijn die zeilen en de kites in de handen van de mens? …….. ik bedoel: toen het geweer in de handen kwam van de techniek, veranderde / vergrootte het geweer in / tot een kanon, en dus, voor vrede is het nodig dat de wind- en kitesurfzeilen in de handen van de techniek komen. dan vergroten zich de zeilen precies zo als de grootte van de geweren groter werden. en, zo, is er meer massa dat kan windsurfen. juist nodig voor energie: e_kin ~ 1 / 2 M v2 in Watts. om energie te halen uit wind is het dus zaak dat de techniek de zaak, de zeilen, onder handen neemt. de situatie in de wereld is zo dat, er weer oorlog dreigt en dat, het weer gaat om energie, getuige de schermutselingen in het Midden-Oosten. in plaats dat er slaven worden gedreven, hetgeen verbranding van fossiele brandstoffen en gebruik van kernenergie zijn, kunnen de mensen hun techniek gebruiken om energie op te wekken.

 

er is namelijk ´´´´iets´´´´ te doen (net zoals oorlog maken iets is in feite voor energie, olie) tussen de soorten van energie. aan de ene kant stormt het en aan de kant is er energie nodig. nu is die storm mede een gevolg van juist ons energie verbruik. global warming maakte de lucht dikker, warmde zo de aarde op, en de warmere wateren en dikkere lucht zorgden voor meer wind. meer wind leidt tot hogere golven. wind en golven. pak dat nu eens letterlijk op, en dan volgt: wind surf!

wind surfen gebeurt met plastic, olie dus, en zet de wind om in snelheid. Massa maal snelheid is, energie. met energie hoeven we niet naar de oorlog te gaan. het ging om olie, toch? het ging er toch om dat het volk zijn brood krijgt? LH2, of, stikstof of, elektriciteit zijn energie, het tegenwoordige brood. olie is plastic en olie is de mechanische wind- en kitesurfer die energie opwekt. oorlog is zodoende niet slim, en vrede wel. dit komt doordat windsurfen niet te koop is en olie wel. Zelfde techniek: oorlog en vrede. beide impliceren namelijk de kunst van de drie dimensionale behandeling, van ofwel een geweer ofwel een vleugel. ofwel leren vliegen als vogels is wat de mensheid moet doen, voor vrede, omdat vrede hangt om energie. via energie kan namelijk zeewater worden gezuiverd. met water kan er worden geïrrigeerd, voor voedsel voor bossen en zo meer. het lijkt me zo dat er behoefte is aan water en eten. energie. water. LH2 uit zeeewater met energe, storm.

 

the sailing is stable, feature one. and the wheels are used for swords, two. Spailing is speed sailing, so, it needed controlled wings. But, then, in a stable way. speed sailing is, so, stable sailing, with, wings held as kites, on a structure, in stead of wires alone. then, with the high speed from stable sailing [ which is, kite surfing, in fact, but, then, controlled as wind surfers hold the sails on the handle bar ] comes cavitation, because of the high velocity, through the water. wheels for swords fool the water. wheels fooled the earth first, so to speak. maglev can also fool the earth. with going to maglev layerings on land, the wheels on land will go and the wheels go on in water. what is said is that wheels, with massive axis, disappear on, land and, appear in / over the water and the sky. a flying saucer is a wheel, and / but, also a ring. ah. we called a round and rotating body : ''''a wheel''''. which is a round thing with, an axle. now, going on, over a globe, makes a looping. when construction the path we have a boulevard over the globe, a ring : a boulevard over the earth is a ring. wheels have axis and with blades coming from them, they can not turn in storm. wheels, with blades stuck directly in, composing wind turbines, can not turn in storm. while rings can have a go in storms. wind surfing and kite surfing are just over taking wind turbines. wind turbines, as we know them, are for the lower winds. the same counts for sailing boats. - the old wind users fail in storms -. handling the sails led to kite surfing. handling kite surfing is Spailboat.

 

de stormen zijn de energie om van zeewater waterstof, LH2, en water te maken.

 

the storms are the energy for making / generating / extracting, LH2, from water.

  

from going nowhere, but fast, half wind comes a ring, a boulevard. and, this is much more an invention then the wheel for round thing that might spin. a wheel is, doable, even with nothing at all, but trees and, tools to work the trees. Boulevard Wind Turbine is an accomplishment.

 

the hole in the middle of the RING / BOULEVARD WIND TURBINE forms a turbo-gap. the wingtip line makes a circle, a ring. turbo-gaps. the wings form an edge around the round gap in the center of the wind rose.

half wind moving is not a sailing course, but is, of course. wind surfers go of course! in course is, either to, A, or, B. rings with blades and gaps in the middle are from wind surfing, picture.

 

back then, we had only solid wheels, sand. solid is not construction, so, the wheels are not inventions.

energy is storms. that is all really. we needed a ring, the new wheel.

the wheel was not really an invention. sand under rocks were wheeling the rock, helping the slaves.

slaves, to drive wheels. that is what we know. so, this ring is really what we called the wheel invented. a ring came from what you see : a rig holding wings.

 

the old wheel was a tree trunck and sand.

 

oil is plastic, too. plastic and, LH2, come after steel and oil. steel and oil are, bad.

iether way.

 

a boulevard is an accomplishment.

 

the wheel was piece of wood. not really an accomplishment.

 

the wheel was a word.

 

this word includes rings, while rings are stricly something else than wheels.

 

rings have no center.

 

wheels, with axle, can not hold blades in storm.

 

wheels can, on the other hand, turn in nuclear powerplants.

 

so, the wheel must go.

 

the ring is better.

 

blades stuck in rings can turn in storms.

  

so, I invented the wheel, really.

 

the old wheel was causing a bit of trouble. it could only turn with other means than storms.

 

for using storms, the energy from global warming, we needed a ring. Windriaan, page 54.

 

laten draaien en laten draaien. hetzelfde maar toch leidt het een tot de ondergang en de ander tot oneindigheid. laat men ''''het wiel'''' draaien dan moet dit zonder wind, laat men een ring draaien, dan kan dit op storm.

 

over to the work places. after all, what engineers cook, the floor has to make it happen for real. I mean, no use in talking Latin, as Simon Stevin understood. making is simple, do not forget the vains, for letting through warm fluid.

View On Black

I lent my hoodie to him for a moment. :P

BlueEdge - Mach 8-10 Hypersonic Commercial Aircraft, 220 Passenger Hypersonic Commercial Plane - Imaginactive Media Release ICAO

 

Courtesy of Imaginactive, ICAO, Charles Bombardier, and Martin Rico. Media Release of High Quality Renderings for mainstream media.

 

IO Aircraft: www.ioaircraft.com/hypersonic/blueedge.php

Imaginactive: imaginactive.org/2019/02/blue-edge/

Martin Rico, Industrial Graphics Designed: www.linkedin.com/in/mjrico/

 

Seating: 220 | Crew 2+4

Length: 195ft | Span: 93ft

Engines: 4 U-TBCC (Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle) +1 Aerospike for sustained 2G acceleration to Mach 10.

 

Fuel: H2 (Compressed Hydrogen)

Cruising Altitude: 100,000-125,000ft

Airframe: 75% Proprietary Composites

Operating Costs, Similar to a 737. $7,000-$15,000hr, including averaged maintenence costs

 

Iteration 3 (Full release of IT3, Monday January 14, 2019)

IO Aircraft www.ioaircraft.com

Drew Blair www.linkedin.com/in/drew-b-25485312/

 

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Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle. Current technologies and what Lockheed is trying to force on the Dept of Defense, for that low speed Mach 5 plane DOD gave them $1 billion to build and would disintegrate above Mach 5, is TBCC. 2 separate propulsion systems in the same airframe, which requires TWICE the airframe space to use.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle is 1 propulsion system cutting that airframe deficit in half, and also able to operate above Mach 10 up to Mach 15 in atmosphere, and a simple nozzle modification allows for outside atmosphere rocket mode, ie orbital capable.

 

Additionally, Reaction Engines maximum air breather mode is Mach 4.5, above that it will explode in flight from internal pressures are too high to operate. Thus, must switch to non air breather rocket mode to operate in atmosphere in hypersonic velocities. Which as a result, makes it not feasible for anything practical. It also takes an immense amount of fuel to function.

 

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Advanced Additive Manufacturing for Hypersonic Aircraft

 

Utilizing new methods of fabrication and construction, make it possible to use additive manufacturing, dramatically reducing the time and costs of producing hypersonic platforms from missiles, aircraft, and space capable craft. Instead of aircraft being produced in piece, then bolted together; small platforms can be produced as a single unit and large platforms can be produces in large section and mated without bolting. These techniques include using exotic materials and advanced assembly processes, with an end result of streamlining the production costs and time for hypersonic aircraft; reducing months of assembly to weeks. Overall, this process greatly reduced the cost for producing hypersonic platforms. Even to such an extent that a Hellfire missile costs apx $100,000 but by utilizing our technologies, replacing it with a Mach 8-10 hypersonic missile of our physics/engineering and that missile would cost roughly $75,000 each delivered.

 

Materials used for these manufacturing processes are not disclosed, but overall, provides a foundation for extremely high stresses and thermodynamics, ideal for hypersonic platforms. This specific methodology and materials applications is many decades ahead of all known programs. Even to the extend of normalized space flight and re-entry, without concern of thermodynamic failure.

 

*Note, most entities that are experimenting with additive manufacturing for hypersonic aircraft, this makes it mainstream and standardized processes, which also applies for mass production.

 

What would normally be measured in years and perhaps a decade to go from drawing board to test flights, is reduced to singular months and ready for production within a year maximum.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle (U-TBCC)

 

To date, the closest that NASA and industry have achieved for turbine based aircraft to fly at hypersonic velocities is by mounting a turbine into an aircraft and sharing the inlet with a scramjet or rocket based motor. Reaction Engines Sabre is not able to achieve hypersonic velocities and can only transition into a non air breathing rocket for beyond Mach 4.5

 

However, utilizing Unified Turbine Based Combine Cycle also known as U-TBCC, the two separate platforms are able to share a common inlet and the dual mode ramjet/scramjet is contained within the engine itself, which allows for a much smaller airframe footprint, thus engingeers are able to then design much higher performance aerial platforms for hypersonic flight, including the ability for constructing true single stage to orbit aircraft by utilizing a modification/version that allows for transition to outside atmosphere propulsion without any other propulsion platforms within the aircraft. By transitioning and developing aircraft to use Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle, this propulsion system opens up new options to replace that airframe deficit for increased fuel capacity and/or payload.

 

Enhanced Dynamic Cavitation

 

Dramatically Increasing the efficiency of fuel air mixture for combustion processes at hypersonic velocities within scramjet propulsion platforms. The aspects of these processes are non disclosable.

 

Dynamic Scramjet Ignition Processes

 

For optimal scramjet ignition, a process known as Self Start is sought after, but in many cases if the platform becomes out of attitude, the scramjet will ignite. We have already solved this problem which as a result, a scramjet propulsion system can ignite at lower velocities, high velocities, at optimal attitude or not optimal attitude. It doesn't matter, it will ignite anyways at the proper point for maximum thrust capabilities at hypersonic velocities.

 

Hydrogen vs Kerosene Fuel Sources

 

Kerosene is an easy fuel to work with, and most western nations developing scramjet platforms use Kerosene for that fact. However, while kerosene has better thermal properties then Hydrogen, Hydrogen is a far superior fuel source in scramjet propulsion flight, do it having a much higher efficiency capability. Because of this aspect, in conjunction with our developments, it allows for a MUCH increased fuel to air mixture, combustion, thrust; and ability for higher speeds; instead of very low hypersonic velocities in the Mach 5-6 range. Instead, Mach 8-10 range, while we have begun developing hypersonic capabilities to exceed 15 in atmosphere within less then 5 years.

 

Conforming High Pressure Tank Technology for CNG and H2.

 

As most know in hypersonics, Hydrogen is a superior fuel source, but due to the storage abilities, can only be stored in cylinders thus much less fuel supply. Not anymore, we developed conforming high pressure storage technology for use in aerospace, automotive sectors, maritime, etc; which means any overall shape required for 8,000+ PSI CNG or Hydrogen. For hypersonic platforms, this means the ability to store a much larger volume of hydrogen vs cylinders.

 

As an example, X-43 flown by Nasa which flew at Mach 9.97. The fuel source was Hydrogen, which is extremely more volatile and combustible then kerosene (JP-7), via a cylinder in the main body. If it had used our technology, that entire section of the airframe would had been an 8,000 PSI H2 tank, which would had yielded 5-6 times the capacity. While the X-43 flew 11 seconds under power at Mach 9.97, at 6 times the fuel capacity would had yielded apx 66 seconds of fuel under power at Mach 9.97. If it had flew slower, around Mach 6, same principles applied would had yielded apx 500 seconds of fuel supply under power (slower speeds required less energy to maintain).

 

Enhanced Fuel Mixture During Shock Train Interaction

 

Normally, fuel injection is conducted at the correct insertion point within the shock train for maximum burn/combustion. Our methodologies differ, since almost half the fuel injection is conducted PRE shock train within the isolator, so at the point of isolator injection the fuel enhances the combustion process, which then requires less fuel injection to reach the same level of thrust capabilities.

 

Improved Bow Shock Interaction

 

Smoother interaction at hypersonic velocities and mitigating heat/stresses for beyond Mach 6 thermodynamics, which extraordinarily improves Type 3, 4, and 5 shock interaction.

 

6,000+ Fahrenheit Thermal Resistance

 

To date, the maximum thermal resistance was tested at AFRL in the spring of 2018, which resulted in a 3,200F thermal resistance for a short duration. This technology, allows for normalized hypersonic thermal resistance of 3,000-3,500F sustained, and up to 6,500F resistance for short endurance, ie 90 seconds or less. 10-20 minute resistance estimate approximately 4,500F +/- 200F.

  

*** This technology advancement also applies to Aerospike rocket engines, in which it is common for Aerospike's to exceed 4,500-5,000F temperatures, which results in the melting of the reversed bell housing. That melting no longer ocurrs, providing for stable combustion to ocurr for the entire flight envelope

 

Scramjet Propulsion Side Wall Cooling

 

With old technologies, side wall cooling is required for hypersonic flight and scramjet propulsion systems, otherwise the isolator and combustion regions of a scramjet would melt, even using advanced ablatives and ceramics, due to their inability to cope with very high temperatures. Using technology we have developed for very high thermodynamics and high stresses, side wall cooling is no longer required, thus removing that variable from the design process and focusing on improved ignition processes and increasing net thrust values.

 

Lower Threshold for Hypersonic Ignition

 

Active and adaptive flight dynamics, resulting in the ability for scramjet ignition at a much lower velocity, ie within ramjet envelope, between Mach 2-4, and seamless transition from supersonic to hypersonic flight, ie supersonic ramjet (scramjet). This active and dynamic aspect, has a wide variety of parameters for many flight dynamics, velocities, and altitudes; which means platforms no longer need to be engineered for specific altitude ranges or preset velocities, but those parameters can then be selected during launch configuration and are able to adapt actively in flight.

 

Dramatically Improved Maneuvering Capabilities at Hypersonic Velocities

 

Hypersonic vehicles, like their less technologically advanced brethren, use large actuator and the developers hope those controls surfaces do not disintegrate in flight. In reality, it is like rolling the dice, they may or may not survive, hence another reason why the attempt to keep velocities to Mach 6 or below. We have shrunken down control actuators while almost doubling torque and response capabilities specifically for hypersonic dynamics and extreme stresses involved, which makes it possible for maximum input authority for Mach 10 and beyond.

 

Paradigm Shift in Control Surface Methodologies, Increasing Control Authority (Internal Mechanical Applications)

 

To date, most control surfaces for hypersonic missile platforms still use fins, similar to lower speed conventional missiles, and some using ducted fins. This is mostly due to lack of comprehension of hypersonic velocities in their own favor. Instead, the body itself incorporates those control surfaces, greatly enhancing the airframe strength, opening up more space for hardware and fuel capacity; while simultaneously enhancing the platforms maneuvering capabilities.

 

A scramjet missile can then fly like conventional missile platforms, and not straight and level at high altitudes, losing velocity on it's decent trajectory to target. Another added benefit to this aspect, is the ability to extend range greatly, so if anyone elses hypersonic missile platform were developed for 400 mile range, falling out of the sky due to lack of glide capabilities; our platforms can easily reach 600+ miles, with minimal glide deceleration.

Here, hundreds of researchers, businesses and progressive home- owners will be living and working side-by-side, along with great food, drink and entertainment venues. A collection of stunning public spaces for everyone, of all ages, to use.

Everyone here is united by one purpose: to help families, communities and cities around the world to live healthier, longer, smarter and easier lives. In short, to live better. In the process, our businesses will continue to grow, employ more local people and help ensure Newcastle excels.

 

Newcastle University (legally the University of Newcastle upon Tyne) is a public research university based in Newcastle upon Tyne, North East England. It has overseas campuses in Singapore and Malaysia. The university is a red brick university and a member of the Russell Group, an association of research-intensive UK universities.

 

The university finds its roots in the School of Medicine and Surgery (later the College of Medicine), established in 1834, and the College of Physical Science (later renamed Armstrong College), founded in 1871. These two colleges came to form the larger division of the federal University of Durham, with the Durham Colleges forming the other. The Newcastle colleges merged to form King's College in 1937. In 1963, following an Act of Parliament, King's College became the University of Newcastle upon Tyne.

 

The university subdivides into three faculties: the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences; the Faculty of Medical Sciences; and the Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering. The university offers around 175 full-time undergraduate degree programmes in a wide range of subject areas spanning arts, sciences, engineering and medicine, together with approximately 340 postgraduate taught and research programmes across a range of disciplines.[6] The annual income of the institution for 2022–23 was £592.4 million of which £119.3 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £558 million.

 

History

Durham University § Colleges in Newcastle

The establishment of a university in Newcastle upon Tyne was first proposed in 1831 by Thomas Greenhow in a lecture to the Literary and Philosophical Society. In 1832 a group of local medics – physicians George Fife (teaching materia medica and therapeutics) and Samuel Knott (teaching theory and practice of medicine), and surgeons John Fife (teaching surgery), Alexander Fraser (teaching anatomy and physiology) and Henry Glassford Potter (teaching chemistry) – started offering medical lectures in Bell's Court to supplement the apprenticeship system (a fourth surgeon, Duncan McAllum, is mentioned by some sources among the founders, but was not included in the prospectus). The first session started on 1 October 1832 with eight or nine students, including John Snow, then apprenticed to a local surgeon-apothecary, the opening lecture being delivered by John Fife. In 1834 the lectures and practical demonstrations moved to the Hall of the Company of Barber Surgeons to accommodate the growing number of students, and the School of Medicine and Surgery was formally established on 1 October 1834.

 

On 25 June 1851, following a dispute among the teaching staff, the school was formally dissolved and the lecturers split into two rival institutions. The majority formed the Newcastle College of Medicine, and the others established themselves as the Newcastle upon Tyne College of Medicine and Practical Science with competing lecture courses. In July 1851 the majority college was recognised by the Society of Apothecaries and in October by the Royal College of Surgeons of England and in January 1852 was approved by the University of London to submit its students for London medical degree examinations. Later in 1852, the majority college was formally linked to the University of Durham, becoming the "Newcastle-upon-Tyne College of Medicine in connection with the University of Durham". The college awarded its first 'Licence in Medicine' (LicMed) under the auspices of the University of Durham in 1856, with external examiners from Oxford and London, becoming the first medical examining body on the United Kingdom to institute practical examinations alongside written and viva voce examinations. The two colleges amalgamated in 1857, with the first session of the unified college opening on 3 October that year. In 1861 the degree of Master of Surgery was introduced, allowing for the double qualification of Licence of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, along with the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Doctor of Medicine, both of which required residence in Durham. In 1870 the college was brought into closer connection with the university, becoming the "Durham University College of Medicine" with the Reader in Medicine becoming the Professor of Medicine, the college gaining a representative on the university's senate, and residence at the college henceforth counting as residence in the university towards degrees in medicine and surgery, removing the need for students to spend a period of residence in Durham before they could receive the higher degrees.

 

Attempts to realise a place for the teaching of sciences in the city were finally met with the foundation of the College of Physical Science in 1871. The college offered instruction in mathematics, physics, chemistry and geology to meet the growing needs of the mining industry, becoming the "Durham College of Physical Science" in 1883 and then renamed after William George Armstrong as Armstrong College in 1904. Both of these institutions were part of the University of Durham, which became a federal university under the Durham University Act 1908 with two divisions in Durham and Newcastle. By 1908, the Newcastle division was teaching a full range of subjects in the Faculties of Medicine, Arts, and Science, which also included agriculture and engineering.

 

Throughout the early 20th century, the medical and science colleges outpaced the growth of their Durham counterparts. Following tensions between the two Newcastle colleges in the early 1930s, a Royal Commission in 1934 recommended the merger of the two colleges to form "King's College, Durham"; that was effected by the Durham University Act 1937. Further growth of both division of the federal university led to tensions within the structure and a feeling that it was too large to manage as a single body. On 1 August 1963 the Universities of Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne Act 1963 separated the two thus creating the "University of Newcastle upon Tyne". As the successor of King's College, Durham, the university at its founding in 1963, adopted the coat of arms originally granted to the Council of King's College in 1937.

 

Above the portico of the Students' Union building are bas-relief carvings of the arms and mottoes of the University of Durham, Armstrong College and Durham University College of Medicine, the predecessor parts of Newcastle University. While a Latin motto, mens agitat molem (mind moves matter) appears in the Students' Union building, the university itself does not have an official motto.

 

Campus and location

The university occupies a campus site close to Haymarket in central Newcastle upon Tyne. It is located to the northwest of the city centre between the open spaces of Leazes Park and the Town Moor; the university medical school and Royal Victoria Infirmary are adjacent to the west.

 

The Armstrong building is the oldest building on the campus and is the site of the original Armstrong College. The building was constructed in three stages; the north east wing was completed first at a cost of £18,000 and opened by Princess Louise on 5 November 1888. The south-east wing, which includes the Jubilee Tower, and south-west wings were opened in 1894. The Jubilee Tower was built with surplus funds raised from an Exhibition to mark Queen Victoria's Jubilee in 1887. The north-west front, forming the main entrance, was completed in 1906 and features two stone figures to represent science and the arts. Much of the later construction work was financed by Sir Isaac Lowthian Bell, the metallurgist and former Lord Mayor of Newcastle, after whom the main tower is named. In 1906 it was opened by King Edward VII.

 

The building contains the King's Hall, which serves as the university's chief hall for ceremonial purposes where Congregation ceremonies are held. It can contain 500 seats. King Edward VII gave permission to call the Great Hall, King's Hall. During the First World War, the building was requisitioned by the War Office to create the first Northern General Hospital, a facility for the Royal Army Medical Corps to treat military casualties. Graduation photographs are often taken in the University Quadrangle, next to the Armstrong building. In 1949 the Quadrangle was turned into a formal garden in memory of members of Newcastle University who gave their lives in the two World Wars. In 2017, a statue of Martin Luther King Jr. was erected in the inner courtyard of the Armstrong Building, to celebrate the 50th anniversary of his honorary degree from the university.

 

The Bruce Building is a former brewery, constructed between 1896 and 1900 on the site of the Hotspur Hotel, and designed by the architect Joseph Oswald as the new premises of Newcastle Breweries Limited. The university occupied the building from the 1950s, but, having been empty for some time, the building was refurbished in 2016 to become residential and office space.

 

The Devonshire Building, opened in 2004, incorporates in an energy efficient design. It uses photovoltaic cells to help to power motorised shades that control the temperature of the building and geothermal heating coils. Its architects won awards in the Hadrian awards and the RICS Building of the Year Award 2004. The university won a Green Gown award for its construction.

 

Plans for additions and improvements to the campus were made public in March 2008 and completed in 2010 at a cost of £200 million. They included a redevelopment of the south-east (Haymarket) façade with a five-storey King's Gate administration building as well as new student accommodation. Two additional buildings for the school of medicine were also built. September 2012 saw the completion of the new buildings and facilities for INTO Newcastle University on the university campus. The main building provides 18 new teaching rooms, a Learning Resource Centre, a lecture theatre, science lab, administrative and academic offices and restaurant.

 

The Philip Robinson Library is the main university library and is named after a bookseller in the city and benefactor to the library. The Walton Library specialises in services for the Faculty of Medical Sciences in the Medical School. It is named after Lord Walton of Detchant, former Dean of the Faculty of Medicine and Professor of Neurology. The library has a relationship with the Northern region of the NHS allowing their staff to use the library for research and study. The Law Library specialises in resources relating to law, and the Marjorie Robinson Library Rooms offers additional study spaces and computers. Together, these house over one million books and 500,000 electronic resources. Some schools within the university, such as the School of Modern Languages, also have their own smaller libraries with smaller highly specialised collections.

 

In addition to the city centre campus there are buildings such as the Dove Marine Laboratory located on Cullercoats Bay, and Cockle Park Farm in Northumberland.

 

International

In September 2008, the university's first overseas branch was opened in Singapore, a Marine International campus called, NUMI Singapore. This later expanded beyond marine subjects and became Newcastle University Singapore, largely through becoming an Overseas University Partner of Singapore Institute of Technology.

 

In 2011, the university's Medical School opened an international branch campus in Iskandar Puteri, Johor, Malaysia, namely Newcastle University Medicine Malaysia.

 

Student accommodation

Newcastle University has many catered and non-catered halls of residence available to first-year students, located around the city of Newcastle. Popular Newcastle areas for private student houses and flats off campus include Jesmond, Heaton, Sandyford, Shieldfield, South Shields and Spital Tongues.

 

Henderson Hall was used as a hall of residence until a fire destroyed it in 2023.

 

St Mary's College in Fenham, one of the halls of residence, was formerly St Mary's College of Education, a teacher training college.

 

Organisation and governance

The current Chancellor is the British poet and artist Imtiaz Dharker. She assumed the position of Chancellor on 1 January 2020. The vice-chancellor is Chris Day, a hepatologist and former pro-vice-chancellor of the Faculty of Medical Sciences.

 

The university has an enrolment of some 16,000 undergraduate and 5,600 postgraduate students. Teaching and research are delivered in 19 academic schools, 13 research institutes and 38 research centres, spread across three Faculties: the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences; the Faculty of Medical Sciences; and the Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering. The university offers around 175 full-time undergraduate degree programmes in a wide range of subject areas spanning arts, sciences, engineering and medicine, together with approximately 340 postgraduate taught and research programmes across a range of disciplines.

 

It holds a series of public lectures called 'Insights' each year in the Curtis Auditorium in the Herschel Building. Many of the university's partnerships with companies, like Red Hat, are housed in the Herschel Annex.

 

Chancellors and vice-chancellors

For heads of the predecessor colleges, see Colleges of Durham University § Colleges in Newcastle.

Chancellors

Hugh Percy, 10th Duke of Northumberland (1963–1988)

Matthew White Ridley, 4th Viscount Ridley (1988–1999)

Chris Patten (1999–2009)

Liam Donaldson (2009–2019)

Imtiaz Dharker (2020–)

Vice-chancellors

Charles Bosanquet (1963–1968)

Henry Miller (1968–1976)

Ewan Stafford Page (1976–1978, acting)

Laurence Martin (1978–1990)

Duncan Murchison (1991, acting)

James Wright (1992–2000)

Christopher Edwards (2001–2007)

Chris Brink (2007–2016)

Chris Day (2017–present)

Civic responsibility

 

The university Quadrangle

The university describes itself as a civic university, with a role to play in society by bringing its research to bear on issues faced by communities (local, national or international).

 

In 2012, the university opened the Newcastle Institute for Social Renewal to address issues of social and economic change, representing the research-led academic schools across the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences[45] and the Business School.

 

Mark Shucksmith was Director of the Newcastle Institute for Social Renewal (NISR) at Newcastle University, where he is also Professor of Planning.

 

In 2006, the university was granted fair trade status and from January 2007 it became a smoke-free campus.

 

The university has also been actively involved with several of the region's museums for many years. The Great North Museum: Hancock originally opened in 1884 and is often a venue for the university's events programme.

 

Faculties and schools

Teaching schools within the university are based within three faculties. Each faculty is led by a Provost/Pro-vice-chancellor and a team of Deans with specific responsibilities.

 

Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences

School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape

School of Arts and Cultures

Newcastle University Business School

Combined Honours Centre

School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences

School of English Literature, Language and Linguistics

School of Geography, Politics and Sociology

School of History, Classics and Archaeology

Newcastle Law School

School of Modern Languages

Faculty of Medical Sciences

School of Biomedical Sciences

School of Dental Sciences

School of Medical Education

School of Pharmacy

School of Psychology

Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology (CBCB)

Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering

School of Computing

School of Engineering

School of Mathematics, Statistics and Physics

School of Natural and Environmental Sciences

Business School

 

Newcastle University Business School

As early as the 1900/1 academic year, there was teaching in economics (political economy, as it was then known) at Newcastle, making Economics the oldest department in the School. The Economics Department is currently headed by the Sir David Dale Chair. Among the eminent economists having served in the Department (both as holders of the Sir David Dale Chair) are Harry Mainwaring Hallsworth and Stanley Dennison.

 

Newcastle University Business School is a triple accredited business school, with accreditation by the three major accreditation bodies: AACSB, AMBA and EQUIS.

 

In 2002, Newcastle University Business School established the Business Accounting and Finance or 'Flying Start' degree in association with the ICAEW and PricewaterhouseCoopers. The course offers an accelerated route towards the ACA Chartered Accountancy qualification and is the Business School's Flagship programme.

 

In 2011 the business school opened their new building built on the former Scottish and Newcastle brewery site next to St James' Park. This building was officially opened on 19 March 2012 by Lord Burns.

 

The business school operated a central London campus from 2014 to 2021, in partnership with INTO University Partnerships until 2020.

 

Medical School

The BMC Medicine journal reported in 2008 that medical graduates from Oxford, Cambridge and Newcastle performed better in postgraduate tests than any other medical school in the UK.

 

In 2008 the Medical School announced that they were expanding their campus to Malaysia.

 

The Royal Victoria Infirmary has always had close links with the Faculty of Medical Sciences as a major teaching hospital.

 

School of Modern Languages

The School of Modern Languages consists of five sections: East Asian (which includes Japanese and Chinese); French; German; Spanish, Portuguese & Latin American Studies; and Translating & Interpreting Studies. Six languages are taught from beginner's level to full degree level ‒ Chinese, Japanese, French, German, Spanish and Portuguese ‒ and beginner's courses in Catalan, Dutch, Italian and Quechua are also available. Beyond the learning of the languages themselves, Newcastle also places a great deal of emphasis on study and experience of the cultures of the countries where the languages taught are spoken. The School of Modern Languages hosts North East England's only branches of two internationally important institutes: the Camões Institute, a language institute for Portuguese, and the Confucius Institute, a language and cultural institute for Chinese.

 

The teaching of modern foreign languages at Newcastle predates the creation of Newcastle University itself, as in 1911 Armstrong College in Newcastle installed Albert George Latham, its first professor of modern languages.

 

The School of Modern Languages at Newcastle is the lead institution in the North East Routes into Languages Consortium and, together with the Durham University, Northumbria University, the University of Sunderland, the Teesside University and a network of schools, undertakes work activities of discovery of languages for the 9 to 13 years pupils. This implies having festivals, Q&A sessions, language tasters, or quizzes organised, as well as a web learning work aiming at constructing a web portal to link language learners across the region.

 

Newcastle Law School

Newcastle Law School is the longest established law school in the north-east of England when law was taught at the university's predecessor college before it became independent from Durham University. It has a number of recognised international and national experts in a variety of areas of legal scholarship ranging from Common and Chancery law, to International and European law, as well as contextual, socio-legal and theoretical legal studies.

 

The Law School occupies four specially adapted late-Victorian town houses. The Staff Offices, the Alumni Lecture Theatre and seminar rooms as well as the Law Library are all located within the School buildings.

 

School of Computing

The School of Computing was ranked in the Times Higher Education world Top 100. Research areas include Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) and ubiquitous computing, secure and resilient systems, synthetic biology, scalable computing (high performance systems, data science, machine learning and data visualization), and advanced modelling. The school led the formation of the National Innovation Centre for Data. Innovative teaching in the School was recognised in 2017 with the award of a National Teaching Fellowship.

 

Cavitation tunnel

Newcastle University has the second largest cavitation tunnel in the UK. Founded in 1950, and based in the Marine Science and Technology Department, the Emerson Cavitation Tunnel is used as a test basin for propellers, water turbines, underwater coatings and interaction of propellers with ice. The Emerson Cavitation Tunnel was recently relocated to a new facility in Blyth.

 

Museums and galleries

The university is associated with a number of the region's museums and galleries, including the Great North Museum project, which is primarily based at the world-renowned Hancock Museum. The Great North Museum: Hancock also contains the collections from two of the university's former museums, the Shefton Museum and the Museum of Antiquities, both now closed. The university's Hatton Gallery is also a part of the Great North Museum project, and remains within the Fine Art Building.

 

Academic profile

Reputation and rankings

Rankings

National rankings

Complete (2024)30

Guardian (2024)67

Times / Sunday Times (2024)37

Global rankings

ARWU (2023)201–300

QS (2024)110

THE (2024)168=

 

Newcastle University's national league table performance over the past ten years

The university is a member of the Russell Group of the UK's research-intensive universities. It is ranked in the top 200 of most world rankings, and in the top 40 of most UK rankings. As of 2023, it is ranked 110th globally by QS, 292nd by Leiden, 139th by Times Higher Education and 201st–300th by the Academic Ranking of World Universities. Nationally, it is ranked joint 33rd by the Times/Sunday Times Good University Guide, 30th by the Complete University Guide[68] and joint 63rd by the Guardian.

 

Admissions

UCAS Admission Statistics 20222021202020192018

Application 33,73532,40034,55031,96533,785

Accepte 6,7556,2556,5806,4456,465

Applications/Accepted Ratio 5.05.25.35.05.2

Offer Rate (%78.178.080.279.280.0)

Average Entry Tariff—151148144152

Main scheme applications, International and UK

UK domiciled applicants

HESA Student Body Composition

In terms of average UCAS points of entrants, Newcastle ranked joint 19th in Britain in 2014. In 2015, the university gave offers of admission to 92.1% of its applicants, the highest amongst the Russell Group.

 

25.1% of Newcastle's undergraduates are privately educated, the thirteenth highest proportion amongst mainstream British universities. In the 2016–17 academic year, the university had a domicile breakdown of 74:5:21 of UK:EU:non-EU students respectively with a female to male ratio of 51:49.

 

Research

Newcastle is a member of the Russell Group of 24 research-intensive universities. In the 2021 Research Excellence Framework (REF), which assesses the quality of research in UK higher education institutions, Newcastle is ranked joint 33rd by GPA (along with the University of Strathclyde and the University of Sussex) and 15th for research power (the grade point average score of a university, multiplied by the full-time equivalent number of researchers submitted).

 

Student life

Newcastle University Students' Union (NUSU), known as the Union Society until a 2012 rebranding, includes student-run sports clubs and societies.

 

The Union building was built in 1924 following a generous gift from an anonymous donor, who is now believed to have been Sir Cecil Cochrane, a major benefactor to the university.[87] It is built in the neo-Jacobean style and was designed by the local architect Robert Burns Dick. It was opened on 22 October 1925 by the Rt. Hon. Lord Eustace Percy, who later served as Rector of King's College from 1937 to 1952. It is a Grade II listed building. In 2010 the university donated £8 million towards a redevelopment project for the Union Building.

 

The Students' Union is run by seven paid sabbatical officers, including a Welfare and Equality Officer, and ten part-time unpaid officer positions. The former leader of the Liberal Democrats Tim Farron was President of NUSU in 1991–1992. The Students' Union also employs around 300 people in ancillary roles including bar staff and entertainment organisers.

 

The Courier is a weekly student newspaper. Established in 1948, the current weekly readership is around 12,000, most of whom are students at the university. The Courier has won The Guardian's Student Publication of the Year award twice in a row, in 2012 and 2013. It is published every Monday during term time.

 

Newcastle Student Radio is a student radio station based in the university. It produces shows on music, news, talk and sport and aims to cater for a wide range of musical tastes.

 

NUTV, known as TCTV from 2010 to 2017, is student television channel, first established in 2007. It produces live and on-demand content with coverage of events, as well as student-made programmes and shows.

 

Student exchange

Newcastle University has signed over 100 agreements with foreign universities allowing for student exchange to take place reciprocally.

 

Sport

Newcastle is one of the leading universities for sport in the UK and is consistently ranked within the top 12 out of 152 higher education institutions in the British Universities and Colleges Sport (BUCS) rankings. More than 50 student-led sports clubs are supported through a team of professional staff and a network of indoor and outdoor sports facilities based over four sites. The university have a strong rugby history and were the winners of the Northumberland Senior Cup in 1965.

 

The university enjoys a friendly sporting rivalry with local universities. The Stan Calvert Cup was held between 1994 and 2018 by major sports teams from Newcastle and Northumbria University. The Boat Race of the North has also taken place between the rowing clubs of Newcastle and Durham University.

 

As of 2023, Newcastle University F.C. compete in men's senior football in the Northern League Division Two.

 

The university's Cochrane Park sports facility was a training venue for the teams playing football games at St James' Park for the 2012 London Olympics.

 

A

Ali Mohamed Shein, 7th President of Zanzibar

Richard Adams - fairtrade businessman

Kate Adie - journalist

Yasmin Ahmad - Malaysian film director, writer and scriptwriter

Prince Adewale Aladesanmi - Nigerian prince and businessman

Jane Alexander - Bishop

Theodosios Alexander (BSc Marine Engineering 1981) - Dean, Parks College of Engineering, Aviation and Technology of Saint Louis University

William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong - industrialist; in 1871 founded College of Physical Science, an early part of the University

Roy Ascott - new media artist

Dennis Assanis - President, University of Delaware

Neil Astley - publisher, editor and writer

Rodney Atkinson - eurosceptic conservative academic

Rowan Atkinson - comedian and actor

Kane Avellano - Guinness World Record for youngest person to circumnavigate the world by motorcycle (solo and unsupported) at the age of 23 in 2017

B

Bruce Babbitt - U.S. politician; 16th Governor of Arizona (1978–1987); 47th United States Secretary of the Interior (1993–2001); Democrat

James Baddiley - biochemist, based at Newcastle University 1954–1983; the Baddiley-Clark building is named in part after him

Tunde Baiyewu - member of the Lighthouse Family

John C. A. Barrett - clergyman

G. W. S. Barrow - historian

Neil Bartlett - chemist, creation of the first noble gas compounds (BSc and PhD at King's College, University of Durham, later Newcastle University)

Sue Beardsmore - television presenter

Alan Beith - politician

Jean Benedetti - biographer, translator, director and dramatist

Phil Bennion - politician

Catherine Bertola - contemporary painter

Simon Best - Captain of the Ulster Rugby team; Prop for the Ireland Team

Andy Bird - CEO of Disney International

Rory Jonathan Courtenay Boyle, Viscount Dungarvan - heir apparent to the earldom of Cork

David Bradley - science writer

Mike Brearley - professional cricketer, formerly a lecturer in philosophy at the university (1968–1971)

Constance Briscoe - one of the first black women to sit as a judge in the UK; author of the best-selling autobiography Ugly; found guilty in May 2014 on three charges of attempting to pervert the course of justice; jailed for 16 months

Steve Brooks - entomologist; attained BSc in Zoology and MSc in Public Health Engineering from Newcastle University in 1976 and 1977 respectively

Thom Brooks - academic, columnist

Gavin Brown - academic

Vicki Bruce - psychologist

Basil Bunting - poet; Northern Arts Poetry Fellow at Newcastle University (1968–70); honorary DLitt in 1971

John Burgan - documentary filmmaker

Mark Burgess - computer scientist

Sir John Burn - Professor of Clinical Genetics at Newcastle University Medical School; Medical Director and Head of the Institute of Genetics; Newcastle Medical School alumnus

William Lawrence Burn - historian and lawyer, history chair at King's College, Newcastle (1944–66)

John Harrison Burnett - botanist, chair of Botany at King's College, Newcastle (1960–68)

C.

Richard Caddel - poet

Ann Cairns - President of International Markets for MasterCard

Deborah Cameron - linguist

Stuart Cameron - lecturer

John Ashton Cannon - historian; Professor of Modern History; Head of Department of History from 1976 until his appointment as Dean of the Faculty of Arts in 1979; Pro-Vice-Chancellor 1983–1986

Ian Carr - musician

Jimmy Cartmell - rugby player, Newcastle Falcons

Steve Chapman - Principal and Vice-Chancellor of Heriot-Watt University

Dion Chen - Hong Kong educator, principal of Ying Wa College and former principal of YMCA of Hong Kong Christian College

Hsing Chia-hui - author

Ashraf Choudhary - scientist

Chua Chor Teck - Managing Director of Keppel Group

Jennifer A. Clack - palaeontologist

George Clarke - architect

Carol Clewlow - novelist

Brian Clouston - landscape architect

Ed Coode - Olympic gold medallist

John Coulson - chemical engineering academic

Caroline Cox, Baroness Cox - cross-bench member of the British House of Lords

Nicola Curtin – Professor of Experimental Cancer Therapeutics

Pippa Crerar - Political Editor of the Daily Mirror

D

Fred D'Aguiar - author

Julia Darling - poet, playwright, novelist, MA in Creative Writing

Simin Davoudi - academic

Richard Dawson - civil engineering academic and member of the UK Committee on Climate Change

Tom Dening - medical academic and researcher

Katie Doherty - singer-songwriter

Nowell Donovan - vice-chancellor for academic affairs and Provost of Texas Christian University

Catherine Douglas - Ig Nobel Prize winner for Veterinary Medicine

Annabel Dover - artist, studied fine art 1994–1998

Alexander Downer - Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (1996–2007)

Chloë Duckworth - archaeologist and presenter

Chris Duffield - Town Clerk and Chief Executive of the City of London Corporation

E

Michael Earl - academic

Tom English - drummer, Maxïmo Park

Princess Eugenie - member of the British royal family. Eugenie is a niece of King Charles III and a granddaughter of Queen Elizabeth II. She began studying at Newcastle University in September 2009, graduating in 2012 with a 2:1 degree in English Literature and History of Art.

F

U. A. Fanthorpe - poet

Frank Farmer - medical physicist; professor of medical physics at Newcastle University in 1966

Terry Farrell - architect

Tim Farron - former Liberal Democrat leader and MP for Westmorland and Lonsdale

Ian Fells - professor

Andy Fenby - rugby player

Bryan Ferry - singer, songwriter and musician, member of Roxy Music and solo artist; studied fine art

E. J. Field - neuroscientist, director of the university's Demyelinating Disease Unit

John Niemeyer Findlay - philosopher

John Fitzgerald - computer scientist

Vicky Forster - cancer researcher

Maximimlian (Max) Fosh- YouTuber and independent candidate in the 2021 London mayoral election.

Rose Frain - artist

G

Hugh Grosvenor, 7th Duke of Westminster - aristocrat, billionaire, businessman and landowner

Peter Gibbs - television weather presenter

Ken Goodall - rugby player

Peter Gooderham - British ambassador

Michael Goodfellow - Professor in Microbial Systematics

Robert Goodwill - politician

Richard Gordon - author

Teresa Graham - accountant

Thomas George Greenwell - National Conservative Member of Parliament

H

Sarah Hainsworth - Pro-Vice-Chancellor and Executive Dean of the School of Engineering and Applied Science at Aston University

Reginald Hall - endocrinologist, Professor of Medicine (1970–1980)

Alex Halliday - Professor of Geochemistry, University of Oxford

Richard Hamilton - artist

Vicki L. Hanson - computer scientist; honorary doctorate in 2017

Rupert Harden - professional rugby union player

Tim Head - artist

Patsy Healey - professor

Alastair Heathcote - rower

Dorothy Heathcote - academic

Adrian Henri - 'Mersey Scene' poet and painter

Stephen Hepburn - politician

Jack Heslop-Harrison - botanist

Tony Hey - computer scientist; honorary doctorate 2007

Stuart Hill - author

Jean Hillier - professor

Ken Hodcroft - Chairman of Hartlepool United; founder of Increased Oil Recovery

Robert Holden - landscape architect

Bill Hopkins - composer

David Horrobin - entrepreneur

Debbie Horsfield - writer of dramas, including Cutting It

John House - geographer

Paul Hudson - weather presenter

Philip Hunter - educationist

Ronald Hunt – Art Historian who was librarian at the Art Department

Anya Hurlbert - visual neuroscientis

I

Martin Ince - journalist and media adviser, founder of the QS World University Rankings

Charles Innes-Ker - Marquess of Bowmont and Cessford

Mark Isherwood - politician

Jonathan Israel - historian

J

Alan J. Jamieson - marine biologist

George Neil Jenkins - medical researcher

Caroline Johnson - Conservative Member of Parliament

Wilko Johnson - guitarist with 1970s British rhythm and blues band Dr. Feelgood

Rich Johnston - comic book writer and cartoonist

Anna Jones - businesswoman

Cliff Jones - computer scientist

Colin Jones - historian

David E. H. Jones - chemist

Francis R. Jones - poetry translator and Reader in Translation Studies

Phil Jones - climatologist

Michael Jopling, Baron Jopling - Member of the House of Lords and the Conservative Party

Wilfred Josephs - dentist and composer

K

Michael King Jr. - civil rights leader; honorary graduate. In November 1967, MLK made a 24-hour trip to the United Kingdom to receive an honorary Doctorate of Civil Law from Newcastle University, becoming the first African American the institution had recognised in this way.

Panayiotis Kalorkoti - artist; studied B.A. (Hons) in Fine Art (1976–80); Bartlett Fellow in the Visual Arts (1988)

Rashida Karmali - businesswoman

Jackie Kay - poet, novelist, Professor of Creative Writing

Paul Kennedy - historian of international relations and grand strategy

Mark Khangure - neuroradiologist

L

Joy Labinjo - artist

Henrike Lähnemann - German medievalist

Dave Leadbetter - politician

Lim Boon Heng - Singapore Minister

Lin Hsin Hsin - IT inventor, artist, poet and composer

Anne Longfield - children's campaigner, former Children's Commissioner for England

Keith Ludeman - businessman

M

Jack Mapanje - writer and poet

Milton Margai - first prime minister of Sierra Leone (medical degree from the Durham College of Medicine, later Newcastle University Medical School)

Laurence Martin - war studies writer

Murray Martin, documentary and docudrama filmmaker, co-founder of Amber Film & Photography Collective

Adrian Martineau – medical researcher and professor of respiratory Infection and immunity at Queen Mary University of London

Carl R. May - sociologist

Tom May - professional rugby union player, now with Northampton Saints, and capped by England

Kate McCann – journalist and television presenter

Ian G. McKeith – professor of Old Age Psychiatry

John Anthony McGuckin - Orthodox Christian scholar, priest, and poet

Wyl Menmuir - novelist

Zia Mian - physicist

Richard Middleton - musicologist

Mary Midgley - moral philosopher

G.C.J. Midgley - philosopher

Moein Moghimi - biochemist and nanoscientist

Hermann Moisl - linguist

Anthony Michaels-Moore - Operatic Baritone

Joanna Moncrieff - Critical Psychiatrist

Theodore Morison - Principal of Armstrong College, Newcastle upon Tyne (1919–24)

Andy Morrell - footballer

Frank Moulaert - professor

Mo Mowlam - former British Labour Party Member of Parliament, former Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, lecturer at Newcastle University

Chris Mullin - former British Labour Party Member of Parliament, author, visiting fellow

VA Mundella - College of Physical Science, 1884—1887; lecturer in physics at the College, 1891—1896: Professor of Physics at Northern Polytechnic Institute and Principal of Sunderland Technical College.

Richard Murphy - architect

N

Lisa Nandy - British Labour Party Member of Parliament, former Shadow Foreign Secretary

Karim Nayernia - biomedical scientist

Dianne Nelmes - TV producer

O

Sally O'Reilly - writer

Mo O'Toole - former British Labour Party Member of European Parliament

P

Ewan Page - founding director of the Newcastle University School of Computing and briefly acting vice-chancellor; later appointed vice-chancellor of the University of Reading

Rachel Pain - academic

Amanda Parker - Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire since 2023

Geoff Parling - Leicester Tigers rugby player

Chris Patten, Baron Patten of Barnes - British Conservative politician and Chancellor of the University (1999–2009)

Chris M Pattinson former Great Britain International Swimmer 1976-1984

Mick Paynter - Cornish poet and Grandbard

Robert A. Pearce - academic

Hugh Percy, 10th Duke of Northumberland - Chancellor of the University (1964–1988)

Jonathan Pile - Showbiz Editor, ZOO magazine

Ben Pimlott - political historian; PhD and lectureship at Newcastle University (1970–79)

Robin Plackett - statistician

Alan Plater - playwright and screenwriter

Ruth Plummer - Professor of Experimental Cancer Medicine at the Northern Institute for Cancer Research and Fellow of the UK's Academy of Medical Sciences.

Poh Kwee Ong - Deputy President of SembCorp Marine

John Porter - musician

Rob Powell - former London Broncos coach

Stuart Prebble - former chief executive of ITV

Oliver Proudlock - Made in Chelsea star; creator of Serge De Nîmes clothing line[

Mark Purnell - palaeontologist

Q

Pirzada Qasim - Pakistani scholar, Vice Chancellor of the University of Karachi

Joyce Quin, Baroness Quin - politician

R

Andy Raleigh - Rugby League player for Wakefield Trinity Wildcats

Brian Randell - computer scientist

Rupert Mitford, 6th Baron Redesdale - Liberal Democrat spokesman in the House of Lords for International Development

Alastair Reynolds - novelist, former research astronomer with the European Space Agency

Ben Rice - author

Lewis Fry Richardson - mathematician, studied at the Durham College of Science in Newcastle

Matthew White Ridley, 4th Viscount Ridley - Chancellor of the University 1988-1999

Colin Riordan - VC of Cardiff University, Professor of German Studies (1988–2006)

Susie Rodgers - British Paralympic swimmer

Nayef Al-Rodhan - philosopher, neuroscientist, geostrategist, and author

Neil Rollinson - poet

Johanna Ropner - Lord lieutenant of North Yorkshire

Sharon Rowlands - CEO of ReachLocal

Peter Rowlinson - Ig Nobel Prize winner for Veterinary Medicine

John Rushby - computer scientist

Camilla Rutherford - actress

S

Jonathan Sacks - former Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth

Ross Samson - Scottish rugby union footballer; studied history

Helen Scales - marine biologist, broadcaster, and writer

William Scammell - poet

Fred B. Schneider - computer scientist; honorary doctorate in 2003

Sean Scully - painter

Nigel Shadbolt - computer scientist

Tom Shakespeare - geneticist

Jo Shapcott - poet

James Shapiro - Canadian surgeon and scientist

Jack Shepherd - actor and playwright

Mark Shucksmith - professor

Chris Simms - crime thriller novel author

Graham William Smith - probation officer, widely regarded as the father of the national probation service

Iain Smith - Scottish politician

Paul Smith - singer, Maxïmo Park

John Snow - discoverer of cholera transmission through water; leader in the adoption of anaesthesia; one of the 8 students enrolled on the very first term of the Medical School

William Somerville - agriculturist, professor of agriculture and forestry at Durham College of Science (later Newcastle University)

Ed Stafford - explorer, walked the length of the Amazon River

Chris Steele-Perkins - photographer

Chris Stevenson - academic

Di Stewart - Sky Sports News reader

Diana Stöcker - German CDU Member of Parliament

Miodrag Stojković - genetics researcher

Miriam Stoppard - physician, author and agony aunt

Charlie van Straubenzee - businessman and investment executive

Peter Straughan - playwright and short story writer

T

Mathew Tait - rugby union footballer

Eric Thomas - academic

David Tibet - cult musician and poet

Archis Tiku - bassist, Maxïmo Park

James Tooley - professor

Elsie Tu - politician

Maurice Tucker - sedimentologist

Paul Tucker - member of Lighthouse Family

George Grey Turner - surgeon

Ronald F. Tylecote - archaeologist

V

Chris Vance - actor in Prison Break and All Saints

Géza Vermes - scholar

Geoff Vigar - lecturer

Hugh Vyvyan - rugby union player

W

Alick Walker - palaeontologist

Matthew Walker - Professor of Neuroscience and Psychology at the University of California, Berkeley

Tom Walker - Sunday Times foreign correspondent

Lord Walton of Detchant - physician; President of the GMC, BMA, RSM; Warden of Green College, Oxford (1983–1989)

Kevin Warwick - Professor of Cybernetics; former Lecturer in Electrical & Electronic Engineering

Duncan Watmore - footballer at Millwall F.C.

