View allAll Photos Tagged CORRESPONDENCE
Back of postcard 2015.25 (3a). It was mailed in July 1913 in Barrie to Mrs Wm. Clewes of 29 Pembroke Street, Toronto.
The message reads: "Barrie, July 6, 1913
Dear Aunt Maud.
I Will leave here on the 5:15 train tomorrow (Tues.) It arrives in the city between 8 and 8:20 (in the evening). Have the band down to meet me - or the Orange Young Britons.
Grandma is fine & eating us out of house & home.
Will tell you all the news when I see you.
With love, Eunice".
Donated to Deseronto Archives by Mary-Anne Gibson, August 2015.
Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin [nb 1] (9 March 1934 – 27 March 1968) was a Soviet Air Forces pilot and cosmonaut who became the first human to journey into outer space, achieving a major milestone in the Space Race; his capsule Vostok 1 completed one orbit of Earth on 12 April 1961. Gagarin became an international celebrity and was awarded many medals and titles, including Hero of the Soviet Union, his nation's highest honour.
Vostok 1 was Gagarin's only spaceflight but he served as the backup crew to the Soyuz 1 mission, which ended in a fatal crash, killing his friend and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov. Gagarin later served as the deputy training director of the Cosmonaut Training Centre, which was subsequently named after him. He was elected as a deputy to the Soviet of the Union in 1962 and then to the Soviet of Nationalities, respectively the lower and upper chambers of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Gagarin died in 1968 when the MiG-15 training jet he was piloting with his flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin crashed near the town of Kirzhach.
Contents
1 Early life and education
2 Soviet Air Force service
3 Soviet space program
3.1 Selection and training
3.2 Vostok 1
4 After the Vostok 1 flight
5 Personal life
6 Death
7 Awards and honours
7.1 Medals and orders of merit
7.2 Tributes
7.3 Statues and monuments
7.4 50th anniversary
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Early life and education
Yuri Gagarin was born 9 March 1934 in the village of Klushino,[1] near Gzhatsk (renamed Gagarin in 1968 after his death).[2] His parents worked on a collective farm:[3] Alexey Ivanovich Gagarin as a carpenter and Anna Timofeyevna Gagarina as a dairy farmer.[nb 2][4] Yuri was the third of four children: his siblings were brothers Valentin (1924) and Boris (1936), and sister Zoya (1927).[5][6]
Like millions of Soviet Union citizens, the Gagarin family suffered during the Nazi occupation of Russia during World War II. Klushino was occupied in November 1941 during the German advance on Moscow and a German officer took over the Gagarin residence. The family were allowed to build a mud hut approximately 3 by 3 metres (10 by 10 ft) inside on the land behind their house, where they spent twenty-one months until the end of the occupation.[7] His two older siblings were deported by the Germans to Poland for slave labour in 1943 and did not return until after the war in 1945.[5][8] In 1946, the family moved to Gzhatsk, where Gagarin continued his secondary education.[7]
In 1950, aged 16, Gagarin began an apprenticeship as a foundryman at the Lyubertsy steel plant near Moscow,[5][8] and enrolled at a local "young workers" school for seventh-grade evening classes.[9] After graduating in 1951 from both the seventh grade and the vocational school with honours in mouldmaking and foundry work,[9] he was selected for further training at the Saratov Industrial Technical School, where he studied tractors.[5][8][10] While in Saratov, Gagarin volunteered at a local flying club for weekend training as a Soviet air cadet, where he trained to fly a biplane, and later a Yak-18.[8][10] He earned extra money as a part-time dock labourer on the Volga River.[7]
Soviet Air Force service
In 1955, Gagarin was accepted to the 1st Chkalovsky Higher Air Force Pilots School, a flight school in Orenburg.[11][12] He initially began training on the Yak-18 already familiar to him and later graduated to training on the MiG-15 in February 1956.[11] Gagarin twice struggled to land the two-seater trainer aircraft, and risked dismissal from pilot training. However, the commander of the regiment decided to give him another chance at landing. Gagarin's flight instructor gave him a cushion to sit on, which improved his view from the cockpit, and he landed successfully. Having completed his evaluation in a trainer aircraft,[13] Gagarin began flying solo in 1957.[5]
On 5 November 1957, Gagarin was commissioned a lieutenant in the Soviet Air Forces having accumulated 166 hours and 47 minutes of flight time. He graduated from flight school the next day and was posted to the Luostari airbase close to the Norwegian border in Murmansk Oblast for a two-year assignment with the Northern Fleet.[14] On 7 July 1959, he was rated Military Pilot 3rd Class.[15] After expressing interest in space exploration following the launch of Luna 3 on 6 October 1959, his recommendation to the Soviet space program was endorsed and forward by Lieutenant Colonel Babushkin.[14][16] By this point, he had accumulated 265 hours of flight time.[14] Gagarin was promoted to the rank of senior lieutenant on 6 November 1959,[15] three weeks after he was interviewed by a medical commission for qualification to the space program.[14]
Soviet space program
Selection and training
See also: Vostok programme
Vostok I capsule on display at the RKK Energiya museum
Gagarin's selection for the Vostok programme was overseen by the Central Flight Medical Commission led by Major General Konstantin Fyodorovich Borodin of the Soviet Army Medical Service. He underwent physical and psychological testing conducted at Central Aviation Scientific-Research Hospital, in Moscow, commanded by Colonel A.S. Usanov, a member of the commission. The commission also included Colonel Yevgeniy Anatoliyevich Karpov, who later commanded the training centre, Colonel Vladimir Ivanovich Yazdovskiy, the head physician for Gagarin's flight, and Major-General Aleksandr Nikolayevich Babiychuk, a physician flag officer on the Soviet Air Force General Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Air Force.[17]
From a pool of 154 qualified pilots short-listed by their Air Force units, the military physicians chose 29 cosmonaut candidates, of which 20 were approved by the Credential Committee of the Soviet Government. The first twelve including Gagarin were approved on 7 March 1960 and eight more were added in a series of subsequent orders issued until June.[18] Gagarin began training at the Khodynka Airfield in downtown Moscow on 15 March 1960. The training regiment involved vigorous and repetitive physical exercises which Alexei Leonov, a member of the initial group of twelve, described as akin to training for the Olympics Games.[19] In April 1960, they began parachute training in Saratov Oblast and each completed about 40 to 50 jumps from both low and high altitude, and over land and water.[20]
Gagarin was a candidate favoured by his peers. When they were asked to vote anonymously for a candidate besides themselves they would like to be the first to fly, all but three chose Gagarin.[21] One of these candidates, Yevgeny Khrunov, believed that Gagarin was very focused and was demanding of himself and others when necessary.[22] On 30 May 1960, Gagarin was further selected for an accelerated training group, known as the Vanguard Six or Sochi Six,[23][nb 3] from which the first cosmonauts of the Vostok programme would be chosen. The other members of the group were Anatoliy Kartashov, Andriyan Nikolayev, Pavel Popovich, German Titov, and Valentin Varlamov. However, Kartashov and Varlamov were injured and replaced by Khrunov and Grigoriy Nelyubov.[25]
As several of the candidates selected for the program including Gagarin did not have higher education degrees, they were enrolled into a correspondence course program at Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy. Gagarin enrolled in the program in September 1960 and did not earn his specialist diploma until early 1968.[26][27] Gagarin was also subjected to experiments that were designed to test physical and psychological endurance including oxygen starvation tests in which the cosmonauts were locked in an isolation chamber and the air slowly pumped out. He also trained for the upcoming flight by experiencing g-forces in a centrifuge.[28][25] Psychological tests included placing the candidates in an anechoic chamber in complete isolation; Gagarin was in the chamber on July 26 – August 5.[29][20] In August 1960, a Soviet Air Force doctor evaluated his personality as follows:
Modest; embarrasses when his humor gets a little too racy; high degree of intellectual development evident in Yuriy; fantastic memory; distinguishes himself from his colleagues by his sharp and far-ranging sense of attention to his surroundings; a well-developed imagination; quick reactions; persevering, prepares himself painstakingly for his activities and training exercises, handles celestial mechanics and mathematical formulae with ease as well as excels in higher mathematics; does not feel constrained when he has to defend his point of view if he considers himself right; appears that he understands life better than a lot of his friends.[21]
The Vanguard Six were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961[25] and entered a two-day examination conducted by a special interdepartmental commission led Lieutenant-General Nikolai Kamanin, tasked with ranking of the candidates based on their mission readiness for the first human Vostok mission. On 17 January 1961, they were tested in a simulator at the M. M. Gromov Flight-Research Institute on a full-size mockup of the Vostok capsule. Gagarin, Nikolayev, Popovich, and Titov all received excellent marks on the first day of testing in which they were required to describe the various phases of the mission followed by questions from commission.[22] On the second day, they were given a written examination following which the special commission ranked Gagarin as the best candidate the first mission. He and the next two highest-ranked cosmonauts, Titov and Nelyubov, were sent to Tyuratam for final preparations.[22] Gagarin and Titov were selected to train in the flight-ready spacecraft on 7 April 1961. Historian Asif Siddiqi writes of the final selection:[30]
In the end, at the State Commission meeting on April 8, Kamanin stood up and formally nominated Gagarin as the primary pilot and Titov as his backup. Without much discussion, the commission approved the proposal and moved on to other last-minute logistical issues. It was assumed that in the event Gagarin developed health problems prior to liftoff, Titov would take his place, with Nelyubov acting as his backup.
Vostok 1
Main article: Vostok 1
Poyekhali!
Menu
0:00
Gagarin's voice
Problems playing this file? See media help.
On 12 April 1961, 6:07 am UTC, the Vostok 3KA-3 (Vostok 1) spacecraft was launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome. Aboard was Gagarin, the first human to travel into space, using the call sign Kedr (Russian: Кедр, Siberian pine or Cedar).[31] The radio communication between the launch control room and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of rocket launch:
Korolev: Preliminary stage ... intermediate... main... LIFT-OFF! We wish you a good flight. Everything's all right.
Gagarin: Off we go! Goodbye, until [we meet] soon, dear friends.[32][33]
Gagarin's farewell to Korolev using the informal phrase Poyekhali! (Russian: Поехали!)[nb 4] later became a popular expression in the Eastern Bloc that was used to refer to the beginning of the Space Age.[35][36] The five first-stage engines fired until the first separation event, when the four side-boosters fell away, leaving the core engine. The core stage then separated while the rocket was in a suborbital trajectory, and the upper stage carried it to orbit. Once the upper stage finished firing, it separated from the spacecraft, which orbited for 108 minutes before returning to Earth in Kazakhstan.[37] Gagarin became the first to orbit the Earth.[31]
File:1961-04-19 First Pictures-Yuri Gagarin-selection.ogvPlay media
An April 1961 newsreel of Gagarin arriving in Moscow to be greeted by First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev.
"The feeling of weightlessness was somewhat unfamiliar compared with Earth conditions. Here, you feel as if you were hanging in a horizontal position in straps. You feel as if you are suspended", Gagarin wrote in his post-flight report.[38] He also wrote in his autobiography released the same year that he sang the tune "The Motherland Hears, The Motherland Knows" (Russian: "Родина слышит, Родина знает") during re-entry.[39] Gagarin was qualified a Military Pilot 1st Class and promoted to the rank of major in a special order given during his flight.[15][39]
At about 23,000 feet (7,000 m), Gagarin ejected from the descending capsule as planned and landed using a parachute. There were concerns Gagarin's spaceflight record would not be certified by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the world governing body for setting standards and keeping records in the field, which at the time required that the pilot land with the craft.[40] Gagarin and Soviet officials initially refused to admit that he had not landed with his spacecraft,[41] an omission which became apparent after Titov's subsequent flight on Vostok 2 four months later. Gagarin's spaceflight records were nonetheless certified and again reaffirmed by the FAI, which revised it rules, and acknowledge that the crucial steps of the safe launch, orbit, and return of the pilot had been accomplished. Gagarin continues to be internationally recognised as the first human in space and first to orbit the Earth.[42]
After the Vostok 1 flight
Gagarin in Warsaw, 1961
Gagarin's flight was a triumph for the Soviet space program and he became a national hero of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, as well as a worldwide celebrity. Newspapers around the globe published his biography and details of his flight. He was escorted in a long motorcade of high-ranking officials through the streets of Moscow to the Kremlin where, in a lavish ceremony, Nikita Khrushchev awarded him the title Hero of the Soviet Union. Other cities in the Soviet Union also held mass demonstrations, the scale of which were second only to World War II Victory Parades.[43]
Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova (seated to his right) sign autographs in 1964
Gagarin gained a reputation as an adept public figure and was noted for his charismatic smile.[44][45][46] On 15 April 1961, accompanied by official from the Soviet Academy of Sciences, he answered questions at a press conference in Moscow reportedly attended by 1,000 reporters.[47] Gagarin visited the United Kingdom three months after the Vostok 1 mission, going to London and Manchester.[48][44] While in Manchester, despite heavy rain, he refused an umbrella, insisted that the roof of the convertible car he was riding in remain open, and stood so the cheering crowds could see him.[44][49] Gagarin toured widely abroad, accepting the invitation of about 30 countries.[50] In just the first four months, he also went to Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, and Iceland.[51]
In 1962, Gagarin began serving as a deputy to the Soviet of the Union,[52] and was elected to the Central Committee of the Young Communist League. He later returned to Star City, the cosmonaut facility, where he spent several years working on designs for a reusable spacecraft. He became a lieutenant colonel of the Soviet Air Forces on 12 June 1962, and received the rank of colonel on 6 November 1963.[15] On 20 December 1963, Gagarin became Deputy Training Director of the Star City cosmonaut training base.[53] Soviet officials, including cosmonaut overseerer Nikolai Kamanin, tried to keep Gagarin away from any flights, being worried about losing their hero in an accident noting that he was "too dear to mankind to risk his life for the sake of an ordinary space flight".[54] Kamanin was also concerned by Gagarin's drinking and believed the sudden rise to fame had taken its toll on the cosmonaut. While acquaintances say Gagarin had been a "sensible drinker", his touring schedule placed him in social situations in which he was increasingly expected to drink alcohol.[5][10]
Gagarin with U.S. Vice President Hubert Humphrey, French Prime Minister Georges Pompidou and the Gemini 4 astronauts at the 1965 Paris Air Show
Two years later, he was re-elected as a deputy of the Soviet Union but this time to the Soviet of Nationalities, the upper chamber of legislature.[52] The following year, he began to re-qualify as a fighter pilot[55] and was backup pilot for his friend Vladimir Komarov on the Soyuz 1 flight after five years without piloting duty. Kamanin had opposed Gagarin's reassignment to cosmonaut training; he had gained weight and his flying skills had deteriorated. Despite this, he remained a strong contender for Soyuz 1 until he was replaced by Komarov in April 1966 and reassigned to Soyuz 3.[56]
The Soyuz 1 launch was rushed due to implicit political pressures[57] and despite Gagarin's protests that additional safety precautions were necessary.[58] Gagarin accompanied Komarov to the rocket before launch and relayed instructions to Komarov from ground control following multiple system failures aboard the spacecraft.[59] Despite their best efforts, Soyuz 1 crash landed after its parachutes failed to open, killing Komarov instantly.[60] After the Soyuz 1 crash, Gagarin was permanently banned from training for and participating in further spaceflights.[61] He was also grounded from flying aircraft solo, a demotion he worked hard to lift. He was temporarily relieved of duties to focus on academics with the promise that he would be able to resume flight training.[62] On 17 February 1968, Gagarin successfully defended his aerospace engineering thesis on the subject of spaceplane aerodynamic configuration and graduated cum laude from Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy.[27][63][62]
Personal life
Gagarin and his wife Valentina clapping at a concert in Moscow in 1964.
