US Route 99
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Assign by the Gray Hills while venturing up the Gros Ventre, Wyoming. Quite honestly my favorite day of last summer. There’s nothing like being able to explore somewhere new.
Our assigned location for the Christmas Bird Count on Sunday was along the Mississippi River, and we had heavy fog for quite a while before it burned off. It made birding tough, but the light was gorgeous. Lewis and Clark State Historic Site (Camp River Dubois)
Nora was assigned to be wearing a "Pompadour" hairstyle.
www.beautybox.com.br/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/masl06_mi...
Sadly, I didn't have most of the required clothes (only these barbie boots!!)... hope it isn't a problem!
I decided to use something cute and kinda funny to match the scene
for the background, I used : Happy Rain by ~Snoo-Snoo (deviantart)
snoo-snoo.deviantart.com/art/Happy-Rain-178812721?q=sort%...
umbrella: colunistas.ig.com.br/flaviogomes/files/2009/04/umbrella.gif
rain drops : coloringpagesforkids.ws/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/umbrel...
I had a lot of fun editing this picture, and I honestly think its one of my best pictures ever!!
hope you like it!!!
Currently assigned to Genessee & Wyoming's Marquette Rail, the Chicago & Illinois Midland SD20 81 idles away by the coaling tower in Baldwin, Michigan shortly before a crew would show up to wye the power and build the "Baldwin Eagle" for the trip to Ludington.
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"Yesterday is not ours to recover, but tomorrow is ours to win or lose." - Lyndon B. Johnson
© Rui Almeida 2015 | All rights reserved.
All photos they may not be used or reproduced without my permission. If you would like to use one of my images for commercial purposes or other reason, please contact me. Depending on the situation may have to assign the work as specified by the author.
7400' of double stacked, 53 foot domestics assigned to train Q CHISTO6 04L trade Chicago's bustling metropolis for the rural farmlands, wind turbines and grain elevators that dot the many miles of this bucolic Illinois landscape, seen here sprinting through small-town Ransom, milepost 79 of the Chillicothe Sub, still within the infant stages of their long, westward journey across the old Santa Fe Transcontinental to California. The front runner on this Sunday edition Chicago-Corwith to Stockton intermodal Q is C44-9W #987, which wears the short lived Heritage 1 livery from BNSF's original corporate image, conjured up following a September 1995 merger between both the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and Burlington Northern railroads. This sharp looking H1 scheme features a large orange band running the length of each locomotive marked with company initials and flanked both above and below by thin yellow stripes and dark green paint, brought all together by BNSF's round "Wagon Wheel" logo adorned on the nose. Formerly relegated to trailing service only, the entire fleet of these 900, 1000, and 1100 series General Electric Dash 9's were all recently upgraded with the necessary PTC electrical equipment to become lead qualified out on the mainlines; Today's pictured 987 reaping such benefits.
Burlington Northern EMD GP9 No. 1858 and Fort Worth & Denver caboose No. 185 are assigned to local service at Mendota, Illinois, and wait for their next call of duty on the night of August 24, 1991. BN No. 1848 was built in 1955 as Northern Pacific No. 232.
With CP assigning older GMD power to OCS service, shooting work trains on the railway has become a popular activity for railfans.
The SD60 leading this Herzog ballast empty near Caithness BC provides a break from the usual GE power. The trailing unit is one of three former UP SD90MACS that CP decided to patch and press into service rather then send them to be rebuilt into SD70ACU's.
As I recover from shoulder surgery, I have assigned myself a big, major, huge project…and yes it concerns photography! My mission, should I decide to accept it (Mission Impossible reference) is to clean out and organize my 2TB external hard drive…that contains every digital photo that I have retained since 1985. The majority also have the RAW file associated with that photo attached. Files numbering in the tens of thousands that have been filed, misfiled, triple duplicated and thrown into folders as if I were dealing cards. My ADHD and sense of personal embarrassment will simply not allow this craziness to continue.
The blessing of this process is not just the discovery of photos long forgotten, but the memories contained. These files may well prove themselves to be priceless…not just for the memories depicted in the photos, but as a partner as I spent the next five weeks, the hours ahead fighting off my nemesis, boredom!
Here is one from a very good day…
You know that it was a very good day when you can remember everything about that day, the temperature, the warmth of the sun, the smell of a spring pasture and in this case anxiety of having to go to work when your best girl is about to give birth! It was the 13th of May, 2010 and our National Champion (Reserve Color Champion, 2006 AOBA Nationals) girl Rosalita was in labor. Joann and I both went to work to check in and start clearing the days schedule, both securing the day off with bosses and returning to the farm in record time.
A quick switch from work to farm cloths and a short trot to the front pasture found that Rosalita had already lost her mucus plug…her cria would be born anytime now. It was time to grab some lawn chairs, my camera and our birthing kit and just wait for things to progress. In the back of my mind, I prayed for a smooth, natural birth and that I would not have to put on the big gloves ever again and assist.
The next hour provided us with a memory of a lifetime as Giacomo would come into the world! A 19.2-pound male from Legend’s Challenger, at that time one of the top gray males in the country. The beauty of the moment, the cycle of life experience on such a beautiful May day is forever etched into my soul. Joann and I removed the remnants of the birth sack and dried our gift. The name Giacomo was chosen as it was in honor of my father who had passed some four years before. It was his childhood nickname and I know that it would have made him smile…like this photo does for me now as I utilize the editing program Lightroom to bring it to life.
This photo captures the bonding process/moment that alpaca mothers do just after birth. She gently takes her lips and nose and rub it against that of her cria, all the while making a clicking sound that bonds the two together for life. She will also use the same area to help her cria stay steady on its wabbly, minutes old legs.
What a blessing it is to witness not just the new physical body that God had created, but also the pure, palpable, natural love that was immediate between mother and son as well.
I didn’t know it then, but Giacomo would be the last cria born to us at Serene-n-Green Alpacas. In the early fall of 2010, a couple came to the farm and bought our last five alpacas, water buckets, farm name, logos, hay and trailer to start their own turn-key alpaca farm in Ohio.
Today, when anyone asks if I miss raising alpacas my response is immediate and direct. I miss birthing those babies!
Chase experiences, not things!
The local power assigned to CSXT L010 (formerly B731) rests in the former New Haven Readville Yard waiting for the crew to show up later to make their regular weekday turn up to Framingham and back. Six axle power is a bit unusual here these days and normally all you'll find in this small outpost is three GP40-2s, but back in Penn Central and Conrail days it was commonplace when they ran a Selkirk to Readville thru freight. CSXT 8822 is right at home here as she was blt. Sep. 1977 as CR 6413.
Readville is a neighborhood on the very southern edge of the city bordering the tony community of Milton. In fact it is 9.2 miles as the crow flies from this spot to South Station, but it's still technically in Boston! The locos sit almost on the city line and in fact the yard office just south of here out of sight to the left is actually in the down of Dedham.
Readville
Boston, Massachusetts
Wednesday April 12, 2023
In an unusual turn of events, the CNJ heritage unit saw service on the former Jersey Central main line, now NJ Transit's Raritan Valley Line, for a week or so in early September 2023. This was unusual because NJ Transit's GP40PH-2 fleet is rarely assigned to revenue operations on the RVL for various reasons. Whether it was due to an equipment shortage or someone feeling nostalgic, it was good to see the unit on home rails in the same service for which it was built 55 years earlier. 4109 is seen crossing Middle Brook during the evening rush hour. The four bridge spans at this location highlight the fact that the CNJ main line was once four tracks wide through this area.
NJTR 4109 GP40PH-2 (ex-CNJ 3677 GP40P)
Due to the normally assigned GMTX geep being down for maintenance the Vermont Railway pressed their ancient Green Mountain Railroad Alco RS1 into freight service on the Bellows Falls switcher all this week. Normally this unit only sees service on the VRS' passenger excursion trains and perhaps use on revenue freights once or twice a year at most. So this week was exceptional, and I'm hard pressed to think of anywhere else in the country an RS1 is used to haul freight anymore.
What is even more special is that this unit is very much on home rails having been built for the Rutland in November 1951. So that means she is approaching her 70th birthday in a few months and has never left the Green Mountain state!
Her day is about done and after leaving Riverside Yard with these five cars in tow she is about to pause and cut off the rear four here on the Patch Track for interchange. Then with just the lone covered hopper in tow they will cross the canal, thump across the NECR diamond (former Boston and Maine Conn River main) beside the Bellows Falls depot and enter former B&M iron for the last quarter mile or so of their trip across the Connecticut River stone arch bridge to the North Walpole, NH terminal where they will tie up. They are seen here curling beside the Connecticut River near about MP B0.5 on the what the modern day VRS refers to as the Falls Running Track of their Bellows Falls Subdivision.
Village of Bellows Falls
Rockingham, Vermont
Friday June 11, 2021
The locomotive assigned to Viseu yard pilot duties on 4th October 2016 was 87-0032-0, a 450 hp 1974-built class 'L45H' and originally with the Romanian Railways (C.F.R.) depot at Alba Iulia. It was captured at the throat of the yard positioning cut logs for steam loco use and a flat wagon and fuel tank ready for forming into the following day's production train. The predominance of posts and power lines is unhelpful - it is not a new communications attachment to the loco!