Mary Webb - artist

Charlie Webster - television sports presenter

Li Wei - Chair of Applied Linguistics at UCL Institute of Education, University College London

Joseph Joshua Weiss - Professor of Radiation Chemistry

Robert Westall - children's writer, twice winner of Carnegie Medal

Thomas Stanley Westoll - Fellow of the Royal Society

Gillian Whitehead - composer

William Whitfield - architect, later designed the Hadrian Building and the Northern Stage

Claire Williams - motorsport executive

Zoe Williams - sportswoman, worked on Gladiators

Donald I. Williamson - planktologist and carcinologist

Philip Williamson - former Chief Executive of Nationwide Building Society

John Willis - Royal Air Force officer and council member of the University

Lukas Wooller - keyboard player, Maxïmo Park

Graham Wylie - co-founder of the Sage Group; studied Computing Science & Statistics BSc and graduated in 1980; awarded an honorary doctorate in 2004

Y

Hisila Yami, Nepalese politician and former Minister of Physical Planning and Works (Government of Nepal

John Yorke - Controller of Continuing Drama; Head of Independent Drama at the BBC

Martha Young-Scholten - linguist

Paul Younger - hydrogeologist

Three young women laughing and relaxing at a spa center lobby

Dit coaxiale `kanon` schiet niet echt. Het houdt een mast op die vleugels vasthoudt. De lift van het zeil kan, ten opzichte van de mast, worden uitgericht, respectievelijk, gemanipuleerd. De mast kan op zijn beurt weer ten opzichte van het dek worden gemanipuleerd, respectievelijk, gedirigeerd, zodat de lift rechtstreeks door de blokkade, opgewekt in het water door de zwaarden, gaat , respectievelijk, schiet. Om kinetische energie uit wind op te wekken schieten we de lift door de zwaarden.

 

Links: mast manipulator Rechts: vleugelboom.

 

Stable sailing implies that the lift shoots through, respectively, lines up with, the blocking force in the water. Shooting lift is what I do. For this, a superstructure like this is needed. This is: a normal transfer. A normal transfer between two forces implies the absence of torque. Ordinary spailing boats flip over, because of the torque, respectively, momentum. T = F a, in where T = torque, in Nm, F = Force, in, N, and a = arm, in, m. It took ages to come to Spailboat 2016. I am working on it.

 

Stabiel zeilen houdt in dat de lift van de vlieger oplijnt met de reactie kracht, die wordt opgewekt door de zwaarden in het water. Pagina, 28. Voor stabiel zeilen is zodoende een ophoudconstructie nodig voor de vliegers, respectievelijk, vleugels.

 

The mast manipulator, 3, ( left ) is the co-axial base for the wing tree ( right ) and this wing tree can rotate in the mantle by a force.

 

De mast-manipulator, 3, ( links ) vormt de co-axiale basis voor de vleugelboom ( rechts ).

 

The wing tree >> Winches, 24, are mostly inside the mast, and from the winches run wires, 7, towards the sails, 6. Winches, 24, are near the deck. The jacks, 16, are, also, near deck.

 

De vleugelboom >> De aandrijfkrachten voor de touwen, respectievelijk, schoten, zitten laag in de mast. De schoten, 7, lopen vanaf de lieren, 24, door de mast, 5, naar de zeilen, 6.

 

By the way: This picture shows the rig in an upright position, and, this position will never be established during racing. No, in action, the sails are held out, positioned, as, kites. Key information. Held out as kite, controlled as wind surfer sail, via handle bar.

  

Tussen twee haakjes: dit plaatje toont de vleugelboom in een rechtopstaande positie en deze positie zal in werkelijkheid nooit plaatshebben tijdens het racen. Nee, in actie zijn de vleugels aan de vleugelboom opgesteld als de bekende positie van kites. Scheef.

 

We have Spailboats to convert the kinetic energy of the wind, so, the manufacturing strategy should be hydrogen. For hydrogen is input/energy needed / nessecary. Storms, Cyclones, Gales, made to come by, more often, by, notably, Golbal Warming. Combiustion makes more wind. And, now we use it. Whereby the circle then round is. When the budget is sufficient, we can start and behelp us with everything we need as we go. In the need of water and food, we are in the need of energy. So.

 

We hebben Spailboaten om de kinetische energie van de wind om te zetten zodat de strategie zou moeten bestaan uit voeding voor waterstofreactors.

 

The construction of Spailboats is like insects, monocoque, with inner rate construction and, the gyroscopes are in to hold the nervouss Spailboats fixed to the centre of the earth................

 

De constructie van Spailboats lijkt veel op die van insecten. De constructie is monocoque, met binnenraat, en er zijn gyroscopen nodig om de nerveuze Spailboat onder controle te houden.

 

Spailboat comes from windsurfing. Windsurfing is sensational. This show is about very fast sailing; speed sailing, I called it: " "Spailing." "

 

Spailboat komt van het windsurfen. Windsurfen is fantastisch. Windsurfen is spelen en zo komt Spailing aan zijn naam.

 

Outro:

 

All in all, the windsurf formula implies that a given sail area is optimally used, that the waves are helping in making speed, that the half wind course is always leading to gliding along with the waves, that windsurfing is therefore relatively safe, that a stable configuration is the condition to make big structures, so that former dangerous windy circumstances at open ocean are just perfect to move a significant amount of mass with high speed. The kinetic energy is measured by the formula: 1/2 times the mass of the composition times the square of the speed. This world is dying for energy. So, please, understand the windsurf formula and please make Spailboats for over water, and turbo wind mills for on land.

 

Further on, one will see that windsurfing is done in the half wind sailing course and waves are swept by the wind, so that wave riding is falling with sailing half wind. Perfect.

 

High speed, directed perpendicular on the wind, leads also to the fact that a given sail area will be used optimally. And because cavitation, air bubbles around the swords, are restricting the windsurfers' speed, spailboat has wheels for swords. You, as reader, have to take it from here, because, I can not force you to swallow dry food.

www.flickr.com/spailingstrailing

 

Part of the spailboat is the new rigging. This new rigging allows the water hitting vessel or, land hitting vehicle, to go in the opposite direction without the vehicle, or vessel, changing sides.

  

Spailcrafts sail, ""always"", on the half wind course, so that changing directions is leading to proceed in exact the opposite way! Just is said that windsurfing might make a looping; this, when going half wind over the equator.

 

Spailcrafts do not need to tack and / or to gibe in order to go in the opposite direction. Instead of letting the vessel or vehicle change, 180 degrees, the entire rig rotates, 180 degrees.

 

Spailing is from windsurfing. Just start by looking at windsurfing from a height; page, 19, and, 20: the waves make "" pipelines"", and the only safe course in high winds falls parrallel with them. These pipelines lay, notably per definition, perpendicular on the wind's direction and windsurfing is always done half wind, so that the windsurfers, automatically, go, as fast as, possible and, have a relatively safe ride between the waves.

  

The quest for simplicitly is pointed out. The trick is to end up with as less moving parts as possible. And, in order to do so, the boat became firstly a train, so that the wobblling is eliminated. Then, the rails made a looping.

 

Windsurfing is going half wind. From windsurfing towards the ORBITes strai is what this show is all about.

 

www.flickr.com/sspailingstrailing /spailingstrailing/show

 

Yap, too much work is done to ever write down. I made many designs steps and so it is endless.

 

The quest was to make windsurfing simple enough to get it done with machines.

 

A closer look at windsurfers learns that the sails, or just wings, are firmly hold in the very hands of the windsurfers. A windsurfer sail is at the foot of the mast connected with an articular joint to the board, while the windsurfer holds the sail via a bar. The feet of the windsurfer are strapped to the board. The sail is now three dimensionally controlled by the shackle between sail and board, the windsurfer. Three dimensional sail control ables the windsurfer to direct the lift in any wanted direction. Via windsurfing followed Spailboat, a non capsizing -stable- speed sailing craft, which wants to get airborne so that the hull wants to raise above the water.

 

Stability: only when stability is firstly established, then a structure might be build tall. A sailing boat might be made endlessly strong, still, it capsizes, so that it is useless to make endlessly strong masts. A Spailboat however is stable, and therefore a Spailboat can be made big, very big, as big oceanliners, with 100 meter long masts. This is part of the windsurf formula. And remember, mass in motion implies the kinetic energy.

 

We need energy. For making fresh drinking water, for irrigation, for making electricity, making hydrogen, for moving cars, trains, planes and so on.

 

The windsurf formula is here, for everyone to use in the world, because I dropped my patents. It is free, for you, Africa, Asia, America, Europe, the south pacific continents and islands. Just have a look and run this show a few times. It is like the wheel itself, it is normal, revolutionary and it will change the world. No nuclear power is needed any longer, just usage of high winds and swell on the oceans. And the ORBITes strai is, in fact, spin off, because these blades are in fact circular moving steady in positioned hold wind-surf-sails. result, slide, 33, last page.

 

Energie, windenergie ondergewaardeerd.

 

Thuis gebruiken we, veelal, energiecentrales en verbrandingsmotoren terwijl de windenergie slechts een beperkt aandeel levert. Windenergie wordt ondergewaardeerd; dat is het punt. Zware stormen, en zelfs, orkanen, zijn energiebronnen. Soms stormt het ook hier, nabij huis. In Nederland stormt het gemiddeld twee weken per jaar. Dit is de expliciete reden voor de wetenschap en windturbinebouwers om geen aandacht te besteden aan stormachtige wind; onbewust van de kennis van windsurfers en kitesurfers. Windsurfers en kitesurfers laten zien dat, ook, storm kan worden gebruikt voor het maken van snelheid.

 

En, kinetische energie, is, massa in beweging. Kortom, storm zou vooraan moeten staan in de energiekringloop. Dan volgen er vanzelf meerdere soorten stormturbines. Ook met as. Het probleem was dus dat we niet van huis gingen.

-How to create energy is the very same question as how to move mass! spinning axis is the method to use the moving mass- so, the aim is to let axis spin, and, wind surfers can do that, too.

 

Moderne zeilboten, met hun zeilen rechtstreeks aan de mast, neigen naar omslaan in harde wind, en, kunnen dus niet naar, B, als de wind zich tot een storm ontwikkelt. Windsurfers en kitesurfers kunnen wel opereren in storm; net als vikingschepen en zeilboten met zeilen aan de horizontale ra's. Alleen, dan is de koers, altijd, om en nabij, halve-wind en zelfs lager.

 

Windsurfers en kitesurfers vinden dit geen probleem, want ze hoeven nergens heen. EN, TEN TIJDE VAN DE MET, RA'S, UITGEVOERDE, ZEILBOTEN, VOER MEN UIT ALS DE WIND GUNSTIG BLIES. Er zijn verschillende anekdotes, oorlogsverslagen, handelsexpedities en ik denk dat, het drie weken was; het wachten op goede wind, en / want, dat klopt ook wel, want als windsurfer volgde ik jaren het ritme van de wind, en ook toen / nu is het ongeveer drie weken wachten en drie dagen surfen. De tijd tussen goede wind in, werd genomen voor van alles, om maar iets noemen; het leven zelf. En wegzeilen, half wind, vol ""gas"" dus." is ook het leven. Want, windsurfen is het leukste wat er bestaat in het leven. Half wind koersen met zeilschepen met zeilen aan ra's is fantastisch. Euforisch zelfs. Kijk, deze situatie deed zich voor in Holland, voordat het kapitalisme zijn intrede nam, ten tonele kwam. Kapitalisme, ofwel, tijd is geld, is gemaakt door, nota bene, diezelfde handelsexpedities. Het was Holland die het kapitalisme uitvond en Engeland die de stoommachine de industriële revolutie ontketende, en samen hebben we de wereld vernietigd, althans : """hoe boos moet de aarde worden?"""" is de volgende vraag. Orkanen spreken boekdelen. Voordat het kapitalisme er was, werd er half wind gekoerst, geraced dus, en was het wachten het leven op de wal, voor bijvoorbeeld het binnenhalen van de oogsten, van de buren, boeren. Drie weken wachten en dan was er, noord-noordwest of / en na verloop van dagen, noordwest, krimpend naar zuidwest en zuid-zuidwest, kracht vijf tot acht >> of precies contra, ruimend van zuid-zeuidwest tot noord-noordwest, kortom, de wind om weg te komen van onze kust. Toen was het windsurfen heel gewoon. Ja, half winds koersen is ook surfen en dit komt door golven die gemaakt worden door de wind. Er is geen motief voor een windsurfer om naar punt, B, te gaan. Sterker, de halve-windse koers, en koersen lager hiervan, de gedwongen koersen in storm, zijn, perfect. surfen is als wegzeilen in de halve windse koers, met een krachtige wind, en dan volgt vanzelf dat er nu in een goot tussen twee golfketens wordt gewindsurft. Er wordt dus gesurft en, gewindsurft, als men spreekt over windsurfen. Half wind. Drie weken, gemiddeld, wachten en dan is half wind gelijk met de koers op B. Zonder, B, is elke harde wind, tevens, goede wind. Skipping, Erasing, B, is, erasing time. Met de golven mee en surfend met de golven, in de gangpaden tussen twee golven in is het leuke aan zeilen. Het wachten is het leven op zich en half winds zeilen is wat de zeilers, windsurfers en kitesurfers noemen, het echte leven. ( onderwerp, half wind racen met stabiele windsurfmachines, raam, 21 ) Als we nu eens, hypothetisch, veronderstellen dat de aarde overwaterd zou zijn, dat de wind vervolgens van noord naar zuid, of, precies andersom, blaast, en dat de windsurfer / kite-surfer precies over de evenaar vaart, dan maakt de windsurfer een rondje. Hij / Zij begint in, A, en komt weer uit in, A. Vrijheid. Geen, B. Windsurfen, het invullen van vrijheid, omdat het zo leuk is, spelen, leidt tot een relatief grote ring, zonder lichamelijke as. Als er rails zouden worden gelegd over de evenaar, dan hebben we een grote ring.

 

Hoe was het ook al weer? Sinds de stoommachine loopt het overgrote deel van onze machines, motoren, energiecentrales op fossiele brandstoffen, zoals olie, kolen en gas. Eerder, in spailboatspeedsailcrafts, is al genoemd dat een kerncentrale nog immer een stoommachine is. Echter, het afval-produkt van kernenergie valt buiten deze verhandeling. De verwarmde aarde en oceanen, geven meer wind. Het afval-produkt, “mest”, van de overige genoemde energiecentrales en motoren, is, global warming. Storm, harde wind, cyclonen, zijn een restprodukt van onze verteerde energie. Storm, is, als mest, waarop nieuw leven kan groeien. Met, E-rounds, en, Spailboats, kan storm worden gebruikt, waarmee de cyclus rond is. E-round. We moeten dus naar de wind toe met onze storm gebruikende apparaten. Storm gebruikende apparaten zijn ofwel, aangepaste windturbines, ofwel, E_rounds, respectievelijk, E_rings. Stormachtige wateren gebruikende zeilboten zijn windsurfboten, genaamd, Spailboats. lezer, hierbij het advies om naar de plaatjes te kijken. de tekst is veelal technisch en is er feitelijk alleen maar voor, om de technische informatie te laten zien; omdat ik als uitvinder in een race zit. maar ook de tekeningen zelf zijn nog steeds conceptueel. de vleugels, bijvoorbeeld, zijn nog niet geshaped. detailleren is werk voor TU's en specialisten. ik ben slechts de uitvinder van het gecontroleerd en stabiel met zeilen en vleugels omgaan. Windsurfen, het invullen van vrijheid, omdat het zo leuk is, spelen, leidt tot een relatief grote ring, zonder lichamelijke as. Als er rails zouden worden gelegd over de evenaar, dan is er een grote ring. Windsurfen, half-wind, ligt aan de basis van, E-rings. Zowel, kite-surfers, als, E-rings, zijn stabiel.

Een ring, kan natuurlijk ook kleiner zijn dan de omtrek van de aarde. Een ring is universeel. Ringen, waarin de windvangers, bladen, worden gestoken, kunnen relatief groot zijn, met dan wel uiteindelijk koude assen van de wielen die de ring lageren. Met een ring kan er dus worden gedraaid in storm. Dit heeft consequenties. Eerst hadden we een windmolen, respectievelijk, wind-turbine, die niet kon draaien in storm. Maar nu hebben we een windmolen die wel kan draaien in storm.

 

Cyclonen, waar ook ter wereld, dus ook nabij Antarctica, kunnen worden benut, om een deel van de energie te gebruiken voor draaiing van assen.

 

Dit betekent, concreet, dat, er nu dagelijks van windenergie gebruik kan worden gemaakt en dat we dus niet meer hoeven wachten op een briesje wind, maar dat we wel kunnen doordraaien in storm. Zowel thuis als, elders, waar de wind altijd blaast, nabij Antarctica, bijvoorbeeld.

 

It is a fleet. Ice bergs are avoided by sending boats out to trace the ice bergs, so that the course is made. Ijsbergen worden vermeden, door er boten naar toe te sturen om er zenders op te plakken. De koers kan dan gelegd worden. Via satelliet en computer, te zien op beeldscherm in cockpit piloot Spailboat. Het is werk. Dat wel.

Even terug naar af: een windmolen / wind-turbine kan niet draaien in harde storm, zodat het geen zin had om naar, bijvoorbeeld, Antarctica, te gaan; met de handel. Omdat er niet in storm gedraaid kan worden door wind-turbines, met assen, plaatst men ze thuis. En, zoals gezegd, thuis waait het vaak niet. Het vervelende is, dat wind-turbines ook niet draaien in harde storm. Met andere woorden, windenergie, zoals we dat kennen, is niet betrouwbaar als constante energie-stroom. Hoofdzijstraat, T-Splitsing, die verbindt met de wind: Ir. Marcel Keezer, Keezerengineering, keezerengineering.nl; met, C.V.: deelnemer, Franse, Ariane 5 project, en, leider van het Indiase Ruimte-programma, wijst op de noodzakelijke vereniging, de T-splitsing vormend, van, derhalve, waterstof-reactors naast windmolen-parken, om zo de pieken af te ( kunnen ) vlakken met aanmaak en buffering van waterstof.

 

In dezelfde tijd dat de raket werd door ontwikkeld, om naar punt, B, te gaan, de maan, mars en Filistijnen, ontwikkelde zich het windsurfen tot, kitesurfen. De vrijetijdsbesteding wind-, en, kite-surfen, kan wel in storm: half-wind is, de wind-, en, kite-surf-koers. Half-wind doet surfen, op / met, de golven. De paden van golven staan / lopen haaks op de wind. ( slide, 21 ) De, gang / koers, van wind-, en, kite-surfers, ligt evenwijdig aan de golfpaden. Een ring leidt vervolgens tot anti-zwaartekracht-composities. E-rings, met het gezicht naar de aarde, leiden tot vliegende schotels. Vliegende schotels en E-rings komen voort uit vrijheid.

 

Nu staan we als mensheid voor een cruciale beslissing in de tijd. E-rings en waterstof, LH2, formule Golden E-rings, Goudriaan / Keezer, is nodig en moet tot leven worden geroepen. Ons systeem kan E-rings maken. Een politiek besluit is nodig. Door storm spinnende ronde lichamen leveren veel kinetische energie. Tijd om van de beproefde Windriaan-molen-configuratie werkelijk hoge productie dynamo's te maken. Tijd om van spelen, spailen te maken. Spelen is leuk. Spailen. Zelfde uitspraak. Spailing, met, Spailboats, is, energie opwekken in storm. Windsurfen en kite-surfen zijn stabiel, en, leuk. Het is spelen met de wind en de golven.

 

Storm, is, als mest, waarop nieuw leven kan groeien. Met, E-rounds, en, Spailboats, kan storm worden gebruikt, waarmee de cyclus rond is. E-round. De uitvinding van de landbouw. Landbouw, vruchtbare grond. Vruchtbare grond is grond gemengd met mest. Gewassen groeien goed op bemeste grond. We eten de gewassen op. Voor ons zijn gewassen, voedsel, energie.

 

We groeien dus onze energie, voedsel, op bemeste grond. Er is sprake van een kringloop. Het restprodukt van voedsel is, mest.

 

Sinds de stoommachine loopt het overgrote deel van onze machines, motoren, energiecentrales op fossiele brandstoffen, zoals olie, kolen en gas. Eerder is al genoemd dat een kerncentrale nog immer een stoommachine is. Echter, het afval-produkt van kernenergie valt buiten deze verhandeling. De verwarmde aarde en oceanen, geven meer wind. Het afval-produkt, “mest”, van de overige genoemde energiecentrales en motoren, is, global warming. Storm, harde wind, cyclonen, zijn een restprodukt van onze verteerde energie. Storm, is, als mest, waarop nieuw leven kan groeien. Met, E-rounds, en, Spailboats, kan storm worden gebruikt, waarmee de cyclus rond is. E-round.

 

De conventionele windturbines zijn, derhalve, slechts geschikt voor de gebieden waar het grootste deel van de mensheid leeft. Ze leeft nu eenmaal niet in grote getale op oceanen en gebieden nabij de arctische polen; daar waar de stormen dagelijkse kost zijn. Kortom, storm zou vooraan moeten staan in de energiekringloop. Dan volgen er vanzelf meerdere soorten stormturbines. Ook met as. Het probleem was dus dat we niet van huis wilden gaan om windenergie te benutten.

 

Storm, is, als mest, waarop nieuw leven kan groeien. Ze zijn te vinden onder bizarre omstandigheden. Met, E-rounds, en, Spailboats, kan storm worden gebruikt, waarmee de cyclus rond is. E-round. De uitvinding van de landbouw. Landbouw, vruchtbare grond. Vruchtbare grond is grond gemengd met mest. Gewassen groeien goed op bemeste grond. We eten de gewassen op. Voor ons zijn gewassen, voedsel, energie. We groeien dus onze energie, voedsel, op bemeste grond. Er is sprake van een kringloop. Het restprodukt van voedsel is, mest.

  

De trap tot de vliegende schotel, de technische mens, werd mede gevormd door het gebruik van hout, als hulpje, voor bijvoorbeeld hutten. De boomstam werd ook een boot en een rol-lager en een plakje van die rol-lager leverde ons het eerste wiel. Via wielen, met assen, volgden wagens en molens. Malen en rijden gebeuren met behulp van assen. Een wiel heeft altijd een as. Een as wordt buitenom gelagerd. Het wiel zit vast aan de as. Wielen hebben, vooralsnog, assen. En, een as is een ( heel ) klein, massief, wiel. Een massieve as, is, nog steeds, een wiel. Alle krachten komen op de assen. Wind-turbines, en, windmolens, hebben assen, waar vanuit de wieken ontspruiten.

 

Het, WIEL, is zodoende een / de naam, voor een rond ding. Dit schrift slaat op ringen. Ringen zijn ook rond, maar, hebben geen lichamelijke as.

 

Een verhaaltje over: HET WIEL. Het WIEL hielp de mens om de lasten makkelijker te verslepen, aanvankelijk, van, A, naar, B. En, de kortste weg tussen, A, en, B, is een rechte lijn. Dit impliceert dat, HET WIEL, aanvankelijk, voornamelijk, centrisch werd / wordt belast. Want, pas als de trein door de bocht gaat, komen er excentrische krachten op de assen. Oorspronkelijk rolden de boomstammen een steen rechtdoor. Het wiel en zijn as werden gebruikt onder wagens, karren. Een huifkar ging echter niet snel, zodat de bochten niet al te veel excentrische krachten op de assen van de wielen uitoefenden. Zolang de krachten centrisch worden overgebracht op de as, als de treinwagon bijvoorbeeld rechtdoor rijdt, voldoen assen prima. Verder, de wielen onder treinen en auto's hebben een bepaalde maat. Ook excentrische krachten kunnen hierdoor door de as worden verwerkt. Maar, als, de as, wieken draagt, dan komt er veel warmte vrij. De excentriciteit is ongunstig voor assen.

 

Het wiel kwam er, doordat er lasten werden versleept, van, A, naar, B. Kennelijk was het, in de lijn van de ontwikkeling, logisch dat er windvangers in de assen werden gestoken, net als spaken, vanaf de as naar het wiel, respectievelijk, velg. Een velg is een ring. Het wiel bestaat zodoende uit een ring-lichaam, dat om een as draait. Sterker, het wiel zit vast aan de as. De assen en de wielen ontwikkelden zich. In de assen werden ook windvangers gestoken, om zo de as plaatsvast te laten draaien. Wieken kunnen beter in ringen worden gestoken. In plaats van paardenkrachten, blies de wind. De krachten sleepten de wielen niet langer om, maar duwden in de lengterichting van de as, tegen de bladen. De windkracht liet de as plaatsvast draaien. De as werd niet langer hoofdzakelijk centrisch belast. Bij te harde wind komt er te veel excentrische kracht op de assen van de windmolens, en dus ook, op de assen van moderne wind-turbines.

 

Assen, draaiend door de windvangers, respectievelijk, wieken, worden zeer zwaar belast. Veel zwaarder dan de wielen onder karren. Het wiel is prima, voor als de lasten centrisch inwerken op het wiel. Het wiel is, zodoende, een prima uitvinding; voor onder recht-doorgaande karren. De wielen, onder treinen en auto's, hebben een relatief kleine diameter. De excentriciteit, veroorzaakt door bochten, kan dan toch nog relatief makkelijk worden weerstaan. Excentriciteit op de assen van wielen, onder karren, ook al worden bochten gemaakt, waardoor er af wordt geweken van de rechtdoorgaande voortgang, kunnen worden opgevangen omdat, de wielen onder karren relatief klein zijn. De diameter van een wiel is relatief klein. De diameter van een windmolen is relatief groot. De excentriciteit op assen van windmolens is relatief groot, terwijl de excentriciteit op een as van een wiel onder een trein of auto, relatief klein is.

    

Io Aircraft - www.ioaircraft.com

 

Drew Blair

www.linkedin.com/in/drew-b-25485312/

 

io aircraft, phantom express, phantom works, boeing phantom works, lockheed skunk works, hypersonic weapon, hypersonic missile, scramjet missile, scramjet engineering, scramjet physics, boost glide, tactical glide vehicle, Boeing XS-1, htv, Air-Launched Rapid Response Weapon, (ARRW), hypersonic tactical vehicle, hypersonic plane, hypersonic aircraft, space plane, scramjet, turbine based combined cycle, ramjet, dual mode ramjet, darpa, onr, navair, afrl, air force research lab, defense science, missile defense agency, aerospike,

 

Advanced Additive Manufacturing for Hypersonic Aircraft

 

Utilizing new methods of fabrication and construction, make it possible to use additive manufacturing, dramatically reducing the time and costs of producing hypersonic platforms from missiles, aircraft, and space capable craft. Instead of aircraft being produced in piece, then bolted together; small platforms can be produced as a single unit and large platforms can be produces in large section and mated without bolting. These techniques include using exotic materials and advanced assembly processes, with an end result of streamlining the production costs and time for hypersonic aircraft; reducing months of assembly to weeks. Overall, this process greatly reduced the cost for producing hypersonic platforms. Even to such an extent that a Hellfire missile costs apx $100,000 but by utilizing our technologies, replacing it with a Mach 8-10 hypersonic missile of our physics/engineering and that missile would cost roughly $75,000 each delivered.

   

Materials used for these manufacturing processes are not disclosed, but overall, provides a foundation for extremely high stresses and thermodynamics, ideal for hypersonic platforms. This specific methodology and materials applications is many decades ahead of all known programs. Even to the extend of normalized space flight and re-entry, without concern of thermodynamic failure.

 

*Note, most entities that are experimenting with additive manufacturing for hypersonic aircraft, this makes it mainstream and standardized processes, which also applies for mass production.

 

What would normally be measured in years and perhaps a decade to go from drawing board to test flights, is reduced to singular months and ready for production within a year maximum.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle (U-TBCC)

 

To date, the closest that NASA and industry have achieved for turbine based aircraft to fly at hypersonic velocities is by mounting a turbine into an aircraft and sharing the inlet with a scramjet or rocket based motor. Reaction Engines Sabre is not able to achieve hypersonic velocities and can only transition into a non air breathing rocket for beyond Mach 4.5

 

However, utilizing Unified Turbine Based Combine Cycle also known as U-TBCC, the two separate platforms are able to share a common inlet and the dual mode ramjet/scramjet is contained within the engine itself, which allows for a much smaller airframe footprint, thus engingeers are able to then design much higher performance aerial platforms for hypersonic flight, including the ability for constructing true single stage to orbit aircraft by utilizing a modification/version that allows for transition to outside atmosphere propulsion without any other propulsion platforms within the aircraft. By transitioning and developing aircraft to use Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle, this propulsion system opens up new options to replace that airframe deficit for increased fuel capacity and/or payload.

 

Enhanced Dynamic Cavitation

 

Dramatically Increasing the efficiency of fuel air mixture for combustion processes at hypersonic velocities within scramjet propulsion platforms. The aspects of these processes are non disclosable.

 

Dynamic Scramjet Ignition Processes

 

For optimal scramjet ignition, a process known as Self Start is sought after, but in many cases if the platform becomes out of attitude, the scramjet will ignite. We have already solved this problem which as a result, a scramjet propulsion system can ignite at lower velocities, high velocities, at optimal attitude or not optimal attitude. It doesn't matter, it will ignite anyways at the proper point for maximum thrust capabilities at hypersonic velocities.

 

Hydrogen vs Kerosene Fuel Sources

 

Kerosene is an easy fuel to work with, and most western nations developing scramjet platforms use Kerosene for that fact. However, while kerosene has better thermal properties then Hydrogen, Hydrogen is a far superior fuel source in scramjet propulsion flight, do it having a much higher efficiency capability. Because of this aspect, in conjunction with our developments, it allows for a MUCH increased fuel to air mixture, combustion, thrust; and ability for higher speeds; instead of very low hypersonic velocities in the Mach 5-6 range. Instead, Mach 8-10 range, while we have begun developing hypersonic capabilities to exceed 15 in atmosphere within less then 5 years.

 

Conforming High Pressure Tank Technology for CNG and H2.

 

As most know in hypersonics, Hydrogen is a superior fuel source, but due to the storage abilities, can only be stored in cylinders thus much less fuel supply. Not anymore, we developed conforming high pressure storage technology for use in aerospace, automotive sectors, maritime, etc; which means any overall shape required for 8,000+ PSI CNG or Hydrogen. For hypersonic platforms, this means the ability to store a much larger volume of hydrogen vs cylinders.

 

As an example, X-43 flown by Nasa which flew at Mach 9.97. The fuel source was Hydrogen, which is extremely more volatile and combustible then kerosene (JP-7), via a cylinder in the main body. If it had used our technology, that entire section of the airframe would had been an 8,000 PSI H2 tank, which would had yielded 5-6 times the capacity. While the X-43 flew 11 seconds under power at Mach 9.97, at 6 times the fuel capacity would had yielded apx 66 seconds of fuel under power at Mach 9.97. If it had flew slower, around Mach 6, same principles applied would had yielded apx 500 seconds of fuel supply under power (slower speeds required less energy to maintain).

 

Enhanced Fuel Mixture During Shock Train Interaction

 

Normally, fuel injection is conducted at the correct insertion point within the shock train for maximum burn/combustion. Our methodologies differ, since almost half the fuel injection is conducted PRE shock train within the isolator, so at the point of isolator injection the fuel enhances the combustion process, which then requires less fuel injection to reach the same level of thrust capabilities.

 

Improved Bow Shock Interaction

 

Smoother interaction at hypersonic velocities and mitigating heat/stresses for beyond Mach 6 thermodynamics, which extraordinarily improves Type 3, 4, and 5 shock interaction.

 

6,000+ Fahrenheit Thermal Resistance

 

To date, the maximum thermal resistance was tested at AFRL in the spring of 2018, which resulted in a 3,200F thermal resistance for a short duration. This technology, allows for normalized hypersonic thermal resistance of 3,000-3,500F sustained, and up to 6,500F resistance for short endurance, ie 90 seconds or less. 10-20 minute resistance estimate approximately 4,500F +/- 200F.

   

*** This technology advancement also applies to Aerospike rocket engines, in which it is common for Aerospike's to exceed 4,500-5,000F temperatures, which results in the melting of the reversed bell housing. That melting no longer ocurrs, providing for stable combustion to ocurr for the entire flight envelope

 

Scramjet Propulsion Side Wall Cooling

 

With old technologies, side wall cooling is required for hypersonic flight and scramjet propulsion systems, otherwise the isolator and combustion regions of a scramjet would melt, even using advanced ablatives and ceramics, due to their inability to cope with very high temperatures. Using technology we have developed for very high thermodynamics and high stresses, side wall cooling is no longer required, thus removing that variable from the design process and focusing on improved ignition processes and increasing net thrust values.

 

Lower Threshold for Hypersonic Ignition

 

Active and adaptive flight dynamics, resulting in the ability for scramjet ignition at a much lower velocity, ie within ramjet envelope, between Mach 2-4, and seamless transition from supersonic to hypersonic flight, ie supersonic ramjet (scramjet). This active and dynamic aspect, has a wide variety of parameters for many flight dynamics, velocities, and altitudes; which means platforms no longer need to be engineered for specific altitude ranges or preset velocities, but those parameters can then be selected during launch configuration and are able to adapt actively in flight.

 

Dramatically Improved Maneuvering Capabilities at Hypersonic Velocities

 

Hypersonic vehicles, like their less technologically advanced brethren, use large actuator and the developers hope those controls surfaces do not disintegrate in flight. In reality, it is like rolling the dice, they may or may not survive, hence another reason why the attempt to keep velocities to Mach 6 or below. We have shrunken down control actuators while almost doubling torque and response capabilities specifically for hypersonic dynamics and extreme stresses involved, which makes it possible for maximum input authority for Mach 10 and beyond.

 

Paradigm Shift in Control Surface Methodologies, Increasing Control Authority (Internal Mechanical Applications)

 

To date, most control surfaces for hypersonic missile platforms still use fins, similar to lower speed conventional missiles, and some using ducted fins. This is mostly due to lack of comprehension of hypersonic velocities in their own favor. Instead, the body itself incorporates those control surfaces, greatly enhancing the airframe strength, opening up more space for hardware and fuel capacity; while simultaneously enhancing the platforms maneuvering capabilities.

 

A scramjet missile can then fly like conventional missile platforms, and not straight and level at high altitudes, losing velocity on it's decent trajectory to target. Another added benefit to this aspect, is the ability to extend range greatly, so if anyone elses hypersonic missile platform were developed for 400 mile range, falling out of the sky due to lack of glide capabilities; our platforms can easily reach 600+ miles, with minimal glide deceleration.

onderkant Spailboat2018

 

See page 17 for the super structure. The mast manipulator is moulded on this ship.

 

Wheels for daggers boards. Sword Wheels: To go faster than the water can take without creating air bubbles, cavitation.

 

Wielen voor zwaarden om cavitatie te voorkomen.

 

SPAILBOAT led to Windriaan, p18. Windriaan of, Orbites strai of respectievelijk E_ring pagina 21, zijn de namen voor een nieuw soort windturbine. Deze windturbine kenmerkt zich door zijn onvermoeibaarheid en de normale krachtenoverdracht. Achter de wieken staat geen mast, waardoor de uitstroom van de wind niet wordt verstoord. Door de zuivere uitstroming van de wind krijgen de wieken niet telkens een tik te verwerken. Hierdoor vermoeien Windriaans niet. Conventionele windturbines, daarentegen, hebben masten die achter de wieken staan opgesteld zodat de uitstroming van de wind wordt verstoord. Verder kenmerkt de Windriaan zich doordat de wieken aan de snelle kant worden ingeklemd. Er is echter een type binnen de Orbites Strai familie, type Missy (plaatje 51 www.flickr.com/spailingstrailing), dat de bladen aan de buitenzijde van de ring vasthoudt.

Windriaan or, Orbites strai or respectively E_ring are the names for a new kind of windturbine. This turbine does not blow to pieces in high winds because of the normal lift transference and the clean outflow of the wind. Behind the blades is no mast so, that the mentioned outflow is not disturbed. This is why Windriaans do not get tired, fatique, and, consequently, do not fail. Conventional windturbines, on the other hand, have masts behind the blades so that, the outflow is disturbed. Further on, Windriaan characterises itself because the blades are jammed in at the fast side of the blade. There is, however, a type within the Orbites strai family, type Missy (picture 51 in www.flickr.com/spailingstrailing) which holds the blades at the slow side, better known as the origin.

Binnen conventionele windturbines en windmolens ontspruiten de wieken altijd vanuit de as, waar de snelheid nadert tot nul.

Within conventional windturbines the blades always spring out from the centre, where the speed of the blades is almost zero.

Windriaans hebben dus een ringconstructie van waaruit de bladen ontspruiten en hebben geen centrale as.

Windriaan has a ring construction from where the blades originate, respectively spring out.

Met een illustratie ( plaatje 19 www.flickr.com/spailingstrailing ) is getracht uit te duiden hoe de Windriaan tot stand kwam. Hiertoe moeten we terug naar den beginne, naar de Dhows over de rivier Nijl. Het feit doet zich namelijk voor dat de wind altijd haaks over de Nijl blaast zodat de zeilboten “half-wind” de rivier op en neer kunnen bevaren. De eerste zeilboten leken zodoende op kitesurfers. Half wind is heel belangrijk omdat de VMG nul is. De velocity made good is nul. Ofwel, de terreinwinst tegen de wind in is, nul en bovendien gaat de zeilboot het hardst, als er half wind wordt gevaren.

With an illustration (picture 19 www.flickr.com/spailingstrailing) is tried to explain how Windriaan sprung out. Therefor we have to go back to the very beginning, to the Dhows at the river Nile. The fact is the coincidence of the wind blowing always perpendicular over the river Nile so that sailing boats always sail half wind. The first sailing boats looked a lot like windsurfers and kitesurfers. The half wind sailing course is very important because the velocity made good, VMG, is zero. In other words, there is no gaining towards the wind. And on top, the maximum speed of sailing boats is obtained in the half wind sailing course.

Tijd werd geld en ook buiten de rivier Nijl ging men zeilen. Men kwam er successievelijk achter dat langs getuigde zeilboten hoger, respectievelijk scherper tegen de wind in konden zeilen. Echter, langs getuigde zeilschepen zijn instabiel. Na de stoommachine en zeker na de verbrandingsmotor verdwenen zowel de dwars getuigde klippers als de langs getuigde zeilboten van het toneel. Het volk nam na WOII het zeilen onder handen en ging terug naar stabiel zeilen; windsurfen en kitesurfen, in de half windse surfkoers. De half windse koers is de surfkoers omdat de wind de golven opzwiept en dus haaks op de wind lopen. Met surfen wordt er nooit gedwongen een golf gepenetreerd. Dit, doordat het surfen op zich het doel is. Door de stabiliteit, door de afwezigheid van de zogenaamde arm tussen lift en reactiekracht op het water, kan er zelfs ruime wind in stormachtige wind worden gekoerst.

Time became money and also outside the river Nile mankind sailed. Sailing boats got other rigs to gain towards the wind. After the steam machine and the combustion engine sailing disappeared from the scene. After WOII the common people took over sailing and came up with kwindsurfing and kitesurfing. The stable sailing and the along going speed in the half wind racing course was back. Hahlf wind is the urf course because the waves are swept by the wind. Windsurfers want surf and do not need to penetrate waves. No, they fall towards even lower courses than half wind and surf along with waves. This, because the surfing and the speed are the goals. Not to get somewhere. In freedom time and destinations do not exist. Because of stability, caused by the absence of the so called excentricity or arm between the lift and the reaction at the water, the Spailboat is able to sail even lower courses than half wind in high winds.

Het doel van Speelboot of, Spailboat, is, zodoende, snelheid. De kinetische energie is massa maal snelheid in het kwadraat gedeeld door twee, in Joules. Dus, windsurfen, half wind en ruime wind, met stabiele Speelboten levert energie, waterstof.

The goal of Spailboat is therefor, speed. The kinetic energy of the sailing mass is the mass times the square of the velocity, divided by two, in Joules. So, windsurfing half wind and even lower delivers energy, hydrogen.

De snelheid is maximaal en de massa kan belangrijk worden vergroot doordat de boel stabiel is. Stabiliteit is de voorwaarde om groot te gaan. Conventionele zeilboten hebben hun maximum bereikt, Speelboten kunnen wel een kilometer lang worden.

 

The speed is top and the mass can be increased dramatically because the configuration is stable. Stability is the condition to build big. Conventional sailing ships reached maximum size long ago while Spailboats can be a kilometer in length.

Indien men, theoretisch, over de evenaar zou zeilen in de half windse koers dan ontstaat er een ringbaan en de Windriaan was geboren.

When one, theoretically, would sail over the equator in the half wind sailing course then a ring comes up. Windriaan was born.

Windriaan en Speelboot behandelen de krachten normaal en Windriaans trillen niet kapot door de verstoorde wind.

Windriaan and Spailboat handle the forces in a normal way, because of the absence of excentricity or arm in the lift transference and Windriaan does not shake to pieces by the disturberd airflow becasue of the mast.

Nu kan men windrijke gebieden op aarde gaan benutten. En, is het energie probleem opgelost. Maar, het gaat verder. Nu de olie niet meer nodig is voor de verbranding kan deze worden bewaard als bouwmateriaal voor de toekomstige ruimteschepen. Over 400.000.000 jaar is de zon opgebrand en moet de mensheid zijn geëvacueerd naar een zonnestelsel. We moeten het ruim zien.

So, now mankind is able to exploit the high winds on earth. And, the energy problem is solved. The oil is no longer needed for combustion so that the oil can be preserved as building material for future constructions and space crafts. In about 400.000.000 the sun is burned up and mankind has to be evacuated to another solar system.

Tesla was “rood”. Tesla wilde gratis energie voor de hele mensheid en dat wil ik ook. Het is bekend dat het communisme een derde revolutie nodig heeft en bij deze. Elk weldenkend mens zal het leven boven geld kiezen. Met Windriaan, Spailboat en het wrijvingsloze wiel, hetgeen een voorloper is van de vliegende schotel, kan de mensheid met nog eens een factor duizend toenemen zonder dat er roofbouw is. China en Rusland zullen Windriaan, Speelboot en het wrijvingsloze wiel met open armen ontvangen. Uitgedacht door de man van de straat.

Tesla was “red”. Tesla wanted free energy for everyone and so will I. My goal is to save life and to preserve the oil for later purposes, like space crafts and buildings. We are now in a lack of input energy to make hydrogen. Problem solved with Windriaan and Spailboat. The steel can decrease and everyone has enough food. Energy makes food.

Mijn doel is om het leven te redden en de olie te bewaren voor latere ruimteschepen en bouwwerken. De staal kan dan ook afknijpen. Het lijkt me duidelijk dat deze rooftocht ten einde komt. Iedereen voldoende eten. In harmonie, de basis, kan de mens de aarde en het leven preserveren. Diep in het hart wil iedereen dat.

De opgewekte waterstof is na verbranding, water. De olie kan dus vervangen worden door waterstof. Het ontbreekt ons vooralsnog aan de energie om waterstof te maken. Dus maakte ik Spailboat, SB, met als spin off, Windriaan, ofwel Orbite est Strai, of E_rings en het wrijvingsloze wiel.

Hydrogen is water after burning.

SB is een normale zeilboot en Windriaan is een normale windturbine. “Normaal” wil zeggen in de techniek dat, de krachten normaal worden overgedragen zodat, de compositie stabiel en is en louter op sterkte bezwijkt. Dus, we kunnen Windriaan en Spailboaten (SB) sterk genoeg maken. De moderne constructie materialen als, carbonfiber (C, olie), bieden uitkomst.

Er is, binnen de SB-formule, geen kapseizend koppel aanwezig op SB en de wieken van Windriaan worden stevig ingeklemd aan de snelle kant door een ringconstructie. Windriaan en SB zijn stabiele en normaal in de krachtenoverbrengingen en gaan dus niet niet stuk. SB en Windriaan falen niet in cyclonen.

Nu kan Antarctica worden aangeboord door Windriaan en de Stille Zuidzee door Spailboaten.

De hele wereld kan zich voeden met energie, de waterstof, mbv SB en Windriaan. SB en Windriaan zijn windomzetters die, de windkracht omzetten in spinning, respectievelijk draaiing van ronde lichamen tbv de aanmaak van hanteerbare energie als, elektra en daarna waterstof, LH2.

Wind? De Stille Zuidzee en Antarctica. E_kinetisch=1/2 M v^2, met M, massa, in kg en v, snelheid, in m/s en E_kinetisch in Joules. Voor windturbines geldt zelfs een macht drie! E_kin = M W^3. Met W als windsnelheid.

Daarnaast is er nog een wrijvingsloos wiel als spin off, ook te zien op genoemde site. De moeite waard. Holland redden is de wereld Spailboaten en Windriaans geven.

Windriaan is een normale windturbine geschikt voor zelfs de hardste wind ooit gemeten. Binnen Windriaan zijn de bladen aan de snelle kant ingeklemd.

Er staat dan dat Antarctica in beeld komt als waterstofbron voor de hele planeet.

Het waait nu eenmaal op de Stille Zuidzee, vooral zuidelijk.

Windriaan is reeds gemaakt in 2009 en getest in de jaren erna en Spailboat wordt heden gemaakt.

Hoogachtend,

ir Donald HJ Goudriaan

den haag

06-85861800

BOOK BOEK

vervolg hoofdstuk 4.

De Amsterdam Arena staat bekend om zijn slechte akoestiek en galm en nog meer van dat soort mode woorden, gebruikt door Madonna en alle anderen, behalve door, Michael Jackson, die geen enkele moeite had met zingen in de Arena. Het is dus een kwestie van zangkracht om de galm en de slechte akoestiek te overstemmen. That’s How Strong My Love Is, kwam van het hoofd-podium en in plaats van de piepstem van, Mick, met al mijn respect, klonk een volle stem van, Bernard Fowler, moeiteloos boven de band uit en voor het eerst kon de band een tandje bij zetten, zonder de vocale te overstemmen. Zichtbaar verrukt met de zang van, Bernard, deed Keith een schep erboven op en moeiteloos hield, Bernard, zich staande. Nu kon de band hard tegen hard spelen, want normaal past de band zich aan, aan, Mick. De ketting breekt immers bij de zwakste schakel, maar nu hoefden ze, Mick, niet te ontzien. Thats How Strong My Love Is, was nu een waar eerbetoon aan, Otis Redding, en het klonk zoals het hoort. Groots. Een statement in tijd. Wellicht was dit kwariertje het beste stuk muziek, ooit gespeeld. Dit was verreweg het beste stuk muziek dat ooit heb gehoord en zal ook waarschijnlijk nooit meer worden overtroffen. De, Stones, bereikten absolute topvorm en met Bernard als, “zwarte”, zanger, iets dat, Mick, het liefste zou zijn; donker en gezegend met een volle stem, kon, Keith, werkelijk blijven pompen. Iets dat ondenkbaar is met Mick, want toen, Mick, een keer alles uit de kast gooide, Utrecht, Vredenburg, een paar weken eerder tijdens het nummer, werd hij als gevolg prompt ziek. Iedereen, maar dan ook iedereen in het stadion stond genageld bij het horen van een ontketende, Bernard Fowler. Na, That’s How Strong My Love Is, gingen ze naar het midden-podium en op dat moment trok ik, Mono, weg van het veld, omdat hij, met werkelijk een ongekende onnozelheid, gewoon wilde blijven staan. Harry, en ook, Alan Dunn, hebben mij uitdrukkelijk en, met het nodige geweld, gedragsregels bijgebracht, maar, Mono, is onbereikbaar en weet van de prins geen kwaad. Als, Keith, door heeft dat er mensen op het veld staan, die er niet horen, is het definitief gedaan met mijn leven. Ik leef voor die sound-check momenten, en ik schik me tot het uiterste. Ik werk dan echt, en hard. Opruimen, helpen met timmeren! Harry, vertelde me dat, Keith, fans haat, omdat ze de diepgang van zijn muziek niet altijd zien en slechts het monster, met, Mick, als hoofd, aanbidden. In dat opzicht voelt, Keith, zich waarschijnlijk onbegrepen en tijdens een sound-check speelt, Keith, om de standaard op te krikken, zonder de massa-hysterie van het monster, de Stones in concert. Mono stond daar als fan, en dat is nu juist de overtreding die je niet mag maken tijdens een sound-check. Wat je niet wilt is dat ze oogje op je krijgen! Om ons dit niet te laten gebeuren, duwde ik, Mono, werkelijk direct en toch nog rustig, weg bij de eerste aanstalte van, Mister Richard, zich over de promenade naar het midden te bewegen. Keith, was zichtbaar in de wolken bij de zojuist verzorgde veel meer dan perfecte uitvoering, zeg maar een samenvatting van alles dat goed is uit de muziek van, Soul, nota benen. Een geheel andere kleur werd gespeeld en voor een moment zou je willen dat ze alleen, Soul, zouden spelen. En in die sferen liep, Mister Richards, naar mijn idee, volkomen relaxed naar het midden. En wij waren uit het gezichtsveld voordat zijn oog op ons viel. Maar natuurlijk zag hij ons wegglippen. De afstand voor ons te overbruggen was immers veel te groot. We doken weg in de gracht en verstopten ons in een kast. Ik legde, Mono, nog een keer uit waar het om te doen is. Wij zijn supporters van de band, geen idioten die er staan voor hun eigen genot. Wij moeten dit allemaal weten, omdat anders niemand het weet en het ooit te weten zou komen. Wij kunnen de band op hun vingers tikken en weten waar we het over hebben. Nooit spreken, altijd luisteren. Eeuwig concerten zien is de opdracht, om zoveel mogelijk de trend en de verschuivingen volgen. Niet om gezien te worden. En zeker niet in schril contrast met leeg stadion. Als obstakels in het lege veld. Nog vanuit het hoofd-podium was onze plek perfect. Een tiental meter voor de soundmixer en in camouflage kleuren. Zwart. En swingend. Bernard, was geweldig. Tot dan toe staken we niet af. Wel bij het oplopen van de promenade en dat was het geval.