Gagarin and his wife Valentina at a concert in Moscow in 1964.
Gagarin was a keen sportsman and fond of ice hockey as a goal keeper.[64] He was also a basketball fan and coached the Saratov Industrial Technical School team, as well as being a referee.[65]
In 1957, while a cadet in flight school, Gagarin met Valentina Goryacheva at the May Day celebrations at the Red Square in Moscow.[66] She was a medical technician who graduated from Orenburg Medical School.[8][10] They were married on 7 November 1957,[8] the same day Gagarin graduated from Orenburg, and they had two daughters.[67][68] Yelena Yurievna Gagarina, born 1959,[68] is an art historian who has worked as the director-general of the Moscow Kremlin Museums since 2001;[69][70] and Galina Yurievna Gagarina, born 1961,[68] is a professor of economics and the department chair at Plekhanov Russian University of Economics in Moscow.[69][71] Following his rise to fame, at a Black Sea resort in September 1961, he was reportedly caught by his wife during a liaison with a nurse who had aided him after a boating incident. He attempted to escape through a window and jumped off a second floor balcony. The resulting injury left a permanent scar above his left eyebrow.[5][10]
Death
Plaque on a brick wall with inscription: Юрий Алексеевич Гагарин, 1934-03-09–1968-03-27
Plaque indicating Gagarin's interment in the Kremlin Wall
On 27 March 1968, while on a routine training flight from Chkalovsky Air Base, Gagarin and flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin died when their MiG-15UTI crashed near the town of Kirzhach. The bodies of Gagarin and Seryogin were cremated and their ashes were buried in the walls of the Kremlin.[72] Wrapped in secrecy, the cause of the crash that killed Gagarin is uncertain and became the subject of several theories.[73][74] At least three investigations into the crash were conducted separately by the Air Force, official government commissions, and the KGB.[75][76] According to a biography of Gagarin by Jamie Doran and Piers Bizony, Starman: The Truth Behind the Legend of Yuri Gagarin, the KGB worked "not just alongside the Air Force and the official commission members but against them."[75]
The KGB's report declassified in March 2003 dismissed various conspiracy theories and instead indicated the actions of airbase personnel contributed to the crash. The report states that an air-traffic controller provided Gagarin with outdated weather information and that by the time of his flight, conditions had deteriorated significantly. Ground crew also left external fuel tanks attached to the aircraft. Gagarin's planned flight activities needed clear weather and no outboard tanks. The investigation concluded Gagarin's aircraft entered a spin, either due to a bird strike or because of a sudden move to avoid another aircraft. Because of the out-of-date weather report, the crew believed their altitude was higher than it was and could not react properly to bring the MiG-15 out of its spin.[76] Another theory, advanced in 2005 by the original crash investigator, hypothesizes that a cabin air vent was accidentally left open by the crew or the previous pilot, leading to oxygen deprivation and leaving the crew incapable of controlling the aircraft.[73] A similar theory, published in Air & Space magazine, is that the crew detected the open vent and followed procedure by executing a rapid dive to a lower altitude. This dive caused them to lose consciousness and crash.[74]
On 12 April 2007, the Kremlin vetoed a new investigation into the death of Gagarin. Government officials said they saw no reason to begin a new investigation.[77] In April 2011, documents from a 1968 commission set up by the Central Committee of the Communist Party to investigate the accident were declassified. The documents revealed that the commission's original conclusion was that Gagarin or Seryogin had manoeuvered sharply, either to avoid a weather balloon or to avoid "entry into the upper limit of the first layer of cloud cover", leading the jet into a "super-critical flight regime and to its stalling in complex meteorological conditions".[78]
A Russian MiG-15UTI, the same type as Gagarin was flying
Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, a member of a state commission established to investigate Gagarin's death, was conducting parachute training sessions that day and heard "two loud booms in the distance". He believes that a Sukhoi Su-15 was flying below its minimum altitude and, "without realizing it because of the terrible weather conditions, he passed within 10 or 20 meters of Yuri and Seregin's plane while breaking the sound barrier". The resulting turbulence would have sent the MiG-15UTI into an uncontrolled spin. Leonov said the first boom he heard was that of the jet breaking the sound barrier and the second was Gagarin's plane crashing.[79] In a June 2013 interview with Russian television network RT, Leonov said a report on the incident confirmed the presence of a second, "unauthorized" Su-15 flying in the area. However, as a condition of being allowed to discuss the declassified report, Leonov was barred from disclosing the name of the Su-15 pilot who was 80 years old and in poor health as of 2013.[80]
Awards and honours
Medals and orders of merit
Jânio Quadros, President of Brazil, decorated Gagarin in 1961.
On 14 April 1961, Gagarin was honoured with a 12-mile (19 km) parade attended by millions of people that concluded at the Red Square. After a short speech, he was bestowed the Hero of the Soviet Union,[81][82] Order of Lenin,[81] Merited Master of Sports of the Soviet Union[83] and the first Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR.[82] On 15 April, the Soviet Academy of Sciences awarded him with the Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Gold Medal, named after the Russian pioneer of space aeronautics.[84] Gagarin had also been awarded four Soviet commemorative medals over the course of his career.[15]
He was honoured as a Hero of Socialist Labor (Czechoslovakia) on 29 April 1961,[85][86] and Hero of Socialist Labor (Bulgaria, including the Order of Georgi Dimitrov) on 24 May.[15][chronology citation needed] On the eighth anniversary of the beginning of Cuban Revolution (26 July), President Osvaldo Dorticos of Cuba presented him with the first Commander of the Order of Playa Girón, a newly created medal.[87]
Gagarin was also awarded the 1960 Gold Air Medal and the 1961 De la Vaulx Medal from the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale in Switzerland.[88] He received numerous awards from other nations that year, including the Star of the Republic of Indonesia (2nd Class), the Order of the Cross of Grunwald (1st Degree) in Poland, the Order of the Flag of the Republic of Hungary, the Hero of Labor award from Democratic Republic of Vietnam,[15] the Italian Columbus Day Medal,[89] and a Gold Medal from the British Interplanetary Society.[90][91] President Jânio Quadros of Brazil decorated Gagarin on 2 August 1961 with the Order of Aeronautical Merit, Commander grade.[92] During a tour of Egypt in late January 1962, Gagarin received the Order of the Nile[93] and the golden keys to the gates of Cairo.[50] On 22 October 1963, Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova were honoured with the Order of Karl Marx from the German Democratic Republic.[94]
Tributes
The date of Gagarin's space flight, 12 April, has been commemorated. Since 1962, it has been celebrated in the USSR and most of its former territories as Cosmonautics Day.[95] Since 2000, Yuri's Night, an international celebration, is held annually to commemorate milestones in space exploration.[96] In 2011, it was declared the International Day of Human Space Flight by the United Nations.[97]
Yuri Gagarin statue at the Royal Greenwich Observatory in London
A number of buildings and locations have been named for Gagarin. The Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia, was named on 30 April 1968.[98] The launch pad at Baikonur Cosmodrome from which Sputnik 1 and Vostok 1 were launched is now known as Gagarin's Start. Gagarin Raion in Sevastopol, Ukraine, was named after him during the period of the Soviet Union. The Russian Air Force Academy was renamed Gagarin Air Force Academy in 1968.[99] A street in Warsaw, Poland, is called Yuri Gagarin Street.[100] The town of Gagarin, Armenia was renamed in his honour in 1961.[101]
Gagarin has been honoured on the Moon by astronauts and astronomers. During the American space program's Apollo 11 mission in 1969, astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin left a memorial satchel containing medals commemorating Gagarin and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov on the Moon's surface.[102][103] In 1971, Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin left the small Fallen Astronaut sculpture at their landing site as a memorial to the American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts who died in the Space Race; the names on its plaque included Yuri Gagarin and 14 others.[104][105] In 1970, a 262 km (163 mi)-wide crater on the far side after him.[106] Gagarin was inducted as a member of the 1976 inaugural class of the International Space Hall of Fame in New Mexico.[107]
Gagarin is memorialised in music; a cycle of Soviet patriotic songs titled The Constellation Gagarin (Russian: Созвездье Гагарина, tr. Sozvezdie Gagarina) was written by Aleksandra Pakhmutova and Nikolai Dobronravov in 1970–1971.[108] The most famous of these songs refers to Gagarin's poyekhali!: in the lyrics, "He said 'let's go!' He waved his hand".[35][108] He was the inspiration for the pieces "Hey Gagarin" by Jean-Michel Jarre on Métamorphoses, "Gagarin" by Public Service Broadcasting, and "Gagarin, I loved you" by Undervud.[109]
Russian ten-ruble commemorating Gagarin in 2001
Vessels have been named for Gagarin; Soviet tracking ship Kosmonavt Yuri Gagarin was built in 1971[110] and the Armenian airline Armavia named their first Sukhoi Superjet 100 in his honour in 2011.[111]
Two commemorative coins were issued in the Soviet Union to honour the 20th and 30th anniversaries of his flight: a one-ruble coin in copper-nickel (1981) and a three-ruble coin in silver (1991). In 2001, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, a series of four coins bearing his likeness was issued in Russia; it consisted of a two-ruble coin in copper-nickel, a three-ruble coin in silver, a ten-ruble coin in brass-copper and nickel, and a 100-ruble coin in silver.[112] In 2011, Russia issued a 1,000-ruble coin in gold and a three-ruble coin in silver to mark the 50th anniversary of his flight.[113]
In 2008, the Kontinental Hockey League named their championship trophy the Gagarin Cup.[114] In a 2010 Space Foundation survey, Gagarin was ranked as the sixth-most-popular space hero, tied with Star Trek's fictional James T. Kirk.[115] A Russian docudrama titled Gagarin: First in Space was released in 2013. Previous attempts at portraying Gagarin were disallowed; his family took legal action over his portrayal in a fictional drama and vetoed a musical.[116]
Statues and monuments
There are statues of Gagarin and monuments to him located in Gagarin (Smolensk Oblast), Orenburg, Cheboksary, Irkutsk, Izhevsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, and Yoshkar-Ola in Russia, as well as in Nicosia, Cyprus, Druzhkivka, Ukraine, Karaganda, Kazakhstan, and Tiraspol, Moldova. On 4 June 1980, Monument to Yuri Gagarin in Gagarin Square, Leninsky Avenue, Moscow, was opened.[117] The monument is mounted to a 38 m (125 ft) tall pedestal and is constructed of titanium. Beside the column is a replica of the descent module used during his spaceflight.[118]
Bust of Gagarin at Birla Planetarium in Kolkata, India
In 2011, a statue of Gagarin was unveiled at Admiralty Arch in The Mall in London, opposite the permanent sculpture of James Cook. It is a copy of the statue outside Gagarin's former school in Lyubertsy.[119] In 2013, the statue was moved to a permanent location outside the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.[120]
In 2012, a statue was unveiled at the site of NASA's original spaceflight headquarters on South Wayside Drive in Houston. The sculpture was completed in 2011 by artist and cosmonaut Alexei Leonov and was a gift to Houston by various Russian organisations. Houston Mayor Annise Parker, NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, and Russian Ambassador Sergey Kislyak were present for the dedication.[121][122] The Russian Federation presented a bust of Gagarin to several cities in India including one that was unveiled at the Birla Planetarium in Kolkata in February 2012.[123]
In April 2018, a bust of Gagarin erected on the street in Belgrade, Serbia, that bears his name was removed, after less than week. A new work was commissioned following the outcry over the disproportionately small size of its head which locals said was an "insult" to Gagarin.[124][125] Belgrade City Manager Goran Vesic stated that neither the city, the Serbian Ministry of Culture, nor the foundation that financed it had prior knowledge of the design.[126]
50th anniversary
50th anniversary stamp of Ukraine
The 50th anniversary of Gagarin's journey into space was marked in 2011 by tributes around the world. A film titled First Orbit was shot from the International Space Station, combining sound recordings from the original flight with footage of the route taken by Gagarin.[127] The Russian, American, and Italian crew of Expedition 27 aboard the ISS sent a special video message to wish the people of the world a "Happy Yuri's Night", wearing shirts with an image of Gagarin.[128]
The Central Bank of the Russian Federation released gold and silver coins to commemorate the anniversary.[129] The Soyuz TMA-21 spacecraft was named Gagarin with the launch in April 2011 to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the first manned space mission.
Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin [nb 1] (9 March 1934 – 27 March 1968) was a Soviet Air Forces pilot and cosmonaut who became the first human to journey into outer space, achieving a major milestone in the Space Race; his capsule Vostok 1 completed one orbit of Earth on 12 April 1961. Gagarin became an international celebrity and was awarded many medals and titles, including Hero of the Soviet Union, his nation's highest honour.
Vostok 1 was Gagarin's only spaceflight but he served as the backup crew to the Soyuz 1 mission, which ended in a fatal crash, killing his friend and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov. Gagarin later served as the deputy training director of the Cosmonaut Training Centre, which was subsequently named after him. He was elected as a deputy to the Soviet of the Union in 1962 and then to the Soviet of Nationalities, respectively the lower and upper chambers of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Gagarin died in 1968 when the MiG-15 training jet he was piloting with his flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin crashed near the town of Kirzhach.