© Gordon Edgar - All rights reserved. Please do not use my images without my explicit permission
Seats in the old auditorium … with all-natural light, believe it or not.
The Irem Temple hosted all manner of shows and events back in the day. The plan to save the old building calls for the seats to be removed from the auditorium and the building converted into several event spaces.
Assigned to the history books and awaiting its fate on stand 3 is EI-REM. An aircraft that has served the IoM very well over the years...
Assigned to 125 ATS / 137 MAW based at Oklahoma City.
Their C-97 Stratofreighters were replaced soon after with the C-124 Globemaster which in turn were replaced in 1972 by C-130E Hercules
The Nevada State Railroad Museum’s locomotive No. 8 was built by Cooke Locomotive Works of Patterson, New Jersey. Assigned construction number 1861, it was completed on 3 February 1888. It was an “American Standard” 4-4-0 with 17-inch x 24-inch cylinders and 61-inch drivers. During the first four months of 1888 Cooke turned out 12 identical locomotives (construction numbers 1859-1870) for the Denver, Texas & Ft. Worth as numbers 7-18. The NSRM locomotive is believed to have been assigned DT&FW No. 9. (Cooke c/n 1860, completed 31 January 1888 became no. 8; c/n 1865, completed 3 March 1888, became no. 13).
The Denver, Texas & Ft. Worth was organized in April 1889 to build from Pueblo, Colorado to the Texas state line to meet the affiliated Ft. Worth & Denver City, building northward from Ft. Worth. After the two railroads met at Union Park, NM on 14 March 1888, their respective locomotives were numbered into a single system, with the DT&FW 9 being renumbered to 114. On 1 April 1890 these and eleven other affiliated lines were consolidated into the Union Pacific, Denver & Gulf, a Union Pacific affiliate. (The FW&DC was not included because of Texas corporation laws.) On 11 January 1899 the UPD&G passed to the Colorado & Southern. 1908 C&S became part of Chicago Burlington & Quincy. The road was absorbed into Burlington Northern in 1981 and into the Burlington Northern Santa Fe in 1996.
Of the 12 identical Cooke-built DT&FW locomotives of 1888, seven became UPD&G 521-527 in 1890; in 1896 they were renumbered 26-32. Subsequently they became Colorado & Southern nos. 132-138. Three of these were still in service on the C&S in 1906, and the no. 134 survived as an inspection engine until 1930. However, five of the original group of DT&FW locomotives—those with construction numbers 1861-1864, 1866—were not numbered into the UPD&G in 1890. This block of five identical Cooke 4-4-0s 17”x24” 61” locomotives cannot be accounted for on UPD&G or subsequent Colorado & Southern rosters, nor have these locomotives been identified on any known roster. It is assumed they were disposed of by the DT&FW prior to 1890, but their disposition is unknown.
Thus, a 17-year gap exists in the history of the locomotive which became NSRM No. 8 from about 1890 until September 1907, when it was purchased by the Dardanelle & Russellville Railroad in northwest Arkansas. This company assigned the number 8 to this locomotive, the number it still bears. Legend has it that D&R no. 8 was a former Little Rock & Ft. Smith, or St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern locomotive. However, there is no contemporary record which shows either railroads owning any Cooke 4-4-0 with cylinders and drivers matching those of Cooke no. 1861 and the locomotive definitely does not appear in the Missouri Pacific system renumbering schedule of 1905. Furthermore, the locomotive was sold FOB St. Louis. Had it been a MP locomotive, it most likely would have been delivered over that road and sold FOB Russellville. Too, the D&R found the locomotive defective upon arrival and sent it to an independent machine shop in Little Rock; had it been a former MP engine, it more likely would have been reconditioned in the Iron Mountain’s North Little Rock before the sale, or at least sent back to that shop for conditioning. Indeed all of this hints that no. 8 was sold to the D&R by an independent equipment dealer (the most likely being Walter A. Zelnicker Supply Co.) of St. Louis. The purchase cost was $2,272.03, but with repairs costing $3,044.88, the locomotive was carried on the books at an initial value of $5,316.91.
The specifications provided to the Interstate Commerce Commission by the D&R in 1908 listed the locomotive with 60-inch drivers, 13,720 pounds of tractive effort, and operating steam pressure of 140 p.s.i. No. 8’s tender carried 3,700 gallons of water and 5 tons of coal. Grate area was 18 square feet. There were 168 tubes 12-foot long with 2-inch outside diameter. Safety valves included one 2-1/2 inch Crosby Muffled pop and one 2-1/2-inch Richmond open valve. The firebox staybolts were 15/16 inch outside diameter, spaced 4-1/4 by 4-1/4.
No. 8 was in service on the D&R from 1908 through 1911. It was given new grates in May 1909.
After only four years of service on the D&R, locomotive no. 8 was condemned by the ICC on 31 January 1912 because of safety defects. It had nine stay bolts broken in the right side sheet, eight stay bolts broken in the left side sheet, and one stay bolt broken in the throat sheet. Also noted: the right and left front driver springs were wearing the firebox sheets. In the D&R’s effort to comply with ICC regulations, the railroad wrote to American Locomotive Works (successor to Cooke), identifying the locomotive as construction no. 1861. On 20 June 1912, ALCO provided the D&R with an ICC form 4 for locomotive no. 8. This was forwarded to the ICC on 26 June with a note that no repairs had been made to the locomotive since it had been condemned in January, and that the railroad intended to sell the engine. However, in August 1912 the railroad company determined that it was more economical to repair the locomotive than to replace it, and it was shipped to Little Rock for repairs. It was returned to the D&R in late December 1912.
Number 8’s second period of service on the D&R lasted from 1913 through 1925.
In July 1916 the box oil burning headlight was replaced with electric headlight, powered by a Pyle National Type E generator. Flues were changed in January 1919. A new number plate was ordered from ALCO in 1923. The 1923 number plate had a thin rim with a heavily raised number. (The earlier plate had a heavier rim with a shallow number.) Photographs of the locomotive while still on the D&R reveal that this new number plate is not the plate presently on the engine.
On 15 February 1924 D&R requested a flue time extension. The flues dated from January 1919, but the locomotive had been out of service for 23 full calendar months in the intervening years. A two-year extension was apparently granted as the locomotive operated sporadically until January 1926, when the flue extension expired.
After a four year hiatus, Number 8 was shopped at North Dardanelle in November-December 1929. All flues were removed and the boiler inspected, and upon overhaul it was returned to service condition in December 1929. However, it was not used until March 1930.
The no. 8’s third period of service on the D&R lasted from 1930 through 1934, though it was used only intermittently during periods of light traffic, when the roads two other steamers were overhauled. Those periods of use were: March-April 1930, March 1931; December 1931-January 1932, March-July 1932, and March-July 1933.
With four year tube time, plus one year automatic extension, no. 8 was legal only until December 1934. However, despite this, it was operated again in April 1935, resulting in notification of violation from the ICC. Though the D&R expressed contrition, the company’s subsequent request for an extension of tube time was denied. In an inspection of November 1935, the ICC noted that the flues were badly pitted, the crown sheet pitted and covered with scale, five sling stay lugs were broken, and the side sheets and flue sheets were badly pitted and thin in places. As of this date, there were only 231 actual days of service on the 1929 tubes.
The D&R filed monthly “out of service” reports with the ICC on no. 8 until April 1937. Upon omitting those reports in May and June 1937, the ICC inquired of status of the locomotive, suggesting that if the railroad was not going to repair the locomotive, they should simply report it as retired rather than filing monthly reports.
This probably would have been the end of locomotive no. 8, except in August 1938 Twentieth Century-Fox Film Co. discovered the locomotive and asked to use it in the motion picture Jesse James, scheduled for filming in September. To meet this request, the D&R asked the ICC for permission to move locomotive under its own power after hydrostatic test. This the ICC refused, and the locomotive was hauled to MP’s North Little Rock shops for complete overhaul, arriving on 17 August.
The North Little Rock shops replaced all the tubes, made a new front flue sheet, installed two new 2-1/2” safety valves (one at 125, one at 128 pounds), and gave the boiler a hydrostatic test to 170 pounds. Thee also installed a fake diamond stack, a fake box headlight casing, and repainted the engine with ; repainting—dark green boiler jacket, gold bands. Work completed and recertified on 31 August 1938. A comparison of photographs taken before 1916 and after the 1938 shopping reveal that the locomotive received replacement drivers and a repair to a cracked cylinder saddle. However, it is not know if these changes were made at the 1938 shopping or some time earlier.
After the locomotive’s return to the D&R after the movie shoot in the fall of 1938, no. 8 was used in April, June, and half of July 1939, again in April, May, June 1940, and in April, May, and June 1941.
A request for a one-year extension of flu time filed in August 1943 extended the life of the locomotive until 31 August 1944. During 1943 and 1944, locomotive no. 8 was used alternately with locomotives nos. 9 and 10, seeing it used more than any time since the early 1920s.
In May 1944 D&R offered locomotive no. 8 to Twentieth Century-Fox Film Co. The offer was accepted in early June, but delays for construction of a side track at the studio and acceptance of the boiler by Los Angeles County inspectors kept the locomotive in Arkansas until 17 July 1945, when it was finally shipped. The sale price was $2,000, and the D&R charged an additional $885 for preparing locomotive for inspection, loading, and bracing. It arrived at
Twentieth Century-Fox studios on 29 July 1945.