 

Keith, wil niet dat er tijdens zijn vingeroefeningen op zijn vingers wordt gekeken. Maar Mono wilde gewoon blijven staan. En nog wel vlak bij het midden-podium, dus in schootsafstand van, Mister Richards en dat is niet goed tijdens een check voor zijn concentratie. Maar, Mono, wilde gewoon blijven staan, wilde gewoon blijven staan. En nog steeds snapt Mono niets van manieren en respect. Zijn ouders zijn echte burgers en hebben een hekel aan mij. Het feit dat Mono mij buitensluit doet me dit opschrijven. Mono leeft in een schijnwereld en heeft vooralsnog niet door, dat op het moment dat ik uit leven verdwijn er niets voor hem overblijft. Zuinig zijn op vriendschappen! Je mag van mij denken dat je alles bent, maar toon in ieder geval respect! Als antwoord op alle momenten, dat hij me belachelijk maakte sla ik terug met de pen. Mono, wie niet luisteren wil moet maar voelen. Zo ga je niet met vrienden om. We zijn gelijk en niemand is meer dan een ander, ook al denk je in je huidige psychose dat je alles bent, oude makker. En zie maar eens uit een roes te komen zonder waardigheidsverlies! Ook hiervoor ben je gewaarschuwd door mij! Slaan doe ik niet meer, maar, oh, oh, oh, wat zou ik hem hard hebben geslagen, tien jaar eerder. Mono, en de rest van de fans ontnemen de lucht. Mono, is een vriend, maar bovenal een ongemanierde onbeschofteling. Hij lijkt wel een, Duitser! Elke nuance ontgaat hem. In dit daglicht begrijp ik heel goed dat de fijnbesnaarde Engelsen de rest van, Europa, als achterlijke beesten zien. Mijn pijn is de te vergeefse pogingen, Mono, op te voeden. Nog steeds spreekt hij zonder schroom, Mister Watts, aan met, Charlie, en van gepaste afstand houden heeft Mono nog nooit gehoord. Hij heeft het wel gehoord maar kennelijk is Mono niet te bereiken voor welke vorm van kritiek ook. En uiteindelijk is er een schare fans gevormd rondom de, Stones, met mensen als, Mono. De fans zijn ongemanierd, ze lijken elke van elke opvoeding gespeend en zijn egoïstisch tot op het bot en zonder fatsoen et cetera. Zowel voor de hotels als op de eerste rijen in het stadion regeert het egoïsme. Geld heeft van een mooi leven een hel gemaakt. De mega-golf van vaste bezoekers, voor de hotels was relatief nieuw en de fans van weleer voelen zich steeds minder thuis in de opzichtig uitgedoste en veel te tevreden zijnde, zogenaamde fans. Harry, en ik zijn de gewezen frontsoldaten. De nieuwe schare fans bedient zich van geld om overal te komen. Wij deden dat op karakter, en dat is een groot verschil. Altijd was ik per openbaar vervoer, maar met, Mount, hadden we de auto in, Londen. Tijdens de eerste tournee leerde ik, Ken, waarschijnlijk kennen. Ken, was een potentiële, “vijand”, omdat hij destijds, in, 1994, voor de, Ritz Carlton, dichter dan ik bij de, Stones, stond. Ken, had al handtekeningen van Ronnie gekregen en een gesprek gehad. Ken, Libgart, Harry, Dirk en ik waren vanaf, 1990, overal waar de, Stones, zich bevonden en ik beschouwde ons als de vaste kern. De kern versplinterde dus in, Scandinavië. Alleen Libgart en ik bleven over. In, 1995, was ik met, Mount, in, London, met de auto. Het vreemde van het leven is dat de laatste jaren het snelst voorbij gaan. De periode van, 1990, tot en met, 1994, werden gevuld met mijn eerste jaren in de twintig en dan is de wereld op zijn mooist, omdat ik toen het meeste van de tijd genoot. Na een herhaling van zetten lijkt het of nieuwe ervaringen al eerder zijn gedaan en zo versnelt het verstrijken van de tijd. Van, 1994, tot, 1995, weet ik alles nog maar van, 1996, tot en met, 2003, niet meer zo veel, omdat de ervaringen al eerder waren opgedaan en het inderdaad op een herhaling van zetten leek. Maar niets is minder waar. In, 1998, Februari, ging ik met een vriend, Onno, naar, Houston, en daar stonden de Stones in een prachtige overdekte hal, Compaq Centre. Plotseling stond daar een breekbare, Mick Jagger die, Sister Morphine, zong op een manier die nog gegrift staat in mijn geheugen. Dit was geen show, dit was echt. Mick, verloor zichzelf compleet en, Sister Morphine, was nu vier minuten leven. Eerder ging ik eind, 1997, met mijn broer naar, L.A., en, Phoenix. We stonden midden in het veld en toen de brug kwam stonden we aan het kleine podium. Zoals gewoonlijk had, Harry, veel voorwerk gedaan. Freddie Sessler, die nu dood is, maar destijds in, Phoenix, woonde, verzorgde de kaarten. Hij kreeg deze kaarten via, Keith Richards, en het nummer van die laminates is, altijd, 22. U weet wel, misschien: Some friends of mine busted at the door, at the, 22nd, floor of the, Memory Motel. Ja de werkelijkheid en de illusies gaan hand in hand bij de, Stones, net als het verleden en het heden. We stonden aan de boxring in het midden en ze speelde, You Got Me Rocking [Now]. In een opwelling bedacht ik samen met mijn broer geschiedenis in de maak te zien. Ik raakte verrukt toen ik ontdekte dat de zogenaamde meezinger niet een bestaand nummer was, maar een nieuw Stones-nummer. Ze hadden het nog niet eerder gespeeld en testte het nummer uit in, Phoenix. Het was direct het hoogtepunt. Ik was enkele momenten daarvoor teleurgesteld dat de Stones, op zeker, gingen met een cover. Toen vertelde, Harry, dat, Saint of Me, een nieuw nummer was van de, Bridges to Babylon. Phoenix, 1997, was een feest. De daarop volgende optredens in het gigantische Dodger Stadium was zo mogelijk nog beter. De akoestiek was geweldig onder de ringen van het stadion. Half in de catacomben, helemaal tegen de gang-way aan van de eerste ring was het geluid en vooral de drum van, Charlie, prachtig. De vrienden van, Harry, doorgewinterde motorrijders, zaten genoegzaam te genieten en iedereen was blij en gelukkig. De, Stones, flikten het weer. Een paar maanden later ging mijn broer, uit pure angst, niet mee en zegde vrij laat af. Nu ging ik dus met een vriend van mijn broer naar, Houston, daar waar, Sister Morphine, uit het rek werd gepakt voor maar een reden. Bespelen. Mick, had liefdes verdriet en zoals altijd, met de Stones, is de muziek de uitlaatklep. Mick, stond met zijn ziel onder zijn armen en gaf zich helemaal bloot aan de verbouwereerde Amerikanen. Kenmerkend was ook de dubbele toegift. Plotseling stapte, Keith, naar voren en zette, You Can’t Always Get What You Want, in, en, Mick, stond bijna te janken en moest door. Als, Keith, begint volgt iedereen. In, Houston, begonnen de, Stones, aan hun vrije val op weg naar, onsterflijkheid. Dit was geen show meer, dit was pure overleving van een, lead-zanger. Mick, werd letterlijk door zijn liefdes verdriet heen geloodst door de muziek, zijn muziek. Tijdens de, No Security Tour, werd het duidelijk. You Got The Silver, werd door Keith gezongen omdat Mick het niet kon opbrengen. De leadzanger zag er zo breekbaar en verdrietig uit dat niemand eigenlijk door had wat er eigenlijk aan de hand was. Wel werd duidelijk dat de komende Stones-concerten delicate gebeurtenissen zouden worden en dit werd onderstreept door het gevoel waarmee werd gespeeld. Plotseling werd, When The Whip Comes Down, Mick’s uitlaatklep. Zo hard heb ik de Stones nog nooit horen spelen. Veel mensen verlieten de zaal, in Boston, de, Fleet Centre, en dat gebeurde een paar dagen later ook in, Hartford. When The Whip Comes Down, werd vol overgave gespeeld en mij werd duidelijk dat Mick het zwaar had het met de scheiding van, Jerry Hall, en zoals altijd komt liefdesverdriet de muziek, die dat onderschrijft ten goede. Terwijl ik dit schrijf zijn mijn gedachten bij, “mijn”, meisje. In werkelijkheid is ze allang uit mijn leven, maar er zijn van die momenten dat tijd niet bestaat en dan ga ik moeiteloos terug in de tijd. Ik voel haar dan. In plaats van mijn miezerige bestaan op te sommen had ik met haar de liefde willen bedrijven. Maar de stomme zet was al gemaakt, het was uit en ik had het uit gemaakt. Dit schrijven is een vervanging voor het hunkerende gevoel naar de liefde. Zelfs nu nog wordt inspiratie afgegeven door de verschijning van, Moniwi. Ergens hoop ik dat ze mij ook nog voelt. Met name als ik orde op zaken heb gesteld in mijn werk en in het huishouden en er niets anders rest dan rust, dan vraagt mijn lichaam om haar. Mijn lichaam vraagt zich vertwijfeld af waarom ze er niet meer is. Elke vezel schreeuwt om haar. En mijn verstand weet het intussen ook niet meer. Ik draaf dus maar door. Want ik weet dat we elkaar ooit weer treffen en de rekeningen vereffenen. Al is het in het bejaarde huis, dat maakt me niet uit. Tijd bestaat immers niet. Terug naar, London, en wel naar, 1995. Het middagdutje in het hotel van, Ken, kwam goed uit. Vanaf de camping gebruikten we het openbaar vervoer, omdat het niet te doen is met de auto in binnenstad. We waren met de auto en de camping, waar we overnachtten lag buiten de binnenstad, nog wel binnen London city, op een heuvel vlakbij een grote zendmast. Het verblijf was indrukwekkend maar zwaar. Ook door het moordende tempo waarin de concerten elkaar op volgden. De heenreis was al een kwelling. Op, Vrijdag-middag, zouden we, via, Hoek van Holland, naar, Harwich, varen. Deze boot vertrekt om zeven uur in de avond en ik wist dit. Zei het ook. Volgens, Mount, hadden we tijd genoeg en zoals gewoonlijk luisterde hij niet en zodoende kwamen we te laat bij de haven. We besloten door te rijden naar Duinkerken. Ook daar was de boot al weg en we vervolgden onze weg naar, Calais. Daar vertrok de boot wel maar het was intussen na twaalf uur en ik had de pest in. Waarom zo veel moeite? Als, Mount, had geluisterd konden we al lekker slapen in, London. Nu was de heenreis een kwelling, te meer omdat ik geen overwicht had. Dit terwijl ik de reis naar, Londen, meerdere malen heb ondernomen en, Mount, nog geen keer. Hoe kwam het toch dat Mount zo uit de hoogte opereerde? Was het zijn onzekerheid of was het dat hij zich superieur voelde. Het is inderdaad typisch het gedrag van een nakomertje. Ja, Mount, was eigenaar van de auto en zo besliste hij het tijdstip van vertrek. Ik was die dag versneld uit, Wezep, alwaar ik gelegerd was in die tijd, vertrokken. Na de ontberingen van het leger moest ik nu opboksen tegen de arrogante, Mount. Ook hij begrijpt niets van loyaliteit en nuances. Een boerenkinkel! Ik maakte een misrekening. Mount, en, Mono, lijken veel op elkaar. Er zijn mensen die zich overal en tegen wie dan ook, moeten bezien of er valt te manifesteren. Het lijkt voort te komen aan een gebrek aan levensvreugde en tekortkomingen. Het zijn net knotwilgen. Ze veranderen van rein, sterk en vreugde vol naar kleine veldheertjes. Het lijkt alsof ze hun beperkte bestaan willen compenseren met macht en manifestatie drang. Ik daarentegen sluit mijn ogen en zie de film van belevenissen voorbij trekken en ben dan tevreden en heb geen drang om iemand te koeioneren. In mijn nobele drang anderen deel uit te laten maken van een werkelijk fantastisch leven vergeet ik steeds een klein dingetje. Mensen willen wel feestvieren, maar passen voor de ontberingen, die daaraan voorafgaan. Ingegeven door de beperkingen, die zijn opgelegd tijdens hun vroegere jaren, lijkt voor hen een wereld te zijn geschapen, waarin afknijpen en saboteren centraal zijn. Als ik geen geluk heb, dan mag jij het ook niet hebben. In plaats van open staan voor avonturen, stellen ze van tevoren vast dat ze niet willen. Ze zijn zogenaamd tevreden met hun miezerige bestaan. Ik daarentegen heb veel ontberingen doorstaan en de beloning was altijd een opperste staat van geluk, die alle inspanningen vergoelijkt. Die spirit probeerde ik over te brengen, maar in plaats van avonturen te beleven werd ik meegezogen in het allerdaagse patroon, dat jaar in jaar uit hetzelfde zal zijn. Ik wist toen nog niet dat ik een kleurrijk leven leidde dat voort kwam uit hard werken en afspraken nakomen. Ondanks dat ik de schijn tegen had, ik had per ongeluk lang haar gekregen, doordat ik het te druk had om te gaan zitten op de kappersstoel en hoorde van meisjes dat het me goed stond. Never change a winning team! Ik werkte naast schooltijd gewoon bijna veertig uur en ging om met volwassenen, eigenlijk mijn hele leven al. Ik verliet eigenlijk te vroeg het ouderlijk huis, na een schermutseling, maar toch behield ik de normen en waarden van Moeder en Vader. Men kon op me rekenen en ik had goede verstandhoudingen met mijn baas, doordat ik handig was met gereedschap en altijd hard werkte. Dit had ik geleerd in de werkplaats. Dat ik veel te hard werkte zou ik later gaan beseffen. De gulden middenweg probeer ik heden te bewandelen. Gelukkig had ik altijd werk en werd bij wijze van spreken overal gevraagd. Ik leerde vroeg de kneepjes, doordat ik leergierig was en er van overtuigd was dat het me later van pas zou komen. Ik luisterde naar mensen. Ik was de ideale onderbetaalde stille kracht. En ik dacht, dat dit zo hoorde, als je jong was. Mijn oom en ik werden tot elkaar veroordeeld, door de werkplaats van mijn opa. Maar nooit heeft mijn oom zich werkelijk ingespannen mij tot een meubelmaker op te leiden. Dat recht was voorbestemd voor zijn zoon. Ik leed. Altijd dacht ik dat ik voor het bedrijf moest vechten. Ik kreeg werkelijk de meest vervelende klusjes, jaar in, jaar uit. Ik moest opruimen en brandhout verzamelen voor zijn open haard en ik noemde brandhout vuren, bij wijze van woordspeling. Want toevallig was het brandhout, vuren! Mijn oom werd boos op me door die grap. Ik was vijf jaar oud! Ik begreep toen nog niets van stress. Achteraf was ik blind geweest, want ook de middelste zoon had klaarblijkelijk een bloedhekel aan me. Ik dacht dat familie een band vormde! Maar nogmaals, later leerde ik dat die gedachte zeer naïef was. Het gaat ook binnen een familie bedrijf om de macht! Op mijn zeventiende werd ik min of meer gedwongen, door de aanhoudende en dus permanente gedachten stoornis in de gang van zaken rond het familie bedrijf, te gaan werken bij een andere aannemer. Toen we weer een verbouwing van een hotel hadden geklaard bezweek de aannemer onder de spanning en later bleek dat hij alcoholist was en het niet meer zag zitten. Ik nam de afwerking voor mijn rekening en leverde de hotelkamers op. Ik vond het heel normaal om door te werken, maar wist wel dat ik gezegend was met de juiste stoel voor dit soort dingen. Ik groeide nagenoeg op in een meubel-makerij en timmer-werkplaats. Mijn vader is bouwkundige en begenadigd tekenaar en zodoende kon ik aardig timmeren en tekenen. Het laatste werd door de boerenkinkels niet als een volwaardig beroep gezien. Want mijn vader was niet kapot als hij thuis kwam en de timmerende vaders van mijn neefjes waren geheel uitgeblust als ze thuis kwamen. Zodoende was bouwkundig tekenaar niet een echt beroep. Nogmaals, het maakte niet uit wat er was, ik viel altijd buiten de boot.

Door mijn neefjes werd ik min of meer gedwongen in mijn eigen wereld te vertoeven en zocht aansluiting bij mijn veel oudere neven. Dit bleek een slechte zet. Want juist deze neven waren zeer gevaarlijk. Ze stookten me op tot verschrikkelijke daden en lachten zich suf. Ik was altijd bewust en speelde voornamelijk het spel mee. Toen de jongste van de drie zich ineens seksueel ging bemoeien met me, was toch echt de boot aan. Zo word je vroeg volwassen. Eigenlijk vertoefde ik via het werk aan de boten en in de meubel-makerij altijd in een groep oudere mensen. Het wonderlijke van die periode is de plotselinge waardering van een, “vreemde”, aannemer. Hij beloonde me zeer goed en ook werden de instructies op een menselijke manier gebracht. Voor even dacht ik in de maling te worden genomen, maar kennelijk benaderde deze aannemer mij met respect. Deze aannemer was Engels! Geen grap. Ook later, toen ik bij de catamaran importeur werkte werd ik geattendeerd, door nota bene de klanten, dat ik me niet zo moest laten afbeulen voor het bedrijf en zeker niet voor die drie gulden per uur, terwijl de kerk-genootjes rustig vijf gulden per uur verdienden. En zij konden niet eens zeilen, laat staan een boot repareren of verkopen! Mijn moeder zei het treffend: “Al moest je geld toegeven, nog had je daar gewerkt.” Ik zag het inderdaad als een eer. En ook bij haar broer in de werkplaats werd ik verkankerd, maar ook daar kon geen stok me weghouden. Dit was het bedrijf van opa en ik kon moeilijk ergens anders gaan werken. Dat zou in mijn beleving verraad zijn. Nu hebben zijn kinderen zelf kinderen en volgens mijn moeder komt de grief vanzelf. Ik kon me gewoon niet indenken dat iemand anders niet het beste met me voor heeft. Mijn vader was dus een ongelooflijk goede man. Aan hem heb ik te danken het vertrouwen te behouden. Ik dacht dat iedereen wel zelf kon zien hoe de vork in de steel zat, maar vanaf toen werd ik me langzaam bewust van subjectieve waarneming en vooroordelen. Niet ik, maar zijn jongste zoon zal en moet slagen. En nu, anno, 2005, denken ze daar nog steeds dat ze het goed hebben gedaan en geloof het of niet, mijn oom is nog steeds even dom. Hij is intussen zeventig en denkt nog steeds over de eeuwige jeugd te beschikken en net als toen klinken modewoorden toch wel zeer verkeerd uit de mond van een senior. Ik dacht destijds dat hij grapte, maar kennelijk geloofde hijzelf, dat hij populair was, onder zijn crew. De vriendjes van zoonlief onderhielden een schone en klinische baas-knecht relatie en deden precies genoeg. Aan het einde van de dag werd geld uitgedeeld! Op een gegeven moment snapte ik er niets meer van, ik werkte me het apenzuur en dat was nooit genoeg. Ik was zeventien en feitelijk al verneukt. Gekrenkt tot op het bot en vernederd waar mogelijk. Toch zat ik er niet mee, want meisjes hebben niets te maken met rare ooms en ander soort familie gespuis. Als een meisje me leuk vond, dan was dat zo. Mijn waarheid. Ik was gek op meisjes! En zij op mij! Deze zegenreeks overstemde de ontberingen in de fabriek. Ik ging langzaam beseffen dat ik een leven had, waar veel mensen slechts over konden dromen. Waarschijnlijk jaloezie van mijn oom en neven heeft geleid tot onderdrukking. Toch konden ze me niet echt raken, want als het te erg werd, dan ging ik weg. Ik leerde tijdens de Stones-tour van, 1990, dat elke dag een feest is en dat als het hier stopt, het ergens anders gewoon weer verder gaat. Bovendien voelde ik een soort medelijden. Ik vond het triest dat mensen zo denken. Maar nu weet ik dat dat niet mijn verantwoording is. Toen dacht ik daar klaarblijkelijk anders over en keerde keer op keer de andere wang toe. Ja, op een gegeven moment dacht ik inderdaad, Christus, te zijn. Mijn moeder greep toen hard in en zette me weer op het juiste spoor. Nu ben jij aan de beurt, zei ze. En nu ben ik al tien jaar weg uit, Zaandam, en heel langzaam kan ik van een afstand de gang van zaken bekijken en tot mijn verbazing is niemand veranderd! Ik kan eigenlijk nog steeds niet geloven dat mensen zo blind kunnen zijn. In het leven is alles mogelijk. Alles. Ja alles. Maar toch proberen ze me uit te leggen dat, dat niet waar is. Kijk, tijdens mijn pubertijd was ik dyslectisch en las geen boek. Ik kon niet voorlezen en de regels zaten veel te dicht op elkaar om uit elkaar te houden. Dat kostte me destijds de, VWO-opleiding. Nu ben ik afgestudeerd in, Delft, en schrijf een boek! Wie zegt mij nog dat niet alles mogelijk is? En bovendien werd ik door mijn rol als slaaf, als fokkenmaat op de catamaran van mijn neef, officieus wereld kampioen zeilen. We wonnen van de hele wereldtop, in de eerlijkste massale race voor catamarans. Anders dan bij rondje Texel, de grootste catamaranrace ter wereld, waar de snelle boten door de getijdenstroom om het eiland worden gezet en dus heel veel voordeel behalen door de omstandigheden, is, Hoek van Holland-Scheveningen-Hoek van Holland, een eerlijke race, met voor alle boten dezelfde stroming. Die race wonnen we dus en daarmee waren we dus de beste catamaran-zeilers ter wereld in, 1988. Mijn leeftijdgenoten begonnen nu langzaam met meisjes om te gaan, terwijl ik dit al lange tijd deed. Ook werd duidelijk dat het voor hen een ware obsessie bleek. Ze wilden wel, maar het lukte ze niet. Het opstandige van een puber komt voort uit de manifestatie drang. Ik had daar geen behoefte aan. Ik had letterlijk de wind in de zeilen en kende een gelukkig leven. Ik mocht alles en kon alles proberen. Op school ging alles goed en ook de primitieve behoeften werden ruimschoots bevredigd. Op zaterdag was het feest, dan kwamen de klanten de boten ophalen. De rijkelui dochters kwamen mee voor mij. Prachtig opgemaakt waren ze en het spel van de uitdaging was normaal in mijn leven. Ik kan me ook slecht voorstellen hoe een leven zonder die spanning zou zijn verlopen. De kennismaking met, Mount, heeft me wakker geschud. Deze jongen heeft dus nooit gerotzooid met een meisje, maar heeft het de hele dag over seks en vind zichzelf een hele bink. Waarop hij dat stoelt is me nog steeds een raadsel. Waarschijnlijk is dat omdat hij een nakomertje is en dat gedrag kende ik nog ergens van. Ophemeling voor niet gedane zaken leidt tot een verwend jongetje. Ik kan rustig verklaren dat ik geen idee had dat mensen spanningen hadden. Als, Mount, in het nauw zit dan komt de hyperventilatie en gaat in een geoorloofde slachtoffer-rol zitten. Het bekende alibi. Hiermee heeft hij klaarblijkelijk altijd succes gehad. Mount, drijft altijd maar mee op initiatieven van anderen en is een beetje kleurloos. Maar toch probeert hij boven je te staan. Bovenal is Mount een beetje aandoenlijk en eerlijk tot op zekere hoogte. Achter mijn rug om word ik nog steeds belachelijk gemaakt. Toen hij me mee hielp met de bouw van mijn huis bleek dat hij niet kon werken. In plaats van erkenning van dit hiaat, ging hij blokkeren. Hij stuurde steeds aan op discussies en nam gewoon niets van mij aan. Dit terwijl ik meerdere verbouwingen heb gedaan en wel degelijk wist waar ik het over had. Maar dat geeft allemaal niets. Het mag de pret niet drukken. Alles is vergeten en vergeven. Dit schrijven gaat over een leven van een harde werker, die niet als zodanig wordt erkend, door de simpele reden dat mensen geen idee hebben van wat er allemaal in een mensenleven kan gebeuren. Zoals de waard is …….Ga toch mee op tournee! Mick, en, Keith, laten zien dat alles kan.

De jaren zijn vol en kleurrijk, maar geven geen garantie voor toekomstige avonturen. Mijn strijd om mijn vrienden te kennen in het briljante leven, smoren, omdat ze bang zijn en ontwetend. Gedurende mijn omgang met Mount was ik mild. Tot nu dus. De druppel werd bereikt in de zomer van, 2003, toen hij breeduit verkondigde, dat Amsterdam de plaats is waar alles gebeurt. De kleine kring van, Mount, is opgerekt met een tiental kilometers. Intussen heb ik de wetten van de, Rijnmond, Den Haag, en, het, Westland, moeten doorstaan en weet daardoor dat er naast, Amsterdam, nog een tweede en derde stad bestaat. En ook daar, of liever hier, denken ze ook dat ze het middelpunt van de planeet zijn. Mensen zijn dus een beetje gek. De onwetendheid leidt tot verstikking en stigmatisering. In plaats dat ik mijn vrienden naar een gelijk niveau van geluk heb weten te brengen, is mij het ongeluk van deze personen ten deel gevallen. Na tien jaar weet ik wat het is ongelukkig te zijn. Met de afgang van mij als persoonlijkheid lijken zij een beetje zelfvertrouwen te hebben gekregen en de geschiedenis dreigt zich te herhalen. Strebertjes willen de beste zijn, maar als de zogenaamde gereedschapskist niet is gevuld met het juiste gereedschap, is dat een verloren strijd. Eerst oefenen, dan oogsten. Toch moet ik mijzelf nog bijna dagelijks verweren tegen betweters en dooddoeners. Misschien daag ik ze onbewust uit. Telkens als ze willen doordrukken doe ik een stap opzij of laat even wat zien. Die strijd gaat waarschijnlijk altijd door. De overeenkomst met de Stones tijdens de jaren tachtig doet zich voor. Ik berust in mijn lot en wacht mijn kans af. Toen de Stones openden in, Rotterdam, werd in een enkele minuut een basis gelegd voor mijn zelfvertrouwen. Ik wist dat de, Stones, de allerbeste band waren, maar stond daarin wel alleen. Na, Start Me Up, wist ik het zeker, dit is het beste wat er is. Maar tot mijn schrik vatten mensen het optreden op als slechts een willekeurige dag in het leven, terwijl toch duidelijk was dat ze een vervelende periode afsloten en zich met alle macht wilden profileren als het bandje dat beter is dan de Beatles. In tegenstelling tot het leren van een algemene les voor de mensheid, dat het goed altijd overwint, gingen de mensen weer over tot de orde van de dagelijkse sleur. Mijn leven kreeg opnieuw kleur door de kracht van het concert, in, Rotterdam, en ik voelde dat er eindeloos veel meer gezocht kan worden in dergelijke gebeurtenissen. Ik wilde geen carrière, omdat ik carrière maakte en dus zocht ik er niet naar. Voor mij was het optreden een geschenk. Ik voelde de krachten terugstromen en kreeg zelfbewustheid. Wat ik vond, mocht bij wijze van wonder ook gevonden worden! Het gekraak van mijn familie werd simpelweg overstemd door de kracht van mijn muziek. Ik zag overal in Europa dat er veel mensen waren, met de voorkeur voor mijn muziek. Bevestiging! Ik wist dat de gebeurtenissen later die tournee in, Zweden, en, Noorwegen, veel waarde voor me hadden, als mens. Ik zag de verborgen wensen van mensen en constateerde overal ter wereld dezelfde kenmerken. De mensen willen warmte, liefde, geborgenheid en een klankbord. Ze willen gelukkig zijn en geluk komt in alle vormen. Als men maar open staat. Tijdens Stones concerten heerst een harmonie tussen mensen onderling. Ze wachtten gedwee op wat komen gaat en proberen elkaar in de wachttijd te plezieren door middel van humor en attenties. Dit is mijn wereld. Ik werd door iedereen in de armen gesloten en sloot op mijn beurt ook iedereen in de armen. Ik zorgde tijdens concerten dat kleine mensen toch vooraan stonden en gaf een plectrum weg aan een invalide jongen, die daar zeer blij mee was. Zo hoort het, dacht ik. Je geeft weg wat het meest dierbaar is, omdat dat het meeste waard is. Van geven word je rijker, zo leerde ik van mijn oma. En het was waar. Nog steeds geeft het een goed gevoel mensen te laten delen in het geluk. Voor mij was duidelijk dat touren door, Europa, het leukste is wat een mens kan doen. Mijn helden speelden alle zorgen en vergetelheid van me af en ik mocht kijken en meegenieten van een immense levenskracht. Na, 1990, was ik een gesterkt man. Niemand kon me omver stoten. Maar openstaan voor het ongewisse is niet iedereen gegeven, bijna niemand. Achteraf heb ik geluk gehad met mensen als, Harry, en, Libgart, die overal heen gingen en geen kans onbenut lieten.

Mount, neemt mij niet serieus en weet alles beter. Eenmaal aangekomen in, Dover, besloten we om een uur te liggen in de berm, om toch enigszins wat rust te krijgen. We moesten immers naar Londen en we hadden nog geen kaartjes. Om precies twaalf uur in de middag stonden we bij een verkooppunt midden in de stad en na de aanschaf van de kaartjes gingen we naar een camping op de heuvel om in te schrijven en daarna direct door naar, Wembley Stadium. Claire, was al binnen en ik had een plan. Toen, Mount, en ik met ieder een plateau bier zonder blikken of blozen naar voren liepen om bij, Claire, aan te sluiten, gaven de beleefde Engelsen ons genoeg ruimte om helemaal naar voren te lopen. Het was alsof de zee zich open trok en zich daarna direct weer afsloot. Nog nooit was de weg naar voren zo mooi geregeld als toen. We waren laat, eigenlijk veel te laat, de reden is inmiddels bekend, maar toch slaagden we erin helemaal naar voren te lopen. Met dank aan de beleefde Engelsen. Plotseling zag ik, Claire, en toen we haar begroetten en plaats namen aan de barrier veerde iedereen op het veld op. We waren net op tijd. En weer stond ik vooraan. Ook zal ik nooit vergeten hoe toen ik doelbewust genoot van, Piccadilly Circus, en, Oxford Street, en hoe ik eindeloos genoot van de metro. De metro, waarschijnlijk een relikwie van de moderne tijd, blijft altijd zoals de eerste keer. Een tijdmachine, ingekleed door de geweldige advertenties, die de reis in de tijdmachine aanpassen aan de dag van vandaag. Die eerste keer alleen in London, wat een ervaring was dat. De advertenties in de metro en op de stations maken waarachtig een sprookjesachtige en illustere sfeer, waarin je jezelf deel uit voelt maken van de reden waarom die dingen er hangen. De metro en Piccadilly Circus, met de beelden van, Bowie, en, Jagger. De leeuwen aanraken, althans de standbeelden, die op volgens mij ergens bij, Piccadilly, stonden opgesteld deden en doen mij beseffen dat het moment blijft hangen en dat het leven voorbij gaat en de standbeelden nog blijven. Het was toen al vreemd maar nu nog vreemder, omdat ik dit altijd op de voorgrond heb weten te houden, als het ware een trofee van het reizen. Die middag tussen de concert-dagen in verliep feitelijk niet anders dan de middag met, Ken. Slapen nee maar rusten wel, dat kon als een wonder midden in het centrum. Ken, had de kamer. Het is vreselijk om te erkennen dat ik nooit fit ben overdag en dat ik ‘s avonds even tot leven kom. Altijd te kort aan slaap, en altijd te moe om fris van de dingen te genieten. Toch prentte ik in me hoofd dat de beste herinneringen blijven hangen als je heel moe bent. Wat dat betreft is de bouw van mijn huis en de tour door Amerika goed opgeslagen. Ik was te moe om iets anders te doen dan doorgaan en hopen dat ik op een dag mijn rust vond. Een, 777, heeft een massa van, 300, ton. Dit is de maximale massa van windsurfmachine, van, 50, meter, lengte, en, dus, mogen er geen overbodige bewegende onderdelen inzitten : wat dan betekent dat er zo weinig mogelijk vijzels in mogen zitten. En juist dit gegeven leidde tot ene ring met bladen. De eerste concerten in, 1990, in Engeland waren in, Wembley Stadium, en de, Rolling Stones, speelden er vijf keer, uiteindelijk. De Wembley-shows waren in het weekend. Zodoende duurde de geplande tijd in, Londen, zestien dagen, verdeeld over drie weekenden. Niet veel herinner ik me van het eerste concert, het was pompeus als altijd en goed. Door een blessure van Keith werden concerten van de tweede en derde week, “postponed”, ofwel uitgesteld. Zodoende was de finale van de tour in, Wembley. Dit was eind augustus, uiteindelijk. Onbewust duid ik aan dat de trip naar Engeland inderdaad meerdere keren is gemaakt. Ook al tijdens de, Secret Club Tour, van, Keith, in, 1992, maakte ik de overtocht. De concerten van, Keith, als, soloartiest, waren massief. Het was in de, Town and Country Club, en ik wist waar dat was, omdat, Dan Reed, het voorprogramma van de, Stones in, 1990, nadat ze, GUN, aflosten in Schotland, daar had gespeeld. Dan Reed trakteerde zijn fans op een super show. Het publiek mocht van de bassist aan de snaren plukken en de hits werden meegezongen, geschreeuwd alsof hij de Messias zelve was. Het concert van Dan Reed [Dan Reed Network] in de, Town and Country Club, was fantastisch. Ik stond aan de zijkant op een verhoging. Noodgedwongen moest ik ergens zitten, de reden is bekend en ik vond een perfecte locatie. Ik kon alles goed gade slaan en, Dan Reed, trok van leer. Hij zweepte de, “crowd“, op en genoot, van wat hij zelf noemde, zijn eigen publiek. Een kwinkslag naar de lauwe ontvangst van het Stones publiek. Het slechtste publiek voor voor-programma’s, omdat de fans zich af zetten tegen de boycot van bijna alle radio en televisie zenders als het komt tot de muziek van de, Stones. Dit, omdat, Jagger, alles in eigen hand houdt en dat de royalties naar, Mick, gaan. Bovendien is Stones-muziek overheersend en dat past niet in de lijn van radiozenders. Zij willen iedereen te vriend houden. Op de radio wordt de zogenaamde outro van een nummer weggedraaid en juist daarin zit de kracht van de, Stones. De opluchting van, Stonesfans, om de, Stones, weer te zien, na acht jaar, was voelbaar, en de klanken van de muziek werden geïnhaleerd als zuurstof. Het is bijna eng om te beschrijven wat voor een soort euforie de tour van, 1990, te weeg bracht als de Stones op kwamen. Ja, het voorprogramma werd klaarblijkelijk aangekeken als doener van dat kwaad, omdat zij geen last hadden van de keuze heren van de radio en televisie. Eerder vertelde, Dan Reed, dat ik zeker bij zijn concert moest zijn, want dan kon ik met eigen ogen zien hoe hij zijn muziek bedoelde. Zijn publiek ging mee in de waanzin en dat was precies de bedoeling van, Dan Reed. Zijn teksten zijn diepzinnig en zijn muziek beladen. Met het aanbreken van de finale was het publiek al uitzinnig en schreeuwde om ieder volgend nummer. Het duurde en het duurde, maar iedere minuut was genieten. Dan Reed sprong heen en weer, net zoals hij dat doet op de grote stage van de Stones en gebruikte de energie van de menigte om zichzelf nog verder op te pompen. Op het hoogtepunt van de show, zo tegen het einde werd ik verlegen. Dit was inderdaad geweldig. Maar, zo dacht ik, dit kan hij niet volhouden. En helaas, die gedachte kwam uit. Terug in, L.A., hief, Dan Reed, de band op. In 2008, vroeg, Dan Reed, naar me, toen hij Harry sprak in L.A.. Ik kreeg de groeten van, Dan Reed, en dat deed me goed.

 

Harry, en, David, waren bij de opening geweest in, Rotterdam, in, 1990, en hebben toen mijn vlag gezien. We kenden elkaar toen nog niet. In de rij bij de, “turnstyle’s”, van Wembley herkenden ze waarschijnlijk de vlag en we raakten in gesprek. Tijdens de eerste twee concerten in, Wembley, had ik de vlag nog. Het was een grote vlag, twee meter bij een meter. Ik sliep eronder, soms was het een deken, zoals in, Oslo, in de bossen. Wachten bij de, “turnstile’s”, in, Wembley, met de vlag aan de hekken als baken. Het stadion lag verhoogd op een groot soort terp en kon worden beslecht over een stadion-ring-groot brede trappen. Wij wachtten boven aan de trappen. Tijdens de laatste concerten van, 1990, waren Harry, David, en ik zo ingeburgerd, dat we zonder noemenswaardige problemen voor niets het stadion binnen gingen en toen mochten we getuigen zijn van de eerste sound-check, voor mij dan. Een geheel leeg stadion en plotseling staan daar, Keith, in een spijkerbroek en, Mick, in een duur trainingspak. Verbazingwekkend was het nonchalance en ontspannenheid waarmee ze stonden te spelen. In, Berlijn, deed, Pierre, de sound-check en speelde een riff van, U2. Hij klonk goed, zeer goed zelfs. Ik liet me vertellen dat de sound-check in, Wembley, door de, Stones, zelf een beloning voorstelde voor de crew. Tot mijn verbazing speelden ze, Tumblin’ Dice, en, daarna jamden ze nog wat. Het gitaarspel ging onophoudelijk door en, Keith, was, zoals ik daarna ervoer, gewoon blij dat hij die middag kon spelen. Daarin ligt de kracht van de, Stones. Keith, houdt er gewoon van om lekker te jammen met zijn band. Mick, staat bij de sound-checks er ietwat gekleineerd bij, omdat Keith zich nergens wat van aan trekt en eindeloos door kan gaan. Als dan Ronnie meedraait op de riffs van Keith en Charlie valt in, dan is er ineens die massieve sound van een band, die beter is dan de Beatles en dus beter dan iedere andere band. Ze maken de standaard en de eenvoud waarmee ze dat deden, en de ontspannenheid, deed me peinzen. Waarom van alle nummers weer, Tumblin’ Dice? Het nummer heeft veel tekortkomingen. De solo is standaard en vormt feitelijk de blauwdruk van de, Rock ’N Roll, van de, Stones. Uiteindelijk in, Leipzig, in het jaar, 2003, begreep ik ineens wat van de kracht van, Tumblin’ Dice. Als het goed wordt gespeeld. Lacherig besefte ik dat na een keer of duizend het nummer te hebben gespeeld eindelijk de finale vorm werd aangenomen. Keith, speelde riff over riff en vuurde de salvo’s af met dodelijke precisie en snelheid. Ronnie, Wood, werd stil en keek alleen maar naar de handen de meester. In, Leipzig, werd een nieuwe hoogte bereikt. Charlie, was daarop de kluts kwijt tijdens, Street Fighting Man, en, Keith, was in zijn nopjes. Dit cadeau was een geschenk uit de hemel, zo leek hij te denken. Een brede grijns betoverde zijn gezicht en zichtbaar in zijn element banjerde hij als een schooljongen heen en weer op de stage, tijdens, Street Fighting Man, in het midden op het veld. Keith Richards’ stoutste dromen leken uiteindelijk uit komen. Zijn muziek bereikte een nieuw niveau. De sleutel ligt bij de stuw van de riffs van de gitarist en het tempo waarmee hij speelt. In, Leipzig, 2003, voerde hij direct na de opening het tempo op. Hij was in bloedvorm en de rest van de band, inclusief Jagger snakte naar adem en smeekte om vertraging. Die kwam niet meer. Charlie, raakte de kluts kwijt tijdens, Street Fighting Man, en, Keith, attendeerde, Ronnie. Samen daagden ze, Charlie, uit. Dit was waarschijnlijk het mooiste moment van alle concerten welke ik heb mogen meemaken. Onverstoorbaar drumde, Charlie, door. Drie minuten duren lang als je onder vuur legt. Ik zag, Charlie, modderen, want ik was samen met, Harry, naar het midden van het veld gelopen en we stonden op drie meter afstand van de drummer. Het is waarachtig een spel van kat en muis, Rock ’N Roll. Het maakt in het heetst van de strijd niet zoveel meer uit. Gaan, gaan, gaan en nog eens gaan. Niet zoveel nadenken, volgen is het belangrijkste. Het begon, in, Rotterdam, in, 1990. Daarna vertrok ik naar, London. Mijn eerste schooljaar op de, HTS, ging verloren. Ik was met de, Stones, op tournee, sinds eind mei. De tentamen-periode van, Juni, liet ik voor wat het was. Toen de roffels, Wembley-Stadium, vulden was het waarschijnlijk twee, drie of vier uur in de middag. Ik weet echt niet meer hoe laat het was. Ik stond op om twee uur ’s middags, althans de dagen ervoor, maar op concert-dag was het vroeg geweest. Langs de weg van het, Apollo Hotel, tot aan het metro station stond een hoog gebouw met ervoor opgesteld een grote wereldbol, die draaide en licht gaf. Aan deze zijde van de weg was een broodjeszaak en ik kocht er ’s ochtends broodjes. Later niet meer, want het geld raakte snel op en belegde broodjes zijn duur. Vanuit hartje, London, is het een lange weg naar, Wembley. De eerste stop is geweest, Gloucester road. Ik zat in, Hotel Apollo, en het bestaat nog. Het station en het hotel lagen op zevenhonderd meter van elkaar. Er tegenover was de kroeg waar ik meedronk op zaterdagavond en half dronken de boksers op de schilderijen uit de jaren vijftig argwanend bekeek, want dit was Engeland waar ongeveer alle sporten worden uitgevonden, dus ook boksen en ik moest de nobelheid van de bokssport en dus ook van Engeland´s veroveringsdrift en gewelddadigheid van het eiland in mijn hoofd tot verantwoording roepen. Ik was immers gek van, Engeland, maar had een hekel aan boksen. Laat staan het imperialisme, dat ze, good old England, erop na houdt. De keiharde leuzen in de, W.C., boezemen angst in en oplettendheid. Eigenlijk was het precies als in, Nederland. Imponeren van de ene op de andere. De leuzen geven kennis van een individu, die mooi van zich afschrijft op de toilet en hiermee een beetje zelfwaardering probeert op te roepen. Graffiti is de uitingsvorm van dat individu en wil betekenis geven aan het bestaan van ieder individu. Ook tijdens dat bezoek aan de kroeg en overal in de wereld gelden de dezelfde regels. Jongens doen stoer en meisjes kleedden de jongens uit. Het spel van de jeugd is meedogenloos en hard en iedereen doet er aan mee. Een ieder wil zijn eigen leven zin geven en vervalt daarmee in een heel oud rollen-patroon. De graffiti in de toiletten spreken boekdelen. Zelfs een vals beest kan in het juiste licht een onschuldig diertje lijken. Zo vergelijk ik, Engeland. De samenleving is keihard. Onrust en onderdanigheid spreken via de graffiti tot de verbeelding. “Good Old England”, is een misleidende metafoor voor een gewelddadige samenleving. Het extreme gedrag van jongeren wordt oogluikend toegestaan en feitelijk vindt de samenleving het wel prettig, dat er zoveel soldaten willen opstaan om het koninkrijk te verdedigen. Maar juist de hardheid van de straat loopt hand in hand met de politieke standpunten van het congres en het militaire apparaat. Engeland, doet nergens aan mee, behalve aan oorlogen! Voetbal is daar letterlijk een afleider van het politieke geweld. Al vanaf het allereerste begin geeft, Engeland, de toon aan in, Europa, nadat de Romeinen waren verslagen. Een voor een werden de vijanden verslagen. Eerst, Spanje, en, Schotland, en, Ierland. Daarna volgde de drie zeeslagen met de Nederlanden, gevolgd door de handelsovereenkomsten met, Frankrijk, en, Rusland. In principe is Engeland altijd een oorlogsnatie geweest en dat komt doordat de strijd tot een kunst is verheven. Het functioneren van het Engelse koninkrijk. Engelsen gaan er prat op dat ze zo sterk zij als land, doordat zij orders op volgen en hun “job” goed uitvoeren, zonder vragen te stellen. Het oorlogsapparaat van de Britten is al sinds de zeventiende eeuw professioneel, terwijl onze legers vooral bestonden uit kansarmen en een zooitje ongeregeld. Napoleon, vocht eind achttiende eeuw terug met gelijke wapens, orde en tucht. En ook de legers van, Napoleon, waren uiterst gedisciplineerd. Maar in die hiërarchie is er geen ruimte voor reden. Het is de wil uitvoeren, opgelegd van bovenaf. Juist die onderdrukking is gemeenschapsgoed geworden in, Engeland, en degenen, die zich eruit willen worstelen komen bedrogen uit. Want zelfs in de onderlagen van de bevolking wordt met deze maat gemeten. Het is intussen, Engelse cultuur, geworden om gedisciplineerd orders uit te voeren. Just do your job. En de graffiti in de, W.C’s, geven blijk van uiting, die is gevormd is door en, onder, het juk. Onder het motto: ”Hier is iedereen ongelukkig en wordt iedereen onderdrukt, maar dat geeft niet want we onderdrukken ook anderen.” Het fascisme wordt met fascisme bestreden en kwaad straft zichzelf. Het is niet meer leuk en voor mij allang is, Engeland, allang niet meer zo romantisch als het was.

  

This is the head, which create a cavitation bubble in front of the "Underwater Missile"

In case of these fact, the missile has a very less friction because it does`nt have contact to the surrounding water and "fly" truth the water with unbelievable speed of round about 300km/h ( 175mp/h!!) !!!

It does`nt exist equivalent in the world !!!

Sandia National Laboratories researchers Candice Cooper, left; Shivonne Haniff, center; and Paul Taylor are developing specialized computer modeling and simulation methods to better understand how blasts on a battlefield can lead to traumatic brain injury and injuries to vital organs, such as the heart and lungs. The 351st Battlefield Airmen Training Squadron at Kirtland Air Force Base, through a connection with Nathan Davey of Sandia, provided the vest armor for the project.

 

Learn more at share-ng.sandia.gov/news/resources/news_releases/blast_im....

 

Photo by Randy Montoya.

Large, irregularly shaped upper lobe cavity with consolidation of the remainder of the lobe. Tuberculous bronchopneumonia present in the middle and lower lobes.

Contributed by Philip Kane, MD

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Subphylum: Crustacea

Class: Malacostraca

Subclass: Hoplocarida

Order: Stomatopoda

 

Mantis shrimp or stomatopods are marine crustaceans, the members of the order Stomatopoda. They may reach 30 centimetres (12 in) in length, though in exceptional cases have been recorded at up to 38 cm (15 in). The carapace of mantis shrimp covers only the rear part of the head and the first four segments of the thorax. Mantis shrimp appear in a variety of colours, from shades of brown to bright neon colors. Although they are common animals and among the most important predators in many shallow, tropical and sub-tropical marine habitats, they are poorly understood as many species spend most of their life tucked away in burrows and holes

 

Called "sea locusts" by ancient Assyrians, "prawn killers" in Australia and now sometimes referred to as "thumb splitters" – because of the animal's ability to inflict painful gashes if handled incautiously – mantis shrimp sport powerful claws that they use to attack and kill prey by spearing, stunning, or dismemberment. Although it only happens rarely, some larger species of mantis shrimp are capable of breaking through aquarium glass with a single strike from this weapon

 

Ecology

 

These aggressive and typically solitary sea creatures spend most of their time hiding in rock formations or burrowing intricate passageways in the sea bed. They either wait for prey to chance upon them or, unlike most crustaceans, at times they hunt, chase, and kill prey. They rarely exit their homes except to feed and relocate, and can be diurnal, nocturnal, or crepuscular, depending on the species. Most species live in tropical and subtropical seas (Indian and Pacific Oceans between eastern Africa and Hawaii), although some live in temperate seas.

 

Classification and the claw

 

Around 400 species of mantis shrimp have currently been described worldwide; all living species are in the suborder Unipeltata. They are commonly separated into two distinct groups determined by the manner of claws they possess:

Spearers are armed with spiny appendages topped with barbed tips, used to stab and snag prey.

Smashers, on the other hand, possess a much more developed club and a more rudimentary spear (which is nevertheless quite sharp and still used in fights between their own kind); the club is used to bludgeon and smash their meals apart. The inner aspect of the dactyl (the terminal portion of the appendage) can also possess a sharp edge, with which the animal can cut prey while it swims.

 

Both types strike by rapidly unfolding and swinging their raptorial claws at the prey, and are capable of inflicting serious damage on victims significantly greater in size than themselves. In smashers, these two weapons are employed with blinding quickness, with an acceleration of 10,400 g (102,000 m/s2 or 335,000 ft/s2) and speeds of 23 m/s from a standing start,about the acceleration of a .22 calibre bullet. Because they strike so rapidly, they generate cavitation bubbles between the appendage and the striking surface. The collapse of these cavitation bubbles produces measurable forces on their prey in addition to the instantaneous forces of 1,500 newtons that are caused by the impact of the appendage against the striking surface, which means that the prey is hit twice by a single strike; first by the claw and then by the collapsing cavitation bubbles that immediately follow. Even if the initial strike misses the prey, the resulting shock wave can be enough to stun or kill the prey.

 

The snap can also produce sonoluminescence from the collapsing bubble. This will produce a very small amount of light and high temperatures in the range of several thousand kelvins within the collapsing bubble, although both the light and high temperatures are too weak and short-lived to be detected without advanced scientific equipment. The light emission and temperature increase probably have no biological significance but are rather side-effects of the rapid snapping motion. Pistol shrimp produce this effect in a very similar manner.

 

Smashers use this ability to attack snails, crabs, molluscs and rock oysters, their blunt clubs enabling them to crack the shells of their prey into pieces. Spearers, on the other hand, prefer the meat of softer animals, like fish, which their barbed claws can more easily slice and snag.

 

Eyes

 

The midband region of the mantis shrimp's eye is made up of six rows of specialised ommatidia. Four rows carry 16 different photoreceptor pigments, 12 for colour sensitivity, others for colour filtering. The mantis shrimp has such good eyes it can perceive both polarised light and multispectral images. Their eyes (both mounted on mobile stalks and capable of moving independently of each other) are similarly variably colored and are considered to be the most complex eyes in the animal kingdom.

 

Each compound eye is made up of up to ten thousand ommatidia of the apposition type. Each eye consists of two flattened hemispheres separated by six parallel rows of specialised ommatidia, collectively called the midband, which divides the eye into three regions. This configuration makes it possible for mantis shrimp to see objects with three parts of the same eye. In other words, each eye possesses trinocular vision and depth perception. The upper and lower hemispheres are used primarily for recognition of form and motion, like the eyes of many other crustaceans.

 

Rows 1–4 of the midband are specialised for colour vision, from ultra-violet to longer wavelengths, but aren't currently believed to be sensitive to infrared light. The optical elements in these rows have eight different classes of visual pigments and the rhabdom is divided into three different pigmented layers (tiers), each for different wavelengths. The three tiers in rows 2 and 3 are separated by colour filters (intrarhabdomal filters) that can be divided into four distinct classes, two classes in each row. It is organised like a sandwich; a tier, a colour filter of one class, a tier again, a colour filter of another class, and then a last tier. Rows 5–6 are also segregated into different tiers, but have only one class of visual pigment (a ninth class) and are specialised for polarisation vision. They can detect different planes of polarised light. A tenth class of visual pigment is found in the dorsal and ventral hemispheres of the eye.

 

The midband only covers a small area of about 5°–10° of the visual field at any given instant, but like in most crustaceans, the eyes are mounted on stalks. In mantis shrimps the movement of the stalked eye is unusually free, and can be driven in all possible axes, up to at least 70°, of movement by eight individual eyecup muscles divided into six functional groups. By using these muscles to scan the surroundings with the midband, they can add information about forms, shapes and landscape which cannot be detected by the upper and lower hemisphere of the eye. They can also track moving objects using large, rapid eye movements where the two eyes move independently. By combining different techniques, including saccadic movements, the midband can cover a very wide range of the visual field.

 

Some species have at least 16 different photoreceptor types, which are divided into four classes (their spectral sensitivity is further tuned by colour filters in the retinas), 12 of them for colour analysis in the different wavelengths (including four which are sensitive to ultraviolet light) and four of them for analysing polarised light. By comparison, most humans have only four visual pigments, three dedicated to see colour but the lenses block ultraviolet light. The visual information leaving the retina seems to be processed into numerous parallel data streams leading into the central nervous system, greatly reducing the analytical requirements at higher levels.[citation needed]

 

At least two species have been reported to be able to detect circularly polarised light,[14][15] and in some cases their biological quarter-wave plates perform more uniformly over the entire visual spectrum than any current man-made polarizing optics, the application of which it is speculated could be applied to a new type of optical media that performs even better than the current generation of Blu-ray disc technology.[16][17]

 

The species Gonodactylus smithii is the only organism known to simultaneously detect the four linear and two circular polarization components required for Stokes parameters, which yield a full description of polarization. It is thus believed to have optimal polarization vision.

 

Suggested advantages of visual system

 

It is not clear what advantage sensitivity to polarization confers; however polarization vision is used by other animals for sexual signalling and secret communication that avoids the attention of predators. This mechanism could provide an evolutionary advantage; it only requires small changes to the cell in the eye and would be easily selected for.

 

The eyes of mantis shrimp may enable them to recognize different types of coral, prey species (which are often transparent or semi-transparent), or predators, such as barracuda, which have shimmering scales. Alternatively, the manner in which mantis shrimp hunt (very rapid movements of the claws) may require very accurate ranging information, which would require accurate depth perception.

 

The fact that those with the most advanced vision also are the species with the most colourful bodies suggests the evolution of colour vision has taken the same direction as the peacock's tail.

 

During mating rituals, mantis shrimp actively fluoresce, and the wavelength of this fluorescence matches the wavelengths detected by their eye pigments.[20] Females are only fertile during certain phases of the tidal cycle; the ability to perceive the phase of the moon may therefore help prevent wasted mating efforts. It may also give mantis shrimp information about the size of the tide, which is important for species living in shallow water near the shore.

 

Behaviour

 

Mantis shrimp are long-lived and exhibit complex behaviour, such as ritualised fighting. Some species use fluorescent patterns on their bodies for signalling with their own and maybe even other species, expanding their range of behavioural signals. They can learn and remember well, and are able to recognise individual neighbours with whom they frequently interact. They can recognise them by visual signs and even by individual smell. Many have developed complex social behaviour to defend their space from rivals.

 

In a lifetime, they can have as many as 20 or 30 breeding episodes. Depending on the species, the eggs can be laid and kept in a burrow, or they can be carried around under the female's tail until they hatch. Also depending on the species, male and female may come together only to mate, or they may bond in monogamous long-term relationships]

 

In the monogamous species, the mantis shrimp remain with the same partner for up to 20 years. They share the same burrow and may be able to coordinate their activities. Both sexes often take care of the eggs (biparental care). In Pullosquilla and some species in Nannosquilla, the female will lay two clutches of eggs: one that the male tends and one that the female tends. In other species, the female will look after the eggs while the male hunts for both of them. Once the eggs hatch, the offspring may spend up to three months as plankton.

 

Although stomatopods typically display the standard locomotion types as seen in true shrimp and lobsters, one species, Nannosquilla decemspinosa, has been observed flipping itself into a crude wheel. The species lives in shallow, sandy areas. At low tides, N. decemspinosa is often stranded by its short rear legs, which are sufficient for locomotion when the body is supported by water, but not on dry land. The mantis shrimp then performs a forward flip in an attempt to roll towards the next tide pool. N. decemspinosa has been observed to roll repeatedly for 2 metres (6.6 ft), but specimens typically travel less than 1 m (3.3 ft).

 

Culinary uses

 

In Japanese cuisine, the mantis shrimp is eaten boiled as a sushi topping, and occasionally, raw as sashimi; and is called shako (蝦蛄).