Contents
1 Early life and education
2 Soviet Air Force service
3 Soviet space program
3.1 Selection and training
3.2 Vostok 1
4 After the Vostok 1 flight
5 Personal life
6 Death
7 Awards and honours
7.1 Medals and orders of merit
7.2 Tributes
7.3 Statues and monuments
7.4 50th anniversary
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Early life and education
Yuri Gagarin was born 9 March 1934 in the village of Klushino,[1] near Gzhatsk (renamed Gagarin in 1968 after his death).[2] His parents worked on a collective farm:[3] Alexey Ivanovich Gagarin as a carpenter and Anna Timofeyevna Gagarina as a dairy farmer.[nb 2][4] Yuri was the third of four children: his siblings were brothers Valentin (1924) and Boris (1936), and sister Zoya (1927).[5][6]
Like millions of Soviet Union citizens, the Gagarin family suffered during the Nazi occupation of Russia during World War II. Klushino was occupied in November 1941 during the German advance on Moscow and a German officer took over the Gagarin residence. The family were allowed to build a mud hut approximately 3 by 3 metres (10 by 10 ft) inside on the land behind their house, where they spent twenty-one months until the end of the occupation.[7] His two older siblings were deported by the Germans to Poland for slave labour in 1943 and did not return until after the war in 1945.[5][8] In 1946, the family moved to Gzhatsk, where Gagarin continued his secondary education.[7]
In 1950, aged 16, Gagarin began an apprenticeship as a foundryman at the Lyubertsy steel plant near Moscow,[5][8] and enrolled at a local "young workers" school for seventh-grade evening classes.[9] After graduating in 1951 from both the seventh grade and the vocational school with honours in mouldmaking and foundry work,[9] he was selected for further training at the Saratov Industrial Technical School, where he studied tractors.[5][8][10] While in Saratov, Gagarin volunteered at a local flying club for weekend training as a Soviet air cadet, where he trained to fly a biplane, and later a Yak-18.[8][10] He earned extra money as a part-time dock labourer on the Volga River.[7]
Soviet Air Force service
In 1955, Gagarin was accepted to the 1st Chkalovsky Higher Air Force Pilots School, a flight school in Orenburg.[11][12] He initially began training on the Yak-18 already familiar to him and later graduated to training on the MiG-15 in February 1956.[11] Gagarin twice struggled to land the two-seater trainer aircraft, and risked dismissal from pilot training. However, the commander of the regiment decided to give him another chance at landing. Gagarin's flight instructor gave him a cushion to sit on, which improved his view from the cockpit, and he landed successfully. Having completed his evaluation in a trainer aircraft,[13] Gagarin began flying solo in 1957.[5]
On 5 November 1957, Gagarin was commissioned a lieutenant in the Soviet Air Forces having accumulated 166 hours and 47 minutes of flight time. He graduated from flight school the next day and was posted to the Luostari airbase close to the Norwegian border in Murmansk Oblast for a two-year assignment with the Northern Fleet.[14] On 7 July 1959, he was rated Military Pilot 3rd Class.[15] After expressing interest in space exploration following the launch of Luna 3 on 6 October 1959, his recommendation to the Soviet space program was endorsed and forward by Lieutenant Colonel Babushkin.[14][16] By this point, he had accumulated 265 hours of flight time.[14] Gagarin was promoted to the rank of senior lieutenant on 6 November 1959,[15] three weeks after he was interviewed by a medical commission for qualification to the space program.[14]
Soviet space program
Selection and training
See also: Vostok programme
Vostok I capsule on display at the RKK Energiya museum
Gagarin's selection for the Vostok programme was overseen by the Central Flight Medical Commission led by Major General Konstantin Fyodorovich Borodin of the Soviet Army Medical Service. He underwent physical and psychological testing conducted at Central Aviation Scientific-Research Hospital, in Moscow, commanded by Colonel A.S. Usanov, a member of the commission. The commission also included Colonel Yevgeniy Anatoliyevich Karpov, who later commanded the training centre, Colonel Vladimir Ivanovich Yazdovskiy, the head physician for Gagarin's flight, and Major-General Aleksandr Nikolayevich Babiychuk, a physician flag officer on the Soviet Air Force General Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Air Force.[17]
From a pool of 154 qualified pilots short-listed by their Air Force units, the military physicians chose 29 cosmonaut candidates, of which 20 were approved by the Credential Committee of the Soviet Government. The first twelve including Gagarin were approved on 7 March 1960 and eight more were added in a series of subsequent orders issued until June.[18] Gagarin began training at the Khodynka Airfield in downtown Moscow on 15 March 1960. The training regiment involved vigorous and repetitive physical exercises which Alexei Leonov, a member of the initial group of twelve, described as akin to training for the Olympics Games.[19] In April 1960, they began parachute training in Saratov Oblast and each completed about 40 to 50 jumps from both low and high altitude, and over land and water.[20]
Gagarin was a candidate favoured by his peers. When they were asked to vote anonymously for a candidate besides themselves they would like to be the first to fly, all but three chose Gagarin.[21] One of these candidates, Yevgeny Khrunov, believed that Gagarin was very focused and was demanding of himself and others when necessary.[22] On 30 May 1960, Gagarin was further selected for an accelerated training group, known as the Vanguard Six or Sochi Six,[23][nb 3] from which the first cosmonauts of the Vostok programme would be chosen. The other members of the group were Anatoliy Kartashov, Andriyan Nikolayev, Pavel Popovich, German Titov, and Valentin Varlamov. However, Kartashov and Varlamov were injured and replaced by Khrunov and Grigoriy Nelyubov.[25]
As several of the candidates selected for the program including Gagarin did not have higher education degrees, they were enrolled into a correspondence course program at Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy. Gagarin enrolled in the program in September 1960 and did not earn his specialist diploma until early 1968.[26][27] Gagarin was also subjected to experiments that were designed to test physical and psychological endurance including oxygen starvation tests in which the cosmonauts were locked in an isolation chamber and the air slowly pumped out. He also trained for the upcoming flight by experiencing g-forces in a centrifuge.[28][25] Psychological tests included placing the candidates in an anechoic chamber in complete isolation; Gagarin was in the chamber on July 26 – August 5.[29][20] In August 1960, a Soviet Air Force doctor evaluated his personality as follows:
Modest; embarrasses when his humor gets a little too racy; high degree of intellectual development evident in Yuriy; fantastic memory; distinguishes himself from his colleagues by his sharp and far-ranging sense of attention to his surroundings; a well-developed imagination; quick reactions; persevering, prepares himself painstakingly for his activities and training exercises, handles celestial mechanics and mathematical formulae with ease as well as excels in higher mathematics; does not feel constrained when he has to defend his point of view if he considers himself right; appears that he understands life better than a lot of his friends.[21]
The Vanguard Six were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961[25] and entered a two-day examination conducted by a special interdepartmental commission led Lieutenant-General Nikolai Kamanin, tasked with ranking of the candidates based on their mission readiness for the first human Vostok mission. On 17 January 1961, they were tested in a simulator at the M. M. Gromov Flight-Research Institute on a full-size mockup of the Vostok capsule. Gagarin, Nikolayev, Popovich, and Titov all received excellent marks on the first day of testing in which they were required to describe the various phases of the mission followed by questions from commission.[22] On the second day, they were given a written examination following which the special commission ranked Gagarin as the best candidate the first mission. He and the next two highest-ranked cosmonauts, Titov and Nelyubov, were sent to Tyuratam for final preparations.[22] Gagarin and Titov were selected to train in the flight-ready spacecraft on 7 April 1961. Historian Asif Siddiqi writes of the final selection:[30]
In the end, at the State Commission meeting on April 8, Kamanin stood up and formally nominated Gagarin as the primary pilot and Titov as his backup. Without much discussion, the commission approved the proposal and moved on to other last-minute logistical issues. It was assumed that in the event Gagarin developed health problems prior to liftoff, Titov would take his place, with Nelyubov acting as his backup.
Vostok 1
Main article: Vostok 1
Poyekhali!
Menu
0:00
Gagarin's voice
Problems playing this file? See media help.
On 12 April 1961, 6:07 am UTC, the Vostok 3KA-3 (Vostok 1) spacecraft was launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome. Aboard was Gagarin, the first human to travel into space, using the call sign Kedr (Russian: Кедр, Siberian pine or Cedar).[31] The radio communication between the launch control room and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of rocket launch:
Korolev: Preliminary stage ... intermediate... main... LIFT-OFF! We wish you a good flight. Everything's all right.
Gagarin: Off we go! Goodbye, until [we meet] soon, dear friends.[32][33]
Gagarin's farewell to Korolev using the informal phrase Poyekhali! (Russian: Поехали!)[nb 4] later became a popular expression in the Eastern Bloc that was used to refer to the beginning of the Space Age.[35][36] The five first-stage engines fired until the first separation event, when the four side-boosters fell away, leaving the core engine. The core stage then separated while the rocket was in a suborbital trajectory, and the upper stage carried it to orbit. Once the upper stage finished firing, it separated from the spacecraft, which orbited for 108 minutes before returning to Earth in Kazakhstan.[37] Gagarin became the first to orbit the Earth.[31]
File:1961-04-19 First Pictures-Yuri Gagarin-selection.ogvPlay media
An April 1961 newsreel of Gagarin arriving in Moscow to be greeted by First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev.
"The feeling of weightlessness was somewhat unfamiliar compared with Earth conditions. Here, you feel as if you were hanging in a horizontal position in straps. You feel as if you are suspended", Gagarin wrote in his post-flight report.[38] He also wrote in his autobiography released the same year that he sang the tune "The Motherland Hears, The Motherland Knows" (Russian: "Родина слышит, Родина знает") during re-entry.[39] Gagarin was qualified a Military Pilot 1st Class and promoted to the rank of major in a special order given during his flight.[15][39]
At about 23,000 feet (7,000 m), Gagarin ejected from the descending capsule as planned and landed using a parachute. There were concerns Gagarin's spaceflight record would not be certified by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the world governing body for setting standards and keeping records in the field, which at the time required that the pilot land with the craft.[40] Gagarin and Soviet officials initially refused to admit that he had not landed with his spacecraft,[41] an omission which became apparent after Titov's subsequent flight on Vostok 2 four months later. Gagarin's spaceflight records were nonetheless certified and again reaffirmed by the FAI, which revised it rules, and acknowledge that the crucial steps of the safe launch, orbit, and return of the pilot had been accomplished. Gagarin continues to be internationally recognised as the first human in space and first to orbit the Earth.[42]
After the Vostok 1 flight
Gagarin in Warsaw, 1961
Gagarin's flight was a triumph for the Soviet space program and he became a national hero of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, as well as a worldwide celebrity. Newspapers around the globe published his biography and details of his flight. He was escorted in a long motorcade of high-ranking officials through the streets of Moscow to the Kremlin where, in a lavish ceremony, Nikita Khrushchev awarded him the title Hero of the Soviet Union. Other cities in the Soviet Union also held mass demonstrations, the scale of which were second only to World War II Victory Parades.[43]
Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova (seated to his right) sign autographs in 1964
Gagarin gained a reputation as an adept public figure and was noted for his charismatic smile.[44][45][46] On 15 April 1961, accompanied by official from the Soviet Academy of Sciences, he answered questions at a press conference in Moscow reportedly attended by 1,000 reporters.[47] Gagarin visited the United Kingdom three months after the Vostok 1 mission, going to London and Manchester.[48][44] While in Manchester, despite heavy rain, he refused an umbrella, insisted that the roof of the convertible car he was riding in remain open, and stood so the cheering crowds could see him.[44][49] Gagarin toured widely abroad, accepting the invitation of about 30 countries.[50] In just the first four months, he also went to Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, and Iceland.[51]
In 1962, Gagarin began serving as a deputy to the Soviet of the Union,[52] and was elected to the Central Committee of the Young Communist League. He later returned to Star City, the cosmonaut facility, where he spent several years working on designs for a reusable spacecraft. He became a lieutenant colonel of the Soviet Air Forces on 12 June 1962, and received the rank of colonel on 6 November 1963.[15] On 20 December 1963, Gagarin became Deputy Training Director of the Star City cosmonaut training base.[53] Soviet officials, including cosmonaut overseerer Nikolai Kamanin, tried to keep Gagarin away from any flights, being worried about losing their hero in an accident noting that he was "too dear to mankind to risk his life for the sake of an ordinary space flight".[54] Kamanin was also concerned by Gagarin's drinking and believed the sudden rise to fame had taken its toll on the cosmonaut. While acquaintances say Gagarin had been a "sensible drinker", his touring schedule placed him in social situations in which he was increasingly expected to drink alcohol.[5][10]
Gagarin with U.S. Vice President Hubert Humphrey, French Prime Minister Georges Pompidou and the Gemini 4 astronauts at the 1965 Paris Air Show
Two years later, he was re-elected as a deputy of the Soviet Union but this time to the Soviet of Nationalities, the upper chamber of legislature.[52] The following year, he began to re-qualify as a fighter pilot[55] and was backup pilot for his friend Vladimir Komarov on the Soyuz 1 flight after five years without piloting duty. Kamanin had opposed Gagarin's reassignment to cosmonaut training; he had gained weight and his flying skills had deteriorated. Despite this, he remained a strong contender for Soyuz 1 until he was replaced by Komarov in April 1966 and reassigned to Soyuz 3.[56]
The Soyuz 1 launch was rushed due to implicit political pressures[57] and despite Gagarin's protests that additional safety precautions were necessary.[58] Gagarin accompanied Komarov to the rocket before launch and relayed instructions to Komarov from ground control following multiple system failures aboard the spacecraft.[59] Despite their best efforts, Soyuz 1 crash landed after its parachutes failed to open, killing Komarov instantly.[60] After the Soyuz 1 crash, Gagarin was permanently banned from training for and participating in further spaceflights.[61] He was also grounded from flying aircraft solo, a demotion he worked hard to lift. He was temporarily relieved of duties to focus on academics with the promise that he would be able to resume flight training.[62] On 17 February 1968, Gagarin successfully defended his aerospace engineering thesis on the subject of spaceplane aerodynamic configuration and graduated cum laude from Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy.[27][63][62]
Personal life
Gagarin and his wife Valentina clapping at a concert in Moscow in 1964.
Gagarin and his wife Valentina at a concert in Moscow in 1964.
Gagarin was a keen sportsman and fond of ice hockey as a goal keeper.[64] He was also a basketball fan and coached the Saratov Industrial Technical School team, as well as being a referee.[65]
In 1957, while a cadet in flight school, Gagarin met Valentina Goryacheva at the May Day celebrations at the Red Square in Moscow.[66] She was a medical technician who graduated from Orenburg Medical School.[8][10] They were married on 7 November 1957,[8] the same day Gagarin graduated from Orenburg, and they had two daughters.[67][68] Yelena Yurievna Gagarina, born 1959,[68] is an art historian who has worked as the director-general of the Moscow Kremlin Museums since 2001;[69][70] and Galina Yurievna Gagarina, born 1961,[68] is a professor of economics and the department chair at Plekhanov Russian University of Economics in Moscow.[69][71] Following his rise to fame, at a Black Sea resort in September 1961, he was reportedly caught by his wife during a liaison with a nurse who had aided him after a boating incident. He attempted to escape through a window and jumped off a second floor balcony. The resulting injury left a permanent scar above his left eyebrow.[5][10]
Death
Plaque on a brick wall with inscription: Юрий Алексеевич Гагарин, 1934-03-09–1968-03-27
Plaque indicating Gagarin's interment in the Kremlin Wall
On 27 March 1968, while on a routine training flight from Chkalovsky Air Base, Gagarin and flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin died when their MiG-15UTI crashed near the town of Kirzhach. The bodies of Gagarin and Seryogin were cremated and their ashes were buried in the walls of the Kremlin.[72] Wrapped in secrecy, the cause of the crash that killed Gagarin is uncertain and became the subject of several theories.[73][74] At least three investigations into the crash were conducted separately by the Air Force, official government commissions, and the KGB.[75][76] According to a biography of Gagarin by Jamie Doran and Piers Bizony, Starman: The Truth Behind the Legend of Yuri Gagarin, the KGB worked "not just alongside the Air Force and the official commission members but against them."[75]
The KGB's report declassified in March 2003 dismissed various conspiracy theories and instead indicated the actions of airbase personnel contributed to the crash. The report states that an air-traffic controller provided Gagarin with outdated weather information and that by the time of his flight, conditions had deteriorated significantly. Ground crew also left external fuel tanks attached to the aircraft. Gagarin's planned flight activities needed clear weather and no outboard tanks. The investigation concluded Gagarin's aircraft entered a spin, either due to a bird strike or because of a sudden move to avoid another aircraft. Because of the out-of-date weather report, the crew believed their altitude was higher than it was and could not react properly to bring the MiG-15 out of its spin.[76] Another theory, advanced in 2005 by the original crash investigator, hypothesizes that a cabin air vent was accidentally left open by the crew or the previous pilot, leading to oxygen deprivation and leaving the crew incapable of controlling the aircraft.[73] A similar theory, published in Air & Space magazine, is that the crew detected the open vent and followed procedure by executing a rapid dive to a lower altitude. This dive caused them to lose consciousness and crash.[74]
On 12 April 2007, the Kremlin vetoed a new investigation into the death of Gagarin. Government officials said they saw no reason to begin a new investigation.[77] In April 2011, documents from a 1968 commission set up by the Central Committee of the Communist Party to investigate the accident were declassified. The documents revealed that the commission's original conclusion was that Gagarin or Seryogin had manoeuvered sharply, either to avoid a weather balloon or to avoid "entry into the upper limit of the first layer of cloud cover", leading the jet into a "super-critical flight regime and to its stalling in complex meteorological conditions".[78]
A Russian MiG-15UTI, the same type as Gagarin was flying
Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, a member of a state commission established to investigate Gagarin's death, was conducting parachute training sessions that day and heard "two loud booms in the distance". He believes that a Sukhoi Su-15 was flying below its minimum altitude and, "without realizing it because of the terrible weather conditions, he passed within 10 or 20 meters of Yuri and Seregin's plane while breaking the sound barrier". The resulting turbulence would have sent the MiG-15UTI into an uncontrolled spin. Leonov said the first boom he heard was that of the jet breaking the sound barrier and the second was Gagarin's plane crashing.[79] In a June 2013 interview with Russian television network RT, Leonov said a report on the incident confirmed the presence of a second, "unauthorized" Su-15 flying in the area. However, as a condition of being allowed to discuss the declassified report, Leonov was barred from disclosing the name of the Su-15 pilot who was 80 years old and in poor health as of 2013.[80]
Awards and honours
Medals and orders of merit
Jânio Quadros, President of Brazil, decorated Gagarin in 1961.
