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Il Guercino (eigentlich Giovanni Francesco Barbieri), Cento 1591 - Bologna 1666
Der Verrat an Christus - The Betrayal of Christ - Il Tradimento di Giuda, (ca.1621)
In this strikingly lit canvas we witness the moment immediately after the apostle Judas has betrayed Christ with a kiss, the second before a rope is tightened around his neck and the Passion begins.
Guercino interprets this crucial event in the Christian story as an essentially human drama. There is a faint but significant halo to show Christ's divinity, but at the very centre of the canvas is a brightly lit square of flesh. This is Christ as a man, subject to the violence of the world and the vagaries of human friendship.
The jeering soldiers to the right - young, old and middle-aged - are vividly characterised. The sense of motion on the right contrasts superbly with the awful stillness at the left of the canvas. While the soldiers snatch and snarl, Christ is seen in a pool of soft light leaning towards Judas. Violence is imminent but in this, his last moment of earthly freedom, he is calm and still.
What does the expression on Christ's pale, illuminated face convey? Shock? Sorrow? Resignation? Disappointment? Fear? His mouth is open as if in speech. His eyes look directly at his betrayer, but they seem to retain some compassion. Whatever else theologians, writers and artists thought of Judas, Guercino's Christ views him, one feels, with pity.
And what does Judas himself look at? Significantly he does not - cannot? - return his master's gaze. Is he looking at the rope that is about to go round Christ's neck, inadvertantly forming a halo? Or does he see the faint luminescence behind his head that identifies him as the Son of God? In this moment does the traitor realise the enormity of his sin? He seems to recoil from the centre of the painting.
Guercino means squint-eyed, but his squint, the result of a childhood accident, clearly did not affect this remarkable artist's powers of observation. It seems that he was largely self taught, although he was influenced by, amongst others, the great Northern Italian painters Annibale Carracci and Guido Reni.
Source: Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge
The Galleria Corsini of Rome is located in one of the most characteristic settings of Trastevere, just beyond the fifteenth-century Settimiana Gate, opposite the Farnesina and the Botanical Gardens. It is located in a palace which was rebuilt beginning in 1735 by Ferdinando Fuga, under the commission of the Corsini family, on the site of the sixteenth-century Palazzo Riario, the former seventeenth-century residence of Queen Christina of Sweden.
The Corsini family, originally from Florence, moved to Rome following Clemente XII's election as pope in 1730. He held office until 1740. In 1883, the palace was sold to the Italian government. The Corsini family also donated their collection, assembled during the course of the eighteenth century. Acquiring the collection was an important step for the cultural policy of tbe new unified state because the National Gallery of Ancient Art began from this first core collection.
Presentlyl the Galleria occupies eight rooms on the main floor wing of the building and exhibits more than three hundreds paintings as well as furnitures, small bronzes and ancient and modern sculptures, in part located in the rest of the palace. Today it is the site of the Accademia and Biblioteca of the Lincei, which houses the superb, intact Corsinian Library, noteworthy for its engravings and manuscripts.
The collection includes paintings of the 14th - 18tb centuries, with the majority of the artwork from the 17th - 18th centuries. The Roman, Neapolitan and Bolognese schools are well represented here with important core collections of bambocciante and landscape painters as well as great foreign artists. Among the most important painters, featured are: Beato Angelico, Fra' Bartolomeo, Iacopo Bassano, Rubens, Van Dyck, Murillo, Poussin, Caravaggio and Ribera, but there are also Annibale Carracci, Guido Reni, Guercino, Mattia Preti, Andrea del Sarto, Salvator Rosa, Gaspard Dughet, Luca Giordano, Piazzetta, Maratta and many olhers.
Of special historical note is Queen Christina of Sweden's bedroom with frescoes from the Zuccari school, dating from the end of the sixteenth century.
Ranuccio I Farnese (1569-1622) reigns as Duke of Parma, Piacenza and Castro (1592-1622)
Agostino Carracci ( Bologna, 1557-1602)
Ранучо I Фарнезе ( 1569-1622) е управляващ херцог на Парма, Пиаченца и Кастро от 1592г. до смъртта си.
Агостино Карачи ( Болоня, 1557 - 1602)
Annibale Carracci, The Loves of the Gods, fresco cycle in the Sala (reception hall), Palazzo Farnese, Rome, 1597-1601 (includes Triumph of Bacchus and Ariadne, Polyphemus and Galatea, and Venus and Anchises)
Es la catedral de la ciudad, elevada al título de "Metropolitana" en 1582 por el Papa Gregorio XIII, que confirió la dignidad arzobispal a la diócesis de Bolonia.
Los primeros indicios del edificio se remontan al siglo X. La catedral ha sufrido varios cambios a lo largo de los siglos hasta alcanzar su aspecto actual, que se remonta a la renovación de 1605 que, sin embargo, hizo perder todo rastro de la primitiva estructura románico-gótica. El interior alberga pinturas de artistas como Prospero Fontana, Ludovico Carracci y Donato Creti.
El tesoro de la catedral alberga objetos y ornamentos litúrgicos del siglo XIV de gran valor artístico y espiritual.
c. 1590. Oli sobre tela 88,3 x 148,1 cm. National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. 1952.5.58. Obra exposada: Galeria 37.
Some Key Terms: Dynamic vs. Static Form, Diagonal vs. Rectilinear Composition, Classicism, Council of Trent
... and the bridge which was to link the palace to the families other little villa across the Tiber only ever saw completion of this one (Michaelangelo-designed) arch over the via Giulia.
But this Spring (until late April), the building which has long been used as the French Embassy, is partly open because the ambassador did a bit of imaginative PR and has opened its treasures to the public for the first time.... and brought back a few of the Farnese treasures from Naples and the Louvre to allow people to see them in their original location, along with Rome's 2nd best ceiling and its Carracci frescoes: www.mostrapalazzofarnese.it/it/index.html (I had to check in my camera on going through the considerable entrance security sp no photos of the magnificent exhibition or even the garden, amazing grand staircase or internal courtyard).
"Philip Haas (born 1954) is an American artist, screenwriter and filmmaker, perhaps best known for his 2012 sculpture exhibition "The Four Seasons" and his 1995 film Angels and Insects.
He began his career as a documentary film maker, directing ten profiles of unusual artists through the early 1990s with the theme "Magicians of the Earth," commissioned by the Centre Georges Pompidou.
His feature films include Angels and Insects, set in Victorian England, which was nominated for an Academy Award and the Cannes Film Festival Palme d'Or, Up at the Villa, an adaptation of the W. Somerset Maugham novella, starring Sean Penn, Anne Bancroft and Kristin Scott Thomas, The Situation, a political thriller set in Iraq, released in 2006, and the highly regarded The Music of Chance (1993).
In 2008, the Sonnabend Gallery of New York featured a film installation called The Butcher's Shop, commissioned by the Kimbell Art Museum, in which Haas recreated the space depicted in Annibale Carracci’s 1582 painting of the same name. In 2010, he expanded this series to include works by Ensor and Tiepolo. His exhibition of film installations at the Kimbell Art Museum, "Butchers, Dragons, Gods and Skeletons," was listed by TIME magazine as one of the top ten museum shows of 2009
Retrospectives of his art films have been held at the Tate Gallery in London, the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, Lincoln Center in New York, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. He received a Guggenheim Fellowship for this body of work. He has taught in the Visual Arts Program at Princeton University. In 2008 and 2010, he had one-man shows of paintings and film installations at the Sonnabend Gallery in New York City. Haas's monumental fiberglass sculpture Winter (after Arcimboldo) was unveiled in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. in September, 2010, before traveling in 2011 to the Piazza del Duomo in Milan and the Garden of Versailles. In 2012, in a spectacular transformation that is typical of his work, Haas created a group of large-scale, fifteen-foot-high, fibre-glass sculptures, inspired by Giuseppe Arcimboldo's Renaissance paintings of the four seasons, comprising Spring, Summer, Autumn, and including Winter. The colossal size of Haas's sculpture accentuates the visual puzzle of natural forms—flowers, ivy, moss, fungi, vegetables, fruit, trees, bark, branches, twigs, leaves—as they are recycled to form four human portraits, each representing an individual season. The result is at once earthy, fanciful and exuberant—a commentary on Arcimboldo's style and a work of art in its own right. These sculptures were first seen in the garden of the Dulwich Picture Gallery in the United Kingdom in the summer of 2012, before embarking on a three-year tour of American museums and botanical gardens."
- Wikipedia
1605-1606. Fresc traspassat a tela. 301,2 x 252,3 x 3,6 cm. Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona. 005677-000. Obra exposada: Sala 36.
1595. Oli sobre coure. 43,8 x 34,9 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Nova York. 1998.188. Obra no exposada.
The Palazzo Farnese was commissioned in 1514 by Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, who later reigned as Pope Paul III, and was designed by Antonio di Sangallo - though some of the windows and the cornice were designed by the great Michelangelo. It now serves as the French Embassy. Parts of the palace can be visited on guided tours, including the Farnese Gallery, with its fabulous ceiling painting by Annibale Carracci ('The Loves of the Gods'). This, sadly, cannot be photographed.
"Philip Haas (born 1954) is an American artist, screenwriter and filmmaker, perhaps best known for his 2012 sculpture exhibition "The Four Seasons" and his 1995 film Angels and Insects.
He began his career as a documentary film maker, directing ten profiles of unusual artists through the early 1990s with the theme "Magicians of the Earth," commissioned by the Centre Georges Pompidou.
His feature films include Angels and Insects, set in Victorian England, which was nominated for an Academy Award and the Cannes Film Festival Palme d'Or, Up at the Villa, an adaptation of the W. Somerset Maugham novella, starring Sean Penn, Anne Bancroft and Kristin Scott Thomas, The Situation, a political thriller set in Iraq, released in 2006, and the highly regarded The Music of Chance (1993).
In 2008, the Sonnabend Gallery of New York featured a film installation called The Butcher's Shop, commissioned by the Kimbell Art Museum, in which Haas recreated the space depicted in Annibale Carracci’s 1582 painting of the same name. In 2010, he expanded this series to include works by Ensor and Tiepolo. His exhibition of film installations at the Kimbell Art Museum, "Butchers, Dragons, Gods and Skeletons," was listed by TIME magazine as one of the top ten museum shows of 2009
Retrospectives of his art films have been held at the Tate Gallery in London, the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, Lincoln Center in New York, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. He received a Guggenheim Fellowship for this body of work. He has taught in the Visual Arts Program at Princeton University. In 2008 and 2010, he had one-man shows of paintings and film installations at the Sonnabend Gallery in New York City. Haas's monumental fiberglass sculpture Winter (after Arcimboldo) was unveiled in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. in September, 2010, before traveling in 2011 to the Piazza del Duomo in Milan and the Garden of Versailles. In 2012, in a spectacular transformation that is typical of his work, Haas created a group of large-scale, fifteen-foot-high, fibre-glass sculptures, inspired by Giuseppe Arcimboldo's Renaissance paintings of the four seasons, comprising Spring, Summer, Autumn, and including Winter. The colossal size of Haas's sculpture accentuates the visual puzzle of natural forms—flowers, ivy, moss, fungi, vegetables, fruit, trees, bark, branches, twigs, leaves—as they are recycled to form four human portraits, each representing an individual season. The result is at once earthy, fanciful and exuberant—a commentary on Arcimboldo's style and a work of art in its own right. These sculptures were first seen in the garden of the Dulwich Picture Gallery in the United Kingdom in the summer of 2012, before embarking on a three-year tour of American museums and botanical gardens."
- Wikipedia
Bologna (/bəˈloʊnjə/, UK also /bəˈlɒnjə/, Italian: [boˈloɲɲa]; Emilian: Bulåggna [buˈlʌɲːa]; Latin: Bononia) is a city in and the capital of the Emilia-Romagna region in Northern Italy, of which it is also its largest. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy with about 400,000 inhabitants and 150 different nationalities. Its metropolitan area is home to more than 1,000,000 people. It is known as the Fat City for its rich cuisine, and the Red City for its Spanish-style red tiled rooftops and, more recently, its leftist politics. It is also called the Learned City because it is home to the oldest university in the world.