 

Mantis shrimp are abundant in the coastal regions of south Vietnam, known in Vietnamese as tôm tít or tôm tích. The shrimp can be steamed, boiled, grilled or dried; used with pepper, salt, and lime; fish sauce and tamarind; or fennel.

 

In Cantonese cuisine, the mantis shrimp is known as "pissing shrimp" (攋尿蝦, Mandarin pinyin: lài niào xiā, Cantonese: laaih niu hā) because of their tendency to shoot a jet of water when picked up. After cooking, their flesh is closer to that of lobsters than that of shrimp, and like lobsters, their shells are quite hard and require some pressure to crack. Usually they are deep fried with garlic and chili peppers.

 

In the Mediterranean countries the mantis shrimp Squilla mantis is a common seafood, especially on the Adriatic coasts (canocchia) and the Gulf of Cádiz (galera).

 

In the Philippines, the mantis shrimp is known as tatampal, hipong-dapa or alupihang-dagat and is cooked and eaten like shrimp.

 

The usual concerns associated with consuming seafood are an issue with mantis shrimp when those dwell in contaminated waters. In Hawaii, some have grown unusually large in the very dirty waters of the Grand Ala Wai Canal in Waikiki.

 

Aquaria

Some saltwater aquarists keep stomatopods in captivity.] The peacock mantis is especially colourful and desired in the trade.

 

While some aquarists value mantis shrimp, others consider them harmful pests, because they:

Are voracious predators, eating other desirable inhabitants of the tank,

Can, in some of the largest species, break aquarium glass by striking it

In some rock-burrowing species, can do more damage to live rock than the fishkeeper would prefer

 

The live rock with mantis shrimp burrows are actually considered useful by some in the marine aquarium trade and are often collected. It is not uncommon for a piece of live rock to convey a live mantis shrimp into an aquarium. Once inside the tank, they may feed on fish, and other inhabitants. They are notoriously difficult to catch when established in a well-stocked tank,] and there are accounts of them breaking glass tanks. It should be noted that while stomatopods do not eat coral, the smashers can damage it if they wish to make a home within it.

 

!!

!!

\/

W WIND energy, direction movement, windspeed

 

------------- >>> direction of movement, speed,

perpendicular on the wind, flat on the wind

 

.

.

...... .

.

.... .

... .

.

.

!._ Tangible, actual,

speed, Pythagoras, cause of _!_ the right angle.

  

The blades -rotors- are at their ends mantled by a ring. The ring is born within wheels in the housing. Because turbo wind mills use high winds, this mantle piece can be placed at/near the ground, so that there is no significant vibrating occurring at the ends of the blades.

 

In order to use high winds, the blades have to be hold firmly in place, leaving only the opportunity open for the blades to turn, or to move, perpendicular on the winds direction with as a consequence that Pythagoras' law comes in as foundation to calculate the angle of attack in the blades. Further on, one will see that windsurfing is riding waves, and waves are swept by the wind, so that wave riding is falling with sailing half wind. Perfect.

 

High speed, directed perpendicular on the wind, leads also to the fact that a given sail area will be used optimally. And because cavitation, air bubbles around the swords, are restricting the windsurfers speed, spailboat has wheels for swords. You, as reader, have to take it from here, because I can not force you to swallow dry food. Please, take one step at the time. To get started, you firstly need to understand that when a plate is placed flat -perpendicular- on the wind, there is maximum blockage of the wind by that plate. Now, we imaginary move this plate with for instance 300 m/s in the direction flat on the wind. No we'll see that the actual wind speed that hits the blade, S, is to be calculated by Pathagoras' law, S^2 =W^2+V^2, in where, V, is the speed of the blade perpendicular on the winds' direction and W is the windspeed. If now the original windspeed is very low, say, 1 m/s, than we might as well assume that the actual windspeed that hits the blade is still 300 m/s. In other words, when an almost flat on the wind positioned blade is moving with very high speed, perpendicular on the original wind direction, then the actual windspeed that hits the blades, comes almost from the front. A blade end of a windmill turns faster then that blade does near the center, so that blade ends are alomost positioned flat on the wind. The same counts for windsurfsails, although the sails are hold almost flat on the wind, the actual windflow that hits the sails is coming more or less from the front. This means that we want high speed, in order to get maximum conversion of a given sail area. high speed imply high lift forces, and therefore we need stable and srong configurations that hold the blades.

 

I worked on stable sailing machines for twenty years now, because the capsizing and the catapulting with my catamaran scared the ........ out off me. Oh, I sailed from six years old, and won in 1988 the second biggest cat race in the world, together with my nephew, Ruud Goudriaan, who still is a class-A cat sailor. I went to college, and later to the technical university in Delft, and therefore I sold my cat, but continued windsurfing on cheap gear. However, windsurfing on old wave boards with old gear is still going much faster than the fastest cat. I kept on wondering why and when I figured it out [in 1994], I started to create a mechanically operated windsurf boat.

 

Sailing and windsurfing are very much like music, a well written song can be played live on stage over and over again, and every time this song improves itself. I can only ensure you, that the windsurf formula is an outstanding song, in the way to speak. Everything comes together, with as result that the windy circumstances on earth are perfect to use sails, wings, for making axles spin, as well on the oceans, by means of windsurfing -a combination of surfing and sailing stable half wind-, as on land, by means of using turbo windmills.

 

The only limitations in using the high winds are now caused by preoccupation of the existing economy. For instance, the car industries, the airplane industries, wind turbine industries, sailing boats industries, et cetera, keep our engineers in hostage. If we only could stop the production and the developing of the car making, airplane making et cetera, for just one week, and bring this way all the engineers to one imaginary table then the formula of windsurfing is understood. Once the leading engineers understand the windsurf formula, then the building of the prototypes is a year away. Some floors of the car industries and the airplanes industries can make room for new production lines.

 

And to make an even bigger example. When the second world war broke out, suddenly all floors of the car industries and airplane industries were making room for the production of tanks, jeeps, fighter planes, bombers et cetera. So, it is just a matter of priorities.

 

By now, saving this planet is priority number one, and still all industries and all governments around the world do not see the windsurf formula. Even a child can see that windsurfing is sensational. Just look at windsurfing from above. The waves make pipelines, and the only safe course in high winds falls parrallel with them. These pipelines lay, notably per definition, perpendicular on the wind's direction and windsurfing is always done half wind, so that the windsurfers automatically go as fast as possible and have a relatively save ride between the waves. All in all, the windsurf formula implies that a given sail area is optimally used, that the waves are helping in making speed, that the half wind course is always leading to gliding along with the waves, that windsurfing is therefore relatively safe, that a stable configuration is the condition to make big structures, so that former dangerous windy circumstances at open ocean are just perfect to move a significant amount of mass with high speed. The kinetic energy is measured by the formula: 1/2 times the mass of the composition times the square of the speed. This world is dying for energy. So, please, understand the windsurf formula and please make Spailboats for over water, and turbo wind mills for on land.

I mean, did you ever see a professor of 60 years old windsurfing on large wave with 10 bft at open sea? No, that is the problem. These kind of persons rule the world.

 

Just go on the internet, and see for yourself that the formula, for calculating the maximum sailing speed, is still only counting for non flying sailing boats. This means that they assume that the hull is still always dragging through water. For the cavitation speed they still assume always that a sword is not moving with respect to the hull. In Spailboats, on the other hand, the water cutting part of a sword does move along with respect to the hull, so that the speed of the hull and the speed of through water dragging sword have two different values. Here in Holland at the university of Delft, a leading professor -who works on his own sailing boat, off course-, once tolded me in person any kind of sailing boat could never overtop the 100km/hr barrier because of cavitation around the swords. I came to him, one of those appointments, to tell him about the flying above the water and the reason for using circel shaped spinning swords, to overcome cavitation around the water cutting profile of the sword wheels. I walked through the door, showed him my work, and in stead letting me talk about my work, he did not look at my work at all. He talked for half an hour, and by the time he finished, I wanted to reply, but then he said, your time is up, leave, please. I have tried to make another appointment, but in vain. A few months later, he had a full page in one of Holand's main newspapers, the saturday edition, in where he presented his own sailing boat. The public was misled. This sailing boat was so-called state of the art, but, it did not fly, it did still capsize, it could not operate in high seas, people, it was a worthless piece of ....... . So, I came in, and he asked, what did you study,? I said: civil engineering, and that answer was appearently wrong, because he worked at the aircraft and space department. Piramids, remember, people, we still build them. The only thing that matters, is that I am a good sailor and windsurfer , and that I made windsurf robot. Even if I did not have any masters degree at the technical university at all, he should have asked me what my work was, and not what my title was. This story goes on, because before I talked to him, the boss so to speak, I had several meetings with his students and they were impressed. But at the moment they found out that I was working outside the universtiy they boycoted me, right away. I had to give earlier given nice 3D pictures of wings back, and also my usb stick with several drawings had to be erased. Since then I am not welcome anymore. My own professor, Marcel Donze, then always brings calm to me, with this: Who would be the worst enemy of the Pope? Jezus Christ. No rank and bare footed, and closer to God as him.

   

I am closer to the wind, that is the point

  

It is therefore that these two new inventions fall under: the environmental revolution.

 

We, the hard working people, can easily see that windsurfing goes faster than the good old sailing boats. And still, billions and billions are spend on sailing boats for the happy few, like the rich men's toys for the Volvo Ocean Race, America's cup, the immense yachts et cetera. The same thing counts for the swallowing up of our best engineers for the car industries, formula 1 racing, jet fighter plane making et cetera.

 

If only the engineers and the people who rule the world want to save this planet, then the prototypes of the turbo windmills and the spailboats will be operating within a year.

 

In the past seven years I really tried endlessly to talk with professors around the world. They are just not at home. On the phone it goes like this. Who are you? What did you study, and I say, civil engineering. Oh, that has nothing to do with planes and/or mills, we are not interested.

 

Off course, I do not talk like them, every error in the conversation means the final cut of the conversation and once such a door is closed, it never opens again.

 

So, you as reader will never read or hear about windsurf machines and turbo windmills that can save the planet, other than this slide show.

 

I was a good cat sailor and a good windsurfer in the eighties. From childhood on I was at sea. Above that fact, I was born in Zaandam, the place where a cluster of windmills is stacked in an open air museum. I had the kite surfing formula on the drawing board, long before it took off, because the kites are hold just the same as windsurf sails are hold, only now on wires and further away from the board. In fact, I actually kite surfed on a small wooden plank on the beach in the eighties of the past century when I was ten years old. My nephews tried it, but were to heavy, and logically, I had to try. And it worked. Kite surfing is nothing more than using a big kite to move yourself. So, who do you want to believe, me, or the universities?

 

Get úp, stand up, get up for your right. Bob Marley. He believed that music unites all people one day. Wind sounds like music, doesn't it? No more nuclear power, no more burning fossil fuels.

 

Turbo windmill, or Jet Wind Mill [JWM] / JWM is a nephew, resp. spin off, of Spailboat, the stable sailing Speed Sail Craft.

 

Stability: only when stability is firstly established, then a structure might be built tall. A sailing boat might be made endlessly strong, still, it capsizes, so that it is useless to make endlessly strong masts. A Spailboat however is stable, and therefore a Spailboat can be made big, very big, as big oceanliners, with 100 meter long masts. This is part of the windsurf formula. And remember, mass in motion implies the kinetic energy.

 

We need energy. For making fresh drinking water, for irrigation, for making electricity, making hydrogen, for moving cars, trains, planes and so on.

 

The windsurf formula is here, for everyone to use in the world, because I dropped my patents. It is free, for you, Africa, Asia, Amerika, Europe, the south pacific continents and islands. Just have a look and run this show a few times. It is like the wheel itself, it is normal, revolutionary and it will change the world. No nuclear power is needed any longer, just usage of high winds and swell on the oceans. And the turbo windmill is spin off, because these blades are in fact circular moving steady in positioned hold windsurfsails.

 

Belangrijke achtergrond informatie: Prof. Michel van Tooren, TUDelft L&R, heeft een composiet ontwikkeld dat niet meer vermoeit. Vliegtuigvleugels kunnen dan duizenden jaren meegaan. Tot nu was hout het enige materiaal dat niet vermoeit, en dat blijkt ook wel uit de balken in de molenwieken. Hout is dus feitelijk het beste constructiemateriaal ter wereld voor vleugels en molenwiekbalken, omdat een houten plank van twee duizend jaar geleden nog even goed is als een plank van nu, mits goed geconserveerd natuurlijk! Zoals u bekend is heeft staal een elastisch vervorminggebied en een plastisch vervorminggebied. Door de onvermijdelijke dislocaties in de staalroosters is plastische vervorming niet tegen te gaan, hoe zuiver het staal ook mag zijn. Is staal eenmaal ergens plastisch vervormd dan geldt dat dit permanent is en niet meer is terug te draaien. Na verloop van tijd komen er steeds meer plekken in het staal waar het plastisch is vervormd en op een gegeven moment spreekt men van vermoeiing, leidende tot breuk. Het gevaar van alle vliegtuigen is natuurlijk dat de vleugels een keer afbreken, alleen weet niemand wanneer dat gebeurt, maar dat het gaat gebeuren is een feit.

 

Er is zodoende al een mogelijkheid om gebruik te maken van dit nieuwe materiaal voor de vleugels, rotorbladen, masten en rompen. De projecten betreffen immers duurzame energie en met het eenmalig vastleggen van de olie als basis van het nieuwe composiet, behoeven de windsurfboten en de turbo windmolens in de toekomst maar een keer te worden gebouwd.

 

Het doel van de projecten is om het te gebruiken windraam voor de opwekking van energie op te rekken, van 8 bft naar 12 bft. Vanzelf worden dan de arctische zones geschikte gebieden voor toekomstige windmolenparken. De arctische zones worden op een analoge wijze benut, zoals de zee wordt benut door respectievelijk zeilers en windsurfers. De zeilers opereren namelijk van windkracht 2 bft tot aan windkracht 7 a 8 bft en gaan zo snel als mogelijk naar binnen als het gaat stormen, terwijl de [geoefende] windsurfers beginnen bij windkracht 5 bft en pas van het water af gaan bij 11bft! Samen bestrijken zij een windraam van 2 bft tot 11 bft. Windmolenparken nabij de arctische zones, almede windmolenparken in onze Noordzee, gebruiken dan, net als we nu al doen, conventionele windturbines tot aan 8 bft. De nieuwe turbo windmolens springen in bij windkracht 5 bft, waardoor in het overlap-gebied, van 5 bft tot 8 bft, zowel de conventionele windturbines als de nieuw turbo windmolens hun werk doen. Boven de windkracht 8 bft gaan de gewone windturbines uit en draaien de de turbo's nog even door tot aan 11bft. In de arctische zones waait het drie maanden per jaar harder dan 8 bft en over de Noordzee ongeveer een maand per jaar.

 

De formule voor de maat van de windenergie, in Watts: C=0,5*rho(lucht)*A*W^3, waarin A het oppervlak is van het bestreken gebied van de rotorbladen, W de windsnelheid is en C de Windenergie is in Watts [en rho de dichtheid is van lucht 1.23 Kg/m^3] zodat verdubbeling van de te gebruiken wind een verachtvoudiging oplevert van het aantal op te wekken Watts. Die extra drie maanden storm nabij de arctische zones en die extra maand storm over onze Noordzee leveren dus enorme hoeveelheden anders onbenutte windenergie.

 

Nu openen zich de mogelijkheden. Neem bv Chicago, the windy city. Als men daar op elk nieuw te bouwen gebouw gewone windturbines en turbo windmolens plaatst, dan is er een trefzekerheid in de benutting van de wind van 250 dagen per jaar.

 

Verder, voor het maken van waterstof is energie nodig. Er kan dus al in Chicago en nabij de arctische zones 250 dagen per jaar waterstof worden gemaakt door windkracht. Tot nu had het geen zin om alleen gewone windturbines te plaatsen in respectievelijk Chicago en nabij de arctische zones, juist omdat het er drie maanden per jaar stormt en de gewone windturbines dan uit moeten.

 

Het wordt allemaal anders als men naast gewone windturbines turbo windmolens opstelt.

 

Hetzelfde geldt voor de benutting van de wind en golven op open water. Alleen zeilboten laten varen, welke bladen van turbines [tbv opwekking van elektriciteit] door het water slepen, heeft weinig zin. Als het significant gaat waaien, dan moeten ze oploeven en dat schiet niet op. Gang wordt alleen gemaakt in de halve windse koers en dat gaat nu eenmaal niet met zeilboten omdat ze dan over de kop slaan, een overtreffende trap van kapseizen. Windsurfers kunnen feitelijk alleen halve wind koersen en gaan met een noodgang. Bovendien valt de halve windse koers altijd samen met de golffronten, zodat windsurfers keurig onder invloed van een en dezelfde golf [kunnen] blijven.

 

Ook nu geldt dat een vloot bestaande uit gewone zeilboten en windsurfboten een windraam kunnen bestrijken van 2 tot 11bft. Ook dan kunnen we 250 per jaar de wind gebruiken om waterstof te genereren.

 

Kortom, als het windraam wordt verruimd, dan wordt daarmee ook vanzelf het te bestrijken gebied groter, en vanzelf komen dan de arctische zones dichterbij als onuitputtelijke energiebron.

 

Dan nog dit, niet onbelangrijk. De industriële revolutie heeft geleid tot global warming. Global warming heeft de wind overal ter wereld doen toenemen. Daarnaast zijn er meer en furieuzere orkanen en tropische stormen. Bovendien zijn de golven op zee als gevolg hoger geworden. Windsurfboten gebruiken golven en wind. Als we nu de toegenomen wind en de hogere golven niet gaan benutten en doorgaan met het verbrande kolen, gas en olie en daarna overgaan op kernenergie dan is de aanmaak van de harde wind en de hogere golven op zee allemaal voor niets geweest. Maw, we kunnen nu de nare bijsmaak van de industriele revolutie in ons voordeel laten werken. Bovendien kan de kap van oerbossen stoppen, omdat we met olie producten kunnen bouwen; die olie is immers vrij gekomen als bouwmiddel, want we hebben waterstof, omdat we van de harde wind en van de hoge golven nabij de arctische zones gebruik kunnen maken. Ook kan men met grote transportmiddelen, gemaakt van plastic, aangedreven door grote waterstof motoren de door de zon gemaakte waterstof vervoeren door de woestijnen.

 

De aarde stikt, de lage landen overstromen en er komt binnen 100 jaar een kernoorlog, omdat elk landje dan intussen een kernbom heeft.

 

Als we ingrijpen, met een alternatief tegen het verbranden van de olie, kolen en gas en tegen het gebruik van kernenergie, dan kunnen we spreken dat het maar goed is dat we de wind en de golven hebben te doen toenemen.

Dat is pure energie, voor het oprapen.

 

Het nieuwe composiet van Michel van Tooren, de hardere wind en de hogere golven maken een combinatie die energie kan leveren on demand. Dit was de reden dat de stoommachine de windmolens en de zeilboten van het toneel deden verdwijnen.

 

De kern / samenvatting: De voorwaarde om de olie vrij te maken als bouwmateriaal [carbonfibers / composieten -zie verder-] is om alternatieve brandstoffen te creëereen, en dan brandstoffen met nul schadelijke emissies [biobrandstof valt dan ook af, temeer omdat de velden voor de biomassa dan vrij komen om bv graan te verbouwen]. Die alternatieve brandstoffen zijn waterstof, stikstof en geperste gassen [zie verder].

Vervolgens denken we dat waterstof te duur is om te maken en dat komt weer doordat we niet van de harde wind gebruik kunnen maken en omdat het transport van de door de zon opgewerkte waterstof door de woestijnen naar de steden met de huidige transportmiddelen en verbrandingsmotoren op olie geen optie is. De cirkel bijt zich nu in de staart. Want er kan wel van harde wind gebruik worden gemaakt: er kan wel degelijk nabij de arctische zones 300 dagen per jaar waterstof worden gemaakt uit windenergie, omdat de nieuwe generatie turbo windmolens en windsurfboten geen moeite hebben met storm.

Tot nu was benutting van de arctische zones geen optie, omdat de gewone windturbines daar stuk waaien en omdat gewone zeilboten daar omslaan.

Na de zeilboten en de windmolens kwam immers de stoommachine, en daarna de kolengestookte en gas gestookte elektriciteitcentrales en sinds enkele decennia kernenergie. Het is toch logisch dat we niet met dingen van meer dan 1000 jaar geleden kunnen wedijveren tegen kernenergie? Het is toch logisch dat we via de windsurfers, die wel tot 11bft overeind blijven, naar turbo windmolens en windsurfboten moeten overgaan om een vuist te maken tegen kernenergie.

Waar ik naar streef is het vastleggen van de olie, zodat er geen verbranding meer is van dit dure bouwmiddel.

En, als de olie wordt gebruikt als bouwmiddel, dan kan de olieproductie de komende vijftig jaar gewoon doorgaan; terwijl we de kap van de tropische bossen tbv van het hardhout langzamerhand kunnen laten! Ook kan er ontspanning komen in de ontginning van andere belangrijke grondstoffen, als ijzererts [voor staal] en kolen [voor elektriciteit].

Daar wind met de windturbines, turbo windmolens en windsurfboten kan worden omgezet in waterstof, stikstof en geperste gassen kunnen de toekomstige motoren -welke ook uit composiet kunnen bestaan, met eventueel metaal coating bij de glijvlakken- draaien op die gassen.

Vooralsnog was het grootschalig gebruik van olie als bouwmiddel geen optie, omdat staal, beton en hout goedkoper zijn.

Dit verandert als we andere verbrandingsmiddelen hebben dan olie. Waterstof is vooralsnog te duur, omdat:

1: er geen transportmiddelen zijn om de waterstof in grote hoeveelheden te vervoeren.

2: er geen middelen zijn om van harde wind gebruik te maken. Het "zuchtje" wind, nabij bewoonde wereld, dat we tot nu toe gebruiken levert hooguit een bijdrage van 5 tot 20%. Dit "zuchtje" is bovendien niet voorspelbaar, niet constant aanwezig en daarbovenop ook nog eens niet te gebruiken als het zuchtje zich te buiten gaat als storm; en daarom is het huidige gebruik windturbines nog niet zo geschikt als betrouwbare bron voor alternaïef tegen kernenergie en gas gestookte centrales.

Alles verandert als we het nieuwe materiaal gaan gebruiken, hetgeen professor van Tooren [TUDelft lucht en ruimtevaart] onlangs heeft uitgebroed: een composiet dat nooit meer vermoeit, zodat we vliegtuigen, boten, molens, auto's en treinen uit olieproducten kunnen maken die nooit meer stuk gaan! Zoals gezegd, tot nu was hout het enige beschikbare materiaal dat niet vermoeit; vliegtuigen waren vroeger ook van hout en ook de molens waren van hout. [Voor het overzicht: staal vermoeit en breekt op een gegeven moment.]

Olie als bouwmateriaal en waterstof als brandstof leveren in potentie:

1: De bouw van (grote) uit plastic opgetrokken voer- en vaartuigen om waterstof te vervoeren.

uitleg bij punt 1: de brandstof is schoon, en daarom mogen de voer- en vaartuigen immens zijn. Hoe meer verbranding, des te meer schoon water. Verder, laat men grote voertuigen door de woestijnen rijden, dan bevloeien ze vanzelf het land, en dit is goed voor de voedsel productie.

2: benutting van de zon in de woestijnen en gebruik van de wind nabij de arctische zones.

Wat ik wil zeggen is dit: tot nu was het maken grote voertuigen geen optie omdat de te in beweging te zetten massa grote verbrandingsmotoren vergt, en de olie is duur!

Met het gebruik van harde wind is de waterstof helemaal niet duur en juist verbranding van waterstof levert schoon water.

Stelt u zich dit eens voor: Er rijdt een colonne uit olie gemaakte door waterstof aangedreven voertuigen -welke voertuigen grote tanks met waterstof herbergen- door de Sahara, van Marrokko naar Somalia. Onderweg sproeien deze voertuigen water uit -als gevolg van de verbranding van de waterstof- en dus bevloeien ze het land. U weet ook dat wij Nederlanders "stront" [mest, afkomstig van onze immense veestapel en varkens] in overvloed hebben, en samen met water levert dit voedsel.

Er is nog nooit gedacht in termen van het zo veel als mogelijk verbranden van waterstof als brandstof, omdat de brandstof voorheen olie was en waterstof te duur. Dit verandert, als we permanente transportmiddelen bouwen -van olie-, als de brandstof waterstof is, en als we dus van elke wind, tot 12bft, en van de zon gebruik gaan maken op afgelegen plekken op aarde om die waterstof te maken.

Shell kan voorlopig blijven boren, iedereen blij.

 

If you want be a sponsor for the building of the prototype for a turbo wind mill, please deposit your gift to

Rabobank account number 374138354 from ACJ Goudriaan.

 

Als u een geldbedrag wilt doneren voor de, nu reeds gestarte, bouw van het prototype van de turbo windmolen, svp maak geld over naar Rabobank nummer 374138354 tnv ACJ Goudriaan te Zaandam

The head create a cavitation bubble in front of the "Underwater Missile"

In case of these fact, the missile has a very less friction because it does`nt have contact to the surrounding water and "fly" truth the water with unbelievable speed of round about 300km/h ( 175mp/h!!) !!!

It does`nt equivalent in the world !!!

(SHKVAL is in front of the pic)

Io Aircraft - www.ioaircraft.com

 

Drew Blair

www.linkedin.com/in/drew-b-25485312/

 

io aircraft, phantom express, phantom works, boeing phantom works, lockheed skunk works, hypersonic weapon, hypersonic missile, scramjet missile, scramjet engineering, scramjet physics, boost glide, tactical glide vehicle, Boeing XS-1, htv, Air-Launched Rapid Response Weapon, (ARRW), hypersonic tactical vehicle, hypersonic plane, hypersonic aircraft, space plane, scramjet, turbine based combined cycle, ramjet, dual mode ramjet, darpa, onr, navair, afrl, air force research lab, defense science, missile defense agency, aerospike,

 

Advanced Additive Manufacturing for Hypersonic Aircraft

 

Utilizing new methods of fabrication and construction, make it possible to use additive manufacturing, dramatically reducing the time and costs of producing hypersonic platforms from missiles, aircraft, and space capable craft. Instead of aircraft being produced in piece, then bolted together; small platforms can be produced as a single unit and large platforms can be produces in large section and mated without bolting. These techniques include using exotic materials and advanced assembly processes, with an end result of streamlining the production costs and time for hypersonic aircraft; reducing months of assembly to weeks. Overall, this process greatly reduced the cost for producing hypersonic platforms. Even to such an extent that a Hellfire missile costs apx $100,000 but by utilizing our technologies, replacing it with a Mach 8-10 hypersonic missile of our physics/engineering and that missile would cost roughly $75,000 each delivered.

   

Materials used for these manufacturing processes are not disclosed, but overall, provides a foundation for extremely high stresses and thermodynamics, ideal for hypersonic platforms. This specific methodology and materials applications is many decades ahead of all known programs. Even to the extend of normalized space flight and re-entry, without concern of thermodynamic failure.

 

*Note, most entities that are experimenting with additive manufacturing for hypersonic aircraft, this makes it mainstream and standardized processes, which also applies for mass production.

 

What would normally be measured in years and perhaps a decade to go from drawing board to test flights, is reduced to singular months and ready for production within a year maximum.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle (U-TBCC)

 

To date, the closest that NASA and industry have achieved for turbine based aircraft to fly at hypersonic velocities is by mounting a turbine into an aircraft and sharing the inlet with a scramjet or rocket based motor. Reaction Engines Sabre is not able to achieve hypersonic velocities and can only transition into a non air breathing rocket for beyond Mach 4.5

 

However, utilizing Unified Turbine Based Combine Cycle also known as U-TBCC, the two separate platforms are able to share a common inlet and the dual mode ramjet/scramjet is contained within the engine itself, which allows for a much smaller airframe footprint, thus engingeers are able to then design much higher performance aerial platforms for hypersonic flight, including the ability for constructing true single stage to orbit aircraft by utilizing a modification/version that allows for transition to outside atmosphere propulsion without any other propulsion platforms within the aircraft. By transitioning and developing aircraft to use Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle, this propulsion system opens up new options to replace that airframe deficit for increased fuel capacity and/or payload.

 

Enhanced Dynamic Cavitation

 

Dramatically Increasing the efficiency of fuel air mixture for combustion processes at hypersonic velocities within scramjet propulsion platforms. The aspects of these processes are non disclosable.

 

Dynamic Scramjet Ignition Processes

 

For optimal scramjet ignition, a process known as Self Start is sought after, but in many cases if the platform becomes out of attitude, the scramjet will ignite. We have already solved this problem which as a result, a scramjet propulsion system can ignite at lower velocities, high velocities, at optimal attitude or not optimal attitude. It doesn't matter, it will ignite anyways at the proper point for maximum thrust capabilities at hypersonic velocities.

 

Hydrogen vs Kerosene Fuel Sources

 

Kerosene is an easy fuel to work with, and most western nations developing scramjet platforms use Kerosene for that fact. However, while kerosene has better thermal properties then Hydrogen, Hydrogen is a far superior fuel source in scramjet propulsion flight, do it having a much higher efficiency capability. Because of this aspect, in conjunction with our developments, it allows for a MUCH increased fuel to air mixture, combustion, thrust; and ability for higher speeds; instead of very low hypersonic velocities in the Mach 5-6 range. Instead, Mach 8-10 range, while we have begun developing hypersonic capabilities to exceed 15 in atmosphere within less then 5 years.

 

Conforming High Pressure Tank Technology for CNG and H2.

 

As most know in hypersonics, Hydrogen is a superior fuel source, but due to the storage abilities, can only be stored in cylinders thus much less fuel supply. Not anymore, we developed conforming high pressure storage technology for use in aerospace, automotive sectors, maritime, etc; which means any overall shape required for 8,000+ PSI CNG or Hydrogen. For hypersonic platforms, this means the ability to store a much larger volume of hydrogen vs cylinders.

 

As an example, X-43 flown by Nasa which flew at Mach 9.97. The fuel source was Hydrogen, which is extremely more volatile and combustible then kerosene (JP-7), via a cylinder in the main body. If it had used our technology, that entire section of the airframe would had been an 8,000 PSI H2 tank, which would had yielded 5-6 times the capacity. While the X-43 flew 11 seconds under power at Mach 9.97, at 6 times the fuel capacity would had yielded apx 66 seconds of fuel under power at Mach 9.97. If it had flew slower, around Mach 6, same principles applied would had yielded apx 500 seconds of fuel supply under power (slower speeds required less energy to maintain).

 

Enhanced Fuel Mixture During Shock Train Interaction

 

Normally, fuel injection is conducted at the correct insertion point within the shock train for maximum burn/combustion. Our methodologies differ, since almost half the fuel injection is conducted PRE shock train within the isolator, so at the point of isolator injection the fuel enhances the combustion process, which then requires less fuel injection to reach the same level of thrust capabilities.

 

Improved Bow Shock Interaction

 

Smoother interaction at hypersonic velocities and mitigating heat/stresses for beyond Mach 6 thermodynamics, which extraordinarily improves Type 3, 4, and 5 shock interaction.

 

6,000+ Fahrenheit Thermal Resistance

 

To date, the maximum thermal resistance was tested at AFRL in the spring of 2018, which resulted in a 3,200F thermal resistance for a short duration. This technology, allows for normalized hypersonic thermal resistance of 3,000-3,500F sustained, and up to 6,500F resistance for short endurance, ie 90 seconds or less. 10-20 minute resistance estimate approximately 4,500F +/- 200F.

   

*** This technology advancement also applies to Aerospike rocket engines, in which it is common for Aerospike's to exceed 4,500-5,000F temperatures, which results in the melting of the reversed bell housing. That melting no longer ocurrs, providing for stable combustion to ocurr for the entire flight envelope

 

Scramjet Propulsion Side Wall Cooling

 

With old technologies, side wall cooling is required for hypersonic flight and scramjet propulsion systems, otherwise the isolator and combustion regions of a scramjet would melt, even using advanced ablatives and ceramics, due to their inability to cope with very high temperatures. Using technology we have developed for very high thermodynamics and high stresses, side wall cooling is no longer required, thus removing that variable from the design process and focusing on improved ignition processes and increasing net thrust values.

 

Lower Threshold for Hypersonic Ignition

 

Active and adaptive flight dynamics, resulting in the ability for scramjet ignition at a much lower velocity, ie within ramjet envelope, between Mach 2-4, and seamless transition from supersonic to hypersonic flight, ie supersonic ramjet (scramjet). This active and dynamic aspect, has a wide variety of parameters for many flight dynamics, velocities, and altitudes; which means platforms no longer need to be engineered for specific altitude ranges or preset velocities, but those parameters can then be selected during launch configuration and are able to adapt actively in flight.

 

Dramatically Improved Maneuvering Capabilities at Hypersonic Velocities

 

Hypersonic vehicles, like their less technologically advanced brethren, use large actuator and the developers hope those controls surfaces do not disintegrate in flight. In reality, it is like rolling the dice, they may or may not survive, hence another reason why the attempt to keep velocities to Mach 6 or below. We have shrunken down control actuators while almost doubling torque and response capabilities specifically for hypersonic dynamics and extreme stresses involved, which makes it possible for maximum input authority for Mach 10 and beyond.

 

Paradigm Shift in Control Surface Methodologies, Increasing Control Authority (Internal Mechanical Applications)

 

To date, most control surfaces for hypersonic missile platforms still use fins, similar to lower speed conventional missiles, and some using ducted fins. This is mostly due to lack of comprehension of hypersonic velocities in their own favor. Instead, the body itself incorporates those control surfaces, greatly enhancing the airframe strength, opening up more space for hardware and fuel capacity; while simultaneously enhancing the platforms maneuvering capabilities.

 

A scramjet missile can then fly like conventional missile platforms, and not straight and level at high altitudes, losing velocity on it's decent trajectory to target. Another added benefit to this aspect, is the ability to extend range greatly, so if anyone elses hypersonic missile platform were developed for 400 mile range, falling out of the sky due to lack of glide capabilities; our platforms can easily reach 600+ miles, with minimal glide deceleration.

The growing effectiveness of the Union blockade of the South led to a number of innovative ideas by a Confederate Navy that literally started from scratch—but no idea was more radical than the CSS HL Hunley, the world’s first operational attack submarine.

 

The Hunley, named for its designer Horace Lawson Hunley, was the second attempt by Hunley to build an operational submarine, and was purpose-built; for many decades, it was thought that the Hunley was built from an old boiler. It was built in Mobile and shipped to Charleston in summer 1863 to begin sea trials and, hopefully, get into combat. The Hunley was claustrophobically small: 39 feet long and only three feet wide. Propulsion was the job of most of its eight-man crew, who would turn a hand crank that powered the propeller; the commanding officer would look out through a small conning tower and guide the submarine into position. Diving was done in the same way as modern submarines, through the use of buoyancy tanks, though hand-powered pumps were used to pump out the tanks.

 

The Hunley’s armament was a “torpedo,” though this was the Civil War-era term: it was a mine, carried on a probe about seven feet from the Hunley’s bow. The Hunley would approach its target underwater, attach the mine, then back away; a chain would pull free and start a timer for its 135 pounds of black powder to explode. (There is evidence that the Hunley used an electrically fired fuse rather than a chain fuse.) This would give the Hunley time to get clear of the explosion.

 

Until February 1864, the Hunley had been more effective at killing its own crew than a Union ship. Twice the submarine sank on trials, the second time with all hands, including Hunley himself. Both times the Hunley was raised, repaired, and put back into service. Finally, on February 17, 1864, Lieutenant George Dixon was ready to try an actual attack, with the target the sloop USS Housatonic, at the mouth of Charleston Harbor. The Hunley submerged except for its conning tower (what would be called in World War II “decks awash”), and successfully stuck the mine into the Housatonic’s side around 8:45 PM. The mine exploded soon thereafter, tearing open the hull to the Housatonic. The latter sank in less than ten minutes; all but five of her crew survived and were rescued. The Hunley then disappeared: Confederate observers at Fort Moultrie saw the explosion and believed they had spotted a “blue light,” which would have been Dixon’s signal for a successful attack. It never returned to base.

 

The Hunley’s fate was unknown until 1995, when the wreck of the submarine was discovered—marine archaelogists had been looking in the wrong spot (Dixon had made his attack from seaward rather than from Charleston Harbor), and the Hunley was covered in silt. This ended up preserving both the submarine and the remains of her crew. It was raised in August 2000, and was placed in a special tank to keep the iron from decaying in open air. The Hunley was cleaned, and the crew exhumed and reburied, with full honors, in a Charleston cemetery. The reason why the Hunley never returned is still controversial, though evidence suggests that the crew was actually killed by the explosion of the mine: hydrostatic shock was transmitted to the crew through the narrow hull, killing them instantly. Without the pumps engaged, the Hunley sank.

 

The restoration of the Hunley revealed several advanced aspects of the submarine: it had a cuffed propeller to cut down on cavitation (a feature that was not added to submarines again until the late 1970s), a snorkel for the crew to use underwater (a feature thought to have been a German invention in 1943), and a hydrodynamic design that significantly cut down on drag. The crew’s remains were also well preserved, down to facial hair and a lucky coin Dixon carried in his pocket, giving valuable insight to how people dressed and looked during the Civil War. Today, the Hunley, the world’s first successful attack submarine, remains on display in Charleston.

VTOL - Hypersonic Plane - High Supersonic - Scramjet - IO Aircraft - Iteration 4

 

Early preview (Iteration 4) of an entirely new type of aircraft, no info is on the net yet and won't be for a while. RANGER - 2 Passenger VTOL Hypersonic Plane

 

www.ioaircraft.com

 

Drew Blair

www.linkedin.com/in/drew-b-25485312/

 

Vertical take off and landing - High Supersonic into Hypersonic Realm. Economy cruise above Mach 4, and can accelerate to beyond Mach 8. Non VTOL, could reach LEO. With a range of 5,000+ nm (8,000-10,000nm non vtol). Fuel H2, reducing fuel weight 95%.

 

Length, 35ft (10.67m), span 18ft (6m).

 

Propulsion, 2 Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle. 2 Unified thrust producing gas turbine generators that provide the power for the central lifting fan (electric, not shaft driven) and the rear VTOL.

 

Estimated market price, $25-$30 million in production. New York to Dubai in an hour.

 

All based on my own technology advances in Hypersonics which make Lockheed and Boeing look ancient.

-------------

 

boeing phantom express, phantom works, boeing phantom works, lockheed skunk works, hypersonic weapon, hypersonic missile, scramjet missile, scramjet engineering, scramjet physics, boost glide, tactical glide vehicle, Boeing XS-1, htv, Air Launched Rapid Response Weapon, (ARRW), hypersonic tactical vehicle, hypersonic plane, hypersonic aircraft, space plane, scramjet, turbine based combined cycle, ramjet, dual mode ramjet, darpa, onr, navair, afrl, air force research lab, office of naval research, defense advanced research project agency, defense science, missile defense agency, aerospike, vtol, vertical take off, air taxi, personal air vehicle, boeing go fly prize, go fly prize,

 

Advanced Additive Manufacturing for Hypersonic Aircraft

 

Utilizing new methods of fabrication and construction, make it possible to use additive manufacturing, dramatically reducing the time and costs of producing hypersonic platforms from missiles, aircraft, and space capable craft. Instead of aircraft being produced in piece, then bolted together; small platforms can be produced as a single unit and large platforms can be produces in large section and mated without bolting. These techniques include using exotic materials and advanced assembly processes, with an end result of streamlining the production costs and time for hypersonic aircraft; reducing months of assembly to weeks. Overall, this process greatly reduced the cost for producing hypersonic platforms. Even to such an extent that a Hellfire missile costs apx $100,000 but by utilizing our technologies, replacing it with a Mach 8-10 hypersonic missile of our physics/engineering and that missile would cost roughly $75,000 each delivered.

  

Materials used for these manufacturing processes are not disclosed, but overall, provides a foundation for extremely high stresses and thermodynamics, ideal for hypersonic platforms. This specific methodology and materials applications is many decades ahead of all known programs. Even to the extend of normalized space flight and re-entry, without concern of thermodynamic failure.

 

*Note, most entities that are experimenting with additive manufacturing for hypersonic aircraft, this makes it mainstream and standardized processes, which also applies for mass production.

 

What would normally be measured in years and perhaps a decade to go from drawing board to test flights, is reduced to singular months and ready for production within a year maximum.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle (U-TBCC)

 

To date, the closest that NASA and industry have achieved for turbine based aircraft to fly at hypersonic velocities is by mounting a turbine into an aircraft and sharing the inlet with a scramjet or rocket based motor. Reaction Engines Sabre is not able to achieve hypersonic velocities and can only transition into a non air breathing rocket for beyond Mach 4.5

 

However, utilizing Unified Turbine Based Combine Cycle also known as U-TBCC, the two separate platforms are able to share a common inlet and the dual mode ramjet/scramjet is contained within the engine itself, which allows for a much smaller airframe footprint, thus engingeers are able to then design much higher performance aerial platforms for hypersonic flight, including the ability for constructing true single stage to orbit aircraft by utilizing a modification/version that allows for transition to outside atmosphere propulsion without any other propulsion platforms within the aircraft. By transitioning and developing aircraft to use Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle, this propulsion system opens up new options to replace that airframe deficit for increased fuel capacity and/or payload.

 

Enhanced Dynamic Cavitation

 

Dramatically Increasing the efficiency of fuel air mixture for combustion processes at hypersonic velocities within scramjet propulsion platforms. The aspects of these processes are non disclosable.

 

Dynamic Scramjet Ignition Processes

 

For optimal scramjet ignition, a process known as Self Start is sought after, but in many cases if the platform becomes out of attitude, the scramjet will ignite. We have already solved this problem which as a result, a scramjet propulsion system can ignite at lower velocities, high velocities, at optimal attitude or not optimal attitude. It doesn't matter, it will ignite anyways at the proper point for maximum thrust capabilities at hypersonic velocities.

 

Hydrogen vs Kerosene Fuel Sources

 

Kerosene is an easy fuel to work with, and most western nations developing scramjet platforms use Kerosene for that fact. However, while kerosene has better thermal properties then Hydrogen, Hydrogen is a far superior fuel source in scramjet propulsion flight, do it having a much higher efficiency capability. Because of this aspect, in conjunction with our developments, it allows for a MUCH increased fuel to air mixture, combustion, thrust; and ability for higher speeds; instead of very low hypersonic velocities in the Mach 5-6 range. Instead, Mach 8-10 range, while we have begun developing hypersonic capabilities to exceed 15 in atmosphere within less then 5 years.

 

Conforming High Pressure Tank Technology for CNG and H2.

 

As most know in hypersonics, Hydrogen is a superior fuel source, but due to the storage abilities, can only be stored in cylinders thus much less fuel supply. Not anymore, we developed conforming high pressure storage technology for use in aerospace, automotive sectors, maritime, etc; which means any overall shape required for 8,000+ PSI CNG or Hydrogen. For hypersonic platforms, this means the ability to store a much larger volume of hydrogen vs cylinders.

 

As an example, X-43 flown by Nasa which flew at Mach 9.97. The fuel source was Hydrogen, which is extremely more volatile and combustible then kerosene (JP-7), via a cylinder in the main body. If it had used our technology, that entire section of the airframe would had been an 8,000 PSI H2 tank, which would had yielded 5-6 times the capacity. While the X-43 flew 11 seconds under power at Mach 9.97, at 6 times the fuel capacity would had yielded apx 66 seconds of fuel under power at Mach 9.97. If it had flew slower, around Mach 6, same principles applied would had yielded apx 500 seconds of fuel supply under power (slower speeds required less energy to maintain).

 

Enhanced Fuel Mixture During Shock Train Interaction

 

Normally, fuel injection is conducted at the correct insertion point within the shock train for maximum burn/combustion. Our methodologies differ, since almost half the fuel injection is conducted PRE shock train within the isolator, so at the point of isolator injection the fuel enhances the combustion process, which then requires less fuel injection to reach the same level of thrust capabilities.

 

Improved Bow Shock Interaction

 

Smoother interaction at hypersonic velocities and mitigating heat/stresses for beyond Mach 6 thermodynamics, which extraordinarily improves Type 3, 4, and 5 shock interaction.

 

6,000+ Fahrenheit Thermal Resistance

 

To date, the maximum thermal resistance was tested at AFRL in the spring of 2018, which resulted in a 3,200F thermal resistance for a short duration. This technology, allows for normalized hypersonic thermal resistance of 3,000-3,500F sustained, and up to 6,500F resistance for short endurance, ie 90 seconds or less. 10-20 minute resistance estimate approximately 4,500F +/- 200F.

  

*** This technology advancement also applies to Aerospike rocket engines, in which it is common for Aerospike's to exceed 4,500-5,000F temperatures, which results in the melting of the reversed bell housing. That melting no longer ocurrs, providing for stable combustion to ocurr for the entire flight envelope

 

Scramjet Propulsion Side Wall Cooling

 

With old technologies, side wall cooling is required for hypersonic flight and scramjet propulsion systems, otherwise the isolator and combustion regions of a scramjet would melt, even using advanced ablatives and ceramics, due to their inability to cope with very high temperatures. Using technology we have developed for very high thermodynamics and high stresses, side wall cooling is no longer required, thus removing that variable from the design process and focusing on improved ignition processes and increasing net thrust values.

 

Lower Threshold for Hypersonic Ignition

 

Active and adaptive flight dynamics, resulting in the ability for scramjet ignition at a much lower velocity, ie within ramjet envelope, between Mach 2-4, and seamless transition from supersonic to hypersonic flight, ie supersonic ramjet (scramjet). This active and dynamic aspect, has a wide variety of parameters for many flight dynamics, velocities, and altitudes; which means platforms no longer need to be engineered for specific altitude ranges or preset velocities, but those parameters can then be selected during launch configuration and are able to adapt actively in flight.

 

Dramatically Improved Maneuvering Capabilities at Hypersonic Velocities

 

Hypersonic vehicles, like their less technologically advanced brethren, use large actuator and the developers hope those controls surfaces do not disintegrate in flight. In reality, it is like rolling the dice, they may or may not survive, hence another reason why the attempt to keep velocities to Mach 6 or below. We have shrunken down control actuators while almost doubling torque and response capabilities specifically for hypersonic dynamics and extreme stresses involved, which makes it possible for maximum input authority for Mach 10 and beyond.

 

Paradigm Shift in Control Surface Methodologies, Increasing Control Authority (Internal Mechanical Applications)

 

To date, most control surfaces for hypersonic missile platforms still use fins, similar to lower speed conventional missiles, and some using ducted fins. This is mostly due to lack of comprehension of hypersonic velocities in their own favor. Instead, the body itself incorporates those control surfaces, greatly enhancing the airframe strength, opening up more space for hardware and fuel capacity; while simultaneously enhancing the platforms maneuvering capabilities.

 

A scramjet missile can then fly like conventional missile platforms, and not straight and level at high altitudes, losing velocity on it's decent trajectory to target. Another added benefit to this aspect, is the ability to extend range greatly, so if anyone elses hypersonic missile platform were developed for 400 mile range, falling out of the sky due to lack of glide capabilities; our platforms can easily reach 600+ miles, with minimal glide deceleration.

Raven - Mach 8-10 Hypersonic Plane - Single Stage to Orbit (STO) - Iteration 7

 

IO Aircraft www.ioaircraft.com

Drew Blair www.linkedin.com/in/drew-b-25485312/

 

Raven - B Model (Iteration 7)

 

Single Stage To Orbit Fixed Wing Aircraft

Length: 100'

Span: 45' 8"

 

Thermals: 6,000+ Fahrenheit

Turn Around Time: 3-6 Hours (No Ablative/Ceramic Tiles)

 

Airframe: 90% Advanced Composites, 10X Stronger then if it were Titatanium

 

Propulsion: U-TBCC (Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle + Zero Atmosphere Mod)

 

Empty Weight: Apx 40,000 LBS

Fuel: 8,000-12,000 PSI Compressed Hydrogen and Oxygen

Fuel Weight Total: 5,000 LBS

 

Capability: Max Load, 170 Mile Parking Orbit

(W/O Assist) Half Load, Geo Stationary Orbit (Or Moon Orbit)

 

Payload Bay: 15' X 7' X 7'

Payload Max: 15,000 LBS

 

Costs Per Launch: Apx $2.5 Million

 

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Advanced Additive Manufacturing for Hypersonic Aircraft

 

Utilizing new methods of fabrication and construction, make it possible to use additive manufacturing, dramatically reducing the time and costs of producing hypersonic platforms from missiles, aircraft, and space capable craft. Instead of aircraft being produced in piece, then bolted together; small platforms can be produced as a single unit and large platforms can be produces in large section and mated without bolting. These techniques include using exotic materials and advanced assembly processes, with an end result of streamlining the production costs and time for hypersonic aircraft; reducing months of assembly to weeks. Overall, this process greatly reduced the cost for producing hypersonic platforms. Even to such an extent that a Hellfire missile costs apx $100,000 but by utilizing our technologies, replacing it with a Mach 8-10 hypersonic missile of our physics/engineering and that missile would cost roughly $75,000 each delivered.

 

Materials used for these manufacturing processes are not disclosed, but overall, provides a foundation for extremely high stresses and thermodynamics, ideal for hypersonic platforms. This specific methodology and materials applications is many decades ahead of all known programs. Even to the extend of normalized space flight and re-entry, without concern of thermodynamic failure.

 

*Note, most entities that are experimenting with additive manufacturing for hypersonic aircraft, this makes it mainstream and standardized processes, which also applies for mass production.

 

What would normally be measured in years and perhaps a decade to go from drawing board to test flights, is reduced to singular months and ready for production within a year maximum.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle (U-TBCC)

 

To date, the closest that NASA and industry have achieved for turbine based aircraft to fly at hypersonic velocities is by mounting a turbine into an aircraft and sharing the inlet with a scramjet or rocket based motor. Reaction Engines Sabre is not able to achieve hypersonic velocities and can only transition into a non air breathing rocket for beyond Mach 4.5

 

However, utilizing Unified Turbine Based Combine Cycle also known as U-TBCC, the two separate platforms are able to share a common inlet and the dual mode ramjet/scramjet is contained within the engine itself, which allows for a much smaller airframe footprint, thus engingeers are able to then design much higher performance aerial platforms for hypersonic flight, including the ability for constructing true single stage to orbit aircraft by utilizing a modification/version that allows for transition to outside atmosphere propulsion without any other propulsion platforms within the aircraft. By transitioning and developing aircraft to use Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle, this propulsion system opens up new options to replace that airframe deficit for increased fuel capacity and/or payload.

 

Enhanced Dynamic Cavitation

 

Dramatically Increasing the efficiency of fuel air mixture for combustion processes at hypersonic velocities within scramjet propulsion platforms. The aspects of these processes are non disclosable.

 

Dynamic Scramjet Ignition Processes

 

For optimal scramjet ignition, a process known as Self Start is sought after, but in many cases if the platform becomes out of attitude, the scramjet will ignite. We have already solved this problem which as a result, a scramjet propulsion system can ignite at lower velocities, high velocities, at optimal attitude or not optimal attitude. It doesn't matter, it will ignite anyways at the proper point for maximum thrust capabilities at hypersonic velocities.

 

Hydrogen vs Kerosene Fuel Sources

 

Kerosene is an easy fuel to work with, and most western nations developing scramjet platforms use Kerosene for that fact. However, while kerosene has better thermal properties then Hydrogen, Hydrogen is a far superior fuel source in scramjet propulsion flight, do it having a much higher efficiency capability. Because of this aspect, in conjunction with our developments, it allows for a MUCH increased fuel to air mixture, combustion, thrust; and ability for higher speeds; instead of very low hypersonic velocities in the Mach 5-6 range. Instead, Mach 8-10 range, while we have begun developing hypersonic capabilities to exceed 15 in atmosphere within less then 5 years.

 

Conforming High Pressure Tank Technology for CNG and H2.

 

As most know in hypersonics, Hydrogen is a superior fuel source, but due to the storage abilities, can only be stored in cylinders thus much less fuel supply. Not anymore, we developed conforming high pressure storage technology for use in aerospace, automotive sectors, maritime, etc; which means any overall shape required for 8,000+ PSI CNG or Hydrogen. For hypersonic platforms, this means the ability to store a much larger volume of hydrogen vs cylinders.

 

As an example, X-43 flown by Nasa which flew at Mach 9.97. The fuel source was Hydrogen, which is extremely more volatile and combustible then kerosene (JP-7), via a cylinder in the main body. If it had used our technology, that entire section of the airframe would had been an 8,000 PSI H2 tank, which would had yielded 5-6 times the capacity. While the X-43 flew 11 seconds under power at Mach 9.97, at 6 times the fuel capacity would had yielded apx 66 seconds of fuel under power at Mach 9.97. If it had flew slower, around Mach 6, same principles applied would had yielded apx 500 seconds of fuel supply under power (slower speeds required less energy to maintain).