On 14 April 1961, Gagarin was honoured with a 12-mile (19 km) parade attended by millions of people that concluded at the Red Square. After a short speech, he was bestowed the Hero of the Soviet Union,[81][82] Order of Lenin,[81] Merited Master of Sports of the Soviet Union[83] and the first Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR.[82] On 15 April, the Soviet Academy of Sciences awarded him with the Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Gold Medal, named after the Russian pioneer of space aeronautics.[84] Gagarin had also been awarded four Soviet commemorative medals over the course of his career.[15]
He was honoured as a Hero of Socialist Labor (Czechoslovakia) on 29 April 1961,[85][86] and Hero of Socialist Labor (Bulgaria, including the Order of Georgi Dimitrov) on 24 May.[15][chronology citation needed] On the eighth anniversary of the beginning of Cuban Revolution (26 July), President Osvaldo Dorticos of Cuba presented him with the first Commander of the Order of Playa Girón, a newly created medal.[87]
Gagarin was also awarded the 1960 Gold Air Medal and the 1961 De la Vaulx Medal from the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale in Switzerland.[88] He received numerous awards from other nations that year, including the Star of the Republic of Indonesia (2nd Class), the Order of the Cross of Grunwald (1st Degree) in Poland, the Order of the Flag of the Republic of Hungary, the Hero of Labor award from Democratic Republic of Vietnam,[15] the Italian Columbus Day Medal,[89] and a Gold Medal from the British Interplanetary Society.[90][91] President Jânio Quadros of Brazil decorated Gagarin on 2 August 1961 with the Order of Aeronautical Merit, Commander grade.[92] During a tour of Egypt in late January 1962, Gagarin received the Order of the Nile[93] and the golden keys to the gates of Cairo.[50] On 22 October 1963, Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova were honoured with the Order of Karl Marx from the German Democratic Republic.[94]
Tributes
The date of Gagarin's space flight, 12 April, has been commemorated. Since 1962, it has been celebrated in the USSR and most of its former territories as Cosmonautics Day.[95] Since 2000, Yuri's Night, an international celebration, is held annually to commemorate milestones in space exploration.[96] In 2011, it was declared the International Day of Human Space Flight by the United Nations.[97]
Yuri Gagarin statue at the Royal Greenwich Observatory in London
A number of buildings and locations have been named for Gagarin. The Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia, was named on 30 April 1968.[98] The launch pad at Baikonur Cosmodrome from which Sputnik 1 and Vostok 1 were launched is now known as Gagarin's Start. Gagarin Raion in Sevastopol, Ukraine, was named after him during the period of the Soviet Union. The Russian Air Force Academy was renamed Gagarin Air Force Academy in 1968.[99] A street in Warsaw, Poland, is called Yuri Gagarin Street.[100] The town of Gagarin, Armenia was renamed in his honour in 1961.[101]
Gagarin has been honoured on the Moon by astronauts and astronomers. During the American space program's Apollo 11 mission in 1969, astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin left a memorial satchel containing medals commemorating Gagarin and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov on the Moon's surface.[102][103] In 1971, Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin left the small Fallen Astronaut sculpture at their landing site as a memorial to the American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts who died in the Space Race; the names on its plaque included Yuri Gagarin and 14 others.[104][105] In 1970, a 262 km (163 mi)-wide crater on the far side after him.[106] Gagarin was inducted as a member of the 1976 inaugural class of the International Space Hall of Fame in New Mexico.[107]
Gagarin is memorialised in music; a cycle of Soviet patriotic songs titled The Constellation Gagarin (Russian: Созвездье Гагарина, tr. Sozvezdie Gagarina) was written by Aleksandra Pakhmutova and Nikolai Dobronravov in 1970–1971.[108] The most famous of these songs refers to Gagarin's poyekhali!: in the lyrics, "He said 'let's go!' He waved his hand".[35][108] He was the inspiration for the pieces "Hey Gagarin" by Jean-Michel Jarre on Métamorphoses, "Gagarin" by Public Service Broadcasting, and "Gagarin, I loved you" by Undervud.[109]
Russian ten-ruble commemorating Gagarin in 2001
Vessels have been named for Gagarin; Soviet tracking ship Kosmonavt Yuri Gagarin was built in 1971[110] and the Armenian airline Armavia named their first Sukhoi Superjet 100 in his honour in 2011.[111]
Two commemorative coins were issued in the Soviet Union to honour the 20th and 30th anniversaries of his flight: a one-ruble coin in copper-nickel (1981) and a three-ruble coin in silver (1991). In 2001, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, a series of four coins bearing his likeness was issued in Russia; it consisted of a two-ruble coin in copper-nickel, a three-ruble coin in silver, a ten-ruble coin in brass-copper and nickel, and a 100-ruble coin in silver.[112] In 2011, Russia issued a 1,000-ruble coin in gold and a three-ruble coin in silver to mark the 50th anniversary of his flight.[113]
In 2008, the Kontinental Hockey League named their championship trophy the Gagarin Cup.[114] In a 2010 Space Foundation survey, Gagarin was ranked as the sixth-most-popular space hero, tied with Star Trek's fictional James T. Kirk.[115] A Russian docudrama titled Gagarin: First in Space was released in 2013. Previous attempts at portraying Gagarin were disallowed; his family took legal action over his portrayal in a fictional drama and vetoed a musical.[116]
Statues and monuments
There are statues of Gagarin and monuments to him located in Gagarin (Smolensk Oblast), Orenburg, Cheboksary, Irkutsk, Izhevsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, and Yoshkar-Ola in Russia, as well as in Nicosia, Cyprus, Druzhkivka, Ukraine, Karaganda, Kazakhstan, and Tiraspol, Moldova. On 4 June 1980, Monument to Yuri Gagarin in Gagarin Square, Leninsky Avenue, Moscow, was opened.[117] The monument is mounted to a 38 m (125 ft) tall pedestal and is constructed of titanium. Beside the column is a replica of the descent module used during his spaceflight.[118]
Bust of Gagarin at Birla Planetarium in Kolkata, India
In 2011, a statue of Gagarin was unveiled at Admiralty Arch in The Mall in London, opposite the permanent sculpture of James Cook. It is a copy of the statue outside Gagarin's former school in Lyubertsy.[119] In 2013, the statue was moved to a permanent location outside the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.[120]
In 2012, a statue was unveiled at the site of NASA's original spaceflight headquarters on South Wayside Drive in Houston. The sculpture was completed in 2011 by artist and cosmonaut Alexei Leonov and was a gift to Houston by various Russian organisations. Houston Mayor Annise Parker, NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, and Russian Ambassador Sergey Kislyak were present for the dedication.[121][122] The Russian Federation presented a bust of Gagarin to several cities in India including one that was unveiled at the Birla Planetarium in Kolkata in February 2012.[123]
In April 2018, a bust of Gagarin erected on the street in Belgrade, Serbia, that bears his name was removed, after less than week. A new work was commissioned following the outcry over the disproportionately small size of its head which locals said was an "insult" to Gagarin.[124][125] Belgrade City Manager Goran Vesic stated that neither the city, the Serbian Ministry of Culture, nor the foundation that financed it had prior knowledge of the design.[126]
50th anniversary
50th anniversary stamp of Ukraine
The 50th anniversary of Gagarin's journey into space was marked in 2011 by tributes around the world. A film titled First Orbit was shot from the International Space Station, combining sound recordings from the original flight with footage of the route taken by Gagarin.[127] The Russian, American, and Italian crew of Expedition 27 aboard the ISS sent a special video message to wish the people of the world a "Happy Yuri's Night", wearing shirts with an image of Gagarin.[128]
The Central Bank of the Russian Federation released gold and silver coins to commemorate the anniversary.[129] The Soyuz TMA-21 spacecraft was named Gagarin with the launch in April 2011 to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the first manned space mission.
No correspondence.
A section sized formation of infantrymen advance behind a wall of steel. „Sturmabteilung Rohr“ conducted trials with the infantry shield and concluded it was only useful in limited situations.
Grabenschild were first introduced by the Germans in 1915 and were designed to be carried by assault troops into battle. In reality, they were too cumbersome and the shield ended up lining the parapets of trenches and later on, melted down for their nickel-steel.
La Nature est un temple où de vivants piliers
Laissent parfois sortir de confuses paroles;
L'homme y passe à travers des forêts de symboles
Qui l'observent avec des regards familiers.
Comme de longs échos qui de loin se confondent
Dans une ténébreuse et profonde unité,
Vaste comme la nuit et comme la clarté,
Les parfums, les couleurs et les sons se répondent.
Il est des parfums frais comme des chairs d'enfants,
Doux comme les hautbois, verts comme les prairies,
- Et d'autres, corrompus, riches et triomphants,
Ayant l'expansion des choses infinies,
Comme l'ambre, le musc, le benjoin et l'encens,
Qui chantent les transports de l'esprit et des sens.
~ Charles Baudelaire ~
Nature is a temple where the living pillars
Let go sometimes a blurred speech -
A Forest of symbols passes through a man's reach
And observes him with a familiar regard.
Like the distant echoes that mingle and confound
In a unity of darkness and quiet
Deep as the night, clear as daylight
The perfumes, the colors, the sounds correspond.
The perfume is as fresh as the flesh of an infant
Sweet as an oboe, green as a prairie
- And the others, corrupt, rich and triumphant
Enlightened by the things of infinity,
Like amber, musk, benzoin and incense
That sing, transporting the soul and sense.
Foundation stone 22 Aug 1890, architect C E Owen Smyth, Superintendent of Public Buildings, opened Feb 1891 as public school, official opening 16 Mar 1891. Became Observation School for teacher training 1908. Reverted to ordinary primary school when Kintore Ave teachers college built 1925. Became branch of Adelaide Boys High when facilities at Grote St were overcrowded due to students remaining at school during the Depression. From 1952 home of Correspondence School (see below), in turn teachers college annexe, migrant education centre and in 1978 College of External Studies, now Adelaide Remand Centre.