Originally Etruscan, the city has been an important urban center for centuries, first under the Etruscans (who called it Felsina), then under the Celts as Bona, later under the Romans (Bonōnia), then again in the Middle Ages, as a free municipality and later signoria, when it was among the largest European cities by population. Famous for its towers, churches and lengthy porticoes, Bologna has a well-preserved historical centre, thanks to a careful restoration and conservation policy which began at the end of the 1970s. Home to the oldest university in continuous operation, the University of Bologna, established in AD 1088, the city has a large student population that gives it a cosmopolitan character. In 2000 it was declared European capital of culture and in 2006, a UNESCO "City of Music" and became part of the Creative Cities Network. In 2021 UNESCO recognized the lengthy porticoes of the city as a World Heritage Site.
Bologna is an important agricultural, industrial, financial and transport hub, where many large mechanical, electronic and food companies have their headquarters as well as one of the largest permanent trade fairs in Europe. According to recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index (E-REGI) of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city and the 47th European city in terms of its economic growth rate; in 2022 Il Sole 24 Ore named Bologna the best city in Italy for overall quality of life.
History
Antiquity and Middle Ages
Traces of human habitation in the area of Bologna go back to the 3rd millennium BCE, with significant settlements from about the 9th century BCE (Villanovan culture). The influence of Etruscan civilization reached the area in the 7th to 6th centuries, and the Etruscan city of Felsina was established at the site of Bologna by the end of the 6th century. By the 4th century BCE, the site was occupied by the Gaulish Boii, and it became a Roman colony and municipium with the name of Bonōnia in 196 BCE. During the waning years of the Western Roman Empire Bologna was repeatedly sacked by the Goths. It is in this period that legendary Bishop Petronius, according to ancient chronicles, rebuilt the ruined town and founded the basilica of Saint Stephen. Petronius is still revered as the patron saint of Bologna.
In 727–28, the city was sacked and captured by the Lombards under King Liutprand, becoming part of that kingdom. These Germanic conquerors built an important new quarter, called "addizione longobarda" (Italian meaning "Longobard addition") near the complex of St. Stephen.[20] In the last quarter of the 8th century, Charlemagne, at the request of Pope Adrian I, invaded the Lombard Kingdom, causing its eventual demise. Occupied by Frankish troops in 774 on behalf of the papacy, Bologna remained under imperial authority and prospered as a frontier mark of the Carolingian empire.
Bologna was the center of a revived study of law, including the scholar Irnerius (c 1050 – after 1125) and his famous students, the Four Doctors of Bologna.
After the death of Matilda of Tuscany in 1115, Bologna obtained substantial concessions from Emperor Henry V. However, when Frederick Barbarossa subsequently attempted to strike down the deal, Bologna joined the Lombard League, which then defeated the imperial armies at the Battle of Legnano and established an effective autonomy at the Peace of Constance in 1183. Subsequently, the town began to expand rapidly and became one of the main commercial trade centres of northern Italy thanks to a system of canals that allowed barges and ships to come and go. Believed to have been established in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely considered the world's oldest university in continuous operation. The university originated as a centre for the study of medieval Roman law under major glossators, including Irnerius. It numbered Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarch among its students. The medical school was especially renowned. By 1200, Bologna was a thriving commercial and artisanal centre of about 10,000 people.
During a campaign to support the imperial cities of Modena and Cremona against Bologna, Frederick II's son, King Enzo of Sardinia, was defeated and captured on 26 May 1249 at the Battle of Fossalta. Though the emperor demanded his release, Enzo was thenceforth kept a knightly prisoner in Bologna, in a palace that came to be named Palazzo Re Enzo after him. Every attempt to escape or to rescue him failed, and he died after more than 22 years in captivity. After the death of his half-brothers Conrad IV in 1254, Frederick of Antioch in 1256 and Manfred in 1266, as well as the execution of his nephew Conradin in 1268, he was the last of the Hohenstaufen heirs.
During the late 1200s, Bologna was affected by political instability when the most prominent families incessantly fought for the control of the town. The free commune was severely weakened by decades of infighting, allowing the Pope to impose the rule of his envoy Cardinal Bertrand du Pouget in 1327. Du Pouget was eventually ousted by a popular rebellion and Bologna became a signoria under Taddeo Pepoli in 1334. By the arrival of the Black Death in 1348, Bologna had 40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants, reduced to just 20,000 to 25,000 after the plague.
In 1350, Bologna was conquered by archbishop Giovanni Visconti, the new lord of Milan. But following a rebellion by the town's governor, a renegade member of the Visconti family, Bologna was recuperated to the papacy in 1363 by Cardinal Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz after a long negotiation involving a huge indemnity paid to Bernabò Visconti, Giovanni's heir, who died in 1354. In 1376, Bologna again revolted against Papal rule and joined Florence in the unsuccessful War of the Eight Saints. However, extreme infighting inside the Holy See after the Western Schism prevented the papacy from restoring its domination over Bologna, so it remained relatively independent for some decades as an oligarchic republic. In 1401, Giovanni I Bentivoglio took power in a coup with the support of Milan, but the Milanese, having turned his back on them and allied with Florence, marched on Bologna and had Giovanni killed the following year. In 1442, Hannibal I Bentivoglio, Giovanni's nephew, recovered Bologna from the Milanese, only to be assassinated in a conspiracy plotted by Pope Eugene IV three years later. But the signoria of the Bentivoglio family was then firmly established, and the power passed to his cousin Sante Bentivoglio, who ruled until 1462, followed by Giovanni II. Giovanni II managed to resist the expansionist designs of Cesare Borgia for some time, but on 7 October 1506, Pope Julius II issued a bull deposing and excommunicating Bentivoglio and placing the city under interdict. When the papal troops, along with a contingent sent by Louis XII of France, marched against Bologna, Bentivoglio and his family fled. Julius II entered the city triumphantly on 10 November.
Early modern
The period of Papal rule over Bologna (1506–1796) has been generally evaluated by historians as one of severe decline. However, this was not evident in the 1500s, which were marked by some major developments in Bologna. In 1530, Emperor Charles V was crowned in Bologna, the last of the Holy Roman Emperors to be crowned by the pope. In 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio, the main building of the university. The period of Papal rule saw also the construction of many churches and other religious establishments, and the restoration of older ones. At this time, Bologna had ninety-six convents, more than any other Italian city. Painters working in Bologna during this period established the Bolognese School which includes Annibale Carracci, Domenichino, Guercino, and others of European fame.
It was only towards the end of the 16th century that severe signs of decline began to manifest. A series of plagues in the late 16th to early 17th century reduced the population of the city from some 72,000 in the mid-16th century to about 47,000 by 1630. During the 1629–1631 Italian plague alone, Bologna lost up to a third of its population] In the mid-17th century, the population stabilized at roughly 60,000, slowly increasing to some 70,000 by the mid-18th century. The economy of Bologna started to show signs of severe decline as the global centres of trade shifted towards the Atlantic. The traditional silk industry was in a critical state. The university was losing students, who once came from all over Europe, because of the illiberal attitudes of the Church towards culture (especially after the trial of Galileo). Bologna continued to suffer a progressive deindustrialisation also in the 18th century.
In the mid-1700s, Pope Benedict XIV, a Bolognese, tried to reverse the decline of the city with a series of reforms intended to stimulate the economy and promote the arts. However, these reforms achieved only mixed results. The pope's efforts to stimulate the decaying textile industry had little success, while he was more successful in reforming the tax system, liberalising trade and relaxing the oppressive system of censorship.
The economic and demographic decline of Bologna became even more noticeable starting in the second half of the 18th century. In 1790, the city had 72,000 inhabitants, ranking as the second largest in the Papal States; however, this figure had remained unchanged for decades.
During this period, Papal economic policies included heavy customs duties and concessions of monopolies to single manufacturers.
Modern history
Napoleon entered Bologna on 19 June 1796. Napoleon briefly reinstated the ancient mode of government, giving power to the Senate, which however had to swear fealty to the short-lived Cispadane Republic, created as a client state of the French First Republic at the congress of Reggio (27 December 1796 – 9 January 1797) but succeeded by the Cisalpine Republic on 9 July 1797, later by the Italian Republic and finally the Kingdom of Italy. After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 restored Bologna to the Papal States. Papal rule was contested in the uprisings of 1831. The insurrected provinces planned to unite as the Province Italiane Unite with Bologna as the capital. Pope Gregory XVI asked for Austrian help against the rebels. Metternich warned French king Louis Philippe I against intervention in Italian affairs, and in the spring of 1831, Austrian forces marched across the Italian peninsula, defeating the rebellion by 26 April.
By the mid-1840s, unemployment levels were very high and traditional industries continued to languish or disappear; Bologna became a city of economic disparity with the top 10 percent of the population living off rent, another 20 percent exercising professions or commerce and 70 percent working in low-paid, often insecure manual jobs. The Papal census of 1841 reported 10,000 permanent beggars and another 30,000 (out of a total population of 70,000) who lived in poverty. In the revolutions of 1848 the Austrian garrisons which controlled the city on behalf of the Pope were temporarily expelled, but eventually came back and crushed the revolutionaries.
Papal rule finally ended in the aftermath of Second War of Italian Independence, when the French and Piedmontese troops expelled the Austrians from Italian lands, on 11 and 12 March 1860, Bologna voted to join the new Kingdom of Italy. In the last decades of the 19th century, Bologna once again thrived economically and socially. In 1863 Naples was linked to Rome by railway, and the following year Bologna to Florence. Bolognese moderate agrarian elites, that supported liberal insurgencies against the papacy and were admirers of the British political system and of free trade, envisioned a unified national state that would open a bigger market for the massive agricultural production of the Emilian plains. Indeed, Bologna gave Italy one of its first prime ministers, Marco Minghetti.
After World War I, Bologna was heavily involved in the Biennio Rosso socialist uprisings. As a consequence, the traditionally moderate elites of the city turned their back on the progressive faction and gave their support to the rising Fascist movement of Benito Mussolini. Dino Grandi, a high-ranking Fascist party official and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, remembered for being an Anglophile, was from Bologna. During the interwar years, Bologna developed into an important manufacturing centre for food processing, agricultural machinery and metalworking. The Fascist regime poured in massive investments, for example with the setting up of a giant tobacco manufacturing plant in 1937.
World War II
Bologna suffered extensive damage during World War II. The strategic importance of the city as an industrial and railway hub connecting northern and central Italy made it a target for the Allied forces. On 24 July 1943, a massive aerial bombardment destroyed a significant part of the historic city centre and killed about 200 people. The main railway station and adjoining areas were severely hit, and 44% of the buildings in the centre were listed as having been destroyed or severely damaged. The city was heavily bombed again on 25 September. The raids, which this time were not confined to the city centre, left 2,481 people dead and 2,000 injured. By the end of the war, 43% of all buildings in Bologna had been destroyed or damaged.
After the armistice of 1943, the city became a key centre of the Italian resistance movement. On 7 November 1944, a pitched battle around Porta Lame, waged by partisans of the 7th Brigade of the Gruppi d'Azione Patriottica against Fascist and Nazi occupation forces, did not succeed in triggering a general uprising, despite being one of the largest resistance-led urban conflicts in the European theatre. Resistance forces entered Bologna on the morning of 21 April 1945. By this time, the Germans had already largely left the city in the face of the Allied advance, spearheaded by Polish forces advancing from the east during the Battle of Bologna which had been fought since 9 April. First to arrive in the centre was the 87th Infantry Regiment of the Friuli Combat Group under general Arturo Scattini, who entered the centre from Porta Maggiore to the south. Since the soldiers were dressed in British outfits, they were initially thought to be part of the allied forces; when the local inhabitants heard the soldiers were speaking Italian, they poured out onto the streets to celebrate.
Cold War period
In the post-war years, Bologna became a thriving industrial centre as well as a political stronghold of the Italian Communist Party. Between 1945 and 1999, the city was helmed by an uninterrupted succession of mayors from the PCI and its successors, the Democratic Party of the Left and Democrats of the Left, the first of whom was Giuseppe Dozza. At the end of the 1960s the city authorities, worried by massive gentrification and suburbanisation, asked Japanese starchitect Kenzo Tange to sketch a master plan for a new town north of Bologna; however, the project that came out in 1970 was evaluated as too ambitious and expensive. Eventually the city council, in spite of vetoing Tange's master plan, decided to keep his project for a new exhibition centre and business district. At the end of 1978 the construction of a tower block and several diverse buildings and structures started. In 1985 the headquarters of the regional government of Emilia-Romagna moved in the new district.