 

Enhanced Fuel Mixture During Shock Train Interaction

 

Normally, fuel injection is conducted at the correct insertion point within the shock train for maximum burn/combustion. Our methodologies differ, since almost half the fuel injection is conducted PRE shock train within the isolator, so at the point of isolator injection the fuel enhances the combustion process, which then requires less fuel injection to reach the same level of thrust capabilities.

 

Improved Bow Shock Interaction

 

Smoother interaction at hypersonic velocities and mitigating heat/stresses for beyond Mach 6 thermodynamics, which extraordinarily improves Type 3, 4, and 5 shock interaction.

 

6,000+ Fahrenheit Thermal Resistance

 

To date, the maximum thermal resistance was tested at AFRL in the spring of 2018, which resulted in a 3,200F thermal resistance for a short duration. This technology, allows for normalized hypersonic thermal resistance of 3,000-3,500F sustained, and up to 6,500F resistance for short endurance, ie 90 seconds or less. 10-20 minute resistance estimate approximately 4,500F +/- 200F.

  

*** This technology advancement also applies to Aerospike rocket engines, in which it is common for Aerospike's to exceed 4,500-5,000F temperatures, which results in the melting of the reversed bell housing. That melting no longer ocurrs, providing for stable combustion to ocurr for the entire flight envelope

 

Scramjet Propulsion Side Wall Cooling

 

With old technologies, side wall cooling is required for hypersonic flight and scramjet propulsion systems, otherwise the isolator and combustion regions of a scramjet would melt, even using advanced ablatives and ceramics, due to their inability to cope with very high temperatures. Using technology we have developed for very high thermodynamics and high stresses, side wall cooling is no longer required, thus removing that variable from the design process and focusing on improved ignition processes and increasing net thrust values.

 

Lower Threshold for Hypersonic Ignition

 

Active and adaptive flight dynamics, resulting in the ability for scramjet ignition at a much lower velocity, ie within ramjet envelope, between Mach 2-4, and seamless transition from supersonic to hypersonic flight, ie supersonic ramjet (scramjet). This active and dynamic aspect, has a wide variety of parameters for many flight dynamics, velocities, and altitudes; which means platforms no longer need to be engineered for specific altitude ranges or preset velocities, but those parameters can then be selected during launch configuration and are able to adapt actively in flight.

 

Dramatically Improved Maneuvering Capabilities at Hypersonic Velocities

 

Hypersonic vehicles, like their less technologically advanced brethren, use large actuator and the developers hope those controls surfaces do not disintegrate in flight. In reality, it is like rolling the dice, they may or may not survive, hence another reason why the attempt to keep velocities to Mach 6 or below. We have shrunken down control actuators while almost doubling torque and response capabilities specifically for hypersonic dynamics and extreme stresses involved, which makes it possible for maximum input authority for Mach 10 and beyond.

 

Paradigm Shift in Control Surface Methodologies, Increasing Control Authority (Internal Mechanical Applications)

 

To date, most control surfaces for hypersonic missile platforms still use fins, similar to lower speed conventional missiles, and some using ducted fins. This is mostly due to lack of comprehension of hypersonic velocities in their own favor. Instead, the body itself incorporates those control surfaces, greatly enhancing the airframe strength, opening up more space for hardware and fuel capacity; while simultaneously enhancing the platforms maneuvering capabilities.

 

A scramjet missile can then fly like conventional missile platforms, and not straight and level at high altitudes, losing velocity on it's decent trajectory to target. Another added benefit to this aspect, is the ability to extend range greatly, so if anyone elses hypersonic missile platform were developed for 400 mile range, falling out of the sky due to lack of glide capabilities; our platforms can easily reach 600+ miles, with minimal glide deceleration.

This shown turbo windmill is spin off from the Spailboat.

 

A mantling ring around the blades holds the blades firmly in position. The ends of the blades are clipped in by this ring and the only freedom this ring has, is to turn. Above that, due to mantling around the blades with supporting construction, no mast is placed behind the blades. The blades do never pass a mast, so that the wind that leaves the blades is not disturbed anymore.

 

Conventional wind turbines use long masts to catch the wind at the highest possible vertical blade covering area as possible, because the conventional wind turbines are operating near living ground and over here is little wind -our ancestors could choose, and they chose to live here, instead of living at places with a lot of wind-. Long masts cause no particular problems in low wind speeds, however, in high winds, the masts tend to flip over and start to vibrate. To be exact, the vibrations in/at the masts do enforce the vibrations in the blades. Conventional wind turbines can not use high winds, because:

1: vibrations in the mast and tendency to flip over

2: vibrations in the blades, because of loose ends

3: vibrations of the blades, caused by passing the masts at the lowest point of the circular motion of the blades. It sounds like this: zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz , flope, zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz, flope... et cetera, in where zzzzzzzzzzzz is the sound without passing the masts and flope is the sound while passing the mast.

 

The masts in old Dutch windmills are even wider, in order to house the big wooden cog wheels for the transmission, axles and specific industries in the "mast". The sails, or fabric, spread out over the rate construction at the beams of the blades, make an even bigger floping sound and a closer look learns that, during passing the mast, the sails are even coming loose from this rate construction. So, every time a blade passes the mast, the blade is loosing lift force. In the early days this constantly changing of the lift force in the wind mill beams was not a problem, because the mill making was done with wood and wood never tires.

Until 1800 A.D. we needed the windmills for powering our industries. Today, we need the wind again for, for instance, countering the raise of nuclear power, coal -, and gas, burning / using power plants for electricity, and to make an alternative for combustion engines.

 

Since the windsurfers, and later, the kite surfers, introduced a stable way of holding up sails, by holding the sails in such a way that the capsizing is no longer flipping the sailing composition over, even high winds can be used.

 

In a way it is trivial that exactly James Watt's steam machine triggered the industrial revolution, which resulted in global warming that increased the wind. So, we have more wind here and there [close to where we live and close to the arctic zones] and we can now use most of it.

 

The low wind speed regime can be used by conventional modern wind turbines and conventional modern sailing boats and high winds by turbo windmills and Spailboats. By using any kind of wind, until 12bft, any where on earth, we can say that the wind is to be used on demand, and his is exactly the reason of why the industrial revolution took off.

 

In 1773, when James improved the steam machine, we did not have carbon fibers, steel, composites and the windsurf formula, so that the steam machine did not have a competition.

 

En fin, by means of windsurfing high winds at oceans with spaiboats and using high winds by turbo windmills, the combination with conventional modern wind users for the low wind regime leads to new a competition for nuclear power plants et cetera. So the comparison of today is the combination of all wind converters, for making axles spin, with for instance the steam machine and his brothers -nuclear power plants, coal -, and gas, burning power plants-, which all still boil water in a big kettle, and combustion engines which are also still burning fossil fuels. Once again, we are on a certain track since the steammachine, which track provided us also combustion engines. Look: a cylinder in a combustion engine is a kind of kettle and the high pressure is caused by burning fuel in it to make axles spin. It is therefore, that the steam machine, nucluar power, combustion engines and powerplants are all brothers of eachother. I will fight these brothers now with the windsurf formula.

 

The windsurf formula implies that lift from the blades lines up with the reaction force and that the blades are hold steady and firm, so that high winds can be used.

 

The blades -rotors- in a turbo windmill are at their ends mantled by a ring. The ring is born within wheels in the housing. Because turbo wind mills use high winds, this mantle piece can be placed at/near the ground, so that there is no significant occurance of vibrating at the ends of the blades. The blade ends can not move with respect to the ring and the ring not with respect to the housing and housing not with respect to foundations. A blade end in a turbo windmill can not vibrate. I mean, I dare you, universities around the world, to give me some, because off course there are always vibrations. However, I want to speak in human langue and that means that wind mill blades do not vibrate to pieces in high winds.

 

In order to use high winds, the blades have to be hold firmly in place, leaving only the opportunity open for the blades to turn, or to move, perpendicular on the winds direction with as a consequence that Pythagoras' law comes in as foundation to calculate the angle of attack in the blades and the value of vector, S. Further on, one will see that windsurfing is done in the half wind sailing course and waves are swept by the wind, so that wave riding is falling with sailing half wind. Perfect.

 

High speed, directed perpendicular on the wind, leads also to the fact that a given sail area will be used optimally. And because cavitation, air bubbles around the swords, are restricting the windsurfers' speed, spailboat has wheels for swords. You, as reader, have to take it from here, because I can not force you to swallow dry food. Please, take one step at the time. To get started, you firstly need to understand that when a plate is placed flat -perpendicular- on the wind, there is maximum blockage of the wind by that plate. Next step. We imaginary move this plate with in the direction flat to the wind. Now we'll see that the actual wind speed, S, that hits the blade is to be calculated by Pathagoras' law, S^2 =W^2+V^2, in where, V, is the speed of the blade perpendicular on the winds' direction and W is the wind speed. If now the original wind speed is very low, say, 1 m/s, and the speed flat to wind is 300 m/s, then we might as well assume that the actual wind speed that hits the blade is still 300 m/s. In other words, when an almost flat on the wind positioned blade is moving with very high speed -in the line of its plane, perpendicular on the original wind's direction-, then the actual wind speed that hits the blades, comes almost from the front, parallel with the plane of the blade. A blade end of a windmill moves faster than that blade does near the center, so that blade ends are almost positioned flat to the wind. The same counts for windsurf sails. Although the sails are hold almost flat to the wind, the actual wind flow that hits the sails is coming, more or less, from the front. This means that we want high speed, in order to get maximum conversion of a given sail area. High speed implies high lift forces, and therefore we need stable and strong configurations that hold the blades.

 

I worked on stable sailing machines for twenty years now, because the capsizing and the catapulting with my catamaran scared the ........ out off me. Oh, I sailed from six years old, and won in 1988 the second biggest cat race in the world, together with my nephew, Ruud Goudriaan, who still is a class-A cat sailor. I went to college, and later to the technical university in Delft, and therefore I sold my cat, but continued windsurfing on cheap gear. However, windsurfing on old wave boards with old gear is still going much faster than the fastest cat. I kept on wondering why and when I figured it out [in 1994], I started to create a mechanically operated windsurf boat.

 

Sailing and windsurfing are very much like music, a well written song can be played live on stage over and over again, and every time this song improves itself. I can only ensure you, that the windsurf formula is an outstanding song, in the way to speak. Everything comes together, with as result that the windy circumstances on earth are perfect to use sails, wings, for making axles spin, as well on the oceans, by means of windsurfing -a combination of surfing and sailing stable half wind-, as on land, by means of using turbo windmills.

 

The only limitations in using the high winds are now caused by preoccupation of the existing economy. For instance, the car industries, the airplane industries, wind turbine industries, sailing boats industries, et cetera, keep our engineers in hostage. If we only could stop the production and the developing of the car making, airplane making et cetera, for just one week, and bring this way all the engineers to one imaginary table then the formula of windsurfing is understood. Once the leading engineers understand the windsurf formula, then the building of the prototypes is a year away. Some floors of the car industries and the airplanes industries can make room for new production lines.

 

And to make an even bigger example. When the second world war broke out, suddenly all floors of the car industries and airplane industries were making room for the production of tanks, jeeps, fighter planes, bombers et cetera. So, it is just a matter of priorities.

 

By now, saving this planet is priority number one, and still all industries and all governments around the world do not see the windsurf formula. Even a child can see that windsurfing is sensational. Just look at windsurfing from above. The waves make pipelines, and the only safe course in high winds falls parrallel with them. These pipelines lay, notably per definition, perpendicular on the wind's direction and windsurfing is always done half wind, so that the windsurfers automatically go as fast as possible and have a relatively safe ride between the waves. All in all, the windsurf formula implies that a given sail area is optimally used, that the waves are helping in making speed, that the half wind course is always leading to gliding along with the waves, that windsurfing is therefore relatively safe, that a stable configuration is the condition to make big structures, so that former dangerous windy circumstances at open ocean are just perfect to move a significant amount of mass with high speed. The kinetic energy is measured by the formula: 1/2 times the mass of the composition times the square of the speed. This world is dying for energy. So, please, understand the windsurf formula and please make Spailboats for over water, and turbo wind mills for on land.

I mean, did you ever see a professor, 60 years old, windsurfing on large waves with 10 bft at open sea? No, that is the problem. These kind of persons rule the world.

 

Just go on the Internet, and see for yourself that the formula, for calculating the maximum sailing speed, is still only counting for non flying sailing boats. This means that they assume that the hull is still always dragging through water. For the cavitation speed they still assume always that a sword is not moving with respect to the hull. In Spailboats, on the other hand, the water cutting part of a sword does move along with respect to the hull, so that the speed of the hull and the speed of through water dragging sword have two different values. Here in Holland at the university of Delft, a leading professor -who works on his own sailing boat, off course-, once told me in person that no matter what kind of sailing boat, or windsurfer, it could never over top the 100km/hr barrier, because of cavitation around the swords. I came to him, at one of those appointments, to inform him about the new rigging, so that spailboats are almost flying above the water and to inform him about the reason -to overcome cavitation around the water cutting profile of the sword wheels- for using circle shaped spinning swords. So, I walked through his door, showed him my work, and in stead letting me talk about my work, he did not look at my work at all. He talked for half an hour, and by the time he finished, I wanted to reply, but then he said, your time is up, leave, please. I have tried to make another appointment, but in vain. A few months later, he had a full page in one of Holland's main newspapers, the Saturday edition, in where he presented his own sailing boat. The public was misled. This sailing boat was so-called state of the art, but, it did not fly, it did still capsize, it could not operate in high seas, people, it was a worthless piece of ....... . So, I came in, and he asked, what did you study,? I said: civil engineering, and that answer was apparently wrong, because he worked at the aircraft and space department. Pyramids, remember, people, we still build them. The only thing that matters, is that I am a good sailor and windsurfer , and that I made windsurf robot. Even if I did not have any masters degree at the technical university at all, he should have asked me what my work was, and not what my title was. This story goes on, because before I talked to him, the boss so to speak, I had several meetings with his students and they were impressed. But at the moment they found out that I was working outside the university they boycotted me, right away. I had to give earlier given nice 3D pictures of wings back, and also my usb stick with several drawings had to be erased. Since then I am not welcome anymore. My own professor, Marcel Donze, then always brings calm to me, with this: Who would be the worst enemy of the Pope? Jesus Christ. No rank and bare footed, and closer to God as him.

 

I am closer to the wind, that is the point.

It is therefore that these two new inventions fall under: the environmental revolution.

 

We, the hard working people, can easily see that windsurfers go faster than the good old sailing boats. And still, billions and billions are spend on sailing boats for the happy few, like the rich men's toys for the Volvo Ocean Race, America's cup, the immense yachts et cetera. The same thing counts for the swallowing up of our best engineers for the car industries, formula 1 racing, jet fighter plane making et cetera.

 

If only the engineers and the people who rule the world want to save this planet, then the prototypes of the turbo windmills and the spailboats will be operating within a year.

 

In the past seven years I really tried endlessly to talk with professors around the world. They are just not at home. On the phone it goes like this. Who are you? What did you study, and I say, civil engineering. Oh, that has nothing to do with planes and/or mills, we are not interested.

 

Off course, I do not talk like them, every error in the conversation means the final cut of the conversation and once such a door is closed, it never opens again.

 

So, you as reader will never read or hear about windsurf machines and turbo windmills, which can save the planet, other than in this slide show.

 

I was a good cat sailor and a good windsurfer in the eighties. From childhood on I was at sea. Above that fact, I was born in Zaandam, the place where a cluster of windmills is stacked in an open air museum. I had the kite surfing formula on the drawing board, long before it took off, because the kites are hold just the same as windsurf sails are hold, only now on wires and further away from the board. In fact, I actually kite surfed on a small wooden plank on the beach in the eighties of the past century when I was ten years old. My nephews tried it, but were to heavy, and logically, I had to try. And it worked. Kite surfing is nothing more than using a big kite to move yourself. So, who do you want to believe, me, or the universities?

 

Get úp, stand up, get up for your right. Bob Marley. He believed that music unites all people one day. Wind sounds like music, doesn't it? No more nuclear power, no more burning fossil fuels.

 

Turbo windmill, or Jet Wind Mill [JWM] / JWM is a nephew, resp. spin off, of Spailboat, the stable sailing Speed Sail Craft.

 

Stability: only when stability is firstly established, then a structure might be built tall. A sailing boat might be made endlessly strong, still, it capsizes, so that it is useless to make endlessly strong masts. A Spailboat however is stable, and therefore a Spailboat can be made big, very big, as big oceanliners, with 100 meter long masts. This is part of the windsurf formula. And remember, mass in motion implies the kinetic energy.

 

We need energy. For making fresh drinking water, for irrigation, for making electricity, making hydrogen, for moving cars, trains, planes and so on.

 

The windsurf formula is here, for everyone to use in the world, because I dropped my patents. It is free, for you, Africa, Asia, America, Europe, the south pacific continents and islands. Just have a look and run this show a few times. It is like the wheel itself, it is normal, revolutionary and it will change the world. No nuclear power is needed any longer, just usage of high winds and swell on the oceans. And the turbo windmill is spin off, because these blades are in fact circular moving steady in positioned hold windsurf sails.

 

If you want be a sponsor for the building of the prototype for a turbo wind mill, please deposit your gift to

Rabobank account number 374138354 from ACJ Goudriaan in Zaandam, Holland.

 

Als u een geldbedrag wilt doneren voor de, nu reeds gestarte, bouw van het prototype van de turbo windmolen, svp maak geld over naar Rabobank nummer 374138354 tnv ACJ Goudriaan te Zaandam

...... .

Stability.

Stabiliteit van het evenwicht.

 

Construction material in the line of the forces.

 

Constructie materiaal in de lijn van de krachten.

 

Stable sailing is a building skill.

 

Spailboat levert zijn energie, ammoniak, en / of waterstof, LH2, af aan tankers die het naar havens brengen.

 

Men moet olie gebruiken om ermee te bouwen.

 

Spailboat is een naam. Er zit speed spailing in, uit het Engels, terwijl er ook spelevaren in zit. Spelevaren is een denigrerende term voor rijke lui die uit verveling niets anders kunnen doen dan doelloos varen, op hun omslaande jachten. De echte verwijzing is echter de letterlijke. Spelen. Toevallig ook met ai, de klank van Sail. Dus, de naam voor het nieuwe type zeilboot, respectievelijk, windsurfboot, of, kitesurfboot, is Speelboot, respectievelijk, Spailboat.

 

Een Spailboat, speed-sail-boat, is zeilboot die de lift normaal behandelt. Alle gewone -niet normaal- langsgetuigde zeilboten slaan om. Het is eigenlijk ongelofelijk maar, alle zeilboten zijn instabiel, ofwel, labiel, ofwel in mensentermen, een wankel gebeuren. En, levensgevaarlijk. Dus, een Speelboot is wel een zeilende boot, maar, het mag geen zeilboot heten, omdat zeilboot al bezet is door de gangbare. Maar kitesurfen is ook zeilen, maar toch geen zeilboot. Speelboot is een kitesurfboot, met de monoliete behandeling van een windsurfer.

 

Omdat speelboten niet omslaan. Sterker, speelboten gaan vliegen. De massa, echter, is veel te groot om te gaan vliegen, desalniettemin wil de tuigage het geheel dat deze vasthoudt, opliften. Dus, een speelboot lijkt op een kitesurfer. Want, een kite staat eigenlijk zoals speelbootzeilen staan opgesteld. Een nadere kijk leert ons namelijk dat vleugels die als kite staan, de behandelaars van die vleugels in staat stellen de overbrenging tussen de lift en de blokkade hierop te normaliseren. Ofwel, alleen en slechts dan als de vleugel staat opgesteld als een kite, maar ook windsurferzeil, werkt de lift opwaarts.

 

Logisch, als men bedenkt dat andere bekende vleugels, aan vogels of vliegtuigen, de lift ook omhoog werken. Heel onlogisch dus dat zeilboten eigenlijk van vliegende naar duikende evolueerden. Vikingschepen, Latijnse zeilboten, de eerste brikken en barken, de latere windjammers (volschepen, barken, brikken) hielden hun zeilen in feit ook al op als kite. Zeilen was aanvankelijk windsurfen. Toen kwamen er rond 1800 AD langsgetuigde zeilboten, en nu kon er wel hoger aan de wind worden gelopen.

 

Om energie op te wekken hoeven we nergens heen, zodat de "aan de windse koers" waardeloos wordt > weinig snelheid. We kunnen weer vliegen. Dus, een speelboot is geen windsurfer, omdat de zeilen ver weg staan. Wel lijkt een speelboot in alles op een windsurfer. Werkelijk, een speelboot is in feite een windsurfer. De zeilen worden volledig gemanipuleerd met als enige doelen de snelheid en, het vliegen. Dus, een speelboot lijkt het meeste op een kitesurfer, heeft de eigenschappen van een windsurfer, en valt onder de noemer: zeilboten. Maar, een speelboot lijkt in feite nergens op. Het is, zoals gezegd, geen zeilboot, terwijl het wel zeker een zeilboot is. Maar natuurlijk. Kort gezegd komt het erop neer dat een speelboot iets nieuws is.

 

Een speelboot vaart, net als windsurfers en kitesurfers, half wind en voor de wind, maar, een speelboot kan ook wel degelijk hoogte winnen. Een speelboot kan alles, als het komt tot zeilen. Windsurfen is eigenlijk super zeilen. Een windsurfer zeilt ook, en een kiter zeilt ook. Toch heet kitesurfen geen zeilen, maar kiten. Een windsurfer surft, terwijl surfen toch echt oorspronkelijk zonder zeil gebeurde. Een Spailboat spailt. Ofwel, een speelboot speelt. De link terug naar de actualiteit is spelen van de jeugd. Het leukste spel van allemaal is kiten. Als de jeugd heet voor het zeggen had, dan zouden ze altijd zeilen, als het waait. En dat noem ik spelen.

 

Een Spailboat is een robot die kan windsurfen. Massa, M, in kg, dat kan windsurfen. Windsurfen kenmerkt zich door de snelheid, v, in m/s en het surfen met de korte windgolven. Het surfen is het mooiste wat er is op aarde. We nemen een groot stuk water. We blazen er wind overheen. Er ontstaan golven. De golven lopen haaks op de wind. De half windse koers loopt parallel aan de golven.

  

We need stable wind surf machines with turbines.

 

The new riggings lead to stable sailing compositions. The already mentioned windsurfing, SB, is the wave riding version of the stable sailing compositions and; meant for usage at the windy waters near the both poles, in fact just outside the cargo shipping routes. Also the edges of overcoming hurricanes, especially the periodic appearing ones like, the ones in the Mexican Gulf during the so-called hurricane season, are goals. On both working grounds is room enough for a very large fleet. A “million” super sized, SB, can provide the worlds' hunger for energy, by means of the *provision of hydrogen and electricity. Imagine then an entering of an imaginary million super sized, SB: a tiny significant amount of energy will be sucked out of the hurricane, causing the hurricane to loose a bit of its ferocious strength and so, causing lesser devastating power when hitting land! The mentioned working grounds are characterized by high winds, making beautiful “water mountain chains”, or swell, and in between two “stretched hills” are long “valleys”. These valleys -tubes- can be considered as speedways, which make the ocean in high winds like an endlessly wide freeway, making enough room to spare for the earlier mentioned absurd sounding amount super sized, SB. Gaining maximum speed out of windsurfing is done perpendicular to the wind so that, the mentioned freeways are always windsurfed parallel with the wind front. Because, the wind sweeps the waves. The wave fronts on open sea run perfectly perpendicular to the wind because, here is no diffraction or, refraction of the waves!

 

In the fact of the matter happens now the coincidence that, both surfing the swell and the usage of the wind alone are done most economically in the same direction; parallel with the wave fronts, perpendicular to the wind. So, the both directions, in where for the two maximum speeds are reached, are the very same. It is therefor that the both speeds reinforce each other, leading towards better sail positions.

 

The hydrogen, LH2, can be stored on board in special tanks, with Indium.

 

Cavitation, air bubbles around the water appendages beacause of the high speed. So, SB has luxury problems in high winds, by means of the potential to go faster than the water can take without creating air bubbles around the swords, the water appendages. Windsurfers call this cavitation phenomena: “spin out”. It is therefor no wonder that the needed speed tempering force on the windsurfing, SB, in high winds is, logically, to be used to make passive working paddle wheels, or scoops, spin, in order to drive for instance a continuous current dynamo. There is, however, a major down side in keeping the speed down. More speed means more overall lift and more overall lift means more compulsion and more vertical lifting force. SB, definitely wants to get airborne in order to get rid of the water resistance on the hulls. Without the hulls dragging though water opens way to put the sails in a more economic way, flatter to the wind. This rotatory mechanism, in which the increasing speed then at some point leads towards the possible clear lifting of the windsurfing SB, out off the water -because of more lift and better sail positions-, is now suddenly stopped because of the spin outs, cavitation, around the through water dragging swords! In this rotatory mechanism, one must be aware that by doubling the speed, the lift force increases by a factor four, in other words, the speed and the lift are quadratically related! After all, for getting air born we only need the rotatory speed making boat lifting mechanism to go on for just a bit longer. If we walk around dragging problems in general, then we encounter, at some point of the walk, the replacement of slides by wheels, by firstly the Egyptians. Digging further into the context, in where dragging and cutting are combinations, we encounter the successful replacements of the slide-like dragging cutters, by cutting wheels; in for instance glass cutters and can openers. These cutting wheels spin, during the cutting, causing less cutting resistance. Even a side force can be taken by the cutting wheels, during the cut making! In fact, besides the lower cutting resistance, cutting wheels have the same characteristics as cutting knives. If we translate this cutting information back towards the drag related cavitation problems in the water, then we find that the air bubbles around the water appendages, might not necessary occur, when replacing the former used swords by spinning sword wheels. By dragging spinning wheels with the cutting edges through water, the speed of the windsurfing, SB, now differs from the dragging speed of the cutting edges of the cutting wheels through the water. In other words, the water now “feels” a lower dragging speed, allowing the water to keep its original form, because no cavitation is caused. By controlling the circular speed of the spinning sword wheels, by means of a gear box, the cavitation can be avoided at all times. But off course, cutting water differs from cutting glass and in order to create side ways blocking force on spinning sword wheels in water, these sword wheels must slip! The side ways blocking force in water is also quadratic related with the dragging speed. In order to let the sword wheels slip, for creating -more- side ways blocking force, there is a certain amount of resistance needed! Once again the gear box can regulate the resistance, and so, the spinning speed and once again the tempering force is, logically, to be used for making continuous current and with the surplus, hydrogen. Using sword wheels means most of all that the speed of the hull may now over top the former cavitation speed barrier. More speed implies, notably quadratically, more lift, clearing the way to allow the,SB, to get air born; now leading at once towards lesser water resistance, which now, also at once, speeds up the SB, importantly, resulting once more in better sail positions, et cetera. In other words, the earlier mentioned rotatory mechanism is with usage of swords wheels back in action. In facto, the, as the result of the mentioned rotatory mechanism, reachable speeds over water now have to be tempered for safety reasons, making it once again appropriate to use the speed tempering force on the spinning wheels for generating continuous current! For an optimum energy conversion, we need to solve a so-called differential equation, in where all the parameters are related to one and other. The versions of the composition, SB, for over land ride, or over asphalt, or over non-hardened ground -with then very big wheels under, SB-, or over a special track, rails. The last mentioned version of, SB, the so-called Spailtrains over a special track, might possibly reach speeds running up towards, 400km/hr; because these under carriers clamp their wheels around the rails, like the carriers on roller coaster tracks, increasing the massive control over the sails importantly. And again, these possibly reachable high speeds need to be tempered for safety reasons, making it obvious that again the tempering forces are used to drive continuous current dynamos. The continuous current might now directly be led towards the electricity network. Special tracks for Spailtrains are favorably moored on places where windmills are active, because the electricity transportation cables towards the main electricity networks are already installed. Also one may assume that windmills are placed in windy places on land, where the wind is blowing most of the time from one particular direction. The Spailtrains can be used next to the windmills, at the same time, and, in case the wind is over topping the maximum wind mill operating wind force, clearly additionally, and by doing so, widening the wind force window from, eight bfr, towards, ten, or even twelve bfr. SB, compositions operate, just like windmills, flat on the winds direction, for maximum benefit of the given sail areas. The ends of wind mill blades move, at maximum speed in wind force, eight bfr, up to, 250km/hr. The blade, towards the end, is indeed positioned almost perfectly flat, respectively perpendicular, on the wind. If only wind mills did not vibrate and if the positions at the ends of the blades should be hold in a stable and firm way, then the speed at the ends of the blades, in wind force, twelve bfr, might easily run towards the, 800km/hr, though circular. Steady in position hold transversally moving blades do not have the problem of vibrating caused by the turning motion. In other words, a transversal moving blade could reach, 800km/hr, without shaking to pieces. Spailtrains, clamping their selves around rails, are able to position wings in a stable way, making theoretical speeds of, 800km/hr, possible. SB, in general, widens the operating window of the wind force and, as a consequence, the working ground. Antarctica.

 

Because of the normalization of the lift transfer, SB can be made strong enough! The fact of the matter is that all stable constructions can be forced to the limit, in where the heaviest loaded parts of the structure firstly collapse. Stabilized towers out of rock, like pyramids or, church towers, are only limited in their heights by the strength of the rocks at the very bottoms. Within, SB, the lift transfer is normalized, making composition, SB, stable constructions, which therefor can be made strong enough and perfectly suitable to get sized -, respectively scaled, up. And then, next to the overall stability of the composition, SB, each mast in, SB, is also almost normally used itself; because the lift force, vector, 10, works only slightly outside the mast line. There are, in certain variations of the composition, SB, periods of time noticeable in where the masts are stressed out perfectly through the center of the so-called core of the mast cross section! In this case of pure stress on the mast, the maximum stress load, to be taken by the mast, is nothing more the product of material strength and the area of cross section. In this very case, we can use a massive mast, as well as a rope! However, SB, is not a kite surfer, it is a wind surfer, in where each towards the wings running mast take care of the first condition for the eventual monolith kind of control, the so-called massive trim, over the wings, 6. On, SB, the masts work the cumulated lift force, vector, 10, slightly outside the mast lines, in order to direct the lift at all times in a straight line towards the blocking force, in water created by the water appendages. SB, masts are mainly stressed out and at the same time loaded with bending forces. In this very case it is wise to use hollow masts; lesser material, same bending strength. Presume now a square hollow mast cross section, of twenty, by, twenty meters, with skin thickness, 1000mm, loaded with a, around a parallel with two sides of the square, working couple, respectively torque. Now, one side of the square cross section is stressed out towards the limit. If the used materials are of highly strong composite materials, which can withstand, 1000N, approximately 100Kg, per square mm, and if the torque then put, 25%, on top of the stress load, then follows for maximum amount of stress force in this mast cross section, approximately: average tension in the cross section, sigma, times the working area of the cross section, A, or: sigma = 0.25 x ((1 x 0.6) + (2 x 0.8)) x 10^3N/mm^2 = 0.8 x 10^3N/mm^2 , A = (10^3mm x 2 x 2 x 10^4mm + 10^3mm x 2 x 1.8 x 10^4mm) = 7.6 x 10^7mm^2. Maximum lift force, vector, 10 = sigma x A = 0.8 x 10^3 N/mm^2 x 7.6 x 10^7mm^2 = 6.08 x 10^10N. One square meter sail area, in 100km/hr, generates, approximately, 300N = 3 x 10^2N, so, on this mast might hang, 2.026 x 10^8m^2, sail area! The common maximum wing on three supporting points, is, 300m x 20m, or, about twice the width and the length of an Airbus380 wing. At a mast of, 300m, length, might, roughly, hang twenty wings, running from the size, 300m x 20m, towards, 50m x 10m. The total sail area the leads, to, approximately: 0.6 x 20 x 300m x 20m = 7.2 x 10^5m^2 = way below, factor, 400, the theoretical maximum applicable sail area. In reality there are dynamic forces working on, and in, the mast, leading,towards maximum mast lengths of, 200m, for safety reasons. In, 315km/hr, the lift per, m^2, is approximately, 3000N. 3 x 10^3N, times the maximum theoretical total sail area, at masts of, 200m; 7.2 x 10^5m^2, provides lift force: 2.26 x 10^9N is smaller than 6.08 x 10^10N, and in this extreme case, even a mast of 200m, length can be made strong enough! Round and oval mast are even better. Well, 200m, mast length, that is something else than regular masts on conventional capsizing sailboats. SB, with four masts, can be made up to a kilometer long! If such, SB, move along with, 100km/hr, over water, or, 300km/hr, over special tracks, it is easy to understand that there is a lot of kinetic energy, ready to be converted into continuous current and after, into hydrogen. Once in race course, the sail positions are not moving too much, with respect to each other and with respect to the under carrier, so that the hydraulic motors and jacks won't take a lot of continuous current; leading to an enormous surplus to drive the hydrogen reactors, in order to make hydrogen. Holding positions of the with respect to each other movable parts, is done by break mechanisms, which might only take from the continuous current during installation. Off course, making nuance differences takes off of the continuous current, but after all, once in race, SB, compositions are almost static compositions,. At the end of the song, SB, are to be considered as mass, M, running from an endlessly long hill, which then only need to steer occasionally. Ekin = 1/2 M v^2, with M as mass in kg and v as velocity in m/s. Super positioning leads towards the conclusion that Spailboat is a peace machine because, any nation in the world can build them; in order to provide them selves with hydrogen and fresh water. With the deliverance of shear endless amounts of clean energy ( hydrogen ), the need for making war over oil can be put to the past. Also nuclear power can be put back. Drinking water can be made and, transported, without any down sides. Even ecosystems can be purified. SB hits the ground running.

 

Why this picture and the ones after? Imagine wind, storm, and one side of the church will go. The flying butres hangs in there on the pulling side, that is incredible.

 

BOOK BOEK

vervolg hoofdstuk 9

intussen al twee jaar van voorbij. In dat opzicht is dat verlies. In mijn beleving mocht alles zo blijven zoals het was in, 1990. Zeker in het begin was het een zeldzaamheid, als een plectrum gericht naar iemand toe werd geschoten. Ronnie, kan het beter en dit zinde, Keith, niet. Op een gegeven moment leek het wel een wedstrijd tussen, Keith, en, Ronnie; wie het beste de plectrums naar de bestemde persoon kon schieten. Zoals kleine veranderingen tijdens en na een concert is dit er een van. Feitelijk hebben, Harry, David, Libgart, Ken, Dirk en ik een nieuwe manier van leven geïntroduceerd. David, vraagt vandaag de dag nog steeds hoe het gaat met mijn, “Trail of Terror”. Een leven dat een spoor van vernieling achterlaat, ja dat is mijn leven. Alle schepen heb ik verbrand, terwijl ik nieuwe schepen met succes enterde. Ik haalde mijn universiteit diploma in een werkelijk zeer turbulente tijd, en sleepte het diploma letterlijk uit het vuur. In het verbranden van schepen ben ik altijd goed geweest en, net als, Harry, woon ik nu in een andere stad. Van, Zaandam, ben ik verhuisd naar Delft. En nu woon ik sinds kort in, Den Haag. Als ik nu door de stad fiets, bekruipt me altijd het gevoel van vakantie. De sfeer van een grote stad is toch wel euforisch te noemen. Het doet me kortsluiting maken naar de ervaringen tijdens de Stones-tournee’s langs de wereldsteden van, Europa, en, Amerika. Ik kon bij wijze van spreken naakt op de fiets door het centrum van, Delft, rijden zonder dat mijn familie het te weten komt. Het verbrande schip heette, Zaandam, en door mijn wilde leven hoef ik nergens meer aan te kloppen. Ze hebben allemaal een beetje een hekel aan me gekregen. Ik denk omdat ik altijd blijf volhouden waar ik mee bezig ben en ook nog succes verhaal. Mensen zien niet graag de zweetdruppels, maar veroordelen me snel als ik weer eens naar Amerika ga, want dat valt dan wel in het oog. Je ziet de mensen denken: “Wat doet-ie nu?” Dat is ongehoord. Is ie wel wijs? Mijn leven speelde zich voornamelijk af in de, “frontrow”. Een leven vooraan tijdens een Stones show, waar dan ook ter wereld. In het begin krijg je geen respons van de band, omdat alles, ook voor de Stones zelf, in veel opzichten nieuw was en, vooral Keith had het veel te druk had met zijn nummers en de sound. Aan het einde van de Urban Jungle Tour herkenden ze met gemak Ken, mijn persoon, Libgart, Harry, David en Dirk. We waren er altijd en altijd op hetzelfde plekje aan de barrier. Later, tijdens de, Bridges To Babylon Tour, en verder werd het publiek dat de, Stones, overal volgde, groter en voor mij raakte de jus er een beetje af, omdat mensen hetzelfde trucje herhaalden van wat wij al eerder hadden gedaan. De eerste plectrum van, Keith, was een mijlpaal en een zeldzaam gebeuren. In, 2003, is het altijd hetzelfde vooraan en iedereen heeft wel een plectrum. Maar toen was een, door, Keith Richards, zelf, aangereikte plectrum, een schaars goed, en voor mij was duidelijk dat de, Stones, in, 1997, een gemeenschapsgoed was geworden, omdat er veel plectrums worden verschoten per show. Soms wel tien tussen de nummers door. Iedereen had alles. Het publiek is verwend en steevast nukkig en weinig inspirerend. Ze leven echt voor die ene glimp van Keith en dat is triest. Als de nieuwe helden, doorgezakte veertigers en vijftigers met geld als drek, dan van, Libgart, horen dat wij het al deden in, 1990, deinzen ze terug. Wij gingen het avontuur aan. Zonder veel geld en met veel inventiviteit. Zo stelde, Harry, zijn hagel-nieuwe motor ter beschikking aan, Dan Reed, die het voorprogramma verzorgde tijdens het tweede deel van de, Urban Jungle Tour. In ruil kreeg hij dan backstage-passes. Wij waren vaak ‘s middags al in het stadion. Deze generatie oude zakken koopt alles. Maar ze kunnen toch nooit de rehearsals zien, daar steken de, Stones, wel een stokje voor. Ze staan vooraan, a la, alles geregeld, maar kopen voor grof geld deze plaatsen, daar waar wij vroeger al, door geldgebrek, allerlei listen nodig hadden om telkens maar weer vooraan te kunnen staan. Er waren journalisten die ons volgden om ons verhaal te horen. In ruil kregen we dit en dat. Het spel rondom het stadion was een deel van ons leven geworden. En we werden dan ook steeds beter in het bereiken van ons doel. De eerste rij en backstage passes. Wij baarden in, 1990, nog opzien door overal op te duiken. Het felbegeerde zogenaamde, “all-access-laminate”, maakte en drukte Harry op een gegeven moment zelfs zelf in, 1994, en, 1995. Harry, is een art-director en geniaal op het gebied van ontwerpen en logo’s. Het namaken van de stickers resulteerde zelfs in het veranderen van rond naar ovale stickers, omdat, Harry, zijn stickers verkocht. Had ik al verteld dat hij ook joods bloed had. Zelfs de hologrammen waren niet van echt te onderscheiden. We kregen wel op ons kop van de, Stones, maar ze vonden het prachtig. Jaloezie tussen Stones-fans onderling is immer aanwezig en zo gemoedelijk als het was in, 1990, zou het niet meer worden. In de latere jaren van de jaren negentig en in, 2003, was er veel geld te verspillen voor complete stelletjes en idioten. Maar telkens denk ik dan: ”Waar waren jullie tijdens de Urban Jungle Tour?” Toen ze echt goed waren en snel speelden en het weer opnieuw ontdekten om de, Stones, te zijn. In, 2003, werden complete reizen gearrangeerd voor rijke Canadezen en Amerikanen, die vroegtijdig in het stadion werden binnen gelaten en zo zonder moeite vooraan konden staan. Dat is geen sport meer. Dit is vervlakking van het Stones-publiek. Als ik dan met veel moeite, door steeds weer andere manieren, aan het front kom wordt dat zelfs opgevat als, “vals spelen”, terwijl ik juist uit geldgebrek inventief ben. Vals spelen is wel degelijk een verhaal. Want met, “vals spelen”, kun je de sound-checks zien en in de keuken kijken van de, Stones. Ze zijn dan nog normaal. En ik heb veel sound-checks gezien en altijd is het een belevenis, want, sound-checken doen ze niet vaak. Eigenlijk zouden mensen dit moeten kunnen zien. Want de geadoreerde helden proberen net zoals iedereen een mooi kunstwerkje af te leveren. Net zoals de overdreven aandacht voor een gepoetste auto op zondagmiddag, zo wordt door de Stones de laatste hand gelegd aan een intermezzo of intro. Mensenwerk en burgerlijkheid tot in den treuren. Meerdere malen is het voor gekomen dat ik de helpende hand toesteek aan timmer werkzaamheden en het opruimen van het veld. Eenmaal binnen gedraag ik me als een werknemer, een zogenaamde rodie en omdat niemand, behalve, J.C, een compleet overzicht heeft over de genen op de vloer is het mogelijk de hele dag binnen in het stadion te blijven, zonder dat iemand vragen stelt. Een beetje opruimen hier en een beetje timmeren daar en de middag is zo om. Als dan de poorten opengaan is het chaos en in die chaos begeef ik me naar het front aan de barrière en sta dan weer vooraan. Intussen kostte het me een hele dag werken in het stadion. Zoals gezegd varieert dat van opruimen tot aan timmeren, en de helpende hand toesteken, waar maar kan, of is gewenst. Gratis naar binnen heeft een consequentie en die is dat je moet werken, anders wordt je gepakt en het stadion uit gegooid. Het schijnt heel moeilijk te zijn voor de moderne mens om zich te schikken in een knechtenrol waar je dan uiteindelijk zelf beter van wordt. Als ik met iemand anders in het stadion ben, en komt het erop aan, dan kijken ze vertwijfeld naar me en willen eigenlijk niet werken. Ze willen niet meehelpen en niet werken, maar juist dan val je op en word je eruit gegooid. Het is blijkbaar moeilijk voor nieuwste generatie in te zien dat de kost voor de baat uit gaat. Lang leve, Amsterdam. Op die manier lukt het me steeds weer opnieuw binnen te blijven. De laatste jaren is het steeds raak. In verhouding veel meer sound-checks ten opzichte van gevolgde concerten. In, 1990, was dat nog een op twintig nu loopt het op tot een op vier. Van de afgelopen concerten, vanaf, 1997, heb ik weinig sound-checks gemist. Een keer was ik een paar platen aan het zagen, vlakbij het mindden-podium, voor een paar hekken in de toren. Plotseling voelde ik ogen in me priemen en ik voelde een raar soort spanning. Niemand was meer op het veld, behalve de andere timmerman en ik. Ik voelde dat ik door moest zagen. Het was, Charlie, die met bewondering naar me stond te kijken, en wachtte totdat ik klaar was, want de sound-check ving aan. Dit was kenmerkend, omdat ik druk aan het werk was. Ik ben immers timmerman in hart en ziel. Mijn handigheid met timmergereedschap komt me dan goed uit. Met dank aan de werkplaats van mijn oom, waar ik ben opgeleid tot timmerman, meubelmaker. Het voordeel van binnen zijn is dat je de sound-checks mag meemaken, en daar is het me natuurlijk allemaal om te doen. Menigmaal verstopte ik me ergens in een kast of onder de tribune om niet op te vallen en rustig te genieten van de sound-check. sound-checks zijn de ultieme beloning voor een dag zweten om in het stadion te komen. De sound-checks vormen de basis van dit script. Niemand ziet dit namelijk. Het best bewaarde geheim van de, Stones, wordt hier geopenbaard.

Het resultaat van de rechtszaak volgde de volgende dag. Het vonnis was hard voor de hooligans. Het gerechtshof stuurde de hooligans naar de gevangenis en de vergoeding voor mij was tienduizend gulden. De rechtszaak zelf was een farce maar succesvol. De rechtzaak en het verblijf, destijds in, Engeland, bij, Harry, was een toppunt van het einde. Harry, was naar de klote door drugs, werk en, Mel, zijn beoogde vriendin. Bovendien was die periode voor, Harry, een bewogen tijd, omdat hij toen veel, zo niet al zijn schepen in Engeland, aan het verbranden was. Hij was duidelijk zoekende en zocht een weg om te emigreren naar Amerika; iets waar hij een paar maanden ook toe leek gedwongen, door de uitzichtloze situatie. In Amerika zal hij het wel gaan maken, en verdraaid, twaalf jaar later heeft hij het daar ook gemaakt! Ja, zijn, Rock ‘N Roll-leven, is hard. Feitelijk leeft, Harry, een veel te zwaar leven. Anders dan mijn gestel is zijn gestel van staal. Maar hij gaat elke dag over de schreef en predikt dan, dat dat nu juist de vrijheid is, om te doen waar je zin in hebt. En vrijheid biedt altijd de kans te schijnen. Harry, is en kunstenaar en laat zich niet sturen. Hij voelt zich waarschijnlijk als een strijder. Zijn kunst wordt gevormd door zijn talent en door de keuzes die hij maakt. Hij heeft een feilloos gevoel voor kleuren en zijn werk bestaat voor een groot deel uit inkleuren van voornamelijk mensen. De vlezige huidskleur van mensen op zwart-wit prentjes, moeten worden gevonden op het zogenaamde pallet, en Harry is daar een meester in. Hij heeft bovendien een gave om zich te kunnen uiten met behulp van computers. Naar eigen zeggen is de computer zijn enige echte vriend. Opdrachten volbrengt hij altijd binnen een paar dagen, om vervolgens een week bij te komen. Hij werkt achter elkaar door, als er een opdracht binnenkomt en verdient dan een paar duizend dollar per dag! Zijn inspiratie komt van reizen, motorrijden op zijn Harley Davidson, science-fiction-films en muziek. Zijn concurrenten bedienen zich van veel administratie en weinig talent. Hier is, Harry, door gegriefd. Hij weet dat hij op eenzame hoogte staat, maar de huidige maatschappij is vastgeroest en biedt weinig plaats voor kunstenaars. De reden, aangegrepen voor vertrek uit Engeland, herhaalt zich in Amerika en dat doet hem verdriet. Samen met een vriend, Colin, startten zij een bedrijf en investeerden in een drukkerij. Colin, is leider van de motorbende, maar een ongelooflijke aardige jongen. Hij heeft ook nog eens gestudeerd. Daarnaast is hij, Kunfu-Master, en werkelijk elke dag had hij een andere vriendin. Bende-leider zijn heeft zo zijn voordelen! Eenmaal geïnvesteerd en geïnstalleerd als grafisch bedrijf in, L.A., volgde toen precies de computerrace en hun aanschaf bleek binnen een paar jaar ouderwets en achterhaald. Ze konden niet meer concurreren met grotere bedrijven, die de vernieuwingsrace wel konden volhouden en het bedrijf heeft drie jaar bestaan en toen was het op. Intussen is zijn compagnon werkzaam bij een bouwbedrijf en, Harry, werkt thuis aan zijn ontwerpen en logo’s. Nu is hij dus letterlijk de eenzame strijder. Het onheil heeft hij over zichzelf afgeroepen, maar hij blijft vechten voor zijn bestaan. Het enige dat hem staande houdt is zijn geloof. Hij onderscheidt zich door prachtige ontwerpen, maar die worden verkocht in een commerciële markt en worden niet als kunst erkend, maar als een vervulling van een opdracht. Zijn opdrachten hielden hem lange tijd staande, maar ook, Harry, moest op zoek naar ander werk. Hij vond dit in de vorm van een muziek-bedrijf, MOD, Music On Demand, en is daar eindredacteur, niet slecht. Tussen al de troebelheden van de maatschappij biedt de, Rock ‘N Roll, voor het individu vertrouwen. Harry, laat zich nooit ontmoedigen en gelukkig voor hem leefde zijn muziek helemaal op in de jaren negentig. AC/DC, is zijn favoriete band en juist die deden het voorprogramma van de Stones. Intussen gaan de geruchten over, AC/DC, dat zanger, Brion Johnson, in, Moskou, gaat optreden, met het Russisch filharmonisch orkest. Harry regelt dit bijvoorbeeld. Harry, is een moderne zwerver, met altijd geld! In iedere donkere periode schijnt altijd het licht van de verwondering. De kanonnen, die altijd gepaard gaan met een optreden van concert van, AC/DC, worden vervangen door de echte kanonnen van het Russische leger. Tot zover de laatste geruchten in, April, 2005. Ik heb er weinig van gemerkt. Volgens mij is dit optereden nooit doorgegaan. Maar, Harry, was destijds zeer enthousiast. Hij ziet licht, in het pikkedonker. Ook zal, J.C., inmiddels zijn ontslagen door de, Stones, omdat hij kaartjes zou hebben verkocht. Voor, Harry, en mij betekent dit slecht nieuws. En inderdaad, na 2003, was het betalen om naar binnen te komen. Trouwens, na vier tournee's was mijn geld toch echt op. In, 2006, en, 2007, Bigger Bang Tour, stopte ik met het volgen van alle optredens. Harry, en ik, beseften heel goed dat onze tijd voorbij was. Harry is aan de grond, ging terug naar Engeland en ging zich nestelen. Het laatse wat ik van hem zag, voor mijn voordeur, was hoe hij op zijn motor stapte, met een grote tas op de tank, en me die blik gaf. Dit was goodbye, farewell. Harry, en ik hebben altijd al weinig woorden nodig gehad om punten duidelijk te maken. Harry ging naar huis, na zeventien jaar in L.A. te hebben gewoond. Ik wist het. Voelde het. Dit is het einde van een periode. Juni 2009, het einde, en een nieuw begin. Mijn vriendin heeft toen nog vier jaar met alle mogelijkheden geprobeerd mijn leven te bederven, en het lukte haar ook nog aardig. Harry maakte ook haar duidelijk dat ik niets waard was. Ja, ik heb slaapproblemen, en ben een wrak. In 2014 heeft ze een ander en ik vraag daarom af: hoelang heeft ze al een ander? U moet weten dat ik geen twee minuten weg mocht. Zij had besloten dat ik vreemd ging. En nu moest ik boeten. Harry woonde destijds bij me in, en vond dit helemaal prachtig. En dan ineens kwam er mailtje; kom je nog naar Hyde Park? Ik zei: Nee. Ik peins er niet over. Do you want to melt down on the field, I replied. En dat was het dan. De kunst is om de lichtpunten te zien en, Rock ‘N Roll, is een lichtpunt. Rock ‘N Roll, maakt je blij. Het laat mij zingen. Zomaar. Vooral als de omgeving zo somber is. Het biedt gewoon houvast, dat juist voor gitaristen, die door en door naar de klote zijn, toch nog hun talent de kans geven. De klank van een akoestische gitaar is vergelijkbaar mooi als de klank van een harp. Hun talent om de gitaar te spelen, zullen ze nooit verliezen. Een gitaar klinkt altijd, moe of niet. Zo moet ook, Harry, gedacht hebben. De heldere klanken van inspiratie klinken door en je vergeet de rest. Harry, wist dus zijn droom vast te houden. Ik zal dit van hem overnemen, als levensles. Achteraf is dit de les van de, Stones: “Nooit opgeven en altijd vertrouwen in jezelf houden. Er is op deze aarde ruimte genoeg voor ook jouw persoontje.” Als, Keith, inderdaad te weinig talent zou hebben, is dit nog meer waar.