While at the Los Angeles studio lot, the locomotive was used by the studio in Sentimental Journey (released in 1946), Centennial Summer (released in 1946), and Walls of Jericho (released in 1948) before being moved to the company’s Malibu Canyon studio ranch in the late 1950s. Following that, it appeared in The True Story of Jesse James (released 1957), The Second Time Around (released in 1961), and Scandalous John (1971).
January 1972 Short Line Enterprises
April 1973 Short Line Enterprises, Inc.
April 1973 to Alta Loma for “restoration”. New cab and tender frame built.
June 1974: Sandburg’s Lincoln
April 1976-December 1976 leased to V&T
June 1977 to Sierra Ry
Jun 1978: The Last Ride of the Dalton Gang
CSRM orientation film (May 1979).
January 1980: Kenney Rogers as The Gambler
May 1981 to SPRM
April 22, 1985 to Railtown 1897 SHP, Jamestown
1986 Dec: locomotive no. 8 delivered to NSRM [SH 8/4 and 9/2]
1987 Dec 30: NSRM purchased locomotive from Shortline Enterprises along with eleven other pieces of rolling stock for $256,000.
1988 February 16: fired for first time at NSRM.
December 1990: operated at Boulder City
Out of service at NSRM from January 1993-February 1993 for correction of lap seams in boiler.
The original longitudinal seams of the barrel were of a single riveted lap with an interior welt strap. This joint is of a ruinously low efficiency, and it was discovered that the welt strap was of a poor grade of wrought iron. The decision was made to cut the entire seam out and replace it with an extended double strap butt seam with a field piece. All the work was in-kind and riveted. The work was completed and the engine returned to service.
At Portola July 1994
2008 Oct 19: last day operated.
Following the last day of operation an inspection was made by NSRM of the boiler. An area of concern was identified in the crown sheet. It was examined ultrasonically for thickness and was found to be thinner than was permittable by the state of Nevada under the boiler inspection laws and rules, the FRA, The NBIC, and boiler insurance companies. To confirm this reading a qualified inspection company was contacted, and a thorough inspection was contracted for. Using NDT methods, an inspection was performed, and a signed and stamped record was received by NSRM.
The firebox was removed from the boiler and those areas that were not otherwise inspectable were inspected visually revealing further problems. Accordingly, it was determined that the boiler could not be economically repaired.
Some time later the locomotive which had been stored inside was moved to its current location as a living billboard and to make available valuable inside track storage space.
NSRM has no plans to reboiler the locomotive in the near future.
Before hitching up the Thunderclap's cannon trailer, Long Range calls the Steel Brigade to give position assignments. Most of the GIJoes will providing escort, so the Steel Brigade are perfect choices for manning the many gun stations.
This was the version of Long Range I wanted to post a few weeks back, but the weather didn't cooperate. The gray of the '93 Frostbite body is a pretty close match to Long Range's vest, but the shoulders do not fit well. If I decide to keep him, I'll need to dremel the sockets a little.
Assigned to the 436 MAW at Dover Air Force Base Delaware.
She was not retired from service until w/d 28-3-17 to Davis Monthan
Tocal.
James Webber arrived in the region in January 1822 and applied for a land grant at Paterson. He was granted 2,020 acres which he named Tocal. He later added 720 acres and soon had a total of 3,280 acres. His brother John Webber got a nearby land grant of 3,300 acres which he named Penshurst. Like other pioneers the Webber brothers were fortunate to obtain assigned convicts to provide the basically free labour for them to build up their grand estates. James Webber grew wine grapes, fruit, wheat, corn, tobacco, and ran sheep and cattle. Records for 1828 shows 38 assigned convicts at Tocal including - 13 labourers; 3 tobacconists; 8 shepherds; 2 overseers; 1 shoemaker; 1 stock keeper and 1 servant and others. All were males between the ages of 16 and 63 years. He built a barracks for the assigned convicts and a stone barn was built in 1830 but later burnt down. The barn was needed for drying tobacco. A blacksmiths shop was built 1828. James Webber sold Tocal in 1834 and it was purchased by Caleb Wilson and his son Felix. The perfectly proportioned two storey Georgian residence was built in 1839 for Felix Wilson. The architect of this homestead is now believed to be William Moir. Later in 1867 another architect was commissioned, Edmund Blacket who built many churches in NSW, to build a new stone barn. All joinery is the homestead is Australian red cedar. Felix Wilson planted Moreton Bay Figs to frame his new home. He grew vines and produced wine.
In 1843 he attempted to sell Tocal estate to Charles Reynold but Reynolds leased the estate from Wilson from 1844 to 1871. Charles Reynolds died in 1871 and his son Frank Reynolds took over Tocal and built some new stone structures. By then Tocal covered 5,900 acres and it was still owned by the estate of Felix Wilson. Frank Reynolds then began to buy some sections until the Reynolds family owned all of Tocal in 1907. Frank Reynolds died in 1920 and his sons Charles and Harry ran Tocal mainly as horse stud. In 1926 Tocal estate was sold to the Alexander family - two sisters and two brothers all elderly and unmarried. The youngest Alexander was Charles Boyd Alexander. When he died at Tocal in 1947 with no heirs, it was left to two nieces to occupy provided they were not married. They were the Curtis sisters. He also set up a trust covering Tocal so that it became the C. B. Alexander Training home for destitute and orphan children. In 1963 the Presbyterian Church took over Tocal homestead and the training college. A new chapel was built at Tocal in 1967. The church then got the trustees to establish and an agricultural training college at Tocal with the two Miss Curtis women still having life tenancy of the Tocal homestead. By then Tocal house was on 163 acres. The C. B. Alexander Presbyterian Agricultural College lasted from 1965 to 1969. Then the NSW Department of Agriculture took it over in 1970 with a special act of parliament.
The last regularly assigned yardmaster in Rockingham worked the afternoon shift on May 24, 2020. Since then, the job has been taken over by Moncton, as the yardmasters now look after both Gordon Yard and Rockingham. As a result of this action, three jobs were permanently cut, and having worked four months straight "in the chair" the fall of 2019, I gained a great deal of respect for those that have done the job. I was laid off at the time, and made sure to properly document the afternoon YA working away to build Q121 a final time on this clear night. 120 was quite late on this day, and the gypsum power had been brought around from Dartmouth to power the short westbound. A one track pickup at Rockingham and the crew were on their way to Kinsac to lift more traffic before eventually meeting 120 at Alton. AP and Hutch catch some sweet evening light on 121, approaching the scanner at Windsor Junction. In the foreground lies the dormant east leg of the way for the connection to the WHRC, having been severed a few years prior, the future looks grim for this to ever be reinstated.
All galaxies are made up of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter, which are bound together by gravity. The Bullet Cluster is made up of two very massive collections of galaxies, known as galaxy clusters, that are themselves bound by gravity. This cluster is found in the Carina constellation 3.8 billion light-years from Earth.
The NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope captured the central region of the Bullet Cluster with its NIRCam (Near-Infrared Camera). The scene contains two massive galaxy clusters that sit on either side of the large, light blue spiral galaxy at the center. Webb’s extremely precise images revealed many more distant galaxies and faint objects, allowing a research team to refine the amount of mass in the two galaxy clusters.
The team measured thousands of galaxies in Webb’s images to accurately “weigh” both the visible and invisible mass in these galaxy clusters. They also carefully mapped and measured the collective light emitted by stars that are no longer bound to individual galaxies — known as intracluster stars. The team confirmed that the intracluster light can be a reliable tracer of dark matter, even in a highly dynamic environment like the Bullet Cluster. If these stars are not bound to galaxies, but to the cluster’s dark matter, it might become easier to pin down more specifics about the invisible matter. The researchers’ new measurements significantly refine what we know about how mass is spread throughout the Bullet Cluster. The galaxy cluster on the left has an asymmetric, elongated area of mass along the left edge of the blue region, which is a clue pointing to previous mergers in that cluster.
This image spans roughly 6.3 million light-years across. It was created with Webb data captured on 20 January 2025 from proposal #4598 (PI: M. Bradac). Several filters were used to sample specific wavelength ranges. The color results from assigning different hues (colors) to each monochromatic (grayscale) image associated with an individual filter. In this case, the assigned colors are: Blue: F090W, Cyan: F115W, Green: F150W, Yellow: F200W, Yellow: F277W, Orange: F356W, Red: F410M, Red: F444W
The results have been published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters.
[Image description: Webb observation of the Bullet Cluster shows many overlapping objects, including foreground stars, galaxies in galaxy clusters, and distorted background galaxies behind the galaxy clusters, set against the black background of space.]
Credits: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, J. Jee (Yonsei University, UC Davis), S. Cha (Yonsei University), K. Finner (Caltech/IPAC); CC BY 4.0
An Air Force Lockheed Martin F-22 "Raptor" assigned to the 3rd Wing flies over Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Alaska, Feb. 27, 2018. The Lockheed Martin F-22 "Raptor" is the U.S. Air Force’s premium fifth-generation fighter asset.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Lockheed Martin F-22 "Raptor" is a fifth-generation, single-seat, twin-engine, all-weather stealth tactical fighter aircraft developed for the United States Air Force (USAF). The result of the USAF's Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program, the aircraft was designed primarily as an air superiority fighter, but also has ground attack, electronic warfare, and signal intelligence capabilities. The prime contractor, Lockheed Martin, built most of the F-22's airframe and weapons systems and conducted final assembly, while Boeing provided the wings, aft fuselage, avionics integration, and training systems.