In 1977, Bologna was the scene of rioting linked to the Movement of 1977, a spontaneous political movement of the time. The police shooting of a far-left activist, Francesco Lorusso, sparked two days of street clashes. On 2 August 1980, at the height of the "years of lead", a terrorist bomb was set off in the central railway station of Bologna killing 85 people and wounding 200, an event which is known in Italy as the Bologna massacre. In 1995, members of the neo-fascist group Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari were convicted for carrying out the attack, while Licio Gelli—Grand Master of the underground Freemason lodge Propaganda Due (P2)—was convicted for hampering the investigation, together with three agents of the secret military intelligence service SISMI (including Francesco Pazienza and Pietro Musumeci). Commemorations take place in Bologna on 2 August each year, culminating in a concert in the main square.
21st century
In 1999, the long tradition of left-wing mayors was interrupted by the victory of independent centre-right candidate Giorgio Guazzaloca. However, Bologna reverted to form in 2004 when Sergio Cofferati, a former trade union leader, unseated Guazzaloca. The next centre-left mayor, Flavio Delbono, elected in June 2009, resigned in January 2010 after being involved in a corruption scandal. After a 15-month period in which the city was administered under Anna Maria Cancellieri (as a state-appointed prefect), Virginio Merola was elected as mayor, leading a left-wing coalition comprising the Democratic Party, Left Ecology Freedom and Italy of Values. In 2016, Merola was confirmed mayor, defeating the conservative candidate, Lucia Borgonzoni. In 2021, after ten years of Merola's mayorship, one of his closest allies, Matteo Lepore, was elected mayor with 61.9% of votes, becoming the most voted mayor of Bologna since the introduction of the direct elections in 1995.
Geography
Territory
Bologna is situated on the edge of the Po Plain at the foot of the Apennine Mountains, at the meeting of the Reno and Savena river valleys. As Bologna's two main watercourses flow directly to the sea, the town lies outside of the drainage basin of the River Po. The Province of Bologna stretches from the western edge of the Po Plain on the border with Ferrara to the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines. The centre of the town is 54 metres (177 ft) above sea level (while elevation within the municipality ranges from 29 metres (95 ft) in the suburb of Corticella to 300 metres (980 ft) in Sabbiuno and the Colle della Guardia). The Province of Bologna stretches from the Po Plain into the Apennines; the highest point in the province is the peak of Corno alle Scale (in Lizzano in Belvedere) at 1,945 metres (6,381 ft) above sea level.
Cityscape
Until the late 19th century, when a large-scale urban renewal project was undertaken, Bologna was one of the few remaining large walled cities in Europe; to this day and despite having suffered considerable bombing damage in 1944, Bologna's 142 hectares (350 acres) historic centre is Europe's second largest, containing an immense wealth of important medieval, renaissance, and baroque artistic monuments.
Bologna developed along the Via Emilia as an Etruscan and later Roman colony; the Via Emilia still runs straight through the city under the changing names of Strada Maggiore, Rizzoli, Ugo Bassi, and San Felice. Due to its Roman heritage, the central streets of Bologna, today largely pedestrianized, follow the grid pattern of the Roman settlement. The original Roman ramparts were supplanted by a high medieval system of fortifications, remains of which are still visible, and finally by a third and final set of ramparts built in the 13th century, of which numerous sections survive. No more than twenty medieval defensive towers remain out of up to 180 that were built in the 12th and 13th centuries before the arrival of unified civic government. The most famous of the towers of Bologna are the central "Due Torri" (Asinelli and Garisenda), whose iconic leaning forms provide a popular symbol of the town.
The cityscape is further enriched by its elegant and extensive porticoes, for which the city is famous. In total, there are some 38 kilometres (24 miles) of porticoes in the city's historical centre (over 45 km (28 mi) in the city proper), which make it possible to walk for long distances sheltered from the elements.
The Portico di San Luca is possibly the world's longest. It connects Porta Saragozza (one of the twelve gates of the ancient walls built in the Middle Ages, which circled a 7.5 km (4.7 mi) part of the city) with the Sanctuary of the Madonna di San Luca, a church begun in 1723 on the site of an 11th-century edifice which had already been enlarged in the 14th century, prominently located on a hill (289 metres (948 feet)) overlooking the town, which is one of Bologna's main landmarks. The windy 666 vault arcades, almost four kilometres (3,796 m or 12,454 ft) long, effectively links San Luca, as the church is commonly called, to the city centre. Its porticos provide shelter for the traditional procession which every year since 1433 has carried a Byzantine icon of the Madonna with Child attributed to Luke the Evangelist down to the Bologna Cathedral during the Feast of the Ascension.
In 2021, the porticoes were named as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
San Petronio Basilica, built between 1388 and 1479 (but still unfinished), is the tenth-largest church in the world by volume, 132 metres long and 66 metres wide, while the vault reaches 45 metres inside and 51 metres in the facade. With its volume of 258,000 m3, it is the largest (Gothic or otherwise) church built of bricks of the world. The Basilica of Saint Stephen and its sanctuary are among the oldest structures in Bologna, having been built starting from the 8th century, according to the tradition on the site of an ancient temple dedicated to Egyptian goddess Isis. The Basilica of Saint Dominic is an example of Romanic architecture from the 13th century, enriched by the monumental tombs of great Bolognese glossators Rolandino de'Passeggeri and Egidio Foscherari. Basilicas of St Francis, Santa Maria dei Servi and San Giacomo Maggiore are other magnificent examples of 14th-century architecture, the latter also featuring Renaissance artworks such as the Bentivoglio Altarpiece by Lorenzo Costa. Finally, the Church of San Michele in Bosco is a 15th-century religious complex located on a hill not far from the city's historical center.
(Wikipedia)
Bologna [boˈlɔnja, italienisch boˈloɲːa] ist eine italienische Universitätsstadt und die Hauptstadt der Metropolitanstadt Bologna sowie der Region Emilia-Romagna. Die Großstadt ist mit 390.625 Einwohnern (Stand: 31. Dezember 2019) die siebtgrößte italienische Stadt und ein bedeutender nationaler Verkehrsknotenpunkt.
Geografie
Allgemein
Bologna liegt am südlichen Rand der Po-Ebene am Fuße des Apennin, zwischen den Flüssen Reno und Savena in Norditalien. Die Flussläufe und Kanäle in der Stadt wurden im Verlaufe der Stadtentwicklung aus sanitären Gründen fast vollständig überbaut. Die durch Bologna fließenden Gewässer sind der Canale di Reno, der Canale di Savena und der Aposa; sie werden nördlich des Stadtzentrums zum Navile zusammengefasst. Damit wird dem Canale di Savena ein Teil des Wassers entzogen; der nachfolgende Flussarm heißt entsprechend Savena abbandonato („aufgegebener Savena“). In den westlichen Stadtteilen verläuft zudem der Ravone, der sich weiter östlich mit dem Reno vereint. Das Adriatische Meer befindet sich ca. 60 Kilometer östlich der Stadt.
Geschichte
Antike
Die Geschichte der Stadt beginnt als etruskische Gründung mit dem Namen Felsina vermutlich im 6. Jahrhundert v. Chr., Spuren älterer dörflicher Siedlungen der Villanovakultur in der Gegend reichen bis ins 11./10. Jahrhundert v. Chr. zurück. Die etruskische Stadt wuchs um ein Heiligtum auf einem Hügel und war von einer Nekropole umgeben.
Im 5. Jahrhundert v. Chr. eroberten die keltischen Boier Felsina. 191 v. Chr. wurde die Stadt von den Römern erobert, 189 v. Chr. wurde sie als Bononia römische Colonia. 3000 latinische Familien siedelten sich dort an, wobei den ehemaligen Konsuln Lucius Valerius Flaccus, Marcus Atilius Seranus und Lucius Valerius Tappo die Organisation der Stadt(neu)gründung übertragen wurde.[3] Der Bau der Via Aemilia 187 v. Chr. machte Bononia zum Verkehrsknotenpunkt: Hier kreuzte sich die Hauptverkehrsstraße der Poebene mit der Via Flaminia minor nach Arretium (Arezzo). 88 v. Chr. erhielt Bononia über die Lex municipalis wie alle Landstädte Italiens volles römisches Bürgerrecht. Nach einem Brand wurde sie im 1. Jahrhundert unter Kaiser Nero wieder aufgebaut.
Wie für eine römische Stadt typisch, war Bononia schachbrettartig um die zentrale Kreuzung zweier Hauptstraßen angelegt, des Cardo mit dem Decumanus. Sechs Nord-Süd- und acht Ost-West-Straßen teilten die Stadt in einzelne Quartiere und sind bis heute erhalten. Während der römischen Kaiserzeit hatte Bononia mindestens 12.000, möglicherweise jedoch bis 30.000 Einwohner. Bei Ausgrabungen rund um das Forum der antiken Stadt in den Jahren 1989–1994 wurden zwei Tempel, Verwaltungsgebäude, Markthallen und das Tagungsgebäude des Stadtrates gefunden; im südlichen Teil des ursprünglichen Stadtgebietes ist ein Theater freigelegt worden. Die Stadt scheint jedoch deutlich über ihre ursprüngliche Befestigung hinausgewachsen zu sein, beispielsweise sind außerhalb der Stadtmauer ein Amphitheater, ein Aquädukt und ein Thermenareal entdeckt worden. Der Geograph Pomponius Mela zählte die Stadt im 1. Jahrhundert n. Chr. zu den fünf üppigsten (opulentissimae) Städten Italiens.
Mittelalter
Nach einem langen Niedergang wurde Bologna im 5. Jahrhundert unter dem Bischof Petronius wiedergeboren, der nach dem Vorbild der Jerusalemer Grabeskirche den Kirchenkomplex von Santo Stefano errichtet haben soll. Nach dem Ende des Römischen Reiches war Bologna ein vorgeschobenes Bollwerk des Exarchats von Ravenna, geschützt von mehreren Wallringen, die jedoch den größten Teil der verfallenen römischen Stadt nicht einschlossen. 728 wurde die Stadt von dem Langobardenkönig Liutprand erobert und damit Teil des Langobardenreichs. Die Langobarden schufen in Bologna einen neuen Stadtteil nahe Santo Stefano, bis heute Addizione Longobarda genannt, in dem Karl der Große bei seinem Besuch 786 unterkam.
Im 11. Jahrhundert wuchs der Ort als freie Kommune erneut. 1088 wurde der Studio gegründet – heute die älteste Universität Europas –, an der zahlreiche bedeutende Gelehrte des Mittelalters lehrten, unter anderem Irnerius, woraus dann im 12. Jahrhundert die Universität Bologna[4] entstand. Da sich die Stadt weiter ausdehnte, erhielt sie im 12. Jahrhundert einen neuen Wallring, ein weiterer wurde im 14. Jahrhundert fertiggestellt.
1164 trat Bologna in den Lombardenbund gegen Friedrich I. Barbarossa ein, 1256 verkündete die Stadt die Legge del Paradiso (Paradiesgesetz), das Leibeigenschaft und Sklaverei abschaffte und die verbleibenden Sklaven mit öffentlichem Geld freikaufte. 50.000 bis 70.000 Menschen lebten zu dieser Zeit in Bologna und machten die Stadt zur sechst- oder siebtgrößten Europas nach Konstantinopel, Córdoba, Paris, Venedig, Florenz und möglicherweise Mailand. Das Stadtzentrum war ein Wald von Türmen: Schätzungsweise um die 100 Geschlechtertürme der führenden Familien, Kirchtürme und Türme öffentlicher Gebäude bestimmten das Stadtbild.
Bologna entschied sich 1248, die Weizenausfuhr zu verbieten, um die Lebensmittelversorgung seiner schnell wachsenden Bevölkerung zu sichern. Das kam einer Enteignung der venezianischen Grundbesitzer, vor allem der Klöster gleich. 1234 ging die Stadt noch einen Schritt weiter und besetzte Cervia, womit es in direkte Konkurrenz zu Venedig trat, das das Salzmonopol in der Adria beanspruchte. 1248 dehnte Bologna seine Herrschaft auf die Grafschaft Imola, 1252–1254 sogar auf Ravenna aus. Dazu kamen 1256 Bagnacavallo, Faenza und Forlì.