“The foundation-stone of the new city school. . . The stone will be a block of Kapunda marble, suitably inscribed, and it will be laid on the southern pier of the front entrance to the building. The public school, Currie-street. . . is being constructed of Hindmarsh brick, laid in Flemish bond, which already presents a very neat and sharp appearance. The foundation is in concrete, on the top of which may be noticed huge flags the full width of the trenches. These flags come from Tarlee. . . The red brick will be relieved by cut stone from Murray Bridge around the windows and on the gables. . . will accommodate about 1,000 children.” [Register 21 Aug 1890]
“At noon to-day a large crowd of persons assembled on the site of the new public school in Currie-street, and witnessed the ceremony of laying the foundation-stone which was performed by His Excellency the Earl of Kintore. Among those present were the Countess of Kintore, the Governor of Victoria (Earl of Hopetoun) and the Countess of Hopetoun.” [Evening Journal 22 Aug 1890]
“A month ago on Monday the new State school in Currie-street was used for the first time. If the original arrangements had been carried out the formal opening of the institution would have been performed shortly afterwards, but owing to the death of the late Minister of Education [David Bews] the date had to be altered, and a week ago it was decided that the Minister of Education (Hon. J. G. Jenkins) should be asked to declare the school open. . . . The school is unusually large, and the rooms are lofty and well ventilated. It is somewhat similar in its arrangements to the two-storied school buildings in Flinders-street and Grote-street, but with some material differences which it is considered make the school the best of its kind ever erected in South Australia. The building and grounds occupy exactly an acre of land, and the site was purchased by the Government some years ago from Mr. Gray, of the Reedbeds.” [Register 17 Mar 1891]
“The whole of the ground will be surrounded on three sides with a nine-feet galvanized-iron fence, the top of the iron being serrated and capped over with two rows of barbed wire. This is to prevent, if possible, the nightly incursions which the city schools suffer from larrikins and other ill-disposed persons.” [Evening Journal 17 Mar 1891]
“the Minister is anxious to establish in Adelaide a school as nearly perfect as a primary school can be made, where student teachers may observe work proceeding under experienced and skilled teachers, and, in addition, obtain practice under wise guidance. Currie-street is the most modern building in the city, and has been chosen for this purpose.” [Express & Telegraph 9 Jan 1908]
“The alterations and renovations which are being made at the Currie Street School, which will be regarded as the Observation and Practising School, are on rather a bigger scale than was at first expected, and the building will not be ready for occupation on Monday, so that the children who before Christmas were attending the Grote and Currie Street Schools will have a week's extension of their holidays. The provisional teachers from distant parts of the country who have been attending special classes in Adelaide this week will be granted an extra week's rest, and will not resume their duties until January 27.” [Register 16 Jan 1908]
“The Currie-street school, which has recently been undergoing renovation, will be opened on Tuesday next for observation and practising work by budding teachers and for kindergarten studies. The school will be used in connection with the scheme of training work, and teachers under training will visit it at regular intervals to gain practical experience of up-to-date educational methods. They will be under the supervision of a staff of competent teachers who have been carefully selected. . . Later on it is intended to fit up a room for the teaching of elementary science.” [Advertiser 25 Jan 1908]
“at the Observation School, Currie street, the Minister of Education (Hon. W. H. Harvey) will open the annual Summer School for Teachers. One hundred and eight class ix. teachers from all parts of the State will attend. The school, which will continue for a fortnight. . . members of the inspectorial staff will address the gathering, and instruction on the best methods of teaching arithmetic, Nature study, physical exercises, geography, history, singing, civics, poetry, and fingerwork will be given.” [Register 10 Jan 1920]
“Persons of inferior education are admitted to the Currie street Observation School after passing an examination of about the standard of the eighth grade in the primary schools. These receive six months' tuition and training, and are then appointed to the charge of small country schools.” [Daily Herald 7 Sep 1920]
“It was only at the beginning of this year that the new system of training students desirous of becoming teachers was brought into existence. An innovation was the establishment of what are known as practising schools, the object being to enable the students to receive practical experience in the art of teaching as a corollary to the theoretical education imparted to them in the lecture hall and classroom. In a modified form a similar plan was in operation last year, but now the principle has been adopted on a solid foundation, and certain appointments of teachers and schools have been made in connection with the work. There are six practising schools, namely Flinders street primary, Gilles street primary and infants, Currie street primary and infants, and the ‘model country school’ at Currie street.” [Observer 12 Feb 1921]
“The Currie, Gilles, and Flinders Streets Schools have been used as practising schools attached to the Teachers' College. Since their establishment in 1920 the attendance at these schools, especially at Currie-street, has steadily diminished, and that at the college has increased. From next week Currie Street School will revert to the position of an ordinary public school, as it is no longer suitable or economical for use as a practising school.” [Register News-Pictorial 22 May 1929]
“This year the Education Department will be faced with a problem in providing accommodation. There is a natural increase of students in the primary schools, and many pupils, who would normally have left and sought positions, will remain at school on account of the depression, and unemployment. Local halls and church halls have been rented in various suburbs. The position has been accentuated because the Government has not been able to secure loan money to carry on its normal school building programme. At the Adelaide High School there has been a largely increased enrolment, and the overflow will be sent to the old Currie-street School. . . There will be no shortage of teachers.” [Advertiser 24 Jan 1931]
“Adelaide High School was badly overcrowded, and that for the past 20 years the buildings had been inadequate to accommodate the 700 scholars. At present the overflow was housed in three extra schoolrooms, a converted church, and the old Currie street primary school, about a quarter of a mile away from the main block. Yet between 50 and 60 students applying for admission had been turned away during the past three days.”[Advertiser 12 Feb 1935]
“Adelaide High School. . . Perhaps only a few of the public know that about 400 boys are separated from the main school, and occupy the old primary school in Currie street. When a boy goes into a good school with good surroundings, he enters into the spirit of the school and is proud of the buildings which help to determine that spirit; but I am in my second year at Adelaide High School, Currie street, and the only spirit I have been conscious of in the environment is the smell of spirits in the brewery at the back of the building. The distance between the Currie street branch and Grote street is about half a mile, and when the whole school assembles, the Currie street boys walk to Grote street and back, thereby wasting about half an hour.” [Advertiser 20 Jun 1938]
“Slum environment, density of traffic, and-proximity to a .brewery and stables made the Adelaide High School in Currie street entirely unsuitable, said a witness before the Education Inquiry Commission this afternoon. Noise, smells, and bad lighting and ventilation combined to make it resemble an old-fashioned reformatory. . . Individual classes were too large, 40 or more students in a class being common. . . the enrolment average of Adelaide High School in recent years was 800 boys and 650 girls. Scattered unsuitable buildings had been rented as schoolrooms.” [News 29 Oct 1945]
“It was proposed to move the Gilles Street Correspondence School to the premises in Currie street now being used by the overflow from the Adelaide High School when the new Adelaide High School was ready for occupation.” [Advertiser 6 Jun 1950]
“The first group of 500 boys of Adelaide High School will move into their new building in the parklands on West terrace on Tuesday. They will be the older boys from the Grote street branch of the school, the principal (Mr. A. E. Dinning) said yesterday. A few weeks later 400 boys from Currie street would join them. Another group would remain at Currie street until the end of the year. 'We will be working under difficulties', Mr. Dinning added, 'as we will have the use of only 22 classrooms, and the science and assembly blocks will be in the hands of workmen until the end the year.” [Advertiser 22 May 1951]
“a contract for altering the old wing of Adelaide High School in Currie street. It is intended to establish a correspondence school in this building.” [News 31 Mar 1952]
CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL
Begun 1920 by Miss Lydia Longmore (first woman appointed Inspector of schools in Australia) to educate children in country areas too far from schools. At first in the Education Office, it moved 1921 to rooms in the former Destitute Asylum in Kintore Ave. A “set” of lessons was sent each fortnight; as soon as the child completed a set, it was posted back and s/he continued with the next set. The first set was returned with teacher’s corrections, comments and encouragement together with the third set, and so on. Work was overseen by parents or, on some outback stations, a governess. There were regular spelling tests, dictation and, of course, exams. As student numbers increased, so too, the teachers, with the school transferring to Currie St, Gilles St, back to Currie St in 1952, until moving to Pennington Tce, North Adelaide in 1955. School of the Air was extended to SA in 1958 with students using the Royal Flying Doctor Service radio network. In 1991 Correspondence School & School of the Air amalgamated to form Open Access College.
“There are a considerable number of children in South Australia who are beyond the reach of existing educational agencies. For some time Miss Inspector Longmore, assisted by some teacher friends, has endeavoured to meet their needs by conducting correspondence classes. This work has been carried on as a labour of love. . . the question is of sufficient importance to warrant the appointment of at least one full-time correspondence teacher, with headquarters at the Education Office. It is estimated that the maximum number of children that can be dealt with by such a teacher is 35, and that in due course assistants would be required. Such schools have been established in at least two of the other States, and they have been found to meet a real need in the community. The primary aim of such a school is to teach reading, writing, and arithmetic. Instruction is also given in grammar, geography, composition, &c.” [Daily Herald 28 Feb 1920]
“A correspondence school has been established for the benefit of children in back-country settlements where the number of children does not warrant the establishment of schools.” [Register 30 Jul 1920]
“Lessons by Correspondence. . . The subjects taught up to the present were reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling and composition, with some sewing. It was hoped to add history and geography and needlework to the curriculum.” [Advertiser 21 Jan 1921]
“The rapidly developing correspondence school branch of the Education Department will soon be housed in permanent quarters. These are in a part of what was the old Destitute Asylum. . . There will be two large rooms and two small ones . . . and they will provide a comfortable ‘schoolhouse’ for the staff of five teachers now engaged in this work. A new teacher was added last week, and it is understood that there is work enough for still one more. There are now 270 children enrolled in the school. . . Most of the pupils are living m the Murray. West Coast, and Far North districts.” [Advertiser 10 Feb 1921]
“To meet one of the greatest difficulties of outback settlement — the handicap imposed by isolation on children of school-going age — a band of voluntary workers, organized by Inspector Lydia Longmore, for some time taught the outback children 'by post' as a labour of love. In May, 1920, the present Director instituted instead the departmental Correspondence School. Miss. S. N. Twiss, the teacher appointed. . . is the first to point out that much of the success of the method lies with the parents who undertake to supervise the work done. The 'lessons' sent out contain carefully thought-out instructions to supervisers as well as to pupils.” [Register 21 Oct 1924
“the Minister of Education (Hon. M. McIntosh) and the Deputy-Director of Education (Mr. C. Charlton) visited the Correspondence School in Kintore avenue, Adelaide. . . A head teacher, ten assistants, and a junior staff of three are now located in old rooms, which have become inadequate.” [Observer 23 Jul 1927]
“Correspondence School. . . The home supervision was being carried out in a very creditable manner, sometimes under extreme difficulty. . . One mother had written — 'Please excuse Jean's papers being rather soiled this time as we are in a tent at ---, and the temperature is 117 deg. in the shade.'” [Register 5 Apr 1928]
“None of the State's youth is deprived of South Australia's wonderful system of free education — the department's correspondence school sees to that. Three typewriters, three typists, 13 teachers, a head mistress, and a duplicating machine, lodged in a lofty room about 40 x 20 ft. . . The splendid work being carried out by Miss S. N. Twiss and her assistants in their headquarters at the Currie Street Practising School can never be measured in terms of their remuneration, nor of their present achievements.” [Register 11 Jul 1928]
“Wherever children are more than four miles from a school they may receive the benefit of the correspondence classes. Lessons are sent out once a fortnight, and the answers carefully corrected. The work itself is done under the supervision of parents and many women of the outback labour heroically, in the midst of much heavy work, to do their best to make up to their children for educational handicaps. The teachers, too, give more than mere instruction. Each has her own 'class', the members of which may be scattered from Cape Borda to Oodnadatta. She knows the special needs of each of her many pupils.” [Observer 20 Apr 1929]
“In view of the drastic cut in education expenditure, it is inevitable that a number of small schools will soon have to be closed. This will give added importance to the work of the Correspondence School, which already offers a thorough primary education to outback children remote from schools. The system of teaching by post has given astonishingly good results. . . Their lessons are done in railway construction tents, on bush verandahs and in lean-to kitchens — wherever the young pioneers can find elbow room and a quiet corner. . . When the bush children are in town, they invariably visit the correspondence school in Currie street to see what their teachers are like. . . Thirty-nine invalid city children, including many patients at the Children's Hospital, share the benefits of the school” [Observer 17 Jul 1930]
“The Correspondence School is situated in Gilles street. There were, at the beginning of the year, 737 on the roll. The staff consists of 17 teachers and three typists. One set of lessons is sent out each fortnight. These, when finished, are sent back to the school for correction. When corrected they are returned with a new set. In all we get 22 sets for each grade. When these are completed we have our examination for promotion to a higher grade. Our lessons are made very interesting, and the instructions are very easy to follow. . . Once a month Nature pages are sent us. We also have library books sent for us to read.” [Observer 5 Feb 1931]
“School of the Air for Outback Children. . . The aim of the school was to supplement correspondence lessons. . . Broadcasts to schoolchildren will be land-lined from the Alice Springs Higher Primary School to the Flying Doctor Base for transmission.” [Advertiser 2 May 1951]
“School of the air opened Alice Springs. . . The school is broadcast over the Flying Doctor network, which serves 163 cattle stations, mining settlements, and missions in Australia's most inaccessible corners. . . Education experts believe this is the first school of the air in the world to provide two-way broadcasts. . . the children, whether in Queensland, SA, or the NT, will be able to talk to their teacher in Alice Springs. This is possible because each of the receiving stations on the Flying Doctor network also has transmitting set.” [News 8 Jun 1951]
“The Governor (Sir Robert George) and Lady George on Monday visited the Currie street Correspondence School. . . Headmistress (Miss N. J. Fitch) and the Deputy Headmistress (Miss J. B. Pomroy). The Governor had expressed a wish to see the school after observing outback children doing correspondence lessons. The school caters mainly for children in remote country areas, ranging from Grade I to Leaving standard.” [Chronicle 19 Aug 1954]
Foundation stone 22 Aug 1890, architect C E Owen Smyth, Superintendent of Public Buildings, opened Feb 1891 as public school, official opening 16 Mar 1891. Became Observation School for teacher training 1908. Reverted to ordinary primary school when Kintore Ave teachers college built 1925. Became branch of Adelaide Boys High when facilities at Grote St were overcrowded due to students remaining at school during the Depression. From 1952 home of Correspondence School (see below), in turn teachers college annexe, migrant education centre and in 1978 College of External Studies, now Adelaide Remand Centre.
“The foundation-stone of the new city school. . . The stone will be a block of Kapunda marble, suitably inscribed, and it will be laid on the southern pier of the front entrance to the building. The public school, Currie-street. . . is being constructed of Hindmarsh brick, laid in Flemish bond, which already presents a very neat and sharp appearance. The foundation is in concrete, on the top of which may be noticed huge flags the full width of the trenches. These flags come from Tarlee. . . The red brick will be relieved by cut stone from Murray Bridge around the windows and on the gables. . . will accommodate about 1,000 children.” [Register 21 Aug 1890]
“At noon to-day a large crowd of persons assembled on the site of the new public school in Currie-street, and witnessed the ceremony of laying the foundation-stone which was performed by His Excellency the Earl of Kintore. Among those present were the Countess of Kintore, the Governor of Victoria (Earl of Hopetoun) and the Countess of Hopetoun.” [Evening Journal 22 Aug 1890]
“A month ago on Monday the new State school in Currie-street was used for the first time. If the original arrangements had been carried out the formal opening of the institution would have been performed shortly afterwards, but owing to the death of the late Minister of Education [David Bews] the date had to be altered, and a week ago it was decided that the Minister of Education (Hon. J. G. Jenkins) should be asked to declare the school open. . . . The school is unusually large, and the rooms are lofty and well ventilated. It is somewhat similar in its arrangements to the two-storied school buildings in Flinders-street and Grote-street, but with some material differences which it is considered make the school the best of its kind ever erected in South Australia. The building and grounds occupy exactly an acre of land, and the site was purchased by the Government some years ago from Mr. Gray, of the Reedbeds.” [Register 17 Mar 1891]
“The whole of the ground will be surrounded on three sides with a nine-feet galvanized-iron fence, the top of the iron being serrated and capped over with two rows of barbed wire. This is to prevent, if possible, the nightly incursions which the city schools suffer from larrikins and other ill-disposed persons.” [Evening Journal 17 Mar 1891]
“the Minister is anxious to establish in Adelaide a school as nearly perfect as a primary school can be made, where student teachers may observe work proceeding under experienced and skilled teachers, and, in addition, obtain practice under wise guidance. Currie-street is the most modern building in the city, and has been chosen for this purpose.” [Express & Telegraph 9 Jan 1908]
“The alterations and renovations which are being made at the Currie Street School, which will be regarded as the Observation and Practising School, are on rather a bigger scale than was at first expected, and the building will not be ready for occupation on Monday, so that the children who before Christmas were attending the Grote and Currie Street Schools will have a week's extension of their holidays. The provisional teachers from distant parts of the country who have been attending special classes in Adelaide this week will be granted an extra week's rest, and will not resume their duties until January 27.” [Register 16 Jan 1908]
“The Currie-street school, which has recently been undergoing renovation, will be opened on Tuesday next for observation and practising work by budding teachers and for kindergarten studies. The school will be used in connection with the scheme of training work, and teachers under training will visit it at regular intervals to gain practical experience of up-to-date educational methods. They will be under the supervision of a staff of competent teachers who have been carefully selected. . . Later on it is intended to fit up a room for the teaching of elementary science.” [Advertiser 25 Jan 1908]
“at the Observation School, Currie street, the Minister of Education (Hon. W. H. Harvey) will open the annual Summer School for Teachers. One hundred and eight class ix. teachers from all parts of the State will attend. The school, which will continue for a fortnight. . . members of the inspectorial staff will address the gathering, and instruction on the best methods of teaching arithmetic, Nature study, physical exercises, geography, history, singing, civics, poetry, and fingerwork will be given.” [Register 10 Jan 1920]
“Persons of inferior education are admitted to the Currie street Observation School after passing an examination of about the standard of the eighth grade in the primary schools. These receive six months' tuition and training, and are then appointed to the charge of small country schools.” [Daily Herald 7 Sep 1920]
“It was only at the beginning of this year that the new system of training students desirous of becoming teachers was brought into existence. An innovation was the establishment of what are known as practising schools, the object being to enable the students to receive practical experience in the art of teaching as a corollary to the theoretical education imparted to them in the lecture hall and classroom. In a modified form a similar plan was in operation last year, but now the principle has been adopted on a solid foundation, and certain appointments of teachers and schools have been made in connection with the work. There are six practising schools, namely Flinders street primary, Gilles street primary and infants, Currie street primary and infants, and the ‘model country school’ at Currie street.” [Observer 12 Feb 1921]
“The Currie, Gilles, and Flinders Streets Schools have been used as practising schools attached to the Teachers' College. Since their establishment in 1920 the attendance at these schools, especially at Currie-street, has steadily diminished, and that at the college has increased. From next week Currie Street School will revert to the position of an ordinary public school, as it is no longer suitable or economical for use as a practising school.” [Register News-Pictorial 22 May 1929]
“This year the Education Department will be faced with a problem in providing accommodation. There is a natural increase of students in the primary schools, and many pupils, who would normally have left and sought positions, will remain at school on account of the depression, and unemployment. Local halls and church halls have been rented in various suburbs. The position has been accentuated because the Government has not been able to secure loan money to carry on its normal school building programme. At the Adelaide High School there has been a largely increased enrolment, and the overflow will be sent to the old Currie-street School. . . There will be no shortage of teachers.” [Advertiser 24 Jan 1931]
“Adelaide High School was badly overcrowded, and that for the past 20 years the buildings had been inadequate to accommodate the 700 scholars. At present the overflow was housed in three extra schoolrooms, a converted church, and the old Currie street primary school, about a quarter of a mile away from the main block. Yet between 50 and 60 students applying for admission had been turned away during the past three days.”[Advertiser 12 Feb 1935]
“Adelaide High School. . . Perhaps only a few of the public know that about 400 boys are separated from the main school, and occupy the old primary school in Currie street. When a boy goes into a good school with good surroundings, he enters into the spirit of the school and is proud of the buildings which help to determine that spirit; but I am in my second year at Adelaide High School, Currie street, and the only spirit I have been conscious of in the environment is the smell of spirits in the brewery at the back of the building. The distance between the Currie street branch and Grote street is about half a mile, and when the whole school assembles, the Currie street boys walk to Grote street and back, thereby wasting about half an hour.” [Advertiser 20 Jun 1938]
“Slum environment, density of traffic, and-proximity to a .brewery and stables made the Adelaide High School in Currie street entirely unsuitable, said a witness before the Education Inquiry Commission this afternoon. Noise, smells, and bad lighting and ventilation combined to make it resemble an old-fashioned reformatory. . . Individual classes were too large, 40 or more students in a class being common. . . the enrolment average of Adelaide High School in recent years was 800 boys and 650 girls. Scattered unsuitable buildings had been rented as schoolrooms.” [News 29 Oct 1945]
“It was proposed to move the Gilles Street Correspondence School to the premises in Currie street now being used by the overflow from the Adelaide High School when the new Adelaide High School was ready for occupation.” [Advertiser 6 Jun 1950]
“The first group of 500 boys of Adelaide High School will move into their new building in the parklands on West terrace on Tuesday. They will be the older boys from the Grote street branch of the school, the principal (Mr. A. E. Dinning) said yesterday. A few weeks later 400 boys from Currie street would join them. Another group would remain at Currie street until the end of the year. 'We will be working under difficulties', Mr. Dinning added, 'as we will have the use of only 22 classrooms, and the science and assembly blocks will be in the hands of workmen until the end the year.” [Advertiser 22 May 1951]
“a contract for altering the old wing of Adelaide High School in Currie street. It is intended to establish a correspondence school in this building.” [News 31 Mar 1952]
CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL
Begun 1920 by Miss Lydia Longmore (first woman appointed Inspector of schools in Australia) to educate children in country areas too far from schools. At first in the Education Office, it moved 1921 to rooms in the former Destitute Asylum in Kintore Ave. A “set” of lessons was sent each fortnight; as soon as the child completed a set, it was posted back and s/he continued with the next set. The first set was returned with teacher’s corrections, comments and encouragement together with the third set, and so on. Work was overseen by parents or, on some outback stations, a governess. There were regular spelling tests, dictation and, of course, exams. As student numbers increased, so too, the teachers, with the school transferring to Currie St, Gilles St, back to Currie St in 1952, until moving to Pennington Tce, North Adelaide in 1955. School of the Air was extended to SA in 1958 with students using the Royal Flying Doctor Service radio network. In 1991 Correspondence School & School of the Air amalgamated to form Open Access College.