The aircraft was variously designated F-22 and F/A-22 before it formally entered service in December 2005 as the F-22A. Despite its protracted development and various operational issues, USAF officials consider the F-22 a critical component of the service's tactical air power. Its combination of stealth, aerodynamic performance, and situational awareness enable unprecedented air combat capabilities.
Service officials had originally planned to buy a total of 750 ATFs. In 2009, the program was cut to 187 operational production aircraft due to high costs, a lack of clear air-to-air missions due to delays in Russian and Chinese fighter programs, a ban on exports, and development of the more versatile F-35. The last F-22 was delivered in 2012.
Development
Origins
In 1981, the U.S. Air Force identified a requirement for an Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) to replace the F-15 "Eagle" and F-16 "Fighting Falcon". Code named "Senior Sky", this air-superiority fighter program was influenced by emerging worldwide threats, including new developments in Soviet air defense systems and the proliferation of the Su-27 "Flanker"- and MiG-29 "Fulcrum"-class of fighter aircraft. It would take advantage of the new technologies in fighter design on the horizon, including composite materials, lightweight alloys, advanced flight control systems, more powerful propulsion systems, and most importantly, stealth technology. In 1983, the ATF concept development team became the System Program Office (SPO) and managed the program at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. The demonstration and validation (Dem/Val) request for proposals (RFP) was issued in September 1985, with requirements placing strong emphasis on stealth and supercruise. Of the seven bidding companies, Lockheed and Northrop were selected on 31 October 1986. Lockheed teamed with Boeing and General Dynamics while Northrop teamed with McDonnell Douglas, and the two contractor teams undertook a 50-month Dem/Val phase, culminating in the flight test of two technology demonstrator prototypes, the YF-22 and the YF-23, respectively.
Dem/Val was focused on risk reduction and technology development plans over specific aircraft designs. Contractors made extensive use of analytical and empirical methods, including computational fluid dynamics, wind-tunnel testing, and radar cross-section calculations and pole testing; the Lockheed team would conduct nearly 18,000 hours of wind-tunnel testing. Avionics development was marked by extensive testing and prototyping and supported by ground and flying laboratories. During Dem/Val, the SPO used the results of performance and cost trade studies conducted by contractor teams to adjust ATF requirements and delete ones that were significant weight and cost drivers while having marginal value. The short takeoff and landing (STOL) requirement was relaxed in order to delete thrust-reversers, saving substantial weight. As avionics was a major cost driver, side-looking radars were deleted, and the dedicated infra-red search and track (IRST) system was downgraded from multi-color to single color and then deleted as well. However, space and cooling provisions were retained to allow for future addition of these components. The ejection seat requirement was downgraded from a fresh design to the existing McDonnell Douglas ACES II. Despite efforts by the contractor teams to rein in weight, the takeoff gross weight estimate was increased from 50,000 lb (22,700 kg) to 60,000 lb (27,200 kg), resulting in engine thrust requirement increasing from 30,000 lbf (133 kN) to 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class.
Each team produced two prototype air vehicles for Dem/Val, one for each of the two engine options. The YF-22 had its maiden flight on 29 September 1990 and in flight tests achieved up to Mach 1.58 in supercruise. After the Dem/Val flight test of the prototypes, on 23 April 1991, Secretary of the USAF Donald Rice announced the Lockheed team as the winner of the ATF competition. The YF-23 design was considered stealthier and faster, while the YF-22, with its thrust vectoring nozzles, was more maneuverable as well as less expensive and risky. The aviation press speculated that the Lockheed team's design was also more adaptable to the U.S. Navy's Navalized Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), but by 1992, the Navy had abandoned NATF.
Production and procurement
As the program moved to full-scale development, or the Engineering & Manufacturing Development (EMD) stage, the production version had notable differences from the YF-22, despite having a broadly similar shape. The swept-back angle of the leading edge was decreased from 48° to 42°, while the vertical stabilizers were shifted rearward and decreased in area by 20%. To improve pilot visibility, the canopy was moved forward 7 inches (18 cm), and the engine intakes moved rearward 14 inches (36 cm). The shapes of the wing and stabilator trailing edges were refined to improve aerodynamics, strength, and stealth characteristics. Increasing weight during development caused slight reductions in range and maneuver performance.
Prime contractor Lockheed Martin Aeronautics manufactured the majority of the airframe and performed final assembly at Dobbins Air Reserve Base in Marietta, Georgia; program partner Boeing Defense, Space & Security provided additional airframe components as well as avionics integration and training systems. The first F-22, an EMD aircraft with tail number 4001, was unveiled at Marietta, Georgia, on 9 April 1997, and first flew on 7 September 1997. Production, with the first lot awarded in September 2000, supported over 1,000 subcontractors and suppliers from 46 states and up to 95,000 jobs, and spanned 15 years at a peak rate of roughly two airplanes per month. In 2006, the F-22 development team won the Collier Trophy, American aviation's most prestigious award. Due to the aircraft's advanced nature, contractors have been targeted by cyberattacks and technology theft.
The USAF originally envisioned ordering 750 ATFs at a total program cost of $44.3 billion and procurement cost of $26.2 billion in fiscal year (FY) 1985 dollars, with production beginning in 1994. The 1990 Major Aircraft Review led by Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced this to 648 aircraft beginning in 1996. By 1997, funding instability had further cut the total to 339, which was again reduced to 277 by 2003. In 2004, the Department of Defense (DoD) further reduced this to 183 operational aircraft, despite the USAF's preference for 381. A multi-year procurement plan was implemented in 2006 to save $15 billion, with total program cost projected to be $62 billion for 183 F-22s distributed to seven combat squadrons. In 2008, Congress passed a defense spending bill that raised the total orders for production aircraft to 187.
The first two F-22s built were EMD aircraft in the Block 1.0 configuration for initial flight testing, while the third was a Block 2.0 aircraft built to represent the internal structure of production airframes and enabled it to test full flight loads. Six more EMD aircraft were built in the Block 10 configuration for development and upgrade testing, with the last two considered essentially production quality jets. Production for operational squadrons consisted of 37 Block 20 training aircraft and 149 Block 30/35 combat aircraft; one of the Block 35 aircraft is dedicated to flight sciences at Edwards Air Force Base.
The numerous new technologies in the F-22 resulted in substantial cost overruns and delays. Many capabilities were deferred to post-service upgrades, reducing the initial cost but increasing total program cost. As production wound down in 2011, the total program cost is estimated to be about $67.3 billion, with $32.4 billion spent on Research, Development, Test and Evaluation (RDT&E) and $34.9 billion on procurement and military construction (MILCON) in then year dollars. The incremental cost for an additional F-22 was estimated at about $138 million in 2009.
Ban on exports
The F-22 cannot be exported under US federal law to protect its stealth technology and other high-tech features. Customers for U.S. fighters are acquiring earlier designs such as the F-15 "Eagle" and F-16 "Fighting Falcon" or the newer F-35 "Lightning II", which contains technology from the F-22 but was designed to be cheaper, more flexible, and available for export. In September 2006, Congress upheld the ban on foreign F-22 sales. Despite the ban, the 2010 defense authorization bill included provisions requiring the DoD to prepare a report on the costs and feasibility for an F-22 export variant, and another report on the effect of F-22 export sales on U.S. aerospace industry.
Some Australian politicians and defense commentators proposed that Australia should attempt to purchase F-22s instead of the planned F-35s, citing the F-22's known capabilities and F-35's delays and developmental uncertainties. However, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) determined that the F-22 was unable to perform the F-35's strike and close air support roles. The Japanese government also showed interest in the F-22 for its Replacement-Fighter program. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) would reportedly require fewer fighters for its mission if it obtained the F-22, thus reducing engineering and staffing costs. However, in 2009 it was reported that acquiring the F-22 would require increases to the Japanese government's defense budget beyond the historical 1 percent of its GDP. With the end of F-22 production, Japan chose the F-35 in December 2011. Israel also expressed interest, but eventually chose the F-35 because of the F-22's price and unavailability.
Production termination
Throughout the 2000s, the need for F-22s was debated, due to rising costs and the lack of relevant adversaries. In 2006, Comptroller General of the United States David Walker found that "the DoD has not demonstrated the need" for more investment in the F-22, and further opposition to the program was expressed by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, Deputy Secretary of Defense Gordon R. England, Senator John McCain, and Chairman of U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services Senator John Warner. The F-22 program lost influential supporters in 2008 after the forced resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley.
In November 2008, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates stated that the F-22 was not relevant in post-Cold War conflicts such as irregular warfare operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, and in April 2009, under the new Obama Administration, he called for ending production in FY2011, leaving the USAF with 187 production aircraft. In July, General James Cartwright, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, stated to the Senate Committee on Armed Services his reasons for supporting termination of F-22 production. They included shifting resources to the multirole F-35 to allow proliferation of fifth-generation fighters for three service branches and preserving the F/A-18 production line to maintain the military's electronic warfare (EW) capabilities in the Boeing EA-18G "Growler". Issues with the F-22's reliability and availability also raised concerns. After President Obama threatened to veto further production, the Senate voted in July 2009 in favor of ending production and the House subsequently agreed to abide by the 187 production aircraft cap. Gates stated that the decision was taken in light of the F-35's capabilities, and in 2010, he set the F-22 requirement to 187 aircraft by lowering the number of major regional conflict preparations from two to one.