Doch der schwelende Konflikt zwischen Venedig und Bologna wurde 1240 durch die Besetzung der Stadt durch Kaiser Friedrich II. unterbrochen. Nachdem sich Cervia 1252 jedoch wieder Venedig unterstellt hatte, wurde es von einer gemeinsamen ravennatisch-bolognesischen Armee im Oktober 1254 zurückerobert. Venedig errichtete im Gegenzug 1258 am Po di Primaro eine Sperrfestung. Etsch, Po und der für die Versorgung Bolognas lebenswichtige Reno wurden damit blockiert – wobei letzterer von der See aus wiederum nur über den Po erreichbar war, und die Etsch bereits seit langer Zeit durch Cavarzere von Venedig kontrolliert wurde. Mit Hilfe dieser Blockade, vor allem an der Sperrfestung Marcamò – Bologna riegelte Marcamò vergebens durch ein eigenes Kastell ab – zwang Venedig das ausgehungerte Bologna zu einem Abkommen, das die Venezianer diktierten. Das bolognesische Kastell wurde geschleift. Ravenna stand Venedigs Händlern wieder offen, Venedigs Monopol war durchgesetzt.
Im Jahre 1272 starb in Bologna nach mehr als 22-jähriger Haft im Palazzo Nuovo (dem heutigen Palazzo di re Enzo) der König Enzio von Sardinien, ein unehelicher Sohn des Staufer-Kaisers Friedrich II.
Wie die meisten Kommunen Italiens war Bologna damals zusätzlich zu den äußeren Konflikten von inneren Streitigkeiten zwischen Ghibellinen und Guelfen (Staufer- bzw. Welfen-Partei, Kaiser gegen Papst) zerrissen. So wurde 1274 die einflussreiche ghibellinische Familie Lambertazzi aus der Stadt vertrieben.
Als Bologna 1297 verstärkt gegen die Ghibellinen der mittleren Romagna vorging, fürchtete Venedig das erneute Aufkommen einer konkurrierenden Festlandsmacht. Das betraf vor allem Ravenna. Venedig drohte der Stadt wegen Nichteinhaltung seiner Verträge und Bevorzugung Bolognas. Doch der Streit konnte beigelegt werden. Zu einer erneuten Handelssperre seitens Venedigs (wohl wegen der Ernennung Baiamonte Tiepolos zum Capitano von Bologna) kam es Ende 1326. Bologna hatte sich dem Schutz des Papstes unterstellt, nachdem es 1325 von Modena in der Schlacht von Zappolino vernichtend geschlagen worden war. Im Mai 1327 wurden alle Bologneser aufgefordert, Venedig innerhalb eines Monats zu verlassen. 1328–1332 kam es zu Handelssperren und Repressalien. Ravenna blieb dabei der wichtigste Importhafen der Region, den z. B. Bologna für größere Importe aus Apulien weiterhin nutzte. Zwischen 1325 und 1337 kam es zum Eimerkrieg von Bologna. Während der Pest-Epidemie von 1348 starben etwa 30.000 der Einwohner.
Nach der Regierungszeit Taddeo Pepolis (1337–1347) fiel Bologna an die Visconti Mailands, kehrte aber 1360 auf Betreiben von Kardinal Gil Álvarez Carillo de Albornoz durch Kauf wieder in den Machtbereich des Papstes zurück. Die folgenden Jahre waren bestimmt von einer Reihe republikanischer Regierungen (so z. B. die von 1377, die die Basilica di San Petronio und die Loggia dei Mercanti errichten ließ), wechselnder Zugehörigkeit zum päpstlichen oder Viscontischen Machtbereich und andauernder, verlustreicher Familienfehden.
1402 fiel die Stadt an Gian Galeazzo Visconti, der zum Signore von Bologna avancierte. Nachdem 1433 Bologna und Imola gefallen waren (bis 1435), verhalf Venedig dem Papst 1440/41 endgültig zur Stadtherrschaft. Bei der Gelegenheit nahm Venedig 1441–1509 Ravenna in Besitz.
Um diese Zeit erlangte die Familie der Bentivoglio mit Sante (1445–1462) und Giovanni II. (1462–1506) die Herrschaft in Bologna. Während ihrer Regierungszeit blühte die Stadt auf, angesehene Architekten und Maler gaben Bologna das Gesicht einer klassischen italienischen Renaissance-Stadt, die allerdings ihre Ambitionen auf Eroberung endgültig aufgeben musste.
Neuzeit
Giovannis Herrschaft endete 1506, als die Truppen Papst Julius' II. Bologna belagerten und die Kunstschätze seines Palastes plünderten. Im Anschluss gehörte Bologna bis zum 18. Jahrhundert zum Kirchenstaat und wurde von einem päpstlichen Legaten und einem Senat regiert, der alle zwei Monate einen gonfaloniere (Richter) wählte, der von acht Konsuln unterstützt wurde. Am 24. Februar 1530 wurde Karl V. von Papst Clemens VII. in Bologna zum Kaiser gekrönt. Es war die letzte vom Papst durchgeführte Kaiserkrönung. Der Wohlstand der Stadt dauerte an, doch eine Seuche am Ende des 16. Jahrhunderts verringerte die Zahl der Einwohner von 72.000 auf 59.000, eine weitere 1630 ließ sie auf 47.000 schrumpfen, bevor sie sich wieder auf 60.000 bis 65.000 einpendelte.
1564 wurden die Piazza del Nettuno, der Palazzo dei Banchi und der Archiginnasio erbaut, der Sitz der Universität. Zahlreiche Kirchen und andere religiöse Einrichtungen wurden während der päpstlichen Herrschaft neu errichtet, ältere renoviert – Bolognas 96 Klöster waren italienischer Rekord. Bedeutende Maler wie Annibale Carracci, Domenichino und Guercino, die in dieser Periode in Bologna tätig waren, formten die Bologneser Schule der Malerei.
Im napoleonischen Europa wurde Bologna 1796 – seit dem Ersten Koalitionskrieg vom Kirchenstaat unabhängig – zunächst Hauptstadt der kurzlebigen Cispadanischen Republik und später die nach Mailand bedeutendste Stadt in der Cisalpinischen Republik und des napoleonischen Königreichs Italien. Am 28. Januar 1814 eroberten die Österreicher die Stadt kurzzeitig zurück, mussten am 2. April 1815 dem Einmarsch französischer Truppen weichen, um am 16. April 1815 Bologna endgültig einzunehmen. Nach dem Fall Napoleons schlug der Wiener Kongress 1815 Bologna wieder dem Kirchenstaat zu, worauf dies am 18. Juli 1816 zur Ausführung kam.
Die Bevölkerung rebellierte im Frühjahr 1831 gegen die päpstliche Restauration. Durch eine neuerliche österreichische Besatzung ab dem 21. März 1831 wurde dem ein Ende gemacht. Die Besatzung dauerte mit einer kurzen Unterbrechung (Juli 1831 bis Januar 1832) bis zum 30. November 1838. Die Macht war damit erneut in der Hand des Papstes. Dagegen erhob sich im August 1843 der Aufstand der Moti di Savigno. Erneut kam es 1848/1849 zu Volksaufständen, als es vom 8. August 1848 bis 16. Mai 1849 gelang, die Truppen der österreichischen Garnison zu vertreiben, die danach erneut bis 1860 die Befehlsgewalt über die Stadt innehatten. Nach einem Besuch von Papst Pius IX. 1857 stimmte Bologna am 12. Juni 1859 für seine Annexion durch das Königreich Sardinien, wodurch die Stadt Teil des vereinten Italien wurde.
Zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts wurden die Mauern der Stadt bis auf wenige Reste abgerissen, um der schnell wachsenden Bevölkerung Platz zu schaffen. In den Wahlen am 28. Juni 1914 errang der Sozialist Francesco Zanardi zum ersten Mal das Stadtpräsidium (sindaco) für die Linke. Mit der Unterbrechung des Faschismus wird Bologna seitdem überwiegend von linken Stadtregierungen verwaltet.
1940 zählte Bologna 320.000 Einwohner. Im Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde Bologna in den Kämpfen der untergehenden NS-Diktatur mit amerikanischen, britischen und polnischen Invasionstruppen der Alliierten bombardiert und beschädigt, wobei in der Stadt 2.481 Zivilisten ums Leben kamen. Am 21. April 1945 wurde die Stadt von Einheiten des II. polnischen Korps befreit. Nach dem Krieg erholte sich Bologna schnell und ist heute eine der wohlhabendsten und stadtplanerisch gelungensten Städte Italiens.
Anschlag von Bologna 1980
Am 2. August 1980 verübte eine Gruppe von Rechtsextremisten einen Bombenanschlag auf den Hauptbahnhof der Stadt. 85 Menschen starben, mindestens 200 wurden verletzt. 1995 wurden für diesen Anschlag zwei Mitglieder der faschistischen Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari und Mitarbeiter des italienischen Geheimdienstes zu langjährigen Haftstrafen verurteilt.
Kulinarisches
Bologna ist die Heimat der Tortellini – mit Hackfleisch gefüllte, kleine ringförmige Teigwaren, die in einer Hühnerbrühe (brodo) oder mit Sahnesoße serviert werden. Einer Legende nach sollen die Tortellini den Nabel der römischen Liebesgöttin Venus nachbilden.
Eine weitere klassische Pasta aus Bologna sind Tagliatelle, mit Ei hergestellte Bandnudeln, die traditionell mit Ragù alla bolognese, einer Soße mit Hackfleisch und Tomaten, serviert werden. Von den bolognesischen Tagliatelle al ragù wurden die Spaghetti bolognese inspiriert, die aber nicht zur Küche Bolognas gehören, sondern vermutlich aus Nordamerika stammen.
Eine weitere aus Bologna stammende Spezialität ist die Mortadella, eine Aufschnittwurst vom Schwein, die in hauchdünne Scheiben geschnitten verzehrt wird.
Bologna ist außerdem für seine grüne Lasagne bekannt.
Bildung
Die 1088 gegründete Universität Bologna ist die älteste Institution dieser Art in Europa. Die etwa 80.000 Studenten stellen bei einer Gesamtbevölkerung von um die 400.000 einen bedeutenden Teil der Stadtbevölkerung und prägen die Stadt, vor allem innerhalb der historischen Stadtmauern. Die Stadt ist nicht nur bei Studenten aus allen Teilen Italiens beliebt, sondern auch bei ausländischen Studenten. Neben Erasmus-Studenten sind das vor allem Studenten aus den USA.
Außerdem gibt es in der Stadt die Akademie der Bildenden Künste, an der unter anderem Giorgio Morandi lehrte und Enrico Marconi eine Ausbildung absolvierte. Das SAIS Bologna Center ist eine Außenstelle der School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) der Johns Hopkins University. Bologna war Ort der Bolognaerklärung im Jahr 1999 und Namensgeber des Bologna-Prozesses zur Reformierung und Vereinheitlichung des Europäischen Hochschulraums.
(Wikipedia)
1587-1588. Oli sobre tela 66 x 88,9 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Nova York. 1994.142. Obra no exposada.
Im Auftrag von Alessandro Farnese, dem späteren Papst Paul III. wurde der Bau des Palastes 1514 von Antonio da Sangallo begonnen und nach seinem Tod 1546 von Michelangelo weitergeführt. Das Rustikaportal ähnelt einer päpstlichen Benediktionsloggia und wird vom Wappen der Farnese bekrönt. Heute ist der Palast im Renaissancestil Sitz der Französischen Botschaft.
Abends kann man von der Piazza Farnese aus einen Blick auf die Fresken der Brüder Carracci in der Galerie erhaschen.
As you enter the Pantheon, also known as the Chiesa Santa Maria ad Martyres (Church of Saint Mary and the Martyrs), the first exedra chapel on the right is the Cappella della'Annunciazione (Chapel of the Annunciation). Above the altar is a fresco of the Annunciation attributed to Melozzo da Forli (circa 1480-1484). To the left hangs a painting of ''St. Lawrence and St. Agnes'' by Clemente Maioli (circa 1645-1650); on the right is a 1633 painting titled ''The Incredulity of St Thomas'' by Pietro Paolo Bonzi, also known as Il Gobbo de'Carracci.
Reggio Emilia - Basilica di San Prospero.
Wiki -"The Basilica of San Prospero is an ancient church in central Reggio Emilia, Italy.
A church at the site, known as San Prospero di Castello, located inside the city walls, is known prior to 997. The church and its adjacent bell tower underwent reconstructions. In 1514, the church which was in ruins, was demolished and a new design by Luca Corti and Matteo Florentino was erected by 1527. Minor chapels were added till 1543, when the basilica was reconsecrated. Major changes to the belltower were designed by Cristoforo Ricci and Giulio Romano in 1536-1570. The facade of the church had been left incomplete till it was completed in 1748-1753 using designs of Giovanni Battista Cattani. While the statues on the facade are contemporary with Cattani's design, on the dais in front of the church are placed six lions (1501), sculpted in rose-colored marble by Gaspare Bigi, and meant to be bases for columns of a portico that had been planned for the church front.