“There are a considerable number of children in South Australia who are beyond the reach of existing educational agencies. For some time Miss Inspector Longmore, assisted by some teacher friends, has endeavoured to meet their needs by conducting correspondence classes. This work has been carried on as a labour of love. . . the question is of sufficient importance to warrant the appointment of at least one full-time correspondence teacher, with headquarters at the Education Office. It is estimated that the maximum number of children that can be dealt with by such a teacher is 35, and that in due course assistants would be required. Such schools have been established in at least two of the other States, and they have been found to meet a real need in the community. The primary aim of such a school is to teach reading, writing, and arithmetic. Instruction is also given in grammar, geography, composition, &c.” [Daily Herald 28 Feb 1920]
“A correspondence school has been established for the benefit of children in back-country settlements where the number of children does not warrant the establishment of schools.” [Register 30 Jul 1920]
“Lessons by Correspondence. . . The subjects taught up to the present were reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling and composition, with some sewing. It was hoped to add history and geography and needlework to the curriculum.” [Advertiser 21 Jan 1921]
“The rapidly developing correspondence school branch of the Education Department will soon be housed in permanent quarters. These are in a part of what was the old Destitute Asylum. . . There will be two large rooms and two small ones . . . and they will provide a comfortable ‘schoolhouse’ for the staff of five teachers now engaged in this work. A new teacher was added last week, and it is understood that there is work enough for still one more. There are now 270 children enrolled in the school. . . Most of the pupils are living m the Murray. West Coast, and Far North districts.” [Advertiser 10 Feb 1921]
“To meet one of the greatest difficulties of outback settlement — the handicap imposed by isolation on children of school-going age — a band of voluntary workers, organized by Inspector Lydia Longmore, for some time taught the outback children 'by post' as a labour of love. In May, 1920, the present Director instituted instead the departmental Correspondence School. Miss. S. N. Twiss, the teacher appointed. . . is the first to point out that much of the success of the method lies with the parents who undertake to supervise the work done. The 'lessons' sent out contain carefully thought-out instructions to supervisers as well as to pupils.” [Register 21 Oct 1924
“the Minister of Education (Hon. M. McIntosh) and the Deputy-Director of Education (Mr. C. Charlton) visited the Correspondence School in Kintore avenue, Adelaide. . . A head teacher, ten assistants, and a junior staff of three are now located in old rooms, which have become inadequate.” [Observer 23 Jul 1927]
“Correspondence School. . . The home supervision was being carried out in a very creditable manner, sometimes under extreme difficulty. . . One mother had written — 'Please excuse Jean's papers being rather soiled this time as we are in a tent at ---, and the temperature is 117 deg. in the shade.'” [Register 5 Apr 1928]
“None of the State's youth is deprived of South Australia's wonderful system of free education — the department's correspondence school sees to that. Three typewriters, three typists, 13 teachers, a head mistress, and a duplicating machine, lodged in a lofty room about 40 x 20 ft. . . The splendid work being carried out by Miss S. N. Twiss and her assistants in their headquarters at the Currie Street Practising School can never be measured in terms of their remuneration, nor of their present achievements.” [Register 11 Jul 1928]
“Wherever children are more than four miles from a school they may receive the benefit of the correspondence classes. Lessons are sent out once a fortnight, and the answers carefully corrected. The work itself is done under the supervision of parents and many women of the outback labour heroically, in the midst of much heavy work, to do their best to make up to their children for educational handicaps. The teachers, too, give more than mere instruction. Each has her own 'class', the members of which may be scattered from Cape Borda to Oodnadatta. She knows the special needs of each of her many pupils.” [Observer 20 Apr 1929]
“In view of the drastic cut in education expenditure, it is inevitable that a number of small schools will soon have to be closed. This will give added importance to the work of the Correspondence School, which already offers a thorough primary education to outback children remote from schools. The system of teaching by post has given astonishingly good results. . . Their lessons are done in railway construction tents, on bush verandahs and in lean-to kitchens — wherever the young pioneers can find elbow room and a quiet corner. . . When the bush children are in town, they invariably visit the correspondence school in Currie street to see what their teachers are like. . . Thirty-nine invalid city children, including many patients at the Children's Hospital, share the benefits of the school” [Observer 17 Jul 1930]
“The Correspondence School is situated in Gilles street. There were, at the beginning of the year, 737 on the roll. The staff consists of 17 teachers and three typists. One set of lessons is sent out each fortnight. These, when finished, are sent back to the school for correction. When corrected they are returned with a new set. In all we get 22 sets for each grade. When these are completed we have our examination for promotion to a higher grade. Our lessons are made very interesting, and the instructions are very easy to follow. . . Once a month Nature pages are sent us. We also have library books sent for us to read.” [Observer 5 Feb 1931]
“School of the Air for Outback Children. . . The aim of the school was to supplement correspondence lessons. . . Broadcasts to schoolchildren will be land-lined from the Alice Springs Higher Primary School to the Flying Doctor Base for transmission.” [Advertiser 2 May 1951]
“School of the air opened Alice Springs. . . The school is broadcast over the Flying Doctor network, which serves 163 cattle stations, mining settlements, and missions in Australia's most inaccessible corners. . . Education experts believe this is the first school of the air in the world to provide two-way broadcasts. . . the children, whether in Queensland, SA, or the NT, will be able to talk to their teacher in Alice Springs. This is possible because each of the receiving stations on the Flying Doctor network also has transmitting set.” [News 8 Jun 1951]
“The Governor (Sir Robert George) and Lady George on Monday visited the Currie street Correspondence School. . . Headmistress (Miss N. J. Fitch) and the Deputy Headmistress (Miss J. B. Pomroy). The Governor had expressed a wish to see the school after observing outback children doing correspondence lessons. The school caters mainly for children in remote country areas, ranging from Grade I to Leaving standard.” [Chronicle 19 Aug 1954]
..\description_code.txt
Description: Professional correspondence between Dummer and W.I. Thomas, 1921.
Repository: Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America.
Collection: Ethel Sturges Dummer Papers
Call Number: A-127
Catalog Record: http://id.lib.harvard.edu/aleph/000604926/catalog
Questions? Ask a Schlesinger Librarian
Addressed to the Olds Soap & Chem Co. in Indianapolis, this fulfilled a request for Wyandotte envelope inserts, perhaps in a way to cross-promote Wyandotte.
Dangerous Liaisons
by Choderlos de Laclos
An article by Valerie Mamicheva
Choderlos de Laclos, an eighteenth-century French novelist, is best remembered for Les liaisons dangereuses, or Dangerous Liaisons. This epistolary novel tells of the unscrupulous libertinism practiced by the central characters, Valmont and Merteuil. Together they plot for pleasure and power, but their scheme turns against them.
Laclos was a reasonably successful army general in his time. Although at one stage he was imprisoned for his work on Les liaisons dangereuses, the novel was an enormous success (and a veritable scandal).
And, obviously, the main characters of "Dangerous liaisons" are vicomte de Valmont and madam de Merteuil. Exactly they braid all intrigues together and spoil the lives of so many people. That is what we see on the example of Cecile de Volanges and madam de Tourvel. The famous director Milos Foreman in his filming of "Dangerous Liaisons" remarked, that the main theme and idea of the novel is opening of the image and the goal of of the deeds of unamendabled lover Valmont, his growing up under influence of madam de Tourvel's love? That's why Milos Foreman renamed his film from "Dangerous Liaisons" to simply "Valmont". Exactly, in Valmont Choderlos de Laclos wanted to show vices of his century, Valmont is its reflection. But madam de Merteuil hasn't gone too far from Valmont. In the novel we are watching their correspondence. Why Choderlos de Laclos chose epistolary genre? Because only in a letter we can clearly consider and perceive some thoughts and feelings of a man. Even a style of writing a letter can can tell us much about him. For example, let us take madam de Merteuil – she writes in a exquisite and dainty style, using many epithets and specific words, in her "speech" we see utterances of the famous philosophers of her time, her own dictums. And more, this dainty schemer owns a flexible and sharp wit, sense of humour, and she is well educated and interested in all latest news about theatre and music. She is an interesting person to deal with. Madam de Merteuil can stand for herself, she can get every man she wants, she can be charming and attractive, virtuous and modest (remember her relationships with madam de Volanges). She early understood that a woman can conquer a man, subordinate him, if she wants so. But this woman is ought not only to be able to talk about a fashion and to have good manners – wise marquise consulted with philosophers, writers, moralists. She knows how to behave herself with men and she knows what she wants. She enjoys this "game of love" and a sharp intrigue she twisted between the lovers -- chevalier Danceny and Cecile de Volanges. It gives her pleasure and joy. Cecile is too young and naive to understand a cunning plan of de Merteuil. But Danceny revealed her bad nature at the end. Her accomplice is skilful in love vicomte de Valmont.
Valmont is a face of his age. It is worth of thinking, was Valmont the only representative of such "tending to love" in all Paris? Off course, no. But, maybe, Valmont isn't so insidious lecher as it seemed at first. Maybe, the matter is in marquise de Merteuil, who supplies this poisonous source in his soul and culls her vanity in it. That is what Valmont couldn't understand, he was only a toy in the hands of the cunning marquise, who calculated everything. Yet, marquise realized that Valmont's new love (madam de Tourvel) began to ennoble him and change him. And she insisted on his brake with madam de Tourvel because she is afraid to lose him. The intrigue with de Tourvel went too far, she considers. Not realizing – that, Valmont fights for his love he suggests an alternative to marquise, she chooses a war. And he loses, he dies, he has a talk with Danceny, to whom he opened what he understood quite recently – now he knows all essence of this maleficent woman. He died, but morally towered over her. He died free from burden of his sins.
And what do Valmont and de Merteil have common and and different? Both of them – mean souls, capable to fraud and treason, connoisseurs of a sharp intrigue and they are interested in its flexible uncoupling. To use surrounding people in your own purposes is the greatest pleasure. An intrigue for them is a whole art, ability to stay alive and to get wishing. Hundreds, or even thousands of people got victims of this art. They are accomplices in their sins, the plans they invent together. That is what united them. But their lives in society ended differently. For madam de berteuil – it was a great disgrace, departure in big hurry from France, she got ravaged and ashamed. Valmont – he dies in a duel with Danceny, but he dies with realization of his terrible way of life, he understands that he spoiled a lot of women's reputations, and he is sorry for that. He apologizes to Madam de Tourvel, his soul is saved from marquise's poison. His did exalted him.
One more heroine of "Dangerous liaisons" is Cecile de Volanges. She has just arrived from the monastery, she is young and inexperienced, trustful and lightheaded. She fell in love with Danceny. Having fallen into the trap made by Valmont and marquise de Mereuil she let them use herself how do they like. She is defenseless before their cunning and dainty cruelty. And the love to Danceny made her absolutely simple victim. De Merteuil wants to revenge her last lover and Cecile de Volanges is only one section in a chain of cunningly braided intrigues. They shamed her before the all society, before her own mother. Poor Cecile, at the end, went to a monastery. Her pure and noble soul couldn't solve this riddle. Her mother didn't find out the all truth about what had happened.
One more noble heart and virtuous soul is madam de Tourvel. For Valmont to spoil a woman with a high moral principles and pure soul is a real victory. But for madam de Tourvel it was a real pure and beautiful love which happens only once in a life. Valmont's letters she read for hundreds times and knew them by heart. But for him it is only a fine game, light amusement. Madam de Tourvel couldn't betray her moral principles, her husband and a religion. Valmont made her do it. Gradually, Valmont didn't mention himself to fall in love with madam de Tourvel. He didn't notice that his feelings began to change from shameful and dirty into gentle and romantic. He wanted to donate his love in the name of his reputation of the "first reprobate in Paris". The result of his mistake was madam de Tourvel's death. Though he was in time to analyze his mistake and not only this one, but others either. At the end, we can say, that "Dangerous Liaisons's goal was not only the reflection of the atmosphere of dainty libertinism and lie hidden with virtue but to suppress these vices and others on the example of Valmont and madam de Merteuil.