In 2010, USAF initiated a study to determine the costs of retaining F-22 tooling for a future Service Life Extension Program (SLEP). A RAND Corporation paper from this study estimated that restarting production and building an additional 75 F-22s would cost $17 billion, resulting in $227 million per aircraft, or $54 million higher than the flyaway cost. Lockheed Martin stated that restarting the production line itself would cost about $200 million. Production tooling and associated documentation were subsequently stored at the Sierra Army Depot, allowing the retained tooling to support the fleet life cycle. There were reports that attempts to retrieve this tooling found empty containers, but a subsequent audit found that the tooling was stored as expected.
Russian and Chinese fighter developments have fueled concern, and in 2009, General John Corley, head of Air Combat Command, stated that a fleet of 187 F-22s would be inadequate, but Secretary Gates dismissed General Corley's concern. In 2011, Gates explained that Chinese fifth-generation fighter developments had been accounted for when the number of F-22s was set, and that the U.S. would have a considerable advantage in stealth aircraft in 2025, even with F-35 delays. In December 2011, the 195th and final F-22 was completed out of 8 test EMD and 187 operational aircraft produced; the aircraft was delivered to the USAF on 2 May 2012.
In April 2016, the House Armed Services Committee (HASC) Tactical Air and Land Forces Subcommittee proposed legislation that would direct the Air Force to conduct a cost study and assessment associated with resuming production of the F-22. Since the production halt directed in 2009 by then Defense Secretary Gates, lawmakers and the Pentagon noted that air warfare systems of Russia and China were catching up to those of the U.S. Lockheed Martin has proposed upgrading the Block 20 training aircraft into combat-coded Block 30/35 versions as a way to increase numbers available for deployment. On 9 June 2017, the Air Force submitted their report to Congress stating they had no plans to restart the F-22 production line due to economic and operational issues; it estimated it would cost approximately $50 billion to procure 194 additional F-22s at a cost of $206–$216 million per aircraft, including approximately $9.9 billion for non-recurring start-up costs and $40.4 billion for aircraft procurement costs.
Upgrades
The first aircraft with combat-capable Block 3.0 software flew in 2001. Increment 2, the first upgrade program, was implemented in 2005 for Block 20 aircraft onward and enabled the employment of Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM). Certification of the improved AN/APG-77(V)1 radar was completed in March 2007, and airframes from production Lot 5 onward are fitted with this radar, which incorporates air-to-ground modes. Increment 3.1 for Block 30 aircraft onward provided improved ground-attack capability through synthetic aperture radar mapping and radio emitter direction finding, electronic attack and Small Diameter Bomb (SDB) integration; testing began in 2009 and the first upgraded aircraft was delivered in 2011. To address oxygen deprivation issues, F-22s were fitted with an automatic backup oxygen system (ABOS) and modified life support system starting in 2012.
Increment 3.2 for Block 35 aircraft is a two-part upgrade process; 3.2A focuses on electronic warfare, communications and identification, while 3.2B includes geolocation improvements and a new stores management system to show the correct symbols for the AIM-9X and AIM-120D. To enable two-way communication with other platforms, the F-22 can use the Battlefield Airborne Communications Node (BACN) as a gateway. The planned Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL) integration was cut due to development delays and lack of proliferation among USAF platforms. The F-22 fleet is planned to start receiving Increment 3.2B as well as a software upgrade for cryptography capabilities and avionics stability in May 2019. A Multifunctional Information Distribution System-Joint (MIDS-J) radio that replaces the current Link-16 receive-only box is expected to be operational by 2020. Subsequent upgrades are also focusing on having an open architecture to enable faster future enhancements.
In 2024, funding is projected to begin for the F-22 mid-life upgrade (MLU), which is expected to include new sensors and antennas, hardware refresh, cockpit improvements, and a helmet mounted display and cuing system. Other enhancements being developed include IRST functionality for the AN/AAR-56 Missile Launch Detector (MLD) and more durable stealth coating based on the F-35's.
The F-22 was designed for a service life of 8,000 flight hours, with a $350 million "structures retrofit program". Investigations are being made for upgrades to extend their useful lives further. In the long term, the F-22 is expected to be superseded by a sixth-generation jet fighter to be fielded in the 2030s.
Design
Overview
The F-22 "Raptor" is a fifth-generation fighter that is considered fourth generation in stealth aircraft technology by the USAF. It is the first operational aircraft to combine supercruise, supermaneuverability, stealth, and sensor fusion in a single weapons platform. The F-22 has four empennage surfaces, retractable tricycle landing gear, and clipped delta wings with reverse trailing edge sweep and leading edge extensions running to the upper outboard corner of the inlets. Flight control surfaces include leading-edge flaps, flaperons, ailerons, rudders on the canted vertical stabilizers, and all-moving horizontal tails (stabilators); for speed brake function, the ailerons deflect up, flaperons down, and rudders outwards to increase drag.
The aircraft's dual Pratt & Whitney F119-PW-100 augmented turbofan engines are closely spaced and incorporate pitch-axis thrust vectoring nozzles with a range of ±20 degrees; each engine has maximum thrust in the 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class. The F-22's thrust-to-weight ratio at typical combat weight is nearly at unity in maximum military power and 1.25 in full afterburner. Maximum speed without external stores is approximately Mach 1.8 at military power and greater than Mach 2 with afterburners.
The F-22's high cruise speed and operating altitude over prior fighters improve the effectiveness of its sensors and weapon systems, and increase survivability against ground defenses such as surface-to-air missiles. The aircraft is among only a few that can supercruise, or sustain supersonic flight without using fuel-inefficient afterburners; it can intercept targets which subsonic aircraft would lack the speed to pursue and an afterburner-dependent aircraft would lack the fuel to reach. The F-22's thrust and aerodynamics enable regular combat speeds of Mach 1.5 at 50,000 feet (15,000 m). The use of internal weapons bays permits the aircraft to maintain comparatively higher performance over most other combat-configured fighters due to a lack of aerodynamic drag from external stores. The aircraft's structure contains a significant amount of high-strength materials to withstand stress and heat of sustained supersonic flight. Respectively, titanium alloys and composites comprise 39% and 24% of the structural weight.
The F-22's aerodynamics, relaxed stability, and powerful thrust-vectoring engines give it excellent maneuverability and energy potential across its flight envelope. The airplane has excellent high alpha (angle of attack) characteristics, capable of flying at trimmed alpha of over 60° while maintaining roll control and performing maneuvers such as the Herbst maneuver (J-turn) and Pugachev's Cobra. The flight control system and full-authority digital engine control (FADEC) make the aircraft highly departure resistant and controllable, thus giving the pilot carefree handling.
Stealth
The F-22 was designed to be highly difficult to detect and track by radar. Measures to reduce radar cross-section (RCS) include airframe shaping such as alignment of edges, fixed-geometry serpentine inlets and curved vanes that prevent line-of-sight of the engine faces and turbines from any exterior view, use of radar-absorbent material (RAM), and attention to detail such as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radar return. The F-22 was also designed to have decreased radio emissions, infrared signature and acoustic signature as well as reduced visibility to the naked eye. The aircraft's flat thrust-vectoring nozzles reduce infrared emissions of the exhaust plume to mitigate the threat of infrared homing ("heat seeking") surface-to-air or air-to-air missiles. Additional measures to reduce the infrared signature include special topcoat and active cooling of leading edges to manage the heat buildup from supersonic flight.
Compared to previous stealth designs like the F-117, the F-22 is less reliant on RAM, which are maintenance-intensive and susceptible to adverse weather conditions. Unlike the B-2, which requires climate-controlled hangars, the F-22 can undergo repairs on the flight line or in a normal hangar. The F-22 has a Signature Assessment System which delivers warnings when the radar signature is degraded and necessitates repair. While the F-22's exact RCS is classified, in 2009 Lockheed Martin released information indicating that from certain angles the aircraft has an RCS of 0.0001 m² or −40 dBsm – equivalent to the radar reflection of a "steel marble". Effectively maintaining the stealth features can decrease the F-22's mission capable rate to 62–70%.
The effectiveness of the stealth characteristics is difficult to gauge. The RCS value is a restrictive measurement of the aircraft's frontal or side area from the perspective of a static radar. When an aircraft maneuvers it exposes a completely different set of angles and surface area, potentially increasing radar observability. Furthermore, the F-22's stealth contouring and radar absorbent materials are chiefly effective against high-frequency radars, usually found on other aircraft. The effects of Rayleigh scattering and resonance mean that low-frequency radars such as weather radars and early-warning radars are more likely to detect the F-22 due to its physical size. However, such radars are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter, and have low precision. Additionally, while faint or fleeting radar contacts make defenders aware that a stealth aircraft is present, reliably vectoring interception to attack the aircraft is much more challenging. According to the USAF an F-22 surprised an Iranian F-4 "Phantom II" that was attempting to intercept an American UAV, despite Iran's assertion of having military VHF radar coverage over the Persian Gulf.