The interior has works of art by Giovanni Giarola, Michelangelo Anselmi, Denis Calvaert, Ludovico Carracci, and Tommaso Laureti. It has altarpieces by Alessandro Tiarini and Francesco Stringa. Sculptors whose work is in the church include Bartolomeo Spani (Tomb of Rufino Gabloneta (1527) over the entrance) and Prospero Spani (il Clemente), who sculpted a Madonna on the right transept. The presbytery has a picture cycle by Camillo Procaccini and Bernardino Campi. The apse is frescoed with a Last Judgment by Procaccini.
The Chapel of the Pratonero family in this church once held the painting by Correggio of the Nativity (La Notte) (1522), which now is found in the Dresden Gallery. In 1640, the painting was absconded from the chapel by the Dukes of Modena for their private collection, a sacrilege which generated a local uproar. A copy made in replacement."
"Philip Haas (born 1954) is an American artist, screenwriter and filmmaker, perhaps best known for his 2012 sculpture exhibition "The Four Seasons" and his 1995 film Angels and Insects.
He began his career as a documentary film maker, directing ten profiles of unusual artists through the early 1990s with the theme "Magicians of the Earth," commissioned by the Centre Georges Pompidou.
His feature films include Angels and Insects, set in Victorian England, which was nominated for an Academy Award and the Cannes Film Festival Palme d'Or, Up at the Villa, an adaptation of the W. Somerset Maugham novella, starring Sean Penn, Anne Bancroft and Kristin Scott Thomas, The Situation, a political thriller set in Iraq, released in 2006, and the highly regarded The Music of Chance (1993).
In 2008, the Sonnabend Gallery of New York featured a film installation called The Butcher's Shop, commissioned by the Kimbell Art Museum, in which Haas recreated the space depicted in Annibale Carracci’s 1582 painting of the same name. In 2010, he expanded this series to include works by Ensor and Tiepolo. His exhibition of film installations at the Kimbell Art Museum, "Butchers, Dragons, Gods and Skeletons," was listed by TIME magazine as one of the top ten museum shows of 2009
Retrospectives of his art films have been held at the Tate Gallery in London, the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, Lincoln Center in New York, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. He received a Guggenheim Fellowship for this body of work. He has taught in the Visual Arts Program at Princeton University. In 2008 and 2010, he had one-man shows of paintings and film installations at the Sonnabend Gallery in New York City. Haas's monumental fiberglass sculpture Winter (after Arcimboldo) was unveiled in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. in September, 2010, before traveling in 2011 to the Piazza del Duomo in Milan and the Garden of Versailles. In 2012, in a spectacular transformation that is typical of his work, Haas created a group of large-scale, fifteen-foot-high, fibre-glass sculptures, inspired by Giuseppe Arcimboldo's Renaissance paintings of the four seasons, comprising Spring, Summer, Autumn, and including Winter. The colossal size of Haas's sculpture accentuates the visual puzzle of natural forms—flowers, ivy, moss, fungi, vegetables, fruit, trees, bark, branches, twigs, leaves—as they are recycled to form four human portraits, each representing an individual season. The result is at once earthy, fanciful and exuberant—a commentary on Arcimboldo's style and a work of art in its own right. These sculptures were first seen in the garden of the Dulwich Picture Gallery in the United Kingdom in the summer of 2012, before embarking on a three-year tour of American museums and botanical gardens."
- Wikipedia
Agostino Carracci (1557-1602),Paul Cézanne (1839-1906)
The "Art Gold Bandits"are not angels ..!
The "Art Gold Bandits"are not angels ..!
www.flickr.com/groups/artbanditsgold/discuss/721576264539...
The Tempio della Beata Vergine della Ghiara (Temple of the Blessed Virgin of Ghiara), also known as Basilica della Madonna della Ghiara is a church in Reggio Emilia, northern Italy. The building is the property of the comune (municipality) of the city.
The church was built in response to an alleged miracle associated with a local votive image of the Madonna which had occurred in the year 1596. The place soon became the goal of pilgrimages and, thanks to the offerings of the faithful, it was possible to construct a new temple to contain a painting that was a replica of the original.
The cornerstone was laid on June 6, 1597 by the bishop Claudio Rangone, in the presence of Duke Alfonso II d'Este and Duchess Margherita Gonzaga. Part of the former convent and church were demolished in order to make way for the new structure. The plan was by the local architect and sculptor Francesco Pacchioni, who also designed the dome and the interior stuccoes. The church was consecrated on May 12, 1619.
The interior is in Late Renaissance style, with rich decorations in gold, marbles, as well as large frescoes of the Carracci school covering the domes and the vaults. These depicts stories of women of the Old Testament. The ceiling painted by Alessandro Tiarini is considered his masterwork. The dome frescoes are by Lionello Spada (1616). Other works in the church are by Lelio Orsi and Giovanni Battista Magnani.
c. 1596-1597. Oli sobre fusta. 39,1 x 30,3 cm. The Royal Collection, Londres. RCIN 402990. Obra exposada: Castell de Windsor.
"Philip Haas (born 1954) is an American artist, screenwriter and filmmaker, perhaps best known for his 2012 sculpture exhibition "The Four Seasons" and his 1995 film Angels and Insects.
He began his career as a documentary film maker, directing ten profiles of unusual artists through the early 1990s with the theme "Magicians of the Earth," commissioned by the Centre Georges Pompidou.
His feature films include Angels and Insects, set in Victorian England, which was nominated for an Academy Award and the Cannes Film Festival Palme d'Or, Up at the Villa, an adaptation of the W. Somerset Maugham novella, starring Sean Penn, Anne Bancroft and Kristin Scott Thomas, The Situation, a political thriller set in Iraq, released in 2006, and the highly regarded The Music of Chance (1993).
In 2008, the Sonnabend Gallery of New York featured a film installation called The Butcher's Shop, commissioned by the Kimbell Art Museum, in which Haas recreated the space depicted in Annibale Carracci’s 1582 painting of the same name. In 2010, he expanded this series to include works by Ensor and Tiepolo. His exhibition of film installations at the Kimbell Art Museum, "Butchers, Dragons, Gods and Skeletons," was listed by TIME magazine as one of the top ten museum shows of 2009
Retrospectives of his art films have been held at the Tate Gallery in London, the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, Lincoln Center in New York, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. He received a Guggenheim Fellowship for this body of work. He has taught in the Visual Arts Program at Princeton University. In 2008 and 2010, he had one-man shows of paintings and film installations at the Sonnabend Gallery in New York City. Haas's monumental fiberglass sculpture Winter (after Arcimboldo) was unveiled in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. in September, 2010, before traveling in 2011 to the Piazza del Duomo in Milan and the Garden of Versailles. In 2012, in a spectacular transformation that is typical of his work, Haas created a group of large-scale, fifteen-foot-high, fibre-glass sculptures, inspired by Giuseppe Arcimboldo's Renaissance paintings of the four seasons, comprising Spring, Summer, Autumn, and including Winter. The colossal size of Haas's sculpture accentuates the visual puzzle of natural forms—flowers, ivy, moss, fungi, vegetables, fruit, trees, bark, branches, twigs, leaves—as they are recycled to form four human portraits, each representing an individual season. The result is at once earthy, fanciful and exuberant—a commentary on Arcimboldo's style and a work of art in its own right. These sculptures were first seen in the garden of the Dulwich Picture Gallery in the United Kingdom in the summer of 2012, before embarking on a three-year tour of American museums and botanical gardens."
- Wikipedia
La Galería Nacional de Parma (en italiano, Galleria Nazionale) es una pinacoteca que se encuentra en la Piazza della Pilotta 5 de Parma (Italia).
El museo expone obras de: Beato Angelico, Canaletto, Giambattista Pittoni, Leonardo da Vinci, Tintoretto, Correggio, Sebastiano del Piombo, Guercino, Parmigianino, etc.
La galería está situada en el Palacio de la Pelota que fue construido hacia el año 1583, durante los últimos años del ducado de Octavio Farnesio.
El edificio fue ampliado por voluntad del duque Ranuccio II Farnesio, fueron creados el Teatro, los establos, las habitaciones de los mozos de cuadra, el picadero, el almacén de carruajes, la Sala de la Academia y de las galerías que delimitaron los patios.
Las labores se iniciaron en 1602 sobre un proyecto del arquitecto Simone Moschino; se interrumpieron en el año 1611 dejando la construcción incompleta.
Los sucesores de Ranuccio se ocuparon sobre todo del interior del palacio donde fueron reunidas las colecciones artísticas de la familia.
En 1734, el rey de Nápoles Carlos de Borbón se llevó consigo la colección hasta el establecimiento en Parma de la corte de Felipe de Borbón.
El duque instituyó, en el interior del palacio, la Academia Ducal de Pintura, Escultura y Arquitectura en el año 1757 y, en 1769 la Biblioteca Palatina.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galer%C3%ADa_Nacional_de_Parma
The Galleria nazionale di Parma is an art gallery in Parma, northern Italy.
Painters exhibited in the museum include Beato Angelico, Fra Angelico, Canaletto, Ludovico Carracci (The Funeral of the Virgin Mary), Agostino Carracci (Madonna and Child with Saints), Correggio, Leonardo da Vinci, Sebastiano del Piombo, Guercino (Susannah and the Elders), Parmigianino (Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine), Tintoretto, and others.
The Parmesan collections were established in Renaissance times by the Farnese family, with Pope Paul III and Cardinal Alessandro Farnese.
In 1734, Charles III of Spain had most of the Farnese Collection moved to Naples. Some were kept thanks to the intervention of Philip, Duke of Parma.
Later, the remaining collection was increased with the addition of Greco-Roman discoveries, donations, and with the restitution of some of the works that had been taken to Naples, as well as, through new acquisitions under Duke Ferdinand (1758).
During the French occupation of Parma (1803–1814), the works were moved to Paris, returning in 1816. Duchess Marie Louise reordered the collections in the Palazzo della Pilotta and built the hall that now bears her name. She also acquired several noble collections in the duchy to avoid their dispersal.
Exhibition - "Caravaggio's Roman Period -
His friends and enemies"
From 21 September to 28 January 2019
In the autumn of 2018, discover an exhibition devoted to Caravaggio (1571–1610), a leading figure in 17th-century Italian painting. Nine masterpieces by the artist will exceptionally be brought together for this unique event in Paris.
An exhibition event
These extraordinary canvases from major Italian museums—such as the Galleria Nazionale in Palazzo Barberini, the Galleria Borghese and the Musei Capitolini in Rome, the Pinacoteca di Brera in Milan, the Musei di Strada Nuova in Genoa, and the Museo Civico Ala Ponzone in Cremona, not to mention the prestigious loan of the Lute Player (1595-1596) from the Hermitage Museum of St. Petersburg, presented in France or the first time. Nine Caravaggio will retrace Caravaggio’s Roman period from 1592 until he fled into exile in 1606. They will be complemented by the works of leading contemporary painters, such as Cavaliere d’Arpino, Annibale Carracci, Orazio Gentileschi, Giovanni Baglione, and José de Ribera, in order to highlight Caravaggio’s innovative genius and the artistic effervescence that reigned in the Eternal City at the time.
An exceptional artist at the heart of the roman artistic scene
Born in 1571, Michelangelo Merisi, whose byname was Caravaggio, revolutionised Italian painting in the 17th century through the realism of his canvases and his innovative use of chiaroscuro, and became the greatest naturalistic painter of his time.
The exhibition will focus on Caravaggio’s Roman period and the artistic circle in which he moved: as the most recent studies have shown, the painter maintained close relations with the contemporary intellectual circles in Rome. The exhibition will therefore look at Caravaggio’s links with the collectors and artists, and also the poets and scholars of his time—links that have never been highlighted in an exhibition.
The exhibition will initially focus on life in Rome at the beginning of the seventeenth century, by looking at the artistic activity in the major workshops, in which Caravaggio began his career. It was during this period that Caravaggio met various figures who were to play a key role in his career: Marchese Giustiniani (1564–1637) and Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte (1549–1627). They became Caravaggio’s foremost patrons and he received many prestigious commissions from them. After looking at Caravaggio’s friends and supporters, the exhibition will focus on his enemies and rivals who were also part of the art scene in Rome at the time. Caravaggio—the painter did not want other artists to imitate his style, but this did in fact occur—sometimes clashed with his confrères during discussions, lawsuits, and even brawls.