In de periode van de rechtzaak was ik ook al gecrashed en woonde weer bij mijn ouders in, samen met mijn vriendin, Moniwi en dat ging ook helemaal niet goed. De trip naar, Engeland, bleek de relatie met, Moniwi, te breken, omdat ze niet mee mocht van mij en dus een week alleen bij mijn ouders woonde. Bij terugkomst begreep ik niets van de apathische liefde van, Moniwi, en op het vliegveld in, Amsterdam, vloog ze om mijn nek van blijdschap. Doordat ik niet in staat was dit te filteren, in wat voor, Moniwi, een laatste poging was, om toch nog iets van onze relatie te maken, heeft ze waarschijnlijk een keuze gemaakt. Ongelukkiger kon ze moeilijk worden; ik was weg en ze woonde bij mijn ouders in. Bij terugkomst was ik zo versleten, dat ik niets anders wilde dan met rust gelaten te worden. Stom rund, denk ik wel eens. Maar ja. Had ik maar van haar gehouden zoals ik nu van haar houd! Mmm, trouwens, niet getreurd, de aanspraak van mooie meisjes begint weer te komen. De ergste tijd van depressiviteit is voorbij! Het is niet voor niets, 2014, en de ellende ligt achter me, vandaar de kracht om dit op te schrijven. Daags voor de rechtzaak kwam ik aan in, Engeland. In, Londen, haalde, Harry, me op en we gingen naar zijn nieuwe flat. Wat een puinhoop, die flat met twee verdiepingen en grote kamers, maar donker en zeer groot. Ik kreeg een tablet in mijn mond geduwd, was nog niet eens binnen, en stapte toen over de drempel zijn flat binnen en werd linea recta naar de televisiekamer, met een tweepersoons bed, geleid. Harry, gaf me zijn kamer. Hij, en, Mel, waren overal door het huis. Het licht mocht niet aan van, Mel. Zijn kamer was zeer goed aangekleed voor verblijf. Perfect eigenlijk, met super-films als, Black Adder, en, David Bowie, en, Monty Pytons, “Quest for the Holy Grale”. U weet wel, die film die zich afspeelde ten tijde van, Koning Arthur, en ridders van de ronde tafel, die op zoek gaan naar de heilige graal. Ineens stond daar een politie korps, met wapenstok, de invasie van de ridders te verijdelen, en betekende hiermee het einde van de film. Verwoed zocht ik naar de oorzaak van het plotseling stoppen van de film. De video werkte wel. Na een poos ging ik, Harry, halen en die lachte het uit: ”Dat is juist de bedoeling van, John Cleese, dat je denkt dat de film doorgaat, maar door een paar agenten wordt, Koning Arthur, ingerekend en zodoende is de zoektocht naar de heilige graal afgebroken.” Jammer vond ik dat. Het begon net leuk te worden. Black Adder volgde, lang voordat hij werd ontdekt in Nederland en ik kon gewoon niet begrijpen dat er zulke goede humor bestaat. Black Adder, is, Rowan Atkinson, en belichaamt Britse humor. Niet te vertellen en dat probeer ik ook niet eens. En, Black Adder, is anderhalf uur achter elkaar proesten van het lachen. De volgende dag moesten we nog eventjes naar, Oxford, voor de rechtzaak, maar, na een paar uur voor de video, trippend en wel, maakte dat allemaal niets meer uit. Lachen. De dag zelf zou minder leuk worden, al was het resultaat van rechtzaak ongelooflijk.

De winter na de tournee van, 1990, dus de winter van, 1990 / 1991, was een ommekeer in mijn leven, Moniwi kwam terug. Niet in de laatste plaats omdat ik haar beste vriendinnen had gebruikt om haar jaloers te maken, en dat werkte. In, 1989, had Moniwi het uitgemaakt, nadat ze in de zomer in Spanje een Spaanse jongen ontmoette. Moniwi maakte het na de zomer uit en ik was zielsverloren. De naweeën ervan bestonden uit drugsgebruik en veel stappen, uitgaan dus, en zuipen. Hij, de Spaanse jongen, verlegen, mooi en perfect eigenlijk, stond voor de deur en ik liet, Moniwi, en hij een avond alleen. Urban Jungle-concerten. Dan krijg je tenminste wat je wilt en vergeet je even de realiteit. Mooier kan toch niet? Niets dan. Al het touren zou volgen. Bovendien trok ik tijdens de, Steel Wheels Tour, bij mijn oom en tante in, na de zomer van, 1989. De eerste paar maanden voelde de vrijheid goed aan. Vrijheid in doen en laten, uitslapen bijvoorbeeld. Thuis blijven, bij mijn vader en moeder bleek niet te kunnen. Mijn hoofd spookte en ik sliep niet. Ik voelde me teugelloos en moest weg. Bij mijn oom en tante sliep ik nog steeds slecht, maar omdat ze des morgens weggingen, kon ik toch overdag bij slapen en voelde me redelijk. Ik kon mijn eigen ritme gaan bepalen. Op een gegeven moment kreeg mijn oom in de gaten dat ik vooral overdag sliep en alleen leefde voor het voetbal. Op dat moment droomde ik nog van idealen, zoals het worden van een goede voetballer. Talent had ik, maar mijn lichamelijke gesteldheid werkte niet mee om door te breken. Zo kwam de marihuana van mijn oom en tante, langzaam in mijn leven als slaapmiddel, maar drank en drugs waren gelukkig, ook voor mijn oom en tante taboe. Want drank en drugs maakten je kapot. Weed niet? Nee, volgens hen kon weed geen kwaad. Want dan sliep ik lekker en was ik niet tot last. In de winter van, 1991, in, Februari, ging mijn opa dood en net voor die tijd werd ik het huis uitgezet, geplaatst in een kleine flat. Mijn oom en tante hadden deze flat geregeld, en ik kon mooi daar wonen. In die zes maanden tijdens mijn verblijf aldaar was ik verwend, letterlijk gedrogeerd en mijn baantje kwijt bij de catamaran-importeur, omdat ik voor mijn oom ging werken. Op school ging het slecht en ik bleef ook zitten dat jaar. Ik hunkerde naar weed en seks. Allebei was het op mij flatje in overvloed voorhanden. Moniwi, had altijd zin, en ik ook. Bovendien werkte ik toen voor een klein aannemertje die me grof betaalde. Geld was er gelukkig genoeg om de levensstijl te handhaven, voor een tijdje. Niemand kon werkelijk iets doen. Mijn grootste passie, voetballen ging ook niet meer en ik verspeelde mijn plaats in de selectie en ik moest nu gaan ploeteren in de zogenaamde B-selectie. We werden dat jaar wel kampioen, en het jaar daarop ook en ik heb gelukkig mooie wedstrijden gespeeld en bovendien kwam ik na een jaar in de, B-selectie, weer in aanmerking voor de, A-selectie. Direct tijdens de eerste training van de A-selectie ging het niet. Ik moest afwerken op doel. Mijn enkel was verrekt, mijn bovenbeenspieren waren verrekt, maar dat verzweeg ik natuurlijk. Ik leerde de regels van de straat. Ik moest vechten voor mijn vriendinnetje, ik moest vechten om de school te halen, ik moest vechten op mijn werk. Ik moest een huis bouwen en blijven functioneren. Kortom, ik was naar de klote, en dat voor iemand van, 21 jaar! Ik voelde me tachtig of nog veel ouder. Ik kon, tijdens die selectie-training niet aanzetten en niet schieten en precies die training ging het om felle sprints gevolgd door afwerken op doel. Ik was niet explosief en kon niet voluit schieten, kortom, raakte geen bal en de trainer keek me vertwijfeld aan. Ik kon goed voetballen, passeerde verdedigers met alle gemak, maar in deze training ging het niet om een mannetje te passeren, maar het kwam aan op kracht. De trainer was een Amsterdammer en had veel meegemaakt met zijn pupillen en spelers, maar hoe ik erbij liep was klaarblijkelijk voor hem zelfs deerniswekkend. Met spijt in zijn stem en handelen zei hij niet te begrijpen waarom juist de meest getalenteerde speler, linksbuiten nog wel, zo gebukt gaat onder spanningen. Het waren niet alleen spanningen trainer. De reden dat ik letterlijk steeds door mijn benen zakte was meer, plus het gevoel onbegrepen te zijn en zoals ik later begreep, geluk dat ik ontbeerde, daar waar ik zo gewend aanraakte in de Jaren Tachtig. Mijn bovendijbeen was gescheurd, maar ik zei dit niet. En, we moesten toen precies, natuurlijk, schieten van afstand, afwerken vanaf de tweede lijn, 20 meter van de goal. En bovendien kreeg ik in de grote partij, aan het einde, gewoonweg de bal niet toegespeeld, hoe vrij ik ook stond. Ik werd, “even”, door de, A-selectie, genegeerd en zo ontnamen ze me mijn kans iemand te passeren en een opening te vinden. Ook de plekjes in de kleedkamer zijn voor de grote jongens. Toen vond ik het opzienbarend en kinderachtig en vooral stom om zo opzichtig met de aanvoerders-band te lopen, alsof er nooit een andere zal komen. Werkelijk hilarisch wordt het toneel in de kleedkamer voor de wedstrijd of training als ze blijven staan en grapjes maken, en jou wegkijken, en ik me inderdaad zo gespannen voelde en ergens anders ging zitten. En ik vond dat niet erg. Met inderdaad spot verliet ik dan mijn stelling en zocht een andere kapstok uit, ver weg van de verwarming. De aanvoerder van het elftal was goed en had een perfect atletisch, halfbloedig en dus een aanstekelijk lijf voor de oudere heren, kon de bal goed raken, maar had tijd nodig in de aanname. Hij was ook een goede kickbokser en hier pronkte hij mee door middel van zijn hardheid. Maar met alleen een bal, dus zonder de lange bal, had hij geen kans in het korte spel. Als het eerste speelde, op zondag middag, liep de aanvoerder meer in de rondte als een lust-object, dan als een goede voetballer. Als ik maar eens de kans kreeg om te voetballen in het eerste en als ze me maar de bal toeschoven. Mijn moeder wilde dat ik op atletiek of een andere individuele sport ging, om zo maar niet afhankelijk te zijn van, “klootzakken”. Tijd gaf ik de aanvoerder niet en ik zou hem wel even laten zien wat er gebeurt in de kleine ruimte. Het korte spel en de bal slechts een keer raken en versnellen en hem passeren gebeurde niet in werkelijkheid, slechts in mijn dromen. Om in een eerste elftal te mogen spelen is een ieder afhankelijk van de wensen van de club. Klasse justitie, de zonen van de voorzitter en zo mogen wel meespelen en krijgen kans op kans. Mijn enige kans werd door die ene training vergooid; iets waarvoor ik leefde! De club stelde vervolgens vast, dat het wel plezierig was dat de B-selectie telkens kampioen werd. Voornamelijk door mijn doelpunten en assists. Het zat me wel en niet mee in die tijd op het voetbalveld. Toch heb ik mooie herinneringen, want ik speelde goed. Zo goed dat altijd iedereen bleef staan om me te zien spelen. Het nadeel van de, B-selectie, is dat je zondag om tien uur moet spelen. Voor iemand met slaap-problemen is dat niet een beetje vroeg, maar zeg maar gerust onmogelijk vroeg. Daarna zuipen in de kantine en verplicht naar het eerste kijken en daarna thuis aan de dope. Maandag kon ik niet naar school, punt. Dat was een ding dat zeker was. Dinsdag, donderdag en zaterdagmiddag trainen, alle energie naar het voetballen, terwijl ik die luttele energie nodig had om orde op zaken te stellen, in mijn gewone leven. Waarom zat mijn vader niet in het bestuur? En waarom deed mijn oom, die wel het een en ander te zeggen binnen de club, niet een goed woordje voor me. Oh ja, dat was natuurlijk omdat hij en mijn vader een levenslange ruzie met elkaar hadden, dat was ik even in mijn naïviteit vergeten. Maar voor mij onbegrijpelijk dat werkelijk middelmatige voetballers zich staande hielden in het eerste. Triviaal en kenmerkend voor de grootste club uit de, Zaanstreek, was het absurde lage niveau van het eerste. Ik wist intussen wel hoe dat kwam. Het leek wel een club uit het, Midden Oosten, waar de sheiks het voor het zeggen hebben en per definitie neefjes opstelden in het eerste en niet mijn persoontje, klein en mager maar toch echt wel een talent, de kans gaven om te groeien. Deze ontkenning van mijn voetbal-capaciteiten heeft mij zeer aangegrepen. Mijn neef, die bij een andere club speelde kreeg wel die kans en werd doodleuk uitgenodigd door een prof-club uit de regio, Volendam. Hij speelde daar met, Johan Steur. Helaas voor mijn neef; hij brak zijn enkel. Weg carrière. We voetbalden vaak samen en leerden elkaar trucjes en passeerbewegingen en we waren gewoon echt goede voetballers. Maar hij kreeg de kans en ik niet. Oververmoeid en letterlijk met een waas voor ramde ik steeds vaker zomaar, Moniwi, in elkaar. Steeds vaker uitte mijn agressie zich en op een gegeven moment leek ik gek te worden. Ook in het uitgaansleven heb ik veel ruzies uitgelokt. Mijn broer zal vaak zijn geramd en een enkele keer hard ook. Excuses, Bernard. Toen ik in 1994, zoals dat heet, op een blauwe maandag, nog eenmaal ging voetballen stond ik wel direct in het eerste. Ik was toch sterker en groter geworden en evenwichtiger en nu kon niemand meer om me heen. Maar de, Voodoo Lounge Tour, van, 1994, begon tegelijkertijd met het voetbalseizoen en na een paar weken zegde ik mijn lidmaatschap op en vertrok in, Oktober, naar, Amerika. Het was heel zoet om toch nog een keer in het eerste te spelen. Nog geen maand na de verhuizing, van mijn oom en tante naar de kleine flat, stond Moniwi met een grote koffer op de stoep en ze vroeg of ze bij me mocht wonen. Dit was een droom, maar die verstoorde ik dus zelf. Natuurlijk! De omstandigheden de komende vier jaar waren ook ongunstig. We verhuisden naar een oud huis waarvan zelfs de fundering en de gevels opnieuw opgetrokken dienden te worden. Niet echt een plek om rustig aan een relatie te bouwen. Toen had ik alles op alles moeten zetten om een gewoon leven te gaan leiden en niet domweg blind aan het huis werken om het daarna te verkopen, om Stones-concerten te zien, om maar niet de realiteit van het leven te hoeven zien. Sterker, ik overtuigde, Moniwi, dat het volgen van een Stones-tour geweldig is. En ik dacht echt dat de, Stones, niet meer gingen touren, na het geweldige succes van de, Steel Wheels -, en, Urban Jungle Tour. Dat konden ze onmogelijk overtoppen. Bovendien was het acht jaar stil geweest en ik verwachtte weer zo’n stilte. Dus ik kon makkelijk zoiets suggereren. Ik leefde met de dag. Het ongelooflijke nieuws van de, Voodoo Lounge Tour, deed me letterlijk verblinden. Ja, toen dacht ik echt dat ze nog een keer zouden gaan touren. In, 1994, was het huis klaar en ik zou naar, Amerika, gaan voor de, Voodoo Lounge Tour. Nogmaals, ik was ervan overtuigd dat dit de laatste keer zou worden. Ik vond het toen al gewaagd van de, Stones, om, in, 1994, al T-shirts te drukken met doodleuk de vermelding: 1994/1995 World Tour. Ik moest eerst nog zien dat ze, 1994, volmaakten. 1995, was nog zover weg. Maar ik was dom om te denken dat, Moniwi, altijd aan mijn zijde bleef. Ik heb daar geen minuut meer aan getwijfeld, hoewel, Moniwi, er toch anders over ging denken. Ze hield echt van me, dat bewees ze eigenlijk elke dag, maar op een gegeven moment heeft ze het opgegeven. Ik was gefocusseerd op alles, met name op de verrichtingen van de, Stones, en de voortgang van het huis, behalve op, Moniwi. Nu besef ik dat de ideale situatie er een is die je dagelijks moet onderhouden. Of te wel: ”Er moet gewerkt worden aan relaties, net zoals er gewerkt moet worden aan een huis.” En toch maakte de schoonheid van, Moniwi, me niet gelukkig. Ik was alleen maar met mezelf bezig, en vond de gevoelens van, Moniwi, ondergeschikt. Dit zou ze me terugbetalen, en letterlijk heb ik er tien jaar last van gehad. Mijn deel was verdriet en ongelukkigheid. Ik besloot te gaan studeren in, 1995, omdat ik bang was dat ik dood zou gaan van verdriet. Ik moest een doel hebben om te leven. Stones-concerten waren het enige dat me verroerde en, “over bewust”, lette ik thuis op de uitvoeringen van nummers en diepte ze uit tot in den treuren. Ik had niets beters te doen, lijkt wel. Maar bedenk dat ik geen televisie had gedurende de jaren 90 en altijd aan het werk of studeren was en muziek was mijn rustpunt. Nummers die mijn gehele jeugd hebben bepaald. Mijn steun en toeverlaat. Ik snapte werkelijk niets van de manier van spelen. Waarom zijn de Stones anders dan alle andere bands? Ik kon dan ook de veranderingen van de shows goed meemaken. Hoe is het mogelijk dat de band, in de, Jaren Negentig, dezelfde kleur en emoties kan oproepen als van, de Jaren Zestig. Geen andere band heeft die kleurechtheid. Under My Thumb, Let’s Spend The Night Together, Shattered, en, 19th Nervous Breakdown, klonken tijdens de, Voodoo Lounge Tour, ongehoord echt. Ongelooflijk vond ik dat. Bij het horen van de intro’s voel je dat ze de juiste snaar weten te raken en dat ze terugkeren naar vervlogen tijden. Mijn moeder zei altijd dat de, Beatles, en, Stones, tijdloos waren. En nu begrijp ik dit. Tijdens de, Bridges to Babylon Tour, 1997, en, 1998, en de, No Security Tour, van, 1999, waren de, Stones, weer ouderwets op elkaar ingespeeld en speelden, op verzoek, nummers. Een keer werd, Waiting on a Friend, aangevraagd, via voorkeurstemmen op de internet-site. Bill Gates, sponsorde die tournee en als tegenprestatie kon het publiek voorkeurstemmen uitbrengen, via de website. Ik heb al veel gehoord, maar toen, Waiting on a Friend, out of the blue werd ingezet, was het overduidelijk dat, Waiting on a Friend, en feitelijk alle andere nummers symfonietjes zijn. Nummers van, Keith, kunnen perfect worden geconserveerd. De lijnen en contouren bestaan uit basiselementen. Waarschijnlijk omdat elk Stones-nummer en zeker ook die van de, Beatles, bestaan uit losse elementen, is de kleur-echtheid gegarandeerd. Anders dan het gerommel en gehark en gegraaf, met als gevolg dat de muziek een brei wordt van bandjes die proberen, Rock’ N Roll, te spelen, speelt, Keith, sober en schoon en ontvouwt stalen brug waarop, Waiting on a Friend, leunt. En ook, 19th Nervous Breakdown, werd bijvoorbeeld gedragen door, Keith. De lijnen en de bas-loopjes zijn uitgekristalliseerd. Mijn voorlopige conclusie is dat een nummer eerst zijn vorm aanneemt als de bas-loop is uitgelegd. Om minimaal te spelen, zoals de, Stones, doen, moet de basis helder zijn. Omdat elk nummer bestaat uit basis-lijnen is het zaak te weten wat deze zijn. En omdat, Keith, de nummers zelf schrijft is het triviaal te vermelden, dat hij die gene is, die precies weet wat die basis elementen van zijn nummers zijn. Doordat het onmogelijk is om te spelen als, Keith, is het simpelweg onmogelijk voor bands om dit te kopiëren. En doordat de, Stones, zichzelf, tijdens de jaren negentig, in een levensecht oefenterrein begeven, is het niet verwonderlijk, dat met het verstrijken van de jaren, de klassieke nummers een voor een, klakkeloos, werden afgestoft. Verreweg hoogtepunten waren de versies van, When The Whip Comes Down, Some Girls, You Got The Silver, Sister Morphine, met een toen, uniek voor een Stones-concert, tweede toegift, tijdens de, No Security Tour: You Can’t Always Get What You Want, werd plotseling ingezet, als extra toegift, door, Keith, en volgens mij was dit niet gepland. Voor de liefhebber: Eerste show in, Houston, Februari, 1999. Tijdens de, No Security Tour, van, 1999, was, You Can’t Always Get What You Want, inmiddels uit het repertoire geschrapt, want de, No Security Tour, had een veel harder karakter dan alle voorgaande tournee’s. Mick had pijn. Er knaagde bovendien iets aan zijn geweten en werd zich bewust van zijn bovenmenselijke status, vergelijkbaar met Caesar of Alexander De Grote. Marianne Faithfull, vergelijkt hem met de Zonne-koning, Louis XIV. De grote, Mick Jagger, werd, naar mijn mening, voor het eerst in zijn leven aan de kant geschoven door een vrouw; Jerry Hall. Toen, Keith, You Can’t Always Get What You Want, inzette stond daar een duidelijk geëmotioneerde, Mick Jagger. Je kon het hoopje verdriet opvegen. Ik stond toen, in, Houston, in de, Compaq Centre, direct aan het podium en zag hoe, Keith, plotseling weer naar het midden van het podium liep en achteloos het nummer inzette. Eerder werd die avond ook al, Sister Morphine, op schrijnende wijze vertolkt. Mick, had pijn, dat was duidelijk en, Keith, hielp hem daar overheen. Net zoals bij de tweede toegift liep, Keith, gedurfd, tijdens de intro, naar de rand van het podium en was op dat moment de bliksemafleider. Natuurlijk is het normaal als, Mick, de show steelt, maar toen kon dat even niet. Mick, was een hoopje verdriet. Keith, nam de honeurs waar als voorman en, Mick, kon, na zichzelf weer te hebben hervonden, op hartverscheurende wijze, Sister Morphine, brengen. Inclusief de gebroken stem die precies bij het nummer past. De, No Security Tour, was geen doorsnee tour. De geluidsinstallatie had veel te veel vermogen en was bestemd voor stadions. En de, No Security Tour, had in, Amerika, plaats, in, kleine arena’s. Toen, Some Girls, op verbluffende wijze, authentiek, werd gebracht, met een werkelijk spectaculaire staande intro, waarbij binnen de seconde, alle instrumenten zich perfect mengden, was het duidelijk: Mick, moest weer zingen, iets anders zou hij niet kunnen op dat moment. Hij zou in het dagelijks leven worden uitgehold door verdriet en onmacht, ten gevolge van zijn scheiding. Anders zou hij sterven van verdriet. Wie nu nog durft te zeggen dat de, Stones, slechts voor het geld spelen is niet goed bij zijn hoofd. Die tournee van, 1999, was niet voor het geld. Die was er, om, Mick, te laten te overleven. Om hem zijn verdriet te laten uiten. En, wat is er beter, dan uiting door middel van muziek. Mijn broer was mee naar, Amerika, en zag het ook. Nog steeds verhaalt hij met ontzag de impact van de, Stones, als ze kwaad zijn. Hij vertelde dat de stoere Amerikaanse yuppies, met allemaal een prachtige vriendin aan hun zijde, inclusief een vlotte zonnebril, letterlijk verbleekten toen, Keith, en, Ronnie, bij wijze van hoge uitzondering, over gingen op, Trash Rock. Nogmaals, When the Whip Comes Down, Midnight Rambler, en, Star Fucker, gespeeld op het midden podium in de kleine arena’s, begin, 1999, in, Amerika, waren een zegen voor de diehard fans, maar een regelrechte kwelling voor mensen, die dachten, dat ze het hadden gemaakt in hun leven. Al hun zekerheden konden de prullenbak in. Hun vriendinnen vonden het plotseling geweldig, en vonden, Mick, en, Keith, nu ineens zeer aantrekkelijke beesten. De yuppies en de jetset, zo moet u zich voorstellen, kochten voor honderden dollars een plekje vooraan en probeerde natuurlijk indruk te maken met die plaatsen, op hun veel te mooie, “gekochte”, vriendinnen. De Amerikanen verwachten weer een, Stones-concert, zoals ze die kenden van de, Voodoo Lounge, en, Bridges to Babylon. Zo kenden ze de, Stones, niet, en zo zijn de, Stones, ook helemaal niet aardig voor hun publiek. Letterlijk niet wetende waar te zoeken en te kijken, om zich nog enigszins te profileren als vlotte veertiger, volgde vooral de vrouwelijke, en veel jongere aanhang, de wulpse bewegingen van, Mick. De jetset werd getrakteerd op primitieve omgangs-normen, waar zij dus zogenaamd ver boven dient te staan en er nu met hun neus werden ingewreven. De meisjes vonden dat prachtig en hadden plotseling geen oog meer, en zeker geen interesse voor hun welgemanierde partners. Ze wilden bruut worden aangerand en worden verkracht en als oud vuil worden behandeld. Ze wilden ook die primitieve manier van leven ondervinden. Ze wilden ook wel eens gillend en schreeuwend klaarkomen! Keith, en, Ronnie, gooiden het ene spervuur na het andere de zaal in. Met de veel te grote geluidsinstallatie in de kleine zalen, was het een ware geseling voor de genen, die nog niet uit de zaal waren gevlucht. In het oog van de orkaan stond daar plotseling weer een herboren, Mick Jagger, die zichtbaar opluchtte tijdens de storm. Mick, kwam tot rust en, Keith, lachte liefkozend naar hem. Alsjeblieft, maatje, hier heb je je verdriet, verwerk het maar lekker. Alles komt goed. Wat een band! Sentiment komt wel erg hard aan, maar dat is het leven! Ik sta altijd vooraan en was waar de, Stones, waren. Maniakaal volgde ik ze door heel, Europa, en later, in, 1994, en verder door de, USA. Tot mijn verbazing zag ik van dichtbij de oogcontacten tussen de bandleden en zag dat de, Stones, konden temporiseren en pieken, wanneer ze maar wilden. Zo waren ze instaat een menigte van honderdduizend man in slaap te sussen om ze daarna meedogenloos wakker te schudden. Als ze zin hadden in experimenten werd een gehele set aangepast om de experimenten in te kleden, met als vangnet opsluiting door gepaste nummers. Na bijvoorbeeld probeersels als, Factory Girl, en, I Just Want to Make Love to You, kwam een klassieker, een nummer met een voortstuwende kracht, als, Satisfaction. Dus al zou het experiment mislukken, de menigte zal dit snel vergeten. Klassieke Rock-nummers om de experimentele nummers maskeerden dit, bij voorbaat. De boodschap van dit alles is dat iedereen een kans moet krijgen om te schijnen. De Stones hebben zelf de regie in handen. Ze maken tijd en ruimte voor probeersels, om zo het spectrum op te rekken. Omdat ze omringd worden door zekerheden, de nummers, het stadion en de enorme geluidsinstallatie, mislukken experimenten niet! Het heeft even geduurd, maar toevallig geluk moet je afdwingen.

De Stones, hebben zich een weg gebaand door de tijd en steeds goed opgelet wat mogelijk is voor de tijd. En bekend is dat in deze tijd alles mogelijk is. De, Stones, hebben de tijd met glans naar hun hand gezet. Ik voelde me sterk verbonden met de kracht van de muziek van de, Stones, maar was verloren en zocht ongewild grip in de goede muziek en de entourage van de Stones-karavaan en kwam verder en zo kwam ik in contact met, Alan Dunn, eerst in, Birmingham, USA!, via de telefoon, via, Arend Jan van der Marel in, Amsterdam!, en later in levende lijve bij aanvang van het concert in, 1995, in, Wembley. Alan Dunn, grijnsde. Ik maakte zo goed als deel uit van het Stones-circus en werd zelfs herkend door fans, die me hadden gezien tijdens de, Stones-film, van, 1990, in het, IMAX-theater. Alan Dunn, en meerdere leden van de vaste kern van de Stones-administratie kenden me en in, Londen, in, 1995, zei, Alan Dunn, dat hij wel een vermoeden had, waarom ze elke keer beter gingen spelen en dat dit voor betrokkenen een eindeloze rit is geworden. De crew en de die-hard fans zitten gevangen en worden verblind door de voortgang van de grootste, Rock ‘N Roll-band, aller tijden. Zij worden beter en de fans, die het volgen, gaan langzaam stuk. Het wordt altijd beter, dus de mensen die het laatste goede concert hebben gezien weten net zoveel als de mensen die alle concerten volgen. De groep vaste bezoekers van de eerste rij werd zodoende steeds groter en eind jaren negentig, en tijdens de laatste, Licks Tour, namen zij met honderden mijn plaats in op de eerste rijen en ik distantieerde me ervan. Noodzakelijk, door geldgebrek. Maar ook omdat ik nu zeker wist dat de Stones zo groot zijn geworden door het afdwingen van inspanningen van anderen en als de lachende derde er van door te gaan, met de opgedane kennis. Kijk naar, bijvoorbeeld, Brian Jones, Mick Taylor, Billy Preston. Ik wist dat de, Stones, niet of nauwelijks acht slaan op mensen die hun eigen leven vergooien om, Rock ‘N Roll, te spelen en te zien. Weten ze wat ik weet? Zoeken ze wat? Billy Preston, weet nu dat zijn muziek is samengevat in een nummer, niet van hem zelf, maar van, Jagger / Richards, en heet, Hot Stuff. In dit nummer is de alle franje en tierelantijn afgeschud en wat overblijft is definiërende muziek. Uitgedroogd en sober, als een overblijfsel of relikwie van de muziek van, Preston, is de beat van, Hot Stuff, een belichaming van wat eens zijn muziek was. De, Stones, hebben in alle rust van dichtbij het kunstje afgekeken van, Billy. Hij verzorgde tijdens de, tour van, 1975, en, 1976, het voorprogramma en deed twee nummers tijdens het Stones-optreden. De, Stones, verloren destijds in rap tempo terrein aan met name, Led Zeppelin. De funky muziek van, Billy, was een uitgelezen mogelijkheid voor de, Stones, om zich aan te passen aan de tijd. Led Zeppelin, was onaantastbaar. De kracht waarmee, Led Zeppelin, de jaren zeventig binnen kwam zeilen was ontzagwekkend. De gitarist, Jimmie Page, was in topvorm en de zanger, Robert Plant was de nieuwe belichaming geworden van, Rock ‘N Roll. Voor zowel Jagger als Richards werd, Exile on Main Street, pijnlijk bewaarheid. Ze werden van de weg gereden door, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Dire Straits, en door de nieuwe funk muziek en wat later door de, Punk. Iggy Pop, voorop.

  

De jaren zestig waren definitief verleden tijd, halverwege de jaren zeventig. Er stonden nu al weer nieuwe soldaten aan het front. De episode met, Mick Taylor, die de band nog steeds en, steeds meer, voorzag van muzikale impulsen, tijdens de begin Jaren Zeventig, liep plotseling af. Hoewel, Mick Taylor, was verworden tot oud vuil leunden de, Stones, op hem; dit oude vuil. Mick Taylor, verliet de band, om de afgang van zijn lichaam te voorkomen. De situatie van de Stones was niets meer dan een stelletje zielepoten, die net hun kip met de gouden eieren, Mick Taylor, zagen verdwijnen. Terug aan de grond in, 1975. Het enige wat overeind bleef waren de geweldige nummers. Zo blijkt, Gimme Shelter, echt een heel goed nummer, dat juist in die periode helemaal werd gearrangeerd en tot in de puntjes werd uitgekauwd. Happy, het solo-nummer van, Keith, bleek zich ook uitstekend modern en vooruitstrevend te gedragen tijdens live-optredens. De tour van, 1975, gaat gepaard met verwoede pogingen van de, Stones, zich te revancheren, op volgens mij met name, Led Zeppelin. Op het podium komen de gebruikelijke bovennatuurlijke krachten nog steeds moeiteloos los. En dat is bij beide bands zo. Duidelijk is alleen dat, op het gebied van pure rock, de, Stones, de meerdere moeten erkennen in, Led Zeppelin, vergelijkbaar zoals de, Who, de, Stones, in, 1968, naar huis speelde.

 

Gezegend met, zoals hij zelf zegt een antenne heeft, Keith, de teloorgang van zijn band aangekeken. De massieve knetterende drum van, Led Zeppelin, was niet normaal en inderdaad, de drummer overleed in, 1980. Net als overigens de super-drummer van de, Who, Keith Moon, die, in, 1978, overleed. Pink Floyd, pakte de muziek weer anders aan en toverde het ene na het andere sublieme album uit de hoge hoed. Toch, eerlijk is eerlijk, live on stage, kon, Keith, zich nog steeds meten met de nieuwe orde. Keith, heeft gelukkig heel zijn leven geluisterd, hij moest wel. Een gouden kans voor jonge, Mister Richards. Eerst ontspon hij de, Blues, op een manier die de, Beatles, bijkans deed verbleken. Hij deed dit overigens niet alleen, want een zekere, Brian Jones, was toen zijn maatje, zelfs toen, Keith, nog een tiener was. Hij kwam samen met, Brian, tot een synthese van twee gitaren, die klonken als een eenheid. Met name de manier van spelen van, Keith, dwingend, bepalende en ruig vereiste een drummer die niet probeerde die gitaar, de zogenaamde rythem gitaar, te overstemmen. En feitelijk

The trail of stirred-up water left behind by a moving boat is called a wake. Motorboats leave particularly noticeable wakes because of the fast-moving propellers that form a very large amount of bubbles in the water – those are called turbulent wakes. The bubbles are filled with water vapor – as the propeller blades are moving through water at a fast speed, they leave an area of low pressure behind. And when the pressure is low, the water starts to turn into vapor. This process is called cavitation. The area of science that studies these phenomena is called fluid dynamics.

This particular picture has been taken on the Adriatic Sea. The shutter speed of the camera was 1/3200th of a second.

 

thismagical.world/posts.jsp?photo=16

Audi RS4 (B7) Quattro (2006-07) Engine 4163cc V8 naturally aspirated

Registration Number VF 07 UAC (Worcester)

AUDI SET

www.flickr.com/photos/45676495@N05/sets/72157623635550501...

 

The original RS4 was built in Avant form only on a B5 platform, there was no B6 version. So the second generation RS4 was built on the 2001-05 B7 platform, was unveiled in February 2005 at Audi's 'quattro Night' celebration at the company headquarters in Ingolstadt, Germany, becoming available from mid-2006 with a production run to 2008.

The engine of the B7 RS4 is based on the existing all-alloy 4.2 L (4,163 cc) V8 from the B6 S4, and shares many parts, and Fuel Stratified Injection, with the 4.2 FSI V8 engine in the Q7. The engine includes new cylinder block construction, and is a highly reworked, high-revving variant. The same engine base was used for the Audi R8 when Audi wanted to build their first supercar. The engine has increased crankcase breathing, a low-pressure fuel return system and a baffled oil sump, to prevent engine lubricant cavitation at high engine speeds and high-G cornering. It has four valves per cylinder (instead of five on the earlier variant) and two overhead camshafts on each cylinder bank driven by roller chains with variable valve timing for both inlet and exhaust camshafts, and an output of 414bhp, driven through a six speed Getrag gearbox.

The B7 RS4 was initially available was a four-door five-seat saloon/sedan; with a five-door five-seat Avant (estate/wagon), and two-door four-seat Cabriolet (convertible) versions arriving later. Constructed from from fully galvanised steel the B7 RS4 uses lightweight aluminium for its front wings and bonnet Like its B5 predecessor, visually, the B7 RS4 differs from its related B7 S4, by having even wider flared front and rear wheel arches, a wider track it also includes two larger frontal side air intakes (for the two additional side-mounted coolant radiators).

 

Many thanks for a fantabulous 42,317,266 views

 

Shot at the Silverstone Classic 14-15 July 2015- Ref 109-102

IO Aircraft, Imaginactive / Charles Bombadier, ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization, Martin Rico, Drew Blair

 

IO Aircraft: www.ioaircraft.com/hypersonic/blueedge.php

Imaginactive: imaginactive.org/2019/02/blue-edge/

Martin Rico, Industrial Graphics Designed: www.linkedin.com/in/mjrico/

 

Seating: 220 | Crew 2+4

Length: 195ft | Span: 93ft

Engines: 4 U-TBCC (Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle) +1 Aerospike for sustained 2G acceleration to Mach 10.

 

Fuel: H2 (Compressed Hydrogen)

Cruising Altitude: 100,000-125,000ft

Airframe: 75% Proprietary Composites

Operating Costs, Similar to a 737. $7,000-$15,000hr, including averaged maintenence costs

 

Iteration 3 (Full release of IT3, Monday January 14, 2019)

IO Aircraft www.ioaircraft.com

Drew Blair www.linkedin.com/in/drew-b-25485312/

 

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hypersonic commercial aircraft, hypersonic commercial plane, hypersonic aircraft, hypersonic plane, Imaginactive, ICAO, International Civil Aviation Orginization, Charles Bombardier, Martin Rico, hypersonic airline, tbcc, glide breaker, fighter plane, hyperonic fighter, boeing phantom express, phantom works, boeing phantom works, lockheed skunk works, hypersonic weapon, hypersonic missile, scramjet engineering, scramjet physics, boost glide, tactical glide vehicle, space plane, scramjet, turbine based combined cycle, ramjet, dual mode ramjet, darpa, onr, navair, afrl, air force research lab, office of naval research, defense advanced research project agency, defense science, missile defense agency, aerospike, hydrogen, hydrogen storage, hydrogen fueled, hydrogen aircraft, virgin airlines, united airlines, sas, finnair ,emirates airlines, ANA, JAL, airlines, military, physics, airline, british airways, air france, aerion supersonic, aerion, spike aerospace, boom supersonic,

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Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle. Current technologies and what Lockheed is trying to force on the Dept of Defense, for that low speed Mach 5 plane DOD gave them $1 billion to build and would disintegrate above Mach 5, is TBCC. 2 separate propulsion systems in the same airframe, which requires TWICE the airframe space to use.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle is 1 propulsion system cutting that airframe deficit in half, and also able to operate above Mach 10 up to Mach 15 in atmosphere, and a simple nozzle modification allows for outside atmosphere rocket mode, ie orbital capable.

 

Additionally, Reaction Engines maximum air breather mode is Mach 4.5, above that it will explode in flight from internal pressures are too high to operate. Thus, must switch to non air breather rocket mode to operate in atmosphere in hypersonic velocities. Which as a result, makes it not feasible for anything practical. It also takes an immense amount of fuel to function.

 

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Advanced Additive Manufacturing for Hypersonic Aircraft

 

Utilizing new methods of fabrication and construction, make it possible to use additive manufacturing, dramatically reducing the time and costs of producing hypersonic platforms from missiles, aircraft, and space capable craft. Instead of aircraft being produced in piece, then bolted together; small platforms can be produced as a single unit and large platforms can be produces in large section and mated without bolting. These techniques include using exotic materials and advanced assembly processes, with an end result of streamlining the production costs and time for hypersonic aircraft; reducing months of assembly to weeks. Overall, this process greatly reduced the cost for producing hypersonic platforms. Even to such an extent that a Hellfire missile costs apx $100,000 but by utilizing our technologies, replacing it with a Mach 8-10 hypersonic missile of our physics/engineering and that missile would cost roughly $75,000 each delivered.

 

Materials used for these manufacturing processes are not disclosed, but overall, provides a foundation for extremely high stresses and thermodynamics, ideal for hypersonic platforms. This specific methodology and materials applications is many decades ahead of all known programs. Even to the extend of normalized space flight and re-entry, without concern of thermodynamic failure.

 

*Note, most entities that are experimenting with additive manufacturing for hypersonic aircraft, this makes it mainstream and standardized processes, which also applies for mass production.

 

What would normally be measured in years and perhaps a decade to go from drawing board to test flights, is reduced to singular months and ready for production within a year maximum.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle (U-TBCC)

 

To date, the closest that NASA and industry have achieved for turbine based aircraft to fly at hypersonic velocities is by mounting a turbine into an aircraft and sharing the inlet with a scramjet or rocket based motor. Reaction Engines Sabre is not able to achieve hypersonic velocities and can only transition into a non air breathing rocket for beyond Mach 4.5

 

However, utilizing Unified Turbine Based Combine Cycle also known as U-TBCC, the two separate platforms are able to share a common inlet and the dual mode ramjet/scramjet is contained within the engine itself, which allows for a much smaller airframe footprint, thus engingeers are able to then design much higher performance aerial platforms for hypersonic flight, including the ability for constructing true single stage to orbit aircraft by utilizing a modification/version that allows for transition to outside atmosphere propulsion without any other propulsion platforms within the aircraft. By transitioning and developing aircraft to use Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle, this propulsion system opens up new options to replace that airframe deficit for increased fuel capacity and/or payload.

 

Enhanced Dynamic Cavitation

 

Dramatically Increasing the efficiency of fuel air mixture for combustion processes at hypersonic velocities within scramjet propulsion platforms. The aspects of these processes are non disclosable.

 

Dynamic Scramjet Ignition Processes

 

For optimal scramjet ignition, a process known as Self Start is sought after, but in many cases if the platform becomes out of attitude, the scramjet will ignite. We have already solved this problem which as a result, a scramjet propulsion system can ignite at lower velocities, high velocities, at optimal attitude or not optimal attitude. It doesn't matter, it will ignite anyways at the proper point for maximum thrust capabilities at hypersonic velocities.

 

Hydrogen vs Kerosene Fuel Sources

 

Kerosene is an easy fuel to work with, and most western nations developing scramjet platforms use Kerosene for that fact. However, while kerosene has better thermal properties then Hydrogen, Hydrogen is a far superior fuel source in scramjet propulsion flight, do it having a much higher efficiency capability. Because of this aspect, in conjunction with our developments, it allows for a MUCH increased fuel to air mixture, combustion, thrust; and ability for higher speeds; instead of very low hypersonic velocities in the Mach 5-6 range. Instead, Mach 8-10 range, while we have begun developing hypersonic capabilities to exceed 15 in atmosphere within less then 5 years.

 

Conforming High Pressure Tank Technology for CNG and H2.

 

As most know in hypersonics, Hydrogen is a superior fuel source, but due to the storage abilities, can only be stored in cylinders thus much less fuel supply. Not anymore, we developed conforming high pressure storage technology for use in aerospace, automotive sectors, maritime, etc; which means any overall shape required for 8,000+ PSI CNG or Hydrogen. For hypersonic platforms, this means the ability to store a much larger volume of hydrogen vs cylinders.

 

As an example, X-43 flown by Nasa which flew at Mach 9.97. The fuel source was Hydrogen, which is extremely more volatile and combustible then kerosene (JP-7), via a cylinder in the main body. If it had used our technology, that entire section of the airframe would had been an 8,000 PSI H2 tank, which would had yielded 5-6 times the capacity. While the X-43 flew 11 seconds under power at Mach 9.97, at 6 times the fuel capacity would had yielded apx 66 seconds of fuel under power at Mach 9.97. If it had flew slower, around Mach 6, same principles applied would had yielded apx 500 seconds of fuel supply under power (slower speeds required less energy to maintain).

 

Enhanced Fuel Mixture During Shock Train Interaction

 

Normally, fuel injection is conducted at the correct insertion point within the shock train for maximum burn/combustion. Our methodologies differ, since almost half the fuel injection is conducted PRE shock train within the isolator, so at the point of isolator injection the fuel enhances the combustion process, which then requires less fuel injection to reach the same level of thrust capabilities.

 

Improved Bow Shock Interaction

 

Smoother interaction at hypersonic velocities and mitigating heat/stresses for beyond Mach 6 thermodynamics, which extraordinarily improves Type 3, 4, and 5 shock interaction.

 

6,000+ Fahrenheit Thermal Resistance

 

To date, the maximum thermal resistance was tested at AFRL in the spring of 2018, which resulted in a 3,200F thermal resistance for a short duration. This technology, allows for normalized hypersonic thermal resistance of 3,000-3,500F sustained, and up to 6,500F resistance for short endurance, ie 90 seconds or less. 10-20 minute resistance estimate approximately 4,500F +/- 200F.

  

*** This technology advancement also applies to Aerospike rocket engines, in which it is common for Aerospike's to exceed 4,500-5,000F temperatures, which results in the melting of the reversed bell housing. That melting no longer ocurrs, providing for stable combustion to ocurr for the entire flight envelope

 

Scramjet Propulsion Side Wall Cooling

 

With old technologies, side wall cooling is required for hypersonic flight and scramjet propulsion systems, otherwise the isolator and combustion regions of a scramjet would melt, even using advanced ablatives and ceramics, due to their inability to cope with very high temperatures. Using technology we have developed for very high thermodynamics and high stresses, side wall cooling is no longer required, thus removing that variable from the design process and focusing on improved ignition processes and increasing net thrust values.

 

Lower Threshold for Hypersonic Ignition

 

Active and adaptive flight dynamics, resulting in the ability for scramjet ignition at a much lower velocity, ie within ramjet envelope, between Mach 2-4, and seamless transition from supersonic to hypersonic flight, ie supersonic ramjet (scramjet). This active and dynamic aspect, has a wide variety of parameters for many flight dynamics, velocities, and altitudes; which means platforms no longer need to be engineered for specific altitude ranges or preset velocities, but those parameters can then be selected during launch configuration and are able to adapt actively in flight.

 

Dramatically Improved Maneuvering Capabilities at Hypersonic Velocities

 

Hypersonic vehicles, like their less technologically advanced brethren, use large actuator and the developers hope those controls surfaces do not disintegrate in flight. In reality, it is like rolling the dice, they may or may not survive, hence another reason why the attempt to keep velocities to Mach 6 or below. We have shrunken down control actuators while almost doubling torque and response capabilities specifically for hypersonic dynamics and extreme stresses involved, which makes it possible for maximum input authority for Mach 10 and beyond.

 

Paradigm Shift in Control Surface Methodologies, Increasing Control Authority (Internal Mechanical Applications)

 

To date, most control surfaces for hypersonic missile platforms still use fins, similar to lower speed conventional missiles, and some using ducted fins. This is mostly due to lack of comprehension of hypersonic velocities in their own favor. Instead, the body itself incorporates those control surfaces, greatly enhancing the airframe strength, opening up more space for hardware and fuel capacity; while simultaneously enhancing the platforms maneuvering capabilities.

 

A scramjet missile can then fly like conventional missile platforms, and not straight and level at high altitudes, losing velocity on it's decent trajectory to target. Another added benefit to this aspect, is the ability to extend range greatly, so if anyone elses hypersonic missile platform were developed for 400 mile range, falling out of the sky due to lack of glide capabilities; our platforms can easily reach 600+ miles, with minimal glide deceleration.

Large apical cavity with extensive tuberculous bronchopneumonia. Note the thickening of many bronchial walls secondary to airways infection.

Contributed by Philip Kane, MD

A mantling ring around the blades holds the blades firmly in position. The ends of the blades are clipped in by this ring and the only freedom this ring has, is to turn. Above that, due to mantling around the blades with a supporting construction, there is no mast placed behind the blades. The blades do never pass a mast, so that the wind that leaves the blades is not disturbed anymore.

Conventional wind turbines use long masts to catch the wind at the highest possible vertical area as possible, because the conventional wind turbines are operating near living ground and over here is little wind -our ancestors could choose, and they chose to live here, instead of living at places with a lot of wind-. Long masts cause no particular problem in low wind speeds, however, in high winds the masts tend to flip over. To be exact, the vibrations in/at the masts do enforce the vibrations in the blades. Conventional wind turbines can not use high winds, because:

1: vibrations in the mast and tendency to flip over

2: vibrations in the blades, because of loose ends

3: vibrations of the blades, caused by passing the masts at the lowest point of the circular motion of the blades. It sounds like this: zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz , flope, zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz, flope... et cetera, in where zzzzzzzzzzzz is the sound without passing the masts and flope is the sound while passing the mast.

The masts in old Dutch windmills are even wider, in order to house the big wooden cog wheels for the transmission, axles and specific industries in the mast. The sails, or fabric, spread out over the rate construction at the beams of the blades, make an even bigger floping sound and a closer look learns that, during passing the mast, the sails are even coming loose from this rate construction. So, every time a blade passes mast, the blade is loosing lift force. In the early days this was not a problem, because the mill making was done with wood and wood never tires.

Until 1800 A.D. we needed the windmills for powering our industries. Today, we need the wind again for, for instance, countering the rise of nuclear power, coal -, and gas, using power plants for electricity and combustion engines.

Since the windsurfers introduced a new way of holding up sails, even high winds can be used. In a way it is trivial that exactly James Watt's steam machine triggered the industrial revolution, which resulted in global warming that increased the wind. So, we have more wind here and there [close to where we live and close to the arctic zones] and we can now use most of it. The low wind speed regime can be used by conventional modern wind turbines and conventional modern sailing boats and high winds by turbo windmills and Spailboats. By using any kind of wind, until 12bft, any where on earth, we can say that the wind is to be used on demand, and this is exactly the reason of why the industrial revolution took off.

In 1773, when James improved the steam machine, we did not have carbon fibers, steel, composites and the windsurf formula, so that the steam machine did not have a competition.

En fin, by means of windsurfing high winds at oceans with spaiboats and using high winds by turbo windmills, the combination with conventional modern wind users for the low wind regime leads to new a competition for nuclear power plants et cetera. So the comparison of today is the combination of all wind converters, for making axles spin, with for instance the steam machine and his brothers -nuclear power plants, coal -, and gas, burning power plants-, who all still boil water in kettle, and combustion engines which are also still burning fossil fuels.

 

Introduction turbo windmill, Jet Wind Mill, JWM.

!!

!!

\/

V

W WIND energy, direction movement, windspeed

 

------------- >>> direction of movement, speed,

perpendicular on the wind, flat on the wind

 

.

.

...... .

.

.... .

... .

.

!._ Tangible, actual,

speed, Pythagoras, cause of _!_ [right angle between wind speed and speed of rotors.]

   

A closer look at windsurfers learns that the sails, or just wings, are firmly hold in the very hands of the windsurfers. Via windsurfing followed Spailboat, a non capsizing -stable- speed sailing craft, which wants to get airborne so that the hull raises above the water. This shown turbo windmill is spin off from the Spailboat.

  

The blades -rotors- are at their ends mantled by a ring. The ring is born within wheels in the housing. Because turbo wind mills use high winds, this mantle piece can be placed at/near the ground, so that there is no significant occurance of vibrating at the ends of the blades.

 

In order to use high winds, the blades have to be hold firmly in place, leaving only the opportunity open for the blades to turn, or to move, perpendicular on the winds direction with as a consequence that Pythagoras' law comes in as foundation to calculate the angle of attack in the blades. Further on, one will see that windsurfing is done in the half wind sailing course and waves are swept by the wind, so that wave riding is falling with sailing half wind. Perfect.

 

High speed, directed perpendicular on the wind, leads also to the fact that a given sail area will be used optimally. And because cavitation, air bubbles around the swords, are restricting the windsurfers' speed, spailboat has wheels for swords. You, as reader, have to take it from here, because I can not force you to swallow dry food. Please, take one step at the time. To get started, you firstly need to understand that when a plate is placed flat -perpendicular- on the wind, there is maximum blockage of the wind by that plate. Next step. We imaginary move this plate with for instance 300 m/s in the direction flat on the wind. Now we'll see that the actual wind speed, S, that hits the blade is to be calculated by Pathagoras' law, S^2 =W^2+V^2, in where, V, is the speed of the blade perpendicular on the winds' direction and W is the wind speed. If now the original wind speed is very low, say, 1 m/s, than we might as well assume that the actual wind speed that hits the blade is still 300 m/s. In other words, when an almost flat on the wind positioned blade is moving with very high speed -in the line of its plane, perpendicular on the original wind's direction-, then the actual wind speed that hits the blades, comes almost from the front, parallel with the plane of the blade. A blade end of a windmill moves faster than that blade does near the center, so that blade ends are almost positioned flat on the wind. The same counts for windsurf sails, although the sails are hold almost flat on the wind, the actual wind flow that hits the sails is coming more or less from the front. This means that we want high speed, in order to get maximum conversion of a given sail area. High speed implies high lift forces, and therefore we need stable and strong configurations that hold the blades.

 

I worked on stable sailing machines for twenty years now, because the capsizing and the catapulting with my catamaran scared the ........ out off me. Oh, I sailed from six years old, and won in 1988 the second biggest cat race in the world, together with my nephew, Ruud Goudriaan, who still is a class-A cat sailor. I went to college, and later to the technical university in Delft, and therefore I sold my cat, but continued windsurfing on cheap gear. However, windsurfing on old wave boards with old gear is still going much faster than the fastest cat. I kept on wondering why and when I figured it out [in 1994], I started to create a mechanically operated windsurf boat.

 

Sailing and windsurfing are very much like music, a well written song can be played live on stage over and over again, and every time this song improves itself. I can only ensure you, that the windsurf formula is an outstanding song, in the way to speak. Everything comes together, with as result that the windy circumstances on earth are perfect to use sails, wings, for making axles spin, as well on the oceans, by means of windsurfing -a combination of surfing and sailing stable half wind-, as on land, by means of using turbo windmills.

 

The only limitations in using the high winds are now caused by preoccupation of the existing economy. For instance, the car industries, the airplane industries, wind turbine industries, sailing boats industries, et cetera, keep our engineers in hostage. If we only could stop the production and the developing of the car making, airplane making et cetera, for just one week, and bring this way all the engineers to one imaginary table then the formula of windsurfing is understood. Once the leading engineers understand the windsurf formula, then the building of the prototypes is a year away. Some floors of the car industries and the airplanes industries can make room for new production lines.

 

And to make an even bigger example. When the second world war broke out, suddenly all floors of the car industries and airplane industries were making room for the production of tanks, jeeps, fighter planes, bombers et cetera. So, it is just a matter of priorities. Making hydrogen motors and electric motors and making the new windconveters for high winds are priority.

 

By now, saving this planet is priority number one, and still all industries and all governments around the world do not see the windsurf formula. Even a child can see that windsurfing is sensational. Just look at windsurfing from above. The waves make pipelines, and the only safe course in high winds falls parrallel with them. These pipelines lay, notably per definition, perpendicular on the wind's direction and windsurfing is always done half wind, so that the windsurfers automatically go as fast as possible and have a relatively safe ride between the waves. All in all, the windsurf formula implies that a given sail area is optimally used, that the waves are helping in making speed, that the half wind course is always leading to gliding along with the waves, that windsurfing is therefore relatively safe, that a stable configuration is the condition to make big structures, so that former dangerous windy circumstances at open ocean are just perfect to move a significant amount of mass with high speed. The kinetic energy is measured by the formula: 1/2 times the mass of the composition times the square of the speed. This world is dying for energy. So, please, understand the windsurf formula and please make Spailboats for over water, and turbo wind mills for on land.