Assigned 11th Tactical Drone Squadron, 432nd Tactical Drone Group, Davis-Monthan AFB, AZ. Went to AMARC 30 January 1979. Returned to service with the 1550th Aircrew Training and Test Wing, Kirtland AFB, NM 5 June 1981. Upgraded from CH-3E to HH-3E and assigned 129th ARRS (CA ANG), NAS Moffett Field, CA. WFU and transferred to McClellan Aviation Museum 25 September 1991.
Credit Eagle0025 for this info.
Assigned to the Aerospace Engineering Test Establishment, 4 Wing Cold Lake. 2018 Oregon International Airshow, Hillsboro Oregon.
Airmen assigned to the 95th Aircraft Maintenance Unit, Tyndall Air Force Base, Fla., launch Lockheed Martin F-22 "Raptor" aircraft during exercise Combat Archer at Hill Air Force Base, Utah, Aug. 18, 2016.
HILL AIR FORCE BASE, Utah -- Military exercises Combat Hammer and Combat Archer ended August 18 at Hill AFB and the Utah Test and Training Range.
During the exercises, Total Force Initiative Airmen assigned to the active-duty 95th and AF Reserve 301st Fighter Squadrons from Tyndall AFB, Fla. tested their ability to build, load, launch and employ munitions, which were dropped and fired from Tyndall Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor aircraft.
“Our Airmen gain a tremendous opportunity to prepare for future combat operations in the F-22 by performing in these exercises,” said Lt. Col. Daniel Lehoski, 95th Fighter Squadron detachment commander. “It builds confidence in our team, aircraft, and munitions through a mission-focused effort.”
The air-to-ground and air-to-air exercises are conducted by the 83rd and 86th Fighter Weapons Squadrons here. Their purpose is to collect and analyze data on the performance of precision weapons, and to measure their suitability for use in combat.
During the exercises, Lehoski noted that Tyndall F-22s dropped 32 precision guided munitions, employed 14 air-to-air missiles, and validated AIM-9X missile employment procedures, a first for Tyndall F-22s. Operations Airmen also flew integration missions with F-35, F-16, and F-15E aircraft, enhancing their ability to provide air dominance for America.
“We are tremendously appreciative of the support we have received from Hill AFB and both the 86th and 83rd FWS for giving the Airmen of Team Tyndall the opportunity to train at Combat Hammer and Combat Archer,” said Lehoski.
Airmen and aircraft, including A-10s from Moody AFB, Ga., F-15Es from Royal Air Force Lakenheath, England, and F-16s from Shaw AFB, S.C., also participated during the past two weeks.
A U.S. Air Force Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor flies above Royal Australian Air Force Base Tindal, Australia, March 2, 2017. Twelve Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptors and approximately 200 U.S. Air Force Airmen participated in the first Enhanced Air Cooperation, an initiative under the Force Posture Agreement between the U.S. and Australia.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Lockheed Martin F-22 "Raptor" is a fifth-generation, single-seat, twin-engine, all-weather stealth tactical fighter aircraft developed for the United States Air Force (USAF). The result of the USAF's Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program, the aircraft was designed primarily as an air superiority fighter, but also has ground attack, electronic warfare, and signal intelligence capabilities. The prime contractor, Lockheed Martin, built most of the F-22's airframe and weapons systems and conducted final assembly, while Boeing provided the wings, aft fuselage, avionics integration, and training systems.
The aircraft was variously designated F-22 and F/A-22 before it formally entered service in December 2005 as the F-22A. Despite its protracted development and various operational issues, USAF officials consider the F-22 a critical component of the service's tactical air power. Its combination of stealth, aerodynamic performance, and situational awareness enable unprecedented air combat capabilities.
Service officials had originally planned to buy a total of 750 ATFs. In 2009, the program was cut to 187 operational production aircraft due to high costs, a lack of clear air-to-air missions due to delays in Russian and Chinese fighter programs, a ban on exports, and development of the more versatile F-35. The last F-22 was delivered in 2012.
Development
Origins
In 1981, the U.S. Air Force identified a requirement for an Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) to replace the F-15 "Eagle" and F-16 "Fighting Falcon". Code named "Senior Sky", this air-superiority fighter program was influenced by emerging worldwide threats, including new developments in Soviet air defense systems and the proliferation of the Su-27 "Flanker"- and MiG-29 "Fulcrum"-class of fighter aircraft. It would take advantage of the new technologies in fighter design on the horizon, including composite materials, lightweight alloys, advanced flight control systems, more powerful propulsion systems, and most importantly, stealth technology. In 1983, the ATF concept development team became the System Program Office (SPO) and managed the program at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. The demonstration and validation (Dem/Val) request for proposals (RFP) was issued in September 1985, with requirements placing strong emphasis on stealth and supercruise. Of the seven bidding companies, Lockheed and Northrop were selected on 31 October 1986. Lockheed teamed with Boeing and General Dynamics while Northrop teamed with McDonnell Douglas, and the two contractor teams undertook a 50-month Dem/Val phase, culminating in the flight test of two technology demonstrator prototypes, the YF-22 and the YF-23, respectively.
Dem/Val was focused on risk reduction and technology development plans over specific aircraft designs. Contractors made extensive use of analytical and empirical methods, including computational fluid dynamics, wind-tunnel testing, and radar cross-section calculations and pole testing; the Lockheed team would conduct nearly 18,000 hours of wind-tunnel testing. Avionics development was marked by extensive testing and prototyping and supported by ground and flying laboratories. During Dem/Val, the SPO used the results of performance and cost trade studies conducted by contractor teams to adjust ATF requirements and delete ones that were significant weight and cost drivers while having marginal value. The short takeoff and landing (STOL) requirement was relaxed in order to delete thrust-reversers, saving substantial weight. As avionics was a major cost driver, side-looking radars were deleted, and the dedicated infra-red search and track (IRST) system was downgraded from multi-color to single color and then deleted as well. However, space and cooling provisions were retained to allow for future addition of these components. The ejection seat requirement was downgraded from a fresh design to the existing McDonnell Douglas ACES II. Despite efforts by the contractor teams to rein in weight, the takeoff gross weight estimate was increased from 50,000 lb (22,700 kg) to 60,000 lb (27,200 kg), resulting in engine thrust requirement increasing from 30,000 lbf (133 kN) to 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class.
Each team produced two prototype air vehicles for Dem/Val, one for each of the two engine options. The YF-22 had its maiden flight on 29 September 1990 and in flight tests achieved up to Mach 1.58 in supercruise. After the Dem/Val flight test of the prototypes, on 23 April 1991, Secretary of the USAF Donald Rice announced the Lockheed team as the winner of the ATF competition. The YF-23 design was considered stealthier and faster, while the YF-22, with its thrust vectoring nozzles, was more maneuverable as well as less expensive and risky. The aviation press speculated that the Lockheed team's design was also more adaptable to the U.S. Navy's Navalized Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), but by 1992, the Navy had abandoned NATF.
Production and procurement
As the program moved to full-scale development, or the Engineering & Manufacturing Development (EMD) stage, the production version had notable differences from the YF-22, despite having a broadly similar shape. The swept-back angle of the leading edge was decreased from 48° to 42°, while the vertical stabilizers were shifted rearward and decreased in area by 20%. To improve pilot visibility, the canopy was moved forward 7 inches (18 cm), and the engine intakes moved rearward 14 inches (36 cm). The shapes of the wing and stabilator trailing edges were refined to improve aerodynamics, strength, and stealth characteristics. Increasing weight during development caused slight reductions in range and maneuver performance.
Prime contractor Lockheed Martin Aeronautics manufactured the majority of the airframe and performed final assembly at Dobbins Air Reserve Base in Marietta, Georgia; program partner Boeing Defense, Space & Security provided additional airframe components as well as avionics integration and training systems. The first F-22, an EMD aircraft with tail number 4001, was unveiled at Marietta, Georgia, on 9 April 1997, and first flew on 7 September 1997. Production, with the first lot awarded in September 2000, supported over 1,000 subcontractors and suppliers from 46 states and up to 95,000 jobs, and spanned 15 years at a peak rate of roughly two airplanes per month. In 2006, the F-22 development team won the Collier Trophy, American aviation's most prestigious award. Due to the aircraft's advanced nature, contractors have been targeted by cyberattacks and technology theft.
The USAF originally envisioned ordering 750 ATFs at a total program cost of $44.3 billion and procurement cost of $26.2 billion in fiscal year (FY) 1985 dollars, with production beginning in 1994. The 1990 Major Aircraft Review led by Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced this to 648 aircraft beginning in 1996. By 1997, funding instability had further cut the total to 339, which was again reduced to 277 by 2003. In 2004, the Department of Defense (DoD) further reduced this to 183 operational aircraft, despite the USAF's preference for 381. A multi-year procurement plan was implemented in 2006 to save $15 billion, with total program cost projected to be $62 billion for 183 F-22s distributed to seven combat squadrons. In 2008, Congress passed a defense spending bill that raised the total orders for production aircraft to 187.
The first two F-22s built were EMD aircraft in the Block 1.0 configuration for initial flight testing, while the third was a Block 2.0 aircraft built to represent the internal structure of production airframes and enabled it to test full flight loads. Six more EMD aircraft were built in the Block 10 configuration for development and upgrade testing, with the last two considered essentially production quality jets. Production for operational squadrons consisted of 37 Block 20 training aircraft and 149 Block 30/35 combat aircraft; one of the Block 35 aircraft is dedicated to flight sciences at Edwards Air Force Base.