His career in Rome ended in 1606, when Caravaggio killed Ranuccio Tomassoni during a heated discussion. Condemned to death after this fatal brawl, Caravaggio fled into exile but his most loyal patrons continued to take an interest in his work.
But this Spring (until late April), the building which has long been used as the French Embassy, is partly open because the ambassador did a bit of imaginative PR and has opened its treasures to the public for the first time.... and brought back a few of the Farnese treasures from Naples and the Louvre to allow people to see them in their original location, along with Rome's 2nd best ceiling and its Carracci frescoes: www.mostrapalazzofarnese.it/it/index.html (I had to check in my camera at the on going through the considerable entrance security sp no photos of the magnificent exhibition or even the garden, amazing grand staircase or internal courtyard).
Archway typical of the city
Für die Stadt typischer Bogengang.
Bologna (/bəˈloʊnjə/, UK also /bəˈlɒnjə/, Italian: [boˈloɲɲa]; Emilian: Bulåggna [buˈlʌɲːa]; Latin: Bononia) is a city in and the capital of the Emilia-Romagna region in Northern Italy, of which it is also its largest. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy with about 400,000 inhabitants and 150 different nationalities. Its metropolitan area is home to more than 1,000,000 people. It is known as the Fat City for its rich cuisine, and the Red City for its Spanish-style red tiled rooftops and, more recently, its leftist politics. It is also called the Learned City because it is home to the oldest university in the world.
Originally Etruscan, the city has been an important urban center for centuries, first under the Etruscans (who called it Felsina), then under the Celts as Bona, later under the Romans (Bonōnia), then again in the Middle Ages, as a free municipality and later signoria, when it was among the largest European cities by population. Famous for its towers, churches and lengthy porticoes, Bologna has a well-preserved historical centre, thanks to a careful restoration and conservation policy which began at the end of the 1970s. Home to the oldest university in continuous operation, the University of Bologna, established in AD 1088, the city has a large student population that gives it a cosmopolitan character. In 2000 it was declared European capital of culture and in 2006, a UNESCO "City of Music" and became part of the Creative Cities Network. In 2021 UNESCO recognized the lengthy porticoes of the city as a World Heritage Site.
Bologna is an important agricultural, industrial, financial and transport hub, where many large mechanical, electronic and food companies have their headquarters as well as one of the largest permanent trade fairs in Europe. According to recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index (E-REGI) of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city and the 47th European city in terms of its economic growth rate; in 2022 Il Sole 24 Ore named Bologna the best city in Italy for overall quality of life.
History
Antiquity and Middle Ages
Traces of human habitation in the area of Bologna go back to the 3rd millennium BCE, with significant settlements from about the 9th century BCE (Villanovan culture). The influence of Etruscan civilization reached the area in the 7th to 6th centuries, and the Etruscan city of Felsina was established at the site of Bologna by the end of the 6th century. By the 4th century BCE, the site was occupied by the Gaulish Boii, and it became a Roman colony and municipium with the name of Bonōnia in 196 BCE. During the waning years of the Western Roman Empire Bologna was repeatedly sacked by the Goths. It is in this period that legendary Bishop Petronius, according to ancient chronicles, rebuilt the ruined town and founded the basilica of Saint Stephen. Petronius is still revered as the patron saint of Bologna.
In 727–28, the city was sacked and captured by the Lombards under King Liutprand, becoming part of that kingdom. These Germanic conquerors built an important new quarter, called "addizione longobarda" (Italian meaning "Longobard addition") near the complex of St. Stephen.[20] In the last quarter of the 8th century, Charlemagne, at the request of Pope Adrian I, invaded the Lombard Kingdom, causing its eventual demise. Occupied by Frankish troops in 774 on behalf of the papacy, Bologna remained under imperial authority and prospered as a frontier mark of the Carolingian empire.
Bologna was the center of a revived study of law, including the scholar Irnerius (c 1050 – after 1125) and his famous students, the Four Doctors of Bologna.
After the death of Matilda of Tuscany in 1115, Bologna obtained substantial concessions from Emperor Henry V. However, when Frederick Barbarossa subsequently attempted to strike down the deal, Bologna joined the Lombard League, which then defeated the imperial armies at the Battle of Legnano and established an effective autonomy at the Peace of Constance in 1183. Subsequently, the town began to expand rapidly and became one of the main commercial trade centres of northern Italy thanks to a system of canals that allowed barges and ships to come and go. Believed to have been established in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely considered the world's oldest university in continuous operation. The university originated as a centre for the study of medieval Roman law under major glossators, including Irnerius. It numbered Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarch among its students. The medical school was especially renowned. By 1200, Bologna was a thriving commercial and artisanal centre of about 10,000 people.
During a campaign to support the imperial cities of Modena and Cremona against Bologna, Frederick II's son, King Enzo of Sardinia, was defeated and captured on 26 May 1249 at the Battle of Fossalta. Though the emperor demanded his release, Enzo was thenceforth kept a knightly prisoner in Bologna, in a palace that came to be named Palazzo Re Enzo after him. Every attempt to escape or to rescue him failed, and he died after more than 22 years in captivity. After the death of his half-brothers Conrad IV in 1254, Frederick of Antioch in 1256 and Manfred in 1266, as well as the execution of his nephew Conradin in 1268, he was the last of the Hohenstaufen heirs.
During the late 1200s, Bologna was affected by political instability when the most prominent families incessantly fought for the control of the town. The free commune was severely weakened by decades of infighting, allowing the Pope to impose the rule of his envoy Cardinal Bertrand du Pouget in 1327. Du Pouget was eventually ousted by a popular rebellion and Bologna became a signoria under Taddeo Pepoli in 1334. By the arrival of the Black Death in 1348, Bologna had 40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants, reduced to just 20,000 to 25,000 after the plague.
In 1350, Bologna was conquered by archbishop Giovanni Visconti, the new lord of Milan. But following a rebellion by the town's governor, a renegade member of the Visconti family, Bologna was recuperated to the papacy in 1363 by Cardinal Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz after a long negotiation involving a huge indemnity paid to Bernabò Visconti, Giovanni's heir, who died in 1354. In 1376, Bologna again revolted against Papal rule and joined Florence in the unsuccessful War of the Eight Saints. However, extreme infighting inside the Holy See after the Western Schism prevented the papacy from restoring its domination over Bologna, so it remained relatively independent for some decades as an oligarchic republic. In 1401, Giovanni I Bentivoglio took power in a coup with the support of Milan, but the Milanese, having turned his back on them and allied with Florence, marched on Bologna and had Giovanni killed the following year. In 1442, Hannibal I Bentivoglio, Giovanni's nephew, recovered Bologna from the Milanese, only to be assassinated in a conspiracy plotted by Pope Eugene IV three years later. But the signoria of the Bentivoglio family was then firmly established, and the power passed to his cousin Sante Bentivoglio, who ruled until 1462, followed by Giovanni II. Giovanni II managed to resist the expansionist designs of Cesare Borgia for some time, but on 7 October 1506, Pope Julius II issued a bull deposing and excommunicating Bentivoglio and placing the city under interdict. When the papal troops, along with a contingent sent by Louis XII of France, marched against Bologna, Bentivoglio and his family fled. Julius II entered the city triumphantly on 10 November.
Early modern
The period of Papal rule over Bologna (1506–1796) has been generally evaluated by historians as one of severe decline. However, this was not evident in the 1500s, which were marked by some major developments in Bologna. In 1530, Emperor Charles V was crowned in Bologna, the last of the Holy Roman Emperors to be crowned by the pope. In 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio, the main building of the university. The period of Papal rule saw also the construction of many churches and other religious establishments, and the restoration of older ones. At this time, Bologna had ninety-six convents, more than any other Italian city. Painters working in Bologna during this period established the Bolognese School which includes Annibale Carracci, Domenichino, Guercino, and others of European fame.
It was only towards the end of the 16th century that severe signs of decline began to manifest. A series of plagues in the late 16th to early 17th century reduced the population of the city from some 72,000 in the mid-16th century to about 47,000 by 1630. During the 1629–1631 Italian plague alone, Bologna lost up to a third of its population] In the mid-17th century, the population stabilized at roughly 60,000, slowly increasing to some 70,000 by the mid-18th century. The economy of Bologna started to show signs of severe decline as the global centres of trade shifted towards the Atlantic. The traditional silk industry was in a critical state. The university was losing students, who once came from all over Europe, because of the illiberal attitudes of the Church towards culture (especially after the trial of Galileo). Bologna continued to suffer a progressive deindustrialisation also in the 18th century.
In the mid-1700s, Pope Benedict XIV, a Bolognese, tried to reverse the decline of the city with a series of reforms intended to stimulate the economy and promote the arts. However, these reforms achieved only mixed results. The pope's efforts to stimulate the decaying textile industry had little success, while he was more successful in reforming the tax system, liberalising trade and relaxing the oppressive system of censorship.
The economic and demographic decline of Bologna became even more noticeable starting in the second half of the 18th century. In 1790, the city had 72,000 inhabitants, ranking as the second largest in the Papal States; however, this figure had remained unchanged for decades.
During this period, Papal economic policies included heavy customs duties and concessions of monopolies to single manufacturers.
Modern history
Napoleon entered Bologna on 19 June 1796. Napoleon briefly reinstated the ancient mode of government, giving power to the Senate, which however had to swear fealty to the short-lived Cispadane Republic, created as a client state of the French First Republic at the congress of Reggio (27 December 1796 – 9 January 1797) but succeeded by the Cisalpine Republic on 9 July 1797, later by the Italian Republic and finally the Kingdom of Italy. After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 restored Bologna to the Papal States. Papal rule was contested in the uprisings of 1831. The insurrected provinces planned to unite as the Province Italiane Unite with Bologna as the capital. Pope Gregory XVI asked for Austrian help against the rebels. Metternich warned French king Louis Philippe I against intervention in Italian affairs, and in the spring of 1831, Austrian forces marched across the Italian peninsula, defeating the rebellion by 26 April.
By the mid-1840s, unemployment levels were very high and traditional industries continued to languish or disappear; Bologna became a city of economic disparity with the top 10 percent of the population living off rent, another 20 percent exercising professions or commerce and 70 percent working in low-paid, often insecure manual jobs. The Papal census of 1841 reported 10,000 permanent beggars and another 30,000 (out of a total population of 70,000) who lived in poverty. In the revolutions of 1848 the Austrian garrisons which controlled the city on behalf of the Pope were temporarily expelled, but eventually came back and crushed the revolutionaries.
Papal rule finally ended in the aftermath of Second War of Italian Independence, when the French and Piedmontese troops expelled the Austrians from Italian lands, on 11 and 12 March 1860, Bologna voted to join the new Kingdom of Italy. In the last decades of the 19th century, Bologna once again thrived economically and socially. In 1863 Naples was linked to Rome by railway, and the following year Bologna to Florence. Bolognese moderate agrarian elites, that supported liberal insurgencies against the papacy and were admirers of the British political system and of free trade, envisioned a unified national state that would open a bigger market for the massive agricultural production of the Emilian plains. Indeed, Bologna gave Italy one of its first prime ministers, Marco Minghetti.
After World War I, Bologna was heavily involved in the Biennio Rosso socialist uprisings. As a consequence, the traditionally moderate elites of the city turned their back on the progressive faction and gave their support to the rising Fascist movement of Benito Mussolini. Dino Grandi, a high-ranking Fascist party official and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, remembered for being an Anglophile, was from Bologna. During the interwar years, Bologna developed into an important manufacturing centre for food processing, agricultural machinery and metalworking. The Fascist regime poured in massive investments, for example with the setting up of a giant tobacco manufacturing plant in 1937.
World War II
Bologna suffered extensive damage during World War II. The strategic importance of the city as an industrial and railway hub connecting northern and central Italy made it a target for the Allied forces. On 24 July 1943, a massive aerial bombardment destroyed a significant part of the historic city centre and killed about 200 people. The main railway station and adjoining areas were severely hit, and 44% of the buildings in the centre were listed as having been destroyed or severely damaged. The city was heavily bombed again on 25 September. The raids, which this time were not confined to the city centre, left 2,481 people dead and 2,000 injured. By the end of the war, 43% of all buildings in Bologna had been destroyed or damaged.