 

I mean, did you ever see a professor, 60 years old, windsurfing on large waves with 10 bft at open sea? No, that is the problem. These kind of persons rule the world.

 

Just go on the Internet, and see for yourself that the formula, for calculating the maximum sailing speed, is still only counting for non flying sailing boats. This means that they assume that the hull is still always dragging through water. For the cavitation speed they still assume always that a sword is not moving with respect to the hull. In Spailboats, on the other hand, the water cutting part of a sword does move along with respect to the hull, so that the speed of the hull and the speed of through water dragging sword have two different values. Here in Holland at the university of Delft, a leading professor -who works on his own sailing boat, off course-, once told me in person that no matter what kind of sailing boat, or windsurfer, it could never over top the 100km/hr barrier, because of cavitation around the swords. I came to him, at one of those appointments, to inform him about the new rigging, so that spailboats are almost flying above the water and to inform him about the reason -to overcome cavitation around the water cutting profile of the sword wheels- for using circle shaped spinning swords. So, I walked through his door, showed him my work, and in stead letting me talk about my work, he did not look at my work at all. He talked for half an hour, and by the time he finished, I wanted to reply, but then he said, your time is up, leave, please. I have tried to make another appointment, but in vain. A few months later, he had a full page in one of Holland's main newspapers, the Saturday edition, in where he presented his own sailing boat. The public was misled. This sailing boat was so-called state of the art, but, it did not fly, it did still capsize, it could not operate in high seas, people, it was a worthless piece of ....... . So, I came in, and he asked, what did you study,? I said: civil engineering, and that answer was apparently wrong, because he worked at the aircraft and space department. Pyramids, remember, people, we still build them. The only thing that matters, is that I am a good sailor and windsurfer , and that I made a windsurf robot. Even if I did not have any masters degree at the technical university at all, he should have asked me what my work was, and not what my title was. This story goes on, because before I talked to him, the boss so to speak, I had several meetings with his students and they were impressed. But at the moment they found out that I was working outside the university they boycotted me, right away. I had to give earlier given nice 3D pictures of wings back, and also my usb stick with several drawings had to be erased. Since then I am not welcome anymore. My own professor, Marcel Donze, then always brings calm to me, with this: Who would be the worst enemy of the Pope? Jesus Christ. No rank and bare footed, and closer to God as him.

 

I am closer to the wind, that is the point.

It is therefore that these two new inventions fall under: the environmental revolution.

 

We, the hard working people, can easily see that windsurfers go faster than the good old sailing boats. And still, billions and billions are spend on sailing boats for the happy few, like the rich men's toys for the Volvo Ocean Race, America's cup, the immense yachts et cetera. The same thing counts for the swallowing up of our best engineers for the car industries, formula 1 racing, jet fighter plane making et cetera.

 

If only the engineers and the people who rule the world want to save this planet, then the prototypes of the turbo windmills and the spailboats will be operating within a year.

 

In the past seven years I really tried endlessly to talk with professors around the world. They are just not at home. On the phone it goes like this. Who are you? What did you study, and I say, civil engineering. Oh, that has nothing to do with planes and/or mills, we are not interested.

 

Off course, I do not talk like them, every error in the conversation means the final cut of the conversation and once such a door is closed, it never opens again.

 

So, you as reader will never read or hear about windsurf machines and turbo windmills, which can save the planet, other than in this slide show.

 

I was a good cat sailor and a good windsurfer in the eighties. From childhood on I was at sea. Above that fact, I was born in Zaandam, the place where a cluster of windmills is stacked in an open air museum. I had the kite surfing formula on the drawing board, long before it took off, because the kites are hold just the same as windsurf sails are hold, only now on wires and further away from the board. In fact, I actually kite surfed on a small wooden plank on the beach in the eighties of the past century when I was ten years old. My nephews tried it, but were to heavy, and logically, I had to try. And it worked. Kite surfing is nothing more than using a big kite to move yourself. So, who do you want to believe, me, or the universities?

 

Get úp, stand up, get up for your right. Bob Marley. He believed that music unites all people one day. Wind sounds like music, doesn't it? No more nuclear power, no more burning fossil fuels.

 

Turbo windmill, or Jet Wind Mill [JWM] / JWM is a nephew, resp. spin off, of Spailboat, the stable sailing Speed Sail Craft.

 

Stability: only when stability is firstly established, then a structure might be built tall. A sailing boat might be made endlessly strong, still, it capsizes, so that it is useless to make endlessly strong masts. A Spailboat however is stable, and therefore a Spailboat can be made big, very big, as big oceanliners, with 100 meter long masts. This is part of the windsurf formula. And remember, mass in motion implies the kinetic energy.

 

We need energy. For making fresh drinking water, for irrigation, for making electricity, making hydrogen, for moving cars, trains, planes and so on.

 

The windsurf formula is here, for everyone to use in the world, because I dropped my patents. It is free, for you, Africa, Asia, America, Europe, the south pacific continents and islands. Just have a look and run this show a few times. It is like the wheel itself, it is normal, revolutionary and it will change the world. No nuclear power is needed any longer, just usage of high winds and swell on the oceans. And the turbo windmill is spin off, because these blades are in fact circular moving steady in positioned hold windsurf sails.

Photo 7

A low water, easterly gale arrival at Dun Laoghaire for the St Columba in 1986. These arrivals were always difficult, low water meaning a slow approach to avoid propellor cavitation, while the easterlies worked against the slow moving ship. Here we see the ship, having got a line ashore forward, having to abort. Capt Lewis Pritchard then brings the ship astern to land the port quarter on the end of the Carlisle Pier. With lines ashore aft, the St Columba is then skilfully wound in to the berth using the bow thruster to maximum effect.

Via a stator installed, the turning motion of the ring with the blades directly produces a magnetic field, producing electricity -what we are aiming for, off course-. In this prototype however the dynamo's are fed by the wheels for bearings. In fact, in the prototype these bearing wheels are odinary bicycle wheels with dynamo's in their axles.

 

A closer look at windsurfers learns that the sails, or just wings, are firmly hold in the very hands of the windsurfers. Via windsurfing followed Spailboat, a non capsizing -stable- speed sailing craft, which wants to get airborne so that the hull raises above the water. This shown turbo windmill is spin off from the Spailboat.

A mantling ring around the blades holds the blades firmly in position. The ends of the blades are clipped in by this ring and the only freedom this ring has, is to turn. Above that, due to mantling around the blades with supporting construction, no mast is placed behind the blades. The blades do never pass a mast, so that the wind that leaves the blades is not disturbed anymore.

Conventional wind turbines use long masts to catch the wind at the highest possible vertical area as possible, because the conventional wind turbines are operating near living ground and over here is little wind -our ancestors could choose, and they chose to live here, instead of living at places with a lot of wind-.

high winds also come at the ground as well, while wind catching, in/near our living ground, is done with long masts. There might be wind ladders installed too, in order to catch the wind as high as possible. where we live, we need long masts for getting more -low speeded- wind.

Near the poles, even on the ground, it storms for most of the time, so that the mantle pieces for the passive turbo's can be placed on/near the ground.

Long masts on conventional windturbines cause no particular problem in low wind speeds, however, in high winds the masts tend to flip over. To be exact, the vibrations in/at the masts do enforce the vibrations in the blades. Conventional wind turbines can not use high winds, because:

1: vibrations in the mast and tendency to flip over

2: vibrations in the blades, because of loose ends

3: vibrations of the blades, caused by passing the masts at the lowest point of the circular motion of the blades. It sounds like this: zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz , flope, zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz, flope... et cetera, in where zzzzzzzzzzzz is the sound without passing the masts and flope is the sound while passing the mast.

The masts in old Dutch windmills are even wider, in order to house the big wooden cog wheels for the transmission, axles and specific industries in the mast. The sails, or fabric, spread out over the rate construction at the beams of the blades, make an even bigger floping sound and a closer look learns that, during passing the mast, the sails are even coming loose from this rate construction. So, every time a blade passes mast, the blade is loosing lift force. In the early days this was not a problem, because the mill making was done with wood and wood never tires.

Until 1800 A.D. we needed the windmills for powering our industries. Today, we need the wind again for, for instance, countering the rise of nuclear power, coal -, and gas, using power plants for electricity and combustion engines.

Since the windsurfers introduced a new way of holding up sails, even high winds can be used. In a way it is trivial that exactly James Watt's steam machine triggered the industrial revolution, which resulted in global warming that increased the wind. So, we have more wind here and there [close to where we live and close to the arctic zones] and we can now use most of it. The low wind speed regime can be used by conventional modern wind turbines and conventional modern sailing boats and high winds by turbo windmills and Spailboats. By using any kind of wind, until 12bft, any where on earth, we can say that the wind is to be used on demand, and his is exactly the reason of why the industrial revolution took off.

In 1773, when James improved the steam machine, we did not have carbon fibers, steel, composites and the windsurf formula, so that that the steam machine did not have a competition.

En fin, windsurfing high winds at oceans by spaiboats and using high winds by turbo windmills, the combination with conventional modern wind users for the wind regime leads to new a competition for nuclear power plants et cetera. So the comparison of today is the combination of all wind converters, for making axles spin, with for instance the steam machine and his brothers -nuclear power plants, coal -, and gas, burning powerplants-, who all still boil water in kettle, and combustion engines which are also still burning fossil fuels.

 

The blades -rotors- are at their ends mantled by a ring. The ring is born within wheels in the housing. Because turbo wind mills use high winds, this mantle piece can be placed at/near the ground, so that there is no significant vibrating occurring at the ends of the blades.

 

In order to use high winds, the blades have to be hold firmly in place, leaving only the opportunity open for the blades to turn, or to move, perpendicular on the winds direction with as a consequence that Pythagoras' law comes in as foundation to calculate the angle of attack in the blades. Further on, one will see that windsurfing is done in the half wind sailing course and waves are swept by the wind, so that wave riding is falling with sailing half wind. Perfect.

 

High speed, directed perpendicular on the wind, leads also to the fact that a given sail area will be used optimally. And because cavitation, air bubbles around the swords, are restricting the windsurfers' speed, spailboat has wheels for swords. You, as reader, have to take it from here, because I can not force you to swallow dry food. Please, take one step at the time. To get started, you firstly need to understand that when a plate is placed flat -perpendicular- on the wind, there is maximum blockage of the wind by that plate. Next step. We imaginary move this plate with for instance 300 m/s in the direction flat on the wind. Now we'll see that the actual wind speed, S, that hits the blade is to be calculated by Pathagoras' law, S^2 =W^2+V^2, in where, V, is the speed of the blade perpendicular on the winds' direction and W is the wind speed. If now the original wind speed is very low, say, 1 m/s, than we might as well assume that the actual wind speed that hits the blade is still 300 m/s. In other words, when an almost flat on the wind positioned blade is moving with very high speed, perpendicular on the original wind's direction, then the actual wind speed that hits the blades, comes almost from the front. A blade end of a windmill moves faster than that blade does near the center, so that blade ends are almost positioned flat on the wind. The same counts for windsurf sails, although the sails are hold almost flat on the wind, the actual wind flow that hits the sails is coming more or less from the front. This means that we want high speed, in order to get maximum conversion of a given sail area. High speed implies high lift forces, and therefore we need stable and strong configurations that hold the blades.

 

I worked on stable sailing machines for twenty years now, because the capsizing and the catapulting with my catamaran scared the ........ out off me. Oh, I sailed from six years old, and won in 1988 the second biggest cat race in the world, together with my nephew, Ruud Goudriaan, who still is a class-A cat sailor. I went to college, and later to the technical university in Delft, and therefore I sold my cat, but continued windsurfing on cheap gear. However, windsurfing on old wave boards with old gear is still going much faster than the fastest cat. I kept on wondering why and when I figured it out [in 1994], I started to create a mechanically operated windsurf boat.

 

Sailing and windsurfing are very much like music, a well written song can be played live on stage over and over again, and every time this song improves itself. I can only ensure you, that the windsurf formula is an outstanding song, in the way to speak. Everything comes together, with as result that the windy circumstances on earth are perfect to use sails, wings, for making axles spin, as well on the oceans, by means of windsurfing -a combination of surfing and sailing stable half wind-, as on land, by means of using turbo windmills.

 

The only limitations in using the high winds are now caused by preoccupation of the existing economy. For instance, the car industries, the airplane industries, wind turbine industries, sailing boats industries, et cetera, keep our engineers in hostage. If we only could stop the production and the developing of the car making, airplane making et cetera, for just one week, and bring this way all the engineers to one imaginary table then the formula of windsurfing is understood. Once the leading engineers understand the windsurf formula, then the building of the prototypes is a year away. Some floors of the car industries and the airplanes industries can make room for new production lines.

 

And to make an even bigger example. When the second world war broke out, suddenly all floors of the car industries and airplane industries were making room for the production of tanks, jeeps, fighter planes, bombers et cetera. So, it is just a matter of priorities.

 

By now, saving this planet is priority number one, and still all industries and all governments around the world do not see the windsurf formula. Even a child can see that windsurfing is sensational. Just look at windsurfing from above. The waves make pipelines, and the only safe course in high winds falls parrallel with them. These pipelines lay, notably per definition, perpendicular on the wind's direction and windsurfing is always done half wind, so that the windsurfers automatically go as fast as possible and have a relatively safe ride between the waves. All in all, the windsurf formula implies that a given sail area is optimally used, that the waves are helping in making speed, that the half wind course is always leading to gliding along with the waves, that windsurfing is therefore relatively safe, that a stable configuration is the condition to make big structures, so that former dangerous windy circumstances at open ocean are just perfect to move a significant amount of mass with high speed. The kinetic energy is measured by the formula: 1/2 times the mass of the composition times the square of the speed. This world is dying for energy. So, please, understand the windsurf formula and please make Spailboats for over water, and turbo wind mills for on land.

I mean, did you ever see a professor, 60 years old, windsurfing on large waves with 10 bft at open sea? No, that is the problem. These kind of persons rule the world.

 

Just go on the Internet, and see for yourself that the formula, for calculating the maximum sailing speed, is still only counting for non flying sailing boats. This means that they assume that the hull is still always dragging through water. For the cavitation speed they still assume always that a sword is not moving with respect to the hull. In Spailboats, on the other hand, the water cutting part of a sword does move along with respect to the hull, so that the speed of the hull and the speed of through water dragging sword have two different values. Here in Holland at the university of Delft, a leading professor -who works on his own sailing boat, off course-, once told me in person that no matter what kind of sailing boat, or windsurfer, it could never over top the 100km/hr barrier, because of cavitation around the swords. I came to him, at one of those appointments, to inform him about the new rigging, so that spailboats are almost flying above the water and to inform him about the reason -to overcome cavitation around the water cutting profile of the sword wheels- for using circle shaped spinning swords. So, I walked through his door, showed him my work, and in stead letting me talk about my work, he did not look at my work at all. He talked for half an hour, and by the time he finished, I wanted to reply, but then he said, your time is up, leave, please. I have tried to make another appointment, but in vain. A few months later, he had a full page in one of Holland's main newspapers, the Saturday edition, in where he presented his own sailing boat. The public was misled. This sailing boat was so-called state of the art, but, it did not fly, it did still capsize, it could not operate in high seas, people, it was a worthless piece of ....... . So, I came in, and he asked, what did you study,? I said: civil engineering, and that answer was apparently wrong, because he worked at the aircraft and space department. Pyramids, remember, people, we still build them. The only thing that matters, is that I am a good sailor and windsurfer , and that I made windsurf robot. Even if I did not have any masters degree at the technical university at all, he should have asked me what my work was, and not what my title was. This story goes on, because before I talked to him, the boss so to speak, I had several meetings with his students and they were impressed. But at the moment they found out that I was working outside the university they boycotted me, right away. I had to give earlier given nice 3D pictures of wings back, and also my usb stick with several drawings had to be erased. Since then I am not welcome anymore. My own professor, Marcel Donze, then always brings calm to me, with this: Who would be the worst enemy of the Pope? Jesus Christ. No rank and bare footed, and closer to God as him.

 

I am closer to wind, as them, that is my point.

 

It is therefore that these two new inventions fall under: the environmental revolution.

 

We, the hard working people, can easily see that windsurfers go faster than the good old sailing boats. And still, billions and billions are spend on sailing boats for the happy few, like the rich men's toys for the Volvo Ocean Race, America's cup, the immense yachts et cetera. The same thing counts for the swallowing up of our best engineers for the car industries, formula 1 racing, jet fighter plane making et cetera.

 

If only the engineers and the people who rule the world want to save this planet, then the prototypes of the turbo windmills and the spailboats will be operating within a year.

 

In the past seven years I really tried endlessly to talk with professors around the world. They are just not at home. On the phone it goes like this. Who are you? What did you study, and I say, civil engineering. Oh, that has nothing to do with planes and/or mills, we are not interested. "The ligth's on, but nobody is home."

 

Off course, I do not talk like them, every error in the conversation means the final cut of the conversation and once such a door is closed, it never opens again.

 

So, you as reader will never read or hear about windsurf machines and turbo windmills, which can save the planet, other than in this slide show.

 

I was a good cat sailor and a good windsurfer in the eighties. From childhood on I was at sea. Above that fact, I was born in Zaandam, the place where a cluster of windmills is stacked in an open air museum. I had the kite surfing formula on the drawing board, long before it took off, because the kites are hold just the same as windsurf sails are hold, only now on wires and further away from the board. In fact, I actually kite surfed on a small wooden plank on the beach in the eighties of the past century when I was ten years old. My nephews tried it, but were to heavy, and logically, I had to try. And it worked. Kite surfing is nothing more than using a big kite to move yourself. So, who do you want to believe, me, or the universities?

 

Get úp, stand up, get up for your right. Bob Marley. He believed that music unites all people one day. Wind sounds like music, doesn't it? No more nuclear power, no more burning fossil fuels.

 

Turbo windmill, or Jet Wind Mill [JWM] / JWM is a nephew, resp. spin off, of Spailboat, the stable sailing Speed Sail Craft.

 

Stability: only when stability is firstly established, then a structure might be built tall. A sailing boat might be made endlessly strong, still, it capsizes, so that it is useless to make endlessly strong masts. A Spailboat however is stable, and therefore a Spailboat can be made big, very big, as big oceanliners, with 100 meter long masts. This is part of the windsurf formula. And remember, mass in motion implies the kinetic energy.

 

We need energy. For making fresh drinking water, for irrigation, for making electricity, making hydrogen, for moving cars, trains, planes and so on.

 

The windsurf formula is here, for everyone to use in the world, because I dropped my patents. It is free, for you, Africa, Asia, America, Europe, the south pacific continents and islands. Just have a look and run this show a few times. It is like the wheel itself, it is normal, revolutionary and it will change the world. No nuclear power is needed any longer, just usage of high winds and swell on the oceans. And the turbo windmill is spin off, because these blades are in fact circular moving steady in positioned hold windsurf sails.

Raven - Model B Mach 8-10 - Supersonic / Hypersonic Business Jet - Iteration 6

 

Seating: 22 | Crew 2+1

Length: 100ft | Span: 45ft 8in

Engines: 2 U-TBCC (Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle)

 

Fuel: H2 (Compressed Hydrogen)

Cruising Altitude: 100,000-125,000 ft @ Mach 8-10

Air frame: 75% Proprietary Composites

Operating Costs, Similar to the hourly operating costs of a Gulfstream G650 or Bombardier Global Express 7000 Series

  

IO Aircraft www.ioaircraft.com

Drew Blair www.linkedin.com/in/drew-b-25485312/

 

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Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle. Current technologies and what Lockheed is trying to force on the Dept of Defense, for that low speed Mach 5 plane DOD gave them $1 billion to build and would disintegrate above Mach 5, is TBCC. 2 separate propulsion systems in the same airframe, which requires TWICE the airframe space to use.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle is 1 propulsion system cutting that airframe deficit in half, and also able to operate above Mach 10 up to Mach 15 in atmosphere, and a simple nozzle modification allows for outside atmosphere rocket mode, ie orbital capable.

 

Additionally, Reaction Engines maximum air breather mode is Mach 4.5, above that it will explode in flight from internal pressures are too high to operate. Thus, must switch to non air breather rocket mode to operate in atmosphere in hypersonic velocities. Which as a result, makes it not feasible for anything practical. It also takes an immense amount of fuel to function.

 

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Advanced Additive Manufacturing for Hypersonic Aircraft

 

Utilizing new methods of fabrication and construction, make it possible to use additive manufacturing, dramatically reducing the time and costs of producing hypersonic platforms from missiles, aircraft, and space capable craft. Instead of aircraft being produced in piece, then bolted together; small platforms can be produced as a single unit and large platforms can be produces in large section and mated without bolting. These techniques include using exotic materials and advanced assembly processes, with an end result of streamlining the production costs and time for hypersonic aircraft; reducing months of assembly to weeks. Overall, this process greatly reduced the cost for producing hypersonic platforms. Even to such an extent that a Hellfire missile costs apx $100,000 but by utilizing our technologies, replacing it with a Mach 8-10 hypersonic missile of our physics/engineering and that missile would cost roughly $75,000 each delivered.

 

Materials used for these manufacturing processes are not disclosed, but overall, provides a foundation for extremely high stresses and thermodynamics, ideal for hypersonic platforms. This specific methodology and materials applications is many decades ahead of all known programs. Even to the extend of normalized space flight and re-entry, without concern of thermodynamic failure.

 

*Note, most entities that are experimenting with additive manufacturing for hypersonic aircraft, this makes it mainstream and standardized processes, which also applies for mass production.

 

What would normally be measured in years and perhaps a decade to go from drawing board to test flights, is reduced to singular months and ready for production within a year maximum.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle (U-TBCC)

 

To date, the closest that NASA and industry have achieved for turbine based aircraft to fly at hypersonic velocities is by mounting a turbine into an aircraft and sharing the inlet with a scramjet or rocket based motor. Reaction Engines Sabre is not able to achieve hypersonic velocities and can only transition into a non air breathing rocket for beyond Mach 4.5

 

However, utilizing Unified Turbine Based Combine Cycle also known as U-TBCC, the two separate platforms are able to share a common inlet and the dual mode ramjet/scramjet is contained within the engine itself, which allows for a much smaller airframe footprint, thus engingeers are able to then design much higher performance aerial platforms for hypersonic flight, including the ability for constructing true single stage to orbit aircraft by utilizing a modification/version that allows for transition to outside atmosphere propulsion without any other propulsion platforms within the aircraft. By transitioning and developing aircraft to use Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle, this propulsion system opens up new options to replace that airframe deficit for increased fuel capacity and/or payload.

 

Enhanced Dynamic Cavitation

 

Dramatically Increasing the efficiency of fuel air mixture for combustion processes at hypersonic velocities within scramjet propulsion platforms. The aspects of these processes are non disclosable.

 

Dynamic Scramjet Ignition Processes

 

For optimal scramjet ignition, a process known as Self Start is sought after, but in many cases if the platform becomes out of attitude, the scramjet will ignite. We have already solved this problem which as a result, a scramjet propulsion system can ignite at lower velocities, high velocities, at optimal attitude or not optimal attitude. It doesn't matter, it will ignite anyways at the proper point for maximum thrust capabilities at hypersonic velocities.

 

Hydrogen vs Kerosene Fuel Sources

 

Kerosene is an easy fuel to work with, and most western nations developing scramjet platforms use Kerosene for that fact. However, while kerosene has better thermal properties then Hydrogen, Hydrogen is a far superior fuel source in scramjet propulsion flight, do it having a much higher efficiency capability. Because of this aspect, in conjunction with our developments, it allows for a MUCH increased fuel to air mixture, combustion, thrust; and ability for higher speeds; instead of very low hypersonic velocities in the Mach 5-6 range. Instead, Mach 8-10 range, while we have begun developing hypersonic capabilities to exceed 15 in atmosphere within less then 5 years.

 

Conforming High Pressure Tank Technology for CNG and H2.

 

As most know in hypersonics, Hydrogen is a superior fuel source, but due to the storage abilities, can only be stored in cylinders thus much less fuel supply. Not anymore, we developed conforming high pressure storage technology for use in aerospace, automotive sectors, maritime, etc; which means any overall shape required for 8,000+ PSI CNG or Hydrogen. For hypersonic platforms, this means the ability to store a much larger volume of hydrogen vs cylinders.

 

As an example, X-43 flown by Nasa which flew at Mach 9.97. The fuel source was Hydrogen, which is extremely more volatile and combustible then kerosene (JP-7), via a cylinder in the main body. If it had used our technology, that entire section of the airframe would had been an 8,000 PSI H2 tank, which would had yielded 5-6 times the capacity. While the X-43 flew 11 seconds under power at Mach 9.97, at 6 times the fuel capacity would had yielded apx 66 seconds of fuel under power at Mach 9.97. If it had flew slower, around Mach 6, same principles applied would had yielded apx 500 seconds of fuel supply under power (slower speeds required less energy to maintain).

 

Enhanced Fuel Mixture During Shock Train Interaction

 

Normally, fuel injection is conducted at the correct insertion point within the shock train for maximum burn/combustion. Our methodologies differ, since almost half the fuel injection is conducted PRE shock train within the isolator, so at the point of isolator injection the fuel enhances the combustion process, which then requires less fuel injection to reach the same level of thrust capabilities.

 

Improved Bow Shock Interaction

 

Smoother interaction at hypersonic velocities and mitigating heat/stresses for beyond Mach 6 thermodynamics, which extraordinarily improves Type 3, 4, and 5 shock interaction.

 

6,000+ Fahrenheit Thermal Resistance

 

To date, the maximum thermal resistance was tested at AFRL in the spring of 2018, which resulted in a 3,200F thermal resistance for a short duration. This technology, allows for normalized hypersonic thermal resistance of 3,000-3,500F sustained, and up to 6,500F resistance for short endurance, ie 90 seconds or less. 10-20 minute resistance estimate approximately 4,500F +/- 200F.

  

*** This technology advancement also applies to Aerospike rocket engines, in which it is common for Aerospike's to exceed 4,500-5,000F temperatures, which results in the melting of the reversed bell housing. That melting no longer ocurrs, providing for stable combustion to ocurr for the entire flight envelope

 

Scramjet Propulsion Side Wall Cooling

 

With old technologies, side wall cooling is required for hypersonic flight and scramjet propulsion systems, otherwise the isolator and combustion regions of a scramjet would melt, even using advanced ablatives and ceramics, due to their inability to cope with very high temperatures. Using technology we have developed for very high thermodynamics and high stresses, side wall cooling is no longer required, thus removing that variable from the design process and focusing on improved ignition processes and increasing net thrust values.

 

Lower Threshold for Hypersonic Ignition

 

Active and adaptive flight dynamics, resulting in the ability for scramjet ignition at a much lower velocity, ie within ramjet envelope, between Mach 2-4, and seamless transition from supersonic to hypersonic flight, ie supersonic ramjet (scramjet). This active and dynamic aspect, has a wide variety of parameters for many flight dynamics, velocities, and altitudes; which means platforms no longer need to be engineered for specific altitude ranges or preset velocities, but those parameters can then be selected during launch configuration and are able to adapt actively in flight.

 

Dramatically Improved Maneuvering Capabilities at Hypersonic Velocities

 

Hypersonic vehicles, like their less technologically advanced brethren, use large actuator and the developers hope those controls surfaces do not disintegrate in flight. In reality, it is like rolling the dice, they may or may not survive, hence another reason why the attempt to keep velocities to Mach 6 or below. We have shrunken down control actuators while almost doubling torque and response capabilities specifically for hypersonic dynamics and extreme stresses involved, which makes it possible for maximum input authority for Mach 10 and beyond.

 

Paradigm Shift in Control Surface Methodologies, Increasing Control Authority (Internal Mechanical Applications)

 

To date, most control surfaces for hypersonic missile platforms still use fins, similar to lower speed conventional missiles, and some using ducted fins. This is mostly due to lack of comprehension of hypersonic velocities in their own favor. Instead, the body itself incorporates those control surfaces, greatly enhancing the airframe strength, opening up more space for hardware and fuel capacity; while simultaneously enhancing the platforms maneuvering capabilities.

 

A scramjet missile can then fly like conventional missile platforms, and not straight and level at high altitudes, losing velocity on it's decent trajectory to target. Another added benefit to this aspect, is the ability to extend range greatly, so if anyone elses hypersonic missile platform were developed for 400 mile range, falling out of the sky due to lack of glide capabilities; our platforms can easily reach 600+ miles, with minimal glide deceleration.

Spailboat2010

 

On board in-built scoops hit the water and drive the turbines, in an environmental friendly way.

 

Scoops, running through water, or wheels, running over land, might just use the kinetic energy of the wind ship to spin the possibly in-built driving shafts, 100.

 

On behalf the spinning scoops, respectively on behalf of these spinning wheels, energy can be moulded into for instance electricity, and then, of course, into liquefied hydrogen.

 

Spailcrafts are perfectly designed to take care of formally known expensive manufactures.

 

Expensive manufactures are for instance hydrogen and fresh drinking water, both made out of seawater. Another expensive manufacture is nitrogen, that will be extracted, just like the hydrogen from seawater, firstly, from air, before it got stored in the chambers.

 

The constructions of the fuselages of such big wind ships are ones with cells. Whereas these cells are able to withstand high external water pressure, in case of submerged actions during calamities in for instance very heavy storms and during over coming Cyclones, as well these cells, besides the cells where we and the factory are made in, are pressure tanks, for the storage of the hydrogen and the nitrogen.

 

Also oxygen and other gasses and other mediums, like fresh drinking water can be stored in the cells of the fuselages. A large wind ship is, this way, a submarine and a pressure tank at the same time! Large wind ships might also be equipped as all kinds of industries, all powered by using the kinetic energy of the ship in windy places! Windy places might speed up these theoretically mined machines to, 160 km/hr, over water!

 

Windsurfer kind of speeds requires new measurements to deal with.

 

Speeding faster than windsurfers do, requires measurements in order to overcome air bubbles around the swords, 1, in the water.

 

It is therefore that circle-shaped spinning swords, 1, are replacing formally slide-like swords. In one go the scoops, needed for powering the industries on board, coincide with the water appendages, 1. Reducing water resistance, by using can-opener-like cutting circle shaped swords, wheels, 1, implies more speed. Not only drives the Spailcrafts' speed the scoops, respectively round shaped water appendages, to spin the driving shafts, these spinning circle-shaped swords ( dagger boards ), are also reducing water resistance, and are avoiding cavitation, or, avoiding the water to bubble. Cavitation, or bubbles around the swords ( dagger boards ) undermines the blockage on the lift in the water.

 

2.3 Energy for free and created in an all environmental friendly way. What to do with it?

 

These windsurf machines able us to manufacture and bring all kinds of manufactures to shore, like for instance hydrogen, stored in the cells in the fuselages. The fastest and also biggest wind ships ever, also able us to live, work and run our industries far away from home, just because over there is a lot of free energy! In fact, the never ending energy source is to be found in formally dangerous stormy oceans! In case of an, as hydrogen plant equipped, windsurf machine, the hydrogen is generated far from home and then brought home to run our business on land. The triviality of this kind of powerboat is that the boat can go home, by using a bit of its stock! Also the other kind of windsurf machines might use their wind made hydrogen, to propel themselves to shore. Vleugel-boom. Om de, SPAILBOAT, stabiel en gecontroleerd over het water te wind-surfen, met, als vlieger / kite een stevige vleugel. Er wordt over het water gevlogen, gewindsurft, gekitesurft, en het water schiet voorbij, terwijl het water toch gewoon, stilstaat. Snel stromend water kan gebruikt worden door schoepen aan turbines. Er gaan een turbine werken. Klaar. Het hele verdere gezwam gaat over niets anders dan snelheid, verkregen door, wind-surfen, in harde wind, op hoge korte windgolven.

 

Verder, als gevolg van de stabiliteit, is, de sterkte van de constructie, respectievelijk, het constructie-materiaal, maatgevend. En, via de stabiliteit, kan het gebeuren heel groot worden gemaakt. Anders dan labiele wiebelende wind gedreven apparaten, als gewone zeilboten en gewone moderne conventionele wind-turbines, hebben we hier te maken met, de benadering van, de uitlijning van de actie-kracht, -- vector F_actie – en de reactie-kracht, --vector F_reactie--. Dit houdt in, dat, het, zogenaamde kapseizende moment weg is / eruit is gehaald, zodat er stabiliteit rest. Nu werkt de lift direct op de reactie. En daar gaat het om.

 

Zo, het is tijd om deze, Spailboats, te gaan maken. Voor energie-opwekking. We kunnen dus straks, met mechanismen, storm gebruiken en hebben dan een energie-alternatief tegen olie, gas kolen en kern-energie, in de vorm van vloeibare waterstof, na eerst elektriciteit te hebben gehaald uit storm. Relaxaties in eerst de olie-productie, en daarna in de staal-productie volgen. De olie wordt nu gebruikt als high- bouwmateriaal en de energie in de vorm waterstof kan ook -installaties voeden, en zo bossen kweken, met bijvoorbeeld super goed hout, waardoor de staal fabrieken minder hoeven te leveren.

 

De olie - , staal - en hout wezens gaan samen werken en arbeiders uitwisselen. Er is immers een zelfde vraag naar producten, zodat olie en staal reorganiseren tot high- materialen fabrieken. De olie wordt nu dan gebruikt om auto's van te maken. Die auto's rijden op waterstof. Met spoilers, die uitgeslagen worden op de snelweg en intrekken in de stad, kunnen licht gewicht super autootjes door de spoilers op de weg worden gehouden, zodat er geen staal meer nodig is in auto's.

 

De technieken van de wind-, en, vlieger-surfers, resulteerden, via de halve windse gang over de evenaar, in een ring-lichaam; voor de benutting van harde wind. Deze uitvinding, een spinnende ring, is in principe een mechanische versie van een windsurfer die dan over een rail gaat die over de evenaar zou liggen. Een ring kan heel snel spinnen, tegen de geluidssnelheid aan. De wieken zijn kort, maar de ring blijft gelijk van diameter.

  

Resultaat benutting harde wind?((_&&%$##, voedsel, energie. Storm maakt van zeewater, water, en waterstof, en waterstof is water na verbranding. De ontwikkelingen van de apparaten voor storm zijn wellicht niet economisch verantwoord in bepaalde landen, terwijl de landen met veel wind ze wel degelijk zouden willen ontwikkelen! De gegadigden die en zouden kunnen maken, zouden dus over de landsgrenzen heen moeten kijken. Argentinië zou spekkoper zijn, als zij zouden spelen om de schier oneindige windenergie van de Vuureilanden om te zetten in elektriciteit en waterstof.

 

Het nieuwe uitgangspunt is, dat, het bijna altijd wel ergens stormt of, hard waait, op de globe. Voor Nederland geldt dan, dat het niet twee weken per jaar stormt, maar, globaal gezien, bijna elke dag!

 

Globaal bezien herbergen stormen belangrijke hoeveelheden energie. Het stormt immers vaak, globaal aanschouwd, en, het gaat nu globaal bezien eerst om de absolute levering van schone energie en de terug van vervuiling.

 

Windsurfen is de snelheid. Windsurfen en catamarans werden uitgevonden na, 1945, na, WOII, de tijd in de geschiedenis dat er vrije tijd was. Het motief was om van, A, naar, B, te gaan met, aanvankelijk, stenen. Piramide-bouw; onzin. We zijn Nomaden en we reizen in de rondte. Dat hele gedoe met die hekken om een stuk geclaimde grond leidde al onze problemen in. Fencing, schermen. Er is genoeg voor iedereen, indien men deelt in de weelde. Zonder hekken dus. Zeker na de uitvinding van de landbouw is er altijd voldoende voedsel geweest voor iedereen. Agricultuur kon worden uitgevonden door het brons en later het ijzer dat we konden maken. Fencing, schermen, leidde tot niets dan ellende. Ofwel moest de boerderij worden aangevallen, ofwel moest ze worden verdedigd. Vooruitgang noemen we dat. beschaving noemen we dat. Na een paar generaties waren de kunst van het jagen en leven met de natuur bij veel vol gevreten mensen verdwenen. Daarna kwamen er forten en zogenaamde hogere beschavingen. allemaal na duizend jaar weg. zo beschaafd is het dus niet die beschaving. Monopolistische bouwwerken om de suprematie te tonen. Wat is dat nu voor een motief? Er moet wat bij. Een slaaf om de [wan]toestand in evenwicht te houden. Boten met zeilen waren dus ook voor het in stand houden van dat gedoe: van, A, naar, B. De Egyptenaren zeilden helemaal naar, Zuid-Amerika, om daar de boel eens even goed leeg te roven. B. Om naar B te gaan werd er niet met de zee gezeild, maar tegen de zee. wind surfen en kite surfen zeilen met de zee. als de zee zegt, dit is de juiste koers, met de golven, dan is het zo. Alleen, als er gezeild [gesurfd] wordt met de golven, zoals, Orka's, en, Dolfijnen, doen na, het eten, dan blijft men globaal gezien op dezelfde plek. Geen, B, dus. Half-wind-koersen gaat haaks op de wind, en, na eindeloos heen en weer gaan zijn we nog steeds in, A. En dit, dient, volgens onze beschaafde regels, geen doel. Terug naar de rollende stammen onder de stenen. Het waren de slaven die dit ontdekten, want zij moesten immers de boel op sleeptouw nemen. Vanzelf ontstond uit de stam, het wiel, met een as. een as, zoals in een stoom machine, en nu in kern centrales, is dus via het verkeerde motief. Onze wind molens hebben dus een as, waarin de wieken gestoken zijn. We dachten immers zo. Een wiel heeft een as; gewoonte-recht. Maar, er kan maar een beperkt aantal wieken in een as, en, de as vliegt in de fik als het echt gaat waaien. Er is veel meer ruimte in een ring, om een groot aantal bladen in te steken. Eerder leerden de piramide- en de kerken-bouw dat, er stabiliteit moet zijn van evenwicht; eer men groot kon gaan bouwen. Een as met wieken is niet stabiel en dus kan er niet worden opgeschaald. Ringen, net als de assen, verdragen de wieken, en staan stijf van de spanningen, maar de lageringen -wielen met assen-stelsels of, maglev-systemen-, voelen daar niets van. De ophanging van de, E-rings, respectievelijk, de lageringen van de E-rings, worden door een centrische kracht benaderd. In plaats van een as, met wieken, is er nu een stelsel, met in elk stelsel een ring met assen die de ringen inhangen. Cyclonen kunnen worden benut. Industriële revolutie, smog, smog maakt de lucht dikker en broeit lekker. Warmer zeewater, meer wind. Wind, ook storm, respectievelijk, met name, storm, is de input voor, E-rings, en, mogelijk, zeer grote stabiele zeilboten, Spailboats, levert genoeg energie voor de making van waterstof uit zeewater. Stabiliteit in de energie-huishouding van de planeet. Geen roofbouw en geen vervuiling meer, maar, een sluitende begroting. Zeewater wordt zoet water. Vies water wordt schoon water. Energie kan water schoon maken, dus, is, het voedsel-probleem ( ook ) opgelost. Woestijnen kunnen worden bevloeid. Bijvoorbeeld Noord-Afrika heeft dan weer, Savanna's, zoals het daar vroeger was, voordat de Egyptenaren alles hadden vernietigd voor oa de piramides. Een normale uitvinding, hetgeen dan direct een vondst is, en helemaal geen uitvinding, Normaal doen gebeurt, eens per duizend jaar. Deze, E-ring, is zoiets. De energie van de vervuiling kan rechtstreeks terug worden gebruikt.

 

E = M C ^2 voor licht, Einstein. Kent iedereen. Massa in beweging is energie.

E = 1 / 2 M v^2 op aarde, van een massa. Zelfde strekking, massa in beweging is energie.

 

Energie is massa in beweging. Stoom-turbines lopen op stoom. Ook kern-energie is, nog steeds, een stoom-machine. Ongelooflijk, zo simpel. Echter, wind kan ook ronde dingen laten draaien. Eerder werd al herinnerd dat de naam, Wiel, staat voor ronde dingen. Een ring om een as, wordt vervolgens een velg genoemd. Die velg, de ring om de as, kan ook buitenom worden gelagerd, en dan is het wiel een ring geworden. Geen assen meer, met wieken direct eraan, maar ringen, die dan mogelijk rollen in assen, respectievelijk, wielen, met, assen. Wind is bewegende lucht en drijft massa voort via vleugels. De vleugels kunnen nu niet meer stuk omdat ze in een ring zitten. Ik vraag U met klem om U te verplaatsen naar, 400 jaar, geleden. Toen was er nood. Die nood is er nu ook. We hebben nu eenmaal water en energie nodig. Veel zeewater, ?moet?, zoet-, en, drinkbaar-, water worden. Simpel, omdat de zeewater-spiegel moet dalen en er zoet water nodig is in de woestijnen. Al met al kan men stellen dat er een meter van de zeespiegel af moet, en dat er zoet-water nodig is in de woestijnen. Kortom: de, moslims, krijgen water, en het, Westen, krijgt zijn zeespiegel-daling. Energie uit zeewater. Project omschrijving, E-ring:

 

Het ontwikkelen en, verwerken, van de stroom -, en magneet-werken, in de ring en in de mantel in het huis van de geteste configuratie, ten behoeve van de opwekking en levering van elektriciteit.

 

Doel: Ontwikkeling geteste mechanische, E-ring-configuratie, tot dynamo / turbine / stroom-generator.

 

Tweede doel, nadat eerste doel is bereikt: Productie van ten minste zoveel, E-rings, voor levering alle benodigde waterstof en elektriciteit.

 

Tot nu toe worden de frequent voorkomende stormen over het windrijke, Vuureiland, niet benut. De gangbare wind-turbines kunnen niet werken in storm. Vuureiland is van Argentinië en dat land zal dus veel hebben aan op storm lopende dynamo's. Het absoluut groot genoeg in de aanvoer van energie zijnde, Vuureiland, levert, mogelijk, genoeg elektriciteit en, waterstof, in vloeibare vorm. Storm doet windsurfen. Een windsurfer gaat het liefste naar de plek toe, waar het op dat moment stormt. Een uitloper van een cycloon, die nu nog onbenut voorbij gaat, of een restant van een cycloon, zou door windsurfers zo mogelijk worden benut. Voor alle windsurf-gebieden samen geldt dat er meer dan twee weken storm aanwezig is. Met, E-rings, kan een deel van alle aanwezige storm worden benut. De omzetting van wind naar een spinnende ring impliceert dat een deel van de storm kan worden omgezet in de kinetische energie van een lichaam. Dit geeft tot dusver het principe van een stevige wind gedreven super-dynamo aan. Krachten afhandelend, ofwel, constructief bezien, kan er een super-dynamo worden geconstrueerd. Het is een super dynamo, omdat de draai-snelheid evenredig aan de windsnelheid loopt. Zelfs in, 70 m/s, windsnelheid, kan er worden gedraaid. Het project gaat tot aan de uitvoering als dynamo. Aankleden succesvol geteste constructie tot dynamo is project.

Het energie-probleem en storm: Het energie-probleem is, naast een lokaal probleem, ook een globaal probleem. Het zou dus verstandig zijn om globaal op alle stormen te rekenen. De ontwikkeling van Spailcrafts is hierom in feite een globaal project.

Gobale problemen: De ontwikkelingen van de apparaten voor storm zijn wellicht niet economisch verantwoord in bepaalde landen, terwijl de landen met veel wind ze wel degelijk zouden willen ontwikkelen! De gegadigden die, E-rings, en, Spailcrafts, zouden kunnen maken, zouden dus over de landsgrenzen heen moeten kijken. Argentinië, zou spekkoper zijn, als zij, E-rings, en, Spailcrafts, zouden hebben, om de schier oneindige windenergie van, bijvoorbeeld, Vuureiland, Antarctica, en, Tasmanië, om te zetten in elektriciteit en waterstof. Het nieuwe uitgangspunt is dat het bijna altijd wel ergens stormt of hard waait op de globe. Voor Nederland geldt dan, dat het niet twee weken per jaar stormt, maar, globaal gezien, bijna elke dag! Globaal bezien herbergen stormen belangrijke hoeveelheden energie. Het stormt immers vaak, globaal aanschouwd, en, het gaat nu, globaal bezien, eerst, om de absolute levering van schone energie en, de terug-dringing van vervuiling. De door storm opgewekte elektriciteit drijft waterstof-plantages aan ten behoeve van de aanmaak van waterstof. De waterstof wordt dan vervolgens opgeslagen en vervoerd in tanks / containers. De productie van waterstof loopt nu consistent aan de hand van wind, nadat de de ring en de kraag om de ring in het huis zijn aangekleed als stroom generator / turbine / dynamo. Alle wind, die loopt vanaf lage windsnelheden tot de hoogste snelheden, 300 km / uur, als energiebron, is groot genoeg. En, de wind neemt alleen toe, door global warming. Tijd om de wind te oogsten.

Startpunt is gemaakt: Succesvol getest prototype om een bladen dragende ring te laten draaien in storm. De goederen om de wind te oogsten zijn getest met een werkend model. Het uitganspunt is een apparatus welke niet stuk kan in storm. Daarom behelst het project nu het maken van een dynamo om de ring. De spinning wordt met de pilot-versie aangetoond, niet het maken van elektriciteit uit de spinning. Het maken van een prototype, om aan te tonen dat de configuratie zou werken, was al triviaal omdat de berekeningen lieten zien dat de ring makkelijk zou gaan draaien. Mijn belangrijkste adviseur, Professor Marcel Donze, drong echter aan op de fabricage van een zichtbaar model, om daarmee aan te tonen dat de ring met de bladen kan draaien. Omdat de configuratie stabiel is, is de sterkte van het constructie-materiaal maatgevend. Het aantonen van de sterkte gebeurt vooralsnog alleen met berekeningen op mechanisch vlak.

  

Half-wind leidde tot E_rings. E_rings, voor storm, hebben ringen, in plaats van assen, waaraan de bladen hangen. E-rings en Spailboats zijn voor storm. Spailboats slaan niet om en E-rings laten de lagers koud. Dit, doordat de krachten-overbrenging eerst is genormaliseerd. Het geval kukelt niet meer omver. In water leidt stabiel zeilen tot hoge snelheden en hierdoor ontstonden, in water, wielen, om te rollen.

 

Als er dus harde wind, storm, aan de basis staat, dan ontstaan er wielen voor door water en ringen met wieken. Spailboat en later, in, 2008, E-rings, zijn gevolgen van de zoektocht om, zeilen als kites, op te houden. Spinnen op wind en, zeilen, kunnen dan zonder excentriciteit. Er is nu geen wriktie meer op de assen in wind-gebruikers en er wordt niet meer omgeslagen met zeilboten. Actie, is, gelijk, reactie. Storm is, de energie om van water veilige vloeibare waterstof te maken; ook nog eens in, `oneindige`, hoeveelheden. Er is alleen maar energie nodig om uit zeewater waterstof te maken. Vloeibare waterstof heeft een soortelijke massa van, 200 Kg / m^3. Een volle, Spailboat, is geen probleem.

Body Shaper

A well-circumscribed tuberculous lesion usually presenting as a "coin lesion" on chest X-ray . Usually a single nodule but may be more than one. The lesion seen here contains a small cavity.

The rotating ring drives the bearing wheels with hub dynamo's. These wheels are the bearings for the ring.

The blades -rotors- are at their ends mantled by a ring. The ring is born within wheels in the housing. Because turbo wind mills use high winds, this mantle piece can be placed at/near the ground, so that there is no significant vibrating occurring at the ends of the blades.

In order to use high winds, the blades have to be hold firmly in place, leaving only the opportunity open for the blades to turn, or to move, perpendicular on the winds direction with as a consequence that Pythagoras' law comes in as foundation to calculate the angle of attack in the blades and the value of vector, S: speed in the blades. Further on, one will see that windsurfing is done in the half wind sailing course and waves are swept by the wind, so that wave riding is falling with sailing half wind. Perfect.

High speed, directed perpendicular on the wind, leads also to the fact that a given sail area will be used optimally. And because cavitation, air bubbles around the swords, are restricting the windsurfers' speed, spailboat has wheels for swords. You, as reader, have to take it from here, because I can not force you to swallow dry food. Please, take one step at the time. To get started, you firstly need to understand that when a plate is placed flat -perpendicular- on the wind, there is maximum blockage of the wind by that plate. Next step. We imaginary move this plate with for instance 300 m/s in the direction flat on the wind. Now we'll see that the actual wind speed, S, that hits the blade is to be calculated by Pathagoras' law, S^2 =W^2+V^2, in where, V, is the speed of the blade perpendicular on the winds' direction and W is the wind speed. If now the original wind speed is very low, say, 1 m/s, than we might as well assume that the actual wind speed that hits the blade is still 300 m/s. In other words, when an almost flat on the wind positioned blade is moving with very high speed, perpendicular on the original wind's direction, then the actual wind speed that hits the blades, comes almost from the front. A blade end of a windmill moves faster than that blade does near the center, so that blade ends are almost positioned flat on the wind. The same counts for windsurf sails, although the sails are hold almost flat on the wind, the actual wind flow that hits the sails is coming more or less from the front. This means that we want high speed, in order to get maximum conversion of a given sail area. High speed implies high lift forces, and therefore we need stable and strong configurations that hold the blades.

I worked on stable sailing machines for twenty years now, because the capsizing and the catapulting with my catamaran scared the ........ out off me. Oh, I sailed from six years old, and won in 1988 the second biggest cat race in the world, together with my nephew, Ruud Goudriaan, who still is a class-A cat sailor. I went to college, and later to the technical university in Delft, and therefore I sold my cat, but continued windsurfing on cheap gear. However, windsurfing on old wave boards with old gear is still going much faster than the fastest cat. I kept on wondering why and when I figured it out [in 1994], I started to create a mechanically operated windsurf boat.

Sailing and windsurfing are very much like music, a well written song can be played live on stage over and over again, and every time this song improves itself. I can only ensure you, that the windsurf formula is an outstanding song, in the way to speak. Everything comes together, with as result that the windy circumstances on earth are perfect to use sails, wings, for making axles spin, as well on the oceans, by means of windsurfing -a combination of surfing and sailing stable half wind-, as on land, by means of using turbo windmills.

The only limitations in using the high winds are now caused by preoccupation of the existing economy. For instance, the car industries, the airplane industries, wind turbine industries, sailing boats industries, et cetera, keep our engineers in hostage. If we only could stop the production and the developing of the car making, airplane making et cetera, for just one week, and bring this way all the engineers to one imaginary table then the formula of windsurfing is understood. Once the leading engineers understand the windsurf formula, then the building of the prototypes is a year away. Some floors of the car industries and the airplanes industries can make room for new production lines.

And to make an even bigger example. When the second world war broke out, suddenly all floors of the car industries and airplane industries were making room for the production of tanks, jeeps, fighter planes, bombers et cetera. So, it is just a matter of priorities.

By now, saving this planet is priority number one, and still all industries and all governments around the world do not see the windsurf formula. Even a child can see that windsurfing is sensational. Just look at windsurfing from above. The waves make pipelines, and the only safe course in high winds falls parrallel with them. These pipelines lay, notably per definition, perpendicular on the wind's direction and windsurfing is always done half wind, so that the windsurfers automatically go as fast as possible and have a relatively safe ride between the waves. All in all, the windsurf formula implies that a given sail area is optimally used, that the waves are helping in making speed, that the half wind course is always leading to gliding along with the waves, that windsurfing is therefore relatively safe, that a stable configuration is the condition to make big structures, so that former dangerous windy circumstances at open ocean are just perfect to move a significant amount of mass with high speed. The kinetic energy is measured by the formula: 1/2 times the mass of the composition times the square of the speed. This world is dying for energy. So, please, understand the windsurf formula and please make Spailboats for over water, and turbo wind mills for on land.

I mean, did you ever see a professor, 60 years old, windsurfing on large waves with 10 bft at open sea? No, that is the problem. These kind of persons rule the world.