The numerous new technologies in the F-22 resulted in substantial cost overruns and delays. Many capabilities were deferred to post-service upgrades, reducing the initial cost but increasing total program cost. As production wound down in 2011, the total program cost is estimated to be about $67.3 billion, with $32.4 billion spent on Research, Development, Test and Evaluation (RDT&E) and $34.9 billion on procurement and military construction (MILCON) in then year dollars. The incremental cost for an additional F-22 was estimated at about $138 million in 2009.
Ban on exports
The F-22 cannot be exported under US federal law to protect its stealth technology and other high-tech features. Customers for U.S. fighters are acquiring earlier designs such as the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon or the newer F-35 Lightning II, which contains technology from the F-22 but was designed to be cheaper, more flexible, and available for export. In September 2006, Congress upheld the ban on foreign F-22 sales. Despite the ban, the 2010 defense authorization bill included provisions requiring the DoD to prepare a report on the costs and feasibility for an F-22 export variant, and another report on the effect of F-22 export sales on U.S. aerospace industry.
Some Australian politicians and defense commentators proposed that Australia should attempt to purchase F-22s instead of the planned F-35s, citing the F-22's known capabilities and F-35's delays and developmental uncertainties. However, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) determined that the F-22 was unable to perform the F-35's strike and close air support roles. The Japanese government also showed interest in the F-22 for its Replacement-Fighter program. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) would reportedly require fewer fighters for its mission if it obtained the F-22, thus reducing engineering and staffing costs. However, in 2009 it was reported that acquiring the F-22 would require increases to the Japanese government's defense budget beyond the historical 1 percent of its GDP. With the end of F-22 production, Japan chose the F-35 in December 2011. Israel also expressed interest, but eventually chose the F-35 because of the F-22's price and unavailability.
Production termination
Throughout the 2000s, the need for F-22s was debated, due to rising costs and the lack of relevant adversaries. In 2006, Comptroller General of the United States David Walker found that "the DoD has not demonstrated the need" for more investment in the F-22, and further opposition to the program was expressed by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, Deputy Secretary of Defense Gordon R. England, Senator John McCain, and Chairman of U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services Senator John Warner. The F-22 program lost influential supporters in 2008 after the forced resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley.
In November 2008, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates stated that the F-22 was not relevant in post-Cold War conflicts such as irregular warfare operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, and in April 2009, under the new Obama Administration, he called for ending production in FY2011, leaving the USAF with 187 production aircraft. In July, General James Cartwright, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, stated to the Senate Committee on Armed Services his reasons for supporting termination of F-22 production. They included shifting resources to the multirole F-35 to allow proliferation of fifth-generation fighters for three service branches and preserving the F/A-18 production line to maintain the military's electronic warfare (EW) capabilities in the Boeing EA-18G Growler.[60] Issues with the F-22's reliability and availability also raised concerns. After President Obama threatened to veto further production, the Senate voted in July 2009 in favor of ending production and the House subsequently agreed to abide by the 187 production aircraft cap. Gates stated that the decision was taken in light of the F-35's capabilities, and in 2010, he set the F-22 requirement to 187 aircraft by lowering the number of major regional conflict preparations from two to one.
In 2010, USAF initiated a study to determine the costs of retaining F-22 tooling for a future Service Life Extension Program (SLEP).[66] A RAND Corporation paper from this study estimated that restarting production and building an additional 75 F-22s would cost $17 billion, resulting in $227 million per aircraft, or $54 million higher than the flyaway cost. Lockheed Martin stated that restarting the production line itself would cost about $200 million. Production tooling and associated documentation were subsequently stored at the Sierra Army Depot, allowing the retained tooling to support the fleet life cycle. There were reports that attempts to retrieve this tooling found empty containers, but a subsequent audit found that the tooling was stored as expected.
Russian and Chinese fighter developments have fueled concern, and in 2009, General John Corley, head of Air Combat Command, stated that a fleet of 187 F-22s would be inadequate, but Secretary Gates dismissed General Corley's concern. In 2011, Gates explained that Chinese fifth-generation fighter developments had been accounted for when the number of F-22s was set, and that the U.S. would have a considerable advantage in stealth aircraft in 2025, even with F-35 delays. In December 2011, the 195th and final F-22 was completed out of 8 test EMD and 187 operational aircraft produced; the aircraft was delivered to the USAF on 2 May 2012.
In April 2016, the House Armed Services Committee (HASC) Tactical Air and Land Forces Subcommittee proposed legislation that would direct the Air Force to conduct a cost study and assessment associated with resuming production of the F-22. Since the production halt directed in 2009 by then Defense Secretary Gates, lawmakers and the Pentagon noted that air warfare systems of Russia and China were catching up to those of the U.S. Lockheed Martin has proposed upgrading the Block 20 training aircraft into combat-coded Block 30/35 versions as a way to increase numbers available for deployment. On 9 June 2017, the Air Force submitted their report to Congress stating they had no plans to restart the F-22 production line due to economic and operational issues; it estimated it would cost approximately $50 billion to procure 194 additional F-22s at a cost of $206–$216 million per aircraft, including approximately $9.9 billion for non-recurring start-up costs and $40.4 billion for aircraft procurement costs.
Upgrades
The first aircraft with combat-capable Block 3.0 software flew in 2001. Increment 2, the first upgrade program, was implemented in 2005 for Block 20 aircraft onward and enabled the employment of Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM). Certification of the improved AN/APG-77(V)1 radar was completed in March 2007, and airframes from production Lot 5 onward are fitted with this radar, which incorporates air-to-ground modes. Increment 3.1 for Block 30 aircraft onward provided improved ground-attack capability through synthetic aperture radar mapping and radio emitter direction finding, electronic attack and Small Diameter Bomb (SDB) integration; testing began in 2009 and the first upgraded aircraft was delivered in 2011. To address oxygen deprivation issues, F-22s were fitted with an automatic backup oxygen system (ABOS) and modified life support system starting in 2012.
Increment 3.2 for Block 35 aircraft is a two-part upgrade process; 3.2A focuses on electronic warfare, communications and identification, while 3.2B includes geolocation improvements and a new stores management system to show the correct symbols for the AIM-9X and AIM-120D.[83][84] To enable two-way communication with other platforms, the F-22 can use the Battlefield Airborne Communications Node (BACN) as a gateway. The planned Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL) integration was cut due to development delays and lack of proliferation among USAF platforms. The F-22 fleet is planned to start receiving Increment 3.2B as well as a software upgrade for cryptography capabilities and avionics stability in May 2019. A Multifunctional Information Distribution System-Joint (MIDS-J) radio that replaces the current Link-16 receive-only box is expected to be operational by 2020. Subsequent upgrades are also focusing on having an open architecture to enable faster future enhancements.
In 2024, funding is projected to begin for the F-22 mid-life upgrade (MLU), which is expected to include new sensors and antennas, hardware refresh, cockpit improvements, and a helmet mounted display and cuing system. Other enhancements being developed include IRST functionality for the AN/AAR-56 Missile Launch Detector (MLD) and more durable stealth coating based on the F-35's.
The F-22 was designed for a service life of 8,000 flight hours, with a $350 million "structures retrofit program". Investigations are being made for upgrades to extend their useful lives further. In the long term, the F-22 is expected to be superseded by a sixth-generation jet fighter to be fielded in the 2030s.
Design
Overview
The F-22 Raptor is a fifth-generation fighter that is considered fourth generation in stealth aircraft technology by the USAF.[91] It is the first operational aircraft to combine supercruise, supermaneuverability, stealth, and sensor fusion in a single weapons platform. The F-22 has four empennage surfaces, retractable tricycle landing gear, and clipped delta wings with reverse trailing edge sweep and leading edge extensions running to the upper outboard corner of the inlets. Flight control surfaces include leading-edge flaps, flaperons, ailerons, rudders on the canted vertical stabilizers, and all-moving horizontal tails (stabilators); for speed brake function, the ailerons deflect up, flaperons down, and rudders outwards to increase drag.
The aircraft's dual Pratt & Whitney F119-PW-100 augmented turbofan engines are closely spaced and incorporate pitch-axis thrust vectoring nozzles with a range of ±20 degrees; each engine has maximum thrust in the 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class. The F-22's thrust-to-weight ratio at typical combat weight is nearly at unity in maximum military power and 1.25 in full afterburner. Maximum speed without external stores is approximately Mach 1.8 at military power and greater than Mach 2 with afterburners.
The F-22's high cruise speed and operating altitude over prior fighters improve the effectiveness of its sensors and weapon systems, and increase survivability against ground defenses such as surface-to-air missiles. The aircraft is among only a few that can supercruise, or sustain supersonic flight without using fuel-inefficient afterburners; it can intercept targets which subsonic aircraft would lack the speed to pursue and an afterburner-dependent aircraft would lack the fuel to reach. The F-22's thrust and aerodynamics enable regular combat speeds of Mach 1.5 at 50,000 feet (15,000 m). The use of internal weapons bays permits the aircraft to maintain comparatively higher performance over most other combat-configured fighters due to a lack of aerodynamic drag from external stores. The aircraft's structure contains a significant amount of high-strength materials to withstand stress and heat of sustained supersonic flight. Respectively, titanium alloys and composites comprise 39% and 24% of the structural weight.