After the armistice of 1943, the city became a key centre of the Italian resistance movement. On 7 November 1944, a pitched battle around Porta Lame, waged by partisans of the 7th Brigade of the Gruppi d'Azione Patriottica against Fascist and Nazi occupation forces, did not succeed in triggering a general uprising, despite being one of the largest resistance-led urban conflicts in the European theatre. Resistance forces entered Bologna on the morning of 21 April 1945. By this time, the Germans had already largely left the city in the face of the Allied advance, spearheaded by Polish forces advancing from the east during the Battle of Bologna which had been fought since 9 April. First to arrive in the centre was the 87th Infantry Regiment of the Friuli Combat Group under general Arturo Scattini, who entered the centre from Porta Maggiore to the south. Since the soldiers were dressed in British outfits, they were initially thought to be part of the allied forces; when the local inhabitants heard the soldiers were speaking Italian, they poured out onto the streets to celebrate.
Cold War period
In the post-war years, Bologna became a thriving industrial centre as well as a political stronghold of the Italian Communist Party. Between 1945 and 1999, the city was helmed by an uninterrupted succession of mayors from the PCI and its successors, the Democratic Party of the Left and Democrats of the Left, the first of whom was Giuseppe Dozza. At the end of the 1960s the city authorities, worried by massive gentrification and suburbanisation, asked Japanese starchitect Kenzo Tange to sketch a master plan for a new town north of Bologna; however, the project that came out in 1970 was evaluated as too ambitious and expensive. Eventually the city council, in spite of vetoing Tange's master plan, decided to keep his project for a new exhibition centre and business district. At the end of 1978 the construction of a tower block and several diverse buildings and structures started. In 1985 the headquarters of the regional government of Emilia-Romagna moved in the new district.
In 1977, Bologna was the scene of rioting linked to the Movement of 1977, a spontaneous political movement of the time. The police shooting of a far-left activist, Francesco Lorusso, sparked two days of street clashes. On 2 August 1980, at the height of the "years of lead", a terrorist bomb was set off in the central railway station of Bologna killing 85 people and wounding 200, an event which is known in Italy as the Bologna massacre. In 1995, members of the neo-fascist group Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari were convicted for carrying out the attack, while Licio Gelli—Grand Master of the underground Freemason lodge Propaganda Due (P2)—was convicted for hampering the investigation, together with three agents of the secret military intelligence service SISMI (including Francesco Pazienza and Pietro Musumeci). Commemorations take place in Bologna on 2 August each year, culminating in a concert in the main square.
21st century
In 1999, the long tradition of left-wing mayors was interrupted by the victory of independent centre-right candidate Giorgio Guazzaloca. However, Bologna reverted to form in 2004 when Sergio Cofferati, a former trade union leader, unseated Guazzaloca. The next centre-left mayor, Flavio Delbono, elected in June 2009, resigned in January 2010 after being involved in a corruption scandal. After a 15-month period in which the city was administered under Anna Maria Cancellieri (as a state-appointed prefect), Virginio Merola was elected as mayor, leading a left-wing coalition comprising the Democratic Party, Left Ecology Freedom and Italy of Values. In 2016, Merola was confirmed mayor, defeating the conservative candidate, Lucia Borgonzoni. In 2021, after ten years of Merola's mayorship, one of his closest allies, Matteo Lepore, was elected mayor with 61.9% of votes, becoming the most voted mayor of Bologna since the introduction of the direct elections in 1995.
Geography
Territory
Bologna is situated on the edge of the Po Plain at the foot of the Apennine Mountains, at the meeting of the Reno and Savena river valleys. As Bologna's two main watercourses flow directly to the sea, the town lies outside of the drainage basin of the River Po. The Province of Bologna stretches from the western edge of the Po Plain on the border with Ferrara to the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines. The centre of the town is 54 metres (177 ft) above sea level (while elevation within the municipality ranges from 29 metres (95 ft) in the suburb of Corticella to 300 metres (980 ft) in Sabbiuno and the Colle della Guardia). The Province of Bologna stretches from the Po Plain into the Apennines; the highest point in the province is the peak of Corno alle Scale (in Lizzano in Belvedere) at 1,945 metres (6,381 ft) above sea level.
Cityscape
Until the late 19th century, when a large-scale urban renewal project was undertaken, Bologna was one of the few remaining large walled cities in Europe; to this day and despite having suffered considerable bombing damage in 1944, Bologna's 142 hectares (350 acres) historic centre is Europe's second largest, containing an immense wealth of important medieval, renaissance, and baroque artistic monuments.
Bologna developed along the Via Emilia as an Etruscan and later Roman colony; the Via Emilia still runs straight through the city under the changing names of Strada Maggiore, Rizzoli, Ugo Bassi, and San Felice. Due to its Roman heritage, the central streets of Bologna, today largely pedestrianized, follow the grid pattern of the Roman settlement. The original Roman ramparts were supplanted by a high medieval system of fortifications, remains of which are still visible, and finally by a third and final set of ramparts built in the 13th century, of which numerous sections survive. No more than twenty medieval defensive towers remain out of up to 180 that were built in the 12th and 13th centuries before the arrival of unified civic government. The most famous of the towers of Bologna are the central "Due Torri" (Asinelli and Garisenda), whose iconic leaning forms provide a popular symbol of the town.
The cityscape is further enriched by its elegant and extensive porticoes, for which the city is famous. In total, there are some 38 kilometres (24 miles) of porticoes in the city's historical centre (over 45 km (28 mi) in the city proper), which make it possible to walk for long distances sheltered from the elements.
The Portico di San Luca is possibly the world's longest. It connects Porta Saragozza (one of the twelve gates of the ancient walls built in the Middle Ages, which circled a 7.5 km (4.7 mi) part of the city) with the Sanctuary of the Madonna di San Luca, a church begun in 1723 on the site of an 11th-century edifice which had already been enlarged in the 14th century, prominently located on a hill (289 metres (948 feet)) overlooking the town, which is one of Bologna's main landmarks. The windy 666 vault arcades, almost four kilometres (3,796 m or 12,454 ft) long, effectively links San Luca, as the church is commonly called, to the city centre. Its porticos provide shelter for the traditional procession which every year since 1433 has carried a Byzantine icon of the Madonna with Child attributed to Luke the Evangelist down to the Bologna Cathedral during the Feast of the Ascension.
In 2021, the porticoes were named as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
San Petronio Basilica, built between 1388 and 1479 (but still unfinished), is the tenth-largest church in the world by volume, 132 metres long and 66 metres wide, while the vault reaches 45 metres inside and 51 metres in the facade. With its volume of 258,000 m3, it is the largest (Gothic or otherwise) church built of bricks of the world. The Basilica of Saint Stephen and its sanctuary are among the oldest structures in Bologna, having been built starting from the 8th century, according to the tradition on the site of an ancient temple dedicated to Egyptian goddess Isis. The Basilica of Saint Dominic is an example of Romanic architecture from the 13th century, enriched by the monumental tombs of great Bolognese glossators Rolandino de'Passeggeri and Egidio Foscherari. Basilicas of St Francis, Santa Maria dei Servi and San Giacomo Maggiore are other magnificent examples of 14th-century architecture, the latter also featuring Renaissance artworks such as the Bentivoglio Altarpiece by Lorenzo Costa. Finally, the Church of San Michele in Bosco is a 15th-century religious complex located on a hill not far from the city's historical center.
(Wikipedia)
Bologna [boˈlɔnja, italienisch boˈloɲːa] ist eine italienische Universitätsstadt und die Hauptstadt der Metropolitanstadt Bologna sowie der Region Emilia-Romagna. Die Großstadt ist mit 390.625 Einwohnern (Stand: 31. Dezember 2019) die siebtgrößte italienische Stadt und ein bedeutender nationaler Verkehrsknotenpunkt.
Geografie
Allgemein
Bologna liegt am südlichen Rand der Po-Ebene am Fuße des Apennin, zwischen den Flüssen Reno und Savena in Norditalien. Die Flussläufe und Kanäle in der Stadt wurden im Verlaufe der Stadtentwicklung aus sanitären Gründen fast vollständig überbaut. Die durch Bologna fließenden Gewässer sind der Canale di Reno, der Canale di Savena und der Aposa; sie werden nördlich des Stadtzentrums zum Navile zusammengefasst. Damit wird dem Canale di Savena ein Teil des Wassers entzogen; der nachfolgende Flussarm heißt entsprechend Savena abbandonato („aufgegebener Savena“). In den westlichen Stadtteilen verläuft zudem der Ravone, der sich weiter östlich mit dem Reno vereint. Das Adriatische Meer befindet sich ca. 60 Kilometer östlich der Stadt.
Geschichte
Antike
Die Geschichte der Stadt beginnt als etruskische Gründung mit dem Namen Felsina vermutlich im 6. Jahrhundert v. Chr., Spuren älterer dörflicher Siedlungen der Villanovakultur in der Gegend reichen bis ins 11./10. Jahrhundert v. Chr. zurück. Die etruskische Stadt wuchs um ein Heiligtum auf einem Hügel und war von einer Nekropole umgeben.
Im 5. Jahrhundert v. Chr. eroberten die keltischen Boier Felsina. 191 v. Chr. wurde die Stadt von den Römern erobert, 189 v. Chr. wurde sie als Bononia römische Colonia. 3000 latinische Familien siedelten sich dort an, wobei den ehemaligen Konsuln Lucius Valerius Flaccus, Marcus Atilius Seranus und Lucius Valerius Tappo die Organisation der Stadt(neu)gründung übertragen wurde.[3] Der Bau der Via Aemilia 187 v. Chr. machte Bononia zum Verkehrsknotenpunkt: Hier kreuzte sich die Hauptverkehrsstraße der Poebene mit der Via Flaminia minor nach Arretium (Arezzo). 88 v. Chr. erhielt Bononia über die Lex municipalis wie alle Landstädte Italiens volles römisches Bürgerrecht. Nach einem Brand wurde sie im 1. Jahrhundert unter Kaiser Nero wieder aufgebaut.
Wie für eine römische Stadt typisch, war Bononia schachbrettartig um die zentrale Kreuzung zweier Hauptstraßen angelegt, des Cardo mit dem Decumanus. Sechs Nord-Süd- und acht Ost-West-Straßen teilten die Stadt in einzelne Quartiere und sind bis heute erhalten. Während der römischen Kaiserzeit hatte Bononia mindestens 12.000, möglicherweise jedoch bis 30.000 Einwohner. Bei Ausgrabungen rund um das Forum der antiken Stadt in den Jahren 1989–1994 wurden zwei Tempel, Verwaltungsgebäude, Markthallen und das Tagungsgebäude des Stadtrates gefunden; im südlichen Teil des ursprünglichen Stadtgebietes ist ein Theater freigelegt worden. Die Stadt scheint jedoch deutlich über ihre ursprüngliche Befestigung hinausgewachsen zu sein, beispielsweise sind außerhalb der Stadtmauer ein Amphitheater, ein Aquädukt und ein Thermenareal entdeckt worden. Der Geograph Pomponius Mela zählte die Stadt im 1. Jahrhundert n. Chr. zu den fünf üppigsten (opulentissimae) Städten Italiens.
Mittelalter
Nach einem langen Niedergang wurde Bologna im 5. Jahrhundert unter dem Bischof Petronius wiedergeboren, der nach dem Vorbild der Jerusalemer Grabeskirche den Kirchenkomplex von Santo Stefano errichtet haben soll. Nach dem Ende des Römischen Reiches war Bologna ein vorgeschobenes Bollwerk des Exarchats von Ravenna, geschützt von mehreren Wallringen, die jedoch den größten Teil der verfallenen römischen Stadt nicht einschlossen. 728 wurde die Stadt von dem Langobardenkönig Liutprand erobert und damit Teil des Langobardenreichs. Die Langobarden schufen in Bologna einen neuen Stadtteil nahe Santo Stefano, bis heute Addizione Longobarda genannt, in dem Karl der Große bei seinem Besuch 786 unterkam.
Im 11. Jahrhundert wuchs der Ort als freie Kommune erneut. 1088 wurde der Studio gegründet – heute die älteste Universität Europas –, an der zahlreiche bedeutende Gelehrte des Mittelalters lehrten, unter anderem Irnerius, woraus dann im 12. Jahrhundert die Universität Bologna[4] entstand. Da sich die Stadt weiter ausdehnte, erhielt sie im 12. Jahrhundert einen neuen Wallring, ein weiterer wurde im 14. Jahrhundert fertiggestellt.