"Dangerous liaisons" is very moral, special philosophical-moral-ethical creation.
— Valerie Mamicheva
These are some of the mail art stampsheets I made up to jolly up the mail art in the 1980s-mostly inspired by Michael A1 Waste Papiers intended to be shared sent out and generally played with.-
Description: Educator and founder of the Palmer Memorial Institute in Sedalia, North Carolina, Charlotte Eugenia Hawkins Brown was active in the National Council of Negro Women, the N.C. Teachers Association, etc., and was the first black woman to serve on the national board of the YWCA. She lectured and wrote about black women, education, and race relations.
Repository: Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America.
Collection: Charlotte Hawkins Brown Papers
Call Number: A-146
Catalog Record: id.lib.harvard.edu/aleph/000605309/catalog
Questions? Ask a Schlesinger Librarian
With one blast on Mallard’s whistle, York confirmed its position as the centre of the railway world today. It was the moment that marked the start of the Great Gathering – all six surviving A4 locomotives together to mark a very special anniversary.
Seventy-five years ago to the day, Mallard reached 126mph at Stoke Bank near Grantham in Lincolnshire, making it the fastest steam locomotive in history.
To mark the occasion her five sister A4s, all designed by Sir Nigel Gresley, were brought to the National Railway Museum as part of the Mallard 75 celebrations. Sir Nigel Gresley, Union of South Africa, Bittern, Dwight D Eisenhower, and Dominion of Canada – the latter two travelling 2,500 from North America – were lined up in the Great Hall. Then Mallard glided alongside them and the gathering was complete.
Dignitaries, rail buffs, former drivers and firemen from the great engines and press from Britain and beyond were there to witness locomotive history, the day after the NRM had officially been saved from a potential threat of closure.
The Great Gathering continues at the museum until July 17. And you can read about the NRM’s new art exhibition, It’s Quicker By Rail, here.
In honour of this historic event, here is a train-themed Mix Six: six facts about each of the six A4s.
4468 Mallard
•Mallard was the first A4 to be fitted with a special Kylchap exhaust and double blastpipe and chimney, making steam production more efficient.
•On the 3rd of July 1938 Mallard broke the world speed record for steam traction by reaching a speed of 126mph. But Sir Nigel Gresley himself never accepted this as the record-breaking maximum. He claimed this speed could only have been attained over a few yards, though he was comfortable that the German speed record of 124.5 mph had been surpassed.
•Selected to crew the locomotive on its record attempt were driver Joseph Duddington (a man renowned within the LNER for taking calculated risks) and fireman Thomas Bray.
•Mallard is the only surviving A4 in LNER livery.
•It is 70 ft long and weighs 165 tons, including the tender.
•At the NRM today you can climb aboard the Mallard Experience, a five-minute simulator ride “recreating the excitement and exhilaration of Mallard’s record breaking run”. But according to the warning signs, you shouldn’t go in if you are presumed pregnant or have skeletal defects.
4498 Sir Nigel Gresley
Sir Nigel Gresley takes a break from hauling visitors on the North Yorkshire Moors Railway
Sir Nigel Gresley takes a break from hauling visitors on the North Yorkshire Moors Railway
•Sir Nigel Gresley was built for the LNER in 1937, and was the 100th Gresley Pacific built.
•Locomotive 4498 was actually due to receive the name Bittern, originally suggested for 4492 (later Dominion of New Zealand). So the story goes, an LNER enthusiast who worked in the Railway Correspondence and Travel Society, realised in time that 4498 was the 100th Gresley Pacific locomotive and the suggestion was made that the locomotive be named after her designer.
•Sir Nigel Gresley holds the post-war steam record speed of 112mph gained on the 23 May 1959 and carries a plaque to that effect.
•On that record-breaking run, renowned driver Bill Hoole was on the footplate. He had a reputation for pushing locomotives to their limits.
•Bill believed that, given more freedom from those pesky safety regulations “Mallard’s record would have gone by the board”.
•Sir Nigel Gresley was saved from the scrap heap in 1966 and is based at the North Yorkshire Moors Railway. It carried the Olympic Flame in 2012.
4464 Bittern
A4 Pacific line-up, left to right: Union of South Africa, Bittern, Mallard and Dominion of Canada (just in view)
A4 Pacific line-up, left to right: Union of South Africa, Bittern, Mallard and Dominion of Canada (just in view)
•Initially Bittern was based at Heaton in Newcastle and served the famous Flying Scotsman route in the section between King’s Cross and Newcastle.
•Early in her career, Bittern suffered some collision damage, necessitating a general overhaul at Doncaster from 3rd – 4th January 1938.
•Bittern lost her garter blue paint for wartime black and was required to pull longer than normal passenger trains and later heavy freight and coal trains.
•The final day in service for Bittern was September 3rd 1966.
•Only now have the important repairs been undertaken to bring her up to mainline standard.
•Bittern is the only one with its original tender. By contrast it has had 14 different boilers, more than any other A4
60009 Union of South Africa
Union of South Africa passes Condover, Shropshire. Photograph: Wikipedia
Union of South Africa passes Condover, Shropshire. Photograph: Sam Ashton / CrossHouses on Wikipedia
•Union of South Africa had previously been allocated the name “Osprey”. “Osprey” name plates were fitted to the locomotive during the 1980s and early 1990s due to the politics of the time.
•Union of South Africa has accumulated the highest mileage of any locomotive in the class.
•The springbok plaque on the side of the locomotive was donated on 12 April 1954 by a Bloemfontein newspaper proprietor. Only one plaque was fitted on the left hand side of the locomotive.
•Union of South Africa was allocated to the Haymarket shed in Edinburgh from new and on 20 May 1962 she had her only shed transfer to Aberdeen.
•It was one of five 1937 locomotives built in 1937 to pull the new Coronation express service, which took passengers between London and Edinburgh in just six hours.
•In 1964 it was the last A4 to pull a service train from King’s Cross station. Arriving back on the return journey its final farewell whistle echoed across the platforms.
60010 Dominion of Canada
bittern
•Built in the Doncaster works in 1937, she was originally named Buzzard but was renamed Dominion of Canada in June 1937.
• Dominion of Canada was withdrawn at Darlington shed on May 29, 1965. That July the locomotive was marked in the records as “for sale to be scrapped”.
•It was left derelict and forgotten for many months until finally being moved to Crewe Works for cosmetic restoration and shipping to Canada.
•The loco was donated to the Canadian Railroad Historical Association (CRHA) by British Rail which has looked after it since May 1966.
•It returned to Britain last year where it has been restored to its pre-war state with Garter Blue livery.
•Dominion of Canada was fitted with a Canadian whistle and a bell which on one memorable occasion was rung all the way from London to York.
60008 Dwight D Eisenhower
Dwight D Eisenhower undergoing restoration
Dwight D Eisenhower undergoing restoration
•Built for the London and North Eastern Railway in 1937, the locomotive was originally numbered 4496 and named Golden Shuttle to reflect Yorkshire’s woollen industry.
•It was renamed Dwight D Eisenhower after the Second World War and renumbered 8 on 23 November 1946. It was intended that Eisenhower would attend an official unveiling, but this could not be arranged.
•The locomotive was cosmetically restored at the Doncaster Works in 1963 and was shipped to the USA the following Spring, arriving in New York harbour on 11 May 1964.
•Since then it has been housed at the National Railroad Museum in Green Bay Wisconsin, USA.
•It has travelled more than 1.4 million miles in main line service.
•This is its first return to Britain.
..\description_code.txt
Description: Professional correspondence between Dummer and W.I. Thomas, 1921.
Repository: Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America.
Collection: Ethel Sturges Dummer Papers
Call Number: A-127
Catalog Record: http://id.lib.harvard.edu/aleph/000604926/catalog
Questions? Ask a Schlesinger Librarian
These are some of the mail art stampsheets I made up to jolly up the mail art in the 1980s-mostly inspired by Michael A1 Waste Papiers intended to be shared sent out and generally played with.-
..\description_code.txt
Description: Professional correspondence between Dummer and W.I. Thomas, 1921.
Repository: Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America.
Collection: Ethel Sturges Dummer Papers
Call Number: A-127
Catalog Record: http://id.lib.harvard.edu/aleph/000604926/catalog
Questions? Ask a Schlesinger Librarian
Part of a letter from John Frederick of Belleville, Wisconsin, to family members in Belleville, Ontario in 1850.
"If posible for I am building a large grist mill and it requires a large Capital I have a large amount standing out but cant get it soon a nof to answer my purpos and the rest of the money you can fetch a long with you when you come and I hope that you will not disapoint me in cumming and when you get ready to come with your team come write [right] two [to] Chatham and then two Detroit and then they will be no dificulty to find your way to Chicag [Chicago] and then to Janes ville [Janesville] and then you are only thirty milds from my place and from Janes ville you will inquire your way to rutlands post office and then you are ten milds from me and from rutlands post office to Grand Spring and then they will tell you all about me for I am only two milds from the spring. If you should take the Boat at Detroit and land in Milwalke [Milwaukee] go to Janes ville as i mentioned before if the parties fale in there payments put them in the hands of Wolbridge [Wallbridge] for collection and have them crowded write thrue so if you dout they will keep me out of my pay six months longer..."
..\description_code.txt
Description: Professional correspondence between Dummer and W.I. Thomas, 1921.
Repository: Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America.
Collection: Ethel Sturges Dummer Papers
Call Number: A-127
Catalog Record: http://id.lib.harvard.edu/aleph/000604926/catalog
Questions? Ask a Schlesinger Librarian
This is where I have most of my stationery. The funny thing is, I don't really have anyone that I correspond with. I should probably change this! In front is the basket of my quilt squares and larger fabric scraps. I love the tablecloth on this table - I think it was $2 at Kmart.
HDQRS. MILITARY DIVISION OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
In the Field, Atlanta, Ga., September 7, 1864.
General HOOD,
Commanding Confederate Army:
GENERAL: I have deemed it to the interest of the United States that the citizens now residing in Atlanta should remove, those who prefer it to go South and the rest North... If you consent I will undertake to remove all families in Atlanta who prefer to go South...with their servants, white and black, with the proviso that no force shall be used toward the blacks one way or the other. If they want to go with their masters or mistresses they may do so, otherwise they will be sent away, unless they be men, when they may be employed by our quartermaster. Atlanta is no place for families or non-combatants and I have no desire to send them North if you will assist in conveying them South. If this proposition meets your views I will consent to a truce...
I have the honor to be, your obedient servant,
W. T. SHERMAN,
Major-General, Commanding.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
HDQRS. ARMY OF TENNESSEE, OFFICE CHIEF OF STAFF,
September 9, 1864.
Maj. Gen. W. T. SHERMAN.
Commanding U.S. Forces in Georgia:
GENERAL: Your letter...is received...I therefore accept your proposition to declare a truce of two days,...And now, sir, permit me to say that the unprecedented measure you propose transcends, in studied and ingenious cruelty, all acts ever before brought to my attention in the dark history of war. In the name of God and humanity I protest, believing that you will find that you are expelling from their homes and firesides the wives and children of a brave people.
I am, general, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
J. B. HOOD,
General.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
HDQRS. MILITARY DIVISION OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
In the Field, Atlanta, Ga., September 10, 1864.
General J. B. HOOD, C. S. Army, Comdg. Army of Tennessee:
GENERAL: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter... consenting to the arrangements I had proposed... You style the measure proposed "unprecedented," and appeal to the dark history of war for a parallel as an act of "studied and ingenious cruelty." It is not unprecedented,... Nor is it necessary to appeal to the dark history of war when recent and modern examples are so handy... I say that it is kindness to these families of Atlanta to remove them now at once from scenes that women and children should not be exposed to, and the "brave people" should scorn to commit their wives and children to the rude barbarians who thus, as you say, violate the laws of war, as illustrated in the pages of its dark history. In the name of common sense I ask you not to appeal to a just God in such a sacrilegious manner; you who, in the midst of peace and prosperity, have plunged a nation into war, dark and cruel war... If we must be enemies, let us be men and fight it out, as we propose to do, and not deal in such hypocritical appeals to God and humanity. God will judge us in due time, and He will pronounce whether it be more humane to fight with a town full of women, and the families of "a brave people" at our back, or to remove them in time to places of safety among their own friends and people.
W. T. SHERMAN,
Major-general, Commanding.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
HEADQUARTERS ARMY OF TENNESSEE,
September 12, 1864.
Maj. Gen. W. T. SHERMAN,
Commanding Military Division of the Mississippi:
GENERAL; I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter... But you have chosen to indulge in statements which I feel compelled to notice, at least so far as to signify my dissent and not allow silence in regard to them to be construed as acquiescence... Your original order was stripped of all pretenses; you announced the edict for the sole reason that it was "to the interest of the United States." This alone you offered to us and the civilized world as an all-sufficient reason for disregarding the laws of God and man...I defended Atlanta at the same risk and cost. If there was any fault in either case, it was your own, in not giving notice, especially in the case of Atlanta, of your purpose to shell the town, which is usual in war among civilized nations... I made no complaint of your firing into Atlanta in any way you thought proper. I make none now, but there are a hundred thousand witnesses that you fired into the habitations of women and children for weeks, firing far above and miles beyond my line of defense. I have too good an opinion, founded both upon observation and experience, of the skill of your artillerists to credit the insinuation that they for several weeks unintentionally fired too high for my modest field-works, and slaughtered women and children by accident and want of skill...
I am only a general of one of the armies of the Confederate States, charged with military operations in the field,... and I am not called upon to discuss with you the causes of the present war, or the political questions which led to or resulted from it. These grave and important questions have been committed to far abler hands than mine, and I shall only refer to them so far as to repel any unjust conclusion which might be drawn from my silence...
You order into exile the whole population of a city, drive men, women, and children from their homes at the point of the bayonet, under the plea that it is to the interest of your Government, and on the claim that it is an act of "kindness to these families of Atlanta." .... You issue a sweeping edict covering all the inhabitants of a city and add insult to the injury heaped upon the defenseless by assuming that you have done them a kindness...." You came into our country with your army avowedly for the purpose of subjugating free white men, women, and children, and not only intend to rule over them, but you make n___s your allies and desire to place over us an inferior race, which we have raised from barbarism to its present position.... I must, therefore, decline to accept your statements in reference to your kindness toward the people of Atlanta, and your willingness to sacrifice everything for the peace and honor of the South, and refuse to be governed by your decision in regard to matters between myself, my country, and my God. You say, "let us fight it out like men." To this my reply is...we will fight you to the death. Better die a thousand deaths than submit to live under you or your Government and your n___ allies....
Respectfully, your obedient servant,
J. B. HOOD,
General.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
HDQRS. MILITARY DIVISION OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
In the Field, Atlanta, Ga., September 14, 1864.