The F-22's aerodynamics, relaxed stability, and powerful thrust-vectoring engines give it excellent maneuverability and energy potential across its flight envelope. The airplane has excellent high alpha (angle of attack) characteristics, capable of flying at trimmed alpha of over 60° while maintaining roll control and performing maneuvers such as the Herbst maneuver (J-turn) and Pugachev's Cobra. The flight control system and full-authority digital engine control (FADEC) make the aircraft highly departure resistant and controllable, thus giving the pilot carefree handling.
Stealth
The F-22 was designed to be highly difficult to detect and track by radar. Measures to reduce radar cross-section (RCS) include airframe shaping such as alignment of edges, fixed-geometry serpentine inlets and curved vanes that prevent line-of-sight of the engine faces and turbines from any exterior view, use of radar-absorbent material (RAM), and attention to detail such as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radar return. The F-22 was also designed to have decreased radio emissions, infrared signature and acoustic signature as well as reduced visibility to the naked eye. The aircraft's flat thrust-vectoring nozzles reduce infrared emissions of the exhaust plume to mitigate the threat of infrared homing ("heat seeking") surface-to-air or air-to-air missiles. Additional measures to reduce the infrared signature include special topcoat and active cooling of leading edges to manage the heat buildup from supersonic flight.
Compared to previous stealth designs like the F-117, the F-22 is less reliant on RAM, which are maintenance-intensive and susceptible to adverse weather conditions. Unlike the B-2, which requires climate-controlled hangars, the F-22 can undergo repairs on the flight line or in a normal hangar. The F-22 has a Signature Assessment System which delivers warnings when the radar signature is degraded and necessitates repair. While the F-22's exact RCS is classified, in 2009 Lockheed Martin released information indicating that from certain angles the aircraft has an RCS of 0.0001 m² or −40 dBsm – equivalent to the radar reflection of a "steel marble". Effectively maintaining the stealth features can decrease the F-22's mission capable rate to 62–70%.
The effectiveness of the stealth characteristics is difficult to gauge. The RCS value is a restrictive measurement of the aircraft's frontal or side area from the perspective of a static radar. When an aircraft maneuvers it exposes a completely different set of angles and surface area, potentially increasing radar observability. Furthermore, the F-22's stealth contouring and radar absorbent materials are chiefly effective against high-frequency radars, usually found on other aircraft. The effects of Rayleigh scattering and resonance mean that low-frequency radars such as weather radars and early-warning radars are more likely to detect the F-22 due to its physical size. However, such radars are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter, and have low precision. Additionally, while faint or fleeting radar contacts make defenders aware that a stealth aircraft is present, reliably vectoring interception to attack the aircraft is much more challenging. According to the USAF an F-22 surprised an Iranian F-4 Phantom II that was attempting to intercept an American UAV, despite Iran's assertion of having military VHF radar coverage over the Persian Gulf.
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Before getting into A, B, and C differences for the F-35, a short primer on how to tell an F-35 from an F-22 may help avoid an even larger fighter faux pas. After all, the F-22 and F-35 look similar as well, especially from certain angles and at a distance. Both the F-22 and F-35 have two intakes, two tails, and similar planforms.
If the two aircraft happen to be parked together, the F-22, however, is noticeably larger. The Raptor is about ten feet longer than a Lightning II. Its wingspan is about ten feet wider than an F-35A’s and F-35B’s, and roughly the same as an F-35C’s.
From behind, the twin, rectangular thrust-vectoring exhaust nozzles on the F-22 are an obvious difference. The F-35 has one round exhaust nozzle for its single engine. The geometry of the engine intakes distinguishes the two aircraft from the top and side. The Raptor’s intakes angle back. On the Lightning II, they point forward. Intake differences are visible from the front view as well. Opposing sides of the F-22’s intakes are parallel. The corners are slightly rounded. The F-35’s intake angles are sharper. A space between the intake and the fuselage, called a diverter, is found only on the Raptor as well. The F-35’s diverterless intake sits flush to the fuselage.
The single- vs. twin-engine difference plays out on the top sides of the two aircraft as well. The F-22 has two humps between the tails. The F-35 has just one. On the underside, the F-22 is much flatter with one main (though split) weapon bay with two doors. The F-35 is more rounded and has two distinct main weapon bays each with two doors. Taxiing, the F-22 sits about a foot lower than an F-35.
Context also matters. If the airplane in question is operating from an aircraft carrier, landing vertically, taking off in a very short distance, or displaying non-USAF markings, it’s not an F-22.
Context And The F-35 Variants
When it comes to distinguishing among F-35 variants, context can provide some tips as well. If the F-35 in question is being catapulted from a carrier, it’s an F-35C. If it’s landing vertically, it’s an F-35B. If it has Royal Air Force markings, it’s an F-35B. If it has international markings that aren’t associated with the RAF, it’s an F-35A (at least until another international air force procures B or C models).
Basic A, B, & C Differences
The A model is most easily distinguished from other F-35 models by the blister on the upper left side for its internal GAU-22/A Gatling-type gun. (B and C models do not have internal guns.) Like the B model, the F-35A has a smaller wing. The A model is the only F-35 variant with a refueling receptacle on its dorsal spine. The receptacle markings are clearly visible from the top view.
The B model is most easily distinguished from other F-35 models by its vertical lift system. The system comes into play at almost every viewing angle of the aircraft. Even in up-and-away (non vertical) flight, the F-35B has visual clues for the vertical lift system. The lift fan door flattens the upper surface of the F-35 just behind the cockpit, giving this model a distinctive hump. The hump is especially noticeable from front and side perspectives. The lift fan itself abbreviates the aft end of the canopy line as well.
Panel lines and markings are associated with the lift system are visible on the top and bottom sides of the F-35B. From above, panel lines for the lift fan door and the auxiliary air inlet are visible. From below, the doors for lift fan exhaust appear just behind the front landing gear doors. The aft end of the lower fuselage also has a seam for the doors that open when the three-bearing swivel duct goes into action in STOVL mode. (The A and C models have a hump in this location where their arresting/barricade tailhooks are stored.) The B model also has a diamond-shaped roll duct on the underside of each wing.
The C model is most easily distinguished from other F-35 models by its larger wing, which provides almost fifty percent more wing area than the A and B models. The hinge line for the wing fold is visible from top and bottom views. The F-35C wing has an additional control surfaces, called ailerons, on the trailing edge as well (two control surfaces on each wing instead of one). The inner control surfaces on the F-35C wing and the ones on the A and B are called flaperons. The landing gear on the F-35C is noticeable beefier. The nose gear has two tires and a launch bar that extends forward and upward from the wheels.
Another Trick: Markings
Markings can also be used to distinguish F-35 variants. US Air Force markings equate to the A model. US Marines to the B or C model. (The Marine Corps is purchasing eighty C models.) And US Navy to the C model only. The Air Force puts the aircraft identification number, or serial number, on the tail (F-35A). The US Marines and Navy put their identification numbers, called Bureau numbers, on the empennage just below the horizontal tails. To make identification somewhat easier, the F-35 variant designation appears just above the bureau number for the US Marine Corps and Navy. Unfortunately, because of their location these markings are not apparent in most photos. International operators have their own specific requirements for markings.
Other Notes
As noted in a previous Code One article, Norwegian F-35s will be distinguishable by a small, aerodynamically clean bump on the upper fuselage between the two vertical tails. The bump contains a dragchute.
Nosebooms are peculiar to flight test F-35s dedicated to flight sciences testing.
The major differences between the X-35 demonstrator aircraft, which are no longer flying, and F-35 were covered in another previous Code One article.
Basic Cheat Sheet
The F-35A has a small wing, full canopy, gun blister on the left upper side, and aerial refueling receptacle markings on its dorsal. It has no panel lines or markings associated with a STOVL lift system.
The F-35B has a small wing, distinctive fuselage hump and abbreviated canopy (thanks to the lift fan), refueling probe on the right side, and numerous markings, panel lines, and actual hardware associated with its vertical lift system.
The F-35C has the big wing, wing folds, ailerons, full canopy, refueling probe on the right side, and a launch bar and two tires on the front landing gear. If the aircraft has Navy markings, it’s an F-35C.
Marines assigned to 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marine Regiment, board a CH-53E Super Stallion helicopter assigned to Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron 463 for extraction from Landing Zone Canes, Hawaii, April 29, 2016. HMH-463 conducted personnel extraction and insertion in support of 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marine Regiment during their Marine Corps Combat Readiness Evaluation.
(U.S. Marine Corps photo by Lance Cpl. Julian A. Temblador)
Soldiers assigned to the 222nd Chemical Company, New York Army National Guard, and officers with the New York Police Department's COBRA (Chemical Ordinance, Biological and Radiological Awareness) training unit conduct an exercise simulating an urban chemical attack at Rodman's Neck Tactical Village, Bronx, N.Y., Nov. 19, 2016. The New York Army National Guard Soldiers and officers with the COBRA training unit used the exercise to share techniques and procedures, as well as enhance their readiness in case of a natural disaster or terrorist attack. (U.S. Army National Guard photo by Sgt. Harley Jelis)