1164 trat Bologna in den Lombardenbund gegen Friedrich I. Barbarossa ein, 1256 verkündete die Stadt die Legge del Paradiso (Paradiesgesetz), das Leibeigenschaft und Sklaverei abschaffte und die verbleibenden Sklaven mit öffentlichem Geld freikaufte. 50.000 bis 70.000 Menschen lebten zu dieser Zeit in Bologna und machten die Stadt zur sechst- oder siebtgrößten Europas nach Konstantinopel, Córdoba, Paris, Venedig, Florenz und möglicherweise Mailand. Das Stadtzentrum war ein Wald von Türmen: Schätzungsweise um die 100 Geschlechtertürme der führenden Familien, Kirchtürme und Türme öffentlicher Gebäude bestimmten das Stadtbild.
Bologna entschied sich 1248, die Weizenausfuhr zu verbieten, um die Lebensmittelversorgung seiner schnell wachsenden Bevölkerung zu sichern. Das kam einer Enteignung der venezianischen Grundbesitzer, vor allem der Klöster gleich. 1234 ging die Stadt noch einen Schritt weiter und besetzte Cervia, womit es in direkte Konkurrenz zu Venedig trat, das das Salzmonopol in der Adria beanspruchte. 1248 dehnte Bologna seine Herrschaft auf die Grafschaft Imola, 1252–1254 sogar auf Ravenna aus. Dazu kamen 1256 Bagnacavallo, Faenza und Forlì.
Doch der schwelende Konflikt zwischen Venedig und Bologna wurde 1240 durch die Besetzung der Stadt durch Kaiser Friedrich II. unterbrochen. Nachdem sich Cervia 1252 jedoch wieder Venedig unterstellt hatte, wurde es von einer gemeinsamen ravennatisch-bolognesischen Armee im Oktober 1254 zurückerobert. Venedig errichtete im Gegenzug 1258 am Po di Primaro eine Sperrfestung. Etsch, Po und der für die Versorgung Bolognas lebenswichtige Reno wurden damit blockiert – wobei letzterer von der See aus wiederum nur über den Po erreichbar war, und die Etsch bereits seit langer Zeit durch Cavarzere von Venedig kontrolliert wurde. Mit Hilfe dieser Blockade, vor allem an der Sperrfestung Marcamò – Bologna riegelte Marcamò vergebens durch ein eigenes Kastell ab – zwang Venedig das ausgehungerte Bologna zu einem Abkommen, das die Venezianer diktierten. Das bolognesische Kastell wurde geschleift. Ravenna stand Venedigs Händlern wieder offen, Venedigs Monopol war durchgesetzt.
Im Jahre 1272 starb in Bologna nach mehr als 22-jähriger Haft im Palazzo Nuovo (dem heutigen Palazzo di re Enzo) der König Enzio von Sardinien, ein unehelicher Sohn des Staufer-Kaisers Friedrich II.
Wie die meisten Kommunen Italiens war Bologna damals zusätzlich zu den äußeren Konflikten von inneren Streitigkeiten zwischen Ghibellinen und Guelfen (Staufer- bzw. Welfen-Partei, Kaiser gegen Papst) zerrissen. So wurde 1274 die einflussreiche ghibellinische Familie Lambertazzi aus der Stadt vertrieben.
Als Bologna 1297 verstärkt gegen die Ghibellinen der mittleren Romagna vorging, fürchtete Venedig das erneute Aufkommen einer konkurrierenden Festlandsmacht. Das betraf vor allem Ravenna. Venedig drohte der Stadt wegen Nichteinhaltung seiner Verträge und Bevorzugung Bolognas. Doch der Streit konnte beigelegt werden. Zu einer erneuten Handelssperre seitens Venedigs (wohl wegen der Ernennung Baiamonte Tiepolos zum Capitano von Bologna) kam es Ende 1326. Bologna hatte sich dem Schutz des Papstes unterstellt, nachdem es 1325 von Modena in der Schlacht von Zappolino vernichtend geschlagen worden war. Im Mai 1327 wurden alle Bologneser aufgefordert, Venedig innerhalb eines Monats zu verlassen. 1328–1332 kam es zu Handelssperren und Repressalien. Ravenna blieb dabei der wichtigste Importhafen der Region, den z. B. Bologna für größere Importe aus Apulien weiterhin nutzte. Zwischen 1325 und 1337 kam es zum Eimerkrieg von Bologna. Während der Pest-Epidemie von 1348 starben etwa 30.000 der Einwohner.
Nach der Regierungszeit Taddeo Pepolis (1337–1347) fiel Bologna an die Visconti Mailands, kehrte aber 1360 auf Betreiben von Kardinal Gil Álvarez Carillo de Albornoz durch Kauf wieder in den Machtbereich des Papstes zurück. Die folgenden Jahre waren bestimmt von einer Reihe republikanischer Regierungen (so z. B. die von 1377, die die Basilica di San Petronio und die Loggia dei Mercanti errichten ließ), wechselnder Zugehörigkeit zum päpstlichen oder Viscontischen Machtbereich und andauernder, verlustreicher Familienfehden.
1402 fiel die Stadt an Gian Galeazzo Visconti, der zum Signore von Bologna avancierte. Nachdem 1433 Bologna und Imola gefallen waren (bis 1435), verhalf Venedig dem Papst 1440/41 endgültig zur Stadtherrschaft. Bei der Gelegenheit nahm Venedig 1441–1509 Ravenna in Besitz.
Um diese Zeit erlangte die Familie der Bentivoglio mit Sante (1445–1462) und Giovanni II. (1462–1506) die Herrschaft in Bologna. Während ihrer Regierungszeit blühte die Stadt auf, angesehene Architekten und Maler gaben Bologna das Gesicht einer klassischen italienischen Renaissance-Stadt, die allerdings ihre Ambitionen auf Eroberung endgültig aufgeben musste.
Neuzeit
Giovannis Herrschaft endete 1506, als die Truppen Papst Julius' II. Bologna belagerten und die Kunstschätze seines Palastes plünderten. Im Anschluss gehörte Bologna bis zum 18. Jahrhundert zum Kirchenstaat und wurde von einem päpstlichen Legaten und einem Senat regiert, der alle zwei Monate einen gonfaloniere (Richter) wählte, der von acht Konsuln unterstützt wurde. Am 24. Februar 1530 wurde Karl V. von Papst Clemens VII. in Bologna zum Kaiser gekrönt. Es war die letzte vom Papst durchgeführte Kaiserkrönung. Der Wohlstand der Stadt dauerte an, doch eine Seuche am Ende des 16. Jahrhunderts verringerte die Zahl der Einwohner von 72.000 auf 59.000, eine weitere 1630 ließ sie auf 47.000 schrumpfen, bevor sie sich wieder auf 60.000 bis 65.000 einpendelte.
1564 wurden die Piazza del Nettuno, der Palazzo dei Banchi und der Archiginnasio erbaut, der Sitz der Universität. Zahlreiche Kirchen und andere religiöse Einrichtungen wurden während der päpstlichen Herrschaft neu errichtet, ältere renoviert – Bolognas 96 Klöster waren italienischer Rekord. Bedeutende Maler wie Annibale Carracci, Domenichino und Guercino, die in dieser Periode in Bologna tätig waren, formten die Bologneser Schule der Malerei.
Im napoleonischen Europa wurde Bologna 1796 – seit dem Ersten Koalitionskrieg vom Kirchenstaat unabhängig – zunächst Hauptstadt der kurzlebigen Cispadanischen Republik und später die nach Mailand bedeutendste Stadt in der Cisalpinischen Republik und des napoleonischen Königreichs Italien. Am 28. Januar 1814 eroberten die Österreicher die Stadt kurzzeitig zurück, mussten am 2. April 1815 dem Einmarsch französischer Truppen weichen, um am 16. April 1815 Bologna endgültig einzunehmen. Nach dem Fall Napoleons schlug der Wiener Kongress 1815 Bologna wieder dem Kirchenstaat zu, worauf dies am 18. Juli 1816 zur Ausführung kam.
Die Bevölkerung rebellierte im Frühjahr 1831 gegen die päpstliche Restauration. Durch eine neuerliche österreichische Besatzung ab dem 21. März 1831 wurde dem ein Ende gemacht. Die Besatzung dauerte mit einer kurzen Unterbrechung (Juli 1831 bis Januar 1832) bis zum 30. November 1838. Die Macht war damit erneut in der Hand des Papstes. Dagegen erhob sich im August 1843 der Aufstand der Moti di Savigno. Erneut kam es 1848/1849 zu Volksaufständen, als es vom 8. August 1848 bis 16. Mai 1849 gelang, die Truppen der österreichischen Garnison zu vertreiben, die danach erneut bis 1860 die Befehlsgewalt über die Stadt innehatten. Nach einem Besuch von Papst Pius IX. 1857 stimmte Bologna am 12. Juni 1859 für seine Annexion durch das Königreich Sardinien, wodurch die Stadt Teil des vereinten Italien wurde.
Zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts wurden die Mauern der Stadt bis auf wenige Reste abgerissen, um der schnell wachsenden Bevölkerung Platz zu schaffen. In den Wahlen am 28. Juni 1914 errang der Sozialist Francesco Zanardi zum ersten Mal das Stadtpräsidium (sindaco) für die Linke. Mit der Unterbrechung des Faschismus wird Bologna seitdem überwiegend von linken Stadtregierungen verwaltet.
1940 zählte Bologna 320.000 Einwohner. Im Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde Bologna in den Kämpfen der untergehenden NS-Diktatur mit amerikanischen, britischen und polnischen Invasionstruppen der Alliierten bombardiert und beschädigt, wobei in der Stadt 2.481 Zivilisten ums Leben kamen. Am 21. April 1945 wurde die Stadt von Einheiten des II. polnischen Korps befreit. Nach dem Krieg erholte sich Bologna schnell und ist heute eine der wohlhabendsten und stadtplanerisch gelungensten Städte Italiens.
Anschlag von Bologna 1980
Am 2. August 1980 verübte eine Gruppe von Rechtsextremisten einen Bombenanschlag auf den Hauptbahnhof der Stadt. 85 Menschen starben, mindestens 200 wurden verletzt. 1995 wurden für diesen Anschlag zwei Mitglieder der faschistischen Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari und Mitarbeiter des italienischen Geheimdienstes zu langjährigen Haftstrafen verurteilt.
Kulinarisches
Bologna ist die Heimat der Tortellini – mit Hackfleisch gefüllte, kleine ringförmige Teigwaren, die in einer Hühnerbrühe (brodo) oder mit Sahnesoße serviert werden. Einer Legende nach sollen die Tortellini den Nabel der römischen Liebesgöttin Venus nachbilden.
Eine weitere klassische Pasta aus Bologna sind Tagliatelle, mit Ei hergestellte Bandnudeln, die traditionell mit Ragù alla bolognese, einer Soße mit Hackfleisch und Tomaten, serviert werden. Von den bolognesischen Tagliatelle al ragù wurden die Spaghetti bolognese inspiriert, die aber nicht zur Küche Bolognas gehören, sondern vermutlich aus Nordamerika stammen.
Eine weitere aus Bologna stammende Spezialität ist die Mortadella, eine Aufschnittwurst vom Schwein, die in hauchdünne Scheiben geschnitten verzehrt wird.
Bologna ist außerdem für seine grüne Lasagne bekannt.
Bildung
Die 1088 gegründete Universität Bologna ist die älteste Institution dieser Art in Europa. Die etwa 80.000 Studenten stellen bei einer Gesamtbevölkerung von um die 400.000 einen bedeutenden Teil der Stadtbevölkerung und prägen die Stadt, vor allem innerhalb der historischen Stadtmauern. Die Stadt ist nicht nur bei Studenten aus allen Teilen Italiens beliebt, sondern auch bei ausländischen Studenten. Neben Erasmus-Studenten sind das vor allem Studenten aus den USA.
Außerdem gibt es in der Stadt die Akademie der Bildenden Künste, an der unter anderem Giorgio Morandi lehrte und Enrico Marconi eine Ausbildung absolvierte. Das SAIS Bologna Center ist eine Außenstelle der School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) der Johns Hopkins University. Bologna war Ort der Bolognaerklärung im Jahr 1999 und Namensgeber des Bologna-Prozesses zur Reformierung und Vereinheitlichung des Europäischen Hochschulraums.
(Wikipedia)