General J. B. HOOD, C. S. Army,
Commanding Army of Tennessee:
GENERAL: Yours of September 12 is received and has been carefully perused. I agree with you that this discussion by two soldiers is out of place and profitless, but you must admit that you began the controversy by characterizing an official act of mine in unfair and improper terms. I reiterate my former answer, and to the only new matter contained in your rejoinder I add, we have no n___ allies" in this army... I was not bound by the laws of war to give notice of the shelling of Atlanta, a "fortified town" with magazines, arsenals, foundries, and public stores. You were bound to take notice. See the books. This is the conclusion of our correspondence, which I did not begin, and terminate with satisfaction.
I am, with respect, your obedient servant,
W. T. SHERMAN,
Major-General, Commanding.
Atlanta History Museum, Buckhead, Atlanta, Georgia
by jwcurry & M.B.Duggan.
[Toronto, Curvd H&z, 13 may 1988]. 2o copies numbered & signed in black pencil interior rear cover issued as part of the special edition only of Duggan's INCISIONS.
8-1/2 x 5-1/2, 29 sheets 8-1/2 x 11 white xerographic bond & one 8-1/2 x 14 folded at bottom to conform, all printed black phoocopy rectos ony & laid nestled in white plainfield wrappers printed black photocopy outside covers only, all in sealed 6-1/2 x 9-1/2 brown kraft envelope printed red silkscreen recto only.
No correspondence.
Saxon border-guards from 7. Landsturm-Infanterie-Ersatz-Bataillon des XII.Armee-Korps.
_____________________________________________
Notes.
Gem. s. K.M., Verfg. v. 23.9.1916 am 23.9.1916 aufgelöst. Zeitweise auch Ldst.-I.-Btl. genannt.
Jordan Drew and Jonathan Davidsson from Correspondence
Photo Credit: Nancy Sands
----------
© Rochester City Ballet. All rights reserved. These photographs cannot be used in ANY way without expressed writted permission of Rochester City Ballet.
Description: A two-page letter from Louisa May Alcott, to Perkins Director Michael Anagnos regarding raising funds for a kindergarten program for students who are blind.
Accessibility note: A transcription of the letter in its entirety can be requested by contacting the Perkins Archives.
Full text:
Answered [in different handwriting]
[Page 1]
Feb. 3rd 1886.
Mr. Anagnos.
Dear Sir.
Having at last been able to write the promised story for St Nicholas I send the proceeds of it as my little contribution to the Kindergarten fund, wishing it were a million instead of a
[Page 2]
spinster's mite.
I am very glad to hear that things are going well and that people are interested in this sweet charity.
With best wishes for its success I am
Yours truly
L. M. Alcott.
10 Louisburg Square.
116 [page number in different handwritting]
Creator: Alcott, Louisa May, 1832-1888, author
Date: 1886 February 3
Format: Correspondence
Language/Script: Materials entirely in English.
Subjects:
Alcott, Louisa May, 1832-1888
Anagnos, Michael, 1837-1906
Education for students who are blind
Kindergarten--United States
Place of Origin: Boston, Suffolk, Massachusetts
Historical Note: In 1889 the first kindergarten dedicated to students who were blind in the United States opened in the Jamaica Plain neighborhood of Boston. Perkins' second director Michael Anagnos had advocated and fundraised to ensure students who would later attend Perkins, would benefit from early education. Louisa May Alcott was a great supporter of social causes, including abolition, temperance, and women’s suffrage. Eager to help establish the Kindergarten for the Blind, she wrote a story, “Blind Lark,” sold it to the children’s magazine St. Nicholas, and donated the $225 fee to the building fund.
Sources:
McGinnity, B.L., Seymour-Ford, J. and Andries, K.J. (2004) Kindergarten. Perkins History Museum, Perkins History Museum, Perkins School for the Blind, Watertown, MA.
McGinnity, B.L., Seymour-Ford, J. and Andries, K.J. (2004) Figures in Perkins History. Perkins History Museum, Perkins School for the Blind, Watertown, MA.
Biographical Note:
The author Louisa May Alcott was born in 1832 in Germantown, Pennsylvania, but grew up in Boston and Concord, Massachusetts. Although she was taught mainly by her father, Amos Bronson Alcott, she also received instruction and guidance from family friends Henry David Thoreau, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Theodore Parker. She wrote her first book at the age of 16, but it was the publication of Little Women in 1868 that brought her great fame.
Source:
McGinnity, B.L., Seymour-Ford, J. and Andries, K.J. (2004) Figures in Perkins History. Perkins History Museum, Perkins School for the Blind, Watertown, MA
Collection: Perkins Correspondence Collections
Series: Perkins Correspondence
Extent: Two pages of handwritten correspondence from bound volume.
Physical Collection: AG53 Perkins Corresponence Collection
Location: Perkins Archives, Perkins School for the Blind, Watertown, MA
Related Materials:
AG58 Kindergarten Corresponence Collection
Notes: Title and transcription supplied by cataloger.
Terms of Access and Use: The Perkins Archives does not provide physical access to materials available in a digital format. No known copyright restrictions. The item may be subject to rights of privacy, rights of publicity, and other restrictions. This image is the property of Perkins School for the Blind and use of this image requires written permission. For more information, please visit Perkins.org/image-licensing.
Digital Identifier: ag53_034_0116
..\description_code.txt
Description: Professional correspondence between Dummer and W.I. Thomas, 1921.
Repository: Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America.
Collection: Ethel Sturges Dummer Papers
Call Number: A-127
Catalog Record: http://id.lib.harvard.edu/aleph/000604926/catalog
Questions? Ask a Schlesinger Librarian
an ode to the forgotten mode of correspondence, these days mails are only electronic,the thrill of waiting is long gone and the postman is a fading memory.
Letter from Lieutenant Colonel William Nisbet Ponton of the 15th Argyll Light Infantry to Sir Mackenzie Bowell concerning the installation of two 24-pounder cannon at Victoria Park in Belleville, Ontario.
Text: Dear Sir Mackenzie,-
I was very much pleased to receive your letter to-day showing, as usual, your interest in matters concerning us.
I want to keep one cannon at the Drill Shed, mounted, of course. There are three in all and two would be all that would be necessary for the Park. I had to pay the freight on these cannon myself. Probably you could get three carriages by the kindness of the Minister as easily as two. Colonel A. A. Farley indicated to me privately that there might be some available.
Captain Weatherbe, the head of the Engineering Division of the Militia Department, very kindly sent me up detailed drawing of the carriages required for 24 Pounder Guns, which I could send down, if it was desired.
The weight of each Gun is about 2 1/2 tons, the length of each is about 9 feet. They were sent to me in October, 1896, under the direction of Lieutenant Colonel Macpherson of the Stores Department. The Guns are technically described as "Ordnance Guns, S. B., 24 Pr. 50 cwt."
Hoping that you will be able to arrange for the Carriages and assuring you that the Regiment and the whole of the Citizens of Belleville will appreciate your interest in the matter, and will also appreciate the action of the Honorable, the Minister, in the matter, in granting your and our request,
I am,
Yours sincerely,
signed William Nisbet.Ponton, Lt Col.
File name: 10_03_003224a
Binder label: Stock Cards
Title: Boy climbing a ladder to try to kiss girl who is holding a blank envelope. [front]
Date issued: 1870-1900 (approximate)
Physical description: 1 print : chromolithograph ; 14 x 9 cm.
Genre: Advertising cards
Subject: Children; Correspondence
Notes: Title supplied by cataloger. Item verso is blank.
Collection: 19th Century American Trade Cards
Location: Boston Public Library, Print Department
Rights: No known restrictions.
Here in December of 1775, Julien Achard de Bonvouloir, Emissary of the Government of His Majesty, Louis XVI of France, met with Benjamin Franklin and the Secret Commitee of Correspondence of the Continental Congress, including John Jay and Francis Daymon, thus inaugurating the move towards a French Alliance. This tablet was dedicated on September 3, 1983 on the occassion of the bicentennial of the signing of the Treaty of Paris.
Carpenters' Hall, at 320 Chestnut Street, was designed by architect Robert Smith and built by the Carpenters' Company between 1770-1773. The Carpenters' Company of Philadelphia, founded in 1724, is the oldest extant trade guild in the United States. The four-story Georgian-style brick building, set back from the street, was first used as a meeting site by the guild on January 21, 1771. Outside of the 2-year British occupation of Philadelphia, they have held their meetings in the hall ever since.
The First Continental Congress of the United Colonies of North America met here from September 5 to October 26, 1774, since the Pennsylvania State House was being used by the Provincial Assembly of Pennsylvania. It was here that Congress resolved to ban further imports of slaves and to discontinue the slave trade within the colonies. During the Revolutionary War, the hall served as a hospital for both British and American troops.
Over the years, Carpenters' Hall was occupied by the Library Company of Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, Bank of North America, First Bank of the United States, Bank of Pennsylvania, Second Bank of the United States, and Franlin Institute. It during the Bank of Pennsylvania's residency that, on September 2, 1798, America's first bank robbery took place. Carpenters' Company member, Isaac Davis, with the help of porter Thomas Cunningham, robbed $162,821.61 from the Bank in the midst of the yellow fever epidemic.
Independence National Historical Park preserves several sites associated with the American Revolution. Administered by the National Park Service, the 45-acre park was authorized in 1948, and established on July 4, 1956.
National Register #70000552 (1970)
Independence National Park Historic District National Register #66000675 (1966)
No correspondence.
Field portrait of a Landwehr or Landsturm infantryman wearing a M.1860 Tschako and carrying a Gew 88 rifle fitted with a S71 bayonet. It is interesting to note this fellow has another S71 in it's scabbard, hanging from his belt.
Both the Landwehr and Landsturm units were issued the old tschakos in 1914 until more Pickelhaubes became available.
Further information on the Tschako can be found at this superb site: www.kaisersbunker.com/pt/tschako.htm .
If you have been following the last 3 pictures or so, and accompanying description, you will understand that this was in the same envelope and letters and papers as the outlaw Frank James' things. It did not necessarily get sent in the same envelope but got saved with family papers which I received from descendants of Col. Chinn.
Best viewed pretty large. It will show th embossed seal from the Adjutant General's Office of the State of Kentucky. The date was 1902. The Adjutant General who signed the order was David R. Murray. It was to go from Harrodsburg, KY. to Mammoth Cave, Ky. and return. The bottom line, in red colored pencil says "Fill in Road of Embarkation"
An interesting story about this piece of paper, is that I had called the Missouri Archives about 30 years ago, looking to get some photocopies made of some genealogical records of my family. I was told by the lady who answered the phone that, "Oh no, we couldn't possibly do that. All the photocopying and lights and bending back the spine of the records just ruins them." I allowed as to how I had possession of some letters, a newspaper story of Frank James' Funeral Oration, and a Transportation Order as I have described above. She said that Frank & Jesse James were folk heroes in Missouri, and that the State of Missour had been trying for years to confirm a connection between them and Quantrill's Raiders. She thought the Transportation Order to Col. Chinn might help do that. I said I would donate a copy, not the original, to the State of Missouri. Her next words were, "How many photocopies would you like of your family records?"
What I am finding out is that sometimes I see Quantrill spelled Quantrell, but the former is correct. His full name was William Clarke Quantrill, and he did not actually live very long on this earth. It was his name apparently that was applied to various bands of raiders long after the Civil War had ended. Some say his followers were guerrillas (which I have also seen spelled guerillas), and others say, "Don't call them guerrillas in Missouri! Call them Raiders!
P.S. I joined Find A Grave, both the group here on Flickr and the www.findagrave.com one, and found Mrs. Frank James' name was Ann Ralston James and I found her tombstone photograph. There is still another little interesting tidbit about Ann and her marriage to Frank which I will be trying to find, and post here.
(mrsfrankjamescolonelkitchinnordersplainsifter)
**************************************************************************
Tenuous Link: Chin >> Chinn
No correspondence.
A crater at or near Hooge photographed sometime in late 1915.
Hooge is a small village on the Menin Road (the N8), around two miles east of Ypres. The front line of the Salient was here in 1914 and there was fierce fighting in the area over the next three years, during which the village was totally destroyed. The road from Ypres to Hooge leads past the infamous Hellfire corner, once one of the most dangerous spots in the Salient.
A large crater was blown at Hooge in July 1915. This occurred during a time of relative quiet on the British part of the Western Front, when few major assaults were made. Nonetheless, the average casualty rate for the British and Commonwealth forces was around 300 per day. Hooge, having been earlier lost, had been retaken in May 1915.
Continued here ...
Description: A two-page letter from Louisa May Alcott, to Perkins Director Michael Anagnos regarding being unable to attend... Also encloses a donation for the Kindergarten.
Accessibility note: A transcription of the letter in its entirety can be requested by contacting the Perkins Archives.
Full text:
Answered [in different handwriting]
Mr. Anagnos.
Dear Sir.
I very much regret that I am not well enough to be with you on Tuesday.
Will you accept the enclosed as a token of my interest in this [wonderful] charity?
WIth thanks for the honor done my little song & all good wishes
I am
yours truly
L. M. Alcott.
April 18th 1887
252 [page number in different handwritting]
Creator: Alcott, Louisa May, 1832-1888, author
Date: 1887 April 18
Format: Correspondence
Language/Script: Materials entirely in English.
Subjects:
Alcott, Louisa May, 1832-1888
Anagnos, Michael, 1837-1906
Education for students who are blind
Kindergarten--United States
Place of Origin: Unknown.
Historical Note: In 1889 the first kindergarten dedicated to students who were blind in the United States opened in the Jamaica Plain neighborhood of Boston. Perkins' second director Michael Anagnos had advocated and fundraised to ensure students who would later attend Perkins, would benefit from early education. Louisa May Alcott was a great supporter of social causes, including abolition, temperance, and women’s suffrage. Eager to help establish the Kindergarten for the Blind, she wrote a story, “Blind Lark,” sold it to the children’s magazine St. Nicholas, and donated the $225 fee to the building fund.
Sources:
McGinnity, B.L., Seymour-Ford, J. and Andries, K.J. (2004) Kindergarten. Perkins History Museum, Perkins History Museum, Perkins School for the Blind, Watertown, MA.
McGinnity, B.L., Seymour-Ford, J. and Andries, K.J. (2004) Figures in Perkins History. Perkins History Museum, Perkins School for the Blind, Watertown, MA.
Biographical Note:
The author Louisa May Alcott was born in 1832 in Germantown, Pennsylvania, but grew up in Boston and Concord, Massachusetts. Although she was taught mainly by her father, Amos Bronson Alcott, she also received instruction and guidance from family friends Henry David Thoreau, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Theodore Parker. She wrote her first book at the age of 16, but it was the publication of Little Women in 1868 that brought her great fame.
Source:
McGinnity, B.L., Seymour-Ford, J. and Andries, K.J. (2004) Figures in Perkins History. Perkins History Museum, Perkins School for the Blind, Watertown, MA
Collection: Perkins Correspondence Collections
Series: Perkins Correspondence
Extent: Two pages of handwritten correspondence from bound volume.
Physical Collection: AG53 Perkins Corresponence Collection
Location: Perkins Archives, Perkins School for the Blind, Watertown, MA
Related Materials:
AG58 Kindergarten Corresponence Collection
Notes: Title and transcription supplied by cataloger.
Terms of Access and Use: The Perkins Archives reserves the right to deny physical access to materials available in a digital format. No known copyright restrictions. The item may be subject to rights of privacy, rights of publicity, and other restrictions. This image is the property of Perkins School for the Blind and use of this image requires written permission. For more information, please visit Perkins.org/image-licensing.
Digital Identifier: ag53_036_0252