Just go on the Internet, and see for yourself that the formula, for calculating the maximum sailing speed, is still only counting for non flying sailing boats. This means that they assume that the hull is still always dragging through water. For the cavitation speed they still assume always that a sword is not moving with respect to the hull. In Spailboats, on the other hand, the water cutting part of a sword does move along with respect to the hull, so that the speed of the hull and the speed of through water dragging sword have two different values. Here in Holland at the university of Delft, a leading professor -who works on his own sailing boat, off course-, once told me in person that no matter what kind of sailing boat, or windsurfer, could ever over top the 100km/hr barrier, because of cavitation around the swords. I came to him, ot one of those appointments, to inform him about the new rigging, so that spailboats are almost flying above the water and to inform him about the reason -to overcome cavitation around the water cutting profile of the sword wheels- for using circle shaped spinning swords. So, I walked through his door, showed him my work, and in stead letting me talk about my work, he did not look at my work at all. He talked for half an hour, and by the time he finished, I wanted to reply, but then he said, your time is up, leave, please. I have tried to make another appointment, but in vain. A few months later, he had a full page in one of Holland's main newspapers, the Saturday edition, in where he presented his own sailing boat. The public was misled. This sailing boat was so-called state of the art, but, it did not fly, it did still capsize, it could not operate in high seas, people, it was a worthless piece of ....... . So, I came in, and he asked, what did you study,? I said: civil engineering, and that answer was apparently wrong, because he worked at the aircraft and space department. Pyramids, remember, people, we still build them. The only thing that matters, is that I am a good sailor and windsurfer , and that I made windsurf robot. Even if I did not have any masters degree at the technical university at all, he should have asked me what my work was, and not what my title was. This story goes on, because before I talked to him, the boss so to speak, I had several meetings with his students and they were impressed. But at the moment they found out that I was working outside the university they boycotted me, right away. I had to give earlier given nice 3D pictures of wings back, and also my usb stick with several drawings had to be erased. Since then I am not welcome anymore. My own professor, Marcel Donze, then always brings calm to me, with this: Who would be the worst enemy of the Pope? Jesus Christ. No rank and bare footed, and closer to God as him.

It is therefore that these two new inventions fall under: the environmental revolution.

We, the hard working people, can easily see that windsurfers go faster than the good old sailing boats. And still, billions and billions are spend on sailing boats for the happy few, like the rich men's toys for the Volvo Ocean Race, America's cup, the immense yachts et cetera. The same thing counts for the swallowing up of our best engineers for the car industries, formula 1 racing, jet fighter plane making et cetera.

 

If only the engineers and the people who rule the world want to save this planet, then the prototypes of the turbo windmills and the spailboats will be operating within a year.

 

In the past seven years I really tried endlessly to talk with professors around the world. They are just not at home. On the phone it goes like this. Who are you? What did you study, and I say, civil engineering. Oh, that has nothing to do with planes and/or mills, we are not interested.

 

Off course, I do not talk like them, every error in the conversation means the final cut of the conversation and once such a door is closed, it never opens again.

 

So, you as reader will never read or hear about windsurf machines and turbo windmills, which can save the planet, other than in this slide show.

 

I was a good cat sailor and a good windsurfer in the eighties. From childhood on I was at sea. Above that fact, I was born in Zaandam, the place where a cluster of windmills is stacked in an open air museum. I had the kite surfing formula on the drawing board, long before it took off, because the kites are hold just the same as windsurf sails are hold, only now on wires and further away from the board. In fact, I actually kite surfed on a small wooden plank on the beach in the eighties of the past century when I was ten years old. My nephews tried it, but were to heavy, and logically, I had to try. And it worked. Kite surfing is nothing more than using a big kite to move yourself. So, who do you want to believe, me, or the universities?

 

Get úp, stand up, get up for your right. Bob Marley. He believed that music unites all people one day. Wind sounds like music, doesn't it? No more nuclear power, no more burning fossil fuels.

 

Turbo windmill, or Jet Wind Mill [JWM] / JWM is a nephew, resp. spin off, of Spailboat, the stable sailing Speed Sail Craft.

 

Stability: only when stability is firstly established, then a structure might be built tall. A sailing boat might be made endlessly strong, still, it capsizes, so that it is useless to make endlessly strong masts. A Spailboat however is stable, and therefore a Spailboat can be made big, very big, as big oceanliners, with 100 meter long masts. This is part of the windsurf formula. And remember, mass in motion implies the kinetic energy.

 

We need energy. For making fresh drinking water, for irrigation, for making electricity, making hydrogen, for moving cars, trains, planes and so on.

 

The windsurf formula is here, for everyone to use in the world, because I dropped my patents. It is free, for you, Africa, Asia, America, Europe, the south pacific continents and islands. Just have a look and run this show a few times. It is like the wheel itself, it is normal, revolutionary and it will change the world. No nuclear power is needed any longer, just usage of high winds and swell on the oceans. And the turbo windmill is spin off, because these blades are in fact circular moving steady in positioned hold sails.blades, plates and/or wings, 6.

Here, hundreds of researchers, businesses and progressive home- owners will be living and working side-by-side, along with great food, drink and entertainment venues. A collection of stunning public spaces for everyone, of all ages, to use.

Everyone here is united by one purpose: to help families, communities and cities around the world to live healthier, longer, smarter and easier lives. In short, to live better. In the process, our businesses will continue to grow, employ more local people and help ensure Newcastle excels.

 

Newcastle University (legally the University of Newcastle upon Tyne) is a public research university based in Newcastle upon Tyne, North East England. It has overseas campuses in Singapore and Malaysia. The university is a red brick university and a member of the Russell Group, an association of research-intensive UK universities.

 

The university finds its roots in the School of Medicine and Surgery (later the College of Medicine), established in 1834, and the College of Physical Science (later renamed Armstrong College), founded in 1871. These two colleges came to form the larger division of the federal University of Durham, with the Durham Colleges forming the other. The Newcastle colleges merged to form King's College in 1937. In 1963, following an Act of Parliament, King's College became the University of Newcastle upon Tyne.

 

The university subdivides into three faculties: the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences; the Faculty of Medical Sciences; and the Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering. The university offers around 175 full-time undergraduate degree programmes in a wide range of subject areas spanning arts, sciences, engineering and medicine, together with approximately 340 postgraduate taught and research programmes across a range of disciplines.[6] The annual income of the institution for 2022–23 was £592.4 million of which £119.3 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £558 million.

 

History

Durham University § Colleges in Newcastle

The establishment of a university in Newcastle upon Tyne was first proposed in 1831 by Thomas Greenhow in a lecture to the Literary and Philosophical Society. In 1832 a group of local medics – physicians George Fife (teaching materia medica and therapeutics) and Samuel Knott (teaching theory and practice of medicine), and surgeons John Fife (teaching surgery), Alexander Fraser (teaching anatomy and physiology) and Henry Glassford Potter (teaching chemistry) – started offering medical lectures in Bell's Court to supplement the apprenticeship system (a fourth surgeon, Duncan McAllum, is mentioned by some sources among the founders, but was not included in the prospectus). The first session started on 1 October 1832 with eight or nine students, including John Snow, then apprenticed to a local surgeon-apothecary, the opening lecture being delivered by John Fife. In 1834 the lectures and practical demonstrations moved to the Hall of the Company of Barber Surgeons to accommodate the growing number of students, and the School of Medicine and Surgery was formally established on 1 October 1834.

 

On 25 June 1851, following a dispute among the teaching staff, the school was formally dissolved and the lecturers split into two rival institutions. The majority formed the Newcastle College of Medicine, and the others established themselves as the Newcastle upon Tyne College of Medicine and Practical Science with competing lecture courses. In July 1851 the majority college was recognised by the Society of Apothecaries and in October by the Royal College of Surgeons of England and in January 1852 was approved by the University of London to submit its students for London medical degree examinations. Later in 1852, the majority college was formally linked to the University of Durham, becoming the "Newcastle-upon-Tyne College of Medicine in connection with the University of Durham". The college awarded its first 'Licence in Medicine' (LicMed) under the auspices of the University of Durham in 1856, with external examiners from Oxford and London, becoming the first medical examining body on the United Kingdom to institute practical examinations alongside written and viva voce examinations. The two colleges amalgamated in 1857, with the first session of the unified college opening on 3 October that year. In 1861 the degree of Master of Surgery was introduced, allowing for the double qualification of Licence of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, along with the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Doctor of Medicine, both of which required residence in Durham. In 1870 the college was brought into closer connection with the university, becoming the "Durham University College of Medicine" with the Reader in Medicine becoming the Professor of Medicine, the college gaining a representative on the university's senate, and residence at the college henceforth counting as residence in the university towards degrees in medicine and surgery, removing the need for students to spend a period of residence in Durham before they could receive the higher degrees.

 

Attempts to realise a place for the teaching of sciences in the city were finally met with the foundation of the College of Physical Science in 1871. The college offered instruction in mathematics, physics, chemistry and geology to meet the growing needs of the mining industry, becoming the "Durham College of Physical Science" in 1883 and then renamed after William George Armstrong as Armstrong College in 1904. Both of these institutions were part of the University of Durham, which became a federal university under the Durham University Act 1908 with two divisions in Durham and Newcastle. By 1908, the Newcastle division was teaching a full range of subjects in the Faculties of Medicine, Arts, and Science, which also included agriculture and engineering.

 

Throughout the early 20th century, the medical and science colleges outpaced the growth of their Durham counterparts. Following tensions between the two Newcastle colleges in the early 1930s, a Royal Commission in 1934 recommended the merger of the two colleges to form "King's College, Durham"; that was effected by the Durham University Act 1937. Further growth of both division of the federal university led to tensions within the structure and a feeling that it was too large to manage as a single body. On 1 August 1963 the Universities of Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne Act 1963 separated the two thus creating the "University of Newcastle upon Tyne". As the successor of King's College, Durham, the university at its founding in 1963, adopted the coat of arms originally granted to the Council of King's College in 1937.

 

Above the portico of the Students' Union building are bas-relief carvings of the arms and mottoes of the University of Durham, Armstrong College and Durham University College of Medicine, the predecessor parts of Newcastle University. While a Latin motto, mens agitat molem (mind moves matter) appears in the Students' Union building, the university itself does not have an official motto.

 

Campus and location

The university occupies a campus site close to Haymarket in central Newcastle upon Tyne. It is located to the northwest of the city centre between the open spaces of Leazes Park and the Town Moor; the university medical school and Royal Victoria Infirmary are adjacent to the west.

 

The Armstrong building is the oldest building on the campus and is the site of the original Armstrong College. The building was constructed in three stages; the north east wing was completed first at a cost of £18,000 and opened by Princess Louise on 5 November 1888. The south-east wing, which includes the Jubilee Tower, and south-west wings were opened in 1894. The Jubilee Tower was built with surplus funds raised from an Exhibition to mark Queen Victoria's Jubilee in 1887. The north-west front, forming the main entrance, was completed in 1906 and features two stone figures to represent science and the arts. Much of the later construction work was financed by Sir Isaac Lowthian Bell, the metallurgist and former Lord Mayor of Newcastle, after whom the main tower is named. In 1906 it was opened by King Edward VII.

 

The building contains the King's Hall, which serves as the university's chief hall for ceremonial purposes where Congregation ceremonies are held. It can contain 500 seats. King Edward VII gave permission to call the Great Hall, King's Hall. During the First World War, the building was requisitioned by the War Office to create the first Northern General Hospital, a facility for the Royal Army Medical Corps to treat military casualties. Graduation photographs are often taken in the University Quadrangle, next to the Armstrong building. In 1949 the Quadrangle was turned into a formal garden in memory of members of Newcastle University who gave their lives in the two World Wars. In 2017, a statue of Martin Luther King Jr. was erected in the inner courtyard of the Armstrong Building, to celebrate the 50th anniversary of his honorary degree from the university.

 

The Bruce Building is a former brewery, constructed between 1896 and 1900 on the site of the Hotspur Hotel, and designed by the architect Joseph Oswald as the new premises of Newcastle Breweries Limited. The university occupied the building from the 1950s, but, having been empty for some time, the building was refurbished in 2016 to become residential and office space.

 

The Devonshire Building, opened in 2004, incorporates in an energy efficient design. It uses photovoltaic cells to help to power motorised shades that control the temperature of the building and geothermal heating coils. Its architects won awards in the Hadrian awards and the RICS Building of the Year Award 2004. The university won a Green Gown award for its construction.

 

Plans for additions and improvements to the campus were made public in March 2008 and completed in 2010 at a cost of £200 million. They included a redevelopment of the south-east (Haymarket) façade with a five-storey King's Gate administration building as well as new student accommodation. Two additional buildings for the school of medicine were also built. September 2012 saw the completion of the new buildings and facilities for INTO Newcastle University on the university campus. The main building provides 18 new teaching rooms, a Learning Resource Centre, a lecture theatre, science lab, administrative and academic offices and restaurant.

 

The Philip Robinson Library is the main university library and is named after a bookseller in the city and benefactor to the library. The Walton Library specialises in services for the Faculty of Medical Sciences in the Medical School. It is named after Lord Walton of Detchant, former Dean of the Faculty of Medicine and Professor of Neurology. The library has a relationship with the Northern region of the NHS allowing their staff to use the library for research and study. The Law Library specialises in resources relating to law, and the Marjorie Robinson Library Rooms offers additional study spaces and computers. Together, these house over one million books and 500,000 electronic resources. Some schools within the university, such as the School of Modern Languages, also have their own smaller libraries with smaller highly specialised collections.

 

In addition to the city centre campus there are buildings such as the Dove Marine Laboratory located on Cullercoats Bay, and Cockle Park Farm in Northumberland.

 

International

In September 2008, the university's first overseas branch was opened in Singapore, a Marine International campus called, NUMI Singapore. This later expanded beyond marine subjects and became Newcastle University Singapore, largely through becoming an Overseas University Partner of Singapore Institute of Technology.

 

In 2011, the university's Medical School opened an international branch campus in Iskandar Puteri, Johor, Malaysia, namely Newcastle University Medicine Malaysia.

 

Student accommodation

Newcastle University has many catered and non-catered halls of residence available to first-year students, located around the city of Newcastle. Popular Newcastle areas for private student houses and flats off campus include Jesmond, Heaton, Sandyford, Shieldfield, South Shields and Spital Tongues.

 

Henderson Hall was used as a hall of residence until a fire destroyed it in 2023.

 

St Mary's College in Fenham, one of the halls of residence, was formerly St Mary's College of Education, a teacher training college.

 

Organisation and governance

The current Chancellor is the British poet and artist Imtiaz Dharker. She assumed the position of Chancellor on 1 January 2020. The vice-chancellor is Chris Day, a hepatologist and former pro-vice-chancellor of the Faculty of Medical Sciences.

 

The university has an enrolment of some 16,000 undergraduate and 5,600 postgraduate students. Teaching and research are delivered in 19 academic schools, 13 research institutes and 38 research centres, spread across three Faculties: the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences; the Faculty of Medical Sciences; and the Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering. The university offers around 175 full-time undergraduate degree programmes in a wide range of subject areas spanning arts, sciences, engineering and medicine, together with approximately 340 postgraduate taught and research programmes across a range of disciplines.

 

It holds a series of public lectures called 'Insights' each year in the Curtis Auditorium in the Herschel Building. Many of the university's partnerships with companies, like Red Hat, are housed in the Herschel Annex.

 

Chancellors and vice-chancellors

For heads of the predecessor colleges, see Colleges of Durham University § Colleges in Newcastle.

Chancellors

Hugh Percy, 10th Duke of Northumberland (1963–1988)

Matthew White Ridley, 4th Viscount Ridley (1988–1999)

Chris Patten (1999–2009)

Liam Donaldson (2009–2019)

Imtiaz Dharker (2020–)

Vice-chancellors

Charles Bosanquet (1963–1968)

Henry Miller (1968–1976)

Ewan Stafford Page (1976–1978, acting)

Laurence Martin (1978–1990)

Duncan Murchison (1991, acting)

James Wright (1992–2000)

Christopher Edwards (2001–2007)

Chris Brink (2007–2016)

Chris Day (2017–present)

Civic responsibility

 

The university Quadrangle

The university describes itself as a civic university, with a role to play in society by bringing its research to bear on issues faced by communities (local, national or international).

 

In 2012, the university opened the Newcastle Institute for Social Renewal to address issues of social and economic change, representing the research-led academic schools across the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences[45] and the Business School.

 

Mark Shucksmith was Director of the Newcastle Institute for Social Renewal (NISR) at Newcastle University, where he is also Professor of Planning.

 

In 2006, the university was granted fair trade status and from January 2007 it became a smoke-free campus.

 

The university has also been actively involved with several of the region's museums for many years. The Great North Museum: Hancock originally opened in 1884 and is often a venue for the university's events programme.

 

Faculties and schools

Teaching schools within the university are based within three faculties. Each faculty is led by a Provost/Pro-vice-chancellor and a team of Deans with specific responsibilities.

 

Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences

School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape

School of Arts and Cultures

Newcastle University Business School

Combined Honours Centre

School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences

School of English Literature, Language and Linguistics

School of Geography, Politics and Sociology

School of History, Classics and Archaeology

Newcastle Law School

School of Modern Languages

Faculty of Medical Sciences

School of Biomedical Sciences

School of Dental Sciences

School of Medical Education

School of Pharmacy

School of Psychology

Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology (CBCB)

Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering

School of Computing

School of Engineering

School of Mathematics, Statistics and Physics

School of Natural and Environmental Sciences

Business School

 

Newcastle University Business School

As early as the 1900/1 academic year, there was teaching in economics (political economy, as it was then known) at Newcastle, making Economics the oldest department in the School. The Economics Department is currently headed by the Sir David Dale Chair. Among the eminent economists having served in the Department (both as holders of the Sir David Dale Chair) are Harry Mainwaring Hallsworth and Stanley Dennison.

 

Newcastle University Business School is a triple accredited business school, with accreditation by the three major accreditation bodies: AACSB, AMBA and EQUIS.

 

In 2002, Newcastle University Business School established the Business Accounting and Finance or 'Flying Start' degree in association with the ICAEW and PricewaterhouseCoopers. The course offers an accelerated route towards the ACA Chartered Accountancy qualification and is the Business School's Flagship programme.

 

In 2011 the business school opened their new building built on the former Scottish and Newcastle brewery site next to St James' Park. This building was officially opened on 19 March 2012 by Lord Burns.

 

The business school operated a central London campus from 2014 to 2021, in partnership with INTO University Partnerships until 2020.

 

Medical School

The BMC Medicine journal reported in 2008 that medical graduates from Oxford, Cambridge and Newcastle performed better in postgraduate tests than any other medical school in the UK.

 

In 2008 the Medical School announced that they were expanding their campus to Malaysia.

 

The Royal Victoria Infirmary has always had close links with the Faculty of Medical Sciences as a major teaching hospital.

 

School of Modern Languages

The School of Modern Languages consists of five sections: East Asian (which includes Japanese and Chinese); French; German; Spanish, Portuguese & Latin American Studies; and Translating & Interpreting Studies. Six languages are taught from beginner's level to full degree level ‒ Chinese, Japanese, French, German, Spanish and Portuguese ‒ and beginner's courses in Catalan, Dutch, Italian and Quechua are also available. Beyond the learning of the languages themselves, Newcastle also places a great deal of emphasis on study and experience of the cultures of the countries where the languages taught are spoken. The School of Modern Languages hosts North East England's only branches of two internationally important institutes: the Camões Institute, a language institute for Portuguese, and the Confucius Institute, a language and cultural institute for Chinese.

 

The teaching of modern foreign languages at Newcastle predates the creation of Newcastle University itself, as in 1911 Armstrong College in Newcastle installed Albert George Latham, its first professor of modern languages.

 

The School of Modern Languages at Newcastle is the lead institution in the North East Routes into Languages Consortium and, together with the Durham University, Northumbria University, the University of Sunderland, the Teesside University and a network of schools, undertakes work activities of discovery of languages for the 9 to 13 years pupils. This implies having festivals, Q&A sessions, language tasters, or quizzes organised, as well as a web learning work aiming at constructing a web portal to link language learners across the region.

 

Newcastle Law School

Newcastle Law School is the longest established law school in the north-east of England when law was taught at the university's predecessor college before it became independent from Durham University. It has a number of recognised international and national experts in a variety of areas of legal scholarship ranging from Common and Chancery law, to International and European law, as well as contextual, socio-legal and theoretical legal studies.

 

The Law School occupies four specially adapted late-Victorian town houses. The Staff Offices, the Alumni Lecture Theatre and seminar rooms as well as the Law Library are all located within the School buildings.

 

School of Computing

The School of Computing was ranked in the Times Higher Education world Top 100. Research areas include Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) and ubiquitous computing, secure and resilient systems, synthetic biology, scalable computing (high performance systems, data science, machine learning and data visualization), and advanced modelling. The school led the formation of the National Innovation Centre for Data. Innovative teaching in the School was recognised in 2017 with the award of a National Teaching Fellowship.

 

Cavitation tunnel

Newcastle University has the second largest cavitation tunnel in the UK. Founded in 1950, and based in the Marine Science and Technology Department, the Emerson Cavitation Tunnel is used as a test basin for propellers, water turbines, underwater coatings and interaction of propellers with ice. The Emerson Cavitation Tunnel was recently relocated to a new facility in Blyth.

 

Museums and galleries

The university is associated with a number of the region's museums and galleries, including the Great North Museum project, which is primarily based at the world-renowned Hancock Museum. The Great North Museum: Hancock also contains the collections from two of the university's former museums, the Shefton Museum and the Museum of Antiquities, both now closed. The university's Hatton Gallery is also a part of the Great North Museum project, and remains within the Fine Art Building.

 

Academic profile

Reputation and rankings

Rankings

National rankings

Complete (2024)30

Guardian (2024)67

Times / Sunday Times (2024)37

Global rankings

ARWU (2023)201–300

QS (2024)110

THE (2024)168=

 

Newcastle University's national league table performance over the past ten years

The university is a member of the Russell Group of the UK's research-intensive universities. It is ranked in the top 200 of most world rankings, and in the top 40 of most UK rankings. As of 2023, it is ranked 110th globally by QS, 292nd by Leiden, 139th by Times Higher Education and 201st–300th by the Academic Ranking of World Universities. Nationally, it is ranked joint 33rd by the Times/Sunday Times Good University Guide, 30th by the Complete University Guide[68] and joint 63rd by the Guardian.

 

Admissions

UCAS Admission Statistics 20222021202020192018

Application 33,73532,40034,55031,96533,785

Accepte 6,7556,2556,5806,4456,465

Applications/Accepted Ratio 5.05.25.35.05.2

Offer Rate (%78.178.080.279.280.0)

Average Entry Tariff—151148144152

Main scheme applications, International and UK

UK domiciled applicants

HESA Student Body Composition

In terms of average UCAS points of entrants, Newcastle ranked joint 19th in Britain in 2014. In 2015, the university gave offers of admission to 92.1% of its applicants, the highest amongst the Russell Group.

 

25.1% of Newcastle's undergraduates are privately educated, the thirteenth highest proportion amongst mainstream British universities. In the 2016–17 academic year, the university had a domicile breakdown of 74:5:21 of UK:EU:non-EU students respectively with a female to male ratio of 51:49.

 

Research

Newcastle is a member of the Russell Group of 24 research-intensive universities. In the 2021 Research Excellence Framework (REF), which assesses the quality of research in UK higher education institutions, Newcastle is ranked joint 33rd by GPA (along with the University of Strathclyde and the University of Sussex) and 15th for research power (the grade point average score of a university, multiplied by the full-time equivalent number of researchers submitted).

 

Student life

Newcastle University Students' Union (NUSU), known as the Union Society until a 2012 rebranding, includes student-run sports clubs and societies.

 

The Union building was built in 1924 following a generous gift from an anonymous donor, who is now believed to have been Sir Cecil Cochrane, a major benefactor to the university.[87] It is built in the neo-Jacobean style and was designed by the local architect Robert Burns Dick. It was opened on 22 October 1925 by the Rt. Hon. Lord Eustace Percy, who later served as Rector of King's College from 1937 to 1952. It is a Grade II listed building. In 2010 the university donated £8 million towards a redevelopment project for the Union Building.

 

The Students' Union is run by seven paid sabbatical officers, including a Welfare and Equality Officer, and ten part-time unpaid officer positions. The former leader of the Liberal Democrats Tim Farron was President of NUSU in 1991–1992. The Students' Union also employs around 300 people in ancillary roles including bar staff and entertainment organisers.

 

The Courier is a weekly student newspaper. Established in 1948, the current weekly readership is around 12,000, most of whom are students at the university. The Courier has won The Guardian's Student Publication of the Year award twice in a row, in 2012 and 2013. It is published every Monday during term time.

 

Newcastle Student Radio is a student radio station based in the university. It produces shows on music, news, talk and sport and aims to cater for a wide range of musical tastes.

 

NUTV, known as TCTV from 2010 to 2017, is student television channel, first established in 2007. It produces live and on-demand content with coverage of events, as well as student-made programmes and shows.

 

Student exchange

Newcastle University has signed over 100 agreements with foreign universities allowing for student exchange to take place reciprocally.

 

Sport

Newcastle is one of the leading universities for sport in the UK and is consistently ranked within the top 12 out of 152 higher education institutions in the British Universities and Colleges Sport (BUCS) rankings. More than 50 student-led sports clubs are supported through a team of professional staff and a network of indoor and outdoor sports facilities based over four sites. The university have a strong rugby history and were the winners of the Northumberland Senior Cup in 1965.

 

The university enjoys a friendly sporting rivalry with local universities. The Stan Calvert Cup was held between 1994 and 2018 by major sports teams from Newcastle and Northumbria University. The Boat Race of the North has also taken place between the rowing clubs of Newcastle and Durham University.

 

As of 2023, Newcastle University F.C. compete in men's senior football in the Northern League Division Two.

 

The university's Cochrane Park sports facility was a training venue for the teams playing football games at St James' Park for the 2012 London Olympics.

 

A

Ali Mohamed Shein, 7th President of Zanzibar

Richard Adams - fairtrade businessman

Kate Adie - journalist

Yasmin Ahmad - Malaysian film director, writer and scriptwriter

Prince Adewale Aladesanmi - Nigerian prince and businessman

Jane Alexander - Bishop

Theodosios Alexander (BSc Marine Engineering 1981) - Dean, Parks College of Engineering, Aviation and Technology of Saint Louis University

William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong - industrialist; in 1871 founded College of Physical Science, an early part of the University

Roy Ascott - new media artist

Dennis Assanis - President, University of Delaware

Neil Astley - publisher, editor and writer

Rodney Atkinson - eurosceptic conservative academic

Rowan Atkinson - comedian and actor

Kane Avellano - Guinness World Record for youngest person to circumnavigate the world by motorcycle (solo and unsupported) at the age of 23 in 2017

B

Bruce Babbitt - U.S. politician; 16th Governor of Arizona (1978–1987); 47th United States Secretary of the Interior (1993–2001); Democrat

James Baddiley - biochemist, based at Newcastle University 1954–1983; the Baddiley-Clark building is named in part after him

Tunde Baiyewu - member of the Lighthouse Family

John C. A. Barrett - clergyman

G. W. S. Barrow - historian

Neil Bartlett - chemist, creation of the first noble gas compounds (BSc and PhD at King's College, University of Durham, later Newcastle University)

Sue Beardsmore - television presenter

Alan Beith - politician

Jean Benedetti - biographer, translator, director and dramatist

Phil Bennion - politician

Catherine Bertola - contemporary painter

Simon Best - Captain of the Ulster Rugby team; Prop for the Ireland Team

Andy Bird - CEO of Disney International

Rory Jonathan Courtenay Boyle, Viscount Dungarvan - heir apparent to the earldom of Cork

David Bradley - science writer

Mike Brearley - professional cricketer, formerly a lecturer in philosophy at the university (1968–1971)

Constance Briscoe - one of the first black women to sit as a judge in the UK; author of the best-selling autobiography Ugly; found guilty in May 2014 on three charges of attempting to pervert the course of justice; jailed for 16 months

Steve Brooks - entomologist; attained BSc in Zoology and MSc in Public Health Engineering from Newcastle University in 1976 and 1977 respectively

Thom Brooks - academic, columnist

Gavin Brown - academic

Vicki Bruce - psychologist

Basil Bunting - poet; Northern Arts Poetry Fellow at Newcastle University (1968–70); honorary DLitt in 1971

John Burgan - documentary filmmaker

Mark Burgess - computer scientist

Sir John Burn - Professor of Clinical Genetics at Newcastle University Medical School; Medical Director and Head of the Institute of Genetics; Newcastle Medical School alumnus

William Lawrence Burn - historian and lawyer, history chair at King's College, Newcastle (1944–66)

John Harrison Burnett - botanist, chair of Botany at King's College, Newcastle (1960–68)

C.

Richard Caddel - poet

Ann Cairns - President of International Markets for MasterCard

Deborah Cameron - linguist

Stuart Cameron - lecturer

John Ashton Cannon - historian; Professor of Modern History; Head of Department of History from 1976 until his appointment as Dean of the Faculty of Arts in 1979; Pro-Vice-Chancellor 1983–1986

Ian Carr - musician

Jimmy Cartmell - rugby player, Newcastle Falcons

Steve Chapman - Principal and Vice-Chancellor of Heriot-Watt University

Dion Chen - Hong Kong educator, principal of Ying Wa College and former principal of YMCA of Hong Kong Christian College

Hsing Chia-hui - author

Ashraf Choudhary - scientist

Chua Chor Teck - Managing Director of Keppel Group

Jennifer A. Clack - palaeontologist

George Clarke - architect

Carol Clewlow - novelist

Brian Clouston - landscape architect

Ed Coode - Olympic gold medallist

John Coulson - chemical engineering academic

Caroline Cox, Baroness Cox - cross-bench member of the British House of Lords

Nicola Curtin – Professor of Experimental Cancer Therapeutics

Pippa Crerar - Political Editor of the Daily Mirror

D

Fred D'Aguiar - author

Julia Darling - poet, playwright, novelist, MA in Creative Writing

Simin Davoudi - academic

Richard Dawson - civil engineering academic and member of the UK Committee on Climate Change

Tom Dening - medical academic and researcher

Katie Doherty - singer-songwriter

Nowell Donovan - vice-chancellor for academic affairs and Provost of Texas Christian University

Catherine Douglas - Ig Nobel Prize winner for Veterinary Medicine

Annabel Dover - artist, studied fine art 1994–1998

Alexander Downer - Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (1996–2007)

Chloë Duckworth - archaeologist and presenter

Chris Duffield - Town Clerk and Chief Executive of the City of London Corporation

E

Michael Earl - academic

Tom English - drummer, Maxïmo Park

Princess Eugenie - member of the British royal family. Eugenie is a niece of King Charles III and a granddaughter of Queen Elizabeth II. She began studying at Newcastle University in September 2009, graduating in 2012 with a 2:1 degree in English Literature and History of Art.

F

U. A. Fanthorpe - poet

Frank Farmer - medical physicist; professor of medical physics at Newcastle University in 1966

Terry Farrell - architect

Tim Farron - former Liberal Democrat leader and MP for Westmorland and Lonsdale

Ian Fells - professor

Andy Fenby - rugby player

Bryan Ferry - singer, songwriter and musician, member of Roxy Music and solo artist; studied fine art

E. J. Field - neuroscientist, director of the university's Demyelinating Disease Unit

John Niemeyer Findlay - philosopher

John Fitzgerald - computer scientist

Vicky Forster - cancer researcher

Maximimlian (Max) Fosh- YouTuber and independent candidate in the 2021 London mayoral election.

Rose Frain - artist

G

Hugh Grosvenor, 7th Duke of Westminster - aristocrat, billionaire, businessman and landowner

Peter Gibbs - television weather presenter

Ken Goodall - rugby player

Peter Gooderham - British ambassador

Michael Goodfellow - Professor in Microbial Systematics

Robert Goodwill - politician

Richard Gordon - author

Teresa Graham - accountant

Thomas George Greenwell - National Conservative Member of Parliament

H

Sarah Hainsworth - Pro-Vice-Chancellor and Executive Dean of the School of Engineering and Applied Science at Aston University

Reginald Hall - endocrinologist, Professor of Medicine (1970–1980)

Alex Halliday - Professor of Geochemistry, University of Oxford

Richard Hamilton - artist

Vicki L. Hanson - computer scientist; honorary doctorate in 2017

Rupert Harden - professional rugby union player

Tim Head - artist

Patsy Healey - professor

Alastair Heathcote - rower

Dorothy Heathcote - academic

Adrian Henri - 'Mersey Scene' poet and painter

Stephen Hepburn - politician

Jack Heslop-Harrison - botanist

Tony Hey - computer scientist; honorary doctorate 2007

Stuart Hill - author

Jean Hillier - professor

Ken Hodcroft - Chairman of Hartlepool United; founder of Increased Oil Recovery

Robert Holden - landscape architect

Bill Hopkins - composer

David Horrobin - entrepreneur

Debbie Horsfield - writer of dramas, including Cutting It

John House - geographer

Paul Hudson - weather presenter

Philip Hunter - educationist

Ronald Hunt – Art Historian who was librarian at the Art Department

Anya Hurlbert - visual neuroscientis

I

Martin Ince - journalist and media adviser, founder of the QS World University Rankings

Charles Innes-Ker - Marquess of Bowmont and Cessford

Mark Isherwood - politician

Jonathan Israel - historian

J

Alan J. Jamieson - marine biologist

George Neil Jenkins - medical researcher

Caroline Johnson - Conservative Member of Parliament

Wilko Johnson - guitarist with 1970s British rhythm and blues band Dr. Feelgood

Rich Johnston - comic book writer and cartoonist

Anna Jones - businesswoman

Cliff Jones - computer scientist

Colin Jones - historian

David E. H. Jones - chemist

Francis R. Jones - poetry translator and Reader in Translation Studies

Phil Jones - climatologist

Michael Jopling, Baron Jopling - Member of the House of Lords and the Conservative Party

Wilfred Josephs - dentist and composer

K

Michael King Jr. - civil rights leader; honorary graduate. In November 1967, MLK made a 24-hour trip to the United Kingdom to receive an honorary Doctorate of Civil Law from Newcastle University, becoming the first African American the institution had recognised in this way.

Panayiotis Kalorkoti - artist; studied B.A. (Hons) in Fine Art (1976–80); Bartlett Fellow in the Visual Arts (1988)

Rashida Karmali - businesswoman

Jackie Kay - poet, novelist, Professor of Creative Writing

Paul Kennedy - historian of international relations and grand strategy

Mark Khangure - neuroradiologist

L

Joy Labinjo - artist

Henrike Lähnemann - German medievalist

Dave Leadbetter - politician

Lim Boon Heng - Singapore Minister

Lin Hsin Hsin - IT inventor, artist, poet and composer

Anne Longfield - children's campaigner, former Children's Commissioner for England

Keith Ludeman - businessman

M

Jack Mapanje - writer and poet

Milton Margai - first prime minister of Sierra Leone (medical degree from the Durham College of Medicine, later Newcastle University Medical School)

Laurence Martin - war studies writer

Murray Martin, documentary and docudrama filmmaker, co-founder of Amber Film & Photography Collective

Adrian Martineau – medical researcher and professor of respiratory Infection and immunity at Queen Mary University of London

Carl R. May - sociologist

Tom May - professional rugby union player, now with Northampton Saints, and capped by England

Kate McCann – journalist and television presenter

Ian G. McKeith – professor of Old Age Psychiatry

John Anthony McGuckin - Orthodox Christian scholar, priest, and poet

Wyl Menmuir - novelist

Zia Mian - physicist

Richard Middleton - musicologist

Mary Midgley - moral philosopher

G.C.J. Midgley - philosopher

Moein Moghimi - biochemist and nanoscientist

Hermann Moisl - linguist

Anthony Michaels-Moore - Operatic Baritone

Joanna Moncrieff - Critical Psychiatrist

Theodore Morison - Principal of Armstrong College, Newcastle upon Tyne (1919–24)

Andy Morrell - footballer

Frank Moulaert - professor

Mo Mowlam - former British Labour Party Member of Parliament, former Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, lecturer at Newcastle University

Chris Mullin - former British Labour Party Member of Parliament, author, visiting fellow

VA Mundella - College of Physical Science, 1884—1887; lecturer in physics at the College, 1891—1896: Professor of Physics at Northern Polytechnic Institute and Principal of Sunderland Technical College.

Richard Murphy - architect

N

Lisa Nandy - British Labour Party Member of Parliament, former Shadow Foreign Secretary

Karim Nayernia - biomedical scientist

Dianne Nelmes - TV producer

O

Sally O'Reilly - writer

Mo O'Toole - former British Labour Party Member of European Parliament

P

Ewan Page - founding director of the Newcastle University School of Computing and briefly acting vice-chancellor; later appointed vice-chancellor of the University of Reading

Rachel Pain - academic

Amanda Parker - Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire since 2023

Geoff Parling - Leicester Tigers rugby player

Chris Patten, Baron Patten of Barnes - British Conservative politician and Chancellor of the University (1999–2009)

Chris M Pattinson former Great Britain International Swimmer 1976-1984

Mick Paynter - Cornish poet and Grandbard

Robert A. Pearce - academic

Hugh Percy, 10th Duke of Northumberland - Chancellor of the University (1964–1988)

Jonathan Pile - Showbiz Editor, ZOO magazine

Ben Pimlott - political historian; PhD and lectureship at Newcastle University (1970–79)

Robin Plackett - statistician

Alan Plater - playwright and screenwriter

Ruth Plummer - Professor of Experimental Cancer Medicine at the Northern Institute for Cancer Research and Fellow of the UK's Academy of Medical Sciences.

Poh Kwee Ong - Deputy President of SembCorp Marine

John Porter - musician

Rob Powell - former London Broncos coach

Stuart Prebble - former chief executive of ITV

Oliver Proudlock - Made in Chelsea star; creator of Serge De Nîmes clothing line[

Mark Purnell - palaeontologist

Q

Pirzada Qasim - Pakistani scholar, Vice Chancellor of the University of Karachi

Joyce Quin, Baroness Quin - politician

R

Andy Raleigh - Rugby League player for Wakefield Trinity Wildcats

Brian Randell - computer scientist

Rupert Mitford, 6th Baron Redesdale - Liberal Democrat spokesman in the House of Lords for International Development

Alastair Reynolds - novelist, former research astronomer with the European Space Agency

Ben Rice - author

Lewis Fry Richardson - mathematician, studied at the Durham College of Science in Newcastle

Matthew White Ridley, 4th Viscount Ridley - Chancellor of the University 1988-1999

Colin Riordan - VC of Cardiff University, Professor of German Studies (1988–2006)

Susie Rodgers - British Paralympic swimmer

Nayef Al-Rodhan - philosopher, neuroscientist, geostrategist, and author

Neil Rollinson - poet

Johanna Ropner - Lord lieutenant of North Yorkshire

Sharon Rowlands - CEO of ReachLocal

Peter Rowlinson - Ig Nobel Prize winner for Veterinary Medicine

John Rushby - computer scientist

Camilla Rutherford - actress

S

Jonathan Sacks - former Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth

Ross Samson - Scottish rugby union footballer; studied history

Helen Scales - marine biologist, broadcaster, and writer

William Scammell - poet

Fred B. Schneider - computer scientist; honorary doctorate in 2003

Sean Scully - painter

Nigel Shadbolt - computer scientist

Tom Shakespeare - geneticist

Jo Shapcott - poet

James Shapiro - Canadian surgeon and scientist

Jack Shepherd - actor and playwright

Mark Shucksmith - professor

Chris Simms - crime thriller novel author

Graham William Smith - probation officer, widely regarded as the father of the national probation service

Iain Smith - Scottish politician

Paul Smith - singer, Maxïmo Park

John Snow - discoverer of cholera transmission through water; leader in the adoption of anaesthesia; one of the 8 students enrolled on the very first term of the Medical School

William Somerville - agriculturist, professor of agriculture and forestry at Durham College of Science (later Newcastle University)

Ed Stafford - explorer, walked the length of the Amazon River

Chris Steele-Perkins - photographer

Chris Stevenson - academic

Di Stewart - Sky Sports News reader

Diana Stöcker - German CDU Member of Parliament

Miodrag Stojković - genetics researcher

Miriam Stoppard - physician, author and agony aunt

Charlie van Straubenzee - businessman and investment executive

Peter Straughan - playwright and short story writer

T

Mathew Tait - rugby union footballer

Eric Thomas - academic

David Tibet - cult musician and poet

Archis Tiku - bassist, Maxïmo Park

James Tooley - professor

Elsie Tu - politician

Maurice Tucker - sedimentologist

Paul Tucker - member of Lighthouse Family

George Grey Turner - surgeon

Ronald F. Tylecote - archaeologist

V

Chris Vance - actor in Prison Break and All Saints

Géza Vermes - scholar

Geoff Vigar - lecturer

Hugh Vyvyan - rugby union player

W

Alick Walker - palaeontologist

Matthew Walker - Professor of Neuroscience and Psychology at the University of California, Berkeley

Tom Walker - Sunday Times foreign correspondent

Lord Walton of Detchant - physician; President of the GMC, BMA, RSM; Warden of Green College, Oxford (1983–1989)

Kevin Warwick - Professor of Cybernetics; former Lecturer in Electrical & Electronic Engineering

Duncan Watmore - footballer at Millwall F.C.

Mary Webb - artist

Charlie Webster - television sports presenter

Li Wei - Chair of Applied Linguistics at UCL Institute of Education, University College London

Joseph Joshua Weiss - Professor of Radiation Chemistry

Robert Westall - children's writer, twice winner of Carnegie Medal

Thomas Stanley Westoll - Fellow of the Royal Society

Gillian Whitehead - composer

William Whitfield - architect, later designed the Hadrian Building and the Northern Stage

Claire Williams - motorsport executive

Zoe Williams - sportswoman, worked on Gladiators

Donald I. Williamson - planktologist and carcinologist

Philip Williamson - former Chief Executive of Nationwide Building Society

John Willis - Royal Air Force officer and council member of the University

Lukas Wooller - keyboard player, Maxïmo Park

Graham Wylie - co-founder of the Sage Group; studied Computing Science & Statistics BSc and graduated in 1980; awarded an honorary doctorate in 2004

Y

Hisila Yami, Nepalese politician and former Minister of Physical Planning and Works (Government of Nepal

John Yorke - Controller of Continuing Drama; Head of Independent Drama at the BBC

Martha Young-Scholten - linguist

Paul Younger - hydrogeologist

BlueEdge - Mach 8-10 Hypersonic Commercial Aircraft, 220 Passenger Hypersonic Commercial Plane - Imaginactive Media Release ICAO

 

Courtesy of Imaginactive, ICAO, Charles Bombardier, and Martin Rico. Media Release of High Quality Renderings for mainstream media.

 

IO Aircraft: www.ioaircraft.com/hypersonic/blueedge.php

Imaginactive: imaginactive.org/2019/02/blue-edge/

Martin Rico, Industrial Graphics Designed: www.linkedin.com/in/mjrico/

 

Seating: 220 | Crew 2+4

Length: 195ft | Span: 93ft

Engines: 4 U-TBCC (Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle) +1 Aerospike for sustained 2G acceleration to Mach 10.

 

Fuel: H2 (Compressed Hydrogen)

Cruising Altitude: 100,000-125,000ft

Airframe: 75% Proprietary Composites

Operating Costs, Similar to a 737. $7,000-$15,000hr, including averaged maintenence costs

 

Iteration 3 (Full release of IT3, Monday January 14, 2019)

IO Aircraft www.ioaircraft.com

Drew Blair www.linkedin.com/in/drew-b-25485312/

 

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Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle. Current technologies and what Lockheed is trying to force on the Dept of Defense, for that low speed Mach 5 plane DOD gave them $1 billion to build and would disintegrate above Mach 5, is TBCC. 2 separate propulsion systems in the same airframe, which requires TWICE the airframe space to use.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle is 1 propulsion system cutting that airframe deficit in half, and also able to operate above Mach 10 up to Mach 15 in atmosphere, and a simple nozzle modification allows for outside atmosphere rocket mode, ie orbital capable.

 

Additionally, Reaction Engines maximum air breather mode is Mach 4.5, above that it will explode in flight from internal pressures are too high to operate. Thus, must switch to non air breather rocket mode to operate in atmosphere in hypersonic velocities. Which as a result, makes it not feasible for anything practical. It also takes an immense amount of fuel to function.

 

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Advanced Additive Manufacturing for Hypersonic Aircraft

 

Utilizing new methods of fabrication and construction, make it possible to use additive manufacturing, dramatically reducing the time and costs of producing hypersonic platforms from missiles, aircraft, and space capable craft. Instead of aircraft being produced in piece, then bolted together; small platforms can be produced as a single unit and large platforms can be produces in large section and mated without bolting. These techniques include using exotic materials and advanced assembly processes, with an end result of streamlining the production costs and time for hypersonic aircraft; reducing months of assembly to weeks. Overall, this process greatly reduced the cost for producing hypersonic platforms. Even to such an extent that a Hellfire missile costs apx $100,000 but by utilizing our technologies, replacing it with a Mach 8-10 hypersonic missile of our physics/engineering and that missile would cost roughly $75,000 each delivered.

 

Materials used for these manufacturing processes are not disclosed, but overall, provides a foundation for extremely high stresses and thermodynamics, ideal for hypersonic platforms. This specific methodology and materials applications is many decades ahead of all known programs. Even to the extend of normalized space flight and re-entry, without concern of thermodynamic failure.

 

*Note, most entities that are experimenting with additive manufacturing for hypersonic aircraft, this makes it mainstream and standardized processes, which also applies for mass production.

 

What would normally be measured in years and perhaps a decade to go from drawing board to test flights, is reduced to singular months and ready for production within a year maximum.

 

Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle (U-TBCC)

 

To date, the closest that NASA and industry have achieved for turbine based aircraft to fly at hypersonic velocities is by mounting a turbine into an aircraft and sharing the inlet with a scramjet or rocket based motor. Reaction Engines Sabre is not able to achieve hypersonic velocities and can only transition into a non air breathing rocket for beyond Mach 4.5

 

However, utilizing Unified Turbine Based Combine Cycle also known as U-TBCC, the two separate platforms are able to share a common inlet and the dual mode ramjet/scramjet is contained within the engine itself, which allows for a much smaller airframe footprint, thus engingeers are able to then design much higher performance aerial platforms for hypersonic flight, including the ability for constructing true single stage to orbit aircraft by utilizing a modification/version that allows for transition to outside atmosphere propulsion without any other propulsion platforms within the aircraft. By transitioning and developing aircraft to use Unified Turbine Based Combined Cycle, this propulsion system opens up new options to replace that airframe deficit for increased fuel capacity and/or payload.

 

Enhanced Dynamic Cavitation

 

Dramatically Increasing the efficiency of fuel air mixture for combustion processes at hypersonic velocities within scramjet propulsion platforms. The aspects of these processes are non disclosable.

 

Dynamic Scramjet Ignition Processes

 

For optimal scramjet ignition, a process known as Self Start is sought after, but in many cases if the platform becomes out of attitude, the scramjet will ignite. We have already solved this problem which as a result, a scramjet propulsion system can ignite at lower velocities, high velocities, at optimal attitude or not optimal attitude. It doesn't matter, it will ignite anyways at the proper point for maximum thrust capabilities at hypersonic velocities.

 

Hydrogen vs Kerosene Fuel Sources

 

Kerosene is an easy fuel to work with, and most western nations developing scramjet platforms use Kerosene for that fact. However, while kerosene has better thermal properties then Hydrogen, Hydrogen is a far superior fuel source in scramjet propulsion flight, do it having a much higher efficiency capability. Because of this aspect, in conjunction with our developments, it allows for a MUCH increased fuel to air mixture, combustion, thrust; and ability for higher speeds; instead of very low hypersonic velocities in the Mach 5-6 range. Instead, Mach 8-10 range, while we have begun developing hypersonic capabilities to exceed 15 in atmosphere within less then 5 years.

 

Conforming High Pressure Tank Technology for CNG and H2.

 

As most know in hypersonics, Hydrogen is a superior fuel source, but due to the storage abilities, can only be stored in cylinders thus much less fuel supply. Not anymore, we developed conforming high pressure storage technology for use in aerospace, automotive sectors, maritime, etc; which means any overall shape required for 8,000+ PSI CNG or Hydrogen. For hypersonic platforms, this means the ability to store a much larger volume of hydrogen vs cylinders.

 

As an example, X-43 flown by Nasa which flew at Mach 9.97. The fuel source was Hydrogen, which is extremely more volatile and combustible then kerosene (JP-7), via a cylinder in the main body. If it had used our technology, that entire section of the airframe would had been an 8,000 PSI H2 tank, which would had yielded 5-6 times the capacity. While the X-43 flew 11 seconds under power at Mach 9.97, at 6 times the fuel capacity would had yielded apx 66 seconds of fuel under power at Mach 9.97. If it had flew slower, around Mach 6, same principles applied would had yielded apx 500 seconds of fuel supply under power (slower speeds required less energy to maintain).

 

Enhanced Fuel Mixture During Shock Train Interaction

 

Normally, fuel injection is conducted at the correct insertion point within the shock train for maximum burn/combustion. Our methodologies differ, since almost half the fuel injection is conducted PRE shock train within the isolator, so at the point of isolator injection the fuel enhances the combustion process, which then requires less fuel injection to reach the same level of thrust capabilities.

 

Improved Bow Shock Interaction

 

Smoother interaction at hypersonic velocities and mitigating heat/stresses for beyond Mach 6 thermodynamics, which extraordinarily improves Type 3, 4, and 5 shock interaction.

 

6,000+ Fahrenheit Thermal Resistance

 

To date, the maximum thermal resistance was tested at AFRL in the spring of 2018, which resulted in a 3,200F thermal resistance for a short duration. This technology, allows for normalized hypersonic thermal resistance of 3,000-3,500F sustained, and up to 6,500F resistance for short endurance, ie 90 seconds or less. 10-20 minute resistance estimate approximately 4,500F +/- 200F.

  

*** This technology advancement also applies to Aerospike rocket engines, in which it is common for Aerospike's to exceed 4,500-5,000F temperatures, which results in the melting of the reversed bell housing. That melting no longer ocurrs, providing for stable combustion to ocurr for the entire flight envelope

 

Scramjet Propulsion Side Wall Cooling

 

With old technologies, side wall cooling is required for hypersonic flight and scramjet propulsion systems, otherwise the isolator and combustion regions of a scramjet would melt, even using advanced ablatives and ceramics, due to their inability to cope with very high temperatures. Using technology we have developed for very high thermodynamics and high stresses, side wall cooling is no longer required, thus removing that variable from the design process and focusing on improved ignition processes and increasing net thrust values.

 

Lower Threshold for Hypersonic Ignition

 

Active and adaptive flight dynamics, resulting in the ability for scramjet ignition at a much lower velocity, ie within ramjet envelope, between Mach 2-4, and seamless transition from supersonic to hypersonic flight, ie supersonic ramjet (scramjet). This active and dynamic aspect, has a wide variety of parameters for many flight dynamics, velocities, and altitudes; which means platforms no longer need to be engineered for specific altitude ranges or preset velocities, but those parameters can then be selected during launch configuration and are able to adapt actively in flight.

 

Dramatically Improved Maneuvering Capabilities at Hypersonic Velocities

 

Hypersonic vehicles, like their less technologically advanced brethren, use large actuator and the developers hope those controls surfaces do not disintegrate in flight. In reality, it is like rolling the dice, they may or may not survive, hence another reason why the attempt to keep velocities to Mach 6 or below. We have shrunken down control actuators while almost doubling torque and response capabilities specifically for hypersonic dynamics and extreme stresses involved, which makes it possible for maximum input authority for Mach 10 and beyond.

 

Paradigm Shift in Control Surface Methodologies, Increasing Control Authority (Internal Mechanical Applications)

 

To date, most control surfaces for hypersonic missile platforms still use fins, similar to lower speed conventional missiles, and some using ducted fins. This is mostly due to lack of comprehension of hypersonic velocities in their own favor. Instead, the body itself incorporates those control surfaces, greatly enhancing the airframe strength, opening up more space for hardware and fuel capacity; while simultaneously enhancing the platforms maneuvering capabilities.

 

A scramjet missile can then fly like conventional missile platforms, and not straight and level at high altitudes, losing velocity on it's decent trajectory to target. Another added benefit to this aspect, is the ability to extend range greatly, so if anyone elses hypersonic missile platform were developed for 400 mile range, falling out of the sky due to lack of glide capabilities; our platforms can easily reach 600+ miles, with minimal glide deceleration.

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I know this is a day late, but I've been so busy. I just had no time to upload these.

 

Today was:

9 am - 5 pm Working on cavitation site (It's working now)

5 - 6 pm Preparing dinner with Ruben.

6 pm- late Bible Study group, we went to the Jehovah's today. Really interesting.

Extensive necrosis with cavitation, usually occurring in the upper lung or apex, is a characteristic feature of "secondary" or "adult type" tuberculosis. This is probably related to pre-existing hypersensitivity to M. tuberculosis resulting from a prior primary infection. Cavities form when necrosis involves the wall of an airway and the semi-liquid necrotic material is discharged into the bronchial tree from where it is usually coughed up and may infect others. This infected material may seed other parts of the lung via the airways to produce a tuberculous bronchopneumonia. If swallowed, infection of the G.I. tract may result. Communication of the centers of the tuberculous lesions with the airway exposes the bacteria to a high concentration of oxygen and promotes their proliferation. The risk of spread of infection to non-infected persons from individuals with cavitary tuberculosis is